diff --git "a/json/Second Temple/Philo/Every Good Man is Free/English/merged.json" "b/json/Second Temple/Philo/Every Good Man is Free/English/merged.json" new file mode 100644--- /dev/null +++ "b/json/Second Temple/Philo/Every Good Man is Free/English/merged.json" @@ -0,0 +1,309 @@ +{ + "title": "Every Good Man is Free", + "language": "en", + "versionTitle": "merged", + "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/Every_Good_Man_is_Free", + "text": { + "Introduction": [ + "INTRODUCTION TO QUOD OMNIS PROBUS LIBER SIT", + "This treatise is usually believed to be a youthful essay of Philo’s and we may well suppose that it belongs to a period of his life when he still had the dialectic of the philosophical schools fresh in mind and before he had settled down to his life’s work of interpreting the Pentateuch. Its genuineness has been impugned but on no good grounds. It has the testimony of Eusebius, who names it in his list of Philo’s works, and also makes a long extract from it, and it is also used on a considerable scale by St. Ambrose though he does not name the author. But apart from these the close resemblance in style and language, remarkably close, considering the difference of subject to the main body of treatises, leaves little doubt as to the authorship.", + "The tract is an argument to show the truth of the Stoic “paradox” that the wise man alone is free. The paradoxes are one of the best known features of the Stoic system. The doctrine that all the gifts and qualities generally held desirable belong in the true sense to the virtuous or wise man is a natural deduction from the primary maxim that the morally excellent, τὸ καλόν, is the only good. Though they sometimes assume a fantastic form, as when the Stoics claimed, or were supposed to claim, that only the wise man could be a general or a pilot or a poet or a cobbler, the more obvious ones that he alone is free or rich or noble or beautiful, are really almost truisms which have been echoed by preachers and moralists in every age. But they put the doctrine in arresting forms which impressed the serious and also gave occasion for banter to those who observed that the life of the philosophers was not always consistent with their principles. Allusions to them and short explanations of their meaning abound in Stoic writings. The list compiled by Arnim (S.V.F.) contains some 120 items. But the peculiarity of this treatise is that it argues out the matter with a fullness and lengthiness unparalleled elsewhere, though since the writings of the founders of Stoicism have not survived we cannot say how they may have treated it. At any rate the treatise, whatever its intrinsic merits, has this interest that we have in it a specimen of Stoic dialectic preserved to us almost by accident because it was part of the works of an author whose treatment of the Pentateuch appealed so strongly to the Christian mind.", + "The length and fullness become still more remarkable when we find that we have here only the second part of a disquisition, for Philo tells us in his opening sentence that it was preceded by “that every fool or bad man is a slave,” which is also mentioned by Eusebius in the catalogue named above. Since mankind are divided into free and slaves and also, according to orthodox Stoicism, into wise and fools, then if the wise alone is free it must follow that a fool is a slave, and one cannot but think that the two should be taken together as they are by Cicero. However, it is a fact that the slavery of the bad though frequently just mentioned is never discussed at length in our treatise except in §§ 51 if., where the argument that the wise enjoy the right of free discussion (ἰσηγορία), which is the mark of the free, is followed by the converse so completely worked out that it can hardly have been given in the earlier half. The slavery of lovesickness is also described at some length in § 38, but it is introduced there so incidentally that one would not be surprised to find it earlier. The main topic presumably was the slavery to the passions which is noted in § 45 and more fully in §§ 156 and 158 f. and is a subject capable of development to any extent. Slightly different to this is the slavery of the multitude to opinion, cf. § 21, and he may well have noticed also what Cicero gives as an example, the devotion to artistic objects. The description of a statesman who never cringes to the mob in De Ios. 67 suggests that something about the statesman who is in servitude to the people would be appropriate, and this again appears in Cicero. The thought that slavery in the sense of subjection to the wise is the best hope for the wicked, a moral which he draws from the story of Esau (§ 57) and from Noah’s curse of Canaan in De Sob. 69, may well have played a part. One thing we may be sure of is that examples were drawn from secular history such as the slavish fear of Dionysius or the impious infatuation of Xerxes to correspond to the examples of philosophical heroism in which this tract abounds.", + "The great preponderance of secular illustration may be fairly regarded as another sign that this and the twin treatise belong to the youth of Philo. There are altogether only five allusions to or quotations from the Pentateuch. In this the treatise stands in marked contrast to the De Nob, which as I have pointed out elsewhere is really a dissertation on the twin paradox that the wise man is noble but is illustrated entirely from the Pentateuch.", + "It is a consequence of this predominantly secular character that to judge from Cohn’s footnotes little use of the treatise was made by Christian writers with two marked exceptions. The first is the account of the Essenes in §§ 75–91, which is quoted in full by Eusebius, Praep. Ev. viii. 12. Eusebius has special reasons for making this extract. The other is the 37th letter of Ambrose, a large part of which is a kind of paraphrase of the Quod Omnis Probus. I have mentioned in my notes three passages from this which have some bearing on the text or its interpretation, but there are many others cited by Cohn.", + "The following is an analysis of the treatise.", + "After stating the subject of this and the preceding treatise Philo points out that such high doctrines are beyond the comprehension of the uneducated multitude (1–3) to whom they seem wild illusion (4–5). He gives a highly coloured picture of the way in which the ignorant react to the paradoxes that the wise and the foolish are respectively (a) citizens and exiles (6–7), (b) rich and poor (8–9) and says that they raise the same objection to the paradox of freedom and slavery which is here discussed (10). Such persons should like sick people put themselves under the guidance of the physician, that is the philosopher, and if they do so they will feel that they have wasted their past, whence we see the need of philosophical education for the young (11–15).", + "Coming to the main question, after pointing out that he is not dealing with freedom or slavery of the body (16–18) and declaring that the true freedom, like true sovereignty (though this does not concern us at present), lies in following God (19–20), he passes at once to the main point that the wise man is free from the domination of the passions (21–22). What the poet rightly says of the contempt of death is true of the contempt of other ills, and the wise man will assert his freedom by facing these bravely (22–25). This is supported by citing the resolution shown by pancratiasts (26–27); also the wise man is unmoved and thus has the leadership of the common herd (28–31). At this point he seems to digress in order to show that some common conceptions of slavery are inconsistent. Such are (a) the fact of service, but soldiers serve without being slaves and the same is true of the impoverished free man, whilst slaves often have control of others (32–35), (b) the fact of having to obey, but children obey their parents yet are reckoned free (36), (c) of being purchased, but free men are ransomed and purchased slaves often rule their masters just as purchased lions intimidate their owners (37–40). The argument is resumed by showing that the wise man is (a) happy (41), (b) like Moses a friend of God and therefore free (42–44), also as law-abiding cities are considered free, so he also obeys the law of reason (45–47). Next comes an intricate argument on the ἰσηγορία or right of discussion on an equal footing enjoyed by the wise (48–50) and not enjoyed by the fool (51–52), and this is supported by a saying of Zeno (53–56) which Philo supposes him to have derived from Moses’s account of Isaac condemning Esau to be the slave of Jacob (57). A final argument is: “the wise man is free because he does right voluntarily, cannot be compelled to do wrong and treats things indifferent with indifference” (58–61).", + "Here till towards the end of the treatise the argument proper is dropped and we have several stories of persons who exemplify the picture of the wise man given above. These are introduced by a discussion whether such persons are to be found. Some doubt it (62), yet they do exist and have existed though they are scarce and also hard to find because they seek retirement from the wickedness of the world (62–63). We ought to seek them out instead of ransacking land and sea for jewels and the like (64–66) and we should remember the text, “the word is very near thee in thy mouth and thy heart and thy hand.” The thoughts, words and deeds here symbolized will if properly cultivated produce good fruit (67–70), but we neglect this and consequently the rarity of the virtuous (71–72). Still they exist both in Greece itself and outside Greece, among the Persians and Indians (73–74), while in Palestine we have the Essenes (75). The long account of the Essenes which follows describes the innocence of their occupations (76–78), rejection of slave labour (79), devout study of the law, particularly on the Sabbath (80–82), threefold devotion to God, virtue and man (83–84), the last particularly shown by sharing house and property and providing for the sick and aged (84–87). Their excellence is attested by the respect shown them even by tyrants and oppressors (88–91). Passing on to individuals, we have the story of the Indian Calanus and his firm resistance to Alexander (92–97), and returning to the Greeks some examples from poetry and history, the picture of Heracles in Euripides (98–104) and, leaving demigods out as not fair specimens, Zeno the Eleate and Anaxarchus (105–109). Further, the dauntlessness shown by those who are not philosophers assures us that the true philosopher is still more dauntless. Among these are the athletes (110–113) and even boys and women (114–117), and whole people like the Xanthians (118–120). In these we see a fortitude which ends in their death, but there is also a fortitude in continuing to live, and so we here have a number of anecdotes of Diogenes, somewhat irrelevantly, since Diogenes was a philosopher (120–124). This leads to other stories of bold answering by Chaereas and Theodorus (125–130); after this digression we return to the fortitude which defies death, the example being fighting cocks who fight on till they are killed (131–135). Then there is another digression. That freedom in the ordinary sense is noble and slavery disgraceful is universally recognized (136–137) and examples of this feeling are given—the desire for political freedom shown by senates and generals (138–139), the abhorrence of slavery shown by exclusions of slaves from festivals and from the Argo (140–143). The remainder of the treatise is connected though loosely with the main theme. The wise man will scorn and have a ready answer for all attempts which threaten his independence (144–146) for, since actual slaves when in asylum often exhibit great boldness, the wise man will find a stronger asylum in his virtue (148–153) and will discard all crooked and crafty ways (154–155). It is absurd to suppose that manumission gives true liberty (156–157). The concluding sections (158–161) repeat the main doctrine that freedom lies in eliminating the passions and emphasize the need of education of the young to attain this end." + ], + "": [ + [ + "I. [1] Our former treatise, Theodotus, had for its theme “every bad man is a slave” and established it by many reasonable and indisputable arguments. The present treatise is closely akin to that, its full brother, indeed, we may say its twin, and in it we shall show that every man of worth is free. ", + "[2] Now we are told that the saintly company of the Pythagoreans teaches among other excellent doctrines this also, “walk not on the highways.” This does not mean that we should climb steep hills—the school was not prescribing foot-weariness—but it indicates by this figure that in our words and deeds we should not follow popular and beaten tracks. ", + "[3] All genuine votaries of philosophy have obeyed the injunction, divining in it a law, or rather super-law, equivalent to an oracle. Rising above the opinions of the common herd they have opened up a new pathway, in which the outside world can never tread, for studying and discerning truths, and have brought to light the ideal forms which none of the unclean may touch.", + "[4] By unclean I mean all those who without ever tasting education at all, or else having received it in a crooked and distorted form, have changed the stamp of wisdom’s beauty into the ugliness of sophistry. ", + "[5] These, unable to discern the conceptual light through the weakness of the soul’s eye, which cannot but be beclouded by the flashing rays, as dwellers in perpetual night disbelieve those who live in the daylight, and think that all their tales of what they have seen around them, shown clearly by the unalloyed radiance of the sunbeams, are wild phantom-like inventions no better than the illusions of the puppet show.", + "[6] “Surely it is an absurdity,” they think, “a mere showman’s trick, to apply names in this way, to give the name of exile to men who not only spend their days in the heart of the city, but also sit as councillors, jurymen, and members of assembly, and sometimes undertake the burden of administering the market, or managing the gymnasium and the other public services: ", + "[7] to call those citizens who have either never been placed on the burgess rolls or have been condemned to disfranchisement or banishment, men chased beyond the frontiers, unable not only to set foot in the country but even to get a distant view of their ancestral soil, unless hounded thither by some kind of avenging furies they come courting death. For when they return there are numberless ministers of punishment waiting for them, spurred to vengeance by their personal feelings and also ready to do service to the commands of the law.”" + ], + [ + "II.  [8] “Surely your other statements too,” they continue, “are contrary to reason, brimful of shameless effrontery and madness or one knows not what to call them, for even names are difficult to find appropriate to such extravagance. You call those rich who are utterly destitute, lacking the very necessaries, who drag on their sorry, miserable life, scarcely providing their daily subsistence, starving exceptions to the general prosperity, feeding on the empty breath of virtue as grasshoppers are said to feed on air. ", + "[9] You call those poor who are lapped round by silver and gold and a multitude of landed possessions and revenues and numberless other good things in unstinted abundance, whose wealth not only benefits their kinsfolk and friends but steps outside the household to do the same to multitudes of fellow tribesmen and wardsmen, and taking a still wider sweep endows the state with all that either peace or war demands. ", + "[10] It is part of the same fantastic dream when you dare to ascribe slavery to the highly connected, the indisputably nobly born, who have not only parents but grandparents and ancestors right down to the founders of the family greatly distinguished both in the male and the female line: freedom to those who are heirs in the third generation to the branding iron, the fetter, and immemorial thraldom.”", + "[11] So they think, but all this is as I have said, the shallow talk of men with minds bedimmed, slaves to opinion, basing themselves on the senses, whose unstable council is always open to bribes from its suitors. ", + "[12] If they whole-heartedly sought for truth, they ought not to let themselves be outdone in prudence by the sick in body. They in their desire for health commit themselves to physicians, but these people show no willingness to cast off the soul-sickness of their untrained grossness by resorting to wise men from whom they can not only unlearn their ignorance but gain that knowledge which is mankind’s peculiar property. ", + "[13] But since we have it on the sacred authority of Plato that envy has no place in the divine choir, and wisdom is most divine and most free-handed, she never closes her school of thought but always opens her doors to those who thirst for the sweet water of discourse, and pouring on them an unstinted stream of undiluted doctrine, persuades them to be drunken with the drunkenness which is soberness itself. ", + "[14] Then when like initiates in the mysteries they have taken their fill of the revelations, they reproach themselves greatly for their former neglect and feel that they have wasted their time and that their life while they lacked wisdom was not worth the living. ", + "[15] It is well then that the young, all of them and everywhere, should dedicate the first fruits of the flower of their prime above all else to culture, wherein it is good for both youth and old age to dwell. For just as new vessels are said to retain the scents of the substances first poured into them, so, too, the souls of the young take indelible impressions of the ideas first presented to them and do not have them washed away by the stream of the later influx, and so they preserve the original form for all to see." + ], + [ + "III.  [16] So much for these matters. Let us proceed to the subject of our discourse and give it careful consideration, that we may not go astray, misled by the vagueness in the terms employed, but apprehend what we are talking about, adjust our arguments to it, and so prove our point. ", + "[17] Slavery then is applied in one sense to bodies, in another to souls; bodies have men for their masters, souls their vices and passions. The same is true of freedom; one freedom produces security of the body from men of superior strength, the other sets the mind at liberty from the domination of the passions. ", + "[18] No one makes the first kind the subject of investigation. For the vicissitudes of men are numberless and in many instances and at many times persons of the highest virtue have through adverse blows of fortune lost the freedom to which they were born. Our inquiry is concerned with characters which have never fallen under the yoke of desire, or fear, or pleasure, or grief; characters which have as it were escaped from prison and thrown off the chains which bound them so tightly. ", + "[19] Casting aside, therefore, specious quibblings and the terms which have no basis in nature but depend upon convention, such as “homebred,” “purchased” or “captured in war,” let us examine the veritable free man, who alone possesses independence, even though a host of people claim to be his masters. Let us hear the voice of Sophocles in words which are as true as any Delphic oracle
God and no mortal is my Sovereign.", + "[20] For in very truth he who has God alone for his leader, he alone is free, though to my thinking he is also the leader of all others, having received the charge of earthly things from the great, the immortal King, whom he, the mortal, serves as viceroy. But the subject of the wise man’s sovereignty must be postponed to a more suitable occasion and we have now to examine his freedom carefully. ", + "[21] If one looks with a penetrating eye into the facts, he will clearly perceive that no two things are so closely akin as independence of action and freedom, because the bad man has a multitude of incumbrances, such as love of money or reputation and pleasure, while the good man has none at all. He stands defiant and triumphant over love, fear, cowardice, grief and all that sort, as the victor over the fallen in the wrestling bout. ", + "[22] For he has learnt to set at nought the injunctions laid upon him by those most lawless rulers of the soul, inspired as he is by his ardent yearning for the freedom whose peculiar heritage it is that it obeys no orders and works no will but its own. Some people praise the author of the line
What slave is there who takes no thought of death?
and think that he well understood the thought that it involves. For he meant that nothing is so calculated to enslave the mind as fearing death through desire to live." + ], + [ + "IV.  [23] But we must reflect that exemption from slavery belongs to him who takes no thought not only of death but also of poverty, disrepute and pain and all the other things which the mass of men count as evil, though the evil lies in themselves and in their judgement, which makes them test the slave by the tasks he performs and fix their eyes on the services he renders instead of on his unenslaved character. ", + "[24] For he who with a mean and slavish spirit puts his hand to mean and slavish actions contrary to his own proper judgement is a slave indeed. But he who adjusts himself and his to fit the present occasion and willingly and also patiently endures the blows of fortune, who holds that there is nothing new in human circumstances, who has by diligent thought convinced himself that, while what is God’s has the honour of possessing eternal order and happiness, all mortal things are carried about in the tossing surge of circumstance and sway unevenly on the balance, who nobly endures whatever befalls him—he indeed needs no more to make him a philosopher and a free man. ", + "[25] And, therefore, he will not obey just anyone who gives him orders, even though he menaces him with outrage and tortures and threats however dreadful, but will openly and boldly defy him thus:
Roast and consume my flesh, and drink thy fill
Of my dark blood; for sooner shall the stars
Go ’neath the earth and earth go up to heaven
Than thou shalt from my lips meet fawning word." + ], + [ + "V. [26] I have observed in a contest of pancratiasts how one of the combatants will strike blow after blow both with hands and feet, every one of them well aimed, and leave nothing undone that might secure his victory, and yet he will finally quit the arena without a crown in a state of exhaustion and collapse, while the object of his attack, a mass of closely packed flesh, rigid and solid, full of the wiriness of the true athlete, his sinews taut from end to end, firm as a piece of rock or iron, will yield not a whit to the blows, but by his stark and stubborn endurance will break down utterly the strength of his adversary and end by winning a complete victory. ", + "[27] Much the same as it seems to me is the case of the virtuous man; his soul strongly fortified with a resolution firmly founded on reason, he compels the employer of violence to give up in exhaustion, sooner than himself submit to do anything contrary to his judgement. This statement may perhaps seem incredible to those who have had no experience of virtue (so would the other just mentioned to those who do not know the pancratiast), but none the less it is an actual fact. ", + "[28] It is this which Antisthenes had in view when he said that a virtuous man is heavy to carry, for as want of sense is a light thing, never stationary, so good sense is firmly based, never swerves and has a weight that cannot be shaken. ", + "[29] The law-giver of the Jews describes the wise man’s hands as heavy, indicating by this figure that his actions are not superficial but firmly based, the outcome of a mind that never wavers. ", + "[30] No one then can compel him, since he has come to despise both pain and death, and by the law of nature has all fools in subjection. For just as goats and oxen and sheep are led by goatherds and oxherds and shepherds, and flocks and herds cannot possibly give orders to herdsmen, so too the multitude, who are like cattle, require a master and a ruler and have for their leaders men of virtue, appointed to the office of governing the herd. ", + "[31] Homer often calls kings “shepherds of the people,” but nature more accurately applies the title to the good, since kings are more often in the position of the sheep than of the shepherd. They are led by strong drink and good looks and by baked meats and savoury dishes and the dainties produced by cooks and confectioners, to say nothing of their craving for silver and gold and grander ambitions. But the good nothing can ensnare, and it is theirs also to admonish those whom they see caught in the toils of pleasure." + ], + [ + "VI.  [32] That services rendered are no proof of enslavement is very clearly shown in war-time. We see soldiers in the field all working on their own account, not only carrying all their weapons, but also laden like beasts with every necessary requirement, and then making expeditions to get water or firewood or fodder for the animals. ", + "[33] As for labours required in defence against the enemy, such as cutting trenches or building walls or constructing triremes, and all other skilled or subsidiary operations in which the hands and the rest of the body are employed, there is no need to recount them at length. ", + "[34] On the other hand, there is a peace-time war, no less grave than those fought with arms, a war set on foot by disrepute and poverty and dire lack of the necessaries of life, a war by which men are forced under duress to undertake the most servile tasks, digging and toiling on the land and practising menial crafts, labouring unceasingly to earn a meagre subsistence; often too carrying burdens in the midst of the market place before the eyes of their fellows in age who were their associates in boyhood and in youth.", + "[35] There are others born in slavery, who by a happy dispensation of fortune pursue the occupations of the free. They receive the stewardship of houses and landed estates and great properties; sometimes too they become the rulers of their fellow slaves. Many too have the wives and orphan children of their masters committed to their charge, being preferred for trustworthiness to friends and members of the family. Still all the same they are slaves though they lend, purchase, collect revenues and are much courted. Why then should we wonder when the opposite occurs and a man whose good luck has taken a bad turn performs the offices of a slave? ", + "[36] But you say, “by obedience to another he loses his liberty.” How then is it that children suffer the orders of their father or mother, and pupils the injunctions of their instructors? For no one is willing to be a slave; and surely parents will not show such an extreme hatred of their offspring as to compel their own children to submit to render services which according to you are the sole distinctive marks of slavery. ", + "[37] Again, anyone who thinks that people put up for sale by kidnappers thereby become slaves goes utterly astray from the truth. Selling does not make the purchaser a master, nor the purchased a slave. Fathers pay a price for their sons and sons often for their fathers if they have been carried off in raids or taken prisoners in war, and that such persons are free men is asserted by the laws of nature which have a more solid foundation than those of our lower world.", + "Indeed, [38] some of those thus bought and sold reverse the situation to such an extreme extent that they become the masters of their purchasers instead of their slaves. I have often myself seen pretty little slave girls with a natural gift for wheedling words, who with these two sources of strength, beauty of face and charm of speech, stormed the hearts of their owners. For these two are engines of attack against souls with no ballast or stability, engines mightier than all the machines constructed to demolish walls. ", + "[39] This is shown by the way in which their owners court them, supplicate them, eagerly beg their favours, as though they were praying to fortune or some good genius. If they are scouted they go into fits of despair and if they just see a kindly glance they dance for joy. ", + "[40] If selling constitutes slavery we should have to assert that a person who had bought some lions is master of the lions, whereas if the beasts do but turn menacing eyes upon him, the poor man will learn at once by experience the cruel and ferocious lordship of those whom he has purchased. Well then must we not suppose that if lions cannot, still less can the wise man be enslaved, who has in his free and unscathed soul a greater power of resistance to the yoke than any he could make with the naturally slavish body and all the vigour of its physical strength?" + ], + [ + "VII.  [41] The freedom of the good man may be learnt in other ways. No slave is really happy. For what greater misery is there than to live with no power over anything, including oneself? But the wise man is happy, ballasted and freighted by his high morality, which confers power over everything, and so beyond all doubt and of sheer necessity, the good man is free. ", + "[42] Furthermore no one would deny that the friends of God are free. Surely when we agree that the familiars of kings enjoy not only freedom but authority, because they take part in their management and administration as leaders, we must not give the name of slaves to those who stand in the same relation to the celestial gods, who are god-lovers and thereby necessarily god-beloved, rewarded with the same affection as they have shown, and in the judgement of truth are as the poets say, rulers of all and kings of kings. ", + "[43] The legislator of the Jews in a bolder spirit went to a further extreme and in the practice of his “naked” philosophy, as they call it, ventured to speak of him who was possessed by love of the divine and worshipped the Self-existent only, as having passed from a man into a god, though, indeed, a god to men, not to the different parts of nature, thus leaving to the Father of all the place of King and God of gods. ", + "[44] Does one who has obtained so great a preferment deserve to be considered a slave and not rather the solely free? Though he was not deemed worthy of divine rank in his own right, yet because he had God for a friend, he was bound to have absolute felicity, for he had no feeble champion, nor one neglectful of the rights of friendship in Him who is the comrade’s god and keeps watch over the claims of comradeship. ", + "[45] Further again, just as with cities, those which lie under an oligarchy or tyranny suffer enslavement, because they have cruel and severe masters, who keep them in subjection under their sway, while those which have laws to care for and protect them are free, so, too, with men. Those in whom anger or desire or any other passion, or again any insidious vice holds sway, are entirely enslaved, while all whose life is regulated by law are free. ", + "[46] And right reason is an infallible law engraved not by this mortal or that and, therefore, perishable as he, nor on parchment or slabs, and, therefore, soulless as they, but by immortal nature on the immortal mind, never to perish. ", + "[47] So, one may well wonder at the short-sightedness of those who ignore the characteristics which so clearly distinguish different things and declare that the laws of Solon and Lycurgus are all-sufficient to secure the freedom of the greatest of republics, Athens and Sparta, because their sovereign authority is loyally accepted by those who enjoy that citizenship, yet deny that right reason, which is the fountain head of all other law, can impart freedom to the wise, who obey all that it prescribes or forbids.", + "[48] Further, besides these just mentioned, we have a very clear evidence of freedom in the equality recognized by all the good in addressing each other. Thus it is argued that the following iambic verses contain sound philosophy:
No part or lot in law has any slave
and again
A slave thou art, no right of speech hast thou.", + "[49] Just as the laws of music put all adepts in music on an equal footing in discussing that art and the laws of grammar and geometry do the same for their respective professionals, so, too, the laws of human life and conduct create a similar equality between those who are proficient in life-matters. ", + "[50] But the good are all proficient in such matters, because their proficiency embraces the whole of nature. Some of the good are admittedly free, and, therefore, all who enjoy the right to address them on an equal footing are free also. Consequently none of the good is a slave but all are free." + ], + [ + "VIII.  [51] By the same line of argument it will appear that the fool is a slave. The laws of music, of grammar, of art in general, do not put the unmusical, the illiterate, the inartistic in general on an equal footing in discussion with the musical, the literary and the artistic. In the same way the laws of life and conduct do not put the unproficient in life matters on an equal footing in discussion with the proficient. ", + "[52] But this right of equal discussion, which these laws give, is given to all the free [and some of the good are free]. And in life-matters the bad are unproficient, while the wise are most proficient and consequently none of the bad is free but all are slaves. ", + "[53] Zeno, who lived under the direction of virtue to an unsurpassed degree, proves still more forcibly that the bad are not on equal terms in addressing the virtuous. “Shall not the bad rue it if he gainsay the good?” he says. The bad man, therefore, has no right to speak to a good man as his equal. ", + "[54] I am aware that many people will pour abuse on such words and hold that Zeno’s question shows presumption rather than good sense. But when they have had their jeering and stopped laughing, if they are willing to look closely and seek for a clear understanding of the saying, they will to their utter confusion recognize its absolute truth and that nothing will a man rue more than refusal to listen to the wise. ", + "[55] For confiscation of money or disfranchisement or banishment or the cruel disgrace of the lash, or anything else of the same kind, are small things and of no account when set against vices and the results which vices produce. But the majority, who through the blindness of their reason do not discern the damages which the soul has sustained, only feel the pain of external injuries, because the faculty of judgement, which alone can enable them to apprehend the damage to the mind, is taken from them. ", + "[56] But if they could recover their sight, observing the delusions which folly brings and the outrages wrought by cowardice and all that the sottishness of incontinence and the lawlessness of injustice has done, they will be filled with ceaseless sorrow at the calamitous plight of the best thing they possess, and even refuse to listen to consolation, so vast are the evils which have befallen them.", + "[57] We may well suppose that the fountain from which Zeno drew this thought was the law-book of the Jews, which tells of two brothers, one wise and temperate, the other incontinent, how the father of them both prayed in pity for him who had not attained to virtue that he should be his brother’s slave. He held that slavery, which men think the worst of evils, was the best possible boon to the fool, because the loss of independence would prevent him from transgressing without fear of punishment, and his character would be improved under the control of the authority set above him." + ], + [ + "IX.  [58] I have now said all that appeared to me necessary to prove the proposition, but just as physicians regularly use a greater multiformity of treatment to cure multiform diseases, so when statements regarded as paradoxical are put forward, their unfamiliarity renders it necessary to apply a succession of proofs to bear upon the subject. For some can only be brought to understand under the impact of a continued series of demonstrations. ", + "[59] Thus the following argument is well to the point. He who always acts sensibly, always acts well: he who always acts well, always acts rightly: he who always acts rightly, also acts impeccably, blamelessly, faultlessly, irreproachably, harmlessly, and, therefore, will have the power to do anything, and to live as he wishes, and he who has this power must be free. But the good man always acts sensibly, and, therefore, he alone is free. ", + "[60] Again, one who cannot be compelled to do anything or prevented from doing anything, cannot be a slave. But the good man cannot be compelled or prevented: the good man, therefore, cannot be a slave. That he is not compelled nor prevented is evident. One is prevented when he does not get what he desires, but the wise man desires things which have their origin in virtue, and these, being what he is, he cannot fail to obtain. Further, if one is compelled he clearly acts against his will. But where there are actions, they are either righteous actions born of virtue or wrong actions born of vice or neutral and indifferent. ", + "[61] The virtuous actions he performs not under constraint but willingly, since all that he does are what he holds to be desirable. The vicious are to be eschewed and therefore he never dreams of doing them. Naturally too in matters indifferent he does not act under compulsion. To these, as on a balance his mind preserves its equipoise, trained neither to surrender to them in acknowledgement of their superior weight, nor yet to regard them with hostility, as deserving aversion. Whence it is clear that he does nothing unwillingly and is never compelled, whereas if he were a slave he would be compelled, and therefore the good man will be a free man." + ], + [ + "X. [62] But among those who have kept little company with the Muses, there are some who have no understanding of the methods of logical deduction, but make general statements based on appearances. These people often ask “who have there been in the past, and who are there living now of the kind that you imagine?” An excellent answer is that in the past there have been those who surpassed their contemporaries in virtue, who took God for their sole guide and lived according to a law of nature’s right reason, not only free themselves, but communicating to their neighbours the spirit of freedom: also in our own time there are still men formed as it were in the likeness of the original picture supplied by the high excellence of sages. ", + "[63] For it does not follow that if the souls of the gainsayers have been bereft of freedom, held in bondage to folly and the other vices, the same is true of the human race. Nor is it a matter for wonder that the good do not appear herded in great throngs. First because specimens of great goodness are rare, secondly, because they avoid the great crowd of the more thoughtless and keep themselves at leisure for the contemplation of what nature has to show. Their prayer is that if possible they may work a reformation in the lives of the others, for virtue serves the common weal. But as this is made impossible through the atrocious doings which flood the cities, gathering strength from the passions and vices of the soul, they flee right away lest they should be swept down by the force of their onrush, as by the violence of a torrent. ", + "[64] But we, if we had any zeal for betterment should track them to their hiding places, and sitting as suppliants before them, exhort them to join us and humanize our bestial life, in place of war and slavery and a host of ills proclaiming peace, liberty and the overflowing abundance of all other blessings. ", + "[65] As it is, for the sake of money we ransack every corner and open up rough and rocky veins of earth, and much of the low land and no small part of the high land is mined in the quest of gold and silver, copper and iron, and the other like substances. ", + "[66] The empty-headed way of thinking, deifying vanity, dives to the depths of the sea, searching whether some fair treasure to delight the senses lies hidden there. And when it has found different kinds of many-coloured precious stones, some adhering to rocks, others, the more highly prized, to shells, it gives every honour to the beguiling spectacle. ", + "[67] But for wisdom or temperance or courage or justice, no journey is taken by land, even though it gives easy travelling, no seas are navigated, though the skippers sail them every summer season. ", + "[68] Yet what need is there of long journeying on the land or voyaging on the seas to seek and search for virtue, whose roots have been set by their Maker ever so near us, as the wise legislator of the Jews also says, “in thy mouth, in thy heart and in thy hand,” thereby indicating in a figure, words, thoughts and actions? All these, indeed, need the cultivator’s skill. ", + "[69] Those who prefer idleness to labour, not only prevent the growths but also wither and destroy the roots. But those who consider inaction mischievous and are willing to labour, do as the husbandman does with fine young shoots. By constant care they rear the virtues into stems rising up to heaven, saplings everblooming and immortal, bearing and never ceasing to bear the fruits of happiness, or as some hold, not so much bearing as being in themselves that happiness. These Moses often calls by the compound name of wholefruits. ", + "[70] In the case of growths which spring from the earth, neither are the trees the fruit nor the fruit the trees, but in the soul’s plantation the saplings of wisdom, of justice, of temperance, have their whole being transformed completely into fruits." + ], + [ + "XI.  [71] Having then in us such potentialities, should we not blush to denounce the human race as lacking in wisdom, wisdom which the bellows could kindle into a blaze like the spark which smoulders in the firewood? And yet these things for which we should strive eagerly, things so closely akin to ourselves, so truly our own, we treat with great slackness and constant indifference and thus destroy the germs of excellence, while those things in which deficiency were a merit we desire with an insatiable yearning. ", + "[72] Consequently land and sea are full of the rich, the distinguished and the men of pleasure, but of the wise and just and virtuous, the number is small. But this small body though scanty is not absolutely non-existent. ", + "[73] For this we have the testimony, both of Greece and the world outside Greece. In Greece there flourished the sages known also by the appropriate name of the Seven, and we might expect that both before them and after them, others had their day, though the memory of the more ancient has vanished in the lapse of many years, and is dimmed in the case of those whose lives are still recent through the widespread neglect of their contemporaries.", + "[74] In the outside world where are those who spread the message by words and deeds, we find large associations of men of the highest excellence. Among the Persians there is the order of the Magi, who silently make research into the facts of nature to gain knowledge of the truth and through visions clearer than speech, give and receive the revelations of divine excellency. In India, too, there is the order of the Gymnosophists, who study ethical as well as physical philosophy and make the whole of their lives an exhibition of virtue." + ], + [ + "XII.  [75] Palestinian Syria, too, has not failed to produce high moral excellence. In this country live a considerable part of the very populous nation of the Jews, including as it is said, certain persons, more than four thousand in number, called Essenes. Their name which is, I think, a variation, though the form of the Greek is inexact, of ὁσιότης (holiness), is given them, because they have shown themselves especially devout in the service of God, not by offering sacrifices of animals, but by resolving to sanctify their minds. ", + "[76] The first thing about these people is that they live in villages and avoid the cities because of the iniquities which have become inveterate among city dwellers, for they know that their company would have a deadly effect upon their own souls, like a disease brought by a pestilential atmosphere. Some of them labour on the land and others pursue such crafts as co-operate with peace and so benefit themselves and their neighbours. They do not hoard gold and silver or acquire great slices of land because they desire the revenues therefrom, but provide what is needed for the necessary requirements of life. ", + "[77] For while they stand almost alone in the whole of mankind in that they have become moneyless and landless by deliberate action rather than by lack of good fortune, they are esteemed exceedingly rich, because they judge frugality with contentment to be, as indeed it is, an abundance of wealth. ", + "[78] As for darts, javelins, daggers, or the helmet, breastplate or shield, you could not find a single manufacturer of them, nor, in general, any person making weapons or engines or plying any industry concerned with war, nor, indeed, any of the peaceful kind, which easily lapse into vice, for they have not the vaguest idea of commerce either wholesale or retail or marine, but pack the inducements to covetousness off in disgrace. ", + "[79] Not a single slave is to be found among them, but all are free, exchanging services with each other, and they denounce the owners of slaves, not merely for their injustice in outraging the law of equality, but also for their impiety in annulling the statute of Nature, who mother-like has born and reared all men alike, and created them genuine brothers, not in mere name, but in very reality, though this kinship has been put to confusion by the triumph of malignant covetousness, which has wrought estrangement instead of affinity and enmity instead of friendship. ", + "[80] As for philosophy they abandon the logical part to quibbling verbalists as unnecessary for the acquisition of virtue, and the physical to visionary praters as beyond the grasp of human nature, only retaining that part which treats philosophically of the existence of God and the creation of the universe. But the ethical part they study very industriously, taking for their trainers the laws of their fathers, which could not possibly have been conceived by the human soul without divine inspiration.", + "[81] In these they are instructed at all other times, but particularly on the seventh days. For that day has been set apart to be kept holy and on it they abstain from all other work and proceed to sacred spots which they call synagogues. There, arranged in rows according to their ages, the younger below the elder, they sit decorously as befits the occasion with attentive ears. ", + "[82] Then one takes the books and reads aloud and another of especial proficiency comes forward and expounds what is not understood. For most of their philosophical study takes the form of allegory, and in this they emulate the tradition of the past. ", + "[83] They are trained in piety, holiness, justice, domestic and civic conduct, knowledge of what is truly good, or evil, or indifferent, and how to choose what they should and avoid the opposite, taking for their defining standards these three, love of God, love of virtue, love of men. ", + "[84] Their love of God they show by a multitude of proofs, by religious purity constant and unbroken throughout their lives, by abstinence from oaths, by veracity, by their belief that the Godhead is the cause of all good things and nothing bad; their love of virtue, by their freedom from the love of either money or reputation or pleasure, by self-mastery and endurance, again by frugality, simple living, contentment, humility, respect for law, steadiness and all similar qualities; their love of men by benevolence and sense of equality, and their spirit of fellowship, which defies description, though a few words on it will not be out of place. ", + "[85] First of all then no one’s house is his own in the sense that it is not shared by all, for besides the fact that they dwell together in communities, the door is open to visitors from elsewhere who share their convictions.", + "[86] Again they all have a single treasury and common disbursements; their clothes are held in common and also their food through their institution of public meals. In no other community can we find the custom of sharing roof, life and board more firmly established in actual practice. And that is no more than one would expect. For all the wages which they earn in the day’s work they do not keep as their private property, but throw them into the common stock and allow the benefit thus accruing to be shared by those who wish to use it. ", + "[87] The sick are not neglected because they cannot provide anything, but have the cost of their treatment lying ready in the common stock, so that they can meet expenses out of the greater wealth in full security. To the elder men too is given the respect and care which real children give to their parents, and they receive from countless hands and minds a full and generous maintenance for their latter years." + ], + [ + "XIII.  [88] Such are the athletes of virtue produced by a philosophy free from the pedantry of Greek wordiness, a philosophy which sets its pupils to practise themselves in laudable actions, by which the liberty which can never be enslaved is firmly established. ", + "[89] Here we have a proof. Many are the potentates who at various occasions have raised themselves to power over the country. They differed both in nature and the line of conduct which they followed. Some of them carried their zest for outdoing wild beasts in ferocity to the point of savagery. They left no form of cruelty untried. They slaughtered their subjects wholesale, or like cooks carved them piecemeal and limb by limb whilst still alive, and did not stay their hands till justice who surveys human affairs visited them with the same calamities. ", + "[90] Others transformed this wild frenzy into another kind of viciousness. Their conduct showed intense bitterness, but they talked with calmness, though the mask of their milder language failed to conceal their rancorous disposition. They fawned like venomous hounds yet wrought evils irremediable and left behind them throughout the cities the unforgettable sufferings of their victims as monuments of their impiety and inhumanity. ", + "[91] Yet none of these, neither the extremely ferocious nor the deep-dyed treacherous dissemblers, were able to lay a charge against this congregation of Essenes or holy ones here described. Unable to resist the high excellence of these people, they all treated them as self-governing and freemen by nature and extolled their communal meals and that ineffable sense of fellowship, which is the clearest evidence of a perfect and supremely happy life." + ], + [ + "XIV.  [92] But since some consider that the virtues of large bodies are never perfect, but merely grow and improve and then come to a halt, we must cite as evidence the lives of good individual men, which are the clearest proof of the existence of liberty. ", + "[93] Calanus was an Indian by birth of the school of the gymnosophists. Regarded as possessed of endurance more than any of his contemporaries, by combining virtuous actions with laudable words he gained the admiration, not only of his fellow countrymen, but of men of other races, and, what is most singular of all, of enemy sovereigns. ", + "[94] Thus Alexander of Macedon, wishing to exhibit to the Grecian world a specimen of the barbarians’ wisdom, like a copy reproducing the original picture, began by urging Calanus to travel with him from India with the prospect of winning high fame in the whole of Asia and the whole of Europe; ", + "[95] and when he failed to persuade him declared that he would compel him to follow him. Calanus’s reply was as noble as it was apposite. “What shall I be worth to you, Alexander, for exhibiting to the Greeks if I am compelled to do what I do not wish to do?” What a wealth of frankness there is in the words and far more of freedom in the thought. But more durable than his spoken are his written words and in these he set on record clear signs of a spirit which could not be enslaved. ", + "[96] The letter he sent to Alexander runs thus:—
“Calanus to Alexander
Your friends urge you to apply violence and compulsion to the philosophers of India. These friends, however, have never even in their dreams seen what we do. Bodies you will transport from place to place, but souls you will not compel to do what they will not do, any more than force bricks or sticks to talk. Fire causes the greatest trouble and ruin to living bodies: we are superior to this: we burn ourselves alive. There is no king, no ruler, who will compel us to do what we do not freely wish to do. We are not like those philosophers of the Greeks, who practise words for a festal assembly. With us deeds accord with words and words with deeds. Deeds pass swiftly and words have short-lived power: virtues secure to us blessedness and freedom.”", + "[97] Protestations and judgements like these may well bring to our lips the saying of Zeno: “Sooner will you sink an inflated bladder than compel any virtuous man to do against his will anything that he does not wish.” For never will that soul surrender or suffer defeat which right reason has braced with principles firmly held." + ], + [ + "XV.  [98] The freedom of the virtuous is also vouched for by the poets and prose writers, in whose thoughts Greeks and barbarians alike are reared almost from the cradle, and so gain improvement of character and restamp into sterling coin every bit of metal in their souls which has been debased by a faulty upbringing and mode of life. ", + "[99] See, for instance, what Heracles says in Euripides:
Burn me, consume my flesh, and drink thy fill
Of my dark blood; for sooner shall the stars
Go ’neath the earth and earth go up to sky
Ere thou shalt from my lips meet fawning word.
For in very truth, fawning and flattery and dissembling, in which the words are at war with the thought, are utterly slavish. But freedom of speech, genuine without taint of bastardy, and proceeding from a pure conscience, befits the nobly born.", + "[100] Again, observe how this same man of worth, even when put up for sale, seems to be no menial, but strikes awe into the beholders, who feel that he is not only free, but will become the master of his purchaser. ", + "[101] Hermes, for example, in answer to the question whether Heracles is worthless says:
Worthless? far from it, quite the contrary:
His bearing’s dignified, no meanness here,
Not slave-like overstocked with fat, and look
How smart his dress—and he can wield a club.
To which the other replies:
Who wants to buy a stronger than himself,
And bring him home as master of the house?
It fairly frightens one to look at you,
Eyes full of fire—you look just like a bull
Watching a lion’s onset.
Then he continues:
Your looks alone are evidence enough,
Though you say nothing, that you won’t obey—
Giving, not taking, orders is your line.", + "[102] And when Syleus after buying him, sent him into his estate, he showed by his actions that there was nothing of the slave in his nature. For he killed the finest bull in the stud, nominally as a sacrifice to Zeus, and feasted on it, and then brought out a great quantity of wine and lying there very comfortably drank it in huge draughts. ", + "[103] When Syleus arrived, very indignant both at the loss of his property, and at his servant’s easy-going and excessively disdainful behaviour, Heracles did not change colour a whit, nor make any difference in what he was doing, but said with the utmost boldness:
Lie down and let us drink and have a try
At once, who’ll do it better, you or I.", + "[104] How then must we describe his standing with his master? Is he slave or lord, he who dares not only to take these liberties, but even to issue orders to his owner, ready to beat him and knock him about if he shows resistance, or if he calls others to his aid to annihilate them altogether! Surely then these title-deeds, which record the so-called purchases, are just a laughing-stock and a mass of nonsense, when they are put out of court by the superior force of those against whom they are drawn up, less valid even than blank sheets of paper and destined to perish utterly, through moths, or time, or mildew." + ], + [ + "XVI.  [105] But it is not fair, an objector will say, to cite the achievements of the heroes as evidence. They have a greatness above human nature; they vie with the Olympians and as inheritors of a mixed parentage, a blend of mortal and immortal seed, are rightly called demigods, because the mortal ingredient is overpowered by the immortal part, so that there is nothing extraordinary in their contempt for those who plan to enslave them. ", + "[106] Be it so! But what of Anaxarchus or Zeno the Eleatic? Are they heroes or the offspring of gods? Nevertheless in the hands of cruel-hearted tyrants, naturally bitter and stirred to still greater ferocity by anger with them, though racked with strange and ingeniously invented tortures, they behaved as though the bodies in which they lay belonged to strangers or enemies, and with high disdain set the terrors of the tormentors at nought. ", + "[107] For having inured the soul from the first to hold aloof through love of knowledge from association with the passions, and to cleave to culture and wisdom, they set it wandering away from the body and brought it to make its home with wisdom and courage and the other virtues. ", + "[108] So it was that Zeno when suspended and stretched on the wheel, to make him tell something which should not be disclosed, showed himself mightier than the strongest things in nature, fire and iron. He gnawed off his tongue and shot it at the torturer, lest under violence he should involuntarily utter what honour would leave unspoken. ", + "[109] Anaxarchus’s speech showed the staunchest endurance. “Pound Anaxarchus’s skin,” he said, “Anaxarchus you cannot pound.” These examples of true courage, full of the spirit of defiance, have a value far exceeding the inherited nobleness of the heroes. Their glory belongs to their parentage and is not of their own volition. The glory of the philosophers rests upon achievements of virtue, freely willed by themselves, and these being what they are, immortalize those who practise them in sincerity." + ], + [ + "XVII.  [110] I know many cases of wrestlers and pancratiasts so full of ambition and eagerness for victory that though their bodies have lost their strength, they renew their vigour and continue their athletic efforts with nothing to help them but the soul, which they have inured to despise terrors, and in this they persevere to their last gasp. ", + "[111] Then, if those who exercise their bodily vigour have surmounted the fear of death whether in the hope of victory or to avoid seeing themselves defeated, can we suppose that those who drill the invisible mind within them, the veritable man, housed within the form which the senses perceive,—those who train it with words of philosophy and deeds of virtue will not be willing to die for their freedom and so complete their appointed pilgrimage with a spirit that defies enslavement! ", + "[112] It is told of two athletes in a sacred contest how possessed of equal strength, each offensive taken by the one returned in equal measure by the other, they never flagged until both fell dead. “Ah! then thy own prowess will destroy thee,” are words which will apply to such as these. ", + "[113] Surely then if to die for a garland of wild olive or parsley is a glory to the rivals in the arena, a far greater glory is it to the wise to die for freedom, the love of which stands in very truth implanted in the soul like nothing else, not as a casual adjunct but an essential part of its unity, and cannot be amputated without the whole system being destroyed as the result. ", + "[114] Students who investigate examples of high excellence sing the praises of the Laconian boy, to whom race or his own nature gave a spirit which would not brook enslavement. Carried into captivity by one of Antigonus’s people, he submitted to such tasks as became a freeman, but stood out against those of a slavish kind, declaring that he would not be a slave. And although by reason of his tender years he had not received the solid nutrition of the laws of Lycurgus, yet from his mere taste of them, he judged that death was a happier lot than his present valueless life, and despairing of ransom gladly put an end to himself. ", + "[115] There is also the story of the Dardanian women taken prisoners by the Macedonians, how holding slavery to be the worst disgrace they threw the children which they were nurturing into the deepest part of the river, exclaiming, “You at least shall not be slaves but ere you have begun your life of misery shall cut short your destined span and pass still free along the final road which all must tread.” ", + "[116] Polyxena, too, is described by the tragedian Euripides as thinking little of death but much of her freedom when she says:
Willing I die, that none may touch my flesh—
For I will give my throat with all my heart.
In heaven’s name let me go free, then slay me
That I may die still free.
" + ], + [ + "XVIII.  [117] Then can we suppose that while women and lads, the former endowed by nature with little sense, the latter at so insecure an age, are imbued with so profound a love of liberty, that to save themselves from losing it they seek death as eagerly as if it were immortality—can we suppose, I say, that those who have drunk deep of wisdom undiluted can be anything but free—those who bear within them a well-spring of happiness in the high courage which no malignant force has ever yet subdued because sovereignty and kingship is its everlasting heritage?", + "[118] Indeed we hear of whole populations voluntarily suffering annihilation to safeguard their liberty and at the same time their good faith to dead benefactors. Such is the story told of the Xanthians in recent years. When one of the assassins of Julius Caesar, namely Brutus, marched with an army against them, what they feared was not the sack of their city, but enslavement to a murderer, who had killed his own leader and benefactor, for Caesar had been both to him. ", + "[119] As long as they could they fought on and at first made a powerful defence, and while their numbers were gradually wasting away they still held out. But when their whole strength was spent, they drove their women and parents and children each to their several homes and there slaughtered them, and after piling the bodies in a heap fired it and slew themselves upon it, thus completing their allotted term as free men inspired by a free and noble resolution. ", + "[120] Now these to escape the merciless cruelty of tyrannical enemies chose death with honour in preference to an inglorious life, but others whom the circumstances of their lot permitted to live, endured in patience, imitating the courage of Heracles, who proved himself superior to the tasks imposed by Eurystheus.", + "[121] Thus it was with the cynic philosopher Diogenes. So great and lofty was his spirit, that when captured by robbers, who grudgingly provided him with the barest minimum of food, still remained unmoved by his present position and had no fear of the cruelty of those who held him in their power. “It is surely very preposterous,” he said, “that while sucking pigs and sheep when they are going to be sold are fed up with greater care to make them fat and well favoured, man the best of animals should be reduced to a skeleton by want of food and constant privations and so fetch a lower price.” ", + "[122] He then received adequate allowances of food and when he was about to be brought to market with the other captives, he first sat down and took his dinner in the highest spirits, and gave some of it to those near him. To one of them who could not resign himself, and, indeed, was exceedingly dejected, he said, “Stop this repining and make the best of things, for
E’en fair-haired Niobe took thought for food
Though she had lost twelve children in the halls—
Six daughters and six sons in prime of youth.”", + "[123] Then when one of the prospective purchasers asked him what he was skilled at, he said with all boldness “at ruling men,” a reply which, showing freedom, nobility, and natural kingliness, was clearly dictated by the soul within him. Again we find him with his wonted licence making witticisms out of a situation which filled the others with melancholy and dejection. ", + "[124] It is said, for instance, that looking at one of the purchasers, an addict to effeminacy, whose face showed that he had nothing of the male about him, he went up to him and said, “You should buy me, for you seem to me to need a husband,” whereat the person concerned conscience-stricken into shame subsided, and the others were amazed at the courage and the aptness of the sally. Must we apply the term slavery to such as him, or any other word but liberty, over which irresponsible domination has no power?", + "[125] His freedom of speech was emulated by Chaereas, a man of culture. When he was living in Alexandria by Egypt, he once incurred the anger of Ptolemy, who threatened him in no mild terms. Chaereas considering that his own natural freedom was not a whit inferior to the other’s kingship replied:
Be King of Egypt; I care not for you—
A fig for all your anger.
For noble souls, ", + "[126] whose brightness the greed of fortune cannot dim, have a kingly something, which urges them to contend on an equal footing with persons of the most massive dignity and pits freedom of speech against arrogance.", + "[127] A story is told of Theodorus surnamed the atheist, that when he had been banished from Athens and had joined Lysimachus, his flight was brought up against him by a person of authority, who recited the circumstances which caused it and declared that he had been ejected after being condemned as an atheist and corrupter of youth. “I was ejected,” he answered, “but I shared that fortune with the son of Zeus Heracles, for he was thrown overboard by the Argonauts, ", + "[128] not for any wrongdoing, but because he himself alone was freight and ballast enough to overload the vessel, and made his fellow sailors afraid that it would be water-logged. And I, too, changed my residence for this reason, because the politicians at Athens were unable to keep pace with the loftiness and magnitude of my intellect; also I was the object of envy.” ", + "[129] When Lysimachus put the further question, “Was it then for envy that you were ejected?” he answered, “No, not through envy but because of the transcendence of my natural gifts which the country could not hold. ", + "[130] For just as when Semele, while carrying Dionysus, was unable to bear the weight till the time appointed for her delivery, and Zeus in consternation pulled out the fruit of her womb in a premature stage of being and made it rank equal to the celestial gods, so it was with me: my country was too small to hold such a mass of philosophical thinking, and some lower or higher deity dislodged me and resolved to transplant me to a place more favoured by fortune than Athens.”" + ], + [ + "XIX.  [131] The freedom of the wise like all other human good gifts may be seen exemplified also in the irrational animals. Thus cocks are wont to fight with such intrepidity that rather than yield and withdraw, though outdone in strength yet not outdone in courage they continue fighting until they die. ", + "[132] This Miltiades, the general of the Athenians, had observed, and when the Persian king having pressed into the ranks all the flower of Asia crossed into Europe with many myriads, thinking to seize Greece without a struggle, Miltiades collected his fellow soldiers at the Panathenaea and showed them some cocks fighting, holding that the spectacle would speak with a persuasion which no words could have. His judgement did not err, ", + "[133] for when they saw this invincible gallantry and endurance asserting itself even to death in irrational creatures, they seized their arms and rushed to war, where the rivals against whom they were matched would be the bodies of the foes, and recked not of the wounds nor of the slaughter in their hope to secure that if they fell at least their native soil in which they lay would still be free. For nothing so creates an impulse to do better, as that those of less repute than ourselves should rise to heights of achievement beyond our expectation. ", + "[134] Cock-fighting is also mentioned by the Tragedian Ion in these words:
Battered his body and blind each eye
He rallies his courage, and faint, still crows,
For death he prefers to slavery.", + "[135] Why then should we suppose that the wise would not most gladly choose death rather than slavery? Is it not against all reason that the souls of the young and highly gifted should be worsted in the contests of virtue by birds and take only the second place and that barely?", + "[136] This too is a truth well known to everyone who has taken even a slight hold of culture, that freedom is an honourable thing, and slavery a disgraceful thing, and that honourable things are associated with good men and disgraceful things with bad men. Hence, it clearly follows that no person of true worth is a slave, though threatened by a host of claimants who produce contracts to prove their ownership, nor is any fool a free man, even though he be a Croesus or a Midas or the Great King himself." + ], + [ + "XX.  [137] And this doctrine that freedom is glorious and honourable, slavery execrable and disgraceful, is attested by cities and nations, which are more ancient, more permanent, and, as far as mortals may be, immortal, and for immortals it is a law of their being that their every word is true. ", + "[138] The senates and national assemblies meet almost every day to discuss more than anything else how to confirm their freedom if they have it, or to acquire it if they have it not. The Greek and the outside world are perpetually engaged in feuds and wars, nation against nation, and with what object save to escape from slavery and to win freedom? ", + "[139] And so on the battlefield, the commanders of armies and regiments and companies couch their exhortations to their men mainly in this form. “Fellow soldiers, slavery is the most grievous of evils. Let us repel its assault. Freedom is the noblest of human blessings; let us not suffer it to be lost. Freedom is the source and fountain of happiness and from it flow all particular benefits.”", + "[140] This I think is the reason why the Athenians, the keenest in intelligence among the Greeks—for Athens is in Greece what the pupil is in the eye and the reason in the soul—when they celebrate the procession in honour of the Venerable Goddesses, admit no slave to the company, but employ free men and women to carry out all the solemnities, and these not chosen at haphazard, but such as have earnestly pursued a blameless life. On the same principle, the cakes for the feast are made by the youths who have best passed their test, and they consider this service to be an honour and glory as indeed it is. ", + "[141] A short time ago, when some players were acting a tragedy, and reciting those lines of Euripides,
The name of freedom is worth all the world;
If one has little, let him think that much,
I saw the whole audience so carried away by enthusiasm that they stood upright to their full height, and raising their voices above the actors, burst into shout after shout of applause, combining praise of the maxim with praise of the poet, who glorified not only freedom for what it does, but even its name. ", + "[142] I also admire the Argonauts, who made their crew consist entirely of the free and admitted no slave, not even those who would do the necessary menial labours, welcoming personal service in these circumstances as the sister of freedom. ", + "[143] And if we are justified in listening to the poets,—and why should we not, since they are our educators through all our days, and as parents in private life teach wisdom to their children, so do they in public life to their cities—if I say we believe them, even the Argo, which captained by Jason was endowed with soul and reason, a sentient being filled with love of freedom, would not let bond servants board her. So Aeschylus says of her:
Where is the sacred bark of Argo? Speak.", + "[144] The menacing gestures and speeches with which some people threaten the wise should be treated with little respect and meet with a reply like that of Antigenidas, the flute-player. When a rival professional said to him in anger, “I’ll buy you,” he answered him with great irony, “Then I’ll teach you to play.” ", + "[145] So then, too, the man of worth may say to his prospective purchaser, “Then you will have lessons in self-control.” If one threatens him with banishment, he can say, “Every land is my native country”; if with loss of money, ", + "[146] “A moderate livelihood suffices me”; if the threat takes the form of blows or death, he can say, “These bugbears do not scare me; I am not inferior to boxers or pancratiasts, who though they see but dim shadows of true excellence, since they only cultivate robustness of body, yet endure both bravely. For the mind within me which rules the body is by courage so well-braced and nerved, that it can stand superior to any kind of pain.”" + ], + [ + "XXI.  [147] [We must be careful, therefore, not to take a wild beast of this kind, which displays not only strength, but by the terrors of its appearance, its invincible and formidable nature.]", + "[148] Places which serve as sanctuaries often provide the bond servants who take refuge in them with the same security and licence of speech as if they enjoyed equal rights and privileges with the rest. And one may see those whose servitude is immemorial handed down from their great-grandfathers and earlier ancestors by a kind of family succession, talking freely with complete fearlessness, when sitting in temples as suppliants. ", + "[149] Some even show not mere equality but great superiority in the energy and disdain with which they dispute questions of justice with their owners. For while the owners however highly born may well become as slaves through the conscience which convicts them, the suppliants, who are provided with bodily security by the inviolability of the place, exhibit in the soul, which God created proof against all that could subdue it, characteristics of freedom and high nobility. ", + "[150] It must be so, for who could be so exceedingly unreasonable as to think that while places produce courage and free speaking, this does not extend to the most God-like thing existing, virtue, through which both places and everything else which participates in wisdom acquires sanctity? ", + "[151] And indeed those who take refuge in sacrosanct localities and owe their security to the localities only, turn out to be in bondage to numberless other considerations, such as a wife seduced by gifts, children fallen into disgrace, betrayal in love matters. But those who take refuge in virtue, as in an indestructible and impregnable fortress, disregard the darts and arrows aimed at them by the passions which stalk them. ", + "[152] Fortified by this power, a man may say freely and boldly, “While all others are the victims of chance circumstances, I can say with the tragic poet:
Myself I can obey and can command.
I measure all things by the rule of virtue.”", + "[153] Thus Bias of Priene is said to have retorted very disdainfully to the threats of Croesus, by bidding him eat onions, a phrase which means “go weep,” because eating onions sets the tears running. ", + "[154] In this spirit the wise who hold that nothing is more royal than virtue, the captain whom they serve as soldiers throughout their lives, do not fear the orders of others whom they regard as subordinates. And so double-faced and shifty people are universally called servile and slavish. ", + "[155] This same thought is well expressed in another couplet:
A slave’s head ne’er sits straight upon his shoulder
But always crooked on a twisted neck.
For the crooked, artificial, deceitful character is utterly ignoble, while the straight, simple and ingenuous, in which thoughts agree with words and words with thoughts, is noble.", + "[156] We may well deride the folly of those who think that when they are released from the ownership of their masters they become free. Servants, indeed, they are no longer now that they have been dismissed, but slaves they are and of the vilest kind, not to men, which would not be so grievous, but to the least reputable of inanimate things, to strong drink, to pot-herbs, to baked meats and all the other preparations made by the elaborate skill of cooks and confectioners, to afflict the miserable belly. ", + "[157] Thus Diogenes the cynic, seeing one of the so-called freedmen pluming himself, while many heartily congratulated him, marvelled at the absence of reason and discernment. “A man might as well,” he said, “proclaim that one of his servants became from this day a grammarian, a geometrician, or musician, when he has no idea whatever of the art.” For as the proclamation cannot make them men of knowledge, so neither can it make them free, for that is a state of blessedness. It can only make them no longer servants." + ], + [ + "XXII.  [158] Let us then do away with the idle fancy, to which the great mass of men feebly cling, and fixing our affections on that holiest of possessions, truth, refuse to ascribe citizenship or freedom to possessors of so-called civic rights, or slavery to servants, whether homebred or purchased, but dismissing questions of race and certificates of ownership and bodily matters in general, study the nature of the soul. ", + "[159] For if the soul is driven by desire, or enticed by pleasure, or diverted from its course by fear, or shrunken by grief, or helpless in the grip of anger, it enslaves itself and makes him whose soul it is a slave to a host of masters. But if it vanquishes ignorance with good sense, incontinence with self-control, cowardice with courage and covetousness with justice, it gains not only freedom from slavery but the gift of ruling as well. ", + "[160] But souls which have as yet got nothing of either kind, neither that which enslaves, nor that which establishes freedom, souls still naked like those of mere infants, must be tended and nursed by instilling first, in place of milk, the soft food of instruction given in the school subjects, later, the harder, stronger meat, which philosophy produces. Reared by these to manhood and robustness, they will reach the happy consummation which Zeno, or rather an oracle higher than Zeno, bids us seek, a life led agreeably to nature." + ] + ], + "Appendix": [ + "APPENDIX TO QUOD OMNIS PROBUS LIBER SIT", + "§ 2. “Walk not on the highways.” The form given here is almost the same as that in the latest edition of Diogenes Laertius, viz. τάς λεωφὁρους μὴ βαδίζειν. But another reading is ἐκτὸς λεωφόρου μὴ βαδίζειν. This has been emended to ἐντὸς, but does it not rather point to a variant assigning a quite different and more obvious meaning to the maxim?", + "§ 3. Super-law. Or “divine ordinance.” Cf. De Op. 143 νόμος ὁ τῆς φύσεως ὀρθὸς λόγος, ὃς κυριωτέρᾳ κλήσει προσονομάζεται θεσμός, νόμος θεῖος ὤν. In the same way the Ten Commandments are in a true sense θεομοί, Quis Rerum 168. Besides being more divine the θεομός has a wider scope and is like a general principle. So the Ten are θεσμοὶ τῶν κατὰ μέρος ἀπείρων νόμων γενικὰ κεφάλαια, De Cong. 120. It is a pity that these examples from Philo have not been used in the lexica. For though L. & S. remarks that θεαμός properly applies to ancient laws supposed to be sanctioned by the gods, it cites no examples which bring out the distinction from νόμος. Stephanus too after quoting the θεομοί of Draco and the νόμοι of Solon, which may be merely traditional titles, only cites Plato, Ep viii. 355 B, where after an exhortation to set the ἀρετή of the soul above that of the body, and that again above money, he says ὁ ταῦτα ἀπεμγαζόμενος θεαμός νόμος ἄν ἀρθῶς ὑμῖν εἴη κείμενος, which points to a sort of distinction as that quoted above from De Cong.", + "§ 5. The puppet show. Though probably this is suggested by the words quoted in the footnote, those do not mean what is stated here. Plato does not mean that the prisoners in the cave mistake the realities for θαύματα. The phrase comes in incidentally to indicate that the wall behind which move the persons who carry the objects the shadows of which are reflected is like the screen behind which the θαυματοποιοί stand when exhibiting their show. Elsewhere Plato uses the figure (Laws 644 D, 804 B) to describe human conduct, mankind being the puppets whose strings are worked by some higher power, a figure which Philo also uses, De Op. 117, De Fug. 46.", + "§ 10. Highly connected. Or more exactly “highly connected on both sides.” Philo has ἀμφιθαλής twice elsewhere, De Cong. 132, where Moses is said to be καὶ τὰ πρὸς πατρὸς καὶ τὰ πρὸς μητρὸς ἀμφιθαλής, and Legatio 93, where Hermes, Apollo, and Ares are μείζονες καὶ ἀμφιθαλεῖς as compared with Dionysus and Heracles, presumably because Semele and Alcmene were mere women. This is a natural extension of the meaning in Il. xxii. 496 and Plato, Laws 927 D, viz. a child who has both parents alive. So here cf. πρὸς ἀνδμῶν καὶ πρὸς γυναικῶν below.", + "§ 15. (The hiatus παιδείᾳ ἀναθεῖναι.) Cohn in Hermes, li. (1916), pp. 172 ff. propounds a theory that the hiatus here is justified on the principle that Philo does not avoid it between the verb and its noun or adjective, which are so grammatically connected as to form a sort of unity. In the same way he accounts for ἴσῃ ἀντιτιμηθέντες εὐνοίᾳ (§ 42) and φόβῳ ἐκκλίνει (§ 159), and notes similar examples in other treatises. On the other hand εὐτονίᾳ κραταιοτάτῃ ἰσχύος (§ 40), θεοῦ ἐλευθέρους (§ 42) and σὺν εὐτολμίᾳ εὐθυβόλον (§ 124) have no such justification. Accordingly the first of these remains “suspect” (though one would have thought κραταιοτάτης was an easy correction), the second is corrected to τῶν θεῶν, and the third has μετʼ εὐτολμίας suggested in a footnote. This new law of justifiable exceptions is a big extension of the principle laid down by Jessen and Cumont (see my note in vol. viii. p. 428), by which familiar conjunctions like ἐτήσιοι ὧραι are declared acceptable. There are no such familiar conjunctions in the instances quoted from §§ 42 and 159.", + "Wendland in his essay on De Providentia written several years earlier points out (p. 146) Philo’s general avoidance of the hiatus in that treatise, but notes a few exceptions, ἀδιαλύτῳ ἑνώσει ἀρμοσάμενος (§ 3), εὐμορφίᾳ ἀγάλλοιτο (§ 15), ἀπατηλαὶ αἰσθήαεις, πάθη ἐπίβουλα (§ 36), and there are some others which he has not observed. He then makes a remark which seems to me worth quoting: “We must not forget that avoidance of the hiatus is a matter of feeling only, not of anxious calculation, and there were very few writers in whom this feeling was so finely developed that it was not exposed to fluctuations and caprices.” This is not quite the same as the view suggested in the note above mentioned, namely that he avoided it generally but not when the avoidance would hamper his expression, but it leads to the same practical conclusion. When the tradition, Wendland continues, does not present any difficulty or any other cause for alteration, the editor of a writer like Philo will do well not to introduce any alteration merely on account of the hiatus.", + "§ 15. New vessels, etc. Cohn quotes Quintilian i. 1. 5 “natura tenacissimi sumus eorum quae rudibus annis percepimus, ut sapor, quo nova imbuas, durat.” The parallel will be still clearer if we adopt the correction “quo nova imbuas <vasa>.” As Quintilian in the sentence before has quoted Chrysippus, Περὶ παίδων ἀγωγῆς, it seems probable that the illustration in both cases comes from a Stoic source.", + "§ 28. (Insertion of οὕτως.) Though not grammatically necessary it certainly appears to be Philo’s invariable usage when a comparison begins with a relative conjunction to introduce the main clause with an adverb οὕτως or τὸν αὐτὸν τρόπον. So in this treatise §§ 15, 30, 45, 49, 51, 130, 140. And so in De Prov. §§ 3, 6, 20, 23, 39, 40, 52, 55. If the comparison begins with the main clause as in § 155 the rule naturally does not apply, nor always if the relative clause does not contain a separate verb as in De Prov. 32. Otherwise I have found no exceptions either in these two treatises or in De Praem., in which I have tested it.", + "§ 70. Wholefruits. Or “wholly fruits.” In this digression induced by a favourite text, Deut. 30:14, and the favourite interpretation of mouth, heart, hands by words, thoughts, actions, we have something more akin to the Philo of the Commentary than we find anywhere else in this treatise. The meaning is that while in the natural garden the fruit only comes in the final stage, in the spiritual life all is fruit. As a matter of fact ὁλοκαρπώματα occurs only three times in our text of the Pentateuch and then only as a variant for ὁλοκαυτώματα. But the form ὁλοκάρπωσις is more frequent, occurring three times in Gen. 22 in the story of the sacrifice of Isaac, and also in Gen. 8:20, where Noah took of every clean beast and every clean fowl and offered them for a ὁλοκάρπωσις. On this passage, where perhaps he read ὁλοκάρπωμα for ὁλοκάρπωσις, Philo has a special meditation in Quaest. in Gen. ii. 52. The point of this is that the pure beasts are “sapientis sensus” and the pure fowls “intellectus cum cogitationibus in mente agitatis” and that they must be offered as “integer fructus.” The thought is perhaps much the same as in the stanzas of Rabbi Ben Ezra beginning “Not on the vulgar mass.”", + "§ 73. οἱ ἐτύμως ἑπτὰ σοφοὶ προσονομασθέντες. I find that the view taken in the footnote that the appellation is ἔτυμον because ἑπτά is akin to σέβας and οεμνός is thought to be a hard saying; and I am asked why it should not mean that they were called σοφοί because they were truly wise. I think that that explanation not only slurs the πρός but is entirely contrary to Philo’s use of ἐτύμως and ἔτυμος. That word in classical use is an epic or lyric word, in the ordinary sense of “true,” but with the grammarians came to mean the true or original form of the root from which other words spring, and thence the name “etymology” for the science of these ἔτυμα. Thus (De Op. 127) the Latin “septem” is said to be ἐτυμώτερον than the Greek ἑπτό because it preserves the original α of the etymon.", + "As stated shortly in the note in vol. iv. p. 556, the examples of έτύμως in the index bear this out.", + "Names are said to be given ἐτύμως:", + "(1) De Op. 36. στερέωμα to “heaven,” because it is σωματικός (as opposed to νοητός), and σῶμα is στερεόν.", + "(2) Ibid. 126. φωνήεντα to the vowels, because ἐξ ἑαυτῶν φωνοῦνται.", + "(3) Ibid. 133. παμμήτωρ and like names given by the poets to γῆ, because it is the source (αἰτία) of γένεσις.", + "(4) De Conf. 137. θεός to God, because ἔθηκε τὸ πᾶν.", + "(5) Mos. i. 17. Moses so called, because he was drawn from the water and the Egyptian for water is μῶυ.", + "(6) Ibid. 130. “Dog-fly” from its persistence, because the dog and the fly are the most shameless creatures in earth and air.", + "(7) Mos. ii. 105. θυμιατήριον given to the altar of incense, because ἀναθυμιάσεις τηρεῖ.", + "(8) Ibid. 149. τελειώσεως to the rams by which the sacrifices were admitted to the τελεταί.", + "(9) Spec. Leg. i. 88. λογεῖον to the breastplate symbolizing heaven, because heaven is governed by λόγος.", + "(10) Ibid. 93. ῥοΐσκοι to pomegranates παρὰ τὴν ῥύσιν.", + "(11) Ibid. 147. σιαγόνες to the jaws, because they shake (σείω).", + "(12) Ibid. 183. πρωτογεννημάτων to Pentecost, because τὰ πρῶτα τῶν γεννημάτων are then offered. So also De Dec. 160.", + "(13) Spec. Leg. ii. 188. “Trumpet-feast” to the ἱερομηνία, because it is the custom to sound the trumpet.", + "In this volume, besides the words under discussion, we have (14) De Vit. Cont. 2, the Therapeutae, so called because θεραπεύουσι (“worship” or “heal”).", + "(15) De Aet. 54. κόσμος to the world, because it exhibits κόσμος (“order”).", + "Many of these are explanations of a term rather than what we should call derivations or etymologies, but they all have this in common, that the ἐτυμότης does not consist in the appropriateness of the term in itself, or of its application in the particular case, but in its relation to some other word or in (15) to some other sense of the same word. None of them suggest that a person could be called ἐτύμως σοφός because the adjective σοφός could be justly applied to him. The ἐτυμότης therefore I believe belongs to ἑπτά, and the words of De Op. 127 explain in what it consists.", + "I should add that in the note, vol. iv. p. 556, I suggested that σοφός also was traced to σεβασμός, but this, I think, has no foundation.", + "§ 74. πρεσβευταὶ λόγων καὶ ἔργων. Or πρεσβεύεται λόγων ἔργα? In support of the latter it is worth noting that Strabo xv. 1. 59 cites Megasthenes as saying of the Brachmanes (on whom see next note) ἐν ἔργοις γὰρ αὐτοὺς κρείττους ἢ λόγοις εἶναι. That Philo in his account of the Gymnosophists and Calanus had Megasthenes in mind is at least very probable.", + "§ 74. Gymnosophists. What did Philo understand by the Gymnosophists? Is it simply another name for the caste of the philosophers, i.e. the Brahmans, or for a specially ascetic type among them and possibly other castes? They are mentioned in the same vague way as here by Strabo xvi. 2. 39 coupled with the Magi and the μάντεις of other nations. So too Plut. ii. 322 B eulogizes the γυμνῆτις σοφία of the Indian sages.", + "When Strabo xv. 1. 39 ff. describes from Megasthenes the seven castes, of which the philosophers are the first, he does not use the term Gymnosophist or indicate any especial asceticism. Further on, ibid. 59, Megasthenes is stated to classify the philosophers as Brachmanes, i.e. presumably Brahmins, and Garmanes, by whom experts appear to understand Buddhists, and it is these Garmanes or some of them who seem best to exemplify the asceticism implied in the name of Gymnosophists, though nakedness is not actually mentioned. Again, ibid. 70, the Brachmanes are distinguished from the Pramnae and it is as applied to some of these last that we first meet the term.", + "On the other hand Arrian, who also is supposed to be quoting Megasthenes, definitely says of the philosophical caste that as a whole they live (διαιτῶνται) naked, and when Plutarch (Alexander 64) applies the name Gymnosophists to the philosophers who had stirred up national feeling against the invader (§ 59), presumably he means the caste as a whole. I leave the experts to disentangle these conflicting statements. I suspect that the legend as Philo received it included (1) a belief that the philosophers were a caste, (2) that some of them were believed to practise a special ascetisicm, without aiming at anything more exact.", + "§ 75. Essenes. This note does not attempt to digest the many theories propounded about the Essenes but merely to summarize what Philo says about them and compare it with Josephus. In Quod Omn. Prob. Philo gives the following account of them: (1) They do not sacrifice animals; (2) they live in villages; (3) they work industriously at various occupations, not military nor commercial; (4) they keep no slaves; (5) their study is on morals and religion, particularly the allegorical meaning of the Scriptures; (6) they pursue and exhibit every kind of virtue; (7) this includes refusal to swear oaths and ceremonial purity; (8) they hold goods and clothing in common; (9) they provide for the sick and aged. To this is added an account of their sabbatical meetings, but this does not materially differ from that given of the Therapeutae in the De Vit. Cont. and of the nation as a whole in the Hypothetica.", + "Of these the Hypothetica mentions in much the same strain (3), (6), (8) and (9) and adds (10) that only adults are admitted to the order and (11) that they eschew marriage and have a poor opinion of women.", + "Josephus’s account is given in B.J. ii. 8. 2–13, with some additions in Ant. xviii. 1. 5. It confirms practically all the points mentioned by Philo but goes far more into detail. Thus he describes fully the terms and process of admission to the order and also their refusal to take oaths in ordinary life and their ceremonial ablutions, points indicated by Philo only by the single words ἀνώμοτον and ἁγνεία. Interesting additions which he gives are that they regard the use of oil as a defilement, wear white garments, keep the sabbath with extraordinary strictness and show a feeling of reverence for the sun and sunrise which reminds us somewhat of De Vit. Cont. 27 and 89. Elsewhere he credits them with the power of predicting the future, also he gives us, what Philo entirely omits, some information about their doctrines, that they believed in the immortality of the soul though not of the body and in future rewards and punishments.", + "(Sections 89 to 91.) I have not seen any notice of the historical statements made in these sections and this note must be regarded as a tentative inquiry. I feel little doubt that Philo is referring in the first instance to Herod, who, according to Jos. Ant. xv. 10. 5, treated the Essenes with special friendship and thought of them as something higher than human (μεῖζόν τι φρονῶν ἐπʼ αὐτοῖς ἢ κατὰ τὴν θνητὸν φύσιν). This friendship is traced by Josephus originally to the predictions made by the Essene Manahem to Herod, first in his boyhood when Manahem prophesied that he would be a king who at first would govern righteously but afterwards would commit crimes for which he would be punished. When he became king Herod asked Manahem how long he would reign and was told that for at least thirty years, but no other limit was given, which answer appears to have satisfied Herod.", + "We have no other evidence, I think, as to how the Essenes were treated by any other ruler in Palestine. But we may ask who are these ferocious or treacherous potentates here alluded to. Apart from the wild statement of Pliny, N.H. v. 17 that the Essenes had flourished in Palestine “per millia saeculorum,” the only allusion to their existence in earlier times is in Jos. Ant. xiii. 5. 9, where he mentions them as existing in the times of Jonathan the high priest, i.e. about 150 B.C. But this does not of course show that they did not exist at a considerably earlier date, and Philo might well have had Antiochus Epiphanes in mind. One would hardly think that any of the Hasmoneans would appear in this light to Philo, though both Aristobulus and Alexander Jannaeus are credited with some barbarity. Archelaus at the other end, who also (B.J. ii. 7. 3) listened to the prediction of an Essene, would fit, but his date is too late, at any rate if the Quod Omn. Prob. is an early work of Philo.", + "§ 96. (Death of Calanus.) This is described by Strabo (xv. 1. 68), who says that while the historians differ on some minor points they agree that he accompanied Alexander and when in his seventy-third year he fell ill for the first time he burnt himself to death in Alexander’s presence. Strabo adds that Megasthenes denied that suicide was enjoined by the philosophers, who regarded it as showing a reckless disposition.", + "Ibid. (Text of the letter.) Cohn in the article in Hermes mentioned in the note on § 15 observes that it contains four instances of hiatus, which however need not concern us, as Philo though avoiding it himself does not trouble himself to correct them in quotations. Cohn would not therefore raise this objection to my proposed insertion of ἀρεταὶ ἡμῖν.", + "§ 99. “Burn me, consume my flesh,” etc. I am rather surprised that Nauck, T.G.F. p. 525, lists this quotation as from the Syleus. Is not its juxtaposition with the Syleus in this one of the four places where it occurs sufficiently accounted for by the fact that Heracles plays a part in both? But the attitude which it represents seems very different from the boisterous behaviour in the Satyric play.", + "§ 100. (The Syleus.) Who speaks the last four lines of the first quotation and the three of the second? Cohn, following Nauck, T.G.F. p. 526, says Syleus. Subject to correction from those who know the ways of Satyric drama better than I do, I should reconstruct the situation as follows. Hermes brings Heracles to market much as Diogenes is brought in § 123, and one of the possible purchasers asks the question whether he is φαῦλος. The auctioneer emphatically denies this, and then turning to Heracles says “Do try and look more like the sort of servant that people like to have.” Heracles then accommodates himself somewhat and is bought by Syleus, who finds out too late what a bad bargain he has made. Even if we assume that Cohn and Nauck are so far right that the last four lines from οὐδεὶς to ἐμβολήν are to be detached from the other four, I should still prefer to ascribe them to one of the ὠνητικῶς ἔχοντες, who declined to buy anyone so dangerous, rather than to Syleus.", + "§ 127. Theodorus. An account of this follower of Aristippus about the end of the fourth century is given by Diog. Laert. ii. 98–102, who mentions his important book Περὶ θεῶν and his denial of much of the popularly accepted morality. According to Diogenes Laertius he did not take refuge with Lysimachus on his expulsion from Athens but with Ptolemy, who sent him on an embassy to Lysimachus. Another saying attributed to him by Cicero and others is that when Lysimachus threatened to crucify him he replied that it was a matter of indifference to him whether he went to corruption in the earth or in the air.", + "§ 134. Ion. A contemporary of the great Tragedians and sufficiently eminent for Longinus to say that though he was faultless, polished and elegant no one in his senses would match all his tragedies taken together with one of Sophocles. Little has been preserved of his, and of the sixty-eight fragments listed by Nauck many are single words, few as long as this and only one longer.", + "§ 140. The Venerable Goddesses. Cohn’s statement that these are Demeter and Persephone seems rather rash. He adduces Ar. Thesm. 294", + "δούλοις γὰρ οὐκ ἔξεστʼ ἀκούειν τῶν λόγων,", + "and though this line has been suspected as a gloss the preceding words,", + "σὺ δʼ ἄπιθʼ, ὠ Θρᾶττʼ, ἐκποδών,", + "show that the slave girl was excluded. But it does not follow that this was the only cult from which slaves were excluded. Though no doubt the epithet σεμναὶ θεαί might be applied to Demeter and Persephone, its regular connotation is the Eumenides. The procession in honour of the Eumenides is alluded to by Aeschylus at the end of the play and is mentioned by other writers as including the carrying of sacred cakes (see Pfühl, De Atheniensium pompis sacris, pp. 92 ff., a reference given me by Dr. Cook). Pfiihl accepts without question that it is this to which Philo refers.", + "Also it would seem prima facie unlikely that the procession at the Thesmophoria would include men as well as women or that the cakes would be prepared by the Ephebi, though I do not know that there is positive evidence about this.

" + ] + }, + "versions": [ + [ + "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1941", + "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI" + ] + ], + "heTitle": "על שכל אדם ישר הוא בן חורין", + "categories": [ + "Second Temple", + "Philo" + ], + "schema": { + "heTitle": "על שכל אדם ישר הוא בן חורין", + "enTitle": "Every Good Man is Free", + "key": "Every Good Man is Free", + "nodes": [ + { + "heTitle": "הקדמה", + "enTitle": "Introduction" + }, + { + "heTitle": "", + "enTitle": "" + }, + { + "heTitle": "נספח והערות", + "enTitle": "Appendix" + } + ] + } +} \ No newline at end of file