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json/Second Temple/Josephus/The Antiquities of the Jews/English/Sefaria Community Translation.json

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+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "The Antiquities of the Jews",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org",
+    "versionTitle": "Sefaria Community Translation",
+    "actualLanguage": "en",
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+    "heTitle": "קדמוניות היהודים",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Josephus"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Preface": [],
+        "": [
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+                [],
+                [],
+                [],
+                []
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+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "קדמוניות היהודים",
+        "enTitle": "The Antiquities of the Jews",
+        "key": "The Antiquities of the Jews",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "פתח דבר",
+                "enTitle": "Preface"
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+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
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+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/Hypothetica/English/Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941.json

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+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "Hypothetica",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI",
+    "versionTitle": "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+    "status": "locked",
+    "license": "Public Domain",
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+    "actualLanguage": "en",
+    "languageFamilyName": "english",
+    "isSource": false,
+    "isPrimary": true,
+    "direction": "ltr",
+    "heTitle": "היפותטיקה",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTS FROM THE HYPOTHETICA",
+            "We have no information about the two extracts which are here reproduced beyond what Eusebius tells us, namely that the first is taken from the second book of a work entitled by Philo “Hypothetica,” in which the author is writing a defence of the Jews, and that the second comes from the “apology for the Jews,” while in his history (ii. 18) when giving a list of the works of Philo he mentions one Περὶ Ἰουδαίων. The general assumption is that these three are one and the same.",
+            "Of the second extract, which describes the Essenes, nothing need be said here, as some remarks on its relation to Philo’s other account of these communities will be found in the Appendix. The first extract is divided into two main parts and both of these again have two sub-divisions joined together by the phrase μετὰ βραχέα φησίν. Very little discussion so far as I can learn has been devoted to it, though in many ways it is very curious and interesting.",
+            "The opening part gives the impression that he wishes to meet the hostile criticism of the Gentiles by giving a rationalistic version of the history. The Exodus is described as the movement of an increasing population seeking a fresh living-room and inspired by a yearning for their own natal land of which the Pentateuch knows nothing. The divine influence is indeed admitted but has been given through dreams and visions, a strange way of treating the visitations described in Exodus. The divine mission of Moses is kept very much in the background and the observer is invited to choose between natural explanations of the fact that he led the people successfully through the wilderness. When we come to the occupation of Palestine any appeal to the miraculous victories of Joshua is definitely set aside, and outsiders are left to choose between two possibilities, one that it was due to superior force, the other that the virtues of the incomers won the respect and submission of the native population. I find it difficult to understand the motive of Philo in this treatment of the story, or of Eusebius in recording it, for Eusebius’s purpose is to give an account of the Mosaic constitution as it is depicted by the two most distinguished Jewish writers, and on this it has no bearing.",
+            "The second part of the extract, which does describe this constitution, is at least in the first subdivision curious in another way. We naturally compare it with the vastly longer and fuller account in the four books on the Special Laws and the <i>De Virtutibus</i>. The scope of the two is so hugely different that we should not expect more than the smallest fragment of the great Exposition in these few pages. The strange thing is that they contain so much which is ignored in the Exposition. There we hear little about the subjection of women, or of the inviolability of dedicated offerings or of the ways of obtaining release from these on which so much stress is here laid, or of the minor duties of supplying water, fire and burial. Humanity to animals is stressed in both, but the one law bearing on this which is mentioned here is not noticed there. The contrast no doubt is partly accounted for in the words where he states his intention to note the unwritten as well as the written, but only partly to my mind.",
+            "The second subdivision of this second part on the other hand, which deals with the observation of the sabbath, does not contradict anything that we find elsewhere in Philo. The account of the meetings in the Synagogue is much the same as that given in his description of the Essenes in the <i>Quod Omn. Prob.</i> and of the Therapeutae in the <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> and of the nation as a whole in <i>Spec. Leg.</i> ii. 62, and the stress laid on the sabbatical year both as a tribute to the land itself and an act of charity to the poor is thoroughly in his spirit.",
+            "The meaning of the title is obscure. The theory of Viger that it means “suppositions,” between which those addressed are invited to choose, only fits the opening sections, and was superseded by that of Bernays, who suggested that it meant exhortations or directions on conduct. Bernays shows that not only is ὑποθῆκαι often used in this sense but the ὑποθετικὸς λόγος is a technical term for a discourse with this object. The examples he quotes show that the hypothetical discourse has a close connexion with the protreptic, the term which Philo so often uses, and that in one case at least it is to be distinguished from the latter as the summary of counsels which closes the discourse. Still this does not seem to agree with the nature of the treatise so far as we can judge it from the specimens which Eusebius records. A hortatory discourse is a very different thing from a defence, at least, a defence of this kind. Bernays indeed quotes a passage in which the closely connected if not identical protreptic is stated on the one hand to show the high worth of virtue and on the other hand to convict those who deny or accuse or otherwise defame philosophy. But this does not apply to the opponents whom Philo is refuting. They do not attack the philosophy of the Law as he represents it, but either deny or are not aware that the Jews have any such philosophy.",
+            "The text of these extracts is not included in the Editio Maior of Cohn. As here printed it is that of the Editio Minor. It is not stated who is responsible for this, and there is no Apparatus Criticus. I have however carefully compared the text with those of Heinichen 1842, Dindorf 1867, and Gifford 1903, in their editions of the <i>Preparatio</i>. Gifford has such an apparatus, and in his introduction gives a full account of the manuscripts of which he obtained collations. I am not aware of any later edition.",
+            "The following is an analysis of the two extracts:",
+            "FIRST EXTRACT, viii. 6. 1–9, 7. 1–20",
+            "Part I. The first subdivision (6. 1) gives a short account of the causes which led to the Exodus from Egypt. The second subdivision (6. 2–9) suggests for consideration different explanations of the success of Moses in leading the people though the wilderness (2–4) and of the conquest of Palestine (5–8) and ends with an emphatic assertion of the devotion of the people through all the centuries to Moses and the Law (9).",
+            "Part II. The first subdivision (7. 1–9) gives a general sketch of the Mosaic constitution, contrasting its severity with the laxity of Gentile law and practice (1–3), particularly dwelling on the inviolability attached to vows and dedications (3–5). Other laws and customs are mentioned largely dwelling on duties of charity and mercy (6–9). The second subdivision (7. 10–20) describes the Sabbath as an institution intended mainly to provide opportunities for studying the law, gives a short account of the meetings and commends the universal knowledge of the Law which they effect (10–14). It then passes on to the sabbatical year, described as a proper relaxation for the land itself (15–18) and as a charitable institution, because the fruits which grew from it untilled were at the service of the poor and needy (19–20).",
+            "SECOND EXTRACT, viii. 11. 1–18",
+            "This is merely another description of the Essene communities, a general description (1–2), the mature age required for admission (3), their simple and communal life (4–5), their industry and practice of every kind of innocent activity (6–9), how the proceeds are put into a common bank (10–11), even clothes being held in common (12), their care for the sick and aged (13), their repudiation of marriage and exclusion of women, with some of their reasons for so doing (14–18). A final eulogy (18).",
+            "The references to chapters in the eighth book are those in all editions of the <i>Preparatio</i>. The references to sections with the chapters are those in Cohn’s Editio Minor. Sections are also numbered in Heinichen’s edition, but do not correspond to these. Gifford has no such sections, but gives the pages of Viger’s edition with subdivisions a, b, c, d. I have noted these pages but not the sub-divisions. I have also noted the pages in Mangey, vol. ii. They are to be distinguished from the others by the square brackets."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            "HYPOTHETICA",
+            "(APOLOGY FOR THE JEWS)",
+            "<small>Euseb. <i>Praep. Evang.</i> viii. 5. 11. Let us proceed to survey the constitution established by the legislation of Moses as described by authors held in high honour among the Jews. I will begin by quoting Philo’s account of their journey from Egypt under the leadership of Moses from the first book of the work which he entitled <i>Hypothetica</i>, where, while speaking in defence of the Jews as against their accusers, he says as follows:</small>",
+            "6. 1. Their original ancestor belonged to the Chaldeans, but this people who had emigrated from Syria to Egypt in past time removed from Egypt partly because of the vast size of the population for which the land was insufficient. Also it was due to the high spirit of enterprise in which they had been bred and to the revelations of God made by dreams and visions bidding them go forth, and what influenced them as much as anything was that they had providentially been seized by a yearning for their ancient fatherland. It was from there that this ancestor of theirs had passed over into Egypt either because God had so decreed or through some prevision of his own. There he had prospered to an unequalled degree so that from his time to the present day their nation has existed and survives and is so exceedingly populous.",
+            "<small>6. 2. Shortly afterwards he says:</small>",
+            "Their departure and journey was made under the command of one who nothing differed from the ordinary run of men. So you may say if you like: indeed there were people also who abused him as an impostor and prating mountebank. Well, that was a fine kind of imposture and knavery which enabled him to bring the whole people in complete safety amid drought and hunger and ignorance of the way and lack of everything as well as if they had abundance of everything and supplies obtainable from the neighbouring nations, and further to keep them free from internal factions and above all obedient to himself.",
+            "6. 3. And observe that these conditions lasted not for a little while but for a space of time during which even a household living in all comfort could not be expected to remain in unanimity. Yet neither thirst nor hunger nor bodily decay, nor fear of the future, nor ignorance of the course which events would take roused these deluded and perishing masses of men against that impostor.",
+            "6. 4. How will you explain this? Shall we say that he had some kind of skill or eloquence or intelligence great enough to surmount so many strangely different circumstances which were carrying them all to perdition? Otherwise we must suppose that either his subjects were naturally not stupid nor discontented but docile and gifted with some prevision of the future or else that they were thoroughly bad though God softened their discontents and kept their present and their future state as it were in his charge. Whichever of these views you consider to be the truth it appears to redound mightily to his praise and honour and zeal for them all.",
+            "6. 5. So much for the story of the migration. But when they came to this land the holy records show clearly how they established themselves there and occupied the country. Yet in discussing the probable facts of this occupation I think it better to go not so much by the historical narrative as by what our reason tells us about them.",
+            "6. 6. Which alternative do you prefer? Were they still superior in the number of their fighting men though they had fared so ill to the end, still strong and with weapons in their hand, and did they then take the land by force, defeating the combined Syrians and Phoenicians when fighting in their own country? Or shall we suppose that they were unwarlike and feeble, quite few in numbers and destitute of warlike equipment, but won the respect of their opponents who voluntarily surrendered their land to them and that as a direct consequence they shortly afterwards built their temple and established everything else needed for religion and worship?",
+            "6. 7. This would clearly show that they were acknowledged as dearly beloved of God even by their enemies. For those whose land they suddenly invaded with the intention of taking it from them were necessarily their enemies.",
+            "6. 8. And if they got credit and honour in the sight of their enemies surely it shows that they exceeded all in good fortune. What qualities shall we put in addition to this good fortune in the second and the third place? Shall we give the preference to their respect for law and loyal obedience or to their religion and justice and piety? Whichever you choose the fact remains that so great was their veneration for that man who gave them their laws, whatever view we take of him, that anything which approved itself to him approved itself also to them.",
+            "6. 9. So whether what he told them came from his own reasoning powers or was learnt from some supernatural source they held it all to come from God and after the lapse of many years, how many I cannot say exactly, but at any rate for more than two thousand, they have not changed a single word of what he wrote but would even endure to die a thousand deaths sooner than accept anything contrary to the laws and customs which he had ordained.",
+            "6. 10. After these remarks he gives the following summary of the constitution laid down for the nation in the laws of Moses.",
+            "7. 1. Do we find any of these things or anything similar among the Jews; anything which so savours of mildness and lenity, anything which permits of legal proceedings or extenuations or postponements or assessments of penalties and reductions of assessments? Nothing at all, everything is clear and simple. If you are guilty of pederasty or adultery or rape of a young person, even of a female, for I need not mention the case of a male, similarly if you prostitute yourself or allow or purpose or intend any action which your age makes indecent the penalty is death.",
+            "7. 2. So too if you commit an outrage on the person of a slave or a free man, if you confine him in bonds or kidnap and sell him. So too with larceny of things profane and sacred, so too with impiety not only of act but even of a casual word and not only against God Himself (may He forgive the very thought of such a thing which should not even be mentioned), but also against a father or mother or benefactor of your own the penalty is the same, death and not the common ordinary death: the offender in words only must be stoned to death. His guilt is as great as if he were the perpetrator of impious actions.",
+            "7. 3. Other rules again there are of various kinds: wives must be in servitude to their husbands, a servitude not imposed by violent ill-treatment but promoting obedience in all things. Parents must have power over their children to keep them safe and tend them carefully. Each individual is master of his possessions unless he has solemnly named the name of God over them declaring that he has given them to God. And if he has merely made a chance verbal promise of them he must not touch or handle them, but hold himself at once debarred from them all.",
+            "7. 4. I need not consider the case of his robbing what belongs to the gods or plundering what others have dedicated; even with his own, I repeat, a chance word of dedication spoken unawares deprives him of them all and if he repents or denies his promise his life is forfeit also.",
+            "7. 5. The same holds of any other persons over whom he has authority. If a man has devoted his wife’s sustenance to a sacred purpose he must refrain from giving her that sustenance; so with a father’s gifts to his son or a ruler’s to his subjects. The chief and most perfect way of releasing dedicated property is by the priest refusing it, for he is empowered by God to accept it or not. Next to this, that given by those who at the time have the higher authority may lawfully declare that God is propitiated so that there is no necessity to accept the dedication.",
+            "7. 6. Besides these there is a host of other things which belong to unwritten customs and institutions or are contained in the laws themselves. What a man would hate to suffer he must not do himself to others. What he has not laid down he must not take up either from a garden or a wine press or a threshing floor. He must not filch anything great or small from a stack. He must not grudge to give fire to one who needs it or close off running water. If the poor or the cripple beg food of him he must give it as an offering of religion to God.",
+            "7. 7. He must not debar dead bodies from burial, but throw upon them as much earth as piety demands, nor disturb in any way the resting places and monuments of the departed. He must not by fettering or any other means worsen the plight of him who is in hard straits; he must not make abortive the generative power of men by gelding nor that of women by sterilizing drugs and other devices. There must be no maltreatment of animals contrary to what is appointed by God or even by a law-giver; no destroying of their seed nor defrauding of their offspring.",
+            "7. 8. No unjust scales, no false measurements, no fraudulent coinage must be substituted.” The secrets of a friend must not be divulged in enmity. What need in heaven’s name have we of your Buzyges and his precepts? There are other matters to be noted: children must not be parted from their parents even if you hold them as captive, nor a wife from her husband even if you are her owner by lawful purchase.",
+            "7. 9. These no doubt are more important and serious matters, but there are others, little things of casual occurrence. Do not render desolate the nesting home of birds or make the appeals of animals of none effect when they seem to fly to you for help as they sometimes do. Nor commit any lesser offence of the kind. These things are of nothing worth, you may say, yet great is the law which ordains them and ever watchful is the care which it demands. Great too and appalling are the warnings and imprecations which accompany it. And such deeds are everywhere surveyed and avenged by God Himself.",
+            "<small>7. 10. Shortly afterwards he says:</small>",
+            "Is it not a marvel that for a whole day they should have kept from transgressing on any occasion any of the ordinances, or rather for many days, not one only, days too which did not follow straight on each other but only after intervals, and intervals of seven during which habits belonging to the secular days naturally hold the mastery?",
+            "7. 11. You may ask: Is not this merely a case of practising self-control so that they should be capable of abstaining from toil if necessary no less than of toilsome activity? No, it was a great and marvellous achievement which the lawgiver had in view. He considered that they should not only be capable of both action and inaction in other matters but also should have expert knowledge of their ancestral laws and customs.",
+            "7. 12. What then did he do? He required them to assemble in the same place on these seventh days, and sitting together in a respectful and orderly manner hear the laws read so that none should be ignorant of them.",
+            "7. 13. And indeed they do always assemble and sit together, most of them in silence except when it is the practice to add something to signify approval of what is read. But some priest who is present or one of the elders reads the holy laws to them and expounds them point by point till about the late afternoon, when they depart having gained both expert knowledge of the holy laws and considerable advance in piety.",
+            "7. 14. Do you think that this marks them as idlers or that any work is equally vital to them? And so they do not resort to persons learned in the law with questions as to what they should do or not do, nor yet by keeping independent transgress in ignorance of the law, but any one of them whom you attack with inquiries about their ancestral institutions can answer you readily and easily. The husband seems competent to transmit knowledge of the laws to his wife, the father to his children, the master to his slaves.",
+            "7. 15. Again with regard to the seventh year one can without difficulty use much the same though perhaps not identical words. For here it is not they themselves who abstain from work as on those seventh days, but it is the land which they leave idle against the days to come hereafter to give it fertility, for they believe that it gains much by getting a respite and is then tilled in the next year without being exhausted by unbroken cultivation.",
+            "7. 16. You may see that the same treatment of our bodies tends to strengthen them. Physicians prescribe some intermissions and relaxations not merely when health has to be restored. For monotony without a break, particularly in work, is always seen to be injurious.",
+            "7. 17. Here is a proof that their object is as I describe. If anyone offered to cultivate this same land during the seventh year much more strenuously than before and to surrender to them the whole of the fruits they would absolutely refuse. For they do not think that it is only themselves who should abstain from work, though if they did so it would be nothing to wonder at, but that the land should gain at their hands a respite and easing off to make a fresh start in receiving renewed attention and husbandry.",
+            "7. 18. For what in heaven’s name was to hinder them from letting out the land during the year and collecting the produce of that year at its end from the others who tilled it? But, as I have said, they entirely refuse anything of the kind, doubtless out of consideration for the land.",
+            "7. 19. We have a truly great proof of their humanity in the following also. Since they themselves abstain from labour during that year, they think that they should not gather or lay by the fruits produced which do not accrue to them from their own toil, but since God has provided them, sprung from the soil by its own action, they should grant them to be used freely by way farers and others who desire or need them.",
+            "7. 20. You have now had enough on this subject, for you will not require me to show that these rules for the seventh days are established firmly among them by the law. Probably you have often heard ere now from many physicians, scientists and philosophers what influence it has over the life of all things and of mankind in particular. This is what I have to say about the seventh day.",
+            "11. 1. Multitudes of his disciples has the lawgiver trained for the life of fellowship. These people are called Essenes, a name awarded to them doubtless in recognition of their holiness. They live in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members.",
+            "11. 2. Their persuasion is not based on birth, for birth is not a descriptive mark of voluntary associations, but on their zeal for virtue and desire to promote brotherly love.",
+            "11. 3. Thus no Essene is a mere child nor even a stripling or newly bearded, since the characters of such are unstable with a waywardness corresponding to the immaturity of their age, but full grown and already verging on old age, no longer carried under by the tide of the body nor led by the passions, but enjoying the veritable, the only real freedom.",
+            "11. 4. This freedom is attested by their life. None of them allows himself to have any private property, either house or slave or estate or cattle or any of the other things which are amassed and abundantly procured by wealth, but they put everything together into the public stock and enjoy the benefit of them all in common.",
+            "11. 5. They live together formed into clubs, bands of comradeship with common meals, and never cease to conduct all their affairs to serve the general weal.",
+            "11. 6. But they have various occupations at which they labour with untiring application and never plead cold or heat or any of the violent changes in the atmosphere as an excuse. Before the sun is risen they betake themselves to their familiar tasks and only when it sets force them selves to return, for they delight in them as much as do those who are entered for gymnastic competitions.",
+            "11. 7. For they consider that the exercises which they practise whatever they may be are more valuable to life, more pleasant to soul and body and more lasting than those of the athlete in as much as they can still be plied with vigour when that of the body is past its prime.",
+            "11. 8. Some of them labour on the land skilled in sowing and planting, some as herdsmen taking charge of every kind of cattle and some superintend the swarms of bees.",
+            "11. 9. Others work at the handicrafts to avoid the sufferings which are forced upon us by our indispensable requirements and shrink from no innocent way of getting a livelihood.",
+            "11. 10. Each branch when it has received the wages of these so different occupations gives it to one person who has been appointed as treasurer. He takes it and at once buys what is necessary and provides food in abundance and anything else which human life requires.",
+            "11. 11. Thus having each day a common life and a common table they are content with the same conditions, lovers of frugality who shun expensive luxury as a disease of both body and soul.",
+            "11. 12. And not only is their table in common but their clothing also. For in winter they have a stock of stout coats ready and in summer cheap vests, so that he who wishes may easily take any garment he likes, since what one has is held to belong to all and conversely what all have one has.",
+            "11. 13. Again if anyone is sick he is nursed at the common expense and tended with care and thoughtfulness by all. The old men too even if they are childless are treated as parents of a not merely numerous but very filial family and regularly close their life with an exceedingly prosperous and comfortable old age; so many are those who give them precedence and honour as their due and minister to them as a duty voluntarily and deliberately accepted rather than enforced by nature.",
+            "11. 14. Furthermore they eschew marriage because they clearly discern it to be the sole or the principal danger to the maintenance of the communal life, as well as because they particularly practise continence. For no Essene takes a wife, because a wife is a selfish creature, excessively jealous and an adept at beguiling the morals of her husband and seducing him by her continued impostures.",
+            "11. 15. For by the fawning talk which she practise and the other ways in which she plays her part like an actress on the stage she first ensnares the sight and hearing, and when these subjects as it were have been duped she cajoles the sovereign mind.",
+            "11. 16. And if children come, filled with the spirit of arrogance and bold speaking she gives utterance with more audacious hardihood to things which before she hinted covertly and under disguise, and casting off all shame she compels him to commit actions which are all hostile to the life of fellowship.",
+            "11. 17. For he who is either fast bound in the love lures of his wife or under the stress of nature makes his children his first care ceases to be the same to others and unconsciously has become a different man and has passed from freedom into slavery.",
+            "11. 18. Such then is the life of the Essenes, a life so highly to be prized that not only commoners but also great kings look upon them with admiration and amazement, and the approbation and honours which they give add further veneration to their venerable name."
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO HYPOTHETICA",
+            "§ 7. 5. (Absolution from vows.) On this Edersheim (<i>The Temple, its Ministry and Services</i>, p. 69) says that release from a vow which affected the interests of others might be obtained from one sage or from three persons in the presence of him who had been affected by the vow. He does not state the authority for this and it seems strange that in treating the subject he does not refer to this passage in Philo. In the same connexion he remarks that all laws were limited by higher obligations: according to the Mishnah a man could not vow what of his fortune he owed to others nor his widow’s portion. Philo’s statement that a man by vowing his wife’s τροφή could bind himself not to support her agrees with the practice denounced in Mark 7:10 ff., but is contrary to the principle described by Edersheim, and it is strange to find Philo apparently approving it.",
+            "§ 7. 8. (Precepts of Buzyges.) The rare passages alluding to these are collected by Bernays (see Introd. p. 407 note <i>b</i>). The Paroemiographer, p. 233, has ὁ γὰρ Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησι ὁ τὸν ἱερὸν ἄροτον ἐπιτελῶν (“instituted the sacred rite of the plough”) ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἀρᾶται καὶ τοῖς μὴ κοινηνοῦσι κατὰ τὸν βίον ὕδατος ἢ πυρός, ἢ μὴ ὑποφαίνουσιν ὁδὸν πλανωμένοις. A scholiast on Soph. <i>Ant.</i> 255 mentions the saying that Buzyges cursed those who left a corpse unburied. Clem. Alex. <i>Strom.</i> ii. 503 says that those who bid others do what they judge to be not profitable to themselves οὐκ ἂν ἐκφύγοιεν τὴν Βουζυγίαν ἀράν. Though the name of Buzyges is not mentioned, there is clearly an allusion to the same in a fragment of Diphilus where refusals of charity are said to be denounced in the “curses.” Cicero, <i>De Off.</i> iii. 54 f., speaks of refusing to show the way as denounced “Athenis exsecrationibus publicis” and interprets it to include those who allow a purchaser to be defrauded by a mistake. Bernays notes that three of the specific things here mentioned, the duty of showing the way, allowing free use of fire and water, and giving burial are all mentioned by Philo. Bernays does not give any quotation for the statement that the curses are repeated by a descendant of Buzyges at a feast of Demeter.",
+            "§ 7. 9. (Appeal of animals.) The statement seems to me remarkable and I should like to meet with some illustration of it or comment on it particularly in the form given it by Josephus. When is it that animals enter our houses as suppliants? The only thing in the law which suggests helping animals in trouble is the command in Deut. 22:4 to help to raise up a fallen beast and there really the point is helping the owner.",
+            "Philo in <i>De Virt.</i> 125–147 has insisted earnestly on the duty of kindness to animals, but it is remarkable that of the points which he mentions, namely the prohibitions against (1) separating the mother and offspring before seven days, (2) killing the two in the same day, (3) seething the lamb in its mother’s milk, (4) muzzling the treading ox, (5) yoking different kinds of animals together, none is mentioned here, at any rate definitely, though (1) may be alluded to in § 7. On the other hand the one which precedes this here is omitted there."
+        ]
+    },
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "היפותטיקה",
+        "enTitle": "Hypothetica",
+        "key": "Hypothetica",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/Hypothetica/English/merged.json

@@ -0,0 +1,117 @@
+{
+    "title": "Hypothetica",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/Hypothetica",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "INTRODUCTION TO EXTRACTS FROM THE HYPOTHETICA",
+            "We have no information about the two extracts which are here reproduced beyond what Eusebius tells us, namely that the first is taken from the second book of a work entitled by Philo “Hypothetica,” in which the author is writing a defence of the Jews, and that the second comes from the “apology for the Jews,” while in his history (ii. 18) when giving a list of the works of Philo he mentions one Περὶ Ἰουδαίων. The general assumption is that these three are one and the same.",
+            "Of the second extract, which describes the Essenes, nothing need be said here, as some remarks on its relation to Philo’s other account of these communities will be found in the Appendix. The first extract is divided into two main parts and both of these again have two sub-divisions joined together by the phrase μετὰ βραχέα φησίν. Very little discussion so far as I can learn has been devoted to it, though in many ways it is very curious and interesting.",
+            "The opening part gives the impression that he wishes to meet the hostile criticism of the Gentiles by giving a rationalistic version of the history. The Exodus is described as the movement of an increasing population seeking a fresh living-room and inspired by a yearning for their own natal land of which the Pentateuch knows nothing. The divine influence is indeed admitted but has been given through dreams and visions, a strange way of treating the visitations described in Exodus. The divine mission of Moses is kept very much in the background and the observer is invited to choose between natural explanations of the fact that he led the people successfully through the wilderness. When we come to the occupation of Palestine any appeal to the miraculous victories of Joshua is definitely set aside, and outsiders are left to choose between two possibilities, one that it was due to superior force, the other that the virtues of the incomers won the respect and submission of the native population. I find it difficult to understand the motive of Philo in this treatment of the story, or of Eusebius in recording it, for Eusebius’s purpose is to give an account of the Mosaic constitution as it is depicted by the two most distinguished Jewish writers, and on this it has no bearing.",
+            "The second part of the extract, which does describe this constitution, is at least in the first subdivision curious in another way. We naturally compare it with the vastly longer and fuller account in the four books on the Special Laws and the <i>De Virtutibus</i>. The scope of the two is so hugely different that we should not expect more than the smallest fragment of the great Exposition in these few pages. The strange thing is that they contain so much which is ignored in the Exposition. There we hear little about the subjection of women, or of the inviolability of dedicated offerings or of the ways of obtaining release from these on which so much stress is here laid, or of the minor duties of supplying water, fire and burial. Humanity to animals is stressed in both, but the one law bearing on this which is mentioned here is not noticed there. The contrast no doubt is partly accounted for in the words where he states his intention to note the unwritten as well as the written, but only partly to my mind.",
+            "The second subdivision of this second part on the other hand, which deals with the observation of the sabbath, does not contradict anything that we find elsewhere in Philo. The account of the meetings in the Synagogue is much the same as that given in his description of the Essenes in the <i>Quod Omn. Prob.</i> and of the Therapeutae in the <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> and of the nation as a whole in <i>Spec. Leg.</i> ii. 62, and the stress laid on the sabbatical year both as a tribute to the land itself and an act of charity to the poor is thoroughly in his spirit.",
+            "The meaning of the title is obscure. The theory of Viger that it means “suppositions,” between which those addressed are invited to choose, only fits the opening sections, and was superseded by that of Bernays, who suggested that it meant exhortations or directions on conduct. Bernays shows that not only is ὑποθῆκαι often used in this sense but the ὑποθετικὸς λόγος is a technical term for a discourse with this object. The examples he quotes show that the hypothetical discourse has a close connexion with the protreptic, the term which Philo so often uses, and that in one case at least it is to be distinguished from the latter as the summary of counsels which closes the discourse. Still this does not seem to agree with the nature of the treatise so far as we can judge it from the specimens which Eusebius records. A hortatory discourse is a very different thing from a defence, at least, a defence of this kind. Bernays indeed quotes a passage in which the closely connected if not identical protreptic is stated on the one hand to show the high worth of virtue and on the other hand to convict those who deny or accuse or otherwise defame philosophy. But this does not apply to the opponents whom Philo is refuting. They do not attack the philosophy of the Law as he represents it, but either deny or are not aware that the Jews have any such philosophy.",
+            "The text of these extracts is not included in the Editio Maior of Cohn. As here printed it is that of the Editio Minor. It is not stated who is responsible for this, and there is no Apparatus Criticus. I have however carefully compared the text with those of Heinichen 1842, Dindorf 1867, and Gifford 1903, in their editions of the <i>Preparatio</i>. Gifford has such an apparatus, and in his introduction gives a full account of the manuscripts of which he obtained collations. I am not aware of any later edition.",
+            "The following is an analysis of the two extracts:",
+            "FIRST EXTRACT, viii. 6. 1–9, 7. 1–20",
+            "Part I. The first subdivision (6. 1) gives a short account of the causes which led to the Exodus from Egypt. The second subdivision (6. 2–9) suggests for consideration different explanations of the success of Moses in leading the people though the wilderness (2–4) and of the conquest of Palestine (5–8) and ends with an emphatic assertion of the devotion of the people through all the centuries to Moses and the Law (9).",
+            "Part II. The first subdivision (7. 1–9) gives a general sketch of the Mosaic constitution, contrasting its severity with the laxity of Gentile law and practice (1–3), particularly dwelling on the inviolability attached to vows and dedications (3–5). Other laws and customs are mentioned largely dwelling on duties of charity and mercy (6–9). The second subdivision (7. 10–20) describes the Sabbath as an institution intended mainly to provide opportunities for studying the law, gives a short account of the meetings and commends the universal knowledge of the Law which they effect (10–14). It then passes on to the sabbatical year, described as a proper relaxation for the land itself (15–18) and as a charitable institution, because the fruits which grew from it untilled were at the service of the poor and needy (19–20).",
+            "SECOND EXTRACT, viii. 11. 1–18",
+            "This is merely another description of the Essene communities, a general description (1–2), the mature age required for admission (3), their simple and communal life (4–5), their industry and practice of every kind of innocent activity (6–9), how the proceeds are put into a common bank (10–11), even clothes being held in common (12), their care for the sick and aged (13), their repudiation of marriage and exclusion of women, with some of their reasons for so doing (14–18). A final eulogy (18).",
+            "The references to chapters in the eighth book are those in all editions of the <i>Preparatio</i>. The references to sections with the chapters are those in Cohn’s Editio Minor. Sections are also numbered in Heinichen’s edition, but do not correspond to these. Gifford has no such sections, but gives the pages of Viger’s edition with subdivisions a, b, c, d. I have noted these pages but not the sub-divisions. I have also noted the pages in Mangey, vol. ii. They are to be distinguished from the others by the square brackets."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            "HYPOTHETICA",
+            "(APOLOGY FOR THE JEWS)",
+            "<small>Euseb. <i>Praep. Evang.</i> viii. 5. 11. Let us proceed to survey the constitution established by the legislation of Moses as described by authors held in high honour among the Jews. I will begin by quoting Philo’s account of their journey from Egypt under the leadership of Moses from the first book of the work which he entitled <i>Hypothetica</i>, where, while speaking in defence of the Jews as against their accusers, he says as follows:</small>",
+            "6. 1. Their original ancestor belonged to the Chaldeans, but this people who had emigrated from Syria to Egypt in past time removed from Egypt partly because of the vast size of the population for which the land was insufficient. Also it was due to the high spirit of enterprise in which they had been bred and to the revelations of God made by dreams and visions bidding them go forth, and what influenced them as much as anything was that they had providentially been seized by a yearning for their ancient fatherland. It was from there that this ancestor of theirs had passed over into Egypt either because God had so decreed or through some prevision of his own. There he had prospered to an unequalled degree so that from his time to the present day their nation has existed and survives and is so exceedingly populous.",
+            "<small>6. 2. Shortly afterwards he says:</small>",
+            "Their departure and journey was made under the command of one who nothing differed from the ordinary run of men. So you may say if you like: indeed there were people also who abused him as an impostor and prating mountebank. Well, that was a fine kind of imposture and knavery which enabled him to bring the whole people in complete safety amid drought and hunger and ignorance of the way and lack of everything as well as if they had abundance of everything and supplies obtainable from the neighbouring nations, and further to keep them free from internal factions and above all obedient to himself.",
+            "6. 3. And observe that these conditions lasted not for a little while but for a space of time during which even a household living in all comfort could not be expected to remain in unanimity. Yet neither thirst nor hunger nor bodily decay, nor fear of the future, nor ignorance of the course which events would take roused these deluded and perishing masses of men against that impostor.",
+            "6. 4. How will you explain this? Shall we say that he had some kind of skill or eloquence or intelligence great enough to surmount so many strangely different circumstances which were carrying them all to perdition? Otherwise we must suppose that either his subjects were naturally not stupid nor discontented but docile and gifted with some prevision of the future or else that they were thoroughly bad though God softened their discontents and kept their present and their future state as it were in his charge. Whichever of these views you consider to be the truth it appears to redound mightily to his praise and honour and zeal for them all.",
+            "6. 5. So much for the story of the migration. But when they came to this land the holy records show clearly how they established themselves there and occupied the country. Yet in discussing the probable facts of this occupation I think it better to go not so much by the historical narrative as by what our reason tells us about them.",
+            "6. 6. Which alternative do you prefer? Were they still superior in the number of their fighting men though they had fared so ill to the end, still strong and with weapons in their hand, and did they then take the land by force, defeating the combined Syrians and Phoenicians when fighting in their own country? Or shall we suppose that they were unwarlike and feeble, quite few in numbers and destitute of warlike equipment, but won the respect of their opponents who voluntarily surrendered their land to them and that as a direct consequence they shortly afterwards built their temple and established everything else needed for religion and worship?",
+            "6. 7. This would clearly show that they were acknowledged as dearly beloved of God even by their enemies. For those whose land they suddenly invaded with the intention of taking it from them were necessarily their enemies.",
+            "6. 8. And if they got credit and honour in the sight of their enemies surely it shows that they exceeded all in good fortune. What qualities shall we put in addition to this good fortune in the second and the third place? Shall we give the preference to their respect for law and loyal obedience or to their religion and justice and piety? Whichever you choose the fact remains that so great was their veneration for that man who gave them their laws, whatever view we take of him, that anything which approved itself to him approved itself also to them.",
+            "6. 9. So whether what he told them came from his own reasoning powers or was learnt from some supernatural source they held it all to come from God and after the lapse of many years, how many I cannot say exactly, but at any rate for more than two thousand, they have not changed a single word of what he wrote but would even endure to die a thousand deaths sooner than accept anything contrary to the laws and customs which he had ordained.",
+            "6. 10. After these remarks he gives the following summary of the constitution laid down for the nation in the laws of Moses.",
+            "7. 1. Do we find any of these things or anything similar among the Jews; anything which so savours of mildness and lenity, anything which permits of legal proceedings or extenuations or postponements or assessments of penalties and reductions of assessments? Nothing at all, everything is clear and simple. If you are guilty of pederasty or adultery or rape of a young person, even of a female, for I need not mention the case of a male, similarly if you prostitute yourself or allow or purpose or intend any action which your age makes indecent the penalty is death.",
+            "7. 2. So too if you commit an outrage on the person of a slave or a free man, if you confine him in bonds or kidnap and sell him. So too with larceny of things profane and sacred, so too with impiety not only of act but even of a casual word and not only against God Himself (may He forgive the very thought of such a thing which should not even be mentioned), but also against a father or mother or benefactor of your own the penalty is the same, death and not the common ordinary death: the offender in words only must be stoned to death. His guilt is as great as if he were the perpetrator of impious actions.",
+            "7. 3. Other rules again there are of various kinds: wives must be in servitude to their husbands, a servitude not imposed by violent ill-treatment but promoting obedience in all things. Parents must have power over their children to keep them safe and tend them carefully. Each individual is master of his possessions unless he has solemnly named the name of God over them declaring that he has given them to God. And if he has merely made a chance verbal promise of them he must not touch or handle them, but hold himself at once debarred from them all.",
+            "7. 4. I need not consider the case of his robbing what belongs to the gods or plundering what others have dedicated; even with his own, I repeat, a chance word of dedication spoken unawares deprives him of them all and if he repents or denies his promise his life is forfeit also.",
+            "7. 5. The same holds of any other persons over whom he has authority. If a man has devoted his wife’s sustenance to a sacred purpose he must refrain from giving her that sustenance; so with a father’s gifts to his son or a ruler’s to his subjects. The chief and most perfect way of releasing dedicated property is by the priest refusing it, for he is empowered by God to accept it or not. Next to this, that given by those who at the time have the higher authority may lawfully declare that God is propitiated so that there is no necessity to accept the dedication.",
+            "7. 6. Besides these there is a host of other things which belong to unwritten customs and institutions or are contained in the laws themselves. What a man would hate to suffer he must not do himself to others. What he has not laid down he must not take up either from a garden or a wine press or a threshing floor. He must not filch anything great or small from a stack. He must not grudge to give fire to one who needs it or close off running water. If the poor or the cripple beg food of him he must give it as an offering of religion to God.",
+            "7. 7. He must not debar dead bodies from burial, but throw upon them as much earth as piety demands, nor disturb in any way the resting places and monuments of the departed. He must not by fettering or any other means worsen the plight of him who is in hard straits; he must not make abortive the generative power of men by gelding nor that of women by sterilizing drugs and other devices. There must be no maltreatment of animals contrary to what is appointed by God or even by a law-giver; no destroying of their seed nor defrauding of their offspring.",
+            "7. 8. No unjust scales, no false measurements, no fraudulent coinage must be substituted.” The secrets of a friend must not be divulged in enmity. What need in heaven’s name have we of your Buzyges and his precepts? There are other matters to be noted: children must not be parted from their parents even if you hold them as captive, nor a wife from her husband even if you are her owner by lawful purchase.",
+            "7. 9. These no doubt are more important and serious matters, but there are others, little things of casual occurrence. Do not render desolate the nesting home of birds or make the appeals of animals of none effect when they seem to fly to you for help as they sometimes do. Nor commit any lesser offence of the kind. These things are of nothing worth, you may say, yet great is the law which ordains them and ever watchful is the care which it demands. Great too and appalling are the warnings and imprecations which accompany it. And such deeds are everywhere surveyed and avenged by God Himself.",
+            "<small>7. 10. Shortly afterwards he says:</small>",
+            "Is it not a marvel that for a whole day they should have kept from transgressing on any occasion any of the ordinances, or rather for many days, not one only, days too which did not follow straight on each other but only after intervals, and intervals of seven during which habits belonging to the secular days naturally hold the mastery?",
+            "7. 11. You may ask: Is not this merely a case of practising self-control so that they should be capable of abstaining from toil if necessary no less than of toilsome activity? No, it was a great and marvellous achievement which the lawgiver had in view. He considered that they should not only be capable of both action and inaction in other matters but also should have expert knowledge of their ancestral laws and customs.",
+            "7. 12. What then did he do? He required them to assemble in the same place on these seventh days, and sitting together in a respectful and orderly manner hear the laws read so that none should be ignorant of them.",
+            "7. 13. And indeed they do always assemble and sit together, most of them in silence except when it is the practice to add something to signify approval of what is read. But some priest who is present or one of the elders reads the holy laws to them and expounds them point by point till about the late afternoon, when they depart having gained both expert knowledge of the holy laws and considerable advance in piety.",
+            "7. 14. Do you think that this marks them as idlers or that any work is equally vital to them? And so they do not resort to persons learned in the law with questions as to what they should do or not do, nor yet by keeping independent transgress in ignorance of the law, but any one of them whom you attack with inquiries about their ancestral institutions can answer you readily and easily. The husband seems competent to transmit knowledge of the laws to his wife, the father to his children, the master to his slaves.",
+            "7. 15. Again with regard to the seventh year one can without difficulty use much the same though perhaps not identical words. For here it is not they themselves who abstain from work as on those seventh days, but it is the land which they leave idle against the days to come hereafter to give it fertility, for they believe that it gains much by getting a respite and is then tilled in the next year without being exhausted by unbroken cultivation.",
+            "7. 16. You may see that the same treatment of our bodies tends to strengthen them. Physicians prescribe some intermissions and relaxations not merely when health has to be restored. For monotony without a break, particularly in work, is always seen to be injurious.",
+            "7. 17. Here is a proof that their object is as I describe. If anyone offered to cultivate this same land during the seventh year much more strenuously than before and to surrender to them the whole of the fruits they would absolutely refuse. For they do not think that it is only themselves who should abstain from work, though if they did so it would be nothing to wonder at, but that the land should gain at their hands a respite and easing off to make a fresh start in receiving renewed attention and husbandry.",
+            "7. 18. For what in heaven’s name was to hinder them from letting out the land during the year and collecting the produce of that year at its end from the others who tilled it? But, as I have said, they entirely refuse anything of the kind, doubtless out of consideration for the land.",
+            "7. 19. We have a truly great proof of their humanity in the following also. Since they themselves abstain from labour during that year, they think that they should not gather or lay by the fruits produced which do not accrue to them from their own toil, but since God has provided them, sprung from the soil by its own action, they should grant them to be used freely by way farers and others who desire or need them.",
+            "7. 20. You have now had enough on this subject, for you will not require me to show that these rules for the seventh days are established firmly among them by the law. Probably you have often heard ere now from many physicians, scientists and philosophers what influence it has over the life of all things and of mankind in particular. This is what I have to say about the seventh day.",
+            "11. 1. Multitudes of his disciples has the lawgiver trained for the life of fellowship. These people are called Essenes, a name awarded to them doubtless in recognition of their holiness. They live in many cities of Judaea and in many villages and grouped in great societies of many members.",
+            "11. 2. Their persuasion is not based on birth, for birth is not a descriptive mark of voluntary associations, but on their zeal for virtue and desire to promote brotherly love.",
+            "11. 3. Thus no Essene is a mere child nor even a stripling or newly bearded, since the characters of such are unstable with a waywardness corresponding to the immaturity of their age, but full grown and already verging on old age, no longer carried under by the tide of the body nor led by the passions, but enjoying the veritable, the only real freedom.",
+            "11. 4. This freedom is attested by their life. None of them allows himself to have any private property, either house or slave or estate or cattle or any of the other things which are amassed and abundantly procured by wealth, but they put everything together into the public stock and enjoy the benefit of them all in common.",
+            "11. 5. They live together formed into clubs, bands of comradeship with common meals, and never cease to conduct all their affairs to serve the general weal.",
+            "11. 6. But they have various occupations at which they labour with untiring application and never plead cold or heat or any of the violent changes in the atmosphere as an excuse. Before the sun is risen they betake themselves to their familiar tasks and only when it sets force them selves to return, for they delight in them as much as do those who are entered for gymnastic competitions.",
+            "11. 7. For they consider that the exercises which they practise whatever they may be are more valuable to life, more pleasant to soul and body and more lasting than those of the athlete in as much as they can still be plied with vigour when that of the body is past its prime.",
+            "11. 8. Some of them labour on the land skilled in sowing and planting, some as herdsmen taking charge of every kind of cattle and some superintend the swarms of bees.",
+            "11. 9. Others work at the handicrafts to avoid the sufferings which are forced upon us by our indispensable requirements and shrink from no innocent way of getting a livelihood.",
+            "11. 10. Each branch when it has received the wages of these so different occupations gives it to one person who has been appointed as treasurer. He takes it and at once buys what is necessary and provides food in abundance and anything else which human life requires.",
+            "11. 11. Thus having each day a common life and a common table they are content with the same conditions, lovers of frugality who shun expensive luxury as a disease of both body and soul.",
+            "11. 12. And not only is their table in common but their clothing also. For in winter they have a stock of stout coats ready and in summer cheap vests, so that he who wishes may easily take any garment he likes, since what one has is held to belong to all and conversely what all have one has.",
+            "11. 13. Again if anyone is sick he is nursed at the common expense and tended with care and thoughtfulness by all. The old men too even if they are childless are treated as parents of a not merely numerous but very filial family and regularly close their life with an exceedingly prosperous and comfortable old age; so many are those who give them precedence and honour as their due and minister to them as a duty voluntarily and deliberately accepted rather than enforced by nature.",
+            "11. 14. Furthermore they eschew marriage because they clearly discern it to be the sole or the principal danger to the maintenance of the communal life, as well as because they particularly practise continence. For no Essene takes a wife, because a wife is a selfish creature, excessively jealous and an adept at beguiling the morals of her husband and seducing him by her continued impostures.",
+            "11. 15. For by the fawning talk which she practise and the other ways in which she plays her part like an actress on the stage she first ensnares the sight and hearing, and when these subjects as it were have been duped she cajoles the sovereign mind.",
+            "11. 16. And if children come, filled with the spirit of arrogance and bold speaking she gives utterance with more audacious hardihood to things which before she hinted covertly and under disguise, and casting off all shame she compels him to commit actions which are all hostile to the life of fellowship.",
+            "11. 17. For he who is either fast bound in the love lures of his wife or under the stress of nature makes his children his first care ceases to be the same to others and unconsciously has become a different man and has passed from freedom into slavery.",
+            "11. 18. Such then is the life of the Essenes, a life so highly to be prized that not only commoners but also great kings look upon them with admiration and amazement, and the approbation and honours which they give add further veneration to their venerable name."
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO HYPOTHETICA",
+            "§ 7. 5. (Absolution from vows.) On this Edersheim (<i>The Temple, its Ministry and Services</i>, p. 69) says that release from a vow which affected the interests of others might be obtained from one sage or from three persons in the presence of him who had been affected by the vow. He does not state the authority for this and it seems strange that in treating the subject he does not refer to this passage in Philo. In the same connexion he remarks that all laws were limited by higher obligations: according to the Mishnah a man could not vow what of his fortune he owed to others nor his widow’s portion. Philo’s statement that a man by vowing his wife’s τροφή could bind himself not to support her agrees with the practice denounced in Mark 7:10 ff., but is contrary to the principle described by Edersheim, and it is strange to find Philo apparently approving it.",
+            "§ 7. 8. (Precepts of Buzyges.) The rare passages alluding to these are collected by Bernays (see Introd. p. 407 note <i>b</i>). The Paroemiographer, p. 233, has ὁ γὰρ Βουζύγης Ἀθήνησι ὁ τὸν ἱερὸν ἄροτον ἐπιτελῶν (“instituted the sacred rite of the plough”) ἄλλα τε πολλὰ ἀρᾶται καὶ τοῖς μὴ κοινηνοῦσι κατὰ τὸν βίον ὕδατος ἢ πυρός, ἢ μὴ ὑποφαίνουσιν ὁδὸν πλανωμένοις. A scholiast on Soph. <i>Ant.</i> 255 mentions the saying that Buzyges cursed those who left a corpse unburied. Clem. Alex. <i>Strom.</i> ii. 503 says that those who bid others do what they judge to be not profitable to themselves οὐκ ἂν ἐκφύγοιεν τὴν Βουζυγίαν ἀράν. Though the name of Buzyges is not mentioned, there is clearly an allusion to the same in a fragment of Diphilus where refusals of charity are said to be denounced in the “curses.” Cicero, <i>De Off.</i> iii. 54 f., speaks of refusing to show the way as denounced “Athenis exsecrationibus publicis” and interprets it to include those who allow a purchaser to be defrauded by a mistake. Bernays notes that three of the specific things here mentioned, the duty of showing the way, allowing free use of fire and water, and giving burial are all mentioned by Philo. Bernays does not give any quotation for the statement that the curses are repeated by a descendant of Buzyges at a feast of Demeter.",
+            "§ 7. 9. (Appeal of animals.) The statement seems to me remarkable and I should like to meet with some illustration of it or comment on it particularly in the form given it by Josephus. When is it that animals enter our houses as suppliants? The only thing in the law which suggests helping animals in trouble is the command in Deut. 22:4 to help to raise up a fallen beast and there really the point is helping the owner.",
+            "Philo in <i>De Virt.</i> 125–147 has insisted earnestly on the duty of kindness to animals, but it is remarkable that of the points which he mentions, namely the prohibitions against (1) separating the mother and offspring before seven days, (2) killing the two in the same day, (3) seething the lamb in its mother’s milk, (4) muzzling the treading ox, (5) yoking different kinds of animals together, none is mentioned here, at any rate definitely, though (1) may be alluded to in § 7. On the other hand the one which precedes this here is omitted there."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "היפותטיקה",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "היפותטיקה",
+        "enTitle": "Hypothetica",
+        "key": "Hypothetica",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On Providence/English/Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941.json

@@ -0,0 +1,151 @@
+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "On Providence",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI",
+    "versionTitle": "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+    "status": "locked",
+    "license": "Public Domain",
+    "versionNotes": "",
+    "actualLanguage": "en",
+    "languageFamilyName": "english",
+    "isSource": false,
+    "isPrimary": true,
+    "direction": "ltr",
+    "heTitle": "על ההשגחה",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [],
+        "": [
+            "ON PROVIDENCE (FRAGMENT 1)",
+            "As to the quantity of the substance assuming that it was really created what we have to say is this. God estimated for the creation of the world just sufficient matter that there should be neither deficiency nor excess. For it would be monstrous to suppose that while particular craftsmen when framing something, especially anything costly, estimate what material is just sufficient, He who invented numbers, measures and equality in them had no thought for what was adequate. I will say indeed with all confidence that the world needed neither less nor more substance for its construction, since otherwise it would not have been made perfect nor complete in all its parts, whereas actually it was made excellently out of a perfect substance. For it is a characteristic of a complete master of his art to see before he begins any constructive work that he has sufficient material. Now a man even if superior to everyone in knowledge may perhaps, as he cannot escape the errors congenital to mortals, be deceived as to the quantity of material needed when he practises his craft. He may sometimes find it too little and have to add, sometimes excessive and have to take away. But He who is as it were the fountain head of all knowledge was sure to provide nothing deficient or superfluous, since the standards which He employs are all to be extolled as elaborated with absolute accuracy. A person who wishes to waste his time in foolishness is sure also to confront us at once with the works of all other craftsmen as having improved their construction by adding to or diminishing the material. But we leave futile argument for the sophist: the task of wisdom is to investigate all that nature has to show.",
+            "ON PROVIDENCE (FRAGMENT 2)",
+            "[1] <small>This is the method in which he conducts this discussion. Alexander says:</small>",
+            "“Do you maintain the existence of providence amid this vast welter and confusion of things? For what part of human life is subject to order, nay, what is not brimful of disorder and corruption? Or are you alone ignorant that to the worst and vilest of men good things in abundance come crowding in, wealth, high repute, honours paid to them by the masses, again authority, health with efficiency of the senses, beauty, strength, unimpeded enjoyment of pleasures through the abundance of their resources and the bodily well-being free from all disturbance which they possess, while the lovers and practisers of wisdom and every virtue are almost universally poor, obscure, of little repute and in a humble position?”",
+            "[2] <small>After stating these and a host of others on the negative side he next proceeds to refute the objections as follows.</small>",
+            "God is not a tyrant who has made a practice of cruelty and violence and all the deeds committed by a despot who rules by ruthlessness, but a king invested with a kindly and law-abiding sovereignty who governs the whole heaven and earth with justice. Now for a king there is no fitter name than father,",
+            "[3] for what the father in family life is to the children the king is to the state and God is to the world,—God who under the immutable laws of nature has joined in indissoluble union two things most excellent, governorship and guardianship.",
+            "[4] Now parents do not lose thought for their wastrel children but, in pity for their unhappy state, bestow on them care and attention, deeming that it is only mortal enemies who take advantage of the miseries of others to trample on them, while friends and kinsmen should lighten their downfall.",
+            "[5] Often too they lavish their kindness on the wastrels more than on the well behaved, knowing well that these have in their sober disposition a plentiful source of prosperity while the wastrels’ one hope is in their parents, and if this fail them they will lack the very necessaries of life.",
+            "[6] In the same way God too the Father of reasonable intelligence has indeed all who are endowed with reason under His care but takes thought also for those who live a misspent life, thereby giving them time for reformation and also keeping within the bounds of His merciful nature, which has for its attendant virtue and loving kindness well fitted to keep watch as sentry around God’s world.",
+            "Here is one thought. Receive it, O soul,",
+            "[7] and ponder it awhile as a trust committed to thee by Him, but receive also another in harmony and agreement with it. It is this. Mayst thou never be so led astray from the truth as to think that happiness is the lot of any of the wicked though he excel Croesus in wealth, Lynceus in keen sight, Milo of Croton in muscular strength and Ganymede in beauty,",
+            "<small>He who was for his beauty by the gods <br>Caught up to be the cupbearer of Zeus.</small>",
+            "[8] Surely if he has brought the ruler of his lot, that is his mind, into slavery to a host of masters, love, lust, pleasure, fear, grief, folly, incontinence, cowardice, injustice, happiness can never be his lot, however much it seems so to the multitude led astray from true judgement, seduced by the twofold pest, vain pomps and vain imaginations which are so highly skilled to cajole and mislead unballasted souls and are the source of disaster to most of the human race.",
+            "[9] If indeed you would strain the soul’s eyes to contemplate the providence of God as far as human reason can do so, you will gain a clearer vision of the true good and laugh to scorn what here are reckoned as goods which hitherto had your admiration. For in the absence of the better things worse are always held in honour and succeed to the position which belongs to the better, but when these return the worse withdraw and have to be content with the second prize.",
+            "[10] Then awestruck at that divine revelation, so good and excellent, you will surely recognize that none of the things mentioned above ranks of itself in the sight of God as a good; for mines of silver and gold are the most worthless portion of the earth, utterly and absolutely inferior to that which is given up to the production of fruit.",
+            "[11] For there is no likeness between abundance of money, and the food without which we cannot live. The one clearest proof of this is famine, which tests what is truly necessary and useful. For anyone would gladly exchange all the treasures in the world for a little food.",
+            "[12] But when the lavish supply of necessaries spreads in a vast resistless flood from city to city we enjoy the luxury of these good gifts of nature but are not content to confine ourselves to them. We take insolent satiety as our guide in life and prepare ourselves for the task of acquiring gold and silver, armed with every means by which we may hope to get some gain, like blind men whose mind through covetousness has lost the power to see that it is for lumps of earth that we forfeit peace and wage a constant and persistent war.",
+            "[13] As for clothes, they are but what the poets call the flower of the sheep and on the craftsman’s side a credit to the weavers. And if anyone prides himself on his prestige and welcomes with open arms the approval of the worthless he may be assured of his own worthlessness, for like delights in like.",
+            "[14] Let him pray to get purging medicine for his ears, through which pass heavy maladies to strike the soul. And all who puff themselves up on their bodily strength must learn not to be proud necked but turn their eyes to the myriad kinds of animals tame and wild, in which bodily strength and muscle are congenital. It is a monstrous absurdity for a human being to pride himself on excellencies which belong to savage beasts when actually he is outdone in these by them.",
+            "[15] And why should anyone of good sense glory in bodily beauty which ere it has flowered for its full span is brought to extinction by a brief season which dims the brightness of its delusive prime?—particularly when he sees exhibited in lifeless forms the much prized work of painters, sculptors and other artists, in portraits, statues and cunning tapestry work, works which are famous in every city throughout Greece and the outside world.",
+            "[16] None of these as I have said is ranked in God’s sight as a good. And why should we wonder that God does not accept them as goods?—since neither do godly men accept them, who honour things truly good and excellent, men who have been blest with a gifted nature and by study and exercise have further beautified that nature, men who have been made what they are by genuine philosophy.",
+            "[17] But those whose study has been in a spurious culture do not even follow the example of the physicians who treat the body which is the servitor of the soul, though they claim to be healing the mistress. For those physicians of the body, when a man favoured by fortune is sick, even though he be the Great King himself, take no notice of the colonnades, of the men’s apartments, of the ladies’ bowers, of the pictures, of the silver and gold whether coined or uncoined, of the accumulation of goblets or tapestry work and the rest of the magnificence which adorns kingship. They care not for the multitude of serving men or the friends or kinsmen or subjects in high positions who are in attendance, but make their way to his bed and taking no account of the surroundings of the body itself nor noting with admiration that the beds are inlaid with jewels and of pure gold and that the bedding is of spider-web silk or brocaded, or the coverlets of different kinds of beauty, they go farther and strip the wrappings off him and take hold of his hands and squeezing the veins mark carefully the pulsations to see whether they are healthy. And often they draw up the undervest and make an examination to see whether the belly is over-loaded or the chest inflamed, or the heartbeats irregular, and then they apply the appropriate treatment.",
+            "[18] So too the philosophers who profess to practise the art of healing that queen of Nature’s making, the soul, should despise all the vain inventions of idle opinion, and passing within take hold of the mind itself, to see whether anger makes its pulsations run at an irregular rate and with unnatural excitement: so too with the tongue to see whether it is rough and evil speaking or bawdy and licentious: so too the belly to see whether it is swollen by an insatiable form of lust; and in general if there appear to be a complication of passions, distempers and infirmities to investigate each of them so as not to miss anything which may serve to restore it to health. As it is,",
+            "[19] dazzled by the brilliance of external things, because they are unable to see the spiritual light, they have continued to wander for ever, never able to reach King Reason, only just managing to make their way to his portal where, struck with admiration for those who wait at virtue’s doorstep, riches, reputation, health and their kin, they rendered homage to them.",
+            "[20] But to take the judgement of the bad as to what is truly good is as grossly insane as to take that of the blind on colours or the deaf on musical sounds. For the bad have lost the use of their most dominant part, their mind, over which folly has shed profound darkness.",
+            "[21] Can we then still wonder that Socrates and any virtuous person you like to name have continued to live a life of poverty, never having practised any method of gaining wealth, refusing indeed to take anything from wealthy friends or kings who offered them great gifts, because they considered that there is nothing good or excellent save acquiring virtue, for which they laboured neglecting all the other goods?",
+            "[22] And who with the thought of the genuine before them would not disregard the spurious for its sake? But if possessed of a mortal body and brimful of the plagues which beset mankind and living amid the unjust, a multitude so great that it cannot even be easily counted, they become the victims of malice, why do we accuse Nature when we should reproach the cruelty of their assailants?",
+            "[23] For if they had been living in a pestilential atmosphere they would have been bound to take the disease, and vice is more or at least no less destructive than pestilential surroundings. And as the wise man must needs get drenched if he stays in the open air when it is raining or suffer from the rigour of the cold when the north wind’s blast is chilly, or get heated in the summer, since it is a law of nature that our bodily feelings correspond to the annual changes of the season, so also he who lives in places Where murder’s rife and famine too and tribes of other ills must submit to the penalties which they successively impose.",
+            "[24] For as for Polycrates, in requital for his terrible acts of injustice and impiety he encountered his rewarder in the shape of lifelong misery. Add to this a lesser ill, that he was punished by the Great King and impaled, thus fulfilling an oracle. “I know,” he said, “that I saw myself not long ago anointed as it seemed by the sun and washed by Zeus.” For the riddle thus symbolically stated, though at first obscure, received very clear attestation from what actually occurred.",
+            "[25] But it was not only at the end but through all his life from the first that his soul, though he knew it not, was in the same suspense which later befell his body. For he lived in perpetual fear and trembling, scared by the multitude of his assailants and knowing well that none was friendly to him, but all had been turned by their misery into implacable enemies.",
+            "[26] The endless and continual fear shown by Dionysius is attested by the historians of Sicily, who tell us that he suspected even his dearly beloved wife. This is proved by his ordering that the entrance to the chamber through which she had to pass to join him should be covered with boards so that she should never creep in unawares but should give notice of her arrival by the creaking and rattling made by her stepping on them. Also she had to come not merely undressed but with the parts naked which it is indecent for men to see. Further he had the continuous line of the floor along the passage broken by a gap as deep and broad as a ditch in the farmland, so that if, as he dreaded, some secret attempt to do him a mischief were made in the darkness it would be detected by the visitors jumping or striding across the gap.",
+            "[27] How vast a burden of ills was his who watched so craftily over the wife whom he was bound to trust above all others. Indeed he resembled the climbers who scale a precipitous mountain to get a clearer view of the heavenly bodies, and when they manage with difficulty to reach some outstanding cliff cannot go any higher because their heart fails them before the height which still remains, nor have they courage to descend as their heads swim at the sight of the yawning chasms below.",
+            "[28] For enamoured as he was of tyranny as something divine and much to be coveted he did not consider it safe either to stay as he was or to flee. If he stayed he was sure to meet a torrent of innumerable evils in constant succession. If he wanted to flee, his life was menaced by danger from those whose minds at least if not their bodies were armed against him.",
+            "[29] Another proof is the way in which he is said to have treated a person who asserted the felicity of the tyrant’s life. Having invited him to a dinner which had been provided on a very magnificent and costly scale he ordered a sharp-edged axe to be suspended over him by a very slender thread. When after taking his place on the couch the guest suddenly saw this, he had neither the courage in the tyrant’s presence to rise and remove himself nor the power in his terror to enjoy the dishes provided, and so regardless of the abundance and wealth of the pleasures before him, he lay with neck and eye strained upwards, expecting his own destruction.",
+            "[30] Dionysius perceived this and said: “Do you now understand what this glorious and much coveted life of ours really is?” This is the sort of thing it is in the eyes of anyone who does not wish to deceive himself. For it includes wealth supplied in full abundance but not the enjoyment of anything worth having, only terrors in constant succession, dangers unescapable, a malady more grievous than the creeping and wasting sickness, bringing with it destruction that knows no remedy.",
+            "[31] But the thoughtless multitude deluded by the brilliant outward appearance are in the same condition as men ensnared by unsightly courtesans who disguise their ugliness with fine raiment and gold and the paint upon their faces, and so for lack of the genuine beauty create the spurious to entrap those who behold them.",
+            "[32] Such is the misery which fills to the brim the life of those greatly favoured by fortune, misery whose extent measured by the judgement of their own hearts is more than they can contain, and like those who are forced to proclaim their maladies they utter words of absolute sincerity wrung from them by their sufferings. Surrounded by punishments present and expected they live like beasts who are fattened for a sacrifice, for such receive the most careful attention to prepare them for the slaughter, because of the rich feast of flesh which they supply.",
+            "[33] There are some who have been punished not obscurely but conspicuously for sacrilegious robbery, a numerous body which it would be superfluous labour to name in full. It will suffice to let one case stand as an example of them all. The historians who have described the sacred war in Phocis state that whereas there was a law enacted that the temple robber should be thrown from a precipice or drowned in the sea, or burnt alive, three persons who robbed the temple at Delphi, Philomelus, Onomarchus and Phaÿllus, had these punishments distributed between them. The first fell over a rugged and stony crag and as a piece of rock broke off he was killed both from the fall from the height and from the weight of the stone. In the case of the second the horse on which he was riding got out of control and rushed down to the sea and under the onrush of the tide both rider and horse sank in the deep gulf. As for Phaÿllus, there are two versions of his story, one that he wasted away in consumption, the other that he perished in the flame which consumed the temple at Abae.",
+            "[34] To assert that these events are due to chance is pure contentiousness. No doubt if people had been punished at different times or by other penalties it would be sensible enough to ascribe them to the caprice of fortune. But when all were punished together about the same time and by penalties not of another kind but those contained in the laws, it is reasonable to assert that they were the victims of divine justice.",
+            "[35] And if some of the men of violence still left unmentioned, insurgents who seized power over the populace and enslaved not only other peoples but their own countries, continued unpunished, why should we wonder? For in the first place the judgements of men and God are not alike. For we inquire into what is manifest but He penetrates noiselessly into the recesses of the soul, sees our thoughts as though in bright sunlight, and stripping off the wrappings in which they are enveloped, inspects our motives in their naked reality and at once distinguishes the counterfeit from the genuine.",
+            "[36] Let us never then prefer our own tribunal to that of God and assert that it is more infallible and wiser in counsel, for that religion forbids. Ours has many pitfalls, the delusions of the senses, the malignancy of the passions and most formidable of all the hostility of the vices; while in His there is nothing that can deceive, only justice and truth, and everything that is judged according to these standards brings praise to the judge and cannot but be settled aright.",
+            "[37] Secondly, my friend, do not suppose that a temporary tyranny is without its uses. For neither is punishment useless, and that penalties should be inflicted is actually profitable to the good or at any rate not detrimental. And therefore in all properly enacted laws punishment is included, and those who enacted them are universally praised, for punishment has the same relation to law as a tyrant has to a people.",
+            "[38] So when a dire famine and dearth of virtue takes possession of states, and folly unstinted is prevalent, God, desiring to drain off the current of wickedness as if it were the stream of a torrent, gives strength and power to men naturally fitted to rule in order to purify our race.",
+            "[39] For wickedness cannot be purged away without some ruthless soul to do it. And just as states maintain official executioners to deal with murderers and traitors and temple robbers, not that they approve of the sentiments of these persons, but with an eye to the usefulness of their service, so the Governor of this great city of the world sets up tyrants like public executioners over the cities which He sees inundated with violence, injustice, impiety and all the other evils, in order that they may be at last brought to a standstill and abate.",
+            "[40] Then too it seems good to Him to crown the punishment of all by bringing to justice those who have carried it out. For knowing that their services were the outcome of an impious and ruthless soul He treats them as in a sense the capital offenders. For just as the force of fire after devouring all the fuel supplied to it finally consumes itself, so too those who have seized dominion over the populaces when they have exhausted the cities and emptied them of all their men pay the penalty due for all and perish as well.",
+            "[41] And why should we wonder that God uses tyrants to sweep away the wickedness which has spread through cities and countries and nations. For often instead of employing other ministers He effects this by Himself by bringing famine or pestilence and earthquake, and all the other divine visitations whereby great bodies of people perish in huge numbers every day and a large part of the world is desolated for His purpose of promoting virtue.",
+            "[42] Enough then I think has been said for the present on the theme that none of the wicked has happiness, and this is a very strong proof that providence exists. But if you are not yet convinced, fear not to tell me your still lingering doubts, for by combining our efforts we shall both get to know where the truth is to be found.",
+            "[43] Later again he says:",
+            "Storms of wind and rain were made by God, not as you supposed, to do grievous harm to voyagers and husbandmen, but to benefit our race as a whole. For He purges the earth with water and the whole sublunary region with breezes. And with both He gives sustenance, growth and maturity to animals and plants.",
+            "[44] If these sometimes harm persons who travel by sea out of season or tillers of the land there is nothing wonderful. They are but a small fraction and His care is for the whole human race. So then as the course of training in the gymnasium is drawn up for the benefit of the pupils, but the gymnasiarch sometimes to suit civic requirements makes a change in the arrangement of the regular hours whereby some of those under training lose their lesson, so too God having the charge of the whole world as though it were a city is wont to create wintry summers and spring-like winters for the benefit of the whole, even though some skippers and workers on the land are bound to suffer loss through the irregular way in which they occur.",
+            "[45] The interchanges of the elements out of which the world was framed and now consists He knows to be a vital operation and produces them in unimpeded succession. But frost and snow and similar phenomena are circumstances attendant on the refrigeration of the air as thunders and lightnings are on the clashing and friction of clouds. And none of these we may suppose is by providence, but while rainstorms and breezes are causal to the life and sustenance and growth of terrestrial things they have these others for their attendant circumstances.",
+            "[46] Similarly a gymnasiarch prompted by ambition may often provide on a lavish scale and some vulgarly extravagant people wash themselves with oil instead of water and let the drops drip to the ground, so that at once we have some slippery mud; yet no sensible person would say that the slipperiness and the mud were due to the purposive design of the gymnasiarch or anything but mere concomitants to the munificent scale of the supply.",
+            "[47] Again a rainbow and a halo and all similar phenomena are attendant circumstances caused by rays mixing with clouds, not primary works of Nature but happenings consequent upon her works. Not but what they often render essential service to the more thoughtful who from the evidence which they give predict the presence or absence of wind and fine or stormy weather.",
+            "[48] Observe the porticoes in the cities. Most of them have been built to face the south so that persons who walk in them may enjoy the sun in winter and the breeze in summer. But they also have an attendant circumstance which does not arise through the intention of the builder. What is this? The shadows cast at our feet indicate the hours as we find by experience.",
+            "[49] Fire too is a most essential work of nature and smoke is a circumstance attendant to it, yet smoke too itself is sometimes helpful. Take for instance beacon signals in the daytime: when the fire is deadened by the rays of the sun shining on it, the enemy’s approach is announced by the smoke.",
+            "[50] Much the same may be said about eclipses as about the rainbow. The sun and moon are natural divinities, and so these eclipses are concomitant circumstances, yet eclipses announce the death of kings and the destruction of cities as is darkly indicated by Pindar on the occurrence of an eclipse in the passage quoted above.",
+            "[51] As for the belt of the Milky Way it possesses the same essential qualities as the other stars, and though it is difficult to give a scientific account of it students of natural phenomena must not shrink from the quest. For while discovery is the most profitable, research is also a delight to lovers of learning.",
+            "[52] Just then as the sun and moon have come into being through the action of providence so too have all the heavenly bodies, even though we, unable to trace the natures and powers of each, are silent about them.",
+            "[53] Earthquakes, pestilence, thunderbolts and the like though said to be visitations from God are not really such. For nothing evil at all is caused by God, and these things are generated by changes in the elements. They are not primary works of nature but a sequel of her essential works, attendant circumstances to the primary.",
+            "[54] If some persons of a finer character participate in the damage which they cause, the blame must not be laid on God’s ordering of the world, for in the first place it does not follow that if persons are considered good by us they are really such, for God judges by standards more accurate than any which the human mind employs. Secondly providence or forethought is contented with paying regard to things in the world of the most importance, just as in kingdoms and commands of army it pays regard to cities and troops, not to some chance individual of the obscure and insignificant kind.",
+            "[55] Some declare that just as when tyrants are put to death it is justifiable to execute their kinsfolk also, so that wrongdoings may be checked by the magnitude of the punishment, so too in times of pestilence it is well that some of the guiltless should perish also as a lesson extending further to call all others to a wiser life. Apart from this they point out that persons who move in a tainted atmosphere must needs take the sickness just as in a storm or on board a ship they share the danger equally.",
+            "[56] The stronger kinds of wild animals were made in order to give us practice in warlike contests, for I feel bound to mention this point though you as a skilful advocate anticipated this defence and tried to discredit it. For the training in gymnastics and constant hunting expeditions weld and brace the body admirably and affect the soul even more than the body by inuring it in the starkness of its strength to meet unconcernedly sudden onsets of the enemy.",
+            "[57] And people of peaceful nature can live sheltered within the walls of their cities and even of their chambers without fear of attack with abundance of different kinds of animals for their enjoyment, since boars and lions and the like following their natural inclination are banished to a distance from the town, preferring to be immune from men’s hostility.",
+            "[58] And if some persons are so careless that they do not fear to resort unarmed and unprepared to the lairs of these beasts they must lay the blame of what happens on themselves and not on Nature, since they have neglected to take precautions when they could. Thus in chariot races too I have seen people giving way to thoughtlessness who, instead of sitting in their places as they should as orderly spectators, stood in the middle of the course and pushed over by the rush of the chariots were crushed under the feet and wheels, a proper reward for their folly.",
+            "[59] Enough has been said on these matters. As for reptiles the venomous kinds have not come into being by direct act of providence but as an attendant circumstance as I have said above. For they come to life when the moisture already in them changes to a higher temperature. In some cases putrefaction breeds them. For instance putrefaction in food and in perspiration breed respectively worms and lice. But all kinds which are created out of their proper substance by a seminal and primary process of nature are reasonably ascribed to providence.",
+            "[60] As to them I have heard two theories, which I should be sorry to suppress, to the effect that they are made for the benefit of mankind. One of them was as follows. Some have said that the venomous animals co-operate in many medical processes, and that those who practise the art scientifically by using them with knowledge where suitable are well provided with antidotes for saving unexpectedly the life of patients in a particularly dangerous condition. And even to this day we may see those who take up the medical profession with care and energy making use of every kind of these creatures as an important factor in compounding their remedies.",
+            "[61] The other theory clearly belongs not to medicine but to philosophy. It declares that these creatures were prepared by God as instruments for the punishment of sinners just as generals and governors have their scourges or weapons of steel, and therefore while quiescent at all other times they are stirred up to do violence to the condemned whom Nature in her incorruptible assize has sentenced to death.",
+            "[62] But the statement that they hide themselves chiefly in houses is false, for they are to be seen in the fields and desolate places outside the town, avoiding man as though he was their master. Not but what if it really is true there is some reason for it. For rubbish and a great quantity of refuse accumulate in the corners of houses, into which the creatures like to creep, and also the smell has a powerful attraction for them.",
+            "[63] If swallows live with us there is nothing to be wondered at for we do not attempt to catch them, and the instinct of self-preservation is implanted in irrational as well as in rational souls. But birds which we like to eat will have nothing to do with us because they fear our designs against them except in cases where the law forbids that their kind should be used as food.",
+            "[64] There is a city on the sea coast of Syria called Ascalon. While I was there at a time when I was on my way to our ancestral temple to offer up prayers and sacrifices I observed a large number of pigeons at the cross roads and in each house, and when I asked the reason I was told that it was not lawful to catch them because they had been from old times forbidden food to the inhabitants. In this way the creature has been so tamed by its security that it not merely lives under their roof but shares their table regularly and takes delight in the immunity which it enjoys.",
+            "[65] In Egypt you may see a still more wonderful sight, for the man-eating crocodile, the most dangerous of wild animals, which is born and bred in the holiest of rivers the Nile, understands the benefit of this though it is a deep water creature. For among the people who honour it, it is found in great numbers, but where men try to destroy it not a glimpse of it is to be seen, so that in some places people sailing on the Nile do not venture, even the very boldest, to dip the tip of a finger in the water as the crocodiles resort thither in shoals, while in other places quite timid people jump out and swim and play about.",
+            "[66] As to the land of the Cyclopes, since that race is a mythical fiction, it is not the case that cultivated fruit is produced without seed being sown or husbandmen tilling it, on the principle that from what does not exist nothing is generated. Greece must not be accused of being a sour unproductive land. For it too has plenty of deep rich soil, and if the world outside excels in fruitfulness its superiority in foodstuffs is counterbalanced by inferiority in the people to be fed for whose sake the food is produced. For Greece alone can be truly said to produce mankind, she who engenders the heavenly plant, the divine shoot, a perfect growth, even reason so closely allied to knowledge, and the cause of this is that the mind is naturally sharpened by the fineness of the air.",
+            "[67] And so Heracleitus aptly says “where the land is dry the soul is best and wisest.” One may find evidence for this in the superior intelligence of the sober and frugal, while those who cram themselves with food and drink are most wanting in wisdom, because the reason is drowned by the stuff that is brought in.",
+            "[68] And therefore in the world outside Greece the plants and trunks are so well nourished that they grow to a great height and it is exceedingly productive of the most prolific animals but very unproductive of intelligence, because the continual and unceasing exhalations from the earth and water overpower it and prevent it from rising out of the air which is its source.",
+            "[69] The various kinds of fishes, birds and land-animals do not give grounds for charging Nature of inviting us to pleasure, but they constitute a severe censure on our want of restraint. For to secure the completeness of the universe and that the cosmic order should exist in every part it was necessary that the different kinds of living animals should arise, but it was not necessary that man the creature most akin to wisdom should be impelled to feast upon them and so change himself into the savagery of wild beasts.",
+            "[70] And therefore to this day those who have thought for self-restraint abstain from every one of them and take green vegetables and the fruits of trees as a relish to their bread with the utmost enjoyment. And those who hold that feasting on these animals is natural have had placed over them teachers, censors and lawgivers who in the different cities make it their business to restrain the intemperance of their appetites by refusing to allow all people to use them all without restriction.",
+            "[71] Violets, roses, and crocuses and the other flowers in their manifold variety were made to give health not pleasure. For their properties are infinite; they are beneficial in themselves by their scents, impregnating all with their fragrance, and far more beneficial when used by physicians in compounding drugs. For some things show their virtues more clearly when combined with others, just as the union of male and female serves to engender animal life while neither of them is qualified to do separately what they can do when combined.",
+            "[72] This is the best answer I can make to the rest of the points raised by you, and it is enough to create in the mind of those who are not contentiously inclined solid grounds for believing that God takes care of human affairs."
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE PROVIDENTIA",
+            "FRAGMENT 1",
+            "<i>Really created</i>. In the preceding paragraph, if the Latin translation of the Armenian version is to be trusted, Philo has declared that he is ready to concede “universum ingenitum et sempiternum esse,” a belief which he ascribes not only to Parmenides and Empedocles but also to Zeno and Cleanthes. But still of the “ingenita materia” some part may be created and destroyed (“generetur et corrumpatur”), sometimes by providence, sometimes in the course of nature. He goes on to compare this with the work of a statuary and other craftsmen. According to this hypothesis God did not create eternally the primal matter but used matter to shape the Cosmos. And even if we go a step farther and suppose that the Cosmos itself as well as matter was uncreated (“etsi una cum materia mundus ingenitus supponatur”) there is still room for providence in directing it. In this case the analogy is with the Ephors at Sparta, which they rule though they did not build it. I cannot fit εἰ δὴ γέγονεν ὄντως into this. I should understand it better if for ὄντως we substituted οὕτως = “assuming that this is the method of its genesis.” This is not quite satisfactory, since properly speaking if it is ἀγένητος it has no genesis.",
+            "The Armenian has “materiae specialiter factae,” of which Aucher says that the translator read τῆς ὕλης εἶδος. Is it not simpler to suppose that he took εἰ δὴ as a single word and unable to make anything of the rest omitted it?",
+            "FRAGMENT 2",
+            "§ 4. The thought here is very striking. Wendland cites for it from Sen. <i>Ep.</i> lxvi. 26–27. Here we have “num quis tam iniquam censuram inter suos agit, ut sanum filium quam aegrum magis diligat?… quoniam quidem etiam parentium amor magis in ea, quorum miseretur, inclinat.” But this is not quite the same. For as the sequel “virtus quoque opera sua, quae videt affici et premi, non magis amat, sed parentium bonorum more magis complectitur ac fovet” shows, it is pity for the sufferings of the good and not a yearning for those who have gone astray which Seneca means. Philo’s words come nearer to the spirit of the story of the Prodigal Son than anything I have seen elsewhere in ancient philosophy.",
+            "§ 8. περὶ ἃ κηραίνει. This phrase is here given in Gifford’s translation by “about which … are anxious”; in Mangey’s by “quorum in cupiditate … contabescit,” and L. &amp; S. revised, connecting it with κῆρ and citing a very similar passage to this (<i>De Dec.</i> 153), has “be sick at heart or anxious.” But the evidence of Philo’s use of the phrase points to the meaning given in the translation, <i>i.e.</i> “incurring disaster” or “getting into trouble in connexion with something.” Leisegang has eight examples of it, to which add this passage and perhaps <i>De Virt.</i> 31. In none of these is “suffering disaster” impossible and in some “being anxious” is impossible. Thus in <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 81 the body of the would-be priest must be scrutinized ἵνα περὶ μηδὲν ἀτύχημα κηραίνῃ; <i>ib.</i> 260 the bodies of the victims sacrificed must be without flaw and the souls of the offerers must κηραίνειν περὶ μηδὲν πάθος; <i>De Praem.</i> 29 the defectiveness of human reason is shown by ὁ λογισμὸς περὶ πολλὰ κηραίνων. In <i>De Ebr.</i> 164 Lot περὶ ταῦτα μάλιστα κηραίνει, where ταῦτα is explained as the fact that Lot had only daughters and therefore could breed nothing masculine or perfect.",
+            "§ 17. (Footnote 1, ἄξαντες.) I do not know what sense Dindorf and Gaisford supposed this to have. Gifford, clearly taking it from ἄγνυμι, says that “if it is retained the meaning will be ‘having broken through,’ ” but no such meaning of ἄγνυμι is known, and even if it were possible it would still be necessary to follow it with διά. Nor can any meaning be obtained by taking it from ἄγω. But it is not quite so impossible that it should be the participle of ἀίσσω, though the picture of the physicians being so eager to reach the royal bed that they dart or rush through the bodyguard is, like “breaking through,” somewhat grotesque. In this case we should print ᾄξαντες &lt;διὰ&gt; (though the MSS. would have it without the iota subscript) and ὄχλον and θεραπείαν would be governed by ὑπερβάντες. Wendland suggests as alternatives ἐξ ἐναντίας or ἀντικρὺ or ἀμελήσαντες.",
+            "§ 18. σχήματι. Something is to be said for Mangey’s proposal to correct this to ῥεύματι. This is supported by Wendland, but it should be pointed out that in this case the word would be used in the medical sense of a flux or discharge. Galen and Dioscorides both speak of a ῥεῦμα γαστρός or κοιλίας in this sense. The Armenian has a word which Aucher translates by “laxitate” and it is possible that it is some medical term which might indicate discharges or as we should say “looseness” of the bowels, but is διῴδηκε a word which would be joined with ῥεῦμα in this medical sense?",
+            "§ 23. (The quotation from Empedocles.) Two lines of this are quoted by Synesius",
+            "“ἔνθα φόνος τε κότος τε καὶ ἄλλων ἔθνεα κηρῶν",
+            "αὐχμηραί τε νόσοι καὶ σήψιες ἔργα τε ῥευστά.”",
+            "Another line quoted by Clement",
+            "“κλαῦσά τε καὶ κώκυσο ἰδὼν ἀσυνήθεα χῶρον”",
+            "is no doubt rightly supposed to precede the two. The correction of φόνοι τελοῦνται to φόνοι λιμοί τε is apparently due to Stephanus, but I feel as Dindorf evidently did that it is somewhat arbitrary. There is no great similarity between τελοῦνται and λιμοί τε and nothing very strange in Philo quoting the first two words, then inserting the verb, and then quoting the conclusion of the line. Nor is hunger to the point. The places spoken of are those in which not physical evils but human cruelty predominates. The Armenian no doubt had τελοῦνται, for the Latin is “ubi caedes aliaeque huius modi pravae gentium consuetudines vigent.”",
+            "§ 24. (Footnote 3, ᾐωρῆσθαι.) This correction of Dindorf for θεωρῆσαι, which is not noticed in Gifford’s later edition, is clearly based on the fact that in Her. iii. 124 Polycrates’ daughter dreamt that her father ἐν ἠέρι μετέωρον ὄντα was washed by Zeus and anointed by the sun. Mangey had suggested μετεωρίζεσθαι. The correction leads up well to κρεμάμενον.",
+            "§ 24. The Armenian version of this section as it appears in Aucher’s translation is very curious. Wendland dismisses it as corrupt, but much of it admits of some interesting interpretation. It does not give the name of Polycrates at all, and Aucher in a note says that the translator seems to have read πολὺ κρατεῖ γε, which he rendered by a phrase which Aucher represents by “per multum temporis tenet.” This no doubt he tacked on to the clause about fortune given in the footnote as omitted by Eusebius. He made a full stop then and continued with what Aucher represents by “condigne iis quae patraverat inique impieque ut eorum promotor et auctor sortitus est deterioris vitae infortunium, atque iussu magni regis diu tortus et clavis compressus crudeliter consummatus est.” That is to say he took χορηγός as = “promoter and author” and as subject to ἠδίκησε καὶ ἠσέβησε. At the end of the sentence his “crudeliter consummatus est” seems to represent what he read for χρησμὸν ἐκπιπλάς or perhaps χρησμὸν ἐκπιπλὰς οἶδα. The Latin then proceeds “ilia vero dimiserunt eum quae non multis ante horis gloriae speciem ferebant ante solem ungi et a love lavari.” The words ἔφη κἀμαυτὸν of the received text are to some extent conjectural, for almost all the MSS. divide them otherwise such as ἐφῆκʼ ἐμαυτὸν or ἀμαυτὸν, and if the Armenian by a slight change got ἀφῆκεν αὐτὸν it will explain “dimiserunt eum.” I suspect therefore that he read ἀφῆκεν αὐτὸν τὰ οὐ πρὸ πολλοῦ ἐκτιμῆσαι (or some similar word which he substituted for θεωμῆσαι) δόξαντα, and the translation will run “He was sent out of life by the things which seemed a short time before to have promised him high honour, namely being anointed,” etc. If the similar word is θεῷ εἰκάσαι “to liken him to a god,” we should have something which would make admirable sense and be textually fairly satisfactory, but not well represented by “gloriae.” His version, I am afraid, cannot be accepted in face of the violent changes from the MSS. involved, but it is a much more sensible version. It avoids the pointlessness of putting these words into the mouth of Polycrates and also the contradiction of Herodotus’s story. If we had no access to the Greek and had to choose between his account and that in the translation no one would hesitate to choose the former.",
+            "§ 26. ἀνείμονα. For this word see note on <i>De Som.</i> i. 99 (vol. v. p. 599), where this example should have been noted as well as <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 83. In all these cases Philo uses this apparently rare word in the sense of without the upper covering and contrasted with γυμνός. The contrast is obvious both here and in <i>Spec. Leg.</i>, where it is explained as = “in short tunics,” almost as obvious in <i>De Som.</i> i. 99, where the phrase κοιρᾶσθαι ἀνείμονα means sleeping with inadequate covering. In that note I suggested that Philo had <i>Od.</i> iii. 348 in mind, but if so he misunderstood the meaning, for there the ἀνείμων is not a person who sleeps uncovered but a host who is unable to supply proper covering to himself or his guest. But the misunderstanding is shared by L. &amp; S. which translates it as=“unclad.” I also commented on L. &amp; S. revised being, like Stephanus, still unable to supply an example of the word except that in the <i>Odyssey.</i> In the Addenda however two examples are given, one from a fragment of Callimachus in a papyrus and our <i>Spec. Leg.</i> passage (which however should be given as Ph. 2. 225—not 355).",
+            "§ 45. For the Stoic doctrine of “incidental consequences” as distinguished from the “primary works of nature” <i>cf.</i> Gellius vii. 1. 7 “existimat (<i>sc.</i> Chrysippus) non fuisse hoc principale consilium ut faceret homines morbis obnoxios … sed cum multa, inquit, atque magna gigneret pareretque aptissima ac utilissima alia quoque simul agnata sunt incommoda, eaque non per naturam sed per sequelas quasdam necessarias facta dicit quod ipse appellat κατὰ παρακολούθησιν.” This dictum of Chrysippus applies primarily to diseases but the latter part gives it the same general application as Philo gives it here. See Zeller, <i>Stoics and Epicureans</i>, p. 179 (Eng. trans.). Zeller adds that the Stoics also pointed out that things ordinarily regarded as evil may be of the greatest service, and illustrates this from a saying of Chrysippus quoted by Plutarch that bugs do us good service by preventing us from sleeping too long. <i>Cf.</i> for this the incidental uses pointed out by Philo in §§ 47–51.",
+            "§ 48. (Footnote 2.) I have allowed what may be called the generally received text to stand but further investigation since the translation was made makes me think that Gaisford and Dindorf were almost certainly right. Gaisford’s App. Crit. seems to indicate that he found τὰ μέτρα or τὰ ἡμέτερα μέτρα in his MSS. with one exception and found πείρᾳ in none. Gilford in the two MSS. which he relied on for this part of the <i>Praeparatio</i> found the same. Also ταῖς ὥραις, not τὰς ὥρας, appears to be universal. On the other hand τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πείρᾳ goes back to Viger, 1688 and possibly (though I have had no opportunity of verifying it) to Stephanus in 1544. How then did Viger or Stephanus get it? The clue seems to be that the one exception noted by Gaisford has τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πέτρᾳ. Assuming that Viger or Stephanus found this, the correction to πείρᾳ would be very natural. But if μέτρα is right, ἡρέτερα, which appears in nearly all MSS., must either be dismissed as a dittography or amended to ἡμέρινα (or ταῖς ἡμερίναις … ὥραις?). Wendland, quoting the Armenian, “diei mensuras notat et horas,” suggests τῆς ἡμέρας, but the adjective used in its common antithesis to νυκτέρινος seems to me preferable.",
+            "Wendland also notes that the Armenian has “quae de columnis cadunt umbrae,” and suggests that παστάδων should replace ποδῶν.",
+            "§ 50. (Quotation from Pindar.) The quotation here alluded to occurs in that part between the two divisions of the second fragment which was omitted by Eusebius. It is undoubtedly from the beginning of a fragment of Pindar preserved in Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <i>De Vi Dem.</i> 6. It is listed among the fragments of Pindar as 107 or 74 (Schröder, p. 427), in Sandys’s Loeb translation, p. 548 as <i>Paean</i> 9. The Latin version in Aucher has enough resemblance to show the identity, but otherwise is sheer nonsense and does not even suggest the general sense, which is that the sun is asked why by this darkening it threatens the world with evil. A version supplied by Conybeare, from which Schröder quotes various bits, would probably explain it better. But it certainly seems that the Armenian who could manage Philo with general accuracy was unable to tackle Pindar. The continuation as given by Dionysius does not suggest the death of kings or the destruction of cities, but war and faction, abnormal storms and floods and through these the destruction of mankind. Some lines however seem to be missed out in the continuation, which may have been more specific.",
+            "§ 53. The inconsistency between this and the view expressed in § 41 may perhaps be explained by supposing that though earthquakes, pestilences, etc., are in themselves incidental consequences they may still be employed by God as a means of chastisement.",
+            "§ 67. οὗ γῆ ξηρή, κτλ. Zeller in <i>Presoc. Phil.</i> vol. ii. pp. 80–81 (Eng. trans.) has a long discussion on this Heracleitean saying. It is quoted by numerous writers, Stobaeus, Musonius, Plutarch, Galen, Clement and others in various forms and the variation extends to different MSS. of these authors. The chief variants are αὔη ψυχὴ, αὔγη ξηρὴ ψυχὴ, ξηρὴ ψυχὴ. Zeller thinks that αὐγὴ ξηρὴ can hardly be the original form, largely on the ground that there is no such thing as a wet beam. The form οὗ γῆ ξηρή does not appear in any of these quotations, though one variant in the MSS. of Musonius has αὖ γῆ ξηρή, but Zeller has no doubt that this is a true reading in our passage, though his remarks, which are transcribed by Gifford, are oddly worded and not very logical. “Philo,” he says, “<i>ap.</i> Eus. <i>Praep. Evang.</i> viii. 14. 67 has οὗ γῆ ξηρή, κτλ., and that this is the true reading … is clear from the passage in Philo, <i>De Prov.</i> ii. 109 ‘in terra sicca,’ ” etc., <i>i.e.</i> Zeller, unless the translator has misrepresented him, and Gifford certainly, were not aware that Philo <i>ap.</i> Eus. and Philo, <i>De Prov.</i> were the same, and that what he is quoting is only the Latin translation of the Armenian translation of the same passage. What the words in Aucher show beyond doubt is that the Armenian found οὗ γῆ in his text, for he is not likely to have had the acumen to make the correction independently, and they thus give a very convincing support to what we might otherwise have supposed to be an emendation of Stephanus or Viger.",
+            "§ 68. (Footnote 1.) The Armenian also presumably read αἰτίου. The full sentence is “mens tamen nusquam nascitur ob frigefactionem gelationemque, quoniam aer, terra et aquae in causis sunt simul, et frequentes exhalationes densae supereminent.” I imagine that he read or translated as if he read ἐξ ἀέρος αἰτίου καὶ γῆς καὶ ὕδατος instead of αἱ γῆς.",
+            "§ 71. ἴα. So Wendland from the Armenian “viola vero et rosa crocusque”; this is perhaps the best example of the value which the Armenian occasionally has, see Introd. pp. 449 f. The common reading εἰ does not give any good sense. The rendering which I had given, “though roses, etc., exist they exist for health not pleasure,” lays a difficult stress upon γέγονεν and Gifford’s “roses, etc., are meant, if for health, yet not all for pleasure” misplaces the “if” and gives no clear meaning."
+        ]
+    },
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על ההשגחה",
+        "enTitle": "On Providence",
+        "key": "On Providence",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On Providence/English/merged.json

@@ -0,0 +1,149 @@
+{
+    "title": "On Providence",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_Providence",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [],
+        "": [
+            "ON PROVIDENCE (FRAGMENT 1)",
+            "As to the quantity of the substance assuming that it was really created what we have to say is this. God estimated for the creation of the world just sufficient matter that there should be neither deficiency nor excess. For it would be monstrous to suppose that while particular craftsmen when framing something, especially anything costly, estimate what material is just sufficient, He who invented numbers, measures and equality in them had no thought for what was adequate. I will say indeed with all confidence that the world needed neither less nor more substance for its construction, since otherwise it would not have been made perfect nor complete in all its parts, whereas actually it was made excellently out of a perfect substance. For it is a characteristic of a complete master of his art to see before he begins any constructive work that he has sufficient material. Now a man even if superior to everyone in knowledge may perhaps, as he cannot escape the errors congenital to mortals, be deceived as to the quantity of material needed when he practises his craft. He may sometimes find it too little and have to add, sometimes excessive and have to take away. But He who is as it were the fountain head of all knowledge was sure to provide nothing deficient or superfluous, since the standards which He employs are all to be extolled as elaborated with absolute accuracy. A person who wishes to waste his time in foolishness is sure also to confront us at once with the works of all other craftsmen as having improved their construction by adding to or diminishing the material. But we leave futile argument for the sophist: the task of wisdom is to investigate all that nature has to show.",
+            "ON PROVIDENCE (FRAGMENT 2)",
+            "[1] <small>This is the method in which he conducts this discussion. Alexander says:</small>",
+            "“Do you maintain the existence of providence amid this vast welter and confusion of things? For what part of human life is subject to order, nay, what is not brimful of disorder and corruption? Or are you alone ignorant that to the worst and vilest of men good things in abundance come crowding in, wealth, high repute, honours paid to them by the masses, again authority, health with efficiency of the senses, beauty, strength, unimpeded enjoyment of pleasures through the abundance of their resources and the bodily well-being free from all disturbance which they possess, while the lovers and practisers of wisdom and every virtue are almost universally poor, obscure, of little repute and in a humble position?”",
+            "[2] <small>After stating these and a host of others on the negative side he next proceeds to refute the objections as follows.</small>",
+            "God is not a tyrant who has made a practice of cruelty and violence and all the deeds committed by a despot who rules by ruthlessness, but a king invested with a kindly and law-abiding sovereignty who governs the whole heaven and earth with justice. Now for a king there is no fitter name than father,",
+            "[3] for what the father in family life is to the children the king is to the state and God is to the world,—God who under the immutable laws of nature has joined in indissoluble union two things most excellent, governorship and guardianship.",
+            "[4] Now parents do not lose thought for their wastrel children but, in pity for their unhappy state, bestow on them care and attention, deeming that it is only mortal enemies who take advantage of the miseries of others to trample on them, while friends and kinsmen should lighten their downfall.",
+            "[5] Often too they lavish their kindness on the wastrels more than on the well behaved, knowing well that these have in their sober disposition a plentiful source of prosperity while the wastrels’ one hope is in their parents, and if this fail them they will lack the very necessaries of life.",
+            "[6] In the same way God too the Father of reasonable intelligence has indeed all who are endowed with reason under His care but takes thought also for those who live a misspent life, thereby giving them time for reformation and also keeping within the bounds of His merciful nature, which has for its attendant virtue and loving kindness well fitted to keep watch as sentry around God’s world.",
+            "Here is one thought. Receive it, O soul,",
+            "[7] and ponder it awhile as a trust committed to thee by Him, but receive also another in harmony and agreement with it. It is this. Mayst thou never be so led astray from the truth as to think that happiness is the lot of any of the wicked though he excel Croesus in wealth, Lynceus in keen sight, Milo of Croton in muscular strength and Ganymede in beauty,",
+            "<small>He who was for his beauty by the gods <br>Caught up to be the cupbearer of Zeus.</small>",
+            "[8] Surely if he has brought the ruler of his lot, that is his mind, into slavery to a host of masters, love, lust, pleasure, fear, grief, folly, incontinence, cowardice, injustice, happiness can never be his lot, however much it seems so to the multitude led astray from true judgement, seduced by the twofold pest, vain pomps and vain imaginations which are so highly skilled to cajole and mislead unballasted souls and are the source of disaster to most of the human race.",
+            "[9] If indeed you would strain the soul’s eyes to contemplate the providence of God as far as human reason can do so, you will gain a clearer vision of the true good and laugh to scorn what here are reckoned as goods which hitherto had your admiration. For in the absence of the better things worse are always held in honour and succeed to the position which belongs to the better, but when these return the worse withdraw and have to be content with the second prize.",
+            "[10] Then awestruck at that divine revelation, so good and excellent, you will surely recognize that none of the things mentioned above ranks of itself in the sight of God as a good; for mines of silver and gold are the most worthless portion of the earth, utterly and absolutely inferior to that which is given up to the production of fruit.",
+            "[11] For there is no likeness between abundance of money, and the food without which we cannot live. The one clearest proof of this is famine, which tests what is truly necessary and useful. For anyone would gladly exchange all the treasures in the world for a little food.",
+            "[12] But when the lavish supply of necessaries spreads in a vast resistless flood from city to city we enjoy the luxury of these good gifts of nature but are not content to confine ourselves to them. We take insolent satiety as our guide in life and prepare ourselves for the task of acquiring gold and silver, armed with every means by which we may hope to get some gain, like blind men whose mind through covetousness has lost the power to see that it is for lumps of earth that we forfeit peace and wage a constant and persistent war.",
+            "[13] As for clothes, they are but what the poets call the flower of the sheep and on the craftsman’s side a credit to the weavers. And if anyone prides himself on his prestige and welcomes with open arms the approval of the worthless he may be assured of his own worthlessness, for like delights in like.",
+            "[14] Let him pray to get purging medicine for his ears, through which pass heavy maladies to strike the soul. And all who puff themselves up on their bodily strength must learn not to be proud necked but turn their eyes to the myriad kinds of animals tame and wild, in which bodily strength and muscle are congenital. It is a monstrous absurdity for a human being to pride himself on excellencies which belong to savage beasts when actually he is outdone in these by them.",
+            "[15] And why should anyone of good sense glory in bodily beauty which ere it has flowered for its full span is brought to extinction by a brief season which dims the brightness of its delusive prime?—particularly when he sees exhibited in lifeless forms the much prized work of painters, sculptors and other artists, in portraits, statues and cunning tapestry work, works which are famous in every city throughout Greece and the outside world.",
+            "[16] None of these as I have said is ranked in God’s sight as a good. And why should we wonder that God does not accept them as goods?—since neither do godly men accept them, who honour things truly good and excellent, men who have been blest with a gifted nature and by study and exercise have further beautified that nature, men who have been made what they are by genuine philosophy.",
+            "[17] But those whose study has been in a spurious culture do not even follow the example of the physicians who treat the body which is the servitor of the soul, though they claim to be healing the mistress. For those physicians of the body, when a man favoured by fortune is sick, even though he be the Great King himself, take no notice of the colonnades, of the men’s apartments, of the ladies’ bowers, of the pictures, of the silver and gold whether coined or uncoined, of the accumulation of goblets or tapestry work and the rest of the magnificence which adorns kingship. They care not for the multitude of serving men or the friends or kinsmen or subjects in high positions who are in attendance, but make their way to his bed and taking no account of the surroundings of the body itself nor noting with admiration that the beds are inlaid with jewels and of pure gold and that the bedding is of spider-web silk or brocaded, or the coverlets of different kinds of beauty, they go farther and strip the wrappings off him and take hold of his hands and squeezing the veins mark carefully the pulsations to see whether they are healthy. And often they draw up the undervest and make an examination to see whether the belly is over-loaded or the chest inflamed, or the heartbeats irregular, and then they apply the appropriate treatment.",
+            "[18] So too the philosophers who profess to practise the art of healing that queen of Nature’s making, the soul, should despise all the vain inventions of idle opinion, and passing within take hold of the mind itself, to see whether anger makes its pulsations run at an irregular rate and with unnatural excitement: so too with the tongue to see whether it is rough and evil speaking or bawdy and licentious: so too the belly to see whether it is swollen by an insatiable form of lust; and in general if there appear to be a complication of passions, distempers and infirmities to investigate each of them so as not to miss anything which may serve to restore it to health. As it is,",
+            "[19] dazzled by the brilliance of external things, because they are unable to see the spiritual light, they have continued to wander for ever, never able to reach King Reason, only just managing to make their way to his portal where, struck with admiration for those who wait at virtue’s doorstep, riches, reputation, health and their kin, they rendered homage to them.",
+            "[20] But to take the judgement of the bad as to what is truly good is as grossly insane as to take that of the blind on colours or the deaf on musical sounds. For the bad have lost the use of their most dominant part, their mind, over which folly has shed profound darkness.",
+            "[21] Can we then still wonder that Socrates and any virtuous person you like to name have continued to live a life of poverty, never having practised any method of gaining wealth, refusing indeed to take anything from wealthy friends or kings who offered them great gifts, because they considered that there is nothing good or excellent save acquiring virtue, for which they laboured neglecting all the other goods?",
+            "[22] And who with the thought of the genuine before them would not disregard the spurious for its sake? But if possessed of a mortal body and brimful of the plagues which beset mankind and living amid the unjust, a multitude so great that it cannot even be easily counted, they become the victims of malice, why do we accuse Nature when we should reproach the cruelty of their assailants?",
+            "[23] For if they had been living in a pestilential atmosphere they would have been bound to take the disease, and vice is more or at least no less destructive than pestilential surroundings. And as the wise man must needs get drenched if he stays in the open air when it is raining or suffer from the rigour of the cold when the north wind’s blast is chilly, or get heated in the summer, since it is a law of nature that our bodily feelings correspond to the annual changes of the season, so also he who lives in places Where murder’s rife and famine too and tribes of other ills must submit to the penalties which they successively impose.",
+            "[24] For as for Polycrates, in requital for his terrible acts of injustice and impiety he encountered his rewarder in the shape of lifelong misery. Add to this a lesser ill, that he was punished by the Great King and impaled, thus fulfilling an oracle. “I know,” he said, “that I saw myself not long ago anointed as it seemed by the sun and washed by Zeus.” For the riddle thus symbolically stated, though at first obscure, received very clear attestation from what actually occurred.",
+            "[25] But it was not only at the end but through all his life from the first that his soul, though he knew it not, was in the same suspense which later befell his body. For he lived in perpetual fear and trembling, scared by the multitude of his assailants and knowing well that none was friendly to him, but all had been turned by their misery into implacable enemies.",
+            "[26] The endless and continual fear shown by Dionysius is attested by the historians of Sicily, who tell us that he suspected even his dearly beloved wife. This is proved by his ordering that the entrance to the chamber through which she had to pass to join him should be covered with boards so that she should never creep in unawares but should give notice of her arrival by the creaking and rattling made by her stepping on them. Also she had to come not merely undressed but with the parts naked which it is indecent for men to see. Further he had the continuous line of the floor along the passage broken by a gap as deep and broad as a ditch in the farmland, so that if, as he dreaded, some secret attempt to do him a mischief were made in the darkness it would be detected by the visitors jumping or striding across the gap.",
+            "[27] How vast a burden of ills was his who watched so craftily over the wife whom he was bound to trust above all others. Indeed he resembled the climbers who scale a precipitous mountain to get a clearer view of the heavenly bodies, and when they manage with difficulty to reach some outstanding cliff cannot go any higher because their heart fails them before the height which still remains, nor have they courage to descend as their heads swim at the sight of the yawning chasms below.",
+            "[28] For enamoured as he was of tyranny as something divine and much to be coveted he did not consider it safe either to stay as he was or to flee. If he stayed he was sure to meet a torrent of innumerable evils in constant succession. If he wanted to flee, his life was menaced by danger from those whose minds at least if not their bodies were armed against him.",
+            "[29] Another proof is the way in which he is said to have treated a person who asserted the felicity of the tyrant’s life. Having invited him to a dinner which had been provided on a very magnificent and costly scale he ordered a sharp-edged axe to be suspended over him by a very slender thread. When after taking his place on the couch the guest suddenly saw this, he had neither the courage in the tyrant’s presence to rise and remove himself nor the power in his terror to enjoy the dishes provided, and so regardless of the abundance and wealth of the pleasures before him, he lay with neck and eye strained upwards, expecting his own destruction.",
+            "[30] Dionysius perceived this and said: “Do you now understand what this glorious and much coveted life of ours really is?” This is the sort of thing it is in the eyes of anyone who does not wish to deceive himself. For it includes wealth supplied in full abundance but not the enjoyment of anything worth having, only terrors in constant succession, dangers unescapable, a malady more grievous than the creeping and wasting sickness, bringing with it destruction that knows no remedy.",
+            "[31] But the thoughtless multitude deluded by the brilliant outward appearance are in the same condition as men ensnared by unsightly courtesans who disguise their ugliness with fine raiment and gold and the paint upon their faces, and so for lack of the genuine beauty create the spurious to entrap those who behold them.",
+            "[32] Such is the misery which fills to the brim the life of those greatly favoured by fortune, misery whose extent measured by the judgement of their own hearts is more than they can contain, and like those who are forced to proclaim their maladies they utter words of absolute sincerity wrung from them by their sufferings. Surrounded by punishments present and expected they live like beasts who are fattened for a sacrifice, for such receive the most careful attention to prepare them for the slaughter, because of the rich feast of flesh which they supply.",
+            "[33] There are some who have been punished not obscurely but conspicuously for sacrilegious robbery, a numerous body which it would be superfluous labour to name in full. It will suffice to let one case stand as an example of them all. The historians who have described the sacred war in Phocis state that whereas there was a law enacted that the temple robber should be thrown from a precipice or drowned in the sea, or burnt alive, three persons who robbed the temple at Delphi, Philomelus, Onomarchus and Phaÿllus, had these punishments distributed between them. The first fell over a rugged and stony crag and as a piece of rock broke off he was killed both from the fall from the height and from the weight of the stone. In the case of the second the horse on which he was riding got out of control and rushed down to the sea and under the onrush of the tide both rider and horse sank in the deep gulf. As for Phaÿllus, there are two versions of his story, one that he wasted away in consumption, the other that he perished in the flame which consumed the temple at Abae.",
+            "[34] To assert that these events are due to chance is pure contentiousness. No doubt if people had been punished at different times or by other penalties it would be sensible enough to ascribe them to the caprice of fortune. But when all were punished together about the same time and by penalties not of another kind but those contained in the laws, it is reasonable to assert that they were the victims of divine justice.",
+            "[35] And if some of the men of violence still left unmentioned, insurgents who seized power over the populace and enslaved not only other peoples but their own countries, continued unpunished, why should we wonder? For in the first place the judgements of men and God are not alike. For we inquire into what is manifest but He penetrates noiselessly into the recesses of the soul, sees our thoughts as though in bright sunlight, and stripping off the wrappings in which they are enveloped, inspects our motives in their naked reality and at once distinguishes the counterfeit from the genuine.",
+            "[36] Let us never then prefer our own tribunal to that of God and assert that it is more infallible and wiser in counsel, for that religion forbids. Ours has many pitfalls, the delusions of the senses, the malignancy of the passions and most formidable of all the hostility of the vices; while in His there is nothing that can deceive, only justice and truth, and everything that is judged according to these standards brings praise to the judge and cannot but be settled aright.",
+            "[37] Secondly, my friend, do not suppose that a temporary tyranny is without its uses. For neither is punishment useless, and that penalties should be inflicted is actually profitable to the good or at any rate not detrimental. And therefore in all properly enacted laws punishment is included, and those who enacted them are universally praised, for punishment has the same relation to law as a tyrant has to a people.",
+            "[38] So when a dire famine and dearth of virtue takes possession of states, and folly unstinted is prevalent, God, desiring to drain off the current of wickedness as if it were the stream of a torrent, gives strength and power to men naturally fitted to rule in order to purify our race.",
+            "[39] For wickedness cannot be purged away without some ruthless soul to do it. And just as states maintain official executioners to deal with murderers and traitors and temple robbers, not that they approve of the sentiments of these persons, but with an eye to the usefulness of their service, so the Governor of this great city of the world sets up tyrants like public executioners over the cities which He sees inundated with violence, injustice, impiety and all the other evils, in order that they may be at last brought to a standstill and abate.",
+            "[40] Then too it seems good to Him to crown the punishment of all by bringing to justice those who have carried it out. For knowing that their services were the outcome of an impious and ruthless soul He treats them as in a sense the capital offenders. For just as the force of fire after devouring all the fuel supplied to it finally consumes itself, so too those who have seized dominion over the populaces when they have exhausted the cities and emptied them of all their men pay the penalty due for all and perish as well.",
+            "[41] And why should we wonder that God uses tyrants to sweep away the wickedness which has spread through cities and countries and nations. For often instead of employing other ministers He effects this by Himself by bringing famine or pestilence and earthquake, and all the other divine visitations whereby great bodies of people perish in huge numbers every day and a large part of the world is desolated for His purpose of promoting virtue.",
+            "[42] Enough then I think has been said for the present on the theme that none of the wicked has happiness, and this is a very strong proof that providence exists. But if you are not yet convinced, fear not to tell me your still lingering doubts, for by combining our efforts we shall both get to know where the truth is to be found.",
+            "[43] Later again he says:",
+            "Storms of wind and rain were made by God, not as you supposed, to do grievous harm to voyagers and husbandmen, but to benefit our race as a whole. For He purges the earth with water and the whole sublunary region with breezes. And with both He gives sustenance, growth and maturity to animals and plants.",
+            "[44] If these sometimes harm persons who travel by sea out of season or tillers of the land there is nothing wonderful. They are but a small fraction and His care is for the whole human race. So then as the course of training in the gymnasium is drawn up for the benefit of the pupils, but the gymnasiarch sometimes to suit civic requirements makes a change in the arrangement of the regular hours whereby some of those under training lose their lesson, so too God having the charge of the whole world as though it were a city is wont to create wintry summers and spring-like winters for the benefit of the whole, even though some skippers and workers on the land are bound to suffer loss through the irregular way in which they occur.",
+            "[45] The interchanges of the elements out of which the world was framed and now consists He knows to be a vital operation and produces them in unimpeded succession. But frost and snow and similar phenomena are circumstances attendant on the refrigeration of the air as thunders and lightnings are on the clashing and friction of clouds. And none of these we may suppose is by providence, but while rainstorms and breezes are causal to the life and sustenance and growth of terrestrial things they have these others for their attendant circumstances.",
+            "[46] Similarly a gymnasiarch prompted by ambition may often provide on a lavish scale and some vulgarly extravagant people wash themselves with oil instead of water and let the drops drip to the ground, so that at once we have some slippery mud; yet no sensible person would say that the slipperiness and the mud were due to the purposive design of the gymnasiarch or anything but mere concomitants to the munificent scale of the supply.",
+            "[47] Again a rainbow and a halo and all similar phenomena are attendant circumstances caused by rays mixing with clouds, not primary works of Nature but happenings consequent upon her works. Not but what they often render essential service to the more thoughtful who from the evidence which they give predict the presence or absence of wind and fine or stormy weather.",
+            "[48] Observe the porticoes in the cities. Most of them have been built to face the south so that persons who walk in them may enjoy the sun in winter and the breeze in summer. But they also have an attendant circumstance which does not arise through the intention of the builder. What is this? The shadows cast at our feet indicate the hours as we find by experience.",
+            "[49] Fire too is a most essential work of nature and smoke is a circumstance attendant to it, yet smoke too itself is sometimes helpful. Take for instance beacon signals in the daytime: when the fire is deadened by the rays of the sun shining on it, the enemy’s approach is announced by the smoke.",
+            "[50] Much the same may be said about eclipses as about the rainbow. The sun and moon are natural divinities, and so these eclipses are concomitant circumstances, yet eclipses announce the death of kings and the destruction of cities as is darkly indicated by Pindar on the occurrence of an eclipse in the passage quoted above.",
+            "[51] As for the belt of the Milky Way it possesses the same essential qualities as the other stars, and though it is difficult to give a scientific account of it students of natural phenomena must not shrink from the quest. For while discovery is the most profitable, research is also a delight to lovers of learning.",
+            "[52] Just then as the sun and moon have come into being through the action of providence so too have all the heavenly bodies, even though we, unable to trace the natures and powers of each, are silent about them.",
+            "[53] Earthquakes, pestilence, thunderbolts and the like though said to be visitations from God are not really such. For nothing evil at all is caused by God, and these things are generated by changes in the elements. They are not primary works of nature but a sequel of her essential works, attendant circumstances to the primary.",
+            "[54] If some persons of a finer character participate in the damage which they cause, the blame must not be laid on God’s ordering of the world, for in the first place it does not follow that if persons are considered good by us they are really such, for God judges by standards more accurate than any which the human mind employs. Secondly providence or forethought is contented with paying regard to things in the world of the most importance, just as in kingdoms and commands of army it pays regard to cities and troops, not to some chance individual of the obscure and insignificant kind.",
+            "[55] Some declare that just as when tyrants are put to death it is justifiable to execute their kinsfolk also, so that wrongdoings may be checked by the magnitude of the punishment, so too in times of pestilence it is well that some of the guiltless should perish also as a lesson extending further to call all others to a wiser life. Apart from this they point out that persons who move in a tainted atmosphere must needs take the sickness just as in a storm or on board a ship they share the danger equally.",
+            "[56] The stronger kinds of wild animals were made in order to give us practice in warlike contests, for I feel bound to mention this point though you as a skilful advocate anticipated this defence and tried to discredit it. For the training in gymnastics and constant hunting expeditions weld and brace the body admirably and affect the soul even more than the body by inuring it in the starkness of its strength to meet unconcernedly sudden onsets of the enemy.",
+            "[57] And people of peaceful nature can live sheltered within the walls of their cities and even of their chambers without fear of attack with abundance of different kinds of animals for their enjoyment, since boars and lions and the like following their natural inclination are banished to a distance from the town, preferring to be immune from men’s hostility.",
+            "[58] And if some persons are so careless that they do not fear to resort unarmed and unprepared to the lairs of these beasts they must lay the blame of what happens on themselves and not on Nature, since they have neglected to take precautions when they could. Thus in chariot races too I have seen people giving way to thoughtlessness who, instead of sitting in their places as they should as orderly spectators, stood in the middle of the course and pushed over by the rush of the chariots were crushed under the feet and wheels, a proper reward for their folly.",
+            "[59] Enough has been said on these matters. As for reptiles the venomous kinds have not come into being by direct act of providence but as an attendant circumstance as I have said above. For they come to life when the moisture already in them changes to a higher temperature. In some cases putrefaction breeds them. For instance putrefaction in food and in perspiration breed respectively worms and lice. But all kinds which are created out of their proper substance by a seminal and primary process of nature are reasonably ascribed to providence.",
+            "[60] As to them I have heard two theories, which I should be sorry to suppress, to the effect that they are made for the benefit of mankind. One of them was as follows. Some have said that the venomous animals co-operate in many medical processes, and that those who practise the art scientifically by using them with knowledge where suitable are well provided with antidotes for saving unexpectedly the life of patients in a particularly dangerous condition. And even to this day we may see those who take up the medical profession with care and energy making use of every kind of these creatures as an important factor in compounding their remedies.",
+            "[61] The other theory clearly belongs not to medicine but to philosophy. It declares that these creatures were prepared by God as instruments for the punishment of sinners just as generals and governors have their scourges or weapons of steel, and therefore while quiescent at all other times they are stirred up to do violence to the condemned whom Nature in her incorruptible assize has sentenced to death.",
+            "[62] But the statement that they hide themselves chiefly in houses is false, for they are to be seen in the fields and desolate places outside the town, avoiding man as though he was their master. Not but what if it really is true there is some reason for it. For rubbish and a great quantity of refuse accumulate in the corners of houses, into which the creatures like to creep, and also the smell has a powerful attraction for them.",
+            "[63] If swallows live with us there is nothing to be wondered at for we do not attempt to catch them, and the instinct of self-preservation is implanted in irrational as well as in rational souls. But birds which we like to eat will have nothing to do with us because they fear our designs against them except in cases where the law forbids that their kind should be used as food.",
+            "[64] There is a city on the sea coast of Syria called Ascalon. While I was there at a time when I was on my way to our ancestral temple to offer up prayers and sacrifices I observed a large number of pigeons at the cross roads and in each house, and when I asked the reason I was told that it was not lawful to catch them because they had been from old times forbidden food to the inhabitants. In this way the creature has been so tamed by its security that it not merely lives under their roof but shares their table regularly and takes delight in the immunity which it enjoys.",
+            "[65] In Egypt you may see a still more wonderful sight, for the man-eating crocodile, the most dangerous of wild animals, which is born and bred in the holiest of rivers the Nile, understands the benefit of this though it is a deep water creature. For among the people who honour it, it is found in great numbers, but where men try to destroy it not a glimpse of it is to be seen, so that in some places people sailing on the Nile do not venture, even the very boldest, to dip the tip of a finger in the water as the crocodiles resort thither in shoals, while in other places quite timid people jump out and swim and play about.",
+            "[66] As to the land of the Cyclopes, since that race is a mythical fiction, it is not the case that cultivated fruit is produced without seed being sown or husbandmen tilling it, on the principle that from what does not exist nothing is generated. Greece must not be accused of being a sour unproductive land. For it too has plenty of deep rich soil, and if the world outside excels in fruitfulness its superiority in foodstuffs is counterbalanced by inferiority in the people to be fed for whose sake the food is produced. For Greece alone can be truly said to produce mankind, she who engenders the heavenly plant, the divine shoot, a perfect growth, even reason so closely allied to knowledge, and the cause of this is that the mind is naturally sharpened by the fineness of the air.",
+            "[67] And so Heracleitus aptly says “where the land is dry the soul is best and wisest.” One may find evidence for this in the superior intelligence of the sober and frugal, while those who cram themselves with food and drink are most wanting in wisdom, because the reason is drowned by the stuff that is brought in.",
+            "[68] And therefore in the world outside Greece the plants and trunks are so well nourished that they grow to a great height and it is exceedingly productive of the most prolific animals but very unproductive of intelligence, because the continual and unceasing exhalations from the earth and water overpower it and prevent it from rising out of the air which is its source.",
+            "[69] The various kinds of fishes, birds and land-animals do not give grounds for charging Nature of inviting us to pleasure, but they constitute a severe censure on our want of restraint. For to secure the completeness of the universe and that the cosmic order should exist in every part it was necessary that the different kinds of living animals should arise, but it was not necessary that man the creature most akin to wisdom should be impelled to feast upon them and so change himself into the savagery of wild beasts.",
+            "[70] And therefore to this day those who have thought for self-restraint abstain from every one of them and take green vegetables and the fruits of trees as a relish to their bread with the utmost enjoyment. And those who hold that feasting on these animals is natural have had placed over them teachers, censors and lawgivers who in the different cities make it their business to restrain the intemperance of their appetites by refusing to allow all people to use them all without restriction.",
+            "[71] Violets, roses, and crocuses and the other flowers in their manifold variety were made to give health not pleasure. For their properties are infinite; they are beneficial in themselves by their scents, impregnating all with their fragrance, and far more beneficial when used by physicians in compounding drugs. For some things show their virtues more clearly when combined with others, just as the union of male and female serves to engender animal life while neither of them is qualified to do separately what they can do when combined.",
+            "[72] This is the best answer I can make to the rest of the points raised by you, and it is enough to create in the mind of those who are not contentiously inclined solid grounds for believing that God takes care of human affairs."
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE PROVIDENTIA",
+            "FRAGMENT 1",
+            "<i>Really created</i>. In the preceding paragraph, if the Latin translation of the Armenian version is to be trusted, Philo has declared that he is ready to concede “universum ingenitum et sempiternum esse,” a belief which he ascribes not only to Parmenides and Empedocles but also to Zeno and Cleanthes. But still of the “ingenita materia” some part may be created and destroyed (“generetur et corrumpatur”), sometimes by providence, sometimes in the course of nature. He goes on to compare this with the work of a statuary and other craftsmen. According to this hypothesis God did not create eternally the primal matter but used matter to shape the Cosmos. And even if we go a step farther and suppose that the Cosmos itself as well as matter was uncreated (“etsi una cum materia mundus ingenitus supponatur”) there is still room for providence in directing it. In this case the analogy is with the Ephors at Sparta, which they rule though they did not build it. I cannot fit εἰ δὴ γέγονεν ὄντως into this. I should understand it better if for ὄντως we substituted οὕτως = “assuming that this is the method of its genesis.” This is not quite satisfactory, since properly speaking if it is ἀγένητος it has no genesis.",
+            "The Armenian has “materiae specialiter factae,” of which Aucher says that the translator read τῆς ὕλης εἶδος. Is it not simpler to suppose that he took εἰ δὴ as a single word and unable to make anything of the rest omitted it?",
+            "FRAGMENT 2",
+            "§ 4. The thought here is very striking. Wendland cites for it from Sen. <i>Ep.</i> lxvi. 26–27. Here we have “num quis tam iniquam censuram inter suos agit, ut sanum filium quam aegrum magis diligat?… quoniam quidem etiam parentium amor magis in ea, quorum miseretur, inclinat.” But this is not quite the same. For as the sequel “virtus quoque opera sua, quae videt affici et premi, non magis amat, sed parentium bonorum more magis complectitur ac fovet” shows, it is pity for the sufferings of the good and not a yearning for those who have gone astray which Seneca means. Philo’s words come nearer to the spirit of the story of the Prodigal Son than anything I have seen elsewhere in ancient philosophy.",
+            "§ 8. περὶ ἃ κηραίνει. This phrase is here given in Gifford’s translation by “about which … are anxious”; in Mangey’s by “quorum in cupiditate … contabescit,” and L. &amp; S. revised, connecting it with κῆρ and citing a very similar passage to this (<i>De Dec.</i> 153), has “be sick at heart or anxious.” But the evidence of Philo’s use of the phrase points to the meaning given in the translation, <i>i.e.</i> “incurring disaster” or “getting into trouble in connexion with something.” Leisegang has eight examples of it, to which add this passage and perhaps <i>De Virt.</i> 31. In none of these is “suffering disaster” impossible and in some “being anxious” is impossible. Thus in <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 81 the body of the would-be priest must be scrutinized ἵνα περὶ μηδὲν ἀτύχημα κηραίνῃ; <i>ib.</i> 260 the bodies of the victims sacrificed must be without flaw and the souls of the offerers must κηραίνειν περὶ μηδὲν πάθος; <i>De Praem.</i> 29 the defectiveness of human reason is shown by ὁ λογισμὸς περὶ πολλὰ κηραίνων. In <i>De Ebr.</i> 164 Lot περὶ ταῦτα μάλιστα κηραίνει, where ταῦτα is explained as the fact that Lot had only daughters and therefore could breed nothing masculine or perfect.",
+            "§ 17. (Footnote 1, ἄξαντες.) I do not know what sense Dindorf and Gaisford supposed this to have. Gifford, clearly taking it from ἄγνυμι, says that “if it is retained the meaning will be ‘having broken through,’ ” but no such meaning of ἄγνυμι is known, and even if it were possible it would still be necessary to follow it with διά. Nor can any meaning be obtained by taking it from ἄγω. But it is not quite so impossible that it should be the participle of ἀίσσω, though the picture of the physicians being so eager to reach the royal bed that they dart or rush through the bodyguard is, like “breaking through,” somewhat grotesque. In this case we should print ᾄξαντες &lt;διὰ&gt; (though the MSS. would have it without the iota subscript) and ὄχλον and θεραπείαν would be governed by ὑπερβάντες. Wendland suggests as alternatives ἐξ ἐναντίας or ἀντικρὺ or ἀμελήσαντες.",
+            "§ 18. σχήματι. Something is to be said for Mangey’s proposal to correct this to ῥεύματι. This is supported by Wendland, but it should be pointed out that in this case the word would be used in the medical sense of a flux or discharge. Galen and Dioscorides both speak of a ῥεῦμα γαστρός or κοιλίας in this sense. The Armenian has a word which Aucher translates by “laxitate” and it is possible that it is some medical term which might indicate discharges or as we should say “looseness” of the bowels, but is διῴδηκε a word which would be joined with ῥεῦμα in this medical sense?",
+            "§ 23. (The quotation from Empedocles.) Two lines of this are quoted by Synesius",
+            "“ἔνθα φόνος τε κότος τε καὶ ἄλλων ἔθνεα κηρῶν",
+            "αὐχμηραί τε νόσοι καὶ σήψιες ἔργα τε ῥευστά.”",
+            "Another line quoted by Clement",
+            "“κλαῦσά τε καὶ κώκυσο ἰδὼν ἀσυνήθεα χῶρον”",
+            "is no doubt rightly supposed to precede the two. The correction of φόνοι τελοῦνται to φόνοι λιμοί τε is apparently due to Stephanus, but I feel as Dindorf evidently did that it is somewhat arbitrary. There is no great similarity between τελοῦνται and λιμοί τε and nothing very strange in Philo quoting the first two words, then inserting the verb, and then quoting the conclusion of the line. Nor is hunger to the point. The places spoken of are those in which not physical evils but human cruelty predominates. The Armenian no doubt had τελοῦνται, for the Latin is “ubi caedes aliaeque huius modi pravae gentium consuetudines vigent.”",
+            "§ 24. (Footnote 3, ᾐωρῆσθαι.) This correction of Dindorf for θεωρῆσαι, which is not noticed in Gifford’s later edition, is clearly based on the fact that in Her. iii. 124 Polycrates’ daughter dreamt that her father ἐν ἠέρι μετέωρον ὄντα was washed by Zeus and anointed by the sun. Mangey had suggested μετεωρίζεσθαι. The correction leads up well to κρεμάμενον.",
+            "§ 24. The Armenian version of this section as it appears in Aucher’s translation is very curious. Wendland dismisses it as corrupt, but much of it admits of some interesting interpretation. It does not give the name of Polycrates at all, and Aucher in a note says that the translator seems to have read πολὺ κρατεῖ γε, which he rendered by a phrase which Aucher represents by “per multum temporis tenet.” This no doubt he tacked on to the clause about fortune given in the footnote as omitted by Eusebius. He made a full stop then and continued with what Aucher represents by “condigne iis quae patraverat inique impieque ut eorum promotor et auctor sortitus est deterioris vitae infortunium, atque iussu magni regis diu tortus et clavis compressus crudeliter consummatus est.” That is to say he took χορηγός as = “promoter and author” and as subject to ἠδίκησε καὶ ἠσέβησε. At the end of the sentence his “crudeliter consummatus est” seems to represent what he read for χρησμὸν ἐκπιπλάς or perhaps χρησμὸν ἐκπιπλὰς οἶδα. The Latin then proceeds “ilia vero dimiserunt eum quae non multis ante horis gloriae speciem ferebant ante solem ungi et a love lavari.” The words ἔφη κἀμαυτὸν of the received text are to some extent conjectural, for almost all the MSS. divide them otherwise such as ἐφῆκʼ ἐμαυτὸν or ἀμαυτὸν, and if the Armenian by a slight change got ἀφῆκεν αὐτὸν it will explain “dimiserunt eum.” I suspect therefore that he read ἀφῆκεν αὐτὸν τὰ οὐ πρὸ πολλοῦ ἐκτιμῆσαι (or some similar word which he substituted for θεωμῆσαι) δόξαντα, and the translation will run “He was sent out of life by the things which seemed a short time before to have promised him high honour, namely being anointed,” etc. If the similar word is θεῷ εἰκάσαι “to liken him to a god,” we should have something which would make admirable sense and be textually fairly satisfactory, but not well represented by “gloriae.” His version, I am afraid, cannot be accepted in face of the violent changes from the MSS. involved, but it is a much more sensible version. It avoids the pointlessness of putting these words into the mouth of Polycrates and also the contradiction of Herodotus’s story. If we had no access to the Greek and had to choose between his account and that in the translation no one would hesitate to choose the former.",
+            "§ 26. ἀνείμονα. For this word see note on <i>De Som.</i> i. 99 (vol. v. p. 599), where this example should have been noted as well as <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 83. In all these cases Philo uses this apparently rare word in the sense of without the upper covering and contrasted with γυμνός. The contrast is obvious both here and in <i>Spec. Leg.</i>, where it is explained as = “in short tunics,” almost as obvious in <i>De Som.</i> i. 99, where the phrase κοιρᾶσθαι ἀνείμονα means sleeping with inadequate covering. In that note I suggested that Philo had <i>Od.</i> iii. 348 in mind, but if so he misunderstood the meaning, for there the ἀνείμων is not a person who sleeps uncovered but a host who is unable to supply proper covering to himself or his guest. But the misunderstanding is shared by L. &amp; S. which translates it as=“unclad.” I also commented on L. &amp; S. revised being, like Stephanus, still unable to supply an example of the word except that in the <i>Odyssey.</i> In the Addenda however two examples are given, one from a fragment of Callimachus in a papyrus and our <i>Spec. Leg.</i> passage (which however should be given as Ph. 2. 225—not 355).",
+            "§ 45. For the Stoic doctrine of “incidental consequences” as distinguished from the “primary works of nature” <i>cf.</i> Gellius vii. 1. 7 “existimat (<i>sc.</i> Chrysippus) non fuisse hoc principale consilium ut faceret homines morbis obnoxios … sed cum multa, inquit, atque magna gigneret pareretque aptissima ac utilissima alia quoque simul agnata sunt incommoda, eaque non per naturam sed per sequelas quasdam necessarias facta dicit quod ipse appellat κατὰ παρακολούθησιν.” This dictum of Chrysippus applies primarily to diseases but the latter part gives it the same general application as Philo gives it here. See Zeller, <i>Stoics and Epicureans</i>, p. 179 (Eng. trans.). Zeller adds that the Stoics also pointed out that things ordinarily regarded as evil may be of the greatest service, and illustrates this from a saying of Chrysippus quoted by Plutarch that bugs do us good service by preventing us from sleeping too long. <i>Cf.</i> for this the incidental uses pointed out by Philo in §§ 47–51.",
+            "§ 48. (Footnote 2.) I have allowed what may be called the generally received text to stand but further investigation since the translation was made makes me think that Gaisford and Dindorf were almost certainly right. Gaisford’s App. Crit. seems to indicate that he found τὰ μέτρα or τὰ ἡμέτερα μέτρα in his MSS. with one exception and found πείρᾳ in none. Gilford in the two MSS. which he relied on for this part of the <i>Praeparatio</i> found the same. Also ταῖς ὥραις, not τὰς ὥρας, appears to be universal. On the other hand τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πείρᾳ goes back to Viger, 1688 and possibly (though I have had no opportunity of verifying it) to Stephanus in 1544. How then did Viger or Stephanus get it? The clue seems to be that the one exception noted by Gaisford has τῇ ἡμετέρᾳ πέτρᾳ. Assuming that Viger or Stephanus found this, the correction to πείρᾳ would be very natural. But if μέτρα is right, ἡρέτερα, which appears in nearly all MSS., must either be dismissed as a dittography or amended to ἡμέρινα (or ταῖς ἡμερίναις … ὥραις?). Wendland, quoting the Armenian, “diei mensuras notat et horas,” suggests τῆς ἡμέρας, but the adjective used in its common antithesis to νυκτέρινος seems to me preferable.",
+            "Wendland also notes that the Armenian has “quae de columnis cadunt umbrae,” and suggests that παστάδων should replace ποδῶν.",
+            "§ 50. (Quotation from Pindar.) The quotation here alluded to occurs in that part between the two divisions of the second fragment which was omitted by Eusebius. It is undoubtedly from the beginning of a fragment of Pindar preserved in Dionysius of Halicarnassus, <i>De Vi Dem.</i> 6. It is listed among the fragments of Pindar as 107 or 74 (Schröder, p. 427), in Sandys’s Loeb translation, p. 548 as <i>Paean</i> 9. The Latin version in Aucher has enough resemblance to show the identity, but otherwise is sheer nonsense and does not even suggest the general sense, which is that the sun is asked why by this darkening it threatens the world with evil. A version supplied by Conybeare, from which Schröder quotes various bits, would probably explain it better. But it certainly seems that the Armenian who could manage Philo with general accuracy was unable to tackle Pindar. The continuation as given by Dionysius does not suggest the death of kings or the destruction of cities, but war and faction, abnormal storms and floods and through these the destruction of mankind. Some lines however seem to be missed out in the continuation, which may have been more specific.",
+            "§ 53. The inconsistency between this and the view expressed in § 41 may perhaps be explained by supposing that though earthquakes, pestilences, etc., are in themselves incidental consequences they may still be employed by God as a means of chastisement.",
+            "§ 67. οὗ γῆ ξηρή, κτλ. Zeller in <i>Presoc. Phil.</i> vol. ii. pp. 80–81 (Eng. trans.) has a long discussion on this Heracleitean saying. It is quoted by numerous writers, Stobaeus, Musonius, Plutarch, Galen, Clement and others in various forms and the variation extends to different MSS. of these authors. The chief variants are αὔη ψυχὴ, αὔγη ξηρὴ ψυχὴ, ξηρὴ ψυχὴ. Zeller thinks that αὐγὴ ξηρὴ can hardly be the original form, largely on the ground that there is no such thing as a wet beam. The form οὗ γῆ ξηρή does not appear in any of these quotations, though one variant in the MSS. of Musonius has αὖ γῆ ξηρή, but Zeller has no doubt that this is a true reading in our passage, though his remarks, which are transcribed by Gifford, are oddly worded and not very logical. “Philo,” he says, “<i>ap.</i> Eus. <i>Praep. Evang.</i> viii. 14. 67 has οὗ γῆ ξηρή, κτλ., and that this is the true reading … is clear from the passage in Philo, <i>De Prov.</i> ii. 109 ‘in terra sicca,’ ” etc., <i>i.e.</i> Zeller, unless the translator has misrepresented him, and Gifford certainly, were not aware that Philo <i>ap.</i> Eus. and Philo, <i>De Prov.</i> were the same, and that what he is quoting is only the Latin translation of the Armenian translation of the same passage. What the words in Aucher show beyond doubt is that the Armenian found οὗ γῆ in his text, for he is not likely to have had the acumen to make the correction independently, and they thus give a very convincing support to what we might otherwise have supposed to be an emendation of Stephanus or Viger.",
+            "§ 68. (Footnote 1.) The Armenian also presumably read αἰτίου. The full sentence is “mens tamen nusquam nascitur ob frigefactionem gelationemque, quoniam aer, terra et aquae in causis sunt simul, et frequentes exhalationes densae supereminent.” I imagine that he read or translated as if he read ἐξ ἀέρος αἰτίου καὶ γῆς καὶ ὕδατος instead of αἱ γῆς.",
+            "§ 71. ἴα. So Wendland from the Armenian “viola vero et rosa crocusque”; this is perhaps the best example of the value which the Armenian occasionally has, see Introd. pp. 449 f. The common reading εἰ does not give any good sense. The rendering which I had given, “though roses, etc., exist they exist for health not pleasure,” lays a difficult stress upon γέγονεν and Gifford’s “roses, etc., are meant, if for health, yet not all for pleasure” misplaces the “if” and gives no clear meaning."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "על ההשגחה",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על ההשגחה",
+        "enTitle": "On Providence",
+        "key": "On Providence",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Cherubim/English/Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1929.json

@@ -0,0 +1,301 @@
+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "On the Cherubim",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI",
+    "versionTitle": "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1929",
+    "status": "locked",
+    "license": "Public Domain",
+    "versionNotes": "",
+    "actualLanguage": "en",
+    "languageFamilyName": "english",
+    "isSource": false,
+    "isPrimary": true,
+    "direction": "ltr",
+    "heTitle": "על הכרובים",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE CHERUBIM, AND THE FLAMING SWORD, AND CAIN THE FIRST MAN CREATED OUT OF MAN (DE CHERUBIM) <br>ANALYTICAL INTRODUCTION",
+            "This fine treatise divides itself into two parts, the first (1–39) a homily on Genesis 3:24—",
+            "“And He cast forth Adam and set over against the Garden of Pleasure the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way.”",
+            "The second (40—end) on Genesis 4:1—",
+            "“And Adam knew Eve, his wife, and she conceived and bare Cain, and he said ‘I have gotten a man through God.’ ”",
+            "I. In the first part we open (1–10) with a disquisition on the difference between the phrases “cast forth” and “sent forth,” which was used in Genesis 3:23: the former indicates a permanent, the latter a temporary expulsion (1–2). These different meanings are illustrated (3–9) by the earlier expulsion of Hagar, as described in Genesis 16, and the later and permanent expulsion of Genesis 21. In this, as often in Philo, Hagar stands for the lower and secular education, and Sarah for philosophy.",
+            "We then have a discussion (11–20) of the meaning of “over against.” While it is pointed out that the phrase may sometimes indicate hostility (12–13), and sometimes the position of the accused before his judge (14–17), in which the text “the priest shall set the (accused) woman before the Lord and uncover her head” leads to an interpretation of the last three words as meaning “reveal the real motives,” it is decided that the words in Genesis are used in the same sense of friendliness, as in the text “Abraham was standing before (opposite to) the Lord” (18–20).",
+            "From 21–39 we have mainly a discussion of what is intended by the two Cherubim and the Flaming Sword. Two physical explanations are suggested: (<i>a</i>) the planetary sphere on the one hand, with its seven zones in which each of the planets move, and that of the fixed stars on the other, the revolution of the whole heaven being the sword (21–24); (<i>b</i>) the two “hemispheres” of the heaven, with the sun as sword (25–26). But Philo’s personal preference is for a more profound interpretation (27–30), which finds in the Cherubim the two chief ‘Potencies’ of God, His ‘goodness’ or lovingkindness, and His majesty or sovereignty, while the sword is the reason or Logos which unites the two. This last leads to the reflection that Balaam, the foolish one, was rightly made swordless, as is shown in his words to the ass, “if I had a sword, I would have pierced thee” (32). And these particular words in their turn suggest a short meditation on those who, when disappointed in worldly affairs lay the blame on the affairs themselves (33–38). The whole homily concludes with a section emphasizing reason as the source of human happiness (39).",
+            "II. The main idea that runs through the second part is that Adam signifies mind, Eve sense (<i>i.e.</i> sense-perception), and Cain (whose name means ‘possession’) the impious idea engendered by Mind and Sense, that what we have is our own and not God’s. But we must first consider the words “Adam knew his wife.” The absence of any such phrase in connexion with the great saints of the Pentateuch indicates that their wives (unlike Adam’s) are Virtues which receive seed <i>from</i> God Himself, though they bear offspring <i>to</i> the persons who possess them, a lesson which is declared to be one for higher understandings, and too spiritual for profane ears (40–52). Next we have to ask why “Cain” is not more fully described as ‘first-born son’ (53–55), and the explanation of this point  merges into an exposition of the way in which Mind, helpless in itself, by mating with Sense, comes to comprehend phenomena and supposes that this comprehension is its own doing (56–64). The folly of this supposition is emphasized (65–66), and illustrated first from the words of Laban, “The daughters are my daughters, the sons my sons, and the cattle my cattle, and all that thou seest are mine.” The allegorizing of daughters, sons, and cattle as arts or sciences, reasonings, and sense-perceptions respectively, leads to an impassioned outburst on human fallibility and its slavery to delusions (67–71), a slavery which resembles that of the slave of Ex. 21 who “loved his master” and rejected freedom (72–74). A second illustration is drawn from the vain boasting of Pharaoh, as described in Moses’ song in Ex. 15. (74–76). The failure of the Pharaoh mind to realize that God alone acts, while it is for man to be passive (77), leads to a remarkable digression on the right form of human passiveness—not, that is, a helpless passiveness, but one which braces itself to accept and co-operate with the Actor (78–83).",
+            "In contrast with the idle claims of the Mind, we have the Divine claim that “all things are Mine … in My feasts.” The last few words suggest a meditation on the sense in which God keeps feast, how His resting is an eternal activity, which unlike the activity of the world knows no weariness (84–90). Man indeed can in no true sense feast, and there follows a powerful denunciation of the vanity, licence, and sinfulness of the popular festivals (91–97). The last few words of this denunciation deplore the pagan blindness to the truth that God sees into the recesses of the soul, and thus we pass, by a somewhat forced transition, to the thought of the soul as God’s house, and the nature of the preparations needed to fit it for His reception is described in a fine passage, in the course of which Philo gives a signal example of the high value he sets on the secular education and culture of his day  (98–105).",
+            "The soul thus fitted for God’s reception will inevitably find its chief joy in acknowledging God’s sovereignty and ownership (106–107). Thus we return to the main theme, which is once more illustrated by the text “The land shall not be sold … for all the land is Mine, because ye are sojourners and aliens before Me.” Spiritually the “land” is the world of creation, every part of which is a loan from Him to every other part, and here Philo dwells eloquently on the interdependence of created things (108–113). It is also ourselves, for, inconstant creatures that we are (113–114), ignorant of our whence and whither (114–115), our minds ever subject to delusion and seduction (116–117), we cannot be said to own ourselves, a thought which may well teach us resignation (118–119). The last words of the text, “ye are sojourners,” suggest the thought of God as the true ‘citizen,’ in contrast to ourselves who are at best immigrants (120–121), and once more the phrase “shall not be sold” reminds us that the benefits men exchange are at bottom a matter of sale and purchase, and that God alone is the real giver (121–123).",
+            "Finally we have a disquisition on the error involved in the words “I have gotten a man <i>through</i> God.” Philo, on the lines of Aristotle, names four causes of things, and shows that the “by whom,” or agent, and not the “through whom,” or instrument, is applicable to God (124–127); and this he illustrates by comparing the erroneous use by Joseph of the latter with the right use of the former by Moses (128–130)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "<big>ON THE CHERUBIM, AND THE FLAMING SWORD, AND CAIN THE FIRST MAN CREATED OUT OF MAN</big> <br>[1] “And he cast forth Adam and set [him] over against the Garden of Pleasure [and posted] the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way, to guard the way of the Tree of Life” (Gen. 3:24). Observe the word “cast forth” instead of the earlier “sent forth” (<i>ib.</i> 23). The words are not set down at random, but chosen with a knowledge of the things to which he applies them in their proper and exact sense.",
+                "[2] He who is sent forth is not thereby prevented from returning. He who is cast forth by God is subject to eternal banishment. For to him who is not as yet firmly in the grip of wickedness it is open to repent and return to the virtue from which he was driven, as an exile returns to his fatherland. But to him that is weighed down and enslaved by that fierce and incurable malady, the horrors of the future must needs be undying and eternal: he is thrust forth to the place of the impious, there to endure misery continuous and unrelieved.",
+                "[3] And thus we see that Hagar or the lower education, whose sphere is the secular learning of the schools, while she twice departs from sovereign virtue in the person of Sarah, does once retrace her steps. On this first occasion hers was a voluntary flight, not a banishment, and when she met the angel or divine reason, she returned to her master’s house (Gen. 16:6 ff.). The second time she is cast forth utterly, never to return (Gen. 21:14)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[4] Here we must speak of the reasons for this first flight and that second eternal banishment. On the first occasion Abraham and Sarah had not yet received their change of names, that is they had not yet been changed in character to the betterment of soul, but one was still Abram “the uplifted father,” pursuing the philosophy of the super-terrestrial, the philosophy which treats of air and the ways in which it is affected, pursuing too the sublimer philosophy of the heaven and the beings existing therein, which mathematics claims as the noblest branch of “physic” or nature-study;",
+                "[5] and Sarah was still Sarai, the type of personal sovereignty (her name means “my sovereignty”); she had not yet undergone the change to generic virtue; for all that is generic must be imperishable. She still had her place with the particular and specific virtues. She was still prudence, as shown in the “I,” and similarly temperance, courage, justice, all perishable, because the sphere in which they move is the perishable “I,”",
+                "[6] And therefore Hagar the lower or secular culture, though she has hastened to escape the stern and gloomy life of the virtue-seekers, will return to that same life which as yet is unable to hold the heights of the generic and imperishable, still clinging to the particular and specific region in which the lower is preferred to the highest.",
+                "[7] But at the later stage Abram leaves the study of nature for the life of the wise, the lover of God. His name is changed to Abraham, meaning “the chosen father of sound,” for to “sound” is the function of the uttered word or reason, whose father is the mind when it has grasped the good. Sarai again quits personal sovereignty to become Sarah, whose name is “sovereign,” and this means that instead of being specific and perishable virtue she has become generic and imperishable.",
+                "[8] Then too there shines upon them the light of Isaac—the generic form of happiness, of the joy and gladness which belongs to those who have ceased from the manner of women (Gen. 18:11) and died to the passions—Isaac, whose heart is in the pursuit of no childish sports, but those which are divine. When all this is come to pass, then will be cast forth those preliminary studies which bear the name of Hagar, and cast forth too will be their son the sophist named Ishmael."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[9] The banishment on which they enter will be for ever, for the sentence of expulsion is confirmed by God when he bids the wise man hearken to the words of Sarah, who charges him expressly to cast forth the bondwoman and her son (Gen. 21:10). It is well to listen to the voice of virtue, above all when she sets before us such a doctrine as this, because the most perfect types of being and the secondary acquirements are worlds apart, and wisdom has no kinship with the sophist’s culture. For the latter has for the fruits of all its labour only those persuasions which tend to establish the false opinion, which destroys the soul; but wisdom studies truth and thus obtains that great source of profit to the mind, knowledge of right reason.",
+                "[10] Since then the sophist, who is ever sophist, and his mother, the instruction in the preliminary learning, are expelled and banished by God from the presence of wisdom and the wise, on whom he confers the titles of Sarah and Abraham, can we wonder that he has cast forth Adam, that is the mind, which is sick with the incurable sickness of folly, from the dwelling-place of virtue for ever and permits him not to return?"
+            ],
+            [
+                "[11] Then too it is that the flaming sword and the Cherubim find their dwelling-place “over against” Paradise. The word “opposite” or “over against” may be used in three senses. First there is a hostile sense; a thing placed “over against” may be in opposition; and there is also a sense applicable to persons who are so placed to be judged, as when the accused is placed over against the juror. And thirdly there is the friendly sense. An object may be so placed to be fully observed, and, in consequence of this more accurate inspection, to be brought into closer connexion, just as painters and sculptors have the picture or statue which serve them as models.",
+                "[12] Of the first sense, that of hostility, we find an example in what is said of Cain that “he went out from the face of God and dwelt in Nod over against Eden” (Gen. 4:16). The meaning of Nod is “tossing” and Eden is “delight.” The former is the symbol of the vice that creates tumult in the soul; the latter of the virtue which wins it well-being and delight, not the weak and wanton sort, which the brute passion pleasure brings, but that sense of profound content and joy, which knows not toil or trouble.",
+                "[13] But when the mind goes forth from the vision of God, whereon it was good and profitable for it to be anchored, it must needs, like a ship at sea, battling with boisterous winds, straightway be borne hither and thither, and its only home and country is wild commotion, the very opposite of that constancy of the soul, which is the gift of the joy that bears the name of Eden."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[14] For the second sense when the word means set opposite for judgement, we have an example in the account of the woman suspected by her husband of adultery. “The priest,” so he says, “shall place the woman in front of, or ‘over against,’ the Lord and uncover her head” (Numb. 5:18). What scripture would indicate by these last words, let us investigate. An action right in itself may often be wrong in the doing, and things contrary to duty in themselves may be done in the spirit of duty. For instance the restoration of a deposit when it is done not from any honest motive but either to injure the recipient, or to lead up treacherously to the repudiation of a greater trust, is a duty in itself, yet in its actual execution wrong.",
+                "[15] On the other hand, if the physician who purposes to use purge or knife or hot iron to benefit his patient, conceals the truth from him, that he may not shirk the treatment through anticipation of its terror, or collapse and faint when exposed to it, we have an action contrary to duty in itself yet in its actual execution right. So too with the wise man who, fearing that the truth may strengthen the enemy’s position, gives them false information to save his country. And thus Moses says “follow justice justly” (Deut. 16:20), implying that it is possible to do so unjustly, when the judge brings no honest mind to bear upon the case.",
+                "[16] Now words spoken openly and deeds done openly are known to all, but the inward thought which prompts them in either case is not known. We cannot tell whether it is wholesome and pure, or diseased and stained with manifold defilement. No merely created being is capable of discerning the hidden thought and motive. Only God can do so, and therefore Moses says “things hidden are known to the Lord God, but things manifest are known to the Creature” (Deut. 29:29).",
+                "[17] Now we see the cause why Reason, the priest and prophet, is bidden to set the soul “over against the Lord” with her head uncovered (Numb. 5:18), that is with the dominant principles, which constitute her head, laid bare, and the motives which she has cherished stripped of their trappings, so that, being judged by the all-penetrating eye of God the incorruptible, she may either like counterfeit coinage have her lurking dissimulation revealed, or being innocent of all evil may, by appealing to the testimony of Him who alone can see the soul naked, wash away the charges brought against her."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[18] So much for the second sense of “over against.” But the third where the object sought is closer intimacy we find in the words used of the wholly-wise Abraham, “He was still standing before (or over against) the Lord” (Gen. 18:22). And a proof of this closer intimacy is the further saying that “he drew nigh and said” (<i>ibid.</i> 23). Those who desire estrangement may stand aloof and separate themselves; it is for those who seek intimacy to draw nigh to each other.",
+                "[19] To stand fast and acquire an unswerving mind is to be stepping nigh to the power of God. For with the divine there is no turning: variableness belongs to the nature of the created. He then, who with the love of knowledge as his bridle checks the onward course which is natural to created being and compels it to stand still, may be sure that he is not far from the divine happiness.",
+                "[20] It is with this thought of intimacy that he assigns to the Cherubim and the flaming sword the abode in front of Paradise, not as to foes destined to contend in hostility with each other, but as to the dearest and closest of friends; that thus the Potencies ever gazing at each other in unbroken contemplation may acquire a mutual yearning, even that winged and heavenly love, wherewith God the bountiful giver inspires them."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] We must now examine what is symbolized by the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way. I suggest that they are an allegorical figure of the revolution of the whole heaven. For the movements assigned to the heavenly spheres are of two opposite kinds, in the one case an unvarying course, embodying the principle of sameness, to the right, in the other a variable course, embodying the principle of otherness, to the left.",
+                "[22] The outermost sphere, which contains what are called the fixed stars, is a single one and always makes the same revolution from east to west. But the inner spheres, seven in number, contain the planets and each has two motions of opposite nature, one voluntary, the other under a compelling force. Their involuntary motion is similar to that of the fixed stars, for we see them pass every day from east to west, but their own proper motion is from west to east, and it is in this that we find the revolutions of the seven governed also by certain lengths of time. These lengths are the same in the case of three whose course is equal, and these three which have the same rate of speed are known as the Sun, the Morning-star, and the Sparkler (or Mercury). The others have unequal courses and different lengths of time in revolution, though these too preserve a definite proportion to each other and the above-named three.",
+                "[23] One of the Cherubim then symbolizes the outermost sphere of the fixed stars. It is the final heaven of all, the vault in which the choir of those who wander not move in a truly divine unchanging rhythm, never leaving the post which the Father who begat them has appointed them in the universe. The other of the Cherubim is the inner contained sphere, which through a sixfold division He has made into seven zones of regular proportion and fitted each planet into one of them.",
+                "[24] He has set each star in its proper zone as a driver in a chariot, and yet He has in no case trusted the reins to the driver, fearing that their rule might be one of discord, but He has made them all dependent on Himself, holding that thus would their march be orderly and harmonious. For when God is with us all we do is worthy of praise; all that is done without Him merits blame."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[25] This then is one interpretation of the allegory of the Cherubim, and the flaming turning sword represents, we must suppose, their movement and the eternal revolution of the whole heaven. But perhaps on another interpretation the two Cherubim represent the two hemispheres. For we read that the Cherubim stand face to face with their wings inclining to the mercy-seat (Exod. 25:19). And so, too, the hemispheres are opposite to each other and stretch out to the earth, the centre of all things, which actually parts them.",
+                "[26] And as this alone in all the universe stands firm, it has been rightly named by men of old the standing-place, and it stands thus, that the revolution of each of the hemispheres may circle round one fixed centre and thus be wholly harmonious. The flaming sword on this interpretation is the Sun, that packed mass of flame, which is the swiftest of all existing things and whirls round the whole universe in a single day."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[27] But there is a higher thought than these. It comes from a voice in my own soul, which oftentimes is god-possessed and divines where it does not know. This thought I will record in words if I can. The voice told me that while God is indeed one, His highest and chiefest powers are two, even goodness and sovereignty. Through His goodness He begat all that is, through His sovereignty He rules what He has begotten.",
+                "[28] And in the midst between the two there is a third which unites them, Reason, for it is through reason that God is both ruler and good. Of these two potencies sovereignty and goodness the Cherubim are symbols, as the fiery sword is the symbol of reason. For exceeding swift and of burning heat is reason and chiefly so the reason of the (Great) Cause, for it alone preceded and outran all things, conceived before them all, manifest above them all.",
+                "[29] O then, my mind, admit the image unalloyed of the two Cherubim, that having learnt its clear lesson of the sovereignty and beneficence of the Cause, thou mayest reap the fruits of a happy lot. For straightway thou shalt understand how these unmixed potencies are mingled and united, how, where God is good, yet the glory of His sovereignty is seen amid the beneficence, how, where He is sovereign, through the sovereignty the beneficence still appears. Thus thou mayest gain the virtues begotten of these potencies, a cheerful courage and a reverent awe towards God. When things are well with thee, the majesty of the sovereign king will keep thee from high thoughts. When thou sufferest what thou wouldest not, thou wilt not despair of betterment, remembering the loving-kindness of the great and bountiful God.",
+                "[30] And for this cause is the sword a sword of flame, because in their company reason the measure of things must follow, reason with its fierce and burning heat, reason that ever moves with unswerving zeal, teaching thee to choose the good and eschew the evil."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[31] Remember how Abraham the wise, when he began to make God his standard in all things and leave nothing to the created, takes a copy of the flaming sword—“fire and knife” it says (Gen. 22:6)—desiring to sever and consume the mortal element away from himself and thus to fly upward to God with his understanding stripped of its trammels.",
+                "[32] And thus too Balaam (“foolish people” that is) is represented by Moses as disarmed, one who neither fights nor keeps the ranks, for Moses knew well that war which the soul should wage for knowledge as its guerdon. Balaam says to the ass, who signifies the unreasoning rule of life, which is ridden by every fool: “If I had a sword I would have ere now pierced thee through” (Numb. 22:29). Well may we thank the great Contriver, that, knowing the madness of folly, he did not put into its hands, as into the hands of a madman, the sword of the power of words, to wreak widespread and unrighteous carnage among all who came in his way.",
+                "[33] And this angry cry of Balaam is ever the cry of each of the unpurified in his vanity, if he has followed the life of the merchant or the farmer or other business that men pursue for gain. Each, while good fortune encounters them in their several walks of life, sits his beast with cheerful mood and keeps a tight grip of the reins and scouts the thought of letting them drop from his hands. And all those who bid him desist, and set limits to his desires, because the future is uncertain, he charges with malice and envy, and will have it that their warning is not of goodwill.",
+                "[34] But when disappointment and misfortune befall him he does indeed recognize that these were true prophets, fully competent to guard against the chances of the future, but he lays all the blame on wholly guiltless objects, the farming, the trading, the other pursuits, which of his own judgement he followed for lucre."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[35] And these pursuits, though they have no vocal organs, will utter the language which speaks in the reality of facts, a language which is plainer than the language of the tongue. “False slanderer,” they will cry, “are we not they on whom you rode proud-necked as on some beast of burden? Have we ever in mere insolence brought disaster on you? (Numb. 22:30). Behold the armed angel, the reason of God, standing in the way against you (<i>ibid.</i> 31), the source through whom both good and ill come to fulfilment. See where he stands.",
+                "[36] Why then blame us now, on whom you cast no blame before, when things fared well with you? We stay the same, we change not a jot of our nature. But the tests you use are false and your impatience is without reason. If you had learnt from the first that it is not your life-pursuits which bring your share in good or ill, but the divine reason, the ruler and steersman of all, you would bear with more patience what befalls you, and cease from slandering and ascribing to us what we have no power to bring about.",
+                "[37] If then that ruler should in turn subdue those warring elements, scatter the thoughts of disheartenment which war brings, and send a message of peace to your life, you will give us the hand of friendship with a bright and cheerful face, though we are what we ever were. But we are not elated at your goodwill, nor care we for your anger. We know that we cause not good or ill, though you imagine such things of us. It were as foolish to lay a prosperous voyage or the disasters of shipwreck to the charge of the sea itself instead of to the changes of the winds, which sometimes blow gently, sometimes in fiercest riot. For stillness is the natural self-engendered quality of all water,",
+                "[38] but when the favouring breeze follows behind the rudder and every reef is let out, the ship with full sail goes safely to the harbour, and again when a head-wind swoops suddenly down against the prow it raises a wild commotion, and overturns the bark. And all this is laid to the charge of the guiltless sea, though plainly it is calm or stormy according to the lightness or the violence of the winds.”",
+                "[39] Surely all this is sufficient proof that nature who has provided for men a mighty champion in reason makes him who can use this champion aright a truly happy and reasonable being. Him who cannot use it aright she leaves to unreason and misery."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[40] “And Adam knew his wife and she conceived and bare Cain, and he said, ‘I have gotten a man through God,’ and He added to this that she bore his brother Abel” (Gen. 4:1, 2). The persons to whose virtue the lawgiver has testified, such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses, and others of the same spirit, are not represented by him as knowing women.",
+                "[41] For since we hold that woman signifies in a figure sense-perception, and that knowledge comes into being through estrangement from sense and body, it will follow that the lovers of wisdom reject rather than choose sense. And surely this is natural. For the helpmeets of these men are called women, but are in reality virtues. Sarah “sovereign and leader,” Rebecca “steadfastness in excellence,” Leah “rejected and faint” through the unbroken discipline, which every fool rejects and turns from with words of denial, Zipporah, the mate of Moses, whose name is “bird,” speeding upwards from earth to heaven and contemplating there the nature of things divine and blessed.",
+                "[42] The virtues have their conception and their birth-pangs, but when I purpose to speak of them let them who corrupt religion into superstition close their ears or depart. For this is a divine mystery and its lesson is for the initiated who are worthy to receive the holiest secret, even those who in simplicity of heart practise the piety which is true and genuine, free from all tawdry ornament. The sacred revelation is not for those others who, under the spell of the deadly curse of vanity, have no other standards for measuring what is pure and holy but their barren words and phrases and their silly usages and ritual."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[43] Thus then must the sacred instruction begin. Man and Woman, male and female of the human race, in the course of nature come together to hold intercourse for the procreation of children. But virtues whose offspring are so many and so perfect may not have to do with mortal man, yet if they receive not seed of generation from another they will never of themselves conceive.",
+                "[44] Who then is he that sows in them the good seed save the Father of all, that is God unbegotten and begetter of all things? He then sows, but the fruit of His sowing, the fruit which is His own, He bestows as a gift. For God begets nothing for Himself, for He is in want of nothing, but all for him who needs to receive.",
+                "[45] I will give as a warrant for my words one that none can dispute, Moses the holiest of men. For he shows us Sarah conceiving at the time when God visited her in her solitude (Gen. 21:1), but when she brings forth it is not to the Author of her visitation, but to him who seeks to win wisdom, whose name is Abraham.",
+                "[46] And even clearer is Moses’ teaching of Leah, that God opened her womb (Gen. 29:31). Now to open the womb belongs to the husband. Yet when she conceived she brought forth not to God (for He is in Himself all-sufficing for Himself), but to him who endures toil to gain the good, even Jacob. Thus virtue receives the divine seed from the Creator, but brings forth to one of her own lovers, who is preferred above all others who seek her favour.",
+                "[47] Again Isaac the all-wise besought God, and through the power of Him who was thus besought Steadfastness or Rebecca became pregnant (Gen. 25:21). And without supplication or entreaty did Moses, when he took Zipporah the winged and soaring virtue, find her pregnant through no mortal agency (Exod. 2:22)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[48] These thoughts, ye initiated, whose ears are purified, receive into your souls as holy mysteries indeed and babble not of them to any of the profane. Rather as stewards guard the treasure in your own keeping, not where gold and silver, substances corruptible, are stored, but where lies that most beautiful of all possessions, the knowledge of the Cause and of virtue, and, besides these two, of the fruit which is engendered by them both. But, if ye meet with anyone of the initiated, press him closely, cling to him, lest knowing of some still newer secret he hide it from you; stay not till you have learnt its full lesson.",
+                "[49] I myself was initiated under Moses the God-beloved into his greater mysteries, yet when I saw the prophet Jeremiah and knew him to be not only himself enlightened, but a worthy minister of the holy secrets, I was not slow to become his disciple. He out of his manifold inspiration gave forth an oracle spoken in the person of God to Virtue the all-peaceful. “Didst thou not call upon Me as thy house, thy father and the husband of thy virginity?” (Jer. 3:4). Thus he implies clearly that God is a house, the incorporeal dwelling-place of incorporeal ideas, that He is the father of all things, for He begat them, and the husband of Wisdom, dropping the seed of happiness for the race of mortals into good and virgin soil. For it is meet that God should hold converse with the truly virgin nature, that which is undefiled and free from impure touch; but it is the opposite with us.",
+                "[50] For the union of human beings that is made for the procreation of children, turns virgins into women. But when God begins to consort with the soul, He makes what before was a woman into a virgin again, for He takes away the degenerate and emasculate passions which unmanned it and plants instead the native growth of unpolluted virtues. Thus He will not talk with Sarah till she has ceased from all that is after the manner of women (Gen. 18:11), and is ranked once more as a pure virgin."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[51] Again even a virgin soul may perchance be dishonoured through the defilement of licentious passions. Therefore the oracle makes itself safe by speaking of God as the husband not of a virgin, for a virgin is liable to change and death, but of virginity, the idea which is unchangeable and eternal. For particulars within a class are of their nature such as to come into being and pass out of it again, but to the potencies which give their form to these particulars is allotted an existence indestructible.",
+                "[52] It is meet and right therefore that God the uncreated, the unchanging, should sow the ideas of the immortal and virgin virtues in virginity which changes not into the form of woman.",
+                "Why then, soul of man, when thou shouldst live the virgin life in the house of God and cling to knowledge, dost thou stand aloof from them and embrace outward sense, which unmans and defiles thee? For this thou shalt bring forth that thing of ruin and confusion, Cain, the fratricide, the accursed, the possession which is no possession. For the meaning of Cain is “possession.”"
+            ],
+            [
+                "[53] We may note with surprise the form of expression, which, contrary to the usual practice, the lawgiver often employs and in the case of many persons. For when after speaking of the earth-born pair he begins the story of the first-born child of man, though he has said nothing at all of him hitherto, he says simply “she brought forth Cain.” It is as though the name had been often mentioned before, instead of being now for the first time introduced for use in the narrative. We may ask the author “Who or what is this Cain?” What has he told us small or great about him in the past?",
+                "[54] Surely he is not ignorant how the names of persons should be given. We see indeed that later on he will show his knowledge plainly in speaking of this same person Eve. “Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived and brought forth a son, and called his name Seth” (Gen. 4:25). Surely it was far more necessary in the case of the firstborn, who was the beginning of human generation through two parents, first to state the male sex of the child, and then to give his personal name, Cain, as it might be.",
+                "[55] Since then it was clearly not because he was ignorant how names should be given, that he rejects the usual method in the case of Cain, we must consider why he speaks thus of the children of our first parents and uses the form natural to an incidental mention of the names, rather than that which is usual when names are originally assigned. I conjecture that the reason is as follows."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[56] Elsewhere the universal practice of men as a body is to give to things names which differ from the things, so that the objects are not the same as what we call them. But with Moses the names assigned are manifest images of the things, so that name and thing are inevitably the same from the first and the name and that to which the name is given differ not a whit. My meaning will be seen more clearly from the case before us.",
+                "[57] The Mind in us—call it Adam—having met with outward Sense, called Eve, the source, we hold, of life to all living bodies (Gen. 3:20) approaches her for their mutual intercourse. She for her part takes in and catches as in a net the external objects of sense, as nature bids. Through the eyes comes colour, through the ears sound, through the nostrils smell, through the organs of taste flavours and through the touch all solid matter. Thus conceiving and being made pregnant, she straightway becomes in labour and bears the worst evil of the soul, vanity of thought. For the Mind thought that all these were his own possessions, all that he saw or heard or smelt or tasted or touched—all his own invention and handiwork."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[58] That it should have been so with the Mind was not strange. For there was a time when Mind neither had sense-perception, nor held converse with it, but a great gulf divided it from associated interdependent things. Rather was it then like the solitary ungregarious animals. At that time it formed a class by itself; it had no contact with body, no all-collecting instrument in its grasp wherewith to bring into its power the external objects of sense. It was blind, incapable, not in the common meaning of blindness as applied to those whom we observe to have lost their eyesight, for they though deprived of one sense have the others more abundantly.",
+                "[59] No, the Mind was docked of all its powers of sense-perception, thus truly powerless. It was but half the perfect soul, lacking the power whereby it is the nature of bodies to be perceived, a mere unhappy section bereft of its mate without the support of the sense-perceiving organs, whereby it could have propped as with a staff its faltering steps. And thus all bodily objects were wrapped in profound darkness and none of them could come to the light. For sense, the means whereby they were to become the objects of knowledge, was not.",
+                "[60] God then, wishing to provide the Mind with perception of material as well as immaterial things, thought to complete the soul by weaving into the part first made the other section, which he called by the general name of “woman” and the proper name of “Eve,” thus symbolizing sense."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[61] This Eve or sense from the very moment of coming into being through each of her parts as through orifices poured multitudinous light into the Mind, and purging and dispersing the mist set it as it were in the place of a master, able to see in luminous clearness the natures of things bodily.",
+                "[62] And the Mind, like one enlightened by the flash of the sun’s beam, after night, or as one awakened from deep sleep, or like a blind man who has suddenly received his sight, found thronging on it all things which come into being, heaven, earth, air, water, the vegetable and animal world, their phases, qualities, faculties, dispositions whether temporary or permanent, movements, activities, functions, changes, extinctions. Some it saw, some it heard, some it tasted, some it smelt, and some it touched; and to some it was attracted, because they work pleasure, from others it was averse because they cause pain.",
+                "[63] So then it gazed around on every side and, beholding itself and its powers, feared not to utter the same boast as the Macedonian king Alexander. For the story is that, when he seemed to have gained the mastery of Europe and Asia, he stood in some commanding spot and, looking at the view around, said “this way and that all are mine.” The words showed the lightness of an immature and childish soul, the soul of a common man in truth and not of a king.",
+                "[64] But before Alexander’s day the Mind, having acquired the faculty of sense and through its agency laid hold of every form of bodily things, was filled and puffed up with unreasoning pride, and thus thought that all things were its own possessions and none belonged to any other."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[65] It is this feeling in us which Moses expresses under the name of Cain, by interpretation Possession, a feeling foolish to the core or rather impious. For instead of thinking that all things are God’s possession, the Mind fancied that they were its own, though it cannot possess even itself securely, or even know what its own real being is. Yet if it trusts in the senses and their ability to lay hold of the objects of sense, let it tell us how it thinks to have power to avoid error in sight or hearing or any other sense.",
+                "[66] Indeed these errors must always befall us in each of our doings, to whatever pitch of accuracy the organs we use are brought. For to free ourselves altogether from natural sources of decay or involuntary delusions is hard or rather impossible, so innumerable in ourselves and around us and outside us throughout the whole race of mortals are the causes which produce false opinion. How foolish then, be its boasting ever so loud and its bearing ever so high, is the Mind’s thought that all things are its own possessions."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[67] Surely Laban, whose heart was fixed on particular qualities, must have made Jacob laugh loud and long, Jacob who discerns rather than these the nature which is outside class or category. Laban dared to say to him “the daughters are my daughters, the sons are my sons, the cattle are my cattle, and all that thou seest are mine and my daughters’ ” (Gen. 31:43). In each case he adds the “my,” and his proud talk about himself goes on without ceasing.",
+                "[68] The daughters, tell me—daughters, you know, are the arts and branches of knowledge in the soul—do you say they are <i>your</i> daughters? How yours? Why in the first place you only received them from the mind that taught them to you. Secondly, it is in the course of nature that like other things you should lose them too, perhaps through the burden of other thoughts which drive them from your memory, or through cruel and incurable infirmities of the body, or that disease which is the doom of advancing years and no treatment can heal—old age—or a host of other causes, which no man can number.",
+                "[69] The sons—sons are the particular reasoned thoughts—when you say they are yours are you sane or mad to suppose such a thing? Fits of melancholy and insanity, bursts of frenzy, baseless conjectures, false impressions of things, mere notions, which are but unsubstantial will-o’-the-wisps made of the stuff of dreams, with their self-engendered throes and throbbings, loss of memory, the curse which so besets the soul, and other things more numerous than these, sap the security of your lordship, and show that these things are not your possessions but another’s.",
+                "[70] As for the cattle—the senses, that is, for sense is unreasoning and bestial—do you dare to say that they are yours? Consider your constant errors in sight and hearing, how you sometimes think bitter flavours sweet and sweet bitter, and in every sense are more often wrong than right. Surely a matter for blushing rather than for boasting and elation, as though you found all the faculties and activities of your soul infallible."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[71] But, if you reform and obtain a portion of the wisdom that you need, you will say that all are God’s possessions and not yours, your reflections, your knowledge of every kind, your arts, your conclusions, your reasonings on particular questions, your sense-perceptions, in fact the activities of your soul, whether carried on through the senses or without them. But if you leave yourself for ever unschooled and untaught, you will be eternally enslaved to hard mistresses, vain fancies, lusts, pleasures, promptings to wrongdoing, follies, false opinions.",
+                "[72] For if, says Moses, the servant should answer and say “I have come to love my master, my wife and my children, I will not go out free,” he shall be brought to the tribunal of God, and with God as judge shall have his request ratified, having first had his ear bored with an awl (Exod. 21:5, 6), that he may not receive the divine message of the freedom of the soul.",
+                "[73] For lofty words like these of having come to love the mind and thinking it his master and benefactor are worthy of a reasoning disqualified and rejected as it were from the sacred arena, a slave in very truth and wholly childish. And so too when he speaks of his exceeding affection for outward sense and his belief that she is his own possession and the greatest of blessings. So too with the children of these two, the children of mind—reflection, reasoning, judging, deliberating, conjecturing—the children of sense—sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, in fact sense-perception in general."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[74] He who seeks intimacy with these can have had no perception, cannot even have dreamt, of freedom. For it is only by flight and estrangement from these that we can make a claim to the lot of the fearless.",
+                "We read of another who crowns his self-love with madness, and declares that, though what I have be taken from me, I will contend for it as my own and win the victory. “I will pursue,” he says, “I will overtake, I will divide the spoil; I will satisfy my soul; I will destroy with my sword; my hand shall have the mastery” (Exod. 15:9).",
+                "[75] To such a one I would say “Fool, is it hidden from you that every created being, who thinks he pursues, is pursued?” For maladies and old age and death, with all the other host of evils voluntary and involuntary, drive and hustle and pursue each one of us, and he who thinks to overtake and conquer is overtaken and conquered, and many a one who thinks to spoil and is already in his thoughts parcelling out the booty has fallen under the foot of victorious enemies. He receives into his soul emptiness for satisfaction, slavery for lordship, he is killed instead of killing, and all that he thought to do to others falls with full measure upon himself.",
+                "[76] For in very truth this man was the enemy of convincing reason and of nature herself, when he took to himself all active functions and forgot the passive, as though he was secure from the mass of calamities which these severally bring."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[77] For it was “the enemy,” as we read, who said “I will pursue and overtake.” What deadlier foe to the soul can there be than he who in his vainglory claims to himself that which belongs to God alone? For it belongs to God to act, and this we may not ascribe to any created being.",
+                "[78] What belongs to the created is to suffer, and he who accepts this from the first, as a necessity inseparable from his lot, will bear with patience what befalls him, however grievous it may be. He who thinks it a strange and alien thing will incur the penalty of Sisyphus, crushed by a vast and hopeless burden, unable even to lift his head, overwhelmed by all the terrors which beset and prostrate him, and increasing each misery by that abject spirit of surrender, which belongs to the degenerate and unmanly soul. Rather should he bravely bear, take his place firmly in the opposing ranks, and with those mightiest of virtues, which he himself contributes, patience and endurance, fortify his resolution and close the gates against the foe.",
+                "[79] There are two ways of undergoing shearing or shaving; one when there is reaction and reciprocation by the object, the other when there is complete submission or subjection. A sheep or a fleece or a “fell” puts forth no activity of itself, but is merely passive to the shearing process in the hands of another, but the man who is shaved acts with the barber, places himself in position, and accommodates himself, thus combining the active with the passive.",
+                "[80] So too with receiving blows. There is one kind which befalls a slave, whose wrongdoing has deserved it, or a free man who is stretched on the wheel for his crimes, or any lifeless things, such as stones or wood or gold or silver and all materials which are beaten or divided in a forge.",
+                "[81] The other kind we find in the case of an athlete in a boxing-match or pancratium for a crown of victory. As the blows fall upon him he brushes them off with either hand, or he turns his neck round this way and that and thus evades the blows, or often he rises on his tip-toes to his full height, or draws himself in and compels his adversary to lay about him in empty space, much as men do when practising the movements. But the slave or the metal lies impotent and irresponsive, passive to endure whatever the agent may determine to execute.",
+                "[82] This is a condition we should never admit into our bodies, much less into our souls. As mortals we must suffer, but let our suffering be that other kind which is the reaction of our own activity. Let us not like womanish folk, nerveless and unstrung, flagging ere the struggle begin, with all our spiritual forces relaxed, sink into utter prostration. Rather let the tension of our minds be firm and braced, that so we may be strong to relieve and lighten the force and onset of the misfortunes which menace us.",
+                "[83] Since then it has been shown that no mortal can in solid reality be lord of anything, and when we give the name of master we speak in the language of mere opinion, not of real truth; since too, as there is subject and servant, so in the universe there must be a leader and a lord, it follows that this true prince and lord must be one, even God, who alone can rightly claim that all things are His possessions."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[84] Let us mark how sublime and worthy of the Deity is the enumeration of those possessions. “All things,” God says, “are Mine.” And these “all things” are the “bounties, and gifts and fruits which ye shall observe and offer to Me at My feasts” (Numb. 28:2). Here Moses clearly shows that among existing things there are some which rank lower as benefits, and this benefit is called “giving.” In others the benefit is of a higher kind and this has the special name of “bounty.” Others again are such that not only can they bear virtue as their fruit, but in their very nature through and through they are fruit meet for eating, even that one and only fruit which feeds the soul of him whose quest is the Vision.",
+                "[85] He who has learnt this lesson, and can keep and ponder it in his heart, will offer to God the blameless and fairest sacrifice of faith at feasts which are no feasts of mortals. For God has claimed the feasts for Himself, and herein He lays down a principle which they who belong to the company of the philosophers must not fail to know.",
+                "[86] The principle is this. God alone in the true sense keeps festival. Joy and gladness and rejoicing are His alone; to Him alone it is given to enjoy the peace which has no element of war. He is without grief or fear or share of ill, without faint-heartedness or pain or weariness, but full of happiness unmixed. Or rather since His nature is most perfect, He is Himself the summit, end and limit of happiness. He partakes of nothing outside Himself to increase His excellence. Nay He Himself has imparted of His own to all particular beings from that fountain of beauty—Himself. For the good and beautiful things in the world could never have been what they are, save that they were made in the image of the archetype, which is truly good and beautiful, even the uncreate, the blessed, the imperishable."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[87] And therefore Moses often in his laws calls the sabbath, which means ‘rest,’ God’s sabbath (Exod. 20:10, etc.), not man’s, and thus he lays his finger on an essential fact in the nature of things. For in all truth there is but one thing in the universe which rests, that is God. But Moses does not give the name of rest to mere inactivity. The cause of all things is by its nature active; it never ceases to work all that is best and most beautiful. God’s rest is rather a working with absolute ease, without toil and without suffering. For the sun and moon and the whole heaven and universe, since they are not self-mastering and move and revolve continually, we may rightly say do suffer. Their labouring is most clearly seen by the seasons of the year.",
+                "[88] For of the heavenly bodies the chiefest change their courses, sometimes revolving to the south, sometimes to the north, sometimes elsewhere; and the air grows colder and warmer and undergoes all manner of changes; and these changes in condition peculiar to it prove that it labours and is weary. For weariness is the principal cause of change.",
+                "[89] It were folly to pursue the subject through the creatures of air and water and enumerate at length their general and particular changes: for these are naturally liable to far greater weakness than the creatures of the upper world, since they in largest measure partake of the lowest form of substance, namely the earthly.",
+                "[90] Since then weariness is the natural cause of change in things that turn and vary, and since God turns not and changes not, He must be by nature unwearying. But a being that is free from weakness, even though he be making all things, will cease not to all eternity to be at rest, and thus rest belongs in the fullest sense to God and to Him alone."
+            ],
+            [
+                "Now we showed that keeping festival pertained to Him and therefore we see that all such festivals, whether they be weekly sabbaths or (the occasional) feasts, are His, who is the Cause, and pertain not to any man at all.",
+                "[91] Let us consider our famous festal assemblies. Different nations, whether Greek or barbarian, have their own, the product of myth and fiction, and their only purpose is empty vanity. We need not dwell on them, for the whole of human life would not suffice to tell in detail of the follies inherent in them. Yet, without overstepping the right limit, a few words, to serve for many, may be said to cover them all.",
+                "[92] In every feast and gathering in our country what is it that men admire and seek so eagerly? Freedom from the fear of punishment, from sense of restraint, from stress of business; drunkenness, tipsy rioting, routs and revels, wantonness, debauchery; lovers thronging their mistresses’ doors, nightlong carouses, unseemly pleasures, daylight chamberings, deeds of insolence and outrage, hours spent in training to be intemperate, in studying to be fools, in cultivating baseness, wholesale depravation of all that is noble: the works to which nature prompts us are turned upside down: men keep vigil by night to indulge their insatiable lust: the day time, the hours given for wakefulness, they spend in sleep.",
+                "[93] At such times virtue is jeered at as mischievous, vice snatched at as profitable. At such times right actions are dishonoured, wrong actions honoured. At such times music, philosophy, all culture, those truly divine images set in the divinely given soul, are mute. Only the arts which pander and minister pleasure to the belly and the organs below it are vocal and loud-voiced."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[94] Such are the feasts of those whom men call happy. And so long as they confine their unseemly doings to houses or unconsecrated places, their sin seems less to me. But when their wickedness like a rushing torrent spreads over every place and invades and violates the most sacred temples, it straightway overturns all that is venerable in them, and as a result come sacrifices unholy, offerings unmeet, vows unfulfilled, their rites and mysteries a mockery, their piety but a bastard growth, their holiness debased, their purity impure, their truth falsehood, their worship a sacrilege.",
+                "[95] Furthermore they cleanse their bodies with lustrations and purifications, but they neither wish nor practise to wash off from their souls the passions by which life is defiled. They are zealous to go to the temples white-robed, attired in spotless raiment, but with a spotted heart they pass into the inmost sanctuary and are not ashamed.",
+                "[96] And if an animal be found to be blemished or imperfect, it is driven out of the consecrated precincts and not suffered to approach the altar, though it is through no will of its own that it has any of these bodily defects. But they themselves—their souls are a mass of wounds from the hideous maladies with which the irresistible power of vice has smitten them, or rather they are mutilated, docked of their noblest parts, prudence, courage to endure, justice, piety and all the other virtues of which human nature is capable. And though it is with free deliberate judgement that they have imbibed the mischief, yet they dare to handle the holy thing, and think that the eye of God sees nothing but the outer world through the co-operation of the sun. They do not know that He surveys the unseen even before the seen, for He Himself is His own light.",
+                "[97] For the eye of the Absolutely Existent needs no other light to effect perception, but He Himself is the archetypal essence of which myriads of rays are the effluence, none visible to sense, all to the mind. And therefore they are the instruments of that same God alone, who is apprehended by mind, not of any who have part and lot in the world of creation. For the created is approached by sense, which can never grasp the nature which is apprehended by mind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[98] Seeing then that our souls are a region open to His invisible entrance, let us make that place as beautiful as we may, to be a lodging fit for God. Else He will pass silently into some other home, where He judges that the builder’s hands have wrought something worthier.",
+                "[99] When we think to entertain kings we brighten and adorn our own houses. We despise no embellishment, but use all such freely and ungrudgingly, and make it our aim that their lodging shall have every delight and the honour withal that is their due. What house shall be prepared for God the King of kings, the Lord of all, who in His tender mercy and loving-kindness has deigned to visit created being and come down from the boundaries of heaven to the utmost ends of earth, to show His goodness to our race?",
+                "[100] Shall it be of stone or timber? Away with the thought, the very words are blasphemy. For though the whole earth should suddenly turn into gold, or something more precious than gold, though all that wealth should be expended by the builder’s skill on porches and porticos, on chambers, vestibules, and shrines, yet there would be no place where His feet could tread. One worthy house there is—the soul that is fitted to receive Him."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[101] Justly and rightly then shall we say that in the invisible soul the invisible God has His earthly dwelling-place.",
+                "And that the house may have both strength and loveliness, let its foundations be laid in natural excellence and good teaching, and let us rear upon them virtues and noble actions, and let its external ornaments be the reception of the learning of the schools.",
+                "[102] The first of these, natural excellence, brings quickness of apprehension, perseverance and memory. From teaching are borrowed readiness to learn and concentration. They are like the roots of the tree that will bring forth good fruit, and without them the mind cannot be brought to its fullness.",
+                "[103] Virtues and the good actions that follow them provide the stability and firmness that make the structure secure, so that all that purposes to banish or sever or draw away the soul from good is powerless against such steadfastness and strength.",
+                "[104] From the study of the introductory learning of the schools come the ornaments of the soul, which are attached to it as to a house.",
+                "For as stuccoes, paintings, and tablets and arrangements of precious stones and the like, with which men adorn pavements as well as walls, contribute nothing to the strength of the building, but only serve to give pleasure to the inmates,",
+                "[105] so the knowledge of the schools adorns the whole house of the soul. Grammar or literature makes research into poetry and pursues the study of the doings of old time. Geometry gives us the sense of equality produced by proportion. It also heals by the means of fine music all that is harsh and inharmonious or discordant in the soul, under the influence of rhythm, metre, and melody. Rhetoric seeks out and weighs the materials for shrewd treatment in all the subjects which it handles, and welds them to the language that befits them. Sometimes it raises us to a pitch of strong emotion, at other times the tension is relaxed in a sense of pleasure. With all this it gives fluency and facility in using our tongues and organs of speech."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[106] If such a house be raised amid our mortal race, earth and all that dwells on earth will be filled with high hopes, expecting the descent of the divine potencies. With laws and ordinances from heaven they will descend, to sanctify and consecrate them on earth, according to their Father’s bidding. Then, joined in commonalty of daily life and board with virtue-loving souls, they sow within them the nature of happiness, even as they gave to wise Abraham in Isaac the most perfect thank-offering for their stay with him.",
+                "[107] The purified mind rejoices in nothing more than in confessing that it has the lord of all for its master. For to be the slave of God is the highest boast of man, a treasure more precious not only than freedom, but than wealth and power and all that mortals most cherish.",
+                "[108] To this sovereignty of the Absolutely Existent the oracle is a true witness in these words, “and the land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for all the land is mine, because ye are strangers and sojourners before me” (Lev. 25:23). A clear proof surely that in possession all things are God’s,",
+                "[109] and only as a loan do they belong to created beings. For nothing, he means, will be sold in perpetuity to any created being, because there is but One, to whom in a full and complete sense the possession of all things is assured.",
+                "For all created things are assigned as a loan to all from God, and He has made none of these particular things complete in itself, so that it should have no need at all of another. Thus through the desire to obtain what it needs,",
+                "[110] it must perforce approach that which can supply its need, and this approach must be mutual and reciprocal. Thus through reciprocity and combination, even as a lyre is formed of unlike notes, God meant that they should come to fellowship and concord and form a single harmony, and that an universal give and take should govern them, and lead up to the consummation of the whole world.",
+                "[111] Thus love draws lifeless to living, unreasoning to reasoning, trees to men, men to plants, cultivated to wild, savage to tame, each sex to the other; so too, in a word, the creatures of the land to the creatures of the water, these to the fowls of the air and those to both:",
+                "[112] so again heaven to earth, earth to heaven, air to water, and water to air. So natures intermediate yearn for each other and those at either extreme; these too for their fellows and the intermediate beings. Winter needs summer, summer winter, spring both, and autumn spring. Thus each, we may say, wants and needs each; all need all, that so this whole, of which each is a part, might be that perfect work worthy of its architect, this world."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[113] In this way combining all things He claimed the sovereignty of all for Himself; to His subjects He assigned the use and enjoyment of themselves and each other. For indeed we have ourselves and all that go to make these selves for use. I am formed of soul and body, I seem to have mind, reason, sense, yet I find that none of them is really mine.",
+                "[114] Where was my body before birth, and whither will it go when I have departed? What has become of the changes produced by life’s various stages in the seemingly permanent self? Where is the babe that once I was, the boy and the other gradations between boy and full-grown man? Whence came the soul, whither will it go, how long will it be our mate and comrade? Can we tell its essential nature? When did we get it? Before birth? But then there was no “ourselves.” What of it after death? But then we who are here joined to the body, creatures of composition and quality, shall be no more, but shall go forward to our rebirth, to be with the unbodied, without composition and without quality.",
+                "[115] Even now in this life, we are the ruled rather than the rulers, known rather than knowing. The soul knows us, though we know it not; it lays on us commands, which we must fain obey, as a servant obeys his mistress. And when it will, it will claim its divorce in court and depart, leaving our home desolate of life. Press it as we may to stay, it will escape from our hands. So subtle is it of nature, that it affords no grip or handle to the body."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[116] Is my mind my own possession? That parent of false conjectures, that purveyor of delusion, the delirious, the fatuous, and in frenzy or melancholy or senility proved to be the very negation of mind. Is my utterance my own possession, or my organs of speech? A little sickness is a cause sufficient to cripple the tongue and sew up the lips of the most eloquent, and the expectation of disaster paralyses multitudes into speechlessness.",
+                "[117] Not even of my sense-perception do I find myself master, rather, it may well be, its slave, who follows it where it leads, to colours, shapes, sounds, scents, flavours, and the other material things.",
+                "All this surely makes it plain that what we use are the possessions of another, that nor glory, nor wealth, nor honours, nor offices, nor all that makes up body or soul are our own, not even life itself.",
+                "[118] And if we recognize that we have but their use, we shall tend them with care as God’s possessions, remembering from the first, that it is the master’s custom, when he will, to take back his own. The thought will lighten our sorrow when they are taken from us. But as it is, with the mass of men, the belief that all things are their own makes their loss or absence at once a source of grief and trouble.",
+                "[119] And so the thought that the world and all that therein is are both the works and the possessions of Him that begat them becomes not only a truth but a doctrine most comfortable.",
+                "But this work which is His own He has bestowed freely, for He needs it not. Yet he who has the use does not thereby become possessor, because there is one lord and master of all, who will most rightly say “all the land is mine (which is the same as ‘all creation is mine’), but ye are strangers and sojourners before me” (Lev. 25:23)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[120] In relation to each other all created beings rank as men of longest descent and highest birth; all enjoy equal honour and equal rights, but to God they are aliens and sojourners. For each of us has come into this world as into a foreign city, in which before our birth we had no part, and in this city he does but sojourn, until he has exhausted his appointed span of life.",
+                "[121] And there is another lesson of wisdom that he teaches in these words, even this—God alone is in the true sense a citizen, and all created being is a sojourner and alien, and those whom we call citizens are so called only by a licence of language. But to the wise it is a sufficient bounty, if when ranged beside God, the only citizen, they are counted as aliens and sojourners, since the fool can in no wise hold such a rank in the city of God, but we see him an outcast from it and nothing more.",
+                "Such a lesson too He has proclaimed to us in an utterance of deepest meaning. “The land shall not be sold at all.” No word of the seller there, that through this very silence he, who has access to the secrets of nature-truth, may profit in the quest of knowledge.",
+                "[122] Look round you and you shall find that those who are said to bestow benefits sell rather than give, and those who seem to us to receive them in truth buy. The givers are seeking praise or honour as their exchange and look for the repayment of the benefit, and thus, under the specious name of gift, they in real truth carry out a sale; for the seller’s way is to take something for what he offers. The receivers of the gift, too, study to make some return, and do so as opportunity offers, and thus they act as buyers. For buyers know well that receiving and paying go hand in hand.",
+                "[123] But God is no salesman, hawking his goods in the market, but a free giver of all things, pouring forth eternal fountains of free bounties, and seeking no return. For He has no needs Himself and no created being is able to repay His gift."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[124] Thus we have agreed that all things are God’s possessions on the strength of true reasonings and testimonies which none may convict of false witness, for our witnesses are the oracles which Moses wrote in the sacred books. And therefore we must make our protest against the Mind, which thought the offspring engendered by union with sense his own possession, called it Cain and said “I have <i>gotten</i> a man through God.” Even in these last two words he erred. You ask how?",
+                "[125] Because God is the cause not the instrument, and that which comes into being is brought into being <i>through</i> an instrument, but <i>by</i> a cause. For to bring anything into being needs all these conjointly, the “by which,” the “from which,” the “through which,” the “for which,” and the first of these is the cause, the second the material, the third the tool or instrument, and the fourth the end or object.",
+                "[126] If we ask what combination is always needed that a house or city should be built, the answer is a builder, stones or timber, and instruments. What is the builder but the cause “by which”? What are the stones and timber but the material “from which”? What are the instruments but the means “through which”?",
+                "[127] And what is the end or object of the building but shelter and safety, and this constitutes the “for which.”",
+                "Let us leave these merely particular buildings, and contemplate that greatest of houses or cities, this universe. We shall see that its cause is God, by whom it has come into being, its material the four elements, from which it was compounded, its instrument the word of God, through which it was framed, and the final cause of the building is the goodness of the architect. It is thus that truth-lovers distinguish, who desire true and sound knowledge. But those who say that they possess something through God, suppose the Cause, that is the Maker, to be the instrument, and the instrument, that is the human mind, they suppose to be the cause.",
+                "[128] Right reason too would not hold Joseph free from blame, when he said that <i>through</i> God would the true meaning of dreams be found (Gen. 40:8). He should have said that <i>by</i> Him as cause the unfolding and right interpretation of things hidden would fitly come to pass. For we are the instruments, wielded in varying degrees of force, through which each particular form of action is produced; the Craftsman it is who brings to bear on the material the impact of our forces, whether of soul or body, even He by whom all things are moved.",
+                "[129] There are those who have not of themselves the capacity to distinguish differences in things; these we must instruct as ignorant. There are those who through contentiousness reverse and confuse the thoughts which their words express: these we must eschew as mere lovers of strife. But there are also those, who with careful search into what comes before them, assign to each as it is presented its proper place: these we must praise as the followers of a philosophy that cannot lie.",
+                "[130] And these Moses supports, when he says to those who feared to perish at the hands of the wicked one and his pursuing host, “Stand fast and see the salvation from the Lord, which he will accomplish for you” (Exod. 14:13). Thus he showed that not through God, but from Him as cause does salvation come."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO ON THE CHERUBIM",
+            "§ 6. <i>The stern and gloomy life</i>, etc. Philo seems to interpret this first flight of Hagar as the tendency of youth to shrink from the stern discipline of the school, the Encyclia being for the moment treated as “the mind which is trained in them,” as in <i>De Cong.</i> 180.",
+            "§ 8. ἐπιλάμψῃ … μεταδιώκων. The obvious way of taking this difficult and probably corrupt passage, namely to translate ἀποθανόντων τὰ πάθη χαρᾶς καὶ εὑφροσύνης by “died to the passions (or ‘feelings’) of joy and gladness,” must be wrong, for as Isaac is regularly regarded as embodying these qualities (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Leg. All.</i> iii. 218), it is impossible that his parents should be thought of as discarding them at his birth. Two lines of correction seem possible, (<i>a</i>) as adopted in the translation, to bring χαρᾶς and εὐφροσύνης into co-ordination with εὐδαιμονίας, (<i>b</i>) to co-ordinate them with παιδιάς by reading χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας. This in itself would still leave untouched the awkward gen. abs. ἐκλιπόντων and ἀποθανόντων, to say nothing of the difficulty involved in applying the phrase ἐκλιπεῖν τὰ γυναικεῖα (used of Sarah in Gen. 18:11) to Abraham also. These difficulties, however, might be removed by reading also ἐκλιπόν … ἀποθανόν (ἀπομαθόν?) … μεταδίωκον. (<i>a</i>) certainly as it stands leaves the sentence almost intolerable. Perhaps the least drastic correction would be to expel ὁ Ἰσαάκ as a gloss, put in its place καὶ τῶν and insert ὁ before καὶ παιδιάς. Thus the whole sentence will run, ἐπιλάμψῃ δὲ καὶ τὸ εὐδαιμονίας γένος καὶ τῶν ἐκλιπόντων τὰ γυναικεῖα καὶ ἀποθανόντων τὰ πάθη χαρᾶς καὶ εὐφροσύνης, ὁ καὶ παιδιάς, etc. The participial genitives in this case though still clumsy are less unnatural, and the difficulty of the application of ἐκλιπεῖν, etc., to Abraham is avoided as the phrase becomes a general statement. The obvious difficulty involved in (<i>b</i>) that it ascribes to Isaac what belongs to Sarah may be met by supposing that Philo equates Sarah’s “ceasing from the manner of women” with the conception of Isaac (<i>cf.</i> <i>De Post.</i> 134).",
+            "[It would bring this passage into harmony with other passages, if what Philo wrote was ἐκλιπὸν … ἀποθανὸν … μεταδίωκον (all in agreement with γένος), and χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας. It would seem not unlikely that a scribe, a little puzzled by the neuters ἐκλιπὸν and ἀποθανόν, and seeing ἐκλιπόντ- and ἀποθανόντ- before him, filled in the -ων in each word, producing ἐκλιπόντων and ἀποθανόντων. This led to the change of χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας into genitives singular. With ἑκλιπόν and ἀποθανόν restored, the construction is the same as that in <i>De Somniis</i>, i. 68 ᾦ τὸ αὐτομαθὲς γενός, Ισαάκ, ἐνδιαιγᾶται, μηδέποτε … <b>ἀφιστάμενον</b>. Our passage is also illustrated by <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 1 ᾗ τὸ αὐτομαθὲς ἐπέλαμψε γένος, Ἰσαάκ, εὐπαθειῶν ἀρίστη, χαρά, and <i>Quod Det. 46</i> τὸ μόνον ἀπαθὲς εἶδος ἐν γενέσει τὸν Ἰσαάκ <i>and</i> <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 261 τέξεται οὖν σοι ἡ ἀρετὴ υἱὸν γενναῖον ἄρρενα (Gen. 17:19) <b>παντὸς ἀπηλλαγμένον θήλεος πάθους.<b></b></b>",
+            "To Philo the fact that Isaac was sprung from one “as good as dead” and “the deadness of Sarah’s womb” carried with it his deadness to passions and his complete immunity from all that was weak and womanish.—G. H. W.]",
+            "τὰς παίδων. We have perhaps here an allusion to Gen. 21:9, where according to the A.V. Sarah saw Ishmael ‘mocking.’ The R.V. margin, however, has ‘playing,’ and the LXX. παίζοντα. The fact that it was this “playing of children” which led to Ishmael’s expulsion, would lend additional point to the words here.",
+            "§ 15. The idea of the lawfulness of falsehood under the circumstances here described is perhaps taken from Plato, <i>Rep.</i> iii. 389 B.",
+            "§ 25. <i>The two hemispheres.</i> Empedocles said εἶναι δύο ἡμισφαίρια, τὸ μὲν καθόλου πυρός, τὸ δὲ μικτὸν ἐξ ἀέρος καὶ ὀλίγου πυρός, ὅπερ οἴεται τὴν νύκτα εἶναι (see Ritter and Preller, 170). “Thus there arose two hemispheres which together form the concave sphere of heaven; the one is bright and consists entirely of fire; the other is dark and consists of air with isolated masses of fire sprinkled in it” (Zeller). <i>Cf.</i> Plato. <i>Axiochus</i> 376 A. A theory is mentioned that��τοῦ πόλου ὄντος σφαιροειδοῦς …, τὸ μὲν ἕτερον ἡμισφαίριον οἱ θεοὶ ἔλαχον οἱ οὐράνιοι, τὸ δὲ ἕτερον οἱ ὑπένερθεν.",
+            "§ 26. <i>Named by men of old the standing-place. Cf.</i> Philolaus (<i>ap.</i> Stob. <i>Ecl.</i> i. 21. 8) τὸ πρᾶτον ἁρμοσθὲν τὸ ἓν ἐν τῷ μέσῳ τᾶς σφαίρας ἑστία καλεῖται.",
+            "§ 28. Elsewhere, in <i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> i. 58 (which only survives in the Armenian), Philo gives the same explanation of the Cherubim, but interprets the sword as “heaven.”",
+            "§ 32. <i>Neither fights nor keeps the ranks.</i> Guilty, that is, of ἀστρατεία, shirking service, and λιποτάξιον, desertion in the field. Both these were punishable offences in Attic law.",
+            "§ 41. <i>Leah.</i> Leah (symbolizing virtue) is derived by Philo from the Hebrew words “lo” = not, and “lahah” = to be weary. The fool “says no” (ἀνανεύει) to her ἄσκησις which makes <i>herself</i> weary. Elsewhere (in <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 254) the weariness is interpreted of the weariness which she <i>causes</i>, and again (<i>De Migr. Abr.</i> 145) of the weariness caused by the burden of wickedness which she has cast off. In ἀνανευομένῃ there is also a reference to Jacob’s rejection of Leah in the actual story.",
+            "§ 42. <i>Who have no other standards</i>, etc. Cohn punctuates differently with a comma before τύφῳ and another after ἐθῶν, thus making ῥημάτων genitive after τύφῳ. But it seems unreasonable to break up the common collocation of ὀνόματα (nouns) with ῥήματα (verbs or phrases), the two together constantly standing for language as a whole.",
+            "τερθρείαις ἐθῶν, <i>i.e.</i> “mummeries of rituals.” This is well illustrated by Dion. Hal. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> 19, where both the τῦφος and the τερθρεία μυθική of the rites of Cybele are denounced.",
+            "§ 45. <i>In her solitude.</i> Apparently a fanciful deduction from the fact that Abraham’s presence is not mentioned in Gen. 21:1. In the cases that follow there is the same deduction from the absence of any mention of the husband.",
+            "§ 49. <i>His greater mysteries.</i> Philo borrows from the Eleusinian mysteries this idea of “greater” and “less.” Here Moses is the greater and the Prophets the less. For another application of the distinction see <i>De Sacr.</i> 62.",
+            "<i>Husband.</i>—The LXX. in Jer. 3:4, which differs wholly from the Hebrew, has ἀρχηγόν. As ἄνδρα is necessary to Philo’s argument he may be quoting some earlier rendering.",
+            "§§ 53–66. The argument of these sections seems to be as follows. Names do not ordinarily represent the thing named so absolutely that no further explanation is required. We should not know from the name Cain that he was first-born or male. But Moses’ names are given on a different principle. To show what this is, in 57–64 Philo describes the primitive τρόπος (65) of the mind to think that it possesses all that it seems to have. Since the name “Possession” indicates this τρόπος clearly, Moses had no need to say anything more. Philo adopts partially the Stoic theory that names came originally φύσει, but restricts it to the names of the O.T.",
+            "§ 69. <i>Will-o’-the-wisps.</i> The following passage suggests strongly that the reading adopted by the translator rather than that of Cohn is right. Chrysippus (on the distinction between φάντασμα, φανταστόν, φανταστικόν) says: φανταστικὸν δέ ἐστι διάκενος ἑλκυσμός, πάθος ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ ἀπʼ οὐδενὸς φανταστοῦ γινόμενον, κάθαπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ σκιαμαχοῦντος καὶ κενοῖς ἐπιφέροντος τὰς χεῖρας … φάντασμα δέ ἐστιν ἐφʼ ὂ ἑλκόμεθα κατὰ τὸν φανταστικὸν διάκενον ἑλκυσμόν. ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται ἐπὶ τῶν μελαγχολώντων καὶ μεμηνότων (Arnim, <i>Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</i>, ii. 54. <i>Cf.</i> <i>ibid.</i> 64).",
+            "§ 79. <i>Where there is reaction</i> (ἀντιπεπονθός). Philo here utilizes a piece of Stoic grammar. <i>Cf.</i> Diog. Laert. vii. 64: ἀντιπεπονθότα δέ ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις, ἃ ὕπτια ὄντα ἐνεργήματά ἑστιν, οἷον Κείρεται· ἐμπεριέχει (perhaps ἐμπαρέχει, see παρέχων ἑαυτόν, 79) γὰρ ἑαυτὸν ὁ κειρόμενος, <i>i.e.</i> the ἀντιπεπονθότα are those among the passives which though passive (in form) represent actions, as κείρεται. The application of the term in these sections of Philo suggests that the grammatical meaning of the term was not so much that of the ordinary middle (I shave myself) as that of the causative middle “I get myself shaved.” The term thus describes “having something done to us in response to something we have done ourselves.”",
+            "<i>A sheep or a fleece.</i> δέρμα and κῴδιον might possibly be taken as accusatives, but the phraseology in the parallel passage, <i>L.A.</i> iii. 201 κείρεις ἑτέρως μὲν ἅνθρωπον ἑτέρως δὲ τὸ κῴδιον, suggests that they are nominatives. The translator is unable to make any suggestion as to the distinction between the two nouns, or why τὸ λεγόμενον is added.",
+            "§ 84. “<i>All things</i>,” <i>He says</i>, “<i>are mine.</i>” The phrase does not occur in the O.T. Perhaps print ὅλα “μου,” φησίν, ἐστίν, and refer “He says” to the threefold “mine” in Numb. 28:2. <i>Cf.</i> <i>L.A.</i> iii. 176.",
+            "§ 105. <i>Grammar or literature.</i> γραμματική always included the study of the poets and historians as well as what we call grammar, and in Philo’s time this literary side was by far the most important.",
+            "<i>By the means of fine music.</i> The text implies that music is part of “geometry,” a view which is very unusual, if not unprecedented, though the two, since geometry included arithmetic, were closely connected. The change of the nominatives γραμματική, etc., to -κῇ (datives), suggested by Cohn, would obviate this, but to represent knowledge as <i>e.g.</i> studying history <i>by means of</i> γραμματική is very harsh. Cohn confessed that his emendation did not satisfy him.",
+            "<i>Rhetoric</i>, etc. The allusion in this sentence is (<i>a</i>) to the regular division of rhetoric into (1) “invention” (εὔρεσις including τάξις), (2) style or expression (ἑρμηνεία), (3) delivery (ὑπόκρισις); and (<i>b</i>) to the expression of the gentler emotions (ἤθη) and that of the stronger emotions (πάθη).",
+            "§§ 109–112. For the sense of this and the preceding sections <i>cf.</i> Epictetus, <i>Diss.</i> i. 12. 16 διέταξε δὲ θέρος εἷναι καὶ χειμῶνα καὶ φορὰν καὶ ἀφορίαν καὶ ἀρετὴν καὶ κακίαν καὶ πάσας τὰς τοιαύτας ἐναντιότητας ὑπὲρ συμφωνίας τῶν ὅλων.",
+            "§ 114. <i>The other gradations.</i> Of the five gradations left untranslated ἡβῶν perhaps = age of puberty, while πρωτογένειος speaks for itself, and the other three fall of course between the limits thus indicated.",
+            "<i>Rebirth. Cf.</i> a passage in <i>Quaest. in Ex.</i> ii. 46, where, according to the Latin version of the Armenian, the calling of Moses to the Mount is said to typify the “secunda nativitas sive regeneratio priore melior.” If we are to suppose that this “regeneration” is absorption in the Divine and occurs at death, the correction to ἀσύγκριτοι ἄποιοι, which is also wanted for the balance of the two clauses, seems necessary. But it is possible that Philo is following the Stoic doctrine, according to which the souls (of the good at any rate) survived the general conflagration (ἐκπύρωσις) which was to be followed by the “reconstruction” (παλιγγενεσία); see Arnim, <i>l.c.</i> ii. 802–822. In this case Cohn’s reading might stand; for the soul through this interregnum, though ἀσώματος, would still be σύγκριτος (of fire and air) and ποιός.",
+            "§ 115. Philo adapts from the Attic orators the technical language used of a wife who formally claimed divorce or separation from her husband. If the husband did not agree, an ἀπολείψεως δίκη had to be brought before the Archon (πρὸς τὸν ἄρχοντα) (see <i>Dict. of Ant.</i>, art. “Divortium”). <i>Cf</i>. <i>Quod Det.</i> 143, where also we have the phrase (apparently in general use: see Bekker, <i>Anecd.</i> 430. 30) χρηματίζειν ἀπόλειψιν.",
+            "§ 121. <i>Licence of language.</i> κατάχρησις (<i>abusio</i>) is the name used by the grammarians for the figure of speech involved in such a phrase as the “aedificare equum” of Virgil (<i>aedificare</i> being properly to build a house only).",
+            "<i>The land shall not be sold at all.</i> Philo is still quoting Lev. 25:23, which he cited correctly in 108. Here, however, he substitutes πράσει for εἰς βεβαίωσιν, probably from a reminiscence of Deut. 21:14, where the phrase πράσει οὐ πραθήσεται is used. The alteration, though it makes a considerable difference in the meaning of the text, hardly affects the argument.",
+            "§ 123. <i>Hawking his goods.</i> Properly speaking the word ἐπευωνίζων means “selling cheap,” and this shade of meaning makes good sense in <i>De Gig.</i> 32. On the other hand here and elsewhere there is no special point in the cheapness, and probably the word merely conveys some measure of contempt. If, however, the ἑαυτοῦ is to be pressed, the idea might be “pressing his own goods upon the purchaser and thus underselling his competitors.”",
+            "§ 125. πρὸς γὰρ τὴν γένεσιν, etc. Philo’s four causes are evidently based on Aristotle’s four, (1) the οὐσία or τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι (formal cause), (2) the ὕλη or ἐξ οὖ (material cause), (3) the ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως or τὸ ποιοῦν (efficient cause), (4) τὸ οὖ ἕνεκα or ἀγαθόν (final cause). But for the “formal cause” he substitutes the “instrument,” a view to which his theory of the λόγος naturally led. He repeats the first three of the causes in <i>Quaest. in Gen.</i> i. 58, and all four in <i>De Providentia</i> (also only extant in the Armenian). There, however, the “ad quid?” is answered by “ut sit argumentum,” <i>i.e.</i> apparently, to give a proof of his goodness. Here there is an evident confusion of his treatment of the world as compared with his treatment of the house. The ἀγαθότης of God does not correspond with the σκέπη furnished by the house. Philo is perhaps misled by Plato, <i>Timaeus</i> 29 E, where the question, “why did God make the world?” is answered in the first instance by ἀγαθὸς ἦν, but the true answer, namely that He wanted to make all things like Himself, follows directly."
+        ]
+    },
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על הכרובים",
+        "enTitle": "On the Cherubim",
+        "key": "On the Cherubim",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Cherubim/English/merged.json

@@ -0,0 +1,299 @@
+{
+    "title": "On the Cherubim",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_the_Cherubim",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE CHERUBIM, AND THE FLAMING SWORD, AND CAIN THE FIRST MAN CREATED OUT OF MAN (DE CHERUBIM) <br>ANALYTICAL INTRODUCTION",
+            "This fine treatise divides itself into two parts, the first (1–39) a homily on Genesis 3:24—",
+            "“And He cast forth Adam and set over against the Garden of Pleasure the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way.”",
+            "The second (40—end) on Genesis 4:1—",
+            "“And Adam knew Eve, his wife, and she conceived and bare Cain, and he said ‘I have gotten a man through God.’ ”",
+            "I. In the first part we open (1–10) with a disquisition on the difference between the phrases “cast forth” and “sent forth,” which was used in Genesis 3:23: the former indicates a permanent, the latter a temporary expulsion (1–2). These different meanings are illustrated (3–9) by the earlier expulsion of Hagar, as described in Genesis 16, and the later and permanent expulsion of Genesis 21. In this, as often in Philo, Hagar stands for the lower and secular education, and Sarah for philosophy.",
+            "We then have a discussion (11–20) of the meaning of “over against.” While it is pointed out that the phrase may sometimes indicate hostility (12–13), and sometimes the position of the accused before his judge (14–17), in which the text “the priest shall set the (accused) woman before the Lord and uncover her head” leads to an interpretation of the last three words as meaning “reveal the real motives,” it is decided that the words in Genesis are used in the same sense of friendliness, as in the text “Abraham was standing before (opposite to) the Lord” (18–20).",
+            "From 21–39 we have mainly a discussion of what is intended by the two Cherubim and the Flaming Sword. Two physical explanations are suggested: (<i>a</i>) the planetary sphere on the one hand, with its seven zones in which each of the planets move, and that of the fixed stars on the other, the revolution of the whole heaven being the sword (21–24); (<i>b</i>) the two “hemispheres” of the heaven, with the sun as sword (25–26). But Philo’s personal preference is for a more profound interpretation (27–30), which finds in the Cherubim the two chief ‘Potencies’ of God, His ‘goodness’ or lovingkindness, and His majesty or sovereignty, while the sword is the reason or Logos which unites the two. This last leads to the reflection that Balaam, the foolish one, was rightly made swordless, as is shown in his words to the ass, “if I had a sword, I would have pierced thee” (32). And these particular words in their turn suggest a short meditation on those who, when disappointed in worldly affairs lay the blame on the affairs themselves (33–38). The whole homily concludes with a section emphasizing reason as the source of human happiness (39).",
+            "II. The main idea that runs through the second part is that Adam signifies mind, Eve sense (<i>i.e.</i> sense-perception), and Cain (whose name means ‘possession’) the impious idea engendered by Mind and Sense, that what we have is our own and not God’s. But we must first consider the words “Adam knew his wife.” The absence of any such phrase in connexion with the great saints of the Pentateuch indicates that their wives (unlike Adam’s) are Virtues which receive seed <i>from</i> God Himself, though they bear offspring <i>to</i> the persons who possess them, a lesson which is declared to be one for higher understandings, and too spiritual for profane ears (40–52). Next we have to ask why “Cain” is not more fully described as ‘first-born son’ (53–55), and the explanation of this point  merges into an exposition of the way in which Mind, helpless in itself, by mating with Sense, comes to comprehend phenomena and supposes that this comprehension is its own doing (56–64). The folly of this supposition is emphasized (65–66), and illustrated first from the words of Laban, “The daughters are my daughters, the sons my sons, and the cattle my cattle, and all that thou seest are mine.” The allegorizing of daughters, sons, and cattle as arts or sciences, reasonings, and sense-perceptions respectively, leads to an impassioned outburst on human fallibility and its slavery to delusions (67–71), a slavery which resembles that of the slave of Ex. 21 who “loved his master” and rejected freedom (72–74). A second illustration is drawn from the vain boasting of Pharaoh, as described in Moses’ song in Ex. 15. (74–76). The failure of the Pharaoh mind to realize that God alone acts, while it is for man to be passive (77), leads to a remarkable digression on the right form of human passiveness—not, that is, a helpless passiveness, but one which braces itself to accept and co-operate with the Actor (78–83).",
+            "In contrast with the idle claims of the Mind, we have the Divine claim that “all things are Mine … in My feasts.” The last few words suggest a meditation on the sense in which God keeps feast, how His resting is an eternal activity, which unlike the activity of the world knows no weariness (84–90). Man indeed can in no true sense feast, and there follows a powerful denunciation of the vanity, licence, and sinfulness of the popular festivals (91–97). The last few words of this denunciation deplore the pagan blindness to the truth that God sees into the recesses of the soul, and thus we pass, by a somewhat forced transition, to the thought of the soul as God’s house, and the nature of the preparations needed to fit it for His reception is described in a fine passage, in the course of which Philo gives a signal example of the high value he sets on the secular education and culture of his day  (98–105).",
+            "The soul thus fitted for God’s reception will inevitably find its chief joy in acknowledging God’s sovereignty and ownership (106–107). Thus we return to the main theme, which is once more illustrated by the text “The land shall not be sold … for all the land is Mine, because ye are sojourners and aliens before Me.” Spiritually the “land” is the world of creation, every part of which is a loan from Him to every other part, and here Philo dwells eloquently on the interdependence of created things (108–113). It is also ourselves, for, inconstant creatures that we are (113–114), ignorant of our whence and whither (114–115), our minds ever subject to delusion and seduction (116–117), we cannot be said to own ourselves, a thought which may well teach us resignation (118–119). The last words of the text, “ye are sojourners,” suggest the thought of God as the true ‘citizen,’ in contrast to ourselves who are at best immigrants (120–121), and once more the phrase “shall not be sold” reminds us that the benefits men exchange are at bottom a matter of sale and purchase, and that God alone is the real giver (121–123).",
+            "Finally we have a disquisition on the error involved in the words “I have gotten a man <i>through</i> God.” Philo, on the lines of Aristotle, names four causes of things, and shows that the “by whom,” or agent, and not the “through whom,” or instrument, is applicable to God (124–127); and this he illustrates by comparing the erroneous use by Joseph of the latter with the right use of the former by Moses (128–130)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "<big>ON THE CHERUBIM, AND THE FLAMING SWORD, AND CAIN THE FIRST MAN CREATED OUT OF MAN</big> <br>[1] “And he cast forth Adam and set [him] over against the Garden of Pleasure [and posted] the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way, to guard the way of the Tree of Life” (Gen. 3:24). Observe the word “cast forth” instead of the earlier “sent forth” (<i>ib.</i> 23). The words are not set down at random, but chosen with a knowledge of the things to which he applies them in their proper and exact sense.",
+                "[2] He who is sent forth is not thereby prevented from returning. He who is cast forth by God is subject to eternal banishment. For to him who is not as yet firmly in the grip of wickedness it is open to repent and return to the virtue from which he was driven, as an exile returns to his fatherland. But to him that is weighed down and enslaved by that fierce and incurable malady, the horrors of the future must needs be undying and eternal: he is thrust forth to the place of the impious, there to endure misery continuous and unrelieved.",
+                "[3] And thus we see that Hagar or the lower education, whose sphere is the secular learning of the schools, while she twice departs from sovereign virtue in the person of Sarah, does once retrace her steps. On this first occasion hers was a voluntary flight, not a banishment, and when she met the angel or divine reason, she returned to her master’s house (Gen. 16:6 ff.). The second time she is cast forth utterly, never to return (Gen. 21:14)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[4] Here we must speak of the reasons for this first flight and that second eternal banishment. On the first occasion Abraham and Sarah had not yet received their change of names, that is they had not yet been changed in character to the betterment of soul, but one was still Abram “the uplifted father,” pursuing the philosophy of the super-terrestrial, the philosophy which treats of air and the ways in which it is affected, pursuing too the sublimer philosophy of the heaven and the beings existing therein, which mathematics claims as the noblest branch of “physic” or nature-study;",
+                "[5] and Sarah was still Sarai, the type of personal sovereignty (her name means “my sovereignty”); she had not yet undergone the change to generic virtue; for all that is generic must be imperishable. She still had her place with the particular and specific virtues. She was still prudence, as shown in the “I,” and similarly temperance, courage, justice, all perishable, because the sphere in which they move is the perishable “I,”",
+                "[6] And therefore Hagar the lower or secular culture, though she has hastened to escape the stern and gloomy life of the virtue-seekers, will return to that same life which as yet is unable to hold the heights of the generic and imperishable, still clinging to the particular and specific region in which the lower is preferred to the highest.",
+                "[7] But at the later stage Abram leaves the study of nature for the life of the wise, the lover of God. His name is changed to Abraham, meaning “the chosen father of sound,” for to “sound” is the function of the uttered word or reason, whose father is the mind when it has grasped the good. Sarai again quits personal sovereignty to become Sarah, whose name is “sovereign,” and this means that instead of being specific and perishable virtue she has become generic and imperishable.",
+                "[8] Then too there shines upon them the light of Isaac—the generic form of happiness, of the joy and gladness which belongs to those who have ceased from the manner of women (Gen. 18:11) and died to the passions—Isaac, whose heart is in the pursuit of no childish sports, but those which are divine. When all this is come to pass, then will be cast forth those preliminary studies which bear the name of Hagar, and cast forth too will be their son the sophist named Ishmael."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[9] The banishment on which they enter will be for ever, for the sentence of expulsion is confirmed by God when he bids the wise man hearken to the words of Sarah, who charges him expressly to cast forth the bondwoman and her son (Gen. 21:10). It is well to listen to the voice of virtue, above all when she sets before us such a doctrine as this, because the most perfect types of being and the secondary acquirements are worlds apart, and wisdom has no kinship with the sophist’s culture. For the latter has for the fruits of all its labour only those persuasions which tend to establish the false opinion, which destroys the soul; but wisdom studies truth and thus obtains that great source of profit to the mind, knowledge of right reason.",
+                "[10] Since then the sophist, who is ever sophist, and his mother, the instruction in the preliminary learning, are expelled and banished by God from the presence of wisdom and the wise, on whom he confers the titles of Sarah and Abraham, can we wonder that he has cast forth Adam, that is the mind, which is sick with the incurable sickness of folly, from the dwelling-place of virtue for ever and permits him not to return?"
+            ],
+            [
+                "[11] Then too it is that the flaming sword and the Cherubim find their dwelling-place “over against” Paradise. The word “opposite” or “over against” may be used in three senses. First there is a hostile sense; a thing placed “over against” may be in opposition; and there is also a sense applicable to persons who are so placed to be judged, as when the accused is placed over against the juror. And thirdly there is the friendly sense. An object may be so placed to be fully observed, and, in consequence of this more accurate inspection, to be brought into closer connexion, just as painters and sculptors have the picture or statue which serve them as models.",
+                "[12] Of the first sense, that of hostility, we find an example in what is said of Cain that “he went out from the face of God and dwelt in Nod over against Eden” (Gen. 4:16). The meaning of Nod is “tossing” and Eden is “delight.” The former is the symbol of the vice that creates tumult in the soul; the latter of the virtue which wins it well-being and delight, not the weak and wanton sort, which the brute passion pleasure brings, but that sense of profound content and joy, which knows not toil or trouble.",
+                "[13] But when the mind goes forth from the vision of God, whereon it was good and profitable for it to be anchored, it must needs, like a ship at sea, battling with boisterous winds, straightway be borne hither and thither, and its only home and country is wild commotion, the very opposite of that constancy of the soul, which is the gift of the joy that bears the name of Eden."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[14] For the second sense when the word means set opposite for judgement, we have an example in the account of the woman suspected by her husband of adultery. “The priest,” so he says, “shall place the woman in front of, or ‘over against,’ the Lord and uncover her head” (Numb. 5:18). What scripture would indicate by these last words, let us investigate. An action right in itself may often be wrong in the doing, and things contrary to duty in themselves may be done in the spirit of duty. For instance the restoration of a deposit when it is done not from any honest motive but either to injure the recipient, or to lead up treacherously to the repudiation of a greater trust, is a duty in itself, yet in its actual execution wrong.",
+                "[15] On the other hand, if the physician who purposes to use purge or knife or hot iron to benefit his patient, conceals the truth from him, that he may not shirk the treatment through anticipation of its terror, or collapse and faint when exposed to it, we have an action contrary to duty in itself yet in its actual execution right. So too with the wise man who, fearing that the truth may strengthen the enemy’s position, gives them false information to save his country. And thus Moses says “follow justice justly” (Deut. 16:20), implying that it is possible to do so unjustly, when the judge brings no honest mind to bear upon the case.",
+                "[16] Now words spoken openly and deeds done openly are known to all, but the inward thought which prompts them in either case is not known. We cannot tell whether it is wholesome and pure, or diseased and stained with manifold defilement. No merely created being is capable of discerning the hidden thought and motive. Only God can do so, and therefore Moses says “things hidden are known to the Lord God, but things manifest are known to the Creature” (Deut. 29:29).",
+                "[17] Now we see the cause why Reason, the priest and prophet, is bidden to set the soul “over against the Lord” with her head uncovered (Numb. 5:18), that is with the dominant principles, which constitute her head, laid bare, and the motives which she has cherished stripped of their trappings, so that, being judged by the all-penetrating eye of God the incorruptible, she may either like counterfeit coinage have her lurking dissimulation revealed, or being innocent of all evil may, by appealing to the testimony of Him who alone can see the soul naked, wash away the charges brought against her."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[18] So much for the second sense of “over against.” But the third where the object sought is closer intimacy we find in the words used of the wholly-wise Abraham, “He was still standing before (or over against) the Lord” (Gen. 18:22). And a proof of this closer intimacy is the further saying that “he drew nigh and said” (<i>ibid.</i> 23). Those who desire estrangement may stand aloof and separate themselves; it is for those who seek intimacy to draw nigh to each other.",
+                "[19] To stand fast and acquire an unswerving mind is to be stepping nigh to the power of God. For with the divine there is no turning: variableness belongs to the nature of the created. He then, who with the love of knowledge as his bridle checks the onward course which is natural to created being and compels it to stand still, may be sure that he is not far from the divine happiness.",
+                "[20] It is with this thought of intimacy that he assigns to the Cherubim and the flaming sword the abode in front of Paradise, not as to foes destined to contend in hostility with each other, but as to the dearest and closest of friends; that thus the Potencies ever gazing at each other in unbroken contemplation may acquire a mutual yearning, even that winged and heavenly love, wherewith God the bountiful giver inspires them."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] We must now examine what is symbolized by the Cherubim and the sword of flame which turns every way. I suggest that they are an allegorical figure of the revolution of the whole heaven. For the movements assigned to the heavenly spheres are of two opposite kinds, in the one case an unvarying course, embodying the principle of sameness, to the right, in the other a variable course, embodying the principle of otherness, to the left.",
+                "[22] The outermost sphere, which contains what are called the fixed stars, is a single one and always makes the same revolution from east to west. But the inner spheres, seven in number, contain the planets and each has two motions of opposite nature, one voluntary, the other under a compelling force. Their involuntary motion is similar to that of the fixed stars, for we see them pass every day from east to west, but their own proper motion is from west to east, and it is in this that we find the revolutions of the seven governed also by certain lengths of time. These lengths are the same in the case of three whose course is equal, and these three which have the same rate of speed are known as the Sun, the Morning-star, and the Sparkler (or Mercury). The others have unequal courses and different lengths of time in revolution, though these too preserve a definite proportion to each other and the above-named three.",
+                "[23] One of the Cherubim then symbolizes the outermost sphere of the fixed stars. It is the final heaven of all, the vault in which the choir of those who wander not move in a truly divine unchanging rhythm, never leaving the post which the Father who begat them has appointed them in the universe. The other of the Cherubim is the inner contained sphere, which through a sixfold division He has made into seven zones of regular proportion and fitted each planet into one of them.",
+                "[24] He has set each star in its proper zone as a driver in a chariot, and yet He has in no case trusted the reins to the driver, fearing that their rule might be one of discord, but He has made them all dependent on Himself, holding that thus would their march be orderly and harmonious. For when God is with us all we do is worthy of praise; all that is done without Him merits blame."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[25] This then is one interpretation of the allegory of the Cherubim, and the flaming turning sword represents, we must suppose, their movement and the eternal revolution of the whole heaven. But perhaps on another interpretation the two Cherubim represent the two hemispheres. For we read that the Cherubim stand face to face with their wings inclining to the mercy-seat (Exod. 25:19). And so, too, the hemispheres are opposite to each other and stretch out to the earth, the centre of all things, which actually parts them.",
+                "[26] And as this alone in all the universe stands firm, it has been rightly named by men of old the standing-place, and it stands thus, that the revolution of each of the hemispheres may circle round one fixed centre and thus be wholly harmonious. The flaming sword on this interpretation is the Sun, that packed mass of flame, which is the swiftest of all existing things and whirls round the whole universe in a single day."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[27] But there is a higher thought than these. It comes from a voice in my own soul, which oftentimes is god-possessed and divines where it does not know. This thought I will record in words if I can. The voice told me that while God is indeed one, His highest and chiefest powers are two, even goodness and sovereignty. Through His goodness He begat all that is, through His sovereignty He rules what He has begotten.",
+                "[28] And in the midst between the two there is a third which unites them, Reason, for it is through reason that God is both ruler and good. Of these two potencies sovereignty and goodness the Cherubim are symbols, as the fiery sword is the symbol of reason. For exceeding swift and of burning heat is reason and chiefly so the reason of the (Great) Cause, for it alone preceded and outran all things, conceived before them all, manifest above them all.",
+                "[29] O then, my mind, admit the image unalloyed of the two Cherubim, that having learnt its clear lesson of the sovereignty and beneficence of the Cause, thou mayest reap the fruits of a happy lot. For straightway thou shalt understand how these unmixed potencies are mingled and united, how, where God is good, yet the glory of His sovereignty is seen amid the beneficence, how, where He is sovereign, through the sovereignty the beneficence still appears. Thus thou mayest gain the virtues begotten of these potencies, a cheerful courage and a reverent awe towards God. When things are well with thee, the majesty of the sovereign king will keep thee from high thoughts. When thou sufferest what thou wouldest not, thou wilt not despair of betterment, remembering the loving-kindness of the great and bountiful God.",
+                "[30] And for this cause is the sword a sword of flame, because in their company reason the measure of things must follow, reason with its fierce and burning heat, reason that ever moves with unswerving zeal, teaching thee to choose the good and eschew the evil."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[31] Remember how Abraham the wise, when he began to make God his standard in all things and leave nothing to the created, takes a copy of the flaming sword—“fire and knife” it says (Gen. 22:6)—desiring to sever and consume the mortal element away from himself and thus to fly upward to God with his understanding stripped of its trammels.",
+                "[32] And thus too Balaam (“foolish people” that is) is represented by Moses as disarmed, one who neither fights nor keeps the ranks, for Moses knew well that war which the soul should wage for knowledge as its guerdon. Balaam says to the ass, who signifies the unreasoning rule of life, which is ridden by every fool: “If I had a sword I would have ere now pierced thee through” (Numb. 22:29). Well may we thank the great Contriver, that, knowing the madness of folly, he did not put into its hands, as into the hands of a madman, the sword of the power of words, to wreak widespread and unrighteous carnage among all who came in his way.",
+                "[33] And this angry cry of Balaam is ever the cry of each of the unpurified in his vanity, if he has followed the life of the merchant or the farmer or other business that men pursue for gain. Each, while good fortune encounters them in their several walks of life, sits his beast with cheerful mood and keeps a tight grip of the reins and scouts the thought of letting them drop from his hands. And all those who bid him desist, and set limits to his desires, because the future is uncertain, he charges with malice and envy, and will have it that their warning is not of goodwill.",
+                "[34] But when disappointment and misfortune befall him he does indeed recognize that these were true prophets, fully competent to guard against the chances of the future, but he lays all the blame on wholly guiltless objects, the farming, the trading, the other pursuits, which of his own judgement he followed for lucre."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[35] And these pursuits, though they have no vocal organs, will utter the language which speaks in the reality of facts, a language which is plainer than the language of the tongue. “False slanderer,” they will cry, “are we not they on whom you rode proud-necked as on some beast of burden? Have we ever in mere insolence brought disaster on you? (Numb. 22:30). Behold the armed angel, the reason of God, standing in the way against you (<i>ibid.</i> 31), the source through whom both good and ill come to fulfilment. See where he stands.",
+                "[36] Why then blame us now, on whom you cast no blame before, when things fared well with you? We stay the same, we change not a jot of our nature. But the tests you use are false and your impatience is without reason. If you had learnt from the first that it is not your life-pursuits which bring your share in good or ill, but the divine reason, the ruler and steersman of all, you would bear with more patience what befalls you, and cease from slandering and ascribing to us what we have no power to bring about.",
+                "[37] If then that ruler should in turn subdue those warring elements, scatter the thoughts of disheartenment which war brings, and send a message of peace to your life, you will give us the hand of friendship with a bright and cheerful face, though we are what we ever were. But we are not elated at your goodwill, nor care we for your anger. We know that we cause not good or ill, though you imagine such things of us. It were as foolish to lay a prosperous voyage or the disasters of shipwreck to the charge of the sea itself instead of to the changes of the winds, which sometimes blow gently, sometimes in fiercest riot. For stillness is the natural self-engendered quality of all water,",
+                "[38] but when the favouring breeze follows behind the rudder and every reef is let out, the ship with full sail goes safely to the harbour, and again when a head-wind swoops suddenly down against the prow it raises a wild commotion, and overturns the bark. And all this is laid to the charge of the guiltless sea, though plainly it is calm or stormy according to the lightness or the violence of the winds.”",
+                "[39] Surely all this is sufficient proof that nature who has provided for men a mighty champion in reason makes him who can use this champion aright a truly happy and reasonable being. Him who cannot use it aright she leaves to unreason and misery."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[40] “And Adam knew his wife and she conceived and bare Cain, and he said, ‘I have gotten a man through God,’ and He added to this that she bore his brother Abel” (Gen. 4:1, 2). The persons to whose virtue the lawgiver has testified, such as Abraham, Isaac, Jacob and Moses, and others of the same spirit, are not represented by him as knowing women.",
+                "[41] For since we hold that woman signifies in a figure sense-perception, and that knowledge comes into being through estrangement from sense and body, it will follow that the lovers of wisdom reject rather than choose sense. And surely this is natural. For the helpmeets of these men are called women, but are in reality virtues. Sarah “sovereign and leader,” Rebecca “steadfastness in excellence,” Leah “rejected and faint” through the unbroken discipline, which every fool rejects and turns from with words of denial, Zipporah, the mate of Moses, whose name is “bird,” speeding upwards from earth to heaven and contemplating there the nature of things divine and blessed.",
+                "[42] The virtues have their conception and their birth-pangs, but when I purpose to speak of them let them who corrupt religion into superstition close their ears or depart. For this is a divine mystery and its lesson is for the initiated who are worthy to receive the holiest secret, even those who in simplicity of heart practise the piety which is true and genuine, free from all tawdry ornament. The sacred revelation is not for those others who, under the spell of the deadly curse of vanity, have no other standards for measuring what is pure and holy but their barren words and phrases and their silly usages and ritual."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[43] Thus then must the sacred instruction begin. Man and Woman, male and female of the human race, in the course of nature come together to hold intercourse for the procreation of children. But virtues whose offspring are so many and so perfect may not have to do with mortal man, yet if they receive not seed of generation from another they will never of themselves conceive.",
+                "[44] Who then is he that sows in them the good seed save the Father of all, that is God unbegotten and begetter of all things? He then sows, but the fruit of His sowing, the fruit which is His own, He bestows as a gift. For God begets nothing for Himself, for He is in want of nothing, but all for him who needs to receive.",
+                "[45] I will give as a warrant for my words one that none can dispute, Moses the holiest of men. For he shows us Sarah conceiving at the time when God visited her in her solitude (Gen. 21:1), but when she brings forth it is not to the Author of her visitation, but to him who seeks to win wisdom, whose name is Abraham.",
+                "[46] And even clearer is Moses’ teaching of Leah, that God opened her womb (Gen. 29:31). Now to open the womb belongs to the husband. Yet when she conceived she brought forth not to God (for He is in Himself all-sufficing for Himself), but to him who endures toil to gain the good, even Jacob. Thus virtue receives the divine seed from the Creator, but brings forth to one of her own lovers, who is preferred above all others who seek her favour.",
+                "[47] Again Isaac the all-wise besought God, and through the power of Him who was thus besought Steadfastness or Rebecca became pregnant (Gen. 25:21). And without supplication or entreaty did Moses, when he took Zipporah the winged and soaring virtue, find her pregnant through no mortal agency (Exod. 2:22)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[48] These thoughts, ye initiated, whose ears are purified, receive into your souls as holy mysteries indeed and babble not of them to any of the profane. Rather as stewards guard the treasure in your own keeping, not where gold and silver, substances corruptible, are stored, but where lies that most beautiful of all possessions, the knowledge of the Cause and of virtue, and, besides these two, of the fruit which is engendered by them both. But, if ye meet with anyone of the initiated, press him closely, cling to him, lest knowing of some still newer secret he hide it from you; stay not till you have learnt its full lesson.",
+                "[49] I myself was initiated under Moses the God-beloved into his greater mysteries, yet when I saw the prophet Jeremiah and knew him to be not only himself enlightened, but a worthy minister of the holy secrets, I was not slow to become his disciple. He out of his manifold inspiration gave forth an oracle spoken in the person of God to Virtue the all-peaceful. “Didst thou not call upon Me as thy house, thy father and the husband of thy virginity?” (Jer. 3:4). Thus he implies clearly that God is a house, the incorporeal dwelling-place of incorporeal ideas, that He is the father of all things, for He begat them, and the husband of Wisdom, dropping the seed of happiness for the race of mortals into good and virgin soil. For it is meet that God should hold converse with the truly virgin nature, that which is undefiled and free from impure touch; but it is the opposite with us.",
+                "[50] For the union of human beings that is made for the procreation of children, turns virgins into women. But when God begins to consort with the soul, He makes what before was a woman into a virgin again, for He takes away the degenerate and emasculate passions which unmanned it and plants instead the native growth of unpolluted virtues. Thus He will not talk with Sarah till she has ceased from all that is after the manner of women (Gen. 18:11), and is ranked once more as a pure virgin."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[51] Again even a virgin soul may perchance be dishonoured through the defilement of licentious passions. Therefore the oracle makes itself safe by speaking of God as the husband not of a virgin, for a virgin is liable to change and death, but of virginity, the idea which is unchangeable and eternal. For particulars within a class are of their nature such as to come into being and pass out of it again, but to the potencies which give their form to these particulars is allotted an existence indestructible.",
+                "[52] It is meet and right therefore that God the uncreated, the unchanging, should sow the ideas of the immortal and virgin virtues in virginity which changes not into the form of woman.",
+                "Why then, soul of man, when thou shouldst live the virgin life in the house of God and cling to knowledge, dost thou stand aloof from them and embrace outward sense, which unmans and defiles thee? For this thou shalt bring forth that thing of ruin and confusion, Cain, the fratricide, the accursed, the possession which is no possession. For the meaning of Cain is “possession.”"
+            ],
+            [
+                "[53] We may note with surprise the form of expression, which, contrary to the usual practice, the lawgiver often employs and in the case of many persons. For when after speaking of the earth-born pair he begins the story of the first-born child of man, though he has said nothing at all of him hitherto, he says simply “she brought forth Cain.” It is as though the name had been often mentioned before, instead of being now for the first time introduced for use in the narrative. We may ask the author “Who or what is this Cain?” What has he told us small or great about him in the past?",
+                "[54] Surely he is not ignorant how the names of persons should be given. We see indeed that later on he will show his knowledge plainly in speaking of this same person Eve. “Adam knew Eve his wife; and she conceived and brought forth a son, and called his name Seth” (Gen. 4:25). Surely it was far more necessary in the case of the firstborn, who was the beginning of human generation through two parents, first to state the male sex of the child, and then to give his personal name, Cain, as it might be.",
+                "[55] Since then it was clearly not because he was ignorant how names should be given, that he rejects the usual method in the case of Cain, we must consider why he speaks thus of the children of our first parents and uses the form natural to an incidental mention of the names, rather than that which is usual when names are originally assigned. I conjecture that the reason is as follows."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[56] Elsewhere the universal practice of men as a body is to give to things names which differ from the things, so that the objects are not the same as what we call them. But with Moses the names assigned are manifest images of the things, so that name and thing are inevitably the same from the first and the name and that to which the name is given differ not a whit. My meaning will be seen more clearly from the case before us.",
+                "[57] The Mind in us—call it Adam—having met with outward Sense, called Eve, the source, we hold, of life to all living bodies (Gen. 3:20) approaches her for their mutual intercourse. She for her part takes in and catches as in a net the external objects of sense, as nature bids. Through the eyes comes colour, through the ears sound, through the nostrils smell, through the organs of taste flavours and through the touch all solid matter. Thus conceiving and being made pregnant, she straightway becomes in labour and bears the worst evil of the soul, vanity of thought. For the Mind thought that all these were his own possessions, all that he saw or heard or smelt or tasted or touched—all his own invention and handiwork."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[58] That it should have been so with the Mind was not strange. For there was a time when Mind neither had sense-perception, nor held converse with it, but a great gulf divided it from associated interdependent things. Rather was it then like the solitary ungregarious animals. At that time it formed a class by itself; it had no contact with body, no all-collecting instrument in its grasp wherewith to bring into its power the external objects of sense. It was blind, incapable, not in the common meaning of blindness as applied to those whom we observe to have lost their eyesight, for they though deprived of one sense have the others more abundantly.",
+                "[59] No, the Mind was docked of all its powers of sense-perception, thus truly powerless. It was but half the perfect soul, lacking the power whereby it is the nature of bodies to be perceived, a mere unhappy section bereft of its mate without the support of the sense-perceiving organs, whereby it could have propped as with a staff its faltering steps. And thus all bodily objects were wrapped in profound darkness and none of them could come to the light. For sense, the means whereby they were to become the objects of knowledge, was not.",
+                "[60] God then, wishing to provide the Mind with perception of material as well as immaterial things, thought to complete the soul by weaving into the part first made the other section, which he called by the general name of “woman” and the proper name of “Eve,” thus symbolizing sense."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[61] This Eve or sense from the very moment of coming into being through each of her parts as through orifices poured multitudinous light into the Mind, and purging and dispersing the mist set it as it were in the place of a master, able to see in luminous clearness the natures of things bodily.",
+                "[62] And the Mind, like one enlightened by the flash of the sun’s beam, after night, or as one awakened from deep sleep, or like a blind man who has suddenly received his sight, found thronging on it all things which come into being, heaven, earth, air, water, the vegetable and animal world, their phases, qualities, faculties, dispositions whether temporary or permanent, movements, activities, functions, changes, extinctions. Some it saw, some it heard, some it tasted, some it smelt, and some it touched; and to some it was attracted, because they work pleasure, from others it was averse because they cause pain.",
+                "[63] So then it gazed around on every side and, beholding itself and its powers, feared not to utter the same boast as the Macedonian king Alexander. For the story is that, when he seemed to have gained the mastery of Europe and Asia, he stood in some commanding spot and, looking at the view around, said “this way and that all are mine.” The words showed the lightness of an immature and childish soul, the soul of a common man in truth and not of a king.",
+                "[64] But before Alexander’s day the Mind, having acquired the faculty of sense and through its agency laid hold of every form of bodily things, was filled and puffed up with unreasoning pride, and thus thought that all things were its own possessions and none belonged to any other."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[65] It is this feeling in us which Moses expresses under the name of Cain, by interpretation Possession, a feeling foolish to the core or rather impious. For instead of thinking that all things are God’s possession, the Mind fancied that they were its own, though it cannot possess even itself securely, or even know what its own real being is. Yet if it trusts in the senses and their ability to lay hold of the objects of sense, let it tell us how it thinks to have power to avoid error in sight or hearing or any other sense.",
+                "[66] Indeed these errors must always befall us in each of our doings, to whatever pitch of accuracy the organs we use are brought. For to free ourselves altogether from natural sources of decay or involuntary delusions is hard or rather impossible, so innumerable in ourselves and around us and outside us throughout the whole race of mortals are the causes which produce false opinion. How foolish then, be its boasting ever so loud and its bearing ever so high, is the Mind’s thought that all things are its own possessions."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[67] Surely Laban, whose heart was fixed on particular qualities, must have made Jacob laugh loud and long, Jacob who discerns rather than these the nature which is outside class or category. Laban dared to say to him “the daughters are my daughters, the sons are my sons, the cattle are my cattle, and all that thou seest are mine and my daughters’ ” (Gen. 31:43). In each case he adds the “my,” and his proud talk about himself goes on without ceasing.",
+                "[68] The daughters, tell me—daughters, you know, are the arts and branches of knowledge in the soul—do you say they are <i>your</i> daughters? How yours? Why in the first place you only received them from the mind that taught them to you. Secondly, it is in the course of nature that like other things you should lose them too, perhaps through the burden of other thoughts which drive them from your memory, or through cruel and incurable infirmities of the body, or that disease which is the doom of advancing years and no treatment can heal—old age—or a host of other causes, which no man can number.",
+                "[69] The sons—sons are the particular reasoned thoughts—when you say they are yours are you sane or mad to suppose such a thing? Fits of melancholy and insanity, bursts of frenzy, baseless conjectures, false impressions of things, mere notions, which are but unsubstantial will-o’-the-wisps made of the stuff of dreams, with their self-engendered throes and throbbings, loss of memory, the curse which so besets the soul, and other things more numerous than these, sap the security of your lordship, and show that these things are not your possessions but another’s.",
+                "[70] As for the cattle—the senses, that is, for sense is unreasoning and bestial—do you dare to say that they are yours? Consider your constant errors in sight and hearing, how you sometimes think bitter flavours sweet and sweet bitter, and in every sense are more often wrong than right. Surely a matter for blushing rather than for boasting and elation, as though you found all the faculties and activities of your soul infallible."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[71] But, if you reform and obtain a portion of the wisdom that you need, you will say that all are God’s possessions and not yours, your reflections, your knowledge of every kind, your arts, your conclusions, your reasonings on particular questions, your sense-perceptions, in fact the activities of your soul, whether carried on through the senses or without them. But if you leave yourself for ever unschooled and untaught, you will be eternally enslaved to hard mistresses, vain fancies, lusts, pleasures, promptings to wrongdoing, follies, false opinions.",
+                "[72] For if, says Moses, the servant should answer and say “I have come to love my master, my wife and my children, I will not go out free,” he shall be brought to the tribunal of God, and with God as judge shall have his request ratified, having first had his ear bored with an awl (Exod. 21:5, 6), that he may not receive the divine message of the freedom of the soul.",
+                "[73] For lofty words like these of having come to love the mind and thinking it his master and benefactor are worthy of a reasoning disqualified and rejected as it were from the sacred arena, a slave in very truth and wholly childish. And so too when he speaks of his exceeding affection for outward sense and his belief that she is his own possession and the greatest of blessings. So too with the children of these two, the children of mind—reflection, reasoning, judging, deliberating, conjecturing—the children of sense—sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch, in fact sense-perception in general."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[74] He who seeks intimacy with these can have had no perception, cannot even have dreamt, of freedom. For it is only by flight and estrangement from these that we can make a claim to the lot of the fearless.",
+                "We read of another who crowns his self-love with madness, and declares that, though what I have be taken from me, I will contend for it as my own and win the victory. “I will pursue,” he says, “I will overtake, I will divide the spoil; I will satisfy my soul; I will destroy with my sword; my hand shall have the mastery” (Exod. 15:9).",
+                "[75] To such a one I would say “Fool, is it hidden from you that every created being, who thinks he pursues, is pursued?” For maladies and old age and death, with all the other host of evils voluntary and involuntary, drive and hustle and pursue each one of us, and he who thinks to overtake and conquer is overtaken and conquered, and many a one who thinks to spoil and is already in his thoughts parcelling out the booty has fallen under the foot of victorious enemies. He receives into his soul emptiness for satisfaction, slavery for lordship, he is killed instead of killing, and all that he thought to do to others falls with full measure upon himself.",
+                "[76] For in very truth this man was the enemy of convincing reason and of nature herself, when he took to himself all active functions and forgot the passive, as though he was secure from the mass of calamities which these severally bring."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[77] For it was “the enemy,” as we read, who said “I will pursue and overtake.” What deadlier foe to the soul can there be than he who in his vainglory claims to himself that which belongs to God alone? For it belongs to God to act, and this we may not ascribe to any created being.",
+                "[78] What belongs to the created is to suffer, and he who accepts this from the first, as a necessity inseparable from his lot, will bear with patience what befalls him, however grievous it may be. He who thinks it a strange and alien thing will incur the penalty of Sisyphus, crushed by a vast and hopeless burden, unable even to lift his head, overwhelmed by all the terrors which beset and prostrate him, and increasing each misery by that abject spirit of surrender, which belongs to the degenerate and unmanly soul. Rather should he bravely bear, take his place firmly in the opposing ranks, and with those mightiest of virtues, which he himself contributes, patience and endurance, fortify his resolution and close the gates against the foe.",
+                "[79] There are two ways of undergoing shearing or shaving; one when there is reaction and reciprocation by the object, the other when there is complete submission or subjection. A sheep or a fleece or a “fell” puts forth no activity of itself, but is merely passive to the shearing process in the hands of another, but the man who is shaved acts with the barber, places himself in position, and accommodates himself, thus combining the active with the passive.",
+                "[80] So too with receiving blows. There is one kind which befalls a slave, whose wrongdoing has deserved it, or a free man who is stretched on the wheel for his crimes, or any lifeless things, such as stones or wood or gold or silver and all materials which are beaten or divided in a forge.",
+                "[81] The other kind we find in the case of an athlete in a boxing-match or pancratium for a crown of victory. As the blows fall upon him he brushes them off with either hand, or he turns his neck round this way and that and thus evades the blows, or often he rises on his tip-toes to his full height, or draws himself in and compels his adversary to lay about him in empty space, much as men do when practising the movements. But the slave or the metal lies impotent and irresponsive, passive to endure whatever the agent may determine to execute.",
+                "[82] This is a condition we should never admit into our bodies, much less into our souls. As mortals we must suffer, but let our suffering be that other kind which is the reaction of our own activity. Let us not like womanish folk, nerveless and unstrung, flagging ere the struggle begin, with all our spiritual forces relaxed, sink into utter prostration. Rather let the tension of our minds be firm and braced, that so we may be strong to relieve and lighten the force and onset of the misfortunes which menace us.",
+                "[83] Since then it has been shown that no mortal can in solid reality be lord of anything, and when we give the name of master we speak in the language of mere opinion, not of real truth; since too, as there is subject and servant, so in the universe there must be a leader and a lord, it follows that this true prince and lord must be one, even God, who alone can rightly claim that all things are His possessions."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[84] Let us mark how sublime and worthy of the Deity is the enumeration of those possessions. “All things,” God says, “are Mine.” And these “all things” are the “bounties, and gifts and fruits which ye shall observe and offer to Me at My feasts” (Numb. 28:2). Here Moses clearly shows that among existing things there are some which rank lower as benefits, and this benefit is called “giving.” In others the benefit is of a higher kind and this has the special name of “bounty.” Others again are such that not only can they bear virtue as their fruit, but in their very nature through and through they are fruit meet for eating, even that one and only fruit which feeds the soul of him whose quest is the Vision.",
+                "[85] He who has learnt this lesson, and can keep and ponder it in his heart, will offer to God the blameless and fairest sacrifice of faith at feasts which are no feasts of mortals. For God has claimed the feasts for Himself, and herein He lays down a principle which they who belong to the company of the philosophers must not fail to know.",
+                "[86] The principle is this. God alone in the true sense keeps festival. Joy and gladness and rejoicing are His alone; to Him alone it is given to enjoy the peace which has no element of war. He is without grief or fear or share of ill, without faint-heartedness or pain or weariness, but full of happiness unmixed. Or rather since His nature is most perfect, He is Himself the summit, end and limit of happiness. He partakes of nothing outside Himself to increase His excellence. Nay He Himself has imparted of His own to all particular beings from that fountain of beauty—Himself. For the good and beautiful things in the world could never have been what they are, save that they were made in the image of the archetype, which is truly good and beautiful, even the uncreate, the blessed, the imperishable."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[87] And therefore Moses often in his laws calls the sabbath, which means ‘rest,’ God’s sabbath (Exod. 20:10, etc.), not man’s, and thus he lays his finger on an essential fact in the nature of things. For in all truth there is but one thing in the universe which rests, that is God. But Moses does not give the name of rest to mere inactivity. The cause of all things is by its nature active; it never ceases to work all that is best and most beautiful. God’s rest is rather a working with absolute ease, without toil and without suffering. For the sun and moon and the whole heaven and universe, since they are not self-mastering and move and revolve continually, we may rightly say do suffer. Their labouring is most clearly seen by the seasons of the year.",
+                "[88] For of the heavenly bodies the chiefest change their courses, sometimes revolving to the south, sometimes to the north, sometimes elsewhere; and the air grows colder and warmer and undergoes all manner of changes; and these changes in condition peculiar to it prove that it labours and is weary. For weariness is the principal cause of change.",
+                "[89] It were folly to pursue the subject through the creatures of air and water and enumerate at length their general and particular changes: for these are naturally liable to far greater weakness than the creatures of the upper world, since they in largest measure partake of the lowest form of substance, namely the earthly.",
+                "[90] Since then weariness is the natural cause of change in things that turn and vary, and since God turns not and changes not, He must be by nature unwearying. But a being that is free from weakness, even though he be making all things, will cease not to all eternity to be at rest, and thus rest belongs in the fullest sense to God and to Him alone."
+            ],
+            [
+                "Now we showed that keeping festival pertained to Him and therefore we see that all such festivals, whether they be weekly sabbaths or (the occasional) feasts, are His, who is the Cause, and pertain not to any man at all.",
+                "[91] Let us consider our famous festal assemblies. Different nations, whether Greek or barbarian, have their own, the product of myth and fiction, and their only purpose is empty vanity. We need not dwell on them, for the whole of human life would not suffice to tell in detail of the follies inherent in them. Yet, without overstepping the right limit, a few words, to serve for many, may be said to cover them all.",
+                "[92] In every feast and gathering in our country what is it that men admire and seek so eagerly? Freedom from the fear of punishment, from sense of restraint, from stress of business; drunkenness, tipsy rioting, routs and revels, wantonness, debauchery; lovers thronging their mistresses’ doors, nightlong carouses, unseemly pleasures, daylight chamberings, deeds of insolence and outrage, hours spent in training to be intemperate, in studying to be fools, in cultivating baseness, wholesale depravation of all that is noble: the works to which nature prompts us are turned upside down: men keep vigil by night to indulge their insatiable lust: the day time, the hours given for wakefulness, they spend in sleep.",
+                "[93] At such times virtue is jeered at as mischievous, vice snatched at as profitable. At such times right actions are dishonoured, wrong actions honoured. At such times music, philosophy, all culture, those truly divine images set in the divinely given soul, are mute. Only the arts which pander and minister pleasure to the belly and the organs below it are vocal and loud-voiced."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[94] Such are the feasts of those whom men call happy. And so long as they confine their unseemly doings to houses or unconsecrated places, their sin seems less to me. But when their wickedness like a rushing torrent spreads over every place and invades and violates the most sacred temples, it straightway overturns all that is venerable in them, and as a result come sacrifices unholy, offerings unmeet, vows unfulfilled, their rites and mysteries a mockery, their piety but a bastard growth, their holiness debased, their purity impure, their truth falsehood, their worship a sacrilege.",
+                "[95] Furthermore they cleanse their bodies with lustrations and purifications, but they neither wish nor practise to wash off from their souls the passions by which life is defiled. They are zealous to go to the temples white-robed, attired in spotless raiment, but with a spotted heart they pass into the inmost sanctuary and are not ashamed.",
+                "[96] And if an animal be found to be blemished or imperfect, it is driven out of the consecrated precincts and not suffered to approach the altar, though it is through no will of its own that it has any of these bodily defects. But they themselves—their souls are a mass of wounds from the hideous maladies with which the irresistible power of vice has smitten them, or rather they are mutilated, docked of their noblest parts, prudence, courage to endure, justice, piety and all the other virtues of which human nature is capable. And though it is with free deliberate judgement that they have imbibed the mischief, yet they dare to handle the holy thing, and think that the eye of God sees nothing but the outer world through the co-operation of the sun. They do not know that He surveys the unseen even before the seen, for He Himself is His own light.",
+                "[97] For the eye of the Absolutely Existent needs no other light to effect perception, but He Himself is the archetypal essence of which myriads of rays are the effluence, none visible to sense, all to the mind. And therefore they are the instruments of that same God alone, who is apprehended by mind, not of any who have part and lot in the world of creation. For the created is approached by sense, which can never grasp the nature which is apprehended by mind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[98] Seeing then that our souls are a region open to His invisible entrance, let us make that place as beautiful as we may, to be a lodging fit for God. Else He will pass silently into some other home, where He judges that the builder’s hands have wrought something worthier.",
+                "[99] When we think to entertain kings we brighten and adorn our own houses. We despise no embellishment, but use all such freely and ungrudgingly, and make it our aim that their lodging shall have every delight and the honour withal that is their due. What house shall be prepared for God the King of kings, the Lord of all, who in His tender mercy and loving-kindness has deigned to visit created being and come down from the boundaries of heaven to the utmost ends of earth, to show His goodness to our race?",
+                "[100] Shall it be of stone or timber? Away with the thought, the very words are blasphemy. For though the whole earth should suddenly turn into gold, or something more precious than gold, though all that wealth should be expended by the builder���s skill on porches and porticos, on chambers, vestibules, and shrines, yet there would be no place where His feet could tread. One worthy house there is—the soul that is fitted to receive Him."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[101] Justly and rightly then shall we say that in the invisible soul the invisible God has His earthly dwelling-place.",
+                "And that the house may have both strength and loveliness, let its foundations be laid in natural excellence and good teaching, and let us rear upon them virtues and noble actions, and let its external ornaments be the reception of the learning of the schools.",
+                "[102] The first of these, natural excellence, brings quickness of apprehension, perseverance and memory. From teaching are borrowed readiness to learn and concentration. They are like the roots of the tree that will bring forth good fruit, and without them the mind cannot be brought to its fullness.",
+                "[103] Virtues and the good actions that follow them provide the stability and firmness that make the structure secure, so that all that purposes to banish or sever or draw away the soul from good is powerless against such steadfastness and strength.",
+                "[104] From the study of the introductory learning of the schools come the ornaments of the soul, which are attached to it as to a house.",
+                "For as stuccoes, paintings, and tablets and arrangements of precious stones and the like, with which men adorn pavements as well as walls, contribute nothing to the strength of the building, but only serve to give pleasure to the inmates,",
+                "[105] so the knowledge of the schools adorns the whole house of the soul. Grammar or literature makes research into poetry and pursues the study of the doings of old time. Geometry gives us the sense of equality produced by proportion. It also heals by the means of fine music all that is harsh and inharmonious or discordant in the soul, under the influence of rhythm, metre, and melody. Rhetoric seeks out and weighs the materials for shrewd treatment in all the subjects which it handles, and welds them to the language that befits them. Sometimes it raises us to a pitch of strong emotion, at other times the tension is relaxed in a sense of pleasure. With all this it gives fluency and facility in using our tongues and organs of speech."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[106] If such a house be raised amid our mortal race, earth and all that dwells on earth will be filled with high hopes, expecting the descent of the divine potencies. With laws and ordinances from heaven they will descend, to sanctify and consecrate them on earth, according to their Father’s bidding. Then, joined in commonalty of daily life and board with virtue-loving souls, they sow within them the nature of happiness, even as they gave to wise Abraham in Isaac the most perfect thank-offering for their stay with him.",
+                "[107] The purified mind rejoices in nothing more than in confessing that it has the lord of all for its master. For to be the slave of God is the highest boast of man, a treasure more precious not only than freedom, but than wealth and power and all that mortals most cherish.",
+                "[108] To this sovereignty of the Absolutely Existent the oracle is a true witness in these words, “and the land shall not be sold in perpetuity, for all the land is mine, because ye are strangers and sojourners before me” (Lev. 25:23). A clear proof surely that in possession all things are God’s,",
+                "[109] and only as a loan do they belong to created beings. For nothing, he means, will be sold in perpetuity to any created being, because there is but One, to whom in a full and complete sense the possession of all things is assured.",
+                "For all created things are assigned as a loan to all from God, and He has made none of these particular things complete in itself, so that it should have no need at all of another. Thus through the desire to obtain what it needs,",
+                "[110] it must perforce approach that which can supply its need, and this approach must be mutual and reciprocal. Thus through reciprocity and combination, even as a lyre is formed of unlike notes, God meant that they should come to fellowship and concord and form a single harmony, and that an universal give and take should govern them, and lead up to the consummation of the whole world.",
+                "[111] Thus love draws lifeless to living, unreasoning to reasoning, trees to men, men to plants, cultivated to wild, savage to tame, each sex to the other; so too, in a word, the creatures of the land to the creatures of the water, these to the fowls of the air and those to both:",
+                "[112] so again heaven to earth, earth to heaven, air to water, and water to air. So natures intermediate yearn for each other and those at either extreme; these too for their fellows and the intermediate beings. Winter needs summer, summer winter, spring both, and autumn spring. Thus each, we may say, wants and needs each; all need all, that so this whole, of which each is a part, might be that perfect work worthy of its architect, this world."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[113] In this way combining all things He claimed the sovereignty of all for Himself; to His subjects He assigned the use and enjoyment of themselves and each other. For indeed we have ourselves and all that go to make these selves for use. I am formed of soul and body, I seem to have mind, reason, sense, yet I find that none of them is really mine.",
+                "[114] Where was my body before birth, and whither will it go when I have departed? What has become of the changes produced by life’s various stages in the seemingly permanent self? Where is the babe that once I was, the boy and the other gradations between boy and full-grown man? Whence came the soul, whither will it go, how long will it be our mate and comrade? Can we tell its essential nature? When did we get it? Before birth? But then there was no “ourselves.” What of it after death? But then we who are here joined to the body, creatures of composition and quality, shall be no more, but shall go forward to our rebirth, to be with the unbodied, without composition and without quality.",
+                "[115] Even now in this life, we are the ruled rather than the rulers, known rather than knowing. The soul knows us, though we know it not; it lays on us commands, which we must fain obey, as a servant obeys his mistress. And when it will, it will claim its divorce in court and depart, leaving our home desolate of life. Press it as we may to stay, it will escape from our hands. So subtle is it of nature, that it affords no grip or handle to the body."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[116] Is my mind my own possession? That parent of false conjectures, that purveyor of delusion, the delirious, the fatuous, and in frenzy or melancholy or senility proved to be the very negation of mind. Is my utterance my own possession, or my organs of speech? A little sickness is a cause sufficient to cripple the tongue and sew up the lips of the most eloquent, and the expectation of disaster paralyses multitudes into speechlessness.",
+                "[117] Not even of my sense-perception do I find myself master, rather, it may well be, its slave, who follows it where it leads, to colours, shapes, sounds, scents, flavours, and the other material things.",
+                "All this surely makes it plain that what we use are the possessions of another, that nor glory, nor wealth, nor honours, nor offices, nor all that makes up body or soul are our own, not even life itself.",
+                "[118] And if we recognize that we have but their use, we shall tend them with care as God’s possessions, remembering from the first, that it is the master’s custom, when he will, to take back his own. The thought will lighten our sorrow when they are taken from us. But as it is, with the mass of men, the belief that all things are their own makes their loss or absence at once a source of grief and trouble.",
+                "[119] And so the thought that the world and all that therein is are both the works and the possessions of Him that begat them becomes not only a truth but a doctrine most comfortable.",
+                "But this work which is His own He has bestowed freely, for He needs it not. Yet he who has the use does not thereby become possessor, because there is one lord and master of all, who will most rightly say “all the land is mine (which is the same as ‘all creation is mine’), but ye are strangers and sojourners before me” (Lev. 25:23)."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[120] In relation to each other all created beings rank as men of longest descent and highest birth; all enjoy equal honour and equal rights, but to God they are aliens and sojourners. For each of us has come into this world as into a foreign city, in which before our birth we had no part, and in this city he does but sojourn, until he has exhausted his appointed span of life.",
+                "[121] And there is another lesson of wisdom that he teaches in these words, even this—God alone is in the true sense a citizen, and all created being is a sojourner and alien, and those whom we call citizens are so called only by a licence of language. But to the wise it is a sufficient bounty, if when ranged beside God, the only citizen, they are counted as aliens and sojourners, since the fool can in no wise hold such a rank in the city of God, but we see him an outcast from it and nothing more.",
+                "Such a lesson too He has proclaimed to us in an utterance of deepest meaning. “The land shall not be sold at all.” No word of the seller there, that through this very silence he, who has access to the secrets of nature-truth, may profit in the quest of knowledge.",
+                "[122] Look round you and you shall find that those who are said to bestow benefits sell rather than give, and those who seem to us to receive them in truth buy. The givers are seeking praise or honour as their exchange and look for the repayment of the benefit, and thus, under the specious name of gift, they in real truth carry out a sale; for the seller’s way is to take something for what he offers. The receivers of the gift, too, study to make some return, and do so as opportunity offers, and thus they act as buyers. For buyers know well that receiving and paying go hand in hand.",
+                "[123] But God is no salesman, hawking his goods in the market, but a free giver of all things, pouring forth eternal fountains of free bounties, and seeking no return. For He has no needs Himself and no created being is able to repay His gift."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[124] Thus we have agreed that all things are God’s possessions on the strength of true reasonings and testimonies which none may convict of false witness, for our witnesses are the oracles which Moses wrote in the sacred books. And therefore we must make our protest against the Mind, which thought the offspring engendered by union with sense his own possession, called it Cain and said “I have <i>gotten</i> a man through God.” Even in these last two words he erred. You ask how?",
+                "[125] Because God is the cause not the instrument, and that which comes into being is brought into being <i>through</i> an instrument, but <i>by</i> a cause. For to bring anything into being needs all these conjointly, the “by which,” the “from which,” the “through which,” the “for which,” and the first of these is the cause, the second the material, the third the tool or instrument, and the fourth the end or object.",
+                "[126] If we ask what combination is always needed that a house or city should be built, the answer is a builder, stones or timber, and instruments. What is the builder but the cause “by which”? What are the stones and timber but the material “from which”? What are the instruments but the means “through which”?",
+                "[127] And what is the end or object of the building but shelter and safety, and this constitutes the “for which.”",
+                "Let us leave these merely particular buildings, and contemplate that greatest of houses or cities, this universe. We shall see that its cause is God, by whom it has come into being, its material the four elements, from which it was compounded, its instrument the word of God, through which it was framed, and the final cause of the building is the goodness of the architect. It is thus that truth-lovers distinguish, who desire true and sound knowledge. But those who say that they possess something through God, suppose the Cause, that is the Maker, to be the instrument, and the instrument, that is the human mind, they suppose to be the cause.",
+                "[128] Right reason too would not hold Joseph free from blame, when he said that <i>through</i> God would the true meaning of dreams be found (Gen. 40:8). He should have said that <i>by</i> Him as cause the unfolding and right interpretation of things hidden would fitly come to pass. For we are the instruments, wielded in varying degrees of force, through which each particular form of action is produced; the Craftsman it is who brings to bear on the material the impact of our forces, whether of soul or body, even He by whom all things are moved.",
+                "[129] There are those who have not of themselves the capacity to distinguish differences in things; these we must instruct as ignorant. There are those who through contentiousness reverse and confuse the thoughts which their words express: these we must eschew as mere lovers of strife. But there are also those, who with careful search into what comes before them, assign to each as it is presented its proper place: these we must praise as the followers of a philosophy that cannot lie.",
+                "[130] And these Moses supports, when he says to those who feared to perish at the hands of the wicked one and his pursuing host, “Stand fast and see the salvation from the Lord, which he will accomplish for you” (Exod. 14:13). Thus he showed that not through God, but from Him as cause does salvation come."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO ON THE CHERUBIM",
+            "§ 6. <i>The stern and gloomy life</i>, etc. Philo seems to interpret this first flight of Hagar as the tendency of youth to shrink from the stern discipline of the school, the Encyclia being for the moment treated as “the mind which is trained in them,” as in <i>De Cong.</i> 180.",
+            "§ 8. ἐπιλάμψῃ … μεταδιώκων. The obvious way of taking this difficult and probably corrupt passage, namely to translate ἀποθανόντων τὰ πάθη χαρᾶς καὶ εὑφροσύνης by “died to the passions (or ‘feelings’) of joy and gladness,” must be wrong, for as Isaac is regularly regarded as embodying these qualities (<i>e.g.</i> <i>Leg. All.</i> iii. 218), it is impossible that his parents should be thought of as discarding them at his birth. Two lines of correction seem possible, (<i>a</i>) as adopted in the translation, to bring χαρᾶς and εὐφροσύνης into co-ordination with εὐδαιμονίας, (<i>b</i>) to co-ordinate them with παιδιάς by reading χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας. This in itself would still leave untouched the awkward gen. abs. ἐκλιπόντων and ἀποθανόντων, to say nothing of the difficulty involved in applying the phrase ἐκλιπεῖν τὰ γυναικεῖα (used of Sarah in Gen. 18:11) to Abraham also. These difficulties, however, might be removed by reading also ἐκλιπόν … ἀποθανόν (ἀπομαθόν?) … μεταδίωκον. (<i>a</i>) certainly as it stands leaves the sentence almost intolerable. Perhaps the least drastic correction would be to expel ὁ Ἰσαάκ as a gloss, put in its place καὶ τῶν and insert ὁ before καὶ παιδιάς. Thus the whole sentence will run, ἐπιλάμψῃ δὲ καὶ τὸ εὐδαιμονίας γένος καὶ τῶν ἐκλιπόντων τὰ γυναικεῖα καὶ ἀποθανόντων τὰ πάθη χαρᾶς καὶ εὐφροσύνης, ὁ καὶ παιδιάς, etc. The participial genitives in this case though still clumsy are less unnatural, and the difficulty of the application of ἐκλιπεῖν, etc., to Abraham is avoided as the phrase becomes a general statement. The obvious difficulty involved in (<i>b</i>) that it ascribes to Isaac what belongs to Sarah may be met by supposing that Philo equates Sarah’s “ceasing from the manner of women” with the conception of Isaac (<i>cf.</i> <i>De Post.</i> 134).",
+            "[It would bring this passage into harmony with other passages, if what Philo wrote was ἐκλιπὸν … ἀποθανὸν … μεταδίωκον (all in agreement with γένος), and χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας. It would seem not unlikely that a scribe, a little puzzled by the neuters ἐκλιπὸν and ἀποθανόν, and seeing ἐκλιπόντ- and ἀποθανόντ- before him, filled in the -ων in each word, producing ἐκλιπόντων and ἀποθανόντων. This led to the change of χαρὰς καὶ εὐφροσύνας into genitives singular. With ἑκλιπόν and ἀποθανόν restored, the construction is the same as that in <i>De Somniis</i>, i. 68 ᾦ τὸ αὐτομαθὲς γενός, Ισαάκ, ἐνδιαιγᾶται, μηδέποτε … <b>ἀφιστάμενον</b>. Our passage is also illustrated by <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 1 ᾗ τὸ αὐτομαθὲς ἐπέλαμψε γένος, Ἰσαάκ, εὐπαθειῶν ἀρίστη, χαρά, and <i>Quod Det. 46</i> τὸ μόνον ἀπαθὲς εἶδος ἐν γενέσει τὸν Ἰσαάκ <i>and</i> <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 261 τέξεται οὖν σοι ἡ ἀρετὴ υἱὸν γενναῖον ἄρρενα (Gen. 17:19) <b>παντὸς ἀπηλλαγμένον θήλεος πάθους.<b></b></b>",
+            "To Philo the fact that Isaac was sprung from one “as good as dead” and “the deadness of Sarah’s womb” carried with it his deadness to passions and his complete immunity from all that was weak and womanish.—G. H. W.]",
+            "τὰς παίδων. We have perhaps here an allusion to Gen. 21:9, where according to the A.V. Sarah saw Ishmael ‘mocking.’ The R.V. margin, however, has ‘playing,’ and the LXX. παίζοντα. The fact that it was this “playing of children” which led to Ishmael’s expulsion, would lend additional point to the words here.",
+            "§ 15. The idea of the lawfulness of falsehood under the circumstances here described is perhaps taken from Plato, <i>Rep.</i> iii. 389 B.",
+            "§ 25. <i>The two hemispheres.</i> Empedocles said εἶναι δύο ἡμισφαίρια, τὸ μὲν καθόλου πυρός, τὸ δὲ μικτὸν ἐξ ἀέρος καὶ ὀλίγου πυρός, ὅπερ οἴεται τὴν νύκτα εἶναι (see Ritter and Preller, 170). “Thus there arose two hemispheres which together form the concave sphere of heaven; the one is bright and consists entirely of fire; the other is dark and consists of air with isolated masses of fire sprinkled in it” (Zeller). <i>Cf.</i> Plato. <i>Axiochus</i> 376 A. A theory is mentioned that τοῦ πόλου ὄντος σφαιροειδοῦς …, τὸ μὲν ἕτερον ἡμισφαίριον οἱ θεοὶ ἔλαχον οἱ οὐράνιοι, τὸ δὲ ἕτερον οἱ ὑπένερθεν.",
+            "§ 26. <i>Named by men of old the standing-place. Cf.</i> Philolaus (<i>ap.</i> Stob. <i>Ecl.</i> i. 21. 8) τὸ πρᾶτον ἁρμοσθὲν τ�� ἓν ἐν τῷ μέσῳ τᾶς σφαίρας ἑστία καλεῖται.",
+            "§ 28. Elsewhere, in <i>Quaestiones in Gen.</i> i. 58 (which only survives in the Armenian), Philo gives the same explanation of the Cherubim, but interprets the sword as “heaven.”",
+            "§ 32. <i>Neither fights nor keeps the ranks.</i> Guilty, that is, of ἀστρατεία, shirking service, and λιποτάξιον, desertion in the field. Both these were punishable offences in Attic law.",
+            "§ 41. <i>Leah.</i> Leah (symbolizing virtue) is derived by Philo from the Hebrew words “lo” = not, and “lahah” = to be weary. The fool “says no” (ἀνανεύει) to her ἄσκησις which makes <i>herself</i> weary. Elsewhere (in <i>De Mut. Nom.</i> 254) the weariness is interpreted of the weariness which she <i>causes</i>, and again (<i>De Migr. Abr.</i> 145) of the weariness caused by the burden of wickedness which she has cast off. In ἀνανευομένῃ there is also a reference to Jacob’s rejection of Leah in the actual story.",
+            "§ 42. <i>Who have no other standards</i>, etc. Cohn punctuates differently with a comma before τύφῳ and another after ἐθῶν, thus making ῥημάτων genitive after τύφῳ. But it seems unreasonable to break up the common collocation of ὀνόματα (nouns) with ῥήματα (verbs or phrases), the two together constantly standing for language as a whole.",
+            "τερθρείαις ἐθῶν, <i>i.e.</i> “mummeries of rituals.” This is well illustrated by Dion. Hal. <i>Ant. Rom.</i> 19, where both the τῦφος and the τερθρεία μυθική of the rites of Cybele are denounced.",
+            "§ 45. <i>In her solitude.</i> Apparently a fanciful deduction from the fact that Abraham’s presence is not mentioned in Gen. 21:1. In the cases that follow there is the same deduction from the absence of any mention of the husband.",
+            "§ 49. <i>His greater mysteries.</i> Philo borrows from the Eleusinian mysteries this idea of “greater” and “less.” Here Moses is the greater and the Prophets the less. For another application of the distinction see <i>De Sacr.</i> 62.",
+            "<i>Husband.</i>—The LXX. in Jer. 3:4, which differs wholly from the Hebrew, has ἀρχηγόν. As ἄνδρα is necessary to Philo’s argument he may be quoting some earlier rendering.",
+            "§§ 53–66. The argument of these sections seems to be as follows. Names do not ordinarily represent the thing named so absolutely that no further explanation is required. We should not know from the name Cain that he was first-born or male. But Moses’ names are given on a different principle. To show what this is, in 57–64 Philo describes the primitive τρόπος (65) of the mind to think that it possesses all that it seems to have. Since the name “Possession” indicates this τρόπος clearly, Moses had no need to say anything more. Philo adopts partially the Stoic theory that names came originally φύσει, but restricts it to the names of the O.T.",
+            "§ 69. <i>Will-o’-the-wisps.</i> The following passage suggests strongly that the reading adopted by the translator rather than that of Cohn is right. Chrysippus (on the distinction between φάντασμα, φανταστόν, φανταστικόν) says: φανταστικὸν δέ ἐστι διάκενος ἑλκυσμός, πάθος ἐν τῇ ψυχῇ ἀπʼ οὐδενὸς φανταστοῦ γινόμενον, κάθαπερ ἐπὶ τοῦ σκιαμαχοῦντος καὶ κενοῖς ἐπιφέροντος τὰς χεῖρας … φάντασμα δέ ἐστιν ἐφʼ ὂ ἑλκόμεθα κατὰ τὸν φανταστικὸν διάκενον ἑλκυσμόν. ταῦτα δὲ γίνεται ἐπὶ τῶν μελαγχολώντων καὶ μεμηνότων (Arnim, <i>Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta</i>, ii. 54. <i>Cf.</i> <i>ibid.</i> 64).",
+            "§ 79. <i>Where there is reaction</i> (ἀντιπεπονθός). Philo here utilizes a piece of Stoic grammar. <i>Cf.</i> Diog. Laert. vii. 64: ἀντιπεπονθότα δέ ἐστιν ἐν τοῖς ὑπτίοις, ἃ ὕπτια ὄντα ἐνεργήματά ἑστιν, οἷον Κείρεται· ἐμπεριέχει (perhaps ἐμπαρέχει, see παρέχων ἑαυτόν, 79) γὰρ ἑαυτὸν ὁ κειρόμενος, <i>i.e.</i> the ἀντιπεπονθότα are those among the passives which though passive (in form) represent actions, as κείρεται. The application of the term in these sections of Philo suggests that the grammatical meaning of the term was not so much that of the ordinary middle (I shave myself) as that of the causative middle “I get myself shaved.” The term thus describes “having something done to us in response to something we have done ourselves.”",
+            "<i>A sheep or a fleece.</i> δέρμα and κῴδιον might possibly be taken as accusatives, but the phraseology in the parallel passage, <i>L.A.</i> iii. 201 κείρεις ἑτέρως μὲν ἅνθρωπον ἑτέρως δὲ τὸ κῴδιον, suggests that they are nominatives. The translator is unable to make any suggestion as to the distinction between the two nouns, or why τὸ λεγόμενον is added.",
+            "§ 84. “<i>All things</i>,” <i>He says</i>, “<i>are mine.</i>” The phrase does not occur in the O.T. Perhaps print ὅλα “μου,” φησίν, ἐστίν, and refer “He says” to the threefold “mine” in Numb. 28:2. <i>Cf.</i> <i>L.A.</i> iii. 176.",
+            "§ 105. <i>Grammar or literature.</i> γραμματική always included the study of the poets and historians as well as what we call grammar, and in Philo’s time this literary side was by far the most important.",
+            "<i>By the means of fine music.</i> The text implies that music is part of “geometry,” a view which is very unusual, if not unprecedented, though the two, since geometry included arithmetic, were closely connected. The change of the nominatives γραμματική, etc., to -κῇ (datives), suggested by Cohn, would obviate this, but to represent knowledge as <i>e.g.</i> studying history <i>by means of</i> γραμματική is very harsh. Cohn confessed that his emendation did not satisfy him.",
+            "<i>Rhetoric</i>, etc. The allusion in this sentence is (<i>a</i>) to the regular division of rhetoric into (1) “invention” (εὔρεσις including τάξις), (2) style or expression (ἑρμηνεία), (3) delivery (ὑπόκρισις); and (<i>b</i>) to the expression of the gentler emotions (ἤθη) and that of the stronger emotions (πάθη).",
+            "§§ 109–112. For the sense of this and the preceding sections <i>cf.</i> Epictetus, <i>Diss.</i> i. 12. 16 διέταξε δὲ θέρος εἷναι καὶ χειμῶνα καὶ φορὰν καὶ ἀφορίαν καὶ ἀρετὴν καὶ κακίαν καὶ πάσας τὰς τοιαύτας ἐναντιότητας ὑπὲρ συμφωνίας τῶν ὅλων.",
+            "§ 114. <i>The other gradations.</i> Of the five gradations left untranslated ἡβῶν perhaps = age of puberty, while πρωτογένειος speaks for itself, and the other three fall of course between the limits thus indicated.",
+            "<i>Rebirth. Cf.</i> a passage in <i>Quaest. in Ex.</i> ii. 46, where, according to the Latin version of the Armenian, the calling of Moses to the Mount is said to typify the “secunda nativitas sive regeneratio priore melior.” If we are to suppose that this “regeneration” is absorption in the Divine and occurs at death, the correction to ἀσύγκριτοι ἄποιοι, which is also wanted for the balance of the two clauses, seems necessary. But it is possible that Philo is following the Stoic doctrine, according to which the souls (of the good at any rate) survived the general conflagration (ἐκπύρωσις) which was to be followed by the “reconstruction” (παλιγγενεσία); see Arnim, <i>l.c.</i> ii. 802–822. In this case Cohn’s reading might stand; for the soul through this interregnum, though ἀσώματος, would still be σύγκριτος (of fire and air) and ποιός.",
+            "§ 115. Philo adapts from the Attic orators the technical language used of a wife who formally claimed divorce or separation from her husband. If the husband did not agree, an ἀπολείψεως δίκη had to be brought before the Archon (πρὸς τὸν ἄρχοντα) (see <i>Dict. of Ant.</i>, art. “Divortium”). <i>Cf</i>. <i>Quod Det.</i> 143, where also we have the phrase (apparently in general use: see Bekker, <i>Anecd.</i> 430. 30) χρηματίζειν ἀπόλειψιν.",
+            "§ 121. <i>Licence of language.</i> κατάχρησις (<i>abusio</i>) is the name used by the grammarians for the figure of speech involved in such a phrase as the “aedificare equum” of Virgil (<i>aedificare</i> being properly to build a house only).",
+            "<i>The land shall not be sold at all.</i> Philo is still quoting Lev. 25:23, which he cited correctly in 108. Here, however, he substitutes πράσει for εἰς βεβαίωσιν, probably from a reminiscence of Deut. 21:14, where the phrase πράσει οὐ πραθήσεται is used. The alteration, though it makes a considerable difference in the meaning of the text, hardly affects the argument.",
+            "§ 123. <i>Hawking his goods.</i> Properly speaking the word ἐπευωνίζων means “selling cheap,” and this shade of meaning makes good sense in <i>De Gig.</i> 32. On the other hand here and elsewhere there is no special point in the cheapness, and probably the word merely conveys some measure of contempt. If, however, the ἑαυτοῦ is to be pressed, the idea might be “pressing his own goods upon the purchaser and thus underselling his competitors.”",
+            "§ 125. πρὸς γὰρ τὴν γένεσιν, etc. Philo’s four causes are evidently based on Aristotle’s four, (1) the οὐσία or τὸ τί ἦν εἶναι (formal cause), (2) the ὕλη or ἐξ οὖ (material cause), (3) the ἀρχὴ τῆς κινήσεως or τὸ ποιοῦν (efficient cause), (4) τὸ οὖ ἕνεκα or ἀγαθόν (final cause). But for the “formal cause” he substitutes the “instrument,” a view to which his theory of the λόγος naturally led. He repeats the first three of the causes in <i>Quaest. in Gen.</i> i. 58, and all four in <i>De Providentia</i> (also only extant in the Armenian). There, however, the “ad quid?” is answered by “ut sit argumentum,” <i>i.e.</i> apparently, to give a proof of his goodness. Here there is an evident confusion of his treatment of the world as compared with his treatment of the house. The ἀγαθότης of God does not correspond with the σκέπη furnished by the house. Philo is perhaps misled by Plato, <i>Timaeus</i> 29 E, where the question, “why did God make the world?” is answered in the first instance by ἀγαθὸς ἦν, but the true answer, namely that He wanted to make all things like Himself, follows directly."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1929",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "על הכרובים",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על הכרובים",
+        "enTitle": "On the Cherubim",
+        "key": "On the Cherubim",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants/English/Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941.json

@@ -0,0 +1,190 @@
+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI",
+    "versionTitle": "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+    "status": "locked",
+    "license": "Public Domain",
+    "versionNotes": "",
+    "actualLanguage": "en",
+    "languageFamilyName": "english",
+    "isSource": false,
+    "isPrimary": true,
+    "direction": "ltr",
+    "heTitle": "על חיי העיון",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE OR SUPPLIANTS (DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA) <br>INTRODUCTION TO <i>DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA</i>",
+            "This treatise is except for a few digressions a highly eulogistic account of an ascetic community known to Philo and settled near Alexandria. It is introduced as a counterpart to his description of the Essenes, whether that in <i>Quod Omnis Probus</i> 75–91 or perhaps more probably that in the <i>Hypothetica</i>, 11. 1–18, or possibly some third which has not survived. The Therapeutae are differentiated from the others in that while the Essenes exemplify the practical they represent the contemplative life. They do not have any active occupation or any custom of sharing houses or garments, nor do they even mess together except on special occasions. Another difference is that while the Essenes are exclusively male the Therapeutae admit women freely to such communal life as they have. On the other hand while the Essenes of course observe frugality there is no suggestion that they practised abstinence like the Therapeutae, who carried it to an extreme.",
+            "The treatise does not seem to me to rank high among the works of Philo; the subject is slight and gives little scope to the richness of thought which marks so much of the commentary and in a less degree the exposition of the Law. Historically it is perhaps of some importance as giving an account of an institution with some of the marks of later monasticism for which we have no parallel either without or within the Judaism of the times. And the importance would be much greater if we could suppose that this Alexandrian community was of a type widespread through the world outside. The opening words of section 21 may at first suggest that this was so and the argument of Lucius who maintained that the treatise was spurious was primarily based on this assumption. The Therapeutae, he argued, are said by the author to have been found in many places; if it were so we must have heard of them from other sources, and as we do not hear of them the whole thing must be a fiction. But I do not think that section 21 bears this meaning. This kind he says is found in many parts of the world, particularly in Egypt, and the best of them find a home in a certain spot which he proceeds to describe. But when we look back to find who this kind are it appears that they are religious enthusiasts who give up their property and family ties and go and live in solitude. That this type of character existed in Philo’s time we might take for granted even if we did not have, abundant evidence in his own writings, and it would not be surprising to find them occasionally organizing themselves into communities which would not necessarily attract much attention. Philo however does not assert that they ever did so except in the body which he glorifies in this treatise. Nor does he tell us how numerous they were or how long they maintained themselves. If any inference is to be drawn from the absence of mention elsewhere it would be that this settlement was small and ephemeral.",
+            "In fact it is neither the literary nor the philosophical value nor its historical importance which has made this treatise better known and more discussed than any other work of Philo. It owes its fame to the controversies which have raged round it since the fourth century. The thing began when Eusebius, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17 discovered in the Therapeutae a picture of the first Christian converts. After noting the traditional evangelization of Alexandria by St. Mark, he declares that no one could possibly doubt that Philo was referring to the first generation of his converts. In the renunciation of their property, their severe fasting, in the virginity of the women members, in their study of the scriptures including the writings of men of old which are clearly the gospels and apostolic writings and commentaries on the Old Testament such as Paul used—in their festal meetings which are a description of Easter celebrations, and the officials who manage these meetings in whom we may see bishops, priests and deacons, no one can possibly fail to see the first Christians. Nowadays it seems needless to argue that the theory has no foundation whatever. But it is easy to understand that the idea of finding in this Jewish philosopher an account of the life and worship of the early church, particularly in the great city whose evangelization is unnoticed in the New Testament, was very fascinating, and it is not surprising that it was strongly maintained by orthodox churchmen down to the 18th century. Hardly had it died out in the form sketched by Eusebius when it was revived in another form by two German scholars, Grätz and (more elaborately) Lucius in 1880. Eusebius had believed that Philo himself was in good faith describing the actual Christians of his time. Lucius supposed that some unknown writer at the end of the third century A.D. drew up an imaginary account of the monasticism of his own time which he put forth in Philo’s name in order to commend it to readers, who impressed by the authority thus given to it would believe that it was a genuine picture of the primitive church. Somehow Lucius secured the approval not only of such distinguished historians as Schiirer and Zeller but a formidable number of other distinguished scholars. But I find it difficult to understand how anyone who reads Conybeare’s and Wendland’s refutations side by side with Lucius’s dissertation can believe it. I will not attempt to give more than a few main points. Lucius’s strongest argument was the absolute silence elsewhere about the Therapeutae, and this might have weight if we understood the author to assert that communities like that of the Mareotic Lake were to be found everywhere through the Roman world. But as I have said above I see no need to make such a deduction. Lucius also declared that various practices mentioned had Christian parallels, a claim in some cases obviously absurd, in others I daresay justified. But it was necessary to his argument to show that these customs or practices were not only Christian but also non-Jewish and this, if the two writers I have mentioned are to be believed, is rarely if ever the case. But the one great source of evidence on which a student of Philo not expert in Christian Antiquities is entitled to give his opinion is the style and language. Here the evidence as shown not merely in thought but in vocabulary and phrasing seems to me quite beyond dispute. The Testimonia printed by Conybeare at the foot of each page are overwhelming and with the additions made by Wend-land demand at any rate a forger of extraordinary skill. They prove also that Lucius’s study of Philo, as shown in what he considers to be an approximately correct list of the parallels in the treatise with the rest of Philo, was exceedingly inadequate. Whatever was the case when Lucius’s argument was put forward sixty years ago, the tide of opinion has turned against it and rightly so far as I can judge.",
+            "The following is an analysis of the treatise:",
+            "He opens with saying that as a counterpart to the practical type represented by the Essenes he will describe the contemplative type which he calls Therapeutic. The name may originally mean healing but also worshipping, and this is the sense in which he further develops it (1–2). He compares this worship to the honour paid to other objects; the elements, the heavenly bodies and images are each reviewed and their inadequacy exposed (3–7), and this discussion ends with a scathing denunciation of the worst of all these false religions the Egyptian animal worship (8–9).",
+            "We now return to the Therapeutic type; their most essential characteristic is their mystical aspiration to reach the vision of the one God and this leads them to renounce all thoughts of private property (10–13). Philo praises them because in contrast to Anaxagoras and Democritus they do not let their property run to waste but give it over to friends and kinsmen while at the same time they gain leisure to devote themselves to the higher life (14–17). Free from these cares they leave behind them all family ties and seek solitude away from the corrupting influence of cities (18–20).",
+            "While the Therapeutic type in this wider sense is to be found in many parts of the Greek and Barbarian world, and particularly in Egypt, Philo declares that the best of them (in Egypt?) resort from every quarter to a particular spot near the Mareotic Lake, the climate and position of which he describes (21–23). The simple houses of these settlers each of them contain a room set apart for their meditations in which they study the Scriptures and devotional works from sunrise to sunset (24–26). At both times they pray and also compose hymns (27–29). This solitary life is relaxed somewhat on the Sabbath, when they meet in the synagogue where men and women sit in separate partitions and listen to a sermon (30–33). As to their diet, during the six days they eat nothing till sunset and even in some cases fast for three whole days or more, but on the Sabbath it is more generous, though then the food and drink are little more than bread and water (34–37) and this asceticism extends to their dress (38–39).",
+            "The ordinary Sabbath meeting does not seem to include a Symposium, but they have such a thing on occasions. But before giving an account of it Philo makes a digression which takes up about a quarter of the whole treatise, describing the pagan feasts with which he will contrast it. First he notes the savage violence and drunkenness which disfigure such feasts (40–47), secondly the extravagant luxury shown in the appurtenances, couches and drinking vessels and still more in the number, finery and beauty of the attendants (48–52), and the number and variety of the dishes with which the guests gorge themselves (53–56). Greek literature does include two Symposia of a more refined kind, those described by Xenophon and Plato. Yet even these are full of folly, and Philo can see little more in Plato’s than the exaltation of pederasty which he takes the occasion to denounce (57–63). The rest of the treatise (64–90) describes in contrast to the above the festal meeting of the Therapeutae. First the date and occasion (65); then the preliminaries and prayers, the seating in order of seniority in the community, with the sexes separate (66–69); then the nature of the couches used and the qualifications of the attendants who are not slaves but young freemen (69–72); the simplicity of the meal provided (73–74). After they have taken their places on the couches there follows a discourse by the President on some scriptural point bringing out the spiritual lessons that the literal text provides, which is received with all attention followed by applause at the end (75–79). The discourse is followed by hymns, the first sung by the President, the others by the congregation each in turn, while all join in the refrain at the end (80–81). Then at last the meal itself is served (82). After this the vigil begins, the men and women each form a choir, the two choirs sing and dance in turn and then join together (83–85), thus resembling the songs of Moses and Miriam after the destruction of Pharaoh in the Red Sea, which is once more told in some detail (85–87). This is continued till dawn when they stand up and face the east and at sunrise after prayer return each to their own prayer room (88–89). The concluding section sums up the virtues and blessedness of the Therapeutae (90)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "[1] I have discussed the Essenes, who persistently pursued the active life and excelled in all or, to put it more moderately, in most of its departments. I will now proceed at once in accordance with the sequence required by the subject to say what is needed about those who embraced the life of contemplation. In doing so I will not add anything of my own procuring to improve upon the facts as is constantly done by poets and historians through lack of excellence in the lives and practices which they record, but shall adhere absolutely to the actual truth. Though I know that in this case it is such as to unnerve the greatest master of oratory, still we must persevere and not decline the conflict, for the magnitude of virtue shown by these men must not be allowed to tie the tongues of those who hold that nothing excellent should be passed over in silence.",
+                "[2] The vocation of these philosophers is at once made clear from their title of Therapeutae and Therapeutrides, a name derived from θεραπεύω, either in the sense of “cure” because they profess an art of healing better than that current in the cities which cures only the bodies, while theirs treats also souls oppressed with grievous and well-nigh incurable diseases, inflicted by pleasures and desires and griefs and fears, by acts of covetousness, folly and injustice and the countless host of the other passions and vices: or else in the sense of “worship,” because nature and the sacred laws have schooled them to worship the Self-existent who is better than the good, purer than the One and more primordial than the Monad.",
+                "[3] Who among those who profess piety deserve to be compared with these?",
+                "Can we compare those who revere the elements, earth, water, air, fire, which have received different names from different peoples who call fire Hephaestus because it is kindled (ἐξάπτω), air Hera because it is lifted up (αἴρω) and exalted on high, water Poseidon perhaps because it is drunk (ποτός), and earth Demeter because it appears to be the mother of all plants and animals?",
+                "[4] Sophists have invented these names for the elements but the elements themselves are lifeless matter incapable of movement of itself and laid by the Artificer as a substratum for every kind of shape and quality.",
+                "[5] What of the worshippers of the bodies framed from the elements, sun, moon or the other stars fixed or wandering, or the whole heaven and universe? But these too were not brought into being self-made, but through an architect of most perfect knowledge.",
+                "[6] What of the worship of the demi-gods? Surely this is quite ridiculous. How could one and the same person be both mortal and immortal, to say nothing of the reproach attaching to the original source of their birth, tainted as it is with the licentiousness of wanton youth which they impiously dare to ascribe to the blissful and divine powers by supposing that the thrice blessed and exempt from every passion in their infatuation had intercourse with mortal women.",
+                "[7] What of the worshippers of the different kinds of images? Their substance is wood and stone, till a short time ago completely shapeless, hewn away from their congenital structure by quarrymen and woodcutters while their brethren, pieces from the same original source, have become urns and foot-basins or some others of the less honourable vessels which serve the purposes of darkness rather than of light.",
+                "[8] For as for the gods of the Egyptians it is hardly decent even to mention them. The Egyptians have promoted to divine honours irrational animals, not only of the tame sort but also beasts of the utmost savagery, drawn from each of the kinds found below the moon, from the creatures of the land the lion, from those of the water their indigenous crocodile, from the rangers of the air the hawk and the Egyptian ibis.",
+                "[9] And though they see these creatures brought to their birth, requiring food, eating voraciously, full of ordure, venomous too and man-eating, the prey of every sort of disease, and perishing not only by a natural but often by a violent death, they render worship to them, they the civilized to the uncivilized and untamed, the reasonable to the irrational, the kinsfolk of the Godhead to ugliness unmatched even by a Thersites, the rulers and masters to the naturally subservient and slavish."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[10] These indeed, since they infect not only their own compatriots but the peoples in their neighbourhood with their folly, must remain incurable, for they have lost the use of the most vital of the senses, sight. And by this I do not mean the sight of the body but of the soul, the sight which alone gives a knowledge of truth and falsehood.",
+                "[11] But it is well that the Therapeutae, a people always taught from the first to use their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the sun of our senses and never leave their place in this company which carries them on to perfect happiness.",
+                "[12] And those who set themselves to this service, not just following custom nor on the advice and admonition of others but carried away by a heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals or corybants until they see the object of their yearning.",
+                "[13] Then such is their longing for the deathless and blessed life that thinking their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their sons or daughters or to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the time of their inheritance, while those who have no kinsfolk give them to comrades and friends. For it was right that those who have received ready to their hand the wealth that has eyes to see should surrender the blind wealth to those who are still blind in mind.",
+                "[14] The Greeks extol Anaxagoras and Democritus because smitten with the desire for philosophy they left their fields to be devoured by sheep. I too myself admire them for showing themselves superior to wealth, but how much better are these who did not let their estates serve as feeding-ground for cattle but made good the needs of men, their kinsfolk and friends, and so turned their indigence into affluence. Of the two actions the first was thoughtless, I might say mad, but that the persons concerned have the admiration of Greece, the second showed soberness and careful consideration and remarkable good sense.",
+                "[15] What more does a hostile army do than cut the crops and hew the trees of their opponents’ country to force them to surrender through lack of necessaries? This is what a Democritus did to his own blood-relations, inflicting on them poverty and indigence artificially created, not perhaps with mischievous intent but through lack of foresight and consideration for the interest of the others.",
+                "[16] How much better and more admirable are these who with no less ardour for the study of wisdom preferred magnanimity to negligence and gave away their possessions instead of wasting them, in this way benefiting both others and themselves, others through supplying them with abundant resources, themselves through furthering the study of philosophy? For taking care of wealth and possessions consumes time and to economize time is an excellent thing since according to the physician Hippocrates “life is short but art is long.”",
+                "[17] The same idea is suggested I think by Homer in the <i>Iliad</i> at the beginning of the thirteenth book in the lines",
+                "<small>The Mysians fighting hand to hand, and noble Mare’s-milk-drinkers— <br>Nought else but milk sustains their life, these men of perfect justice.</small>",
+                "The idea conveyed is that injustice is bred by anxious thought for the means of life and for money-making, justice by holding and following the opposite creed. The first entails inequality, the second equality, the principle by which nature’s wealth is regulated and so stands superior to the wealth of vain opinion.",
+                "[18] So when they have divested themselves of their possessions and have no longer aught to ensnare them they flee without a backward glance and leave their brothers, their children, their wives, their parents, the wide circle of their kinsfolk, the groups of friends around them, the fatherlands in which they were born and reared, since strong is the attraction of familiarity and very great its power to ensnare.",
+                "[19] And they do not migrate into another city like the unfortunate or worthless slaves who demand to be sold by their owners and so procure a change of masters but not freedom. For every city, even the best governed, is full of turmoils and disturbances innumerable which no one could endure who has ever been even once under the guidance of wisdom.",
+                "[20] Instead of this they pass their days outside the walls pursuing solitude in gardens or lonely bits of country, not from any acquired habit of misanthropical bitterness but because they know how unprofitable and mischievous are associations with persons of dissimilar character."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] This kind exists in many places in the inhabited world, for perfect goodness must needs be shared both by Greeks and the world outside Greece, but it abounds in Egypt in each of the nomes as they are called and especially round Alexandria.",
+                "[22] But the best of these votaries journey from every side to settle in a certain very suitable place which they regard as their fatherland. This place is situated above the Mareotic Lake on a somewhat low-lying hill very happily placed both because of its security and the pleasantly tempered air.",
+                "[23] The safety is secured by the farm buildings and villages round about and the pleasantness of the air by the continuous breezes which arise both from the lake which debouches into the sea and from the open sea hard by. For the sea breezes are light, the lake breezes close and the two combining together produce a most healthy condition of climate.",
+                "[24] The houses of the society thus collected are exceedingly simple, providing protection against two of the most pressing dangers, the fiery heat of the sun and the icy cold of the air. They are neither near together as in towns, since living at close quarters is troublesome and displeasing to people who are seeking to satisfy their desire for solitude, nor yet at a great distance because of the sense of fellowship which they cherish, and to render help to each other if robbers attack them.",
+                "[25] In each house there is a consecrated room which is called a sanctuary or closet and closeted in this they are initiated into the mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, either drink or food or any other of the things necessary for the needs of the body, but laws and oracles delivered through the mouth of prophets, and psalms and anything else which fosters and perfects knowledge and piety.",
+                "[26] They keep the memory of God alive and never forget it, so that even in their dreams the picture is nothing else but the loveliness of divine excellences and powers. Indeed many when asleep and dreaming give utterance to the glorious verities of their holy philosophy.",
+                "[27] Twice every day they pray, at dawn and at eventide; at sunrise they pray for a fine bright day, fine and bright in the true sense of the heavenly daylight which they pray may fill their minds. At sunset they ask that the soul may be wholly relieved from the press of the senses and the objects of sense and sitting where she is consistory and council chamber to herself pursue the quest of truth.",
+                "[28] The interval between early morning and evening is spent entirely in spiritual exercise. They read the Holy Scriptures and seek wisdom from their ancestral philosophy by taking it as an allegory, since they think that the words of the literal text are symbols of something whose hidden nature is revealed by studying the underlying meaning.",
+                "[29] They have also writings of men of old, the founders of their way of thinking, who left many memorials of the form used in allegorical interpretation and these they take as a kind of archetype and imitate the method in which this principle is carried out. And so they do not confine themselves to contemplation but also compose hymns and psalms to God in all sorts of metres and melodies which they write down with the rhythms necessarily made more solemn.",
+                "[30] For six days they seek wisdom by themselves in solitude in the closets mentioned above, never passing the outside door of the house or even getting a distant view of it. But every seventh day they meet together as for a general assembly and sit in order according to their age in the proper attitude, with their hands inside the robe, the right hand between the breast and the chin and the left withdrawn along the flank.",
+                "[31] Then the senior among them who also has the fullest knowledge of the doctrines which they profess comes forward and with visage and voice alike quiet and composed gives a well-reasoned and wise discourse. He does not make an exhibition of clever rhetoric like the orators or sophists of to-day but follows careful examination by careful expression of the exact meaning of the thoughts, and this does not lodge just outside the ears of the audience but passes through the hearing into the soul and there stays securely. All the others sit still and listen showing their approval merely by their looks or nods.",
+                "[32] This common sanctuary in which they meet every seventh day is a double enclosure, one portion set apart for the use of the men, the other for the women. For women too regularly make part of the audience with the same ardour and the same sense of their calling.",
+                "[33] The wall between the two chambers rises up from the ground to three or four cubits built in the form of a breast work, while the space above up to the roof is left open. This arrangement serves two purposes; the modesty becoming to the female sex is preserved, while the women sitting within ear-shot can easily follow what is said since there is nothing to obstruct the voice of the speaker."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[34] They lay self-control to be as it were the foundation of their soul and on it build the other virtues. None of them would put food or drink to his lips before sunset since they hold that philosophy finds its right place in the light, the needs of the body in the darkness, and therefore they assign the day to the one and some small part of the night to the other. Some in whom the desire for studying wisdom is more deeply implanted even only after three days remember to take food.",
+                "[35] Others so luxuriate and delight in the banquet of truths which wisdom richly and lavishly supplies that they hold out for twice that time and only after six days do they bring themselves to taste such sustenance as is absolutely necessary. They have become habituated to abstinence like the grasshoppers who are said to live on air because, I suppose, their singing makes their lack of food a light matter.",
+                "[36] But to the seventh day as they consider it to be sacred and festal in the highest degree they have awarded special privileges as its due, and on it after providing for the soul refresh the body also, which they do as a matter of course with the cattle too by releasing them from their continuous labour.",
+                "[37] Still they eat nothing costly, only common bread with salt for a relish flavoured further by the daintier with hyssop, and their drink is spring water. For as nature has set hunger and thirst as mistresses over mortal kind they propitiate them without using anything to curry favour but only such things as are actually needed and without which life cannot be maintained. Therefore they eat enough to keep from hunger and drink enough to keep from thirst but abhor surfeiting as a malignant enemy both to soul and body.",
+                "[38] As for the two forms of shelter, clothes and housing, we have already said that the house is unembellished and a makeshift constructed for utility only. Their clothing likewise is the most inexpensive, enough to protect them against extreme cold and heat, a thick coat of shaggy skin in winter and in summer a vest or linen shirt.",
+                "[39] For they practise an all-round simplicity knowing that its opposite, vanity, is the source of falsehood as simplicity is of truth, and that both play the part of a fountain head of other things, since from falsehood flow the manifold forms of evil and from truth abundant streams of goodness both human and divine."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[40] I wish also to speak of their common assemblages and the cheerfulness of their convivial meals as contrasted with those of other people. Some people when they have filled themselves with strong drink behave as though they had drunk not wine but some witch’s potion charged with frenzy and madness and anything more fatal that can be imagined to overthrow their reason. They bellow and rave like wild dogs, attack and bite each other and gnaw off noses, ears, fingers and some other parts of the body, so that they make good the story of the comrades of Odysseus and the Cyclops by eating “gobbets” of men, as the poet says, and with greater cruelty than the Cyclops.",
+                "[41] For he avenged himself on men whom he suspected to be enemies, they on their familiars and friends and sometimes even on their kin over the salt and across the board, and as they pour the libation of peace they commit deeds of war like those of the gymnastic contests, counterfeiting the genuine coin of manly exercise, no wrestlers but wretches, for that is the right name to give them.",
+                "[42] For what the athletes do in the arena while sober, in the daylight, with the eyes of all Greece upon them, in the hope of victory and the crown and in the exercise of their skill, are debased by the revellers who ply their activities in convivial gatherings by night and in darkness, drink-besotted, ignorant and skilful only for mischief to inflict dishonour, insult and grievous outrage on the objects of their assault.",
+                "[43] And if no one plays the umpire and comes forward to intervene and separate them they carry on the bout with increased licence to the finish, ready both to kill and to be killed. For they suffer no less than what they mete to others though they know it not, so infatuated are these who shrink not from drinking wine, as the comic poet says, to mar not only their neighbours but themselves.",
+                "[44] And so those who but now came to the party sound in body and friendly at heart leave soon afterwards in enmity and with bodily mutilation,—enmity in some cases calling for advocates and judges, mutilation in others requiring the apothecary and physician and the help that they can bring.",
+                "[45] Others belonging to what we may suppose is the more moderate part of the company are in a state of overflow. Draughts of strong wine act upon them like mandragora, they throw the left elbow forward, turn the neck at a right angle, belch into the cups and sink into a profound sleep, seeing nothing and hearing nothing, having apparently only one sense and that the most slavish, taste.",
+                "[46] I know of some who when they are half-seas-over and before they have completely gone under arrange donations and subscriptions in preparation for to-morrow’s bout, considering that one factor in their present exhilaration is the hope of future intoxication.",
+                "[47] In this way they spend their whole life ever hearthless and homeless, enemies to their parents, their wives and their children, enemies too to their country and at war with themselves. For a loose and a dissolute life is a menace to all."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[48] Some perhaps may approve the method of banqueting now prevalent everywhere through hankering for the Italian expensiveness and luxury emulated both by Greek and non-Greeks who make their arrangements for ostentation rather than festivity.",
+                "[49] Sets of three or many couches made of tortoise shell or ivory or even more valuable material, most of them inlaid with precious stones; coverlets purple-dyed with gold interwoven, others brocaded with flower patterns of all sorts of colours to allure the eye; a host of drinking cups set out in their several kinds, beakers, stoops, tankards, other goblets of many shapes, very artistically and elaborately chased by scientific craftsmen.",
+                "[50] For waiting there are slaves of the utmost comeliness and beauty, giving the idea that they have come not so much to render service as to give pleasure to the eyes of the beholders by appearing on the scene. Some of them who are still boys pour the wine, while the water is carried by full-grown lads fresh from the bath and smooth shaven, with their faces smeared with cosmetics and paint under the eyelids and the hair of the head prettily plaited and tightly bound.",
+                "[51] For they have long thick hair which is not cut at all or else the forelocks only are cut at the tips to make them level and take exactly the figure of a circular line. They wear tunics fine as cobwebs and of dazzling white girt high up; the front part hangs below the under knee, the back part a little below the back of the knee and they draw together each part with curly bows of ribbon along the line of join of the tunics and then let the folds dangle down obliquely, broadening out the hollows along the sides.",
+                "[52] In the background are others, grown lads newly bearded with the down just blooming on their cheeks, recently pets of the pederasts, elaborately dressed up for the heavier services, a proof of the opulence of the hosts as those who employ them know, but in reality of their bad taste.",
+                "[53] Besides there are the varieties of baked meats, savoury dishes and seasonings produced by the labour of cooks and confectioners who are careful to please not merely the taste as they are bound to do but also the sight by the elegance of the viands. (The assembled guests) turn their necks round and round, greedily eyeing the richness and abundance of the meat and nosing the steamy odour which arises from it. When they have had their fill of both seeing and smelling they give the word to fall to with many a compliment to the entertainment and the munificence of the entertainer.",
+                "[54] Seven tables at the least and even more are brought in covered with the flesh of every creature that land, sea and rivers or air produce, beast, fish or bird, all choice and in fine condition, each table differing in the dishes served and the method of seasoning. And, that nothing to be found in nature should be unrepresented, the last tables brought in are loaded with fruits, not including those reserved for the drinking bouts and the after-dinners as they call them.",
+                "[55] Then while some tables are taken out emptied by the gluttony of the company who gorge themselves like cormorants, so voraciously that they nibble even at the bones, other tables have their dishes mangled and torn and left half eaten. And when they are quite exhausted, their bellies crammed up to the gullets, but their lust still ravenous, impotent for eating (they turn to the drink).",
+                "[56] But why dilate on these doings which are now condemned by many of the more sober minded as giving further vent to the lusts which might profitably be curtailed? For one may well pray for what men most pray to escape, hunger and thirst, rather than for the lavish profusion of food and drink found in festivities of this kind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[57] Among the banquets held in Greece there are two celebrated and highly notable examples, namely those in which Socrates took part, one held in the house of Callias and given by him in honour of the victory in which Autolycus won the crown, the other in the house of Agathon. That these deserve to be remembered was the judgement of men whose character and discourses showed them to be philosophers, Xenophon and Plato, who described them as worthy to be recorded, surmising that they would serve to posterity as models of the happily conducted banquet.",
+                "[58] Yet even these if compared with those of our people who embrace the contemplative life will appear as matters for derision. Pleasure is an element in both, but Xenophon’s banquet is more concerned with ordinary humanity. There are flute girls, dancers, jugglers, fun-makers, proud of their gift of jesting and facetiousness, and other accompaniments of more unrestrained merrymaking.",
+                "[59] In Plato’s banquet the talk is almost entirely concerned with love, not merely with the love-sickness of men for women, or women for men, passions recognized by the laws of nature, but of men for other males differing from them only in age. For, if we find some clever subtlety dealing apparently with the heavenly Love and Aphrodite, it is brought in to give a touch of humour.",
+                "[60] The chief part is taken up by the common vulgar love which robs men of the courage which is the virtue most valuable for the life both of peace and war, sets up the disease of effeminacy in their souls and turns into a hybrid of man and woman those who should have been disciplined in all the practices which make for valour.",
+                "[61] And having wrought havoc with the years of boyhood and reduced the boy to the grade and condition of a girl besieged by a lover it inflicts damage on the lovers also in three most essential respects, their bodies, their souls and their property. For the mind of the lover is necessarily set towards his darling and its sight is keen for him only, blind to all other interests, private and public; his body wastes away through desire, particularly if his suit is unsuccessful, while his property is diminished by two causes, neglect and expenditure on his beloved.",
+                "[62] As a side growth we have another greater evil of national importance. Cities are desolated, the best kind of men become scarce, sterility and childlessness ensue through the devices of these who imitate men who have no knowledge of husbandry by sowing not in the deep soil of the lowland but in briny fields and stony and stubborn places, which not only give no possibility for anything to grow but even destroy the seed deposited within them.",
+                "[63] I pass over the mythical stories of the double-bodied men who were originally brought by unifying forces into cohesion with each other and afterwards came asunder, as an assemblage of separate parts might do when the bond of union which brought them together was loosened. All these are seductive enough, calculated by the novelty of the notion to beguile the ear, but the disciples of Moses trained from their earliest years to love the truth regard them with supreme contempt and continue undeceived."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[64] But since the story of these well-known banquets is full of such follies and they stand self-convicted in the eyes of any who do not regard conventional opinions and the widely circulated report which declares them to have been all that they should be, I will describe in contrast the festal meetings of those who have dedicated their own life and themselves to knowledge and the contemplation of the verities of nature, following the truly sacred instructions of the prophet Moses.",
+                "[65] First of all these people assemble after seven sets of seven days have passed, for they revere not only the simple seven but its square also, since they know its chastity and perpetual virginity. This is the eve of the chief feast which Fifty takes for its own, Fifty the most sacred of numbers and the most deeply rooted in nature, being formed from the square of the right-angled triangle which is the source from which the universe springs.",
+                "[66] So then they assemble, white-robed and with faces in which cheerfulness is combined with the utmost seriousness, but before they recline, at a signal from a member of the Rota, which is the name commonly given to those who perform these services, they take their stand in a regular line in an orderly way, their eyes and hands lifted up to Heaven, eyes because they have been trained to fix their gaze on things worthy of contemplation, hands in token that they are clean from gain-taking and not defiled through any cause of the profit-making kind. So standing they pray to God that their feasting may be acceptable and proceed as He would have it.",
+                "[67] After the prayers the seniors recline according to the order of their admission, since by senior they do not understand the aged and grey headed who are regarded as still mere children if they have only in late years come to love this rule of life, but those who from their earliest years have grown to manhood and spent their prime in pursuing the contemplative branch of philosophy, which indeed is the noblest and most god-like part.",
+                "[68] The feast is shared by women also, most of them aged virgins, who have kept their chastity not under compulsion, like some of the Greek priestesses, but of their own free will in their ardent yearning for wisdom. Eager to have her for their life mate they have spurned the pleasures of the body and desire no mortal offspring but those immortal children which only the soul that is dear to God can bring to the birth unaided because the Father has sown in her spiritual rays enabling her to behold the verities of wisdom."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[69] The order of reclining is so apportioned that the men sit by themselves on the right and the women by themselves on the left. Perhaps it may be thought that couches though not costly still of a softer kind would have been provided for people of good birth and high character and trained practice in philosophy. Actually they are plank beds of the common kinds of wood, covered with quite cheap strewings of native papyrus, raised slightly at the arms to give something to lean on. For while they mitigate somewhat the harsh austerity of Sparta, they always and everywhere practise a frugal contentment worthy of the free, and oppose with might and main the love-lures of pleasure.",
+                "[70] They do not have slaves to wait upon them as they consider that the ownership of servants is entirely against nature. For nature has borne all men to be free, but the wrongful and covetous acts of some who pursued that source of evil, inequality, have imposed their yoke and invested the stronger with power over the weaker.",
+                "[71] In this sacred banquet there is as I have said no slave, but the services are rendered by free men who perform their tasks as attendants not under compulsion nor yet waiting for orders, but with deliberate goodwill anticipating eagerly and zealously the demands that may be made.",
+                "[72] For it is not just any free men who are appointed for these offices but young members of the association chosen with all care for their special merit who as becomes their good character and nobility are pressing on to reach the summit of virtue. They give their services gladly and proudly like sons to their real fathers and mothers, judging them to be the parents of them all in common, in a closer affinity than that of blood, since to the right minded there is no closer tie than noble living. And they come in to do their office ungirt and with tunics hanging down, that in their appearance there may be no shadow of anything to suggest the slave.",
+                "[73] In this banquet—I know that some will laugh at this, but only those whose actions call for tears and lamentation—no wine is brought during those days but only water of the brightest and clearest, cold for most of the guests but warm for such of the older men as live delicately. The table too is kept pure from the flesh of animals; the food laid on it is loaves of bread with salt as a seasoning, sometimes also flavoured with hyssop as a relish for the daintier appetites.",
+                "[74] Abstinence from wine is enjoined by right reason as for the priest when sacrificing, so to these for their lifetime. For wine acts like a drug producing folly, and costly dishes stir up that most insatiable of animals, desire."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[75] Such are the preliminaries. But when the guests have laid themselves down arranged in rows, as I have described, and the attendants have taken their stand with everything in order ready for their ministry, the President of the company, when a general silence is established—here it may be asked when is there no silence—well at this point there is silence even more than before so that no one ventures to make a sound or breathe with more force than usual—amid this silence, I say, he discusses some question arising in the Holy Scriptures or solves one that has been propounded by someone else. In doing this he has no thought of making a display, for he has no ambition to get a reputation for clever oratory but desires to gain a closer insight into some particular matters and having gained it not to withhold it selfishly from those who if not so clear-sighted as he have at least a similar desire to learn.",
+                "[76] His instruction proceeds in a leisurely manner; he lingers over it and spins it out with repetitions, thus permanently imprinting the thoughts in the souls of the hearers, since if the speaker goes on descanting with breathless rapidity the mind of the hearers is unable to follow his language, loses ground and fails to arrive at apprehension of what is said.",
+                "[77] His audience listen with ears pricked up and eyes fixed on him always in exactly the same posture, signifying comprehension and understanding by nods and glances, praise of the speaker by the cheerful change of expression which steals over the face, difficulty by a gentler movement of the head and by pointing with a finger-tip of the right hand. The young men standing by show no less attentiveness than the occupants of the couches.",
+                "[78] The exposition of the sacred scriptures treats the inner meaning conveyed in allegory. For to these people the whole law book seems to resemble a living creature with the literal ordinances for its body and for its soul the invisible mind laid up in its wording. It is in this mind especially that the rational soul begins to contemplate the things akin to itself and looking through the words as through a mirror beholds the marvellous beauties of the concepts, unfolds and removes the symbolic coverings and brings forth the thoughts and sets them bare to the light of day for those who need but a little reminding to enable them to discern the inward and hidden through the outward and visible.",
+                "[79] When then the President thinks he has discoursed enough and both sides feel sure that they have attained their object, the speaker in the effectiveness with which his discourse has carried out his aims, the audience in the substance of what they have heard, universal applause arises showing a general pleasure in the prospect of what is still to follow.",
+                "[80] Then the President rises and sings a hymn composed as an address to God, either a new one of his own composition or an old one by poets of an earlier day who have left behind them hymns in many measures and melodies, hexameters and iambics, lyrics suitable for processions or in libations and at the altars, or for the chorus whilst standing or dancing, with careful metrical arrangements to fit the various evolutions. After him all the others take their turn as they are arranged and in the proper order while all the rest listen in complete silence except when they have to chant the closing lines or refrains, for then they all lift up their voices, men and women alike.",
+                "[81] When everyone has finished his hymn the young men bring in the tables mentioned a little above on which is set the truly purified meal of leavened bread seasoned with salt mixed with hyssop, out of reverence for the holy table enshrined in the sacred vestibule of the temple on which lie loaves and salt without condiments, the loaves unleavened and the salt unmixed.",
+                "[82] For it was meet that the simplest and purest food should be assigned to the highest caste, namely the priests, as a reward for their ministry, and that the others while aspiring to similar privileges should abstain from seeking the same as they and allow their superiors to retain their precedence."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[83] After the supper they hold the sacred vigil which is conducted in the following way. They rise up all together and standing in the middle of the refectory form themselves first into two choirs, one of men and one of women, the leader and precentor chosen for each being the most honoured amongst them and also the most musical.",
+                "[84] Then they sing hymns to God composed of many measures and set to many melodies, sometimes chanting together, sometimes taking up the harmony antiphonally, hands and feet keeping time in accompaniment, and rapt with enthusiasm reproduce sometimes the lyrics of the procession, sometimes of the halt and of the wheeling and counter-wheeling of a choric dance.",
+                "[85] Then when each choir has separately done its own part in the feast, having drunk as in the Bacchic rites of the strong wine of God’s love they mix and both together become a single choir, a copy of the choir set up of old beside the Red Sea in honour of the wonders there wrought.",
+                "[86] For at the command of God the sea became a source of salvation to one party and of perdition to the other. As it broke in twain and withdrew under the violence of the forces which swept it back there rose on either side, opposite to each other, the semblance of solid walls, while the space thus opened between them broadened into a highway smooth and dry throughout on which the people marched under guidance right on until they reached the higher ground on the opposite mainland. But when the sea came rushing in with the returning tide, and from either side passed over the ground where dry land had appeared the pursuing enemy were submerged and perished.",
+                "[87] This wonderful sight and experience, an act transcending word and thought and hope, so filled with ecstasy both men and women that forming a single choir they sang hymns of thanksgiving to God their Saviour, the men led by the prophet Moses and the women by the prophetess Miriam.",
+                "[88] It is on this model above all that the choir of the Therapeutae of either sex, note in response to note and voice to voice, the treble of the women blending with the bass of the men, create an harmonious concent, music in the truest sense. Lovely are the thoughts, lovely the words and worthy of reverence the choristers, and the end and aim of thoughts, words and choristers alike is piety.",
+                "[89] Thus they continue till dawn, drunk with this drunkenness in which there is no shame, then not with heavy heads or drowsy eyes but more alert and wakeful than when they came to the banquet, they stand with their faces and whole body turned to the east and when they see the sun rising they stretch their hands up to heaven and pray for bright days and knowledge of the truth and the power of keen sighted thinking. And after the prayers they depart each to his private sanctuary once more to ply the trade and till the field of their wonted philosophy.",
+                "[90] So much then for the Therapeutae, who have taken to their hearts the contemplation of nature and what it has to teach, and have lived in the soul alone, citizens of Heaven and the world, presented to the Father and Maker of all by their faithful sponsor Virtue, who has procured for them God’s friendship and added a gift going hand in hand with it, true excellence of life, a boon better than all good fortune and rising to the very summit of felicity."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA",
+            "(Title and sub-title.) The main title as here printed is that used by Eusebius himself, first when making his famous disquisition on the Therapeutae, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17, and again in his list of Philo’s writings in the next chapter. There can therefore be no doubt of its authenticity, but it is difficult to see why Philo substituted ἱκετῶν for θεραπευτῶν. It does not occur in the treatise itself and though as Conybeare shows there are many passages where ἱκεταί and θεραπευταί are coupled, they are not exactly the same and ἱκεταί does not suit the sense of healing which he gives as an alternative meaning for Therapeutae.",
+            "As for the sub-title, the “fourth (part or book) of the virtues” has no authority from Eusebius but appears to be given in all the MSS. The title of Περὶ ἀρετῶν is given by Eus. ii. 18 to the treatise of which the <i>Legatio</i> as we have it is a part, and he says in ii. 5 that this had five books and in ii. 6 speaks of the sufferings of the Jews in Alexandria as being described in the second book. The sub-title, therefore, affirms that the <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> was the fourth book of this treatise. We may be sure at any rate that Eusebius had no idea of this. But this, being part of the wider question what the complete Περὶ ἀρετῶν consists of and what is the meaning of the title, may be postponed until the <i>Legatio</i> is translated.",
+            "§ 2. προαίρεσις. This word occurs again five times in this treatise, §§ 17, 29, 32, 67, 79, and twice elsewhere in this volume, <i>Quod Omn. Prob.</i> 89 and <i>Hyp.</i> 11. 2. The uses in Philo, all springing from the sense of choice or purpose, may be divided into those which describe the purpose or motive of some particular action and those which indicate the motives and principles which regulate a lifetime or a career. To the first class belong §§ 29 and 79 as I understand the passage, and § 32 might be taken in the same way. In the other passages it is used in the second sense. In §§ 2, 17 and <i>Hyp.</i> 11. 2, where it is applied to the Therapeutae or the Essenes, it may be thought that it simply = the sect itself. So indeed Gifford translates it in the latter passage and L. &amp; S. recognizes this use of the word. But it seems to me better in the Philonic passages to take it as the beliefs and principles held by the sects, thus including both a creed and a rule of life. The various attempts made in this volume to translate it, <i>i.e.</i> “persuasion,” “vocation,” “creed” and “rule of life,” are none of them, perhaps, quite adequate.",
+            "§ 3. (Hephaestus and Poseidon.) So Cornutus (§ 19) says of Hephaestus ἐκ τοῦ ἧφθαι ὠνομασμένος. In the same chapter he, like Philo in <i>De Dec.</i> 54, identifies Ἥρα with ἀήρ, but does not suggest a common derivation. For Poseidon <i>cf.</i> Corn. 4, where he identifies him with ἡ ἀπεργαστικὴ τοῦ ἐν τῇ γῇ καὶ περὶ τὴν γῆν ὑγροῦ δύναμις and adds εἴτʼ ἀπὸ τῆς πόσεως οὕτω κέκληται. This is followed by two alternative suggestions, <i>cf.</i> Philo’s τάχα.",
+            "§ 17. ῥαψῳδίας. Conybeare, scolding Lucius, who saw in this reference to the thirteenth rhapsody the mark of later authorship, says that the division into rhapsodies was the work of Zenodotus and Aristarchus, 250 years before Philo. He does not give his authority for this. As to the use of the word in this sense the lexica do not give any certain evidence. L. &amp; S. (old and revised) gives “portions of an epic poem fit for recitation, etc., <i>e.g.</i> a book of the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i>, Plut. 2, 186 E, Lucian, <i>D. Mort.</i> 20. 2 and <i>Cont.</i> 9.” In this they are really repeating Stephanus. In the first of the Lucian passages the greater Homeric personalities when in Hades are described as τὰ κεφάλαια τῶν ῥαψῳδιῶν. In the second Homer in Charon’s boat was sea-sick and vomits his rhapsodies. Plutarch is more definite. Alcibiades asks the teacher for a rhapsody of Homer and when the teacher says he has no Homer gives him a box on the ears. In the <i>Life of Alcibiades</i> 7 Plutarch repeats this story, substituting βίβλιον for ῥαψῳδίαν. It is both curious and regrettable that this passage of Philo which so definitely establishes the use of the word for the Homeric books as we have them has not found its way into the lexicon.",
+            "§ 25. μοναστήριον. On this word Conybeare states that it does not exist elsewhere in any Greek document until the end of the third century, when it has acquired the sense of a building or establishment for a single monk or hermit (for which he gives references from Athanasius and other patristic writers) or for several monks together. The statement that it does not occur earlier is confirmed by L. &amp; S. revised, which, apparently ignoring the patristic use, quotes this passage but nothing else earlier than the sixth century. It translates it here by “hermit’s cell,” which does not seem to me a happy phrase. It indicates simply a room in a house, into which no one else is allowed to enter. The familiar “closet” of Matt. 6:6, though the R.V. has replaced it by “inner chamber,” seems to me to carry the same idea.",
+            "<i>Ibid.</i> (End of section.) τὰ ἄλλα presumably refers to writings of some kind. But the words may refer to the συγγράμματα mentioned in § 29, or to the other books of scripture besides those indicated above. So Wendland, who quotes the Canon given by Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> i. 8, <i>i.e.</i> the Law, the Prophets (including the historical books), and the four books of the psalms and precepts of human life, <i>i.e.</i> Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Cantica. If Philo means this, τὰ ἄλλα will be the last three. But unless other evidence is forthcoming this seems very conjectural.",
+            "§ 36. λιπαίνουσιν. Wendland, like Conybeare, takes this word to mean “anoint” in the literal sense. He does not translate the passage, but as he thinks that τὰ θρέμματα is figuratively used and cites several passages where Philo uses the word to represent the senses or body as cattle under the guidance of the shepherd, the mind, he presumably would translate it “releasing as it were the animal side from its labours.” He also takes the passage to be a reminiscence of Plato, <i>Menexenus</i> 238 A, where oil is spoken of as πόνων ἀρωγήν, <i>cf. De Aet. 63</i>. With all due deference to two such high authorities, I still hold to the interpretation given in the translation that the relaxation of abstinence on the sabbath is to the Therapeutae what release from labour is to the beasts of burden. The Therapeutae have not endured the labour for which oil is a relief nor is λιπαίνω the natural word for anointing. Wendland certainly makes a point when he remarks that the indicative ἀνίασι would be expected rather than the participle. But the construction may, I think, be explained quite easily by understanding λιπαίνουσι. When he asks if they only eat bread and salt on the sabbath, what did they do on the other days, the natural answer is that on the sabbath they did not fast for the whole day or even until sunset. It is, I think, worth noting that according to Josephus, <i>B.J.</i> ii. 8. 3, the Essenes abstained altogether from the use of oil. Though it is not a decisive point it is a little surprising to find the Therapeutae making a sabbatical luxury of the indulgence which the less ascetic Essenes refuse.",
+            "§ 49. τρίκλινα. “Sets of three couches” is one of the meanings given in L. &amp; S. revised for τρίκλινος (the more usual form) and τρίκλινον which appears to be found occasionally. Conybeare gives “couches for three to recline upon.” Whatever the exact meaning is the point is, as he says, that they are large articles of furniture and therefore it shows extravagance to make them of very expensive material.",
+            "§ 58. (Xenophon’s <i>Symposium</i>.) Philo’s description of this is very superficial. The amusements mentioned chiefly appear at the beginning and end of the banquet and he does no justice to the mixture of banter and seriousness (ἀναμὶξ ἔσκωψάν τε καὶ ἐσπούδασαν) which characterizes most of the talk, nor to the real seriousness in Socrates’ longer speech, while, on the other hand, he ignores the fact that the acceptance of the feature in Greek sentiment so strongly denounced in §§ 60–62 is as prominent here as in Plato’s <i>Symposium</i>.",
+            "§ 59. (Plato’s <i>Symposium</i>.) Philo’s criticisms of this are not very creditable to him. In the first place his equating πάνδημος ἔρως with παιδεραστία is entirely wrong. The essence of πάνδημος ἔρως as represented in Pausanias’s speech, where the phrase principally appears, is that it is περὶ σώματος. It is concerned with women as much as with boys (181 B) and the passion of a male for a younger male plays a greater part in οὐράνιος ἔρως. But more important than this is the error of dismissing the οὐράνιος ἔρως as merely a secondary adjunct brought in to give a touch of humour or wit. Such a description indeed would be appropriate to Aristophanes’ fable of the original third sex which Philo takes so seriously in § 63, but it does not apply to the rest, and much of the picture ascribed by Socrates to Diotima is very much after Philo’s heart. Indeed, he himself uses the word ἔρως in the same idealistic way, <i>e.g.</i> <i>De Ebr.</i> 136.",
+            "Philo, of course, is not the only person who has been shocked by the acceptance in some parts of the <i>Symposium</i> of παιδεραστία as a normal feeling and still more by the apparent callousness of Socrates as described by Alcibiades in the last part. It was perhaps with reference mainly to this that Athenaeus xi. 506 c declares that what Plato says about Alcibiades in the <i>Symposium</i> is not fit for repetition οὐδʼ εἰς φῶς ἄξιον λέγεσθαι, and that, as every Cambridge student learnt in an earlier generation, Paley in the <i>Evidences</i>, part ii. 2, says that Socrates himself was more than suspected of the foulest impurities. Philo makes very little use of the <i>Symposium</i> himself. The only definite reminiscence listed by Leisegang is that noted on p. 232 of this volume, though perhaps the thought of the preference of the Therapeutae for the immortal rather than mortal children in <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> 68 may have in mind <i>Symp.</i> 209.",
+            "§ 65. διʼ ἑπτὰ ἑβδομάδων. Wendland rejects Conybeare’s view almost entirely on the ground that the word cannot yield this sense. He is wrong, I believe, in saying that the words in themselves cannot mean “after seven weeks.” διά in this sense indicates the interval between two events, but whether this interval occurs only once or recurs regularly depends on the context. Here, as stated in the footnote, since weekly sabbaths have been mentioned, “every seven weeks” is the natural meaning. But admitting that Philo has expressed himself carelessly if he means seven weeks after the Passover, is it likely that the Therapeutae, who appear to have been orthodox Jews, discarded the religious calendar of Moses and arranged a new system of festal days which one would have thought would have been difficult in itself? For since periods of fifty days do not fit into the year, this great feast would recur seven times in one year and eight times in another and in different months from year to year.",
+            "Wendland does not notice μεγίστης ἑορτῆς, which is not without its difficulties on Conybeare’s hypothesis but much more perplexing on his. In what sense is every fiftieth day which follows the <i>Symposium</i> on the forty-ninth called the greatest feast and what happened on it? Nor does he notice τὸ μὲν πρῶτον. Conybeare understood this to mean that they first meet on the eve for the banquet, the religious meeting on the day itself for worship being taken for granted. By translating it “first of all” I suggest that he does not rule out other cheerful convivial meals but takes this as the most notable, <i>cf.</i> § 40.",
+            "<i>Ibid.</i> <i>The chief feast</i>. Conybeare, p. 313, gives the following as reasons why Philo describes the Pentecostal meal in preference to the Paschal. The Passover was a domestic feast celebrated more austerely than Pentecost, which was also a day prescribed by the Law for rejoicing; also it occurred in a season more suited to remaining all night in the open air. These are perhaps satisfactory reasons for his selection of the feast for description, but not for his calling it the greatest feast, and Conybeare is mistaken when he says, p. 300, that Philo uniformly refers to Pentecost as the greatest of the feasts. Philo I think only mentions Pentecost three times, <i>De Dec.</i> 160, <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 183, ii. 176 ff. In the third of these he remarks that it is a greater feast than the Sheaf which he has just described. In the second he calls it δημοτελεστάτη, <i>i.e.</i> especially national or generally celebrated, while in the first he speaks of the Passover and Tabernacles as the greatest feasts. However this inconsistency is not greater than many of those to be found in Philo’s writings.",
+            "§ 67. (Genuineness of ἀλλʼ ἔτι κομιδῇ νέους παῖδας.) In <i>Hermes</i>, 1916, p. 179, Cohn gives as an additional reason for expunging these words that they make no sense, and that not they but ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἐκ πρώτης … φιλοσοφίας are the antithesis to τοὺς πολυετεῖς καὶ πολιούς. This last is true, but the sentence contains another antithesis, viz. πρεσβυτέρους and νέους παῖδας. This may be awkward, but is perfectly intelligible. Conybeare says “Armenio plane desunt, non tamen omittenda esse videntur.”",
+            "§ 78. <i>Reminding</i>. I think this should be taken as an allusion to the Platonic doctrine that learning is recollection (<i>Meno</i> 81). The knowledge is latent in the mind and the teacher only brings it into consciousness, <i>cf. De Praem. 9</i>.",
+            "Conybeare discussing this thinks that the employment of ὑπόμνησις instead of ἀνάμνησις is against it. But surely if learning is recollection, teaching is reminding. He considers that <i>Spec. Leg.</i> iv. 107 is still more against it, but this seems to me irrelevant. There Philo says that, when the lesson is over, the pupil, by chewing the cud, <i>i.e.</i> by using his memory to call up what the teacher has told him, stamps a firm impression of them on his mind.",
+            "§ 80. (The hymns.) That the Jewish churches in the Hellenistic world should have hymns and that they should be composed in metres familiar to Greeks is perfectly natural, and I presume it was knowledge of such hymns that led Josephus to make the fanciful statement (<i>Ant.</i> vii. 12. 3) that David arranged the Psalms, some in trimeters and others in pentameters, and also that Moses composed both his longer and shorter hymns in hexameters (ii. 16. 4, iv. 8. 44), but I have seen no illustration of this statement of Philo which seems curiously elaborate, particularly its enumeration of Greek metres. Among these προσοδίων (or, at least the variant προσοδιακῶν) and στασίμων are recognized metrical terms. But παραβωμίων and παρασπονδείων are not cited elsewhere, at least as applied to hymns or lyrics, and χορικῶν appears to be a general term for any choral hymn."
+        ]
+    },
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על חיי העיון",
+        "enTitle": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+        "key": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants/English/merged.json

@@ -0,0 +1,188 @@
+{
+    "title": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_the_Contemplative_Life_or_Suppliants",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE CONTEMPLATIVE LIFE OR SUPPLIANTS (DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA) <br>INTRODUCTION TO <i>DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA</i>",
+            "This treatise is except for a few digressions a highly eulogistic account of an ascetic community known to Philo and settled near Alexandria. It is introduced as a counterpart to his description of the Essenes, whether that in <i>Quod Omnis Probus</i> 75–91 or perhaps more probably that in the <i>Hypothetica</i>, 11. 1–18, or possibly some third which has not survived. The Therapeutae are differentiated from the others in that while the Essenes exemplify the practical they represent the contemplative life. They do not have any active occupation or any custom of sharing houses or garments, nor do they even mess together except on special occasions. Another difference is that while the Essenes are exclusively male the Therapeutae admit women freely to such communal life as they have. On the other hand while the Essenes of course observe frugality there is no suggestion that they practised abstinence like the Therapeutae, who carried it to an extreme.",
+            "The treatise does not seem to me to rank high among the works of Philo; the subject is slight and gives little scope to the richness of thought which marks so much of the commentary and in a less degree the exposition of the Law. Historically it is perhaps of some importance as giving an account of an institution with some of the marks of later monasticism for which we have no parallel either without or within the Judaism of the times. And the importance would be much greater if we could suppose that this Alexandrian community was of a type widespread through the world outside. The opening words of section 21 may at first suggest that this was so and the argument of Lucius who maintained that the treatise was spurious was primarily based on this assumption. The Therapeutae, he argued, are said by the author to have been found in many places; if it were so we must have heard of them from other sources, and as we do not hear of them the whole thing must be a fiction. But I do not think that section 21 bears this meaning. This kind he says is found in many parts of the world, particularly in Egypt, and the best of them find a home in a certain spot which he proceeds to describe. But when we look back to find who this kind are it appears that they are religious enthusiasts who give up their property and family ties and go and live in solitude. That this type of character existed in Philo’s time we might take for granted even if we did not have, abundant evidence in his own writings, and it would not be surprising to find them occasionally organizing themselves into communities which would not necessarily attract much attention. Philo however does not assert that they ever did so except in the body which he glorifies in this treatise. Nor does he tell us how numerous they were or how long they maintained themselves. If any inference is to be drawn from the absence of mention elsewhere it would be that this settlement was small and ephemeral.",
+            "In fact it is neither the literary nor the philosophical value nor its historical importance which has made this treatise better known and more discussed than any other work of Philo. It owes its fame to the controversies which have raged round it since the fourth century. The thing began when Eusebius, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17 discovered in the Therapeutae a picture of the first Christian converts. After noting the traditional evangelization of Alexandria by St. Mark, he declares that no one could possibly doubt that Philo was referring to the first generation of his converts. In the renunciation of their property, their severe fasting, in the virginity of the women members, in their study of the scriptures including the writings of men of old which are clearly the gospels and apostolic writings and commentaries on the Old Testament such as Paul used—in their festal meetings which are a description of Easter celebrations, and the officials who manage these meetings in whom we may see bishops, priests and deacons, no one can possibly fail to see the first Christians. Nowadays it seems needless to argue that the theory has no foundation whatever. But it is easy to understand that the idea of finding in this Jewish philosopher an account of the life and worship of the early church, particularly in the great city whose evangelization is unnoticed in the New Testament, was very fascinating, and it is not surprising that it was strongly maintained by orthodox churchmen down to the 18th century. Hardly had it died out in the form sketched by Eusebius when it was revived in another form by two German scholars, Grätz and (more elaborately) Lucius in 1880. Eusebius had believed that Philo himself was in good faith describing the actual Christians of his time. Lucius supposed that some unknown writer at the end of the third century A.D. drew up an imaginary account of the monasticism of his own time which he put forth in Philo’s name in order to commend it to readers, who impressed by the authority thus given to it would believe that it was a genuine picture of the primitive church. Somehow Lucius secured the approval not only of such distinguished historians as Schiirer and Zeller but a formidable number of other distinguished scholars. But I find it difficult to understand how anyone who reads Conybeare’s and Wendland’s refutations side by side with Lucius’s dissertation can believe it. I will not attempt to give more than a few main points. Lucius’s strongest argument was the absolute silence elsewhere about the Therapeutae, and this might have weight if we understood the author to assert that communities like that of the Mareotic Lake were to be found everywhere through the Roman world. But as I have said above I see no need to make such a deduction. Lucius also declared that various practices mentioned had Christian parallels, a claim in some cases obviously absurd, in others I daresay justified. But it was necessary to his argument to show that these customs or practices were not only Christian but also non-Jewish and this, if the two writers I have mentioned are to be believed, is rarely if ever the case. But the one great source of evidence on which a student of Philo not expert in Christian Antiquities is entitled to give his opinion is the style and language. Here the evidence as shown not merely in thought but in vocabulary and phrasing seems to me quite beyond dispute. The Testimonia printed by Conybeare at the foot of each page are overwhelming and with the additions made by Wend-land demand at any rate a forger of extraordinary skill. They prove also that Lucius’s study of Philo, as shown in what he considers to be an approximately correct list of the parallels in the treatise with the rest of Philo, was exceedingly inadequate. Whatever was the case when Lucius’s argument was put forward sixty years ago, the tide of opinion has turned against it and rightly so far as I can judge.",
+            "The following is an analysis of the treatise:",
+            "He opens with saying that as a counterpart to the practical type represented by the Essenes he will describe the contemplative type which he calls Therapeutic. The name may originally mean healing but also worshipping, and this is the sense in which he further develops it (1–2). He compares this worship to the honour paid to other objects; the elements, the heavenly bodies and images are each reviewed and their inadequacy exposed (3–7), and this discussion ends with a scathing denunciation of the worst of all these false religions the Egyptian animal worship (8–9).",
+            "We now return to the Therapeutic type; their most essential characteristic is their mystical aspiration to reach the vision of the one God and this leads them to renounce all thoughts of private property (10–13). Philo praises them because in contrast to Anaxagoras and Democritus they do not let their property run to waste but give it over to friends and kinsmen while at the same time they gain leisure to devote themselves to the higher life (14–17). Free from these cares they leave behind them all family ties and seek solitude away from the corrupting influence of cities (18–20).",
+            "While the Therapeutic type in this wider sense is to be found in many parts of the Greek and Barbarian world, and particularly in Egypt, Philo declares that the best of them (in Egypt?) resort from every quarter to a particular spot near the Mareotic Lake, the climate and position of which he describes (21–23). The simple houses of these settlers each of them contain a room set apart for their meditations in which they study the Scriptures and devotional works from sunrise to sunset (24–26). At both times they pray and also compose hymns (27–29). This solitary life is relaxed somewhat on the Sabbath, when they meet in the synagogue where men and women sit in separate partitions and listen to a sermon (30–33). As to their diet, during the six days they eat nothing till sunset and even in some cases fast for three whole days or more, but on the Sabbath it is more generous, though then the food and drink are little more than bread and water (34–37) and this asceticism extends to their dress (38–39).",
+            "The ordinary Sabbath meeting does not seem to include a Symposium, but they have such a thing on occasions. But before giving an account of it Philo makes a digression which takes up about a quarter of the whole treatise, describing the pagan feasts with which he will contrast it. First he notes the savage violence and drunkenness which disfigure such feasts (40–47), secondly the extravagant luxury shown in the appurtenances, couches and drinking vessels and still more in the number, finery and beauty of the attendants (48–52), and the number and variety of the dishes with which the guests gorge themselves (53–56). Greek literature does include two Symposia of a more refined kind, those described by Xenophon and Plato. Yet even these are full of folly, and Philo can see little more in Plato’s than the exaltation of pederasty which he takes the occasion to denounce (57–63). The rest of the treatise (64–90) describes in contrast to the above the festal meeting of the Therapeutae. First the date and occasion (65); then the preliminaries and prayers, the seating in order of seniority in the community, with the sexes separate (66–69); then the nature of the couches used and the qualifications of the attendants who are not slaves but young freemen (69–72); the simplicity of the meal provided (73–74). After they have taken their places on the couches there follows a discourse by the President on some scriptural point bringing out the spiritual lessons that the literal text provides, which is received with all attention followed by applause at the end (75–79). The discourse is followed by hymns, the first sung by the President, the others by the congregation each in turn, while all join in the refrain at the end (80–81). Then at last the meal itself is served (82). After this the vigil begins, the men and women each form a choir, the two choirs sing and dance in turn and then join together (83–85), thus resembling the songs of Moses and Miriam after the destruction of Pharaoh in the Red Sea, which is once more told in some detail (85–87). This is continued till dawn when they stand up and face the east and at sunrise after prayer return each to their own prayer room (88–89). The concluding section sums up the virtues and blessedness of the Therapeutae (90)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "[1] I have discussed the Essenes, who persistently pursued the active life and excelled in all or, to put it more moderately, in most of its departments. I will now proceed at once in accordance with the sequence required by the subject to say what is needed about those who embraced the life of contemplation. In doing so I will not add anything of my own procuring to improve upon the facts as is constantly done by poets and historians through lack of excellence in the lives and practices which they record, but shall adhere absolutely to the actual truth. Though I know that in this case it is such as to unnerve the greatest master of oratory, still we must persevere and not decline the conflict, for the magnitude of virtue shown by these men must not be allowed to tie the tongues of those who hold that nothing excellent should be passed over in silence.",
+                "[2] The vocation of these philosophers is at once made clear from their title of Therapeutae and Therapeutrides, a name derived from θεραπεύω, either in the sense of “cure” because they profess an art of healing better than that current in the cities which cures only the bodies, while theirs treats also souls oppressed with grievous and well-nigh incurable diseases, inflicted by pleasures and desires and griefs and fears, by acts of covetousness, folly and injustice and the countless host of the other passions and vices: or else in the sense of “worship,” because nature and the sacred laws have schooled them to worship the Self-existent who is better than the good, purer than the One and more primordial than the Monad.",
+                "[3] Who among those who profess piety deserve to be compared with these?",
+                "Can we compare those who revere the elements, earth, water, air, fire, which have received different names from different peoples who call fire Hephaestus because it is kindled (ἐξάπτω), air Hera because it is lifted up (αἴρω) and exalted on high, water Poseidon perhaps because it is drunk (ποτός), and earth Demeter because it appears to be the mother of all plants and animals?",
+                "[4] Sophists have invented these names for the elements but the elements themselves are lifeless matter incapable of movement of itself and laid by the Artificer as a substratum for every kind of shape and quality.",
+                "[5] What of the worshippers of the bodies framed from the elements, sun, moon or the other stars fixed or wandering, or the whole heaven and universe? But these too were not brought into being self-made, but through an architect of most perfect knowledge.",
+                "[6] What of the worship of the demi-gods? Surely this is quite ridiculous. How could one and the same person be both mortal and immortal, to say nothing of the reproach attaching to the original source of their birth, tainted as it is with the licentiousness of wanton youth which they impiously dare to ascribe to the blissful and divine powers by supposing that the thrice blessed and exempt from every passion in their infatuation had intercourse with mortal women.",
+                "[7] What of the worshippers of the different kinds of images? Their substance is wood and stone, till a short time ago completely shapeless, hewn away from their congenital structure by quarrymen and woodcutters while their brethren, pieces from the same original source, have become urns and foot-basins or some others of the less honourable vessels which serve the purposes of darkness rather than of light.",
+                "[8] For as for the gods of the Egyptians it is hardly decent even to mention them. The Egyptians have promoted to divine honours irrational animals, not only of the tame sort but also beasts of the utmost savagery, drawn from each of the kinds found below the moon, from the creatures of the land the lion, from those of the water their indigenous crocodile, from the rangers of the air the hawk and the Egyptian ibis.",
+                "[9] And though they see these creatures brought to their birth, requiring food, eating voraciously, full of ordure, venomous too and man-eating, the prey of every sort of disease, and perishing not only by a natural but often by a violent death, they render worship to them, they the civilized to the uncivilized and untamed, the reasonable to the irrational, the kinsfolk of the Godhead to ugliness unmatched even by a Thersites, the rulers and masters to the naturally subservient and slavish."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[10] These indeed, since they infect not only their own compatriots but the peoples in their neighbourhood with their folly, must remain incurable, for they have lost the use of the most vital of the senses, sight. And by this I do not mean the sight of the body but of the soul, the sight which alone gives a knowledge of truth and falsehood.",
+                "[11] But it is well that the Therapeutae, a people always taught from the first to use their sight, should desire the vision of the Existent and soar above the sun of our senses and never leave their place in this company which carries them on to perfect happiness.",
+                "[12] And those who set themselves to this service, not just following custom nor on the advice and admonition of others but carried away by a heaven-sent passion of love, remain rapt and possessed like bacchanals or corybants until they see the object of their yearning.",
+                "[13] Then such is their longing for the deathless and blessed life that thinking their mortal life already ended they abandon their property to their sons or daughters or to other kinsfolk, thus voluntarily advancing the time of their inheritance, while those who have no kinsfolk give them to comrades and friends. For it was right that those who have received ready to their hand the wealth that has eyes to see should surrender the blind wealth to those who are still blind in mind.",
+                "[14] The Greeks extol Anaxagoras and Democritus because smitten with the desire for philosophy they left their fields to be devoured by sheep. I too myself admire them for showing themselves superior to wealth, but how much better are these who did not let their estates serve as feeding-ground for cattle but made good the needs of men, their kinsfolk and friends, and so turned their indigence into affluence. Of the two actions the first was thoughtless, I might say mad, but that the persons concerned have the admiration of Greece, the second showed soberness and careful consideration and remarkable good sense.",
+                "[15] What more does a hostile army do than cut the crops and hew the trees of their opponents’ country to force them to surrender through lack of necessaries? This is what a Democritus did to his own blood-relations, inflicting on them poverty and indigence artificially created, not perhaps with mischievous intent but through lack of foresight and consideration for the interest of the others.",
+                "[16] How much better and more admirable are these who with no less ardour for the study of wisdom preferred magnanimity to negligence and gave away their possessions instead of wasting them, in this way benefiting both others and themselves, others through supplying them with abundant resources, themselves through furthering the study of philosophy? For taking care of wealth and possessions consumes time and to economize time is an excellent thing since according to the physician Hippocrates “life is short but art is long.”",
+                "[17] The same idea is suggested I think by Homer in the <i>Iliad</i> at the beginning of the thirteenth book in the lines",
+                "<small>The Mysians fighting hand to hand, and noble Mare’s-milk-drinkers— <br>Nought else but milk sustains their life, these men of perfect justice.</small>",
+                "The idea conveyed is that injustice is bred by anxious thought for the means of life and for money-making, justice by holding and following the opposite creed. The first entails inequality, the second equality, the principle by which nature’s wealth is regulated and so stands superior to the wealth of vain opinion.",
+                "[18] So when they have divested themselves of their possessions and have no longer aught to ensnare them they flee without a backward glance and leave their brothers, their children, their wives, their parents, the wide circle of their kinsfolk, the groups of friends around them, the fatherlands in which they were born and reared, since strong is the attraction of familiarity and very great its power to ensnare.",
+                "[19] And they do not migrate into another city like the unfortunate or worthless slaves who demand to be sold by their owners and so procure a change of masters but not freedom. For every city, even the best governed, is full of turmoils and disturbances innumerable which no one could endure who has ever been even once under the guidance of wisdom.",
+                "[20] Instead of this they pass their days outside the walls pursuing solitude in gardens or lonely bits of country, not from any acquired habit of misanthropical bitterness but because they know how unprofitable and mischievous are associations with persons of dissimilar character."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] This kind exists in many places in the inhabited world, for perfect goodness must needs be shared both by Greeks and the world outside Greece, but it abounds in Egypt in each of the nomes as they are called and especially round Alexandria.",
+                "[22] But the best of these votaries journey from every side to settle in a certain very suitable place which they regard as their fatherland. This place is situated above the Mareotic Lake on a somewhat low-lying hill very happily placed both because of its security and the pleasantly tempered air.",
+                "[23] The safety is secured by the farm buildings and villages round about and the pleasantness of the air by the continuous breezes which arise both from the lake which debouches into the sea and from the open sea hard by. For the sea breezes are light, the lake breezes close and the two combining together produce a most healthy condition of climate.",
+                "[24] The houses of the society thus collected are exceedingly simple, providing protection against two of the most pressing dangers, the fiery heat of the sun and the icy cold of the air. They are neither near together as in towns, since living at close quarters is troublesome and displeasing to people who are seeking to satisfy their desire for solitude, nor yet at a great distance because of the sense of fellowship which they cherish, and to render help to each other if robbers attack them.",
+                "[25] In each house there is a consecrated room which is called a sanctuary or closet and closeted in this they are initiated into the mysteries of the sanctified life. They take nothing into it, either drink or food or any other of the things necessary for the needs of the body, but laws and oracles delivered through the mouth of prophets, and psalms and anything else which fosters and perfects knowledge and piety.",
+                "[26] They keep the memory of God alive and never forget it, so that even in their dreams the picture is nothing else but the loveliness of divine excellences and powers. Indeed many when asleep and dreaming give utterance to the glorious verities of their holy philosophy.",
+                "[27] Twice every day they pray, at dawn and at eventide; at sunrise they pray for a fine bright day, fine and bright in the true sense of the heavenly daylight which they pray may fill their minds. At sunset they ask that the soul may be wholly relieved from the press of the senses and the objects of sense and sitting where she is consistory and council chamber to herself pursue the quest of truth.",
+                "[28] The interval between early morning and evening is spent entirely in spiritual exercise. They read the Holy Scriptures and seek wisdom from their ancestral philosophy by taking it as an allegory, since they think that the words of the literal text are symbols of something whose hidden nature is revealed by studying the underlying meaning.",
+                "[29] They have also writings of men of old, the founders of their way of thinking, who left many memorials of the form used in allegorical interpretation and these they take as a kind of archetype and imitate the method in which this principle is carried out. And so they do not confine themselves to contemplation but also compose hymns and psalms to God in all sorts of metres and melodies which they write down with the rhythms necessarily made more solemn.",
+                "[30] For six days they seek wisdom by themselves in solitude in the closets mentioned above, never passing the outside door of the house or even getting a distant view of it. But every seventh day they meet together as for a general assembly and sit in order according to their age in the proper attitude, with their hands inside the robe, the right hand between the breast and the chin and the left withdrawn along the flank.",
+                "[31] Then the senior among them who also has the fullest knowledge of the doctrines which they profess comes forward and with visage and voice alike quiet and composed gives a well-reasoned and wise discourse. He does not make an exhibition of clever rhetoric like the orators or sophists of to-day but follows careful examination by careful expression of the exact meaning of the thoughts, and this does not lodge just outside the ears of the audience but passes through the hearing into the soul and there stays securely. All the others sit still and listen showing their approval merely by their looks or nods.",
+                "[32] This common sanctuary in which they meet every seventh day is a double enclosure, one portion set apart for the use of the men, the other for the women. For women too regularly make part of the audience with the same ardour and the same sense of their calling.",
+                "[33] The wall between the two chambers rises up from the ground to three or four cubits built in the form of a breast work, while the space above up to the roof is left open. This arrangement serves two purposes; the modesty becoming to the female sex is preserved, while the women sitting within ear-shot can easily follow what is said since there is nothing to obstruct the voice of the speaker."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[34] They lay self-control to be as it were the foundation of their soul and on it build the other virtues. None of them would put food or drink to his lips before sunset since they hold that philosophy finds its right place in the light, the needs of the body in the darkness, and therefore they assign the day to the one and some small part of the night to the other. Some in whom the desire for studying wisdom is more deeply implanted even only after three days remember to take food.",
+                "[35] Others so luxuriate and delight in the banquet of truths which wisdom richly and lavishly supplies that they hold out for twice that time and only after six days do they bring themselves to taste such sustenance as is absolutely necessary. They have become habituated to abstinence like the grasshoppers who are said to live on air because, I suppose, their singing makes their lack of food a light matter.",
+                "[36] But to the seventh day as they consider it to be sacred and festal in the highest degree they have awarded special privileges as its due, and on it after providing for the soul refresh the body also, which they do as a matter of course with the cattle too by releasing them from their continuous labour.",
+                "[37] Still they eat nothing costly, only common bread with salt for a relish flavoured further by the daintier with hyssop, and their drink is spring water. For as nature has set hunger and thirst as mistresses over mortal kind they propitiate them without using anything to curry favour but only such things as are actually needed and without which life cannot be maintained. Therefore they eat enough to keep from hunger and drink enough to keep from thirst but abhor surfeiting as a malignant enemy both to soul and body.",
+                "[38] As for the two forms of shelter, clothes and housing, we have already said that the house is unembellished and a makeshift constructed for utility only. Their clothing likewise is the most inexpensive, enough to protect them against extreme cold and heat, a thick coat of shaggy skin in winter and in summer a vest or linen shirt.",
+                "[39] For they practise an all-round simplicity knowing that its opposite, vanity, is the source of falsehood as simplicity is of truth, and that both play the part of a fountain head of other things, since from falsehood flow the manifold forms of evil and from truth abundant streams of goodness both human and divine."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[40] I wish also to speak of their common assemblages and the cheerfulness of their convivial meals as contrasted with those of other people. Some people when they have filled themselves with strong drink behave as though they had drunk not wine but some witch’s potion charged with frenzy and madness and anything more fatal that can be imagined to overthrow their reason. They bellow and rave like wild dogs, attack and bite each other and gnaw off noses, ears, fingers and some other parts of the body, so that they make good the story of the comrades of Odysseus and the Cyclops by eating “gobbets” of men, as the poet says, and with greater cruelty than the Cyclops.",
+                "[41] For he avenged himself on men whom he suspected to be enemies, they on their familiars and friends and sometimes even on their kin over the salt and across the board, and as they pour the libation of peace they commit deeds of war like those of the gymnastic contests, counterfeiting the genuine coin of manly exercise, no wrestlers but wretches, for that is the right name to give them.",
+                "[42] For what the athletes do in the arena while sober, in the daylight, with the eyes of all Greece upon them, in the hope of victory and the crown and in the exercise of their skill, are debased by the revellers who ply their activities in convivial gatherings by night and in darkness, drink-besotted, ignorant and skilful only for mischief to inflict dishonour, insult and grievous outrage on the objects of their assault.",
+                "[43] And if no one plays the umpire and comes forward to intervene and separate them they carry on the bout with increased licence to the finish, ready both to kill and to be killed. For they suffer no less than what they mete to others though they know it not, so infatuated are these who shrink not from drinking wine, as the comic poet says, to mar not only their neighbours but themselves.",
+                "[44] And so those who but now came to the party sound in body and friendly at heart leave soon afterwards in enmity and with bodily mutilation,—enmity in some cases calling for advocates and judges, mutilation in others requiring the apothecary and physician and the help that they can bring.",
+                "[45] Others belonging to what we may suppose is the more moderate part of the company are in a state of overflow. Draughts of strong wine act upon them like mandragora, they throw the left elbow forward, turn the neck at a right angle, belch into the cups and sink into a profound sleep, seeing nothing and hearing nothing, having apparently only one sense and that the most slavish, taste.",
+                "[46] I know of some who when they are half-seas-over and before they have completely gone under arrange donations and subscriptions in preparation for to-morrow’s bout, considering that one factor in their present exhilaration is the hope of future intoxication.",
+                "[47] In this way they spend their whole life ever hearthless and homeless, enemies to their parents, their wives and their children, enemies too to their country and at war with themselves. For a loose and a dissolute life is a menace to all."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[48] Some perhaps may approve the method of banqueting now prevalent everywhere through hankering for the Italian expensiveness and luxury emulated both by Greek and non-Greeks who make their arrangements for ostentation rather than festivity.",
+                "[49] Sets of three or many couches made of tortoise shell or ivory or even more valuable material, most of them inlaid with precious stones; coverlets purple-dyed with gold interwoven, others brocaded with flower patterns of all sorts of colours to allure the eye; a host of drinking cups set out in their several kinds, beakers, stoops, tankards, other goblets of many shapes, very artistically and elaborately chased by scientific craftsmen.",
+                "[50] For waiting there are slaves of the utmost comeliness and beauty, giving the idea that they have come not so much to render service as to give pleasure to the eyes of the beholders by appearing on the scene. Some of them who are still boys pour the wine, while the water is carried by full-grown lads fresh from the bath and smooth shaven, with their faces smeared with cosmetics and paint under the eyelids and the hair of the head prettily plaited and tightly bound.",
+                "[51] For they have long thick hair which is not cut at all or else the forelocks only are cut at the tips to make them level and take exactly the figure of a circular line. They wear tunics fine as cobwebs and of dazzling white girt high up; the front part hangs below the under knee, the back part a little below the back of the knee and they draw together each part with curly bows of ribbon along the line of join of the tunics and then let the folds dangle down obliquely, broadening out the hollows along the sides.",
+                "[52] In the background are others, grown lads newly bearded with the down just blooming on their cheeks, recently pets of the pederasts, elaborately dressed up for the heavier services, a proof of the opulence of the hosts as those who employ them know, but in reality of their bad taste.",
+                "[53] Besides there are the varieties of baked meats, savoury dishes and seasonings produced by the labour of cooks and confectioners who are careful to please not merely the taste as they are bound to do but also the sight by the elegance of the viands. (The assembled guests) turn their necks round and round, greedily eyeing the richness and abundance of the meat and nosing the steamy odour which arises from it. When they have had their fill of both seeing and smelling they give the word to fall to with many a compliment to the entertainment and the munificence of the entertainer.",
+                "[54] Seven tables at the least and even more are brought in covered with the flesh of every creature that land, sea and rivers or air produce, beast, fish or bird, all choice and in fine condition, each table differing in the dishes served and the method of seasoning. And, that nothing to be found in nature should be unrepresented, the last tables brought in are loaded with fruits, not including those reserved for the drinking bouts and the after-dinners as they call them.",
+                "[55] Then while some tables are taken out emptied by the gluttony of the company who gorge themselves like cormorants, so voraciously that they nibble even at the bones, other tables have their dishes mangled and torn and left half eaten. And when they are quite exhausted, their bellies crammed up to the gullets, but their lust still ravenous, impotent for eating (they turn to the drink).",
+                "[56] But why dilate on these doings which are now condemned by many of the more sober minded as giving further vent to the lusts which might profitably be curtailed? For one may well pray for what men most pray to escape, hunger and thirst, rather than for the lavish profusion of food and drink found in festivities of this kind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[57] Among the banquets held in Greece there are two celebrated and highly notable examples, namely those in which Socrates took part, one held in the house of Callias and given by him in honour of the victory in which Autolycus won the crown, the other in the house of Agathon. That these deserve to be remembered was the judgement of men whose character and discourses showed them to be philosophers, Xenophon and Plato, who described them as worthy to be recorded, surmising that they would serve to posterity as models of the happily conducted banquet.",
+                "[58] Yet even these if compared with those of our people who embrace the contemplative life will appear as matters for derision. Pleasure is an element in both, but Xenophon’s banquet is more concerned with ordinary humanity. There are flute girls, dancers, jugglers, fun-makers, proud of their gift of jesting and facetiousness, and other accompaniments of more unrestrained merrymaking.",
+                "[59] In Plato’s banquet the talk is almost entirely concerned with love, not merely with the love-sickness of men for women, or women for men, passions recognized by the laws of nature, but of men for other males differing from them only in age. For, if we find some clever subtlety dealing apparently with the heavenly Love and Aphrodite, it is brought in to give a touch of humour.",
+                "[60] The chief part is taken up by the common vulgar love which robs men of the courage which is the virtue most valuable for the life both of peace and war, sets up the disease of effeminacy in their souls and turns into a hybrid of man and woman those who should have been disciplined in all the practices which make for valour.",
+                "[61] And having wrought havoc with the years of boyhood and reduced the boy to the grade and condition of a girl besieged by a lover it inflicts damage on the lovers also in three most essential respects, their bodies, their souls and their property. For the mind of the lover is necessarily set towards his darling and its sight is keen for him only, blind to all other interests, private and public; his body wastes away through desire, particularly if his suit is unsuccessful, while his property is diminished by two causes, neglect and expenditure on his beloved.",
+                "[62] As a side growth we have another greater evil of national importance. Cities are desolated, the best kind of men become scarce, sterility and childlessness ensue through the devices of these who imitate men who have no knowledge of husbandry by sowing not in the deep soil of the lowland but in briny fields and stony and stubborn places, which not only give no possibility for anything to grow but even destroy the seed deposited within them.",
+                "[63] I pass over the mythical stories of the double-bodied men who were originally brought by unifying forces into cohesion with each other and afterwards came asunder, as an assemblage of separate parts might do when the bond of union which brought them together was loosened. All these are seductive enough, calculated by the novelty of the notion to beguile the ear, but the disciples of Moses trained from their earliest years to love the truth regard them with supreme contempt and continue undeceived."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[64] But since the story of these well-known banquets is full of such follies and they stand self-convicted in the eyes of any who do not regard conventional opinions and the widely circulated report which declares them to have been all that they should be, I will describe in contrast the festal meetings of those who have dedicated their own life and themselves to knowledge and the contemplation of the verities of nature, following the truly sacred instructions of the prophet Moses.",
+                "[65] First of all these people assemble after seven sets of seven days have passed, for they revere not only the simple seven but its square also, since they know its chastity and perpetual virginity. This is the eve of the chief feast which Fifty takes for its own, Fifty the most sacred of numbers and the most deeply rooted in nature, being formed from the square of the right-angled triangle which is the source from which the universe springs.",
+                "[66] So then they assemble, white-robed and with faces in which cheerfulness is combined with the utmost seriousness, but before they recline, at a signal from a member of the Rota, which is the name commonly given to those who perform these services, they take their stand in a regular line in an orderly way, their eyes and hands lifted up to Heaven, eyes because they have been trained to fix their gaze on things worthy of contemplation, hands in token that they are clean from gain-taking and not defiled through any cause of the profit-making kind. So standing they pray to God that their feasting may be acceptable and proceed as He would have it.",
+                "[67] After the prayers the seniors recline according to the order of their admission, since by senior they do not understand the aged and grey headed who are regarded as still mere children if they have only in late years come to love this rule of life, but those who from their earliest years have grown to manhood and spent their prime in pursuing the contemplative branch of philosophy, which indeed is the noblest and most god-like part.",
+                "[68] The feast is shared by women also, most of them aged virgins, who have kept their chastity not under compulsion, like some of the Greek priestesses, but of their own free will in their ardent yearning for wisdom. Eager to have her for their life mate they have spurned the pleasures of the body and desire no mortal offspring but those immortal children which only the soul that is dear to God can bring to the birth unaided because the Father has sown in her spiritual rays enabling her to behold the verities of wisdom."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[69] The order of reclining is so apportioned that the men sit by themselves on the right and the women by themselves on the left. Perhaps it may be thought that couches though not costly still of a softer kind would have been provided for people of good birth and high character and trained practice in philosophy. Actually they are plank beds of the common kinds of wood, covered with quite cheap strewings of native papyrus, raised slightly at the arms to give something to lean on. For while they mitigate somewhat the harsh austerity of Sparta, they always and everywhere practise a frugal contentment worthy of the free, and oppose with might and main the love-lures of pleasure.",
+                "[70] They do not have slaves to wait upon them as they consider that the ownership of servants is entirely against nature. For nature has borne all men to be free, but the wrongful and covetous acts of some who pursued that source of evil, inequality, have imposed their yoke and invested the stronger with power over the weaker.",
+                "[71] In this sacred banquet there is as I have said no slave, but the services are rendered by free men who perform their tasks as attendants not under compulsion nor yet waiting for orders, but with deliberate goodwill anticipating eagerly and zealously the demands that may be made.",
+                "[72] For it is not just any free men who are appointed for these offices but young members of the association chosen with all care for their special merit who as becomes their good character and nobility are pressing on to reach the summit of virtue. They give their services gladly and proudly like sons to their real fathers and mothers, judging them to be the parents of them all in common, in a closer affinity than that of blood, since to the right minded there is no closer tie than noble living. And they come in to do their office ungirt and with tunics hanging down, that in their appearance there may be no shadow of anything to suggest the slave.",
+                "[73] In this banquet—I know that some will laugh at this, but only those whose actions call for tears and lamentation—no wine is brought during those days but only water of the brightest and clearest, cold for most of the guests but warm for such of the older men as live delicately. The table too is kept pure from the flesh of animals; the food laid on it is loaves of bread with salt as a seasoning, sometimes also flavoured with hyssop as a relish for the daintier appetites.",
+                "[74] Abstinence from wine is enjoined by right reason as for the priest when sacrificing, so to these for their lifetime. For wine acts like a drug producing folly, and costly dishes stir up that most insatiable of animals, desire."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[75] Such are the preliminaries. But when the guests have laid themselves down arranged in rows, as I have described, and the attendants have taken their stand with everything in order ready for their ministry, the President of the company, when a general silence is established—here it may be asked when is there no silence—well at this point there is silence even more than before so that no one ventures to make a sound or breathe with more force than usual—amid this silence, I say, he discusses some question arising in the Holy Scriptures or solves one that has been propounded by someone else. In doing this he has no thought of making a display, for he has no ambition to get a reputation for clever oratory but desires to gain a closer insight into some particular matters and having gained it not to withhold it selfishly from those who if not so clear-sighted as he have at least a similar desire to learn.",
+                "[76] His instruction proceeds in a leisurely manner; he lingers over it and spins it out with repetitions, thus permanently imprinting the thoughts in the souls of the hearers, since if the speaker goes on descanting with breathless rapidity the mind of the hearers is unable to follow his language, loses ground and fails to arrive at apprehension of what is said.",
+                "[77] His audience listen with ears pricked up and eyes fixed on him always in exactly the same posture, signifying comprehension and understanding by nods and glances, praise of the speaker by the cheerful change of expression which steals over the face, difficulty by a gentler movement of the head and by pointing with a finger-tip of the right hand. The young men standing by show no less attentiveness than the occupants of the couches.",
+                "[78] The exposition of the sacred scriptures treats the inner meaning conveyed in allegory. For to these people the whole law book seems to resemble a living creature with the literal ordinances for its body and for its soul the invisible mind laid up in its wording. It is in this mind especially that the rational soul begins to contemplate the things akin to itself and looking through the words as through a mirror beholds the marvellous beauties of the concepts, unfolds and removes the symbolic coverings and brings forth the thoughts and sets them bare to the light of day for those who need but a little reminding to enable them to discern the inward and hidden through the outward and visible.",
+                "[79] When then the President thinks he has discoursed enough and both sides feel sure that they have attained their object, the speaker in the effectiveness with which his discourse has carried out his aims, the audience in the substance of what they have heard, universal applause arises showing a general pleasure in the prospect of what is still to follow.",
+                "[80] Then the President rises and sings a hymn composed as an address to God, either a new one of his own composition or an old one by poets of an earlier day who have left behind them hymns in many measures and melodies, hexameters and iambics, lyrics suitable for processions or in libations and at the altars, or for the chorus whilst standing or dancing, with careful metrical arrangements to fit the various evolutions. After him all the others take their turn as they are arranged and in the proper order while all the rest listen in complete silence except when they have to chant the closing lines or refrains, for then they all lift up their voices, men and women alike.",
+                "[81] When everyone has finished his hymn the young men bring in the tables mentioned a little above on which is set the truly purified meal of leavened bread seasoned with salt mixed with hyssop, out of reverence for the holy table enshrined in the sacred vestibule of the temple on which lie loaves and salt without condiments, the loaves unleavened and the salt unmixed.",
+                "[82] For it was meet that the simplest and purest food should be assigned to the highest caste, namely the priests, as a reward for their ministry, and that the others while aspiring to similar privileges should abstain from seeking the same as they and allow their superiors to retain their precedence."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[83] After the supper they hold the sacred vigil which is conducted in the following way. They rise up all together and standing in the middle of the refectory form themselves first into two choirs, one of men and one of women, the leader and precentor chosen for each being the most honoured amongst them and also the most musical.",
+                "[84] Then they sing hymns to God composed of many measures and set to many melodies, sometimes chanting together, sometimes taking up the harmony antiphonally, hands and feet keeping time in accompaniment, and rapt with enthusiasm reproduce sometimes the lyrics of the procession, sometimes of the halt and of the wheeling and counter-wheeling of a choric dance.",
+                "[85] Then when each choir has separately done its own part in the feast, having drunk as in the Bacchic rites of the strong wine of God’s love they mix and both together become a single choir, a copy of the choir set up of old beside the Red Sea in honour of the wonders there wrought.",
+                "[86] For at the command of God the sea became a source of salvation to one party and of perdition to the other. As it broke in twain and withdrew under the violence of the forces which swept it back there rose on either side, opposite to each other, the semblance of solid walls, while the space thus opened between them broadened into a highway smooth and dry throughout on which the people marched under guidance right on until they reached the higher ground on the opposite mainland. But when the sea came rushing in with the returning tide, and from either side passed over the ground where dry land had appeared the pursuing enemy were submerged and perished.",
+                "[87] This wonderful sight and experience, an act transcending word and thought and hope, so filled with ecstasy both men and women that forming a single choir they sang hymns of thanksgiving to God their Saviour, the men led by the prophet Moses and the women by the prophetess Miriam.",
+                "[88] It is on this model above all that the choir of the Therapeutae of either sex, note in response to note and voice to voice, the treble of the women blending with the bass of the men, create an harmonious concent, music in the truest sense. Lovely are the thoughts, lovely the words and worthy of reverence the choristers, and the end and aim of thoughts, words and choristers alike is piety.",
+                "[89] Thus they continue till dawn, drunk with this drunkenness in which there is no shame, then not with heavy heads or drowsy eyes but more alert and wakeful than when they came to the banquet, they stand with their faces and whole body turned to the east and when they see the sun rising they stretch their hands up to heaven and pray for bright days and knowledge of the truth and the power of keen sighted thinking. And after the prayers they depart each to his private sanctuary once more to ply the trade and till the field of their wonted philosophy.",
+                "[90] So much then for the Therapeutae, who have taken to their hearts the contemplation of nature and what it has to teach, and have lived in the soul alone, citizens of Heaven and the world, presented to the Father and Maker of all by their faithful sponsor Virtue, who has procured for them God’s friendship and added a gift going hand in hand with it, true excellence of life, a boon better than all good fortune and rising to the very summit of felicity."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE VITA CONTEMPLATIVA",
+            "(Title and sub-title.) The main title as here printed is that used by Eusebius himself, first when making his famous disquisition on the Therapeutae, <i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 17, and again in his list of Philo’s writings in the next chapter. There can therefore be no doubt of its authenticity, but it is difficult to see why Philo substituted ἱκετῶν for θεραπευτῶν. It does not occur in the treatise itself and though as Conybeare shows there are many passages where ἱκεταί and θεραπευταί are coupled, they are not exactly the same and ἱκεταί does not suit the sense of healing which he gives as an alternative meaning for Therapeutae.",
+            "As for the sub-title, the “fourth (part or book) of the virtues” has no authority from Eusebius but appears to be given in all the MSS. The title of Περὶ ἀρετῶν is given by Eus. ii. 18 to the treatise of which the <i>Legatio</i> as we have it is a part, and he says in ii. 5 that this had five books and in ii. 6 speaks of the sufferings of the Jews in Alexandria as being described in the second book. The sub-title, therefore, affirms that the <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> was the fourth book of this treatise. We may be sure at any rate that Eusebius had no idea of this. But this, being part of the wider question what the complete Περὶ ἀρετῶν consists of and what is the meaning of the title, may be postponed until the <i>Legatio</i> is translated.",
+            "§ 2. προαίρεσις. This word occurs again five times in this treatise, §§ 17, 29, 32, 67, 79, and twice elsewhere in this volume, <i>Quod Omn. Prob.</i> 89 and <i>Hyp.</i> 11. 2. The uses in Philo, all springing from the sense of choice or purpose, may be divided into those which describe the purpose or motive of some particular action and those which indicate the motives and principles which regulate a lifetime or a career. To the first class belong §§ 29 and 79 as I understand the passage, and § 32 might be taken in the same way. In the other passages it is used in the second sense. In §§ 2, 17 and <i>Hyp.</i> 11. 2, where it is applied to the Therapeutae or the Essenes, it may be thought that it simply = the sect itself. So indeed Gifford translates it in the latter passage and L. &amp; S. recognizes this use of the word. But it seems to me better in the Philonic passages to take it as the beliefs and principles held by the sects, thus including both a creed and a rule of life. The various attempts made in this volume to translate it, <i>i.e.</i> “persuasion,” “vocation,” “creed” and “rule of life,” are none of them, perhaps, quite adequate.",
+            "§ 3. (Hephaestus and Poseidon.) So Cornutus (§ 19) says of Hephaestus ἐκ τοῦ ἧφθαι ὠνομασμένος. In the same chapter he, like Philo in <i>De Dec.</i> 54, identifies Ἥρα with ἀήρ, but does not suggest a common derivation. For Poseidon <i>cf.</i> Corn. 4, where he identifies him with ἡ ἀπεργαστικὴ τοῦ ἐν τῇ γῇ καὶ περὶ τὴν γῆν ὑγροῦ δύναμις and adds εἴτʼ ἀπὸ τῆς πόσεως οὕτω κέκληται. This is followed by two alternative suggestions, <i>cf.</i> Philo’s τάχα.",
+            "§ 17. ῥαψῳδίας. Conybeare, scolding Lucius, who saw in this reference to the thirteenth rhapsody the mark of later authorship, says that the division into rhapsodies was the work of Zenodotus and Aristarchus, 250 years before Philo. He does not give his authority for this. As to the use of the word in this sense the lexica do not give any certain evidence. L. &amp; S. (old and revised) gives “portions of an epic poem fit for recitation, etc., <i>e.g.</i> a book of the <i>Iliad</i> or <i>Odyssey</i>, Plut. 2, 186 E, Lucian, <i>D. Mort.</i> 20. 2 and <i>Cont.</i> 9.” In this they are really repeating Stephanus. In the first of the Lucian passages the greater Homeric personalities when in Hades are described as τὰ κεφάλαια τῶν ῥαψῳδιῶν. In the second Homer in Charon’s boat was sea-sick and vomits his rhapsodies. Plutarch is more definite. Alcibiades asks the teacher for a rhapsody of Homer and when the teacher says he has no Homer gives him a box on the ears. In the <i>Life of Alcibiades</i> 7 Plutarch repeats this story, substituting βίβλιον for ῥαψῳδίαν. It is both curious and regrettable that this passage of Philo which so definitely establishes the use of the word for the Homeric books as we have them has not found its way into the lexicon.",
+            "§ 25. μοναστήριον. On this word Conybeare states that it does not exist elsewhere in any Greek document until the end of the third century, when it has acquired the sense of a building or establishment for a single monk or hermit (for which he gives references from Athanasius and other patristic writers) or for several monks together. The statement that it does not occur earlier is confirmed by L. &amp; S. revised, which, apparently ignoring the patristic use, quotes this passage but nothing else earlier than the sixth century. It translates it here by “hermit’s cell,” which does not seem to me a happy phrase. It indicates simply a room in a house, into which no one else is allowed to enter. The familiar “closet” of Matt. 6:6, though the R.V. has replaced it by “inner chamber,” seems to me to carry the same idea.",
+            "<i>Ibid.</i> (End of section.) τὰ ἄλλα presumably refers to writings of some kind. But the words may refer to the συγγράμματα mentioned in § 29, or to the other books of scripture besides those indicated above. So Wendland, who quotes the Canon given by Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> i. 8, <i>i.e.</i> the Law, the Prophets (including the historical books), and the four books of the psalms and precepts of human life, <i>i.e.</i> Psalms, Proverbs, Ecclesiastes and Cantica. If Philo means this, τὰ ἄλλα will be the last three. But unless other evidence is forthcoming this seems very conjectural.",
+            "§ 36. λιπαίνουσιν. Wendland, like Conybeare, takes this word to mean “anoint” in the literal sense. He does not translate the passage, but as he thinks that τὰ θρέμματα is figuratively used and cites several passages where Philo uses the word to represent the senses or body as cattle under the guidance of the shepherd, the mind, he presumably would translate it “releasing as it were the animal side from its labours.” He also takes the passage to be a reminiscence of Plato, <i>Menexenus</i> 238 A, where oil is spoken of as πόνων ἀρωγήν, <i>cf. De Aet. 63</i>. With all due deference to two such high authorities, I still hold to the interpretation given in the translation that the relaxation of abstinence on the sabbath is to the Therapeutae what release from labour is to the beasts of burden. The Therapeutae have not endured the labour for which oil is a relief nor is λιπαίνω the natural word for anointing. Wendland certainly makes a point when he remarks that the indicative ἀνίασι would be expected rather than the participle. But the construction may, I think, be explained quite easily by understanding λιπαίνουσι. When he asks if they only eat bread and salt on the sabbath, what did they do on the other days, the natural answer is that on the sabbath they did not fast for the whole day or even until sunset. It is, I think, worth noting that according to Josephus, <i>B.J.</i> ii. 8. 3, the Essenes abstained altogether from the use of oil. Though it is not a decisive point it is a little surprising to find the Therapeutae making a sabbatical luxury of the indulgence which the less ascetic Essenes refuse.",
+            "§ 49. τρίκλινα. “Sets of three couches” is one of the meanings given in L. &amp; S. revised for τρίκλινος (the more usual form) and τρίκλινον which appears to be found occasionally. Conybeare gives “couches for three to recline upon.” Whatever the exact meaning is the point is, as he says, that they are large articles of furniture and therefore it shows extravagance to make them of very expensive material.",
+            "§ 58. (Xenophon’s <i>Symposium</i>.) Philo’s description of this is very superficial. The amusements mentioned chiefly appear at the beginning and end of the banquet and he does no justice to the mixture of banter and seriousness (ἀναμὶξ ἔσκωψάν τε καὶ ἐσπούδασαν) which characterizes most of the talk, nor to the real seriousness in Socrates’ longer speech, while, on the other hand, he ignores the fact that the acceptance of the feature in Greek sentiment so strongly denounced in §§ 60–62 is as prominent here as in Plato’s <i>Symposium</i>.",
+            "§ 59. (Plato’s <i>Symposium</i>.) Philo’s criticisms of this are not very creditable to him. In the first place his equating πάνδημος ἔρως with παιδεραστία is entirely wrong. The essence of πάνδημος ἔρως as represented in Pausanias’s speech, where the phrase principally appears, is that it is περὶ σώματος. It is concerned with women as much as with boys (181 B) and the passion of a male for a younger male plays a greater part in οὐράνιος ἔρως. But more important than this is the error of dismissing the οὐράνιος ἔρως as merely a secondary adjunct brought in to give a touch of humour or wit. Such a description indeed would be appropriate to Aristophanes’ fable of the original third sex which Philo takes so seriously in § 63, but it does not apply to the rest, and much of the picture ascribed by Socrates to Diotima is very much after Philo’s heart. Indeed, he himself uses the word ἔρως in the same idealistic way, <i>e.g.</i> <i>De Ebr.</i> 136.",
+            "Philo, of course, is not the only person who has been shocked by the acceptance in some parts of the <i>Symposium</i> of παιδεραστία as a normal feeling and still more by the apparent callousness of Socrates as described by Alcibiades in the last part. It was perhaps with reference mainly to this that Athenaeus xi. 506 c declares that what Plato says about Alcibiades in the <i>Symposium</i> is not fit for repetition οὐδʼ εἰς φῶς ἄξιον λέγεσθαι, and that, as every Cambridge student learnt in an earlier generation, Paley in the <i>Evidences</i>, part ii. 2, says that Socrates himself was more than suspected of the foulest impurities. Philo makes very little use of the <i>Symposium</i> himself. The only definite reminiscence listed by Leisegang is that noted on p. 232 of this volume, though perhaps the thought of the preference of the Therapeutae for the immortal rather than mortal children in <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> 68 may have in mind <i>Symp.</i> 209.",
+            "§ 65. διʼ ἑπτὰ ἑβδομάδων. Wendland rejects Conybeare’s view almost entirely on the ground that the word cannot yield this sense. He is wrong, I believe, in saying that the words in themselves cannot mean “after seven weeks.” διά in this sense indicates the interval between two events, but whether this interval occurs only once or recurs regularly depends on the context. Here, as stated in the footnote, since weekly sabbaths have been mentioned, “every seven weeks” is the natural meaning. But admitting that Philo has expressed himself carelessly if he means seven weeks after the Passover, is it likely that the Therapeutae, who appear to have been orthodox Jews, discarded the religious calendar of Moses and arranged a new system of festal days which one would have thought would have been difficult in itself? For since periods of fifty days do not fit into the year, this great feast would recur seven times in one year and eight times in another and in different months from year to year.",
+            "Wendland does not notice μεγίστης ἑορτῆς, which is not without its difficulties on Conybeare’s hypothesis but much more perplexing on his. In what sense is every fiftieth day which follows the <i>Symposium</i> on the forty-ninth called the greatest feast and what happened on it? Nor does he notice τὸ μὲν πρῶτον. Conybeare understood this to mean that they first meet on the eve for the banquet, the religious meeting on the day itself for worship being taken for granted. By translating it “first of all” I suggest that he does not rule out other cheerful convivial meals but takes this as the most notable, <i>cf.</i> § 40.",
+            "<i>Ibid.</i> <i>The chief feast</i>. Conybeare, p. 313, gives the following as reasons why Philo describes the Pentecostal meal in preference to the Paschal. The Passover was a domestic feast celebrated more austerely than Pentecost, which was also a day prescribed by the Law for rejoicing; also it occurred in a season more suited to remaining all night in the open air. These are perhaps satisfactory reasons for his selection of the feast for description, but not for his calling it the greatest feast, and Conybeare is mistaken when he says, p. 300, that Philo uniformly refers to Pentecost as the greatest of the feasts. Philo I think only mentions Pentecost three times, <i>De Dec.</i> 160, <i>Spec. Leg.</i> i. 183, ii. 176 ff. In the third of these he remarks that it is a greater feast than the Sheaf which he has just described. In the second he calls it δημοτελεστάτη, <i>i.e.</i> especially national or generally celebrated, while in the first he speaks of the Passover and Tabernacles as the greatest feasts. However this inconsistency is not greater than many of those to be found in Philo’s writings.",
+            "§ 67. (Genuineness of ἀλλʼ ἔτι κομιδῇ νέους παῖδας.) In <i>Hermes</i>, 1916, p. 179, Cohn gives as an additional reason for expunging these words that they make no sense, and that not they but ἀλλὰ τοὺς ἐκ πρώτης … φιλοσοφίας are the antithesis to τοὺς πολυετεῖς καὶ πολιούς. This last is true, but the sentence contains another antithesis, viz. πρεσβυτέρους and νέους παῖδας. This may be awkward, but is perfectly intelligible. Conybeare says “Armenio plane desunt, non tamen omittenda esse videntur.”",
+            "§ 78. <i>Reminding</i>. I think this should be taken as an allusion to the Platonic doctrine that learning is recollection (<i>Meno</i> 81). The knowledge is latent in the mind and the teacher only brings it into consciousness, <i>cf. De Praem. 9</i>.",
+            "Conybeare discussing this thinks that the employment of ὑπόμνησις instead of ἀνάμνησις is against it. But surely if learning is recollection, teaching is reminding. He considers that <i>Spec. Leg.</i> iv. 107 is still more against it, but this seems to me irrelevant. There Philo says that, when the lesson is over, the pupil, by chewing the cud, <i>i.e.</i> by using his memory to call up what the teacher has told him, stamps a firm impression of them on his mind.",
+            "§ 80. (The hymns.) That the Jewish churches in the Hellenistic world should have hymns and that they should be composed in metres familiar to Greeks is perfectly natural, and I presume it was knowledge of such hymns that led Josephus to make the fanciful statement (<i>Ant.</i> vii. 12. 3) that David arranged the Psalms, some in trimeters and others in pentameters, and also that Moses composed both his longer and shorter hymns in hexameters (ii. 16. 4, iv. 8. 44), but I have seen no illustration of this statement of Philo which seems curiously elaborate, particularly its enumeration of Greek metres. Among these προσοδίων (or, at least the variant προσοδιακῶν) and στασίμων are recognized metrical terms. But παραβωμίων and παρασπονδείων are not cited elsewhere, at least as applied to hymns or lyrics, and χορικῶν appears to be a general term for any choral hymn."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "על חיי העיון",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על חיי העיון",
+        "enTitle": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+        "key": "On the Contemplative Life or Suppliants",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober/English/Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1930.json

@@ -0,0 +1,168 @@
+{
+    "language": "en",
+    "title": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI",
+    "versionTitle": "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1930",
+    "status": "locked",
+    "license": "Public Domain",
+    "versionNotes": "",
+    "actualLanguage": "en",
+    "languageFamilyName": "english",
+    "isSource": false,
+    "isPrimary": true,
+    "direction": "ltr",
+    "heTitle": "על הפיכחות",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE PRAYERS AND CURSES UTTERED BY NOAH WHEN HE BECAME SOBER (DE SOBRIETATE) <br>ANALYTICAL INTRODUCTION",
+            "In this short treatise Philo concludes his discussion of Gen. 9:20–27, which describe Noah’s husbandry, vine-planting, drinking the wine, intoxication and nakedness, return to sobriety, and cursing or blessing his children. The verses here treated (24–27) run as follows:",
+            "I. (sections 1–20 of this treatise) And Noah returned to soberness from the wine and knew what his younger son had done to him.",
+            "II. (30–50) And he said, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant and bondman shall he be to his brethren.”",
+            "III. (51–58) And he said, “Blessed be the Lord God of Shem; and Canaan shall be a servant, a bondman of him.”",
+            "IV. (59–end) And he said, “May God widen for Japhet, and let him dwell in the houses of Shem and let Canaan become his servant.”",
+            "I. This raises two points, the meaning of “becoming sober” and that of the “younger son.” The former is treated briefly. Sobriety is conceived of mainly as sobriety of soul, which takes the same place in the soul as clear vision in the body, and thus provides it with thoughts which in their turn lead to good actions (1–5).",
+            "The word “younger” starts Philo on a discussion of the use made in the Pentateuch of words literally denoting age, to shew moral relations. Ham is “younger” because his unfilial and indecent action proved his spirit of (youthful) rebelliousness (νεωτεροποιία) (6). And so Ishmael is called a “child” when, as a little calculation will shew, he was twenty years old, because as a type of the falsely wise or sophist, he is, compared with the wise Isaac, a mere child (7–9). So too Moses calls the rebellious Israelites “blameworthy children” (10–11). Rachel (bodily beauty) is called younger than Leah (beauty of soul) (12). Joseph’s “youth” in the moral sense is shewn by his staying in Egypt (the body) and his association with his illegitimate brethren (12–15). Conversely the wise Abraham is called the “elder,” though the history represents him as less long-lived than his ancestors (16–18). The elders Moses is directed to choose mean those whose sterling worth he has proved (19–20). In particular the enactment forbidding the disinheritance of the firstborn son of the hated wife in favour of the younger son of the beloved wife, which gave rise to the long allegory of <i>De Sacrificiis</i>, 19–44 is audaciously pressed into service. As in <i>De Sacrificiis</i> the beloved wife is Pleasure, the hated Virtue, but as Moses mentioned the parenthood of Pleasure first, her child is firstborn in point of time and the name only belongs to the child of virtue in consideration of his moral superiority (21–26). So the younger in age Jacob takes the birthright from the elder Esau, and Jacob sets Ephraim who represents the faculty of memory, which comes later and is therefore younger, above Manasseh, who represents the more childish faculty of recollection, which is earlier and therefore older (27–29). This division ends with a statement of the justice of cursing the “younger” (30).",
+            "II. But why did Noah curse Ham’s son Canaan, against whom nothing is alleged, instead of Ham? (31–33). Because while Ham is evil potential or “in rest,” Canaan is evil active or “in motion.” To understand this we must consider these terms “rest” and “motion” with their respective congeners, “habit” or “faculty” (ἕξις) and “activity” (33–34). Now every workman or artist is called by such a name, even when he is not making anything, because he still has the faculty. But it is only when he is actually plying his trade or art that he incurs praise or blame (35–37). So too in the moral sphere. The possessor of good or bad qualities may have no opportunity for displaying them, but the qualities are still there (38–43). Ham means “heat,” <i>i.e</i>. the latent disease in the soul, Canaan means “tossing,” which represents the same in active motion. As no ruler punishes qualities till they actually produce crimes, Canaan properly incurs the curse, though, as one passes into the other, one may say that Ham is cursed through Canaan (44–47). Actual sin is the child of potential sin, and this is the real meaning of “visiting the sins of the fathers upon the children” (48). The same lesson is taught by the law of leprosy that only when the “bright spot” ceases to be stationary does the man become unclean (49), and also by God’s word to Cain, “thou hast sinned, be still” (50).",
+            "III. The prayer for Shem speaks of the “Lord, the God of Shem.” Shem is “the good” in its generic not in any of its special forms, and therefore to assert that God is Shem’s God is to put the good man on a level with God’s work, the Universe (51–54). And since “God” indicates the loving side of the Divine Nature, to say that the Lord is “Shem’s God” is to say that, like Abraham, he is God’s friend (55). And here Philo, adapting the well-known Stoic paradox, lays down that such a one alone is noble, rich, king and free (56–57). Finally the word “blessed” applied to God means that he who is thus blest can only repay God by blessing Him (58).",
+            "IV. In interpreting the prayer for Japhet Philo passes for a moment into one of his less austere moods. He suggests that the word “widen” means that Japhet may find good not only in the morally beautiful (τὸ καλόν) but in the “preferable indifferents” of the Stoics, bodily and external advantages (59–61). As to the last half, “let him dwell in the houses of Shem,” the “him” may be God (Philo ignores the fact that in this case it could not be a prayer for Japhet), for God’s fitting dwelling is in the good man’s soul in the sense that it is especially under His care (62–64). And so in the literal narrative Shem is very properly represented as the ancestor of the Twelve Tribes who are called God’s “palace” (65–66). If “him” is Japhet we may see a correction of the prayer for his “widening,” a prayer that though for a time he may find good elsewhere, his final home may be the excellence of the soul (67–68). The treatise concludes with a few lines on “Canaan shall be their servant.” The fool is indeed the slave of the virtues, if possible, for his reformation and emancipation, if otherwise, for chastisement (69)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "[1] Having in the foregoing pages dealt fully with the words of the lawgiver on drunkenness and the nakedness which followed it, let us proceed to carry on the thread of our discussion by treating of the topic which comes next in order, “And Noah returned to soberness from the wine and knew what his younger son had done to him” (Gen. 9:24).",
+                "[2] We are all agreed that soberness is most profitable not only to souls but to bodies. For it repels the diseases which arise from excessive self-indulgence; it sharpens the senses to their utmost acuteness and acts indeed upon the whole of our bodies by engendering readiness in every part and thus prevents them from succumbing in weariness, and lifts them up and relieves them and recalls them to their proper activities. In fact, every evil which has drunkenness for its author has its counterpart in some good which is produced by soberness.",
+                "[3] Since then sobriety is a source of the greatest profit to our bodies, to which the use of wine is a natural practice, how much more is it profitable to our souls, which have no relation to any perishable food? What human gift or possession is greater than a sober understanding? What form of glory—or of wealth or of political power—or bodily strength—or what among all the objects of human admiration, if only we may assume that the soul’s eye is nowhere suffused as by rheum or closed, but is able to open itself fully and completely? For at such times when with clarity of vision it gazes upon good sense and prudence in their true selves, it will have within its ken those ideal forms which are intelligible only to the mind, and in the contemplation of these will find a spell which will not suffer it to turn aside any more to aught of the objects of sense.",
+                "[4] And why should we wonder that sobriety and clear-sightedness in the soul is of higher worth than anything whose lot is cast among things created, for the bodily eyes and the light which our senses perceive are valued above measure by us all? We know indeed that many who have lost their eyes have lost their lives as well by their own free action, because they judged that death was a lighter evil to them than blindness.",
+                "[5] Well then, the mind has the same superiority to the eyes, as the soul has to the body. And if the mind be safe and unimpaired, free from the oppression of the iniquities or passions which produce the frenzy of drunkenness, it will renounce the slumber which makes us forget and shrink from the call of duty and welcoming wakefulness will gaze clear-eyed on all that is worthy of contemplation. The suggestions of memory will arouse it to decision and the actions to which these decisions lead will become its employment."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[6] Such then is the condition of the sober. But when Moses speaks of the “younger son,” the words do not denote any particular degree of age, but suggest the tendency of the temperament which loves rebelliousness and defiance. For how could Ham thus roughly defying custom and right have looked where he should not look, or how could he loudly proclaim what ought to be passed in silence, or expose to public view what might well be hidden in the secrecy of the home and never pass the boundaries of his inward thoughts, if he had not set his hand to deeds of defiance, if he had not mocked at the troubles of another, when he should rather bewail, instead of jeering at sights which call for the gloomy face that dreads the worse to come?",
+                "[7] Often indeed does Moses in his laws give the name of the “younger” to those who are advanced in years, and the name of “elders” on the other hand to those who have not yet reached old age, for he does not consider whether the years of men are many or few, or whether a period of time is short or long, but he looks to the faculties of the soul whether its movements are good or ill.",
+                "[8] Accordingly when Ishmael had apparently lived about twenty years, Moses calls him a child by comparison with Isaac, who is full grown in virtues. For we read that when Abraham sent Hagar and Ishmael from his home, “he took loaves and a skin of water, and gave them to Hagar and put also the ‘child’ on her shoulder,” and again “she cast down the ‘child’ under a single pine,” and “I will not see the death of the ‘child’ ” (Gen. 21:14–16). And yet Ishmael was circumcised at the age of thirteen years, before the birth of Isaac, and when the latter at about the age of seven ceased to be fed with milk, we find Ishmael banished with his mother, because he, the bastard, claimed to play on equal terms with the true-born.",
+                "[9] Still all the same, grown up as he was, he is called a child, thus marking the contrast between the sophist and the sage. For wisdom is Isaac’s inheritance and sophistry Ishmael’s, as we propose to shew in the special treatise, when we deal with the characteristics of the two. For the mere infant bears the same relation to the full-grown man as the sophist does to the sage, or the school subjects to the sciences which deal with virtues."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[10] And indeed in the Greater Song, he calls the whole people when they shew a rebellious spirit, by the name which belongs to the age of folly and babyhood, that is “bairns.” “The Lord is just and holy,” he says; “have not the blameworthy bairns sinned against him? a crooked and perverse generation, is it thus that ye requite the Lord? Are ye a people thus foolish and not wise?” (Deut. 32:4–6).",
+                "[11] We see clearly that he has given the name of “bairns” or “children” to men within whose souls are grounds for blame, men who so often fall through folly and senselessness and fail to do what the upright life requires. And in this he had no thought of literal age in the sense in which we use it of the bodies of the young, but of their truly infantine lack of a reasonable understanding.",
+                "[12] Thus Rachel, who is comeliness of the body, is described as younger than Leah, that is beauty of soul. For the former is mortal, the latter immortal, and indeed all the things that are precious to the senses are inferior in perfection to beauty of soul, though they are many and it but one.",
+                "It is in accordance with this that Joseph is always called the young and youngest. For when he is keeping the flock with his bastard brothers, he is spoken of as young (Gen. 37:2), and when his father prays for him he says, “my youngest son, though grown, return to me” (Gen. 49:22).",
+                "[13] Now Joseph is the champion of bodily ability of every kind, and the staunch and sincere henchman of abundance in external things, but the treasure which ranks in value and seniority above these, the seniority of the soul, he has never yet gained in its fullness. For if he had gained it, he would have fled quite away from the length and breadth of Egypt, and never turned to look back. But as it is, he finds his chief glory in cherishing and fostering it—this Egypt over which the Man of Vision sings his hymn of triumph to God when he sees its fighters and its leaders sunk in the sea and sent to perdition.",
+                "[14] The “young” disposition, then, is one which cannot as yet play the part of shepherd with its true-born brothers, that is, rule and keep guard over the unreasoning element in the soul, but still consorts with the base-born, who honour as goods such things as are good in appearance rather than the genuine goods which are reckoned as belonging to true existence.",
+                "[15] And “youngest” too this youth is held to be, even though he has received improvement and growth to something better, when compared with the perfect or full-grown mind which holds moral beauty to be the only good. And therefore Jacob uses words of exhortation: “return to me,” he says, that is, desire the older way of thinking. Let not your spirit in all things be the spirit of restless youth. The time is come that you should love virtue for its own sake only. Do not like a foolish boy be dazzled by the brightness of fortune’s gifts and fill yourself with deceit and false opinion."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[16] We have shewn, then, that it is Moses’ wont in many places to call a person young, thinking not of his bodily vigour, but only of his soul, and the spirit of rebelliousness which it displays. And now we will go on to shew that he applies the name of elder not to one who is bowed down with old age, but to one who is worthy of precedence and honour.",
+                "[17] Everyone who is versed in the sacred books knows that the wise Abraham is represented as more short-lived than almost all his forefathers. And yet, I think, to not a single one of these, long though their span of life beyond comparison was, is the term elder applied, but only to Abraham. This is seen by the words of the oracles, “Abraham was an elder advanced in years, and God blessed him in everything” (Gen. 24:1).",
+                "[18] The phrase thus set before us seems to me to be an explanation of the reason why the Sage is called elder. For when through the watchful care of God the rational part of the soul is brought into a good condition and reasons rightly not merely in one direction, but wherever it applies itself, the thoughts which it thinks are “older” and itself must needs be older also.",
+                "[19] Thus too it is Moses’ way to give the name of “elder” to those counsellors of the God-beloved, whose apportioned number was that of seven times ten. For we find “gather to me seventy men from the elders of Israel, whom thou thyself knowest that these are elders” (Numb. 11:16).",
+                "[20] We see then that not the men of senior age, whom the common herd regard as initiators to the holy mysteries, but those whom the Sage alone knows were held worthy by God of the title of “elders.” For those whom the Sage like a good money-changer rejects from the currency of virtue are all men of dross, men with the spirit of youth-like rebellion in their souls. But those whom he has willed to consider as known to him are tested and approved and must needs be elders in heart and mind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] Indeed there is one commandment of the law in which those who have ears to hear will perceive that he sets before us still more clearly the two truths of which I have spoken. For we read “if a man has two wives, one loved and the other hated, and the beloved and the hated each bear a son to him, and the son of her that is hated is the firstborn, it shall be that on the day on which he allots his goods to his sons, he shall not be able to give the right of the firstborn to the son of her whom he loves, and set aside the firstborn, the son of her whom he hates, but he shall acknowledge the firstborn, the son of her whom he hates, to give him a double portion of all that he has gotten; for he is the beginning of his children and to him belong the rights of the firstborn” (Deut. 21:15–17).",
+                "[22] You observe at once that the son of the beloved wife is never called by him “firstborn” or “elder,” but the son of the hated wife is so called often. And yet at the very beginning of the commandment he has shewn us that the birth of the former comes first and the birth of the latter afterwards. For he writes, “if the beloved and the hated bear children.” But all the same the issue of the wife mentioned first, though his years be more, is counted as younger in the judgement of right reason, while the child of the wife mentioned afterwards, though he be later in the date of his birth,",
+                "[23] is held worthy of the greater and senior portion. Why? Because we declare that in the beloved wife we have a figure of pleasure and in the hated wife a figure of prudence. For pleasure’s company is beloved beyond measure by the great mass of men, because from the hour of their birth to the utmost limits of old age she produces and sets before them such enticing lures and love-charms; while for prudence, severe and august as she is, they have a strange and profound hatred, as foolish children hate the most wholesome but most distasteful directions of their parents and those who have the charge of them.",
+                "[24] Both are mothers; pleasure of the pleasure-loving, prudence of the virtue-loving tendency in the soul. But the former is never full grown but always in reality a child, however long and never-ending the tale of years to which he attains. But the other—the virtue-lover—is exempt from old age, yet “from the cradle,” as the phrase goes,",
+                "[25] he ranks as an elder in the senate of prudence. And therefore he says—and very forcible are his words—of the son of the hated wife—virtue who is hated by the multitude—that he is “the beginning of his children,” and truly so, because he is first in rank and precedence—and again, “to him belong the rights of the firstborn,” by the law of nature, not by the no-law which prevails among men."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[26] Following this law consistently and aiming his arrows skilfully at the mark he has set before him, Moses shews us Jacob as younger in years than Esau, but older in worth and value, since folly is congenital to us from our earliest years, but the desire for moral excellence is a later birth, and therefore Esau is forced to surrender the inheritance of the firstborn to the rightful claims of Jacob.",
+                "[27] The same truth is borne out by the story of the sons of Joseph, a story which shews rich and careful thought. The sage, we read, under inspiration lays his hands on the heads of the boys who stood opposite him, but lays them not straight in front but crosswise, meaning to touch with his left hand the boy who seemed the elder and the younger with his right (Gen. 48:13, 14).",
+                "[28] Now the elder boy is called Manasseh and the younger Ephraim—and if these names are translated into Greek we shall find they represent “reminiscence” and “memory.” For Manasseh is by interpretation “from forgetfulness,” another name for which is reminiscence, since anyone who is reminded of what he has forgotten, issues from a state of forgetfulness. Ephraim on the other hand is “fruit-bearing,” a very suitable title for memory; since truth unforgotten, because memory has been unbroken, is a fruit most profitable, a real food to souls.",
+                "[29] Now memories belong to those who have reached settled manhood and therefore as being late-born are accounted younger. But forgetfulness and recollection follow in succession in each of us almost from our earliest years. And therefore theirs is the seniority in time and a place on the left, when the Sage marshals his ranks. But in seniority of virtue memories will have their share, and the God-beloved will lay on them his right hand and adjudge them worthy of the better portion which is his to give.",
+                "To resume.",
+                "[30] When the just man has returned to soberness and knows “what his younger son has done to him,” he utters curses stern and deep. For indeed when the mind becomes sober, it must follow that it at once perceives the former doings of the young rebellious wickedness within it, doings which in its drunken state it was incapable of comprehending."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[31] But who is it that he curses? Let us consider this, for this too is one of the questions which deserve our careful search, seeing that the person cursed is not the apparent sinner, Noah’s son, but that son’s son, Noah’s grandson, though up to this point no clear wrongdoing great or small on his part has been indicated by Moses.",
+                "[32] It was Noah’s son Ham, who from idle curiosity wished to see his father naked, and laughed at what he saw and proclaimed aloud what it was right to leave untold. But it is Canaan who is charged with another’s misdeeds and reaps the curses. For it is said, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant, a bondman shall be be to his brethren” (Gen. 9:25).",
+                "[33] What, I repeat, was his offence? Perhaps this question has been considered on their own principles by those who are used to discuss in details the literal and outward interpretation of the laws. Let us rather in obedience to the suggestions of right reason expound in full the inward interpretation. Something, however, must be said by way of preface."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[34] The state of rest and the state of motion differ from each other. While the former is static, the latter is dynamic and is of two kinds, one passing from point to point, the other revolving round a fixed place. Habit is akin to rest, as activity is to motion.",
+                "[35] These remarks might be made more intelligible by a suitable illustration. The carpenter, the painter, the husbandman, the musician and those who practise the other arts may be unoccupied and not employing any of the activities which belong to their arts, yet none the less we are accustomed to call them by the aforesaid names, because they have the knowledge and experience which they have acquired in their respective professions.",
+                "[36] But there are times when the carpenter takes and carves a piece of timber, or the painter after mixing the proper colours delineates on the canvas the forms which he has in mind, or the husbandman ploughs furrows in the land and drops the seed into them, and plants sprigs and suckers from the trees, and also supplies by watering and irrigation the nourishment so necessary to his plants, and sets his hand to all the other works of husbandry. Again there are times when the musician adjusts his metre and rhythm and any form of melody to his flute or harp or any other instrument, or he may perhaps use the natural without the handmade instrument and adapt his voice to all the notes of the gamut. At such times or when each of the other kinds of craftsmen takes his work in hand, we necessarily supplement the first set of names, which are based on the several kinds of knowledge, by others corresponding to them. We speak not only of carpenters, but of practising carpentry, not only of painters but of painting, not only of husbandmen, but of farming, not only of musicians, but of flute-playing, harp-playing, singing or some similar performance.",
+                "[37] Now which of the two categories is the subject of praise or blame? Surely those who are actually engaged in doing something. They it is whose success or failure entail respectively praise or blame. Those who possess the knowledge and nothing more, and are not actually doing anything remain in peace and find in their inactivity the privilege of security."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[38] The same principle then holds when the quality predicated is folly or virtue and vice in general. Those whose souls are prudent, or temperate, or courageous or just, have become so in numberless cases partly by happy natural gifts, partly by the directing influence of custom, partly by their own persistent and unsparing efforts, but poverty or obscurity or bodily disease, or the other mischiefs which beset human life, have made it impossible for them to manifest the beauty of the qualities which adorn their minds.",
+                "[39] These, then, possess their good qualities, as it were, in chains and durance. But there are others who find them entirely free, unconfined, unshackled in their hands, because in their case these gifts have been supplemented by rich and abundant material for their display.",
+                "[40] The man of prudence may have the charge of public or private business, in which he can shew his shrewdness and good judgement. The temperate man may have wealth, and while blind wealth is strong to incite and urge its possessors to licence, he may turn that blindness into eyesight. The just man may hold office, which will enable him to render without hindrance their several dues to all who are under his authority. The practiser of religion may have priesthood and the charge of holy places and the rites there performed.",
+                "[41] Virtues they still are apart from these opportunities, but they are static and inactive virtues, like gold and silver laid up in hidden recesses of the earth where none can use them.",
+                "[42] Conversely we may see thousands who are cowardly, intemperate, foolish, unjust and irreligious at heart, but unable to display the ugliness of each vice, because of the inconvenience of their opportunities for sin. But when such possibility suddenly descends upon them in all its impetuous force, they fill land and sea to their utmost bounds with an untold host of evil deeds. They leave nothing great or small unharmed but work wrack and ruin in one concentrated outburst.",
+                "[43] For just as the capacity of fire is dormant or kindled into activity according as fuel is absent or present, so the powers of the soul which have vice or virtue in view are quenched by inconvenience of opportunities (to repeat the phrase), but burst into flame when chance throws facilities in their way."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[44] These remarks have been made solely for the purpose of shewing that Ham the son of Noah is a name for vice in the quiescent state and the grandson Canaan for the same when it passes into active movement. For Ham is by interpretation “heat,” and Canaan “tossing.”",
+                "[45] Now heat is a sign of fever in the body and of vice in the soul. For just as an attack of fever is a disease not of a part but of the whole body, so vice is a malady of the whole soul. Sometimes it is in a state of quiescence, sometimes of motion, and its motion is called by Moses “tossing,” which in the Hebrew tongue is Canaan.",
+                "[46] Now no legislator fixes a penalty against the unjust when in the quiescent state, but only when they are moved to action and commit the deeds to which injustice prompts them, just as in the case of animals that bite, unless they are going to bite, no wish to kill them would be felt by any right-minded person; for we must leave out of consideration the savagery which has a natural craving for indiscriminate slaughter.",
+                "[47] It is natural enough, then, that the just man should appear to lay his curses on the grandson Canaan. I say “appear,” because virtually he does curse his son Ham in cursing Canaan, since when Ham has been moved to sin, he himself becomes Canaan, for it is a single subject, wickedness, which is presented in two different aspects, rest and motion. But rest takes precedence in point of age to motion, and thus the moving stands to the stationary in the relation of child to parent.",
+                "[48] Thus it agrees with the verities of nature when Canaan or tossing is described as the son of Ham or quiescence, and this serves to shew the truth of what is said elsewhere, “visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation” (Exod. 20:5). For it is upon the effects of our reasonings, what we may call their descendants, that punishments fall, while those reasonings taken by themselves go scot-free from arraignment, if no culpable action supervene.",
+                "[49] And therefore, too, in the law of leprosy Moses with his never-failing greatness lays down that the movement and wider extension and diffusion of the disease is unclean, but the quiescence is clean. For he says, “if it spread abroad in the skin, the priest shall pronounce him unclean. But if the bright spot stay in one place and be not spread abroad, he shall pronounce him clean” (Lev. 13:22, 23). Thus the state of repose, because it is a standing-still of the vices and passions in the soul (and it is these which are figured by leprosy), is exempt from indictment, while the state of motion and progression is rightly held liable to arraignment.",
+                "[50] And a similar lesson is contained in a more striking form in the oracles in Genesis. For God says to the wicked one, “man, thou hast sinned, be still” (Gen. 4:7). This implies that while sin, inasmuch as it is movement and activity with vice as its motive, is liable to punishment, stillness, because it is stationary and quiescent, is exempt from arraignment and a means of safety."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[51] This is enough, I think, by way of preface. Let us now observe the form which the curses take. “Cursed,” he says, “is Canaan; a servant, a bondman, shall he be to his brethren,” and “blessed is the Lord, the God of Shem, and Canaan shall be their slave.”",
+                "[52] We have said before that Shem bears a name which means “good,” that is to say, the name which he bears is not any specific name or noun, but is just “name,” the whole genus, thus representing good, because good alone is a thing of name and is worthy of fair speech and fair report, just as bad on the other hand is nameless and of evil name.",
+                "[53] What, then, is the prayer which Moses deems worthy of this participant in the nature of the good? What indeed? Surely a prayer unparalleled and unprecedented, to which no mortal can act as ministrant, a prayer from which, almost as though it were from the very ocean, there pour forth fountains of things excellent, welling up and running over, unmeasured and inexhaustible. It is the Lord and God of the world and all that is therein, whom he declares to be peculiarly the God of Shem by special grace.",
+                "[54] And consider! What transcendency is not here transcended? For we may well say that he to whom this belongs is put on a level of value with the world; since when the same power rules and cares for both, the objects of this guardianship must needs by that very fact be of equal value.",
+                "[55] Surely, too, His gifts are such as shew a lavish hand. For while the words “Lord and God” proclaim Him master and benefactor of the world which is open to our senses, to that goodness which our minds perceive He is saviour and benefactor only, not master or lord. For wisdom is rather God’s friend than His servant. And therefore He says plainly of Abraham,",
+                "[56] “shall I hide anything from Abraham My friend?” (Gen. 18:17). But he who has this portion has passed beyond the bounds of human happiness. He alone is nobly born, for he has registered God as his father and become by adoption His only son, the possessor not of riches, but of all riches, faring sumptuously where there is nought but good things, unstinted in number and sterling in worth, which alone wax not old through time, but ever renew their youth;",
+                "[57] not merely of high repute, but glorious, for he reaps the praise which is never debased by flattery, but ratified by truth; sole king, for he has received from the All-ruler the sceptre of universal sovereignty, which none can dispute; sole freeman, for he is released from the most tyrannous of mistresses, vain opinion, whom God the liberator has cast down from her citadel on the hill and humbled all her pride.",
+                "[58] What, then, of him who has been deemed worthy of blessings so great, so transcendent, so multitudinous? What should he do but requite his Benefactor with the words of his lips with song and with hymn? That is, it seems, the inner meaning of the saying, “blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem.” For it is meet that he who has God for his heritage should bless and praise Him, since this is the only return that he can offer, and all else, strive as he will, is quite beyond his power."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[59] This then is Noah’s prayer for Shem. Let us now consider the nature of his prayer for Japhet. “May God widen for Japhet,” he says, “and let him dwell in the houses of Shem, and let Canaan become their servant” (Gen. 9:27).",
+                "[60] If we hold that moral beauty is the only good, the end we seek is contracted and narrowed, for it is bound up with only one of our myriad environments, namely, with the dominant principle, the mind. But if we connect that end with three different kinds of interests, the concerns of the soul, those of the body and those of the external world, the end is split up into many dissimilar parts and thus broadened.",
+                "[61] And therefore there is a fitness in the prayer that breadth should be added to Japhet, that he may be able to use not only the virtues of the soul, prudence, temperance, and each of the others, but also those of the body, health, efficiency of the senses, dexterity of limb and strength of muscle, and such as are akin to these; and once again that he may have all the external advantages which have their source in wealth and reputation and the means of enjoying and using such pleasures as are necessary."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[62] So much for the “widening.” But we must also consider who is meant, when he prays that “he” should dwell in the houses of Shem. For this is not clearly shewn. On the one hand, we may suggest that “he” is the Ruler of the universe. For what more worthy house could be found for God throughout the whole world of creation, than a soul that is perfectly purified, which holds moral beauty to be the only good and ranks all others which are so accounted, as but satellites and subjects?",
+                "[63] But God is said to inhabit a house not in the sense of dwelling in a particular place, for He contains all things and is contained by none, but in the sense that His special providence watches over and cares for that spot. For every master of a house must needs have the care of that house laid on him as a charge.",
+                "[64] Verily let everyone on whom the goodness of God’s love has fallen as rain, pray that he may have for his tenant the All-ruler who shall exalt this petty edifice, the mind, high above the earth and join it to the ends of heaven.",
+                "[65] And indeed the literal story seems to agree with this interpretation. For in Shem we have the foundation, the root, as it were, of noble qualities and from that root sprung up wise Abraham, a tree yielding sweet nutriment, and his fruit was Isaac, the nature that needs no voice to teach him but his own, and from Isaac’s seed again come the virtues of the laborious life in which Jacob exercised himself to mastery, Jacob trained in the wrestling-bout with the passions, with the angels of reason to prepare him for the conflict.",
+                "[66] Once more Jacob is the source of the twelve tribes, of whom the oracles say that they are “the palace and priesthood of God” (Exod. 19:6), thus following in due sequence the thought originated in Shem, in whose houses it was prayed that God might dwell. For surely by “palace” is meant the King’s house, which is holy indeed and the only inviolable sanctuary.",
+                "[67] Perhaps, however, the words of the prayer refer to Japhet also, that he may make the houses of Shem his resort. For it is well to pray on behalf of him who holds bodily and external advantages to be forms of the good, that he should return to one only, even that which belongs to the soul, and not throughout his whole life fail to gain the true conception, nor think that health or wealth or the like, which are shared by the most wicked and abominable of men, are true goods. No, such participation in the good as is real and true is never found in association with what is worthless, for good by its very nature can have no partnership with evil.",
+                "[68] And that is why this treasure is laid up in one place only—the soul—for in beauty of soul none of the foolish has part or lot.",
+                "This is the prayer which the prophetic scripture declares should be the prayer of the man of worth for anyone of those who are his familiars—even “return to me” (Gen. 49:22)—the prayer that he may return to the mind of him who prays, and, welcoming moral beauty as the only good, leave behind him in the race those conceptions of the good which are voiced by the perversely minded. Let him then dwell in the houses of the soul of him who holds that moral beauty is the only good, and merely sojourn in the houses of the others, who value also bodily and external things.",
+                "[69] One point further. It is with good reason that Moses writes down the fool as the slave of them who lay claim to virtue, either that promoted to serve under a higher control he may lead a better life, or that, if he cling to his iniquity, his masters may chastise him at their pleasure with the absolute authority which they wield as rulers."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE SOBRIETATE",
+            "§ 12. <i>Comeliness of the body … beauty of the soul</i>. Philo is thinking of <i>Symposium</i> 218 E, where Socrates says to Alcibiades, “You must see in me that κάλλος, greatly different from the εὐμορφία which I see in you.”",
+            "<i>Ibid. Bastard brothers</i>. This distinction between the sons of the concubines and those of the legitimate wives has already been made, though in a somewhat different way, in <i>Quod Deus</i> 119 ff.; see also <i>De Mig.</i> 95, where Asher in particular is the symbol αἰσθητοῦ καὶ νόθου πλούτου. Below (66) and elsewhere all twelve are put on a level.",
+            "§ 18. <i>The phrase thus set before us</i>, etc. The thought of this section seems to be this; the phrase “God blessed him” explains in what sense Abraham was an elder, because the εὐλογία of God necessarily produces εὐλογιστία in man and this εὐλογιστία is moral seniority. According to the Stoics τὸ εὐλογιστεῖν in the selection of what is according to nature is the “end” of the individual man and brings him into agreement with the law of the universe, which is identical with Zeus (Diog. Laert. vii. 88). Philo, in his desire to equate the Stoic ideal with the divine blessing, more than once, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Leg. All</i>. iii. 191, 192, brings εὐλογία into close connexion with εὐλογιστία. The mere fact that they both contain εὖ and λόγος would be enough for him. But in <i>De Mig.</i> 70 he strengthens the connexion by explaining εὐλογήσω as ἑπαινετὸν λόγον δωρήσομαι.",
+            "§ 32. [δοῦλος δούλων]. This is given instead of the παῖς οἰκέτης of the LXX in Aquila’s version, whence Wendland supposes that it was interpolated into Philo’s text. Ryle on the other hand (<i>Philo and Holy Scripture</i>, p. 44), points out that Philo in quoting Gen. 9:26 and 27 (in sections 51 and 59) uses δοὺλος where the LXX has παίς, and infers that it is more likely that he had δοῦλος δούλων here. But in 51, where he quotes this verse 25 again, we have παῖς οἰκέτης without any variant or addition.",
+            "§ 34. <i>The state of rest</i>. Philo seems always to use σχέσις in contrast to κίνησις (see Index). In calling it “akin” to ἕξις he is in general agreement with Stobaeus (<i>S.F.V</i>. iii. 111), where, after opposing τὰ ἐν κινήσει ἀγαθά to τὰ ἐν σχέσει ἀγαθά, he adds that some of the latter are also ἐν ἕξει, others ἐν σχέσει μόνον. He gives as examples of τὰ ἐν κινήσει joy and the like, of τὰ ἐν ἕξει the virtues and the arts when transformed by virtue and permanently established, of τὰ ἐν σχέσει μόνον “orderly quietude” (εὔτακτος ἡσυχία). From this use of ἐν σχέσει μόνον in contrast to ἐν σχέσει καὶ ἕξει comes the contrast between σχέσις itself and ἕξις as something transitory opposed to the less transitory, just as ἕξις in its turn is often opposed to διάθεσις, as something less permanent, or perhaps less essential and engrained (<i>cf</i>. on <i>De Cher.</i> 62). This use of σχέσις does not appear in Philo, though he uses the adverb so in <i>Leg. All</i>. iii. 210, where σχετικῶς καὶ εὐαλώτως ὡς ἂν ἐκ τυχῆς is contrasted with ἀπὸ ἕξεως καὶ διαθέσεως. The distinction between ἕξις and διάθεσις is ignored in <i>De Sobrietate</i> as in Stobaeus, thus bringing ἕξις into agreement with the Aristotelian use of the word.",
+            "§ 50. <i>The oracles in Genesis</i>. Wendland, in adopting the reading mentioned in the footnote (as well as in 49), is following the version of 49 and 50, quoted in Nicetes Serranus’s commentary on St. Luke. The MS. of this commentary is of the 12th century, but the date of the author is not stated. If Nicetes gives the true reading here, how are we to account for the wanton alteration from πρὸς τὸν Καῖν to περὶ τῆς τοῦ παντὸς γενέσεως? The translators incline to think that the reading of the MSS. is right. It is natural enough that, as the preceding quotations come from Exodus and Leviticus, Philo should want to indicate that this comes from Genesis and since, as he says (<i>De Abr.</i> 1), this book takes its name ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ κόσμου γενέσεως, the expression here used is not impossible. That Nicetes should have corrected a reference so vague and apt to mislead to something more definite is equally natural. Wendland’s statement about the general superiority of this excerpt to the MSS. of Philo is hardly borne out by his practice. He follows them as often as he follows Nicetes.",
+            "§ 51. <i>Blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem</i>. When Philo wrote the <i>Quaestiones</i> (<i>Quaest. in Gen</i>. ii. 15), he clearly read Κύριος ὁ θεός, ὁ θεὸς Σὴμ, for not only is the text quoted as “benedictus est dominus deus, deus Sem,” but the comment demands this, <i>e.g</i>. “<i>bis</i> nominatur benefica virtus dei.” Should we read the same here? It is against it that when the verse is cited in 58 (but see note) the MSS. again have only one ὁ θεός. On the other hand, the argument of 55 will become clearer. God is Lord God of the world, but God only of Shem.",
+            "§ 52. The interpretation of “Shem” as = “name” and thence, as the best of names, “the good,” does not appear elsewhere in what we have of Philo. But the idea was taken up by the Latin Fathers, though they characteristically substituted Christ for the good. So Ambrose, <i>Ep</i>. 7. 46 “Sem dicitur Latine nomen,” Augustine, <i>De Civitate Dei</i> xvi. 2 “Sem quippe, de cuius semine in carne natus est Christus, interpretatur nominatus. Quid autem nominatius Christo?”",
+            "§ 56. <i>My friend</i>. This variant, which, as the argument shews, is deliberate, is especially noticeable in view of James 2:23 φίλος ἐκλήθη θεοῦ. Ryle, <i>l.c</i>. p. 75, suggests that it was an earlier rendering, subsequently altered as too familiar, yet retaining its influence after the LXX became the standard version.",
+            "<i>Ibid. He alone is nobly born</i>. For this and the other “paradoxes” which follow see <i>S.V.F.</i> iii. 589 ff.",
+            "§ 58. <i>Blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem</i>. Observe that Philo here substitutes εὐλογημένος for the εὐλογητός of the LXX which he followed in 51, though in <i>De Mig.</i> 107 he carefully distinguishes between the two as meaning respectively “the subject of blessing (by others),” and “worthy of blessing.” It is quite possible, as Heinemann suggests, that he means us here to take Σήμ as dative. Compare his treatment of Δάν in <i>De Agr.</i> 99. In this case we should translate “let the Lord God be blessed by Shem.” This rendering suits the argument which follows, and it is quite in Philo’s manner to suggest such a double rendering, and further to imagine or accept a variant εὐλογημένος to fit it.",
+            "§§ 60 ff. For the three kinds of goods <i>cf.</i> <i>De Ebr.</i> 200 ff. and note on <i>Quod Det.</i> 7. Here Philo comes nearer to the Peripatetic view than in <i>De Gig.</i> 38. He is still nearer to it in <i>Quis Rer. Div. Her.</i> 285 ff."
+        ]
+    },
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על הפיכחות",
+        "enTitle": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+        "key": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}

json/Second Temple/Philo/On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober/English/merged.json

@@ -0,0 +1,166 @@
+{
+    "title": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_the_Prayers_and_Curses_Uttered_by_Noah_when_he_Became_Sober",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE PRAYERS AND CURSES UTTERED BY NOAH WHEN HE BECAME SOBER (DE SOBRIETATE) <br>ANALYTICAL INTRODUCTION",
+            "In this short treatise Philo concludes his discussion of Gen. 9:20–27, which describe Noah’s husbandry, vine-planting, drinking the wine, intoxication and nakedness, return to sobriety, and cursing or blessing his children. The verses here treated (24–27) run as follows:",
+            "I. (sections 1–20 of this treatise) And Noah returned to soberness from the wine and knew what his younger son had done to him.",
+            "II. (30–50) And he said, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant and bondman shall he be to his brethren.”",
+            "III. (51–58) And he said, “Blessed be the Lord God of Shem; and Canaan shall be a servant, a bondman of him.”",
+            "IV. (59–end) And he said, “May God widen for Japhet, and let him dwell in the houses of Shem and let Canaan become his servant.”",
+            "I. This raises two points, the meaning of “becoming sober” and that of the “younger son.” The former is treated briefly. Sobriety is conceived of mainly as sobriety of soul, which takes the same place in the soul as clear vision in the body, and thus provides it with thoughts which in their turn lead to good actions (1–5).",
+            "The word “younger” starts Philo on a discussion of the use made in the Pentateuch of words literally denoting age, to shew moral relations. Ham is “younger” because his unfilial and indecent action proved his spirit of (youthful) rebelliousness (νεωτεροποιία) (6). And so Ishmael is called a “child” when, as a little calculation will shew, he was twenty years old, because as a type of the falsely wise or sophist, he is, compared with the wise Isaac, a mere child (7–9). So too Moses calls the rebellious Israelites “blameworthy children” (10–11). Rachel (bodily beauty) is called younger than Leah (beauty of soul) (12). Joseph’s “youth” in the moral sense is shewn by his staying in Egypt (the body) and his association with his illegitimate brethren (12–15). Conversely the wise Abraham is called the “elder,” though the history represents him as less long-lived than his ancestors (16–18). The elders Moses is directed to choose mean those whose sterling worth he has proved (19–20). In particular the enactment forbidding the disinheritance of the firstborn son of the hated wife in favour of the younger son of the beloved wife, which gave rise to the long allegory of <i>De Sacrificiis</i>, 19–44 is audaciously pressed into service. As in <i>De Sacrificiis</i> the beloved wife is Pleasure, the hated Virtue, but as Moses mentioned the parenthood of Pleasure first, her child is firstborn in point of time and the name only belongs to the child of virtue in consideration of his moral superiority (21–26). So the younger in age Jacob takes the birthright from the elder Esau, and Jacob sets Ephraim who represents the faculty of memory, which comes later and is therefore younger, above Manasseh, who represents the more childish faculty of recollection, which is earlier and therefore older (27–29). This division ends with a statement of the justice of cursing the “younger” (30).",
+            "II. But why did Noah curse Ham’s son Canaan, against whom nothing is alleged, instead of Ham? (31–33). Because while Ham is evil potential or “in rest,” Canaan is evil active or “in motion.” To understand this we must consider these terms “rest” and “motion” with their respective congeners, “habit” or “faculty” (ἕξις) and “activity” (33–34). Now every workman or artist is called by such a name, even when he is not making anything, because he still has the faculty. But it is only when he is actually plying his trade or art that he incurs praise or blame (35–37). So too in the moral sphere. The possessor of good or bad qualities may have no opportunity for displaying them, but the qualities are still there (38–43). Ham means “heat,” <i>i.e</i>. the latent disease in the soul, Canaan means “tossing,” which represents the same in active motion. As no ruler punishes qualities till they actually produce crimes, Canaan properly incurs the curse, though, as one passes into the other, one may say that Ham is cursed through Canaan (44–47). Actual sin is the child of potential sin, and this is the real meaning of “visiting the sins of the fathers upon the children” (48). The same lesson is taught by the law of leprosy that only when the “bright spot” ceases to be stationary does the man become unclean (49), and also by God’s word to Cain, “thou hast sinned, be still” (50).",
+            "III. The prayer for Shem speaks of the “Lord, the God of Shem.” Shem is “the good” in its generic not in any of its special forms, and therefore to assert that God is Shem’s God is to put the good man on a level with God’s work, the Universe (51–54). And since “God” indicates the loving side of the Divine Nature, to say that the Lord is “Shem’s God” is to say that, like Abraham, he is God’s friend (55). And here Philo, adapting the well-known Stoic paradox, lays down that such a one alone is noble, rich, king and free (56–57). Finally the word “blessed” applied to God means that he who is thus blest can only repay God by blessing Him (58).",
+            "IV. In interpreting the prayer for Japhet Philo passes for a moment into one of his less austere moods. He suggests that the word “widen” means that Japhet may find good not only in the morally beautiful (τὸ καλόν) but in the “preferable indifferents” of the Stoics, bodily and external advantages (59–61). As to the last half, “let him dwell in the houses of Shem,” the “him” may be God (Philo ignores the fact that in this case it could not be a prayer for Japhet), for God’s fitting dwelling is in the good man’s soul in the sense that it is especially under His care (62–64). And so in the literal narrative Shem is very properly represented as the ancestor of the Twelve Tribes who are called God’s “palace” (65–66). If “him” is Japhet we may see a correction of the prayer for his “widening,” a prayer that though for a time he may find good elsewhere, his final home may be the excellence of the soul (67–68). The treatise concludes with a few lines on “Canaan shall be their servant.” The fool is indeed the slave of the virtues, if possible, for his reformation and emancipation, if otherwise, for chastisement (69)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "[1] Having in the foregoing pages dealt fully with the words of the lawgiver on drunkenness and the nakedness which followed it, let us proceed to carry on the thread of our discussion by treating of the topic which comes next in order, “And Noah returned to soberness from the wine and knew what his younger son had done to him” (Gen. 9:24).",
+                "[2] We are all agreed that soberness is most profitable not only to souls but to bodies. For it repels the diseases which arise from excessive self-indulgence; it sharpens the senses to their utmost acuteness and acts indeed upon the whole of our bodies by engendering readiness in every part and thus prevents them from succumbing in weariness, and lifts them up and relieves them and recalls them to their proper activities. In fact, every evil which has drunkenness for its author has its counterpart in some good which is produced by soberness.",
+                "[3] Since then sobriety is a source of the greatest profit to our bodies, to which the use of wine is a natural practice, how much more is it profitable to our souls, which have no relation to any perishable food? What human gift or possession is greater than a sober understanding? What form of glory—or of wealth or of political power—or bodily strength—or what among all the objects of human admiration, if only we may assume that the soul’s eye is nowhere suffused as by rheum or closed, but is able to open itself fully and completely? For at such times when with clarity of vision it gazes upon good sense and prudence in their true selves, it will have within its ken those ideal forms which are intelligible only to the mind, and in the contemplation of these will find a spell which will not suffer it to turn aside any more to aught of the objects of sense.",
+                "[4] And why should we wonder that sobriety and clear-sightedness in the soul is of higher worth than anything whose lot is cast among things created, for the bodily eyes and the light which our senses perceive are valued above measure by us all? We know indeed that many who have lost their eyes have lost their lives as well by their own free action, because they judged that death was a lighter evil to them than blindness.",
+                "[5] Well then, the mind has the same superiority to the eyes, as the soul has to the body. And if the mind be safe and unimpaired, free from the oppression of the iniquities or passions which produce the frenzy of drunkenness, it will renounce the slumber which makes us forget and shrink from the call of duty and welcoming wakefulness will gaze clear-eyed on all that is worthy of contemplation. The suggestions of memory will arouse it to decision and the actions to which these decisions lead will become its employment."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[6] Such then is the condition of the sober. But when Moses speaks of the “younger son,” the words do not denote any particular degree of age, but suggest the tendency of the temperament which loves rebelliousness and defiance. For how could Ham thus roughly defying custom and right have looked where he should not look, or how could he loudly proclaim what ought to be passed in silence, or expose to public view what might well be hidden in the secrecy of the home and never pass the boundaries of his inward thoughts, if he had not set his hand to deeds of defiance, if he had not mocked at the troubles of another, when he should rather bewail, instead of jeering at sights which call for the gloomy face that dreads the worse to come?",
+                "[7] Often indeed does Moses in his laws give the name of the “younger” to those who are advanced in years, and the name of “elders” on the other hand to those who have not yet reached old age, for he does not consider whether the years of men are many or few, or whether a period of time is short or long, but he looks to the faculties of the soul whether its movements are good or ill.",
+                "[8] Accordingly when Ishmael had apparently lived about twenty years, Moses calls him a child by comparison with Isaac, who is full grown in virtues. For we read that when Abraham sent Hagar and Ishmael from his home, “he took loaves and a skin of water, and gave them to Hagar and put also the ‘child’ on her shoulder,” and again “she cast down the ‘child’ under a single pine,” and “I will not see the death of the ‘child’ ” (Gen. 21:14–16). And yet Ishmael was circumcised at the age of thirteen years, before the birth of Isaac, and when the latter at about the age of seven ceased to be fed with milk, we find Ishmael banished with his mother, because he, the bastard, claimed to play on equal terms with the true-born.",
+                "[9] Still all the same, grown up as he was, he is called a child, thus marking the contrast between the sophist and the sage. For wisdom is Isaac’s inheritance and sophistry Ishmael’s, as we propose to shew in the special treatise, when we deal with the characteristics of the two. For the mere infant bears the same relation to the full-grown man as the sophist does to the sage, or the school subjects to the sciences which deal with virtues."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[10] And indeed in the Greater Song, he calls the whole people when they shew a rebellious spirit, by the name which belongs to the age of folly and babyhood, that is “bairns.” “The Lord is just and holy,” he says; “have not the blameworthy bairns sinned against him? a crooked and perverse generation, is it thus that ye requite the Lord? Are ye a people thus foolish and not wise?” (Deut. 32:4–6).",
+                "[11] We see clearly that he has given the name of “bairns” or “children” to men within whose souls are grounds for blame, men who so often fall through folly and senselessness and fail to do what the upright life requires. And in this he had no thought of literal age in the sense in which we use it of the bodies of the young, but of their truly infantine lack of a reasonable understanding.",
+                "[12] Thus Rachel, who is comeliness of the body, is described as younger than Leah, that is beauty of soul. For the former is mortal, the latter immortal, and indeed all the things that are precious to the senses are inferior in perfection to beauty of soul, though they are many and it but one.",
+                "It is in accordance with this that Joseph is always called the young and youngest. For when he is keeping the flock with his bastard brothers, he is spoken of as young (Gen. 37:2), and when his father prays for him he says, “my youngest son, though grown, return to me” (Gen. 49:22).",
+                "[13] Now Joseph is the champion of bodily ability of every kind, and the staunch and sincere henchman of abundance in external things, but the treasure which ranks in value and seniority above these, the seniority of the soul, he has never yet gained in its fullness. For if he had gained it, he would have fled quite away from the length and breadth of Egypt, and never turned to look back. But as it is, he finds his chief glory in cherishing and fostering it—this Egypt over which the Man of Vision sings his hymn of triumph to God when he sees its fighters and its leaders sunk in the sea and sent to perdition.",
+                "[14] The “young” disposition, then, is one which cannot as yet play the part of shepherd with its true-born brothers, that is, rule and keep guard over the unreasoning element in the soul, but still consorts with the base-born, who honour as goods such things as are good in appearance rather than the genuine goods which are reckoned as belonging to true existence.",
+                "[15] And “youngest” too this youth is held to be, even though he has received improvement and growth to something better, when compared with the perfect or full-grown mind which holds moral beauty to be the only good. And therefore Jacob uses words of exhortation: “return to me,” he says, that is, desire the older way of thinking. Let not your spirit in all things be the spirit of restless youth. The time is come that you should love virtue for its own sake only. Do not like a foolish boy be dazzled by the brightness of fortune’s gifts and fill yourself with deceit and false opinion."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[16] We have shewn, then, that it is Moses’ wont in many places to call a person young, thinking not of his bodily vigour, but only of his soul, and the spirit of rebelliousness which it displays. And now we will go on to shew that he applies the name of elder not to one who is bowed down with old age, but to one who is worthy of precedence and honour.",
+                "[17] Everyone who is versed in the sacred books knows that the wise Abraham is represented as more short-lived than almost all his forefathers. And yet, I think, to not a single one of these, long though their span of life beyond comparison was, is the term elder applied, but only to Abraham. This is seen by the words of the oracles, “Abraham was an elder advanced in years, and God blessed him in everything” (Gen. 24:1).",
+                "[18] The phrase thus set before us seems to me to be an explanation of the reason why the Sage is called elder. For when through the watchful care of God the rational part of the soul is brought into a good condition and reasons rightly not merely in one direction, but wherever it applies itself, the thoughts which it thinks are “older” and itself must needs be older also.",
+                "[19] Thus too it is Moses’ way to give the name of “elder” to those counsellors of the God-beloved, whose apportioned number was that of seven times ten. For we find “gather to me seventy men from the elders of Israel, whom thou thyself knowest that these are elders” (Numb. 11:16).",
+                "[20] We see then that not the men of senior age, whom the common herd regard as initiators to the holy mysteries, but those whom the Sage alone knows were held worthy by God of the title of “elders.” For those whom the Sage like a good money-changer rejects from the currency of virtue are all men of dross, men with the spirit of youth-like rebellion in their souls. But those whom he has willed to consider as known to him are tested and approved and must needs be elders in heart and mind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[21] Indeed there is one commandment of the law in which those who have ears to hear will perceive that he sets before us still more clearly the two truths of which I have spoken. For we read “if a man has two wives, one loved and the other hated, and the beloved and the hated each bear a son to him, and the son of her that is hated is the firstborn, it shall be that on the day on which he allots his goods to his sons, he shall not be able to give the right of the firstborn to the son of her whom he loves, and set aside the firstborn, the son of her whom he hates, but he shall acknowledge the firstborn, the son of her whom he hates, to give him a double portion of all that he has gotten; for he is the beginning of his children and to him belong the rights of the firstborn” (Deut. 21:15–17).",
+                "[22] You observe at once that the son of the beloved wife is never called by him “firstborn” or “elder,” but the son of the hated wife is so called often. And yet at the very beginning of the commandment he has shewn us that the birth of the former comes first and the birth of the latter afterwards. For he writes, “if the beloved and the hated bear children.” But all the same the issue of the wife mentioned first, though his years be more, is counted as younger in the judgement of right reason, while the child of the wife mentioned afterwards, though he be later in the date of his birth,",
+                "[23] is held worthy of the greater and senior portion. Why? Because we declare that in the beloved wife we have a figure of pleasure and in the hated wife a figure of prudence. For pleasure’s company is beloved beyond measure by the great mass of men, because from the hour of their birth to the utmost limits of old age she produces and sets before them such enticing lures and love-charms; while for prudence, severe and august as she is, they have a strange and profound hatred, as foolish children hate the most wholesome but most distasteful directions of their parents and those who have the charge of them.",
+                "[24] Both are mothers; pleasure of the pleasure-loving, prudence of the virtue-loving tendency in the soul. But the former is never full grown but always in reality a child, however long and never-ending the tale of years to which he attains. But the other—the virtue-lover—is exempt from old age, yet “from the cradle,” as the phrase goes,",
+                "[25] he ranks as an elder in the senate of prudence. And therefore he says—and very forcible are his words—of the son of the hated wife—virtue who is hated by the multitude—that he is “the beginning of his children,” and truly so, because he is first in rank and precedence—and again, “to him belong the rights of the firstborn,” by the law of nature, not by the no-law which prevails among men."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[26] Following this law consistently and aiming his arrows skilfully at the mark he has set before him, Moses shews us Jacob as younger in years than Esau, but older in worth and value, since folly is congenital to us from our earliest years, but the desire for moral excellence is a later birth, and therefore Esau is forced to surrender the inheritance of the firstborn to the rightful claims of Jacob.",
+                "[27] The same truth is borne out by the story of the sons of Joseph, a story which shews rich and careful thought. The sage, we read, under inspiration lays his hands on the heads of the boys who stood opposite him, but lays them not straight in front but crosswise, meaning to touch with his left hand the boy who seemed the elder and the younger with his right (Gen. 48:13, 14).",
+                "[28] Now the elder boy is called Manasseh and the younger Ephraim—and if these names are translated into Greek we shall find they represent “reminiscence” and “memory.” For Manasseh is by interpretation “from forgetfulness,” another name for which is reminiscence, since anyone who is reminded of what he has forgotten, issues from a state of forgetfulness. Ephraim on the other hand is “fruit-bearing,” a very suitable title for memory; since truth unforgotten, because memory has been unbroken, is a fruit most profitable, a real food to souls.",
+                "[29] Now memories belong to those who have reached settled manhood and therefore as being late-born are accounted younger. But forgetfulness and recollection follow in succession in each of us almost from our earliest years. And therefore theirs is the seniority in time and a place on the left, when the Sage marshals his ranks. But in seniority of virtue memories will have their share, and the God-beloved will lay on them his right hand and adjudge them worthy of the better portion which is his to give.",
+                "To resume.",
+                "[30] When the just man has returned to soberness and knows “what his younger son has done to him,” he utters curses stern and deep. For indeed when the mind becomes sober, it must follow that it at once perceives the former doings of the young rebellious wickedness within it, doings which in its drunken state it was incapable of comprehending."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[31] But who is it that he curses? Let us consider this, for this too is one of the questions which deserve our careful search, seeing that the person cursed is not the apparent sinner, Noah’s son, but that son’s son, Noah’s grandson, though up to this point no clear wrongdoing great or small on his part has been indicated by Moses.",
+                "[32] It was Noah’s son Ham, who from idle curiosity wished to see his father naked, and laughed at what he saw and proclaimed aloud what it was right to leave untold. But it is Canaan who is charged with another’s misdeeds and reaps the curses. For it is said, “Cursed be Canaan; a servant, a bondman shall be be to his brethren” (Gen. 9:25).",
+                "[33] What, I repeat, was his offence? Perhaps this question has been considered on their own principles by those who are used to discuss in details the literal and outward interpretation of the laws. Let us rather in obedience to the suggestions of right reason expound in full the inward interpretation. Something, however, must be said by way of preface."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[34] The state of rest and the state of motion differ from each other. While the former is static, the latter is dynamic and is of two kinds, one passing from point to point, the other revolving round a fixed place. Habit is akin to rest, as activity is to motion.",
+                "[35] These remarks might be made more intelligible by a suitable illustration. The carpenter, the painter, the husbandman, the musician and those who practise the other arts may be unoccupied and not employing any of the activities which belong to their arts, yet none the less we are accustomed to call them by the aforesaid names, because they have the knowledge and experience which they have acquired in their respective professions.",
+                "[36] But there are times when the carpenter takes and carves a piece of timber, or the painter after mixing the proper colours delineates on the canvas the forms which he has in mind, or the husbandman ploughs furrows in the land and drops the seed into them, and plants sprigs and suckers from the trees, and also supplies by watering and irrigation the nourishment so necessary to his plants, and sets his hand to all the other works of husbandry. Again there are times when the musician adjusts his metre and rhythm and any form of melody to his flute or harp or any other instrument, or he may perhaps use the natural without the handmade instrument and adapt his voice to all the notes of the gamut. At such times or when each of the other kinds of craftsmen takes his work in hand, we necessarily supplement the first set of names, which are based on the several kinds of knowledge, by others corresponding to them. We speak not only of carpenters, but of practising carpentry, not only of painters but of painting, not only of husbandmen, but of farming, not only of musicians, but of flute-playing, harp-playing, singing or some similar performance.",
+                "[37] Now which of the two categories is the subject of praise or blame? Surely those who are actually engaged in doing something. They it is whose success or failure entail respectively praise or blame. Those who possess the knowledge and nothing more, and are not actually doing anything remain in peace and find in their inactivity the privilege of security."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[38] The same principle then holds when the quality predicated is folly or virtue and vice in general. Those whose souls are prudent, or temperate, or courageous or just, have become so in numberless cases partly by happy natural gifts, partly by the directing influence of custom, partly by their own persistent and unsparing efforts, but poverty or obscurity or bodily disease, or the other mischiefs which beset human life, have made it impossible for them to manifest the beauty of the qualities which adorn their minds.",
+                "[39] These, then, possess their good qualities, as it were, in chains and durance. But there are others who find them entirely free, unconfined, unshackled in their hands, because in their case these gifts have been supplemented by rich and abundant material for their display.",
+                "[40] The man of prudence may have the charge of public or private business, in which he can shew his shrewdness and good judgement. The temperate man may have wealth, and while blind wealth is strong to incite and urge its possessors to licence, he may turn that blindness into eyesight. The just man may hold office, which will enable him to render without hindrance their several dues to all who are under his authority. The practiser of religion may have priesthood and the charge of holy places and the rites there performed.",
+                "[41] Virtues they still are apart from these opportunities, but they are static and inactive virtues, like gold and silver laid up in hidden recesses of the earth where none can use them.",
+                "[42] Conversely we may see thousands who are cowardly, intemperate, foolish, unjust and irreligious at heart, but unable to display the ugliness of each vice, because of the inconvenience of their opportunities for sin. But when such possibility suddenly descends upon them in all its impetuous force, they fill land and sea to their utmost bounds with an untold host of evil deeds. They leave nothing great or small unharmed but work wrack and ruin in one concentrated outburst.",
+                "[43] For just as the capacity of fire is dormant or kindled into activity according as fuel is absent or present, so the powers of the soul which have vice or virtue in view are quenched by inconvenience of opportunities (to repeat the phrase), but burst into flame when chance throws facilities in their way."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[44] These remarks have been made solely for the purpose of shewing that Ham the son of Noah is a name for vice in the quiescent state and the grandson Canaan for the same when it passes into active movement. For Ham is by interpretation “heat,” and Canaan “tossing.”",
+                "[45] Now heat is a sign of fever in the body and of vice in the soul. For just as an attack of fever is a disease not of a part but of the whole body, so vice is a malady of the whole soul. Sometimes it is in a state of quiescence, sometimes of motion, and its motion is called by Moses “tossing,” which in the Hebrew tongue is Canaan.",
+                "[46] Now no legislator fixes a penalty against the unjust when in the quiescent state, but only when they are moved to action and commit the deeds to which injustice prompts them, just as in the case of animals that bite, unless they are going to bite, no wish to kill them would be felt by any right-minded person; for we must leave out of consideration the savagery which has a natural craving for indiscriminate slaughter.",
+                "[47] It is natural enough, then, that the just man should appear to lay his curses on the grandson Canaan. I say “appear,” because virtually he does curse his son Ham in cursing Canaan, since when Ham has been moved to sin, he himself becomes Canaan, for it is a single subject, wickedness, which is presented in two different aspects, rest and motion. But rest takes precedence in point of age to motion, and thus the moving stands to the stationary in the relation of child to parent.",
+                "[48] Thus it agrees with the verities of nature when Canaan or tossing is described as the son of Ham or quiescence, and this serves to shew the truth of what is said elsewhere, “visiting the iniquities of the fathers upon the children unto the third and fourth generation” (Exod. 20:5). For it is upon the effects of our reasonings, what we may call their descendants, that punishments fall, while those reasonings taken by themselves go scot-free from arraignment, if no culpable action supervene.",
+                "[49] And therefore, too, in the law of leprosy Moses with his never-failing greatness lays down that the movement and wider extension and diffusion of the disease is unclean, but the quiescence is clean. For he says, “if it spread abroad in the skin, the priest shall pronounce him unclean. But if the bright spot stay in one place and be not spread abroad, he shall pronounce him clean” (Lev. 13:22, 23). Thus the state of repose, because it is a standing-still of the vices and passions in the soul (and it is these which are figured by leprosy), is exempt from indictment, while the state of motion and progression is rightly held liable to arraignment.",
+                "[50] And a similar lesson is contained in a more striking form in the oracles in Genesis. For God says to the wicked one, “man, thou hast sinned, be still” (Gen. 4:7). This implies that while sin, inasmuch as it is movement and activity with vice as its motive, is liable to punishment, stillness, because it is stationary and quiescent, is exempt from arraignment and a means of safety."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[51] This is enough, I think, by way of preface. Let us now observe the form which the curses take. “Cursed,” he says, “is Canaan; a servant, a bondman, shall he be to his brethren,” and “blessed is the Lord, the God of Shem, and Canaan shall be their slave.”",
+                "[52] We have said before that Shem bears a name which means “good,” that is to say, the name which he bears is not any specific name or noun, but is just “name,” the whole genus, thus representing good, because good alone is a thing of name and is worthy of fair speech and fair report, just as bad on the other hand is nameless and of evil name.",
+                "[53] What, then, is the prayer which Moses deems worthy of this participant in the nature of the good? What indeed? Surely a prayer unparalleled and unprecedented, to which no mortal can act as ministrant, a prayer from which, almost as though it were from the very ocean, there pour forth fountains of things excellent, welling up and running over, unmeasured and inexhaustible. It is the Lord and God of the world and all that is therein, whom he declares to be peculiarly the God of Shem by special grace.",
+                "[54] And consider! What transcendency is not here transcended? For we may well say that he to whom this belongs is put on a level of value with the world; since when the same power rules and cares for both, the objects of this guardianship must needs by that very fact be of equal value.",
+                "[55] Surely, too, His gifts are such as shew a lavish hand. For while the words “Lord and God” proclaim Him master and benefactor of the world which is open to our senses, to that goodness which our minds perceive He is saviour and benefactor only, not master or lord. For wisdom is rather God’s friend than His servant. And therefore He says plainly of Abraham,",
+                "[56] “shall I hide anything from Abraham My friend?” (Gen. 18:17). But he who has this portion has passed beyond the bounds of human happiness. He alone is nobly born, for he has registered God as his father and become by adoption His only son, the possessor not of riches, but of all riches, faring sumptuously where there is nought but good things, unstinted in number and sterling in worth, which alone wax not old through time, but ever renew their youth;",
+                "[57] not merely of high repute, but glorious, for he reaps the praise which is never debased by flattery, but ratified by truth; sole king, for he has received from the All-ruler the sceptre of universal sovereignty, which none can dispute; sole freeman, for he is released from the most tyrannous of mistresses, vain opinion, whom God the liberator has cast down from her citadel on the hill and humbled all her pride.",
+                "[58] What, then, of him who has been deemed worthy of blessings so great, so transcendent, so multitudinous? What should he do but requite his Benefactor with the words of his lips with song and with hymn? That is, it seems, the inner meaning of the saying, “blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem.” For it is meet that he who has God for his heritage should bless and praise Him, since this is the only return that he can offer, and all else, strive as he will, is quite beyond his power."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[59] This then is Noah’s prayer for Shem. Let us now consider the nature of his prayer for Japhet. “May God widen for Japhet,” he says, “and let him dwell in the houses of Shem, and let Canaan become their servant” (Gen. 9:27).",
+                "[60] If we hold that moral beauty is the only good, the end we seek is contracted and narrowed, for it is bound up with only one of our myriad environments, namely, with the dominant principle, the mind. But if we connect that end with three different kinds of interests, the concerns of the soul, those of the body and those of the external world, the end is split up into many dissimilar parts and thus broadened.",
+                "[61] And therefore there is a fitness in the prayer that breadth should be added to Japhet, that he may be able to use not only the virtues of the soul, prudence, temperance, and each of the others, but also those of the body, health, efficiency of the senses, dexterity of limb and strength of muscle, and such as are akin to these; and once again that he may have all the external advantages which have their source in wealth and reputation and the means of enjoying and using such pleasures as are necessary."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[62] So much for the “widening.” But we must also consider who is meant, when he prays that “he” should dwell in the houses of Shem. For this is not clearly shewn. On the one hand, we may suggest that “he” is the Ruler of the universe. For what more worthy house could be found for God throughout the whole world of creation, than a soul that is perfectly purified, which holds moral beauty to be the only good and ranks all others which are so accounted, as but satellites and subjects?",
+                "[63] But God is said to inhabit a house not in the sense of dwelling in a particular place, for He contains all things and is contained by none, but in the sense that His special providence watches over and cares for that spot. For every master of a house must needs have the care of that house laid on him as a charge.",
+                "[64] Verily let everyone on whom the goodness of God’s love has fallen as rain, pray that he may have for his tenant the All-ruler who shall exalt this petty edifice, the mind, high above the earth and join it to the ends of heaven.",
+                "[65] And indeed the literal story seems to agree with this interpretation. For in Shem we have the foundation, the root, as it were, of noble qualities and from that root sprung up wise Abraham, a tree yielding sweet nutriment, and his fruit was Isaac, the nature that needs no voice to teach him but his own, and from Isaac’s seed again come the virtues of the laborious life in which Jacob exercised himself to mastery, Jacob trained in the wrestling-bout with the passions, with the angels of reason to prepare him for the conflict.",
+                "[66] Once more Jacob is the source of the twelve tribes, of whom the oracles say that they are “the palace and priesthood of God” (Exod. 19:6), thus following in due sequence the thought originated in Shem, in whose houses it was prayed that God might dwell. For surely by “palace” is meant the King’s house, which is holy indeed and the only inviolable sanctuary.",
+                "[67] Perhaps, however, the words of the prayer refer to Japhet also, that he may make the houses of Shem his resort. For it is well to pray on behalf of him who holds bodily and external advantages to be forms of the good, that he should return to one only, even that which belongs to the soul, and not throughout his whole life fail to gain the true conception, nor think that health or wealth or the like, which are shared by the most wicked and abominable of men, are true goods. No, such participation in the good as is real and true is never found in association with what is worthless, for good by its very nature can have no partnership with evil.",
+                "[68] And that is why this treasure is laid up in one place only—the soul—for in beauty of soul none of the foolish has part or lot.",
+                "This is the prayer which the prophetic scripture declares should be the prayer of the man of worth for anyone of those who are his familiars—even “return to me” (Gen. 49:22)—the prayer that he may return to the mind of him who prays, and, welcoming moral beauty as the only good, leave behind him in the race those conceptions of the good which are voiced by the perversely minded. Let him then dwell in the houses of the soul of him who holds that moral beauty is the only good, and merely sojourn in the houses of the others, who value also bodily and external things.",
+                "[69] One point further. It is with good reason that Moses writes down the fool as the slave of them who lay claim to virtue, either that promoted to serve under a higher control he may lead a better life, or that, if he cling to his iniquity, his masters may chastise him at their pleasure with the absolute authority which they wield as rulers."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE SOBRIETATE",
+            "§ 12. <i>Comeliness of the body … beauty of the soul</i>. Philo is thinking of <i>Symposium</i> 218 E, where Socrates says to Alcibiades, “You must see in me that κάλλος, greatly different from the εὐμορφία which I see in you.”",
+            "<i>Ibid. Bastard brothers</i>. This distinction between the sons of the concubines and those of the legitimate wives has already been made, though in a somewhat different way, in <i>Quod Deus</i> 119 ff.; see also <i>De Mig.</i> 95, where Asher in particular is the symbol αἰσθητοῦ καὶ νόθου πλούτου. Below (66) and elsewhere all twelve are put on a level.",
+            "§ 18. <i>The phrase thus set before us</i>, etc. The thought of this section seems to be this; the phrase “God blessed him” explains in what sense Abraham was an elder, because the εὐλογία of God necessarily produces εὐλογιστία in man and this εὐλογιστία is moral seniority. According to the Stoics τὸ εὐλογιστεῖν in the selection of what is according to nature is the “end” of the individual man and brings him into agreement with the law of the universe, which is identical with Zeus (Diog. Laert. vii. 88). Philo, in his desire to equate the Stoic ideal with the divine blessing, more than once, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Leg. All</i>. iii. 191, 192, brings εὐλογία into close connexion with εὐλογιστία. The mere fact that they both contain εὖ and λόγος would be enough for him. But in <i>De Mig.</i> 70 he strengthens the connexion by explaining εὐλογήσω as ἑπαινετὸν λόγον δωρήσομαι.",
+            "§ 32. [δοῦλος δούλων]. This is given instead of the παῖς οἰκέτης of the LXX in Aquila’s version, whence Wendland supposes that it was interpolated into Philo’s text. Ryle on the other hand (<i>Philo and Holy Scripture</i>, p. 44), points out that Philo in quoting Gen. 9:26 and 27 (in sections 51 and 59) uses δοὺλος where the LXX has παίς, and infers that it is more likely that he had δοῦλος δούλων here. But in 51, where he quotes this verse 25 again, we have παῖς οἰκέτης without any variant or addition.",
+            "§ 34. <i>The state of rest</i>. Philo seems always to use σχέσις in contrast to κίνησις (see Index). In calling it “akin” to ἕξις he is in general agreement with Stobaeus (<i>S.F.V</i>. iii. 111), where, after opposing τὰ ἐν κινήσει ἀγαθά to τὰ ἐν σχέσει ἀγαθά, he adds that some of the latter are also ἐν ἕξει, others ἐν σχέσει μόνον. He gives as examples of τὰ ἐν κινήσει joy and the like, of τὰ ἐν ἕξει the virtues and the arts when transformed by virtue and permanently established, of τὰ ἐν σχέσει μόνον “orderly quietude” (εὔτακτος ἡσυχία). From this use of ἐν σχέσει μόνον in contrast to ἐν σχέσει καὶ ἕξει comes the contrast between σχέσις itself and ἕξις as something transitory opposed to the less transitory, just as ἕξις in its turn is often opposed to διάθεσις, as something less permanent, or perhaps less essential and engrained (<i>cf</i>. on <i>De Cher.</i> 62). This use of σχέσις does not appear in Philo, though he uses the adverb so in <i>Leg. All</i>. iii. 210, where σχετικῶς καὶ εὐαλώτως ὡς ἂν ἐκ τυχῆς is contrasted with ἀπὸ ἕξεως καὶ διαθέσεως. The distinction between ἕξις and διάθεσις is ignored in <i>De Sobrietate</i> as in Stobaeus, thus bringing ἕξις into agreement with the Aristotelian use of the word.",
+            "§ 50. <i>The oracles in Genesis</i>. Wendland, in adopting the reading mentioned in the footnote (as well as in 49), is following the version of 49 and 50, quoted in Nicetes Serranus’s commentary on St. Luke. The MS. of this commentary is of the 12th century, but the date of the author is not stated. If Nicetes gives the true reading here, how are we to account for the wanton alteration from πρὸς τὸν Καῖν to περὶ τῆς τοῦ παντὸς γενέσεως? The translators incline to think that the reading of the MSS. is right. It is natural enough that, as the preceding quotations come from Exodus and Leviticus, Philo should want to indicate that this comes from Genesis and since, as he says (<i>De Abr.</i> 1), this book takes its name ἀπὸ τῆς τοῦ κόσμου γενέσεως, the expression here used is not impossible. That Nicetes should have corrected a reference so vague and apt to mislead to something more definite is equally natural. Wendland’s statement about the general superiority of this excerpt to the MSS. of Philo is hardly borne out by his practice. He follows them as often as he follows Nicetes.",
+            "§ 51. <i>Blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem</i>. When Philo wrote the <i>Quaestiones</i> (<i>Quaest. in Gen</i>. ii. 15), he clearly read Κύριος ὁ θεός, ὁ θεὸς Σὴμ, for not only is the text quoted as “benedictus est dominus deus, deus Sem,” but the comment demands this, <i>e.g</i>. “<i>bis</i> nominatur benefica virtus dei.” Should we read the same here? It is against it that when the verse is cited in 58 (but see note) the MSS. again have only one ὁ θεός. On the other hand, the argument of 55 will become clearer. God is Lord God of the world, but God only of Shem.",
+            "§ 52. The interpretation of “Shem” as = “name” and thence, as the best of names, “the good,” does not appear elsewhere in what we have of Philo. But the idea was taken up by the Latin Fathers, though they characteristically substituted Christ for the good. So Ambrose, <i>Ep</i>. 7. 46 “Sem dicitur Latine nomen,” Augustine, <i>De Civitate Dei</i> xvi. 2 “Sem quippe, de cuius semine in carne natus est Christus, interpretatur nominatus. Quid autem nominatius Christo?”",
+            "§ 56. <i>My friend</i>. This variant, which, as the argument shews, is deliberate, is especially noticeable in view of James 2:23 φίλος ἐκλήθη θεοῦ. Ryle, <i>l.c</i>. p. 75, suggests that it was an earlier rendering, subsequently altered as too familiar, yet retaining its influence after the LXX became the standard version.",
+            "<i>Ibid. He alone is nobly born</i>. For this and the other “paradoxes” which follow see <i>S.V.F.</i> iii. 589 ff.",
+            "§ 58. <i>Blessed be the Lord, the God of Shem</i>. Observe that Philo here substitutes εὐλογημένος for the εὐλογητός of the LXX which he followed in 51, though in <i>De Mig.</i> 107 he carefully distinguishes between the two as meaning respectively “the subject of blessing (by others),” and “worthy of blessing.” It is quite possible, as Heinemann suggests, that he means us here to take Σήμ as dative. Compare his treatment of Δάν in <i>De Agr.</i> 99. In this case we should translate “let the Lord God be blessed by Shem.” This rendering suits the argument which follows, and it is quite in Philo’s manner to suggest such a double rendering, and further to imagine or accept a variant εὐλογημένος to fit it.",
+            "§§ 60 ff. For the three kinds of goods <i>cf.</i> <i>De Ebr.</i> 200 ff. and note on <i>Quod Det.</i> 7. Here Philo comes nearer to the Peripatetic view than in <i>De Gig.</i> 38. He is still nearer to it in <i>Quis Rer. Div. Her.</i> 285 ff."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1930",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "על הפיכחות",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על הפיכחות",
+        "enTitle": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+        "key": "On the Prayers and Curses Uttered by Noah when he Became Sober",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}