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+{
+    "title": "On the Virtues",
+    "language": "en",
+    "versionTitle": "merged",
+    "versionSource": "https://www.sefaria.org/On_the_Virtues",
+    "text": {
+        "Introduction": [
+            "ON THE VIRTUES (DE VIRTUTIBUS) <br>INTRODUCTION TO <i>DE VIRTUTIBUS</i>",
+            "<i><big>Courage or Manliness</big></i>",
+            "True courage is knowledge, not the savage passions so often exhibited in war but the courage shown by persons who in spite of bodily infirmities exercise their minds for the benefit of others (1–4). There are many circumstances which call out this courage: poverty is combated by contentment with the simple wealth which nature supplies (5–7), though there is also the higher wealth of wisdom (8–9); obscurity or insignificance is not of any importance if we have the esteem of the wise (10–11), nor disability of the senses if we have the sight of the mind (12), nor disease if the soul is healthy (13–14). Courage is the quality which enables us to despise all these (15–17). How essential this virtue of courage or manliness is is suggested by the law when it even forbids a man to assume a woman’s dress (18–21).",
+            "Courage in peace time is inculcated everywhere in the law, but we must see what it says about courage in war (22). Observe that the cowardly are not to be enrolled in the army (23–26), nor yet those who would naturally be just entering on some new undertaking which would distract their interest (27–31). The warriors that Moses looks for are men of sound and active body and having the gallantry which prefers a glorious death to a life of dishonour (32–33). Such must have been the twelve thousand selected for the war with Midian, and Philo now tells the story of that war from its beginning: the seduction of many Israelites by means of the Midianite women (34–40) and the punishment which deterred the rest from following their example (41), and how the small army enlisted by Moses to avenge the sin of the seducers won a complete victory over vastly greater numbers without losing a man (42–44). This victory due to the support of God agrees with the promise given in Deuteronomy that obedience to the law will secure success in war (45–50).",
+            "<i><big>Humanity</big></i>",
+            "Humanity or kindness is the twin of piety, and the life and legislation of Moses is the best illustration it can have, but before going on to the latter we may mention incidents at the close of his career which were not noted in the two books which told the story of his life (51–52). Philo now proceeds to show how Moses knowing his end was near would not bequeath the succession to his family or even to his friend and lieutenant Joshua without consulting God (53–65), and how when the choice of Joshua had been divinely approved he charged him before the congregation (66–69), thereby showing how every ruler should train and encourage his successor (70–71), and then broke into the Great Song (72–75) followed by the Blessing of the Tribes (76–79). He now passes on to give some examples of the humanity of the Mosaic law (80–81). Loans are to be made to Israelites without exacting interest (82–87), wages are to be paid on the same day (88), the creditor is not to enter the debtor’s house to seize a pledge (89), the gleaning of the harvest of corn, grapes and olives is to be left to the poor (90–94), the first fruits of the crops and herds are to be set aside (95), a straying animal is to be kept and restored to its owner (96), the produce in the sabbatical year is to be free to the poor (97–98) and landed possessions are to be restored to the original owner in the year of Jubile (99–100). These are only specimens of the kindness to be shown to brother Israelites (101). Next we have the humanity to be shown, as inculcated throughout the law, to strangers who are assumed to be proselytes to the faith (102–104) and to the settlers who enter without this recommendation (105–108). Also to enemies there is the injunction not to make war without attempting reconciliation (109), and to treat women captives with respect (110–115) and in private life to extend the duty of protecting or restoring animals to enemies and thereby possibly ending a feud (116–118); all these show how the great purpose of the Mosaic Law is to increase peace and brotherhood (119–120).",
+            "So far the persons to whom this kindness is to be rendered are free men, but slaves also should have the same. A person reduced to that condition by poverty is to be liberated in the seventh year (121–123) and even those born in slavery are not to be rejected if they come as suppliants to another (124).",
+            "Kindness to animals is enjoined by the ordinance that the offspring is to be left with its mother for seven days, which coupled with Nature’s provision of milk for the new born creature should make the infanticides reflect on the wickedness of their conduct (125–133). The same lesson is given by the law that mother and offspring are not to be killed on the same day, an action against which all decent feeling revolts (134–136), and it is a corollary of this law that no animal should be killed while pregnant (137–138). On the same principle some legislators have forbidden pregnant women condemned to death to be executed till the child is born, and Moses by extending this mercifulness to animals implies that <i>a fortiori</i> consideration in every way is due to our fellow men. He thus convicts the libellers who accuse the Jews of misanthropy (139–141). A still more striking example of this mercifulness is the prohibition against seething the lamb in its mother’s milk (142–144), also the laws against muzzling the ox while treading out the corn (145) and against yoking animals of unequal strength together (146–147).",
+            "Finally there is kindness to plants, shown by prohibiting devastation of crops in general and even those of enemies in war (148–154), and careful nursing of the young plants till the fourth year, before which the fruit may not be picked (155–159). Plants, animals, men—from consideration of the lowest we rise to consideration for the highest (160).",
+            "All these injunctions are levelled against the vice of pride or arrogance (161–164) which Moses denounces when he bids us use all gifts “to make power,” that is to promote the same powers in others (165–170), and also tells us that God is “provoked by the presumptuousness” which thinks itself divine, ascribes to itself all virtues and gifts and denies them to all others (171–174).",
+            "<i><big>Repentance</big></i>",
+            "In this short sermon the value of repentance as the “second best” is insisted on, as shown primarily in those who are converted from idolatry and must be treated with all friendliness (175–179) and in general by passing from disobedience to obedience to the law which is not far off but in our “mouth, hand and heart” (180–184), and by “choosing” God, a choice which makes each single man his people (185–186).",
+            "<i><big>Nobility</big></i>",
+            "The first part of this treatise is a discussion of the theme that the truly well-born or noble is the wise man, and the truly ignoble or ill-born the fool, as shown by the fact that the possession of gifted and virtuous ancestors does not benefit us if we do not inherit those gifts or follow those virtues (187–197). This is illustrated from Genesis, first, by degenerate sons of good parents. Adam was nobly born yet begat Cain (198–200); Noah begat Ham (201–202), indeed Adam himself was the son of God but fell (203–205). These belong to mankind in general. In Jewish history we find that Abraham’s sons except Isaac were of little worth (206–207), and Esau was the son of Isaac (208–210). Secondly, by good children of bad or inferior parentage. Abraham’s parents were astrologers and idolaters; yet how wonderful was his life and personality (211–219); and so with women also. Tamar who came from a heathen family lived an honourable life (220–222), and the concubines of Jacob, though originally slave girls, were promoted to honour and their children ranked with those of lawful wives (223–225). In fact the only sound doctrine is that everyone is to be judged by his conduct and not by his descent (226–227)."
+        ],
+        "": [
+            [
+                "<big>ON THE VIRTUES</big> <small>On Virtues Which Together With Others Were Described By Moses Or On Courage And Piety And Humanity And Repentance</small> On Courage <br>[1] The subject of justice and all the relevant points which the occasion requires have already been discussed, and I will take courage next in the sequence. By courage I mean, not what most people understand, namely the rabid war fever which takes anger for its counsellor, but the courage which is knowledge. For some under the stimulus of reckless daring,",
+                "[2] supported by bodily strength and marshalled in full armour for war, lay low multitudes of antagonists in a general slaughter and win the well-sounding but little deserved name of noble achievement, yet though their victory makes them exceedingly glorious in the eyes of those who pass judgement on such matters, nature and practice have combined to make them savage and bestial in their thirst for human blood.",
+                "[3] But there are others who live on in their homes with their bodies worn to a thread by long sickness or the burden of old age, yet healthy and youthful in the better part of the soul, brimful of highmindedness and staunchest valour. They never even dream of touching weapons of defence, but render the highest service to the commonwealth by the excellent advice which they put forward, and guided by unflinching and unswerving consideration of what is profitable, restore what had broken down in the personal life of each individual and in the public life of their country.",
+                "[4] These then who train themselves in wisdom cultivate the true courage. The courage of those others, whose life is distempered by an ignorance that resists all treatment, is falsely so named and should properly be called reckless daring, as in the case of coins where we say that the counterfeit is a likeness of the true type."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[5] Further there are many other conditions in human life admittedly hard to bear, poverty and disrepute and disablement and sickness in its manifold forms, in the face of which those of little wit all grow craven-hearted, lacking the valour even to raise themselves. But those who are full of wisdom and highmindedness gallantly gird themselves for the struggle and resist the foe with all their strength, counting his threats and menaces a matter for much scorn and derision. Against poverty they pit riches, not the blind but the keen-sighted riches, whose jewels and treasures have their natural store-house in the soul.",
+                "[6] For under the grip of poverty multitudes have been laid low, and like exhausted athletes have fallen to the ground enfeebled by lack of manliness. Yet in the judgement of truth not a single one is in want, for his needs are supplied by the wealth of nature, which cannot be taken from him; the air, the first, the most vital, the perpetual source of sustenance, which we inhale continually night and day; then the fountains in their profusion and the rivers spring-fed as well as winter brooks ever flowing to provide us with drink; then again for our meat, the harvest of crops of every sort, and the different kinds of trees, which never fail to bear their annual autumn fruitage. These no one lacks, but everybody everywhere has an ample and more than ample sufficiency.",
+                "[7] But some making no account of the wealth of nature pursue the wealth of vain opinions. They choose to lean on one who lacks rather than one who has the gift of sight, and with this defective guidance to their steps must of necessity fall."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[8] So much for the wealth that is the guardsman of the body, the happy gift of nature, but we must mention also the higher, nobler wealth, which does not belong to all, but to truly noble and divinely gifted men. This wealth is bestowed by wisdom through the doctrines and principles of ethic, logic and physic, and from these spring the virtues, which rid the soul of its proneness to extravagance, and engender the love of contentment and frugality, which will assimilate it to God.",
+                "[9] For God has no wants, He needs nothing, being in Himself all-sufficient to Himself, while the fool has many wants, ever thirsting for what is not there, longing to gratify his greedy and insatiable desire, which he fans into a blaze like a fire and brings both great and small within its reach. But the man of worth has few wants, standing midway between mortality and immortality. Some wants he has because his body is mortal, many he has not in virtue of his soul, which desires immortality.",
+                "[10] This is the way in which the wise pit riches against poverty. Against disrepute they pit good fame, for the praise which has its fountain head in noble conduct, flowing thence as from a perennial spring, has no currency among the unthinking masses, whose habit is to expose the inconstancies of their souls by random talk, often in order to purchase some shameful reward unblushingly directed against these men of choicest merit. But the number of these is small, for virtue is not widespread among mortal kind.",
+                "[11] Again there is disablement of the senses. To live with this has been premature death to thousands, because they can find no medicine to protect them against its ills. Its opponent is wisdom, the best quality we have, which plants eyes in the mind, and the mind in keenness of vision excels the eyes of the body so that they, as people say, are a “mere nothing” in comparison.",
+                "[12] The body’s eyes observe the surfaces of things visible and need the external help of light, but the mind penetrates through the depth of material things, accurately observing their whole contents and their several parts, surveying also the nature of things immaterial, which sense is unable to descry. For we may say that it achieves all the keenness of vision, which an eye can have, without needing any adventitious light, itself a star and, we may say, a copy and likeness of the heavenly company.",
+                "[13] Again diseases of the body, if the soul is healthy, do very little harm. And the health of the soul is to have its faculties, reason, high spirit and desire happily tempered, with the reason in command and reining in both the other two, like restive horses.",
+                "[14] The special name of this health is temperance, that is σωφροσύνη or “thought-preserving,” for it creates a preservation of one of our powers, namely, that of wise-thinking. For often when that power is in danger of being submerged by the tide of the passions, this spiritual health prevents it from being lost in the depths and pulls it up and lifts it on high, vitalizing and quickening it, and giving it a kind of immortality.",
+                "[15] All the above are lessons and instructions, which stand recorded in many places of the law, urging the tractable in gentle, the intractable in sterner terms to despise the bodily and external goods, holding the life of virtue to be the one sole end and pursuing after everything else that is conducive to it.",
+                "[16] And if I had not in my earlier writings dealt fully with each of the rules which promote simplicity, I would attempt to dilate on them at this point, and embrace in a collected list the scattered precepts which appear in different places. But as I have said all that occasion required, I think it better not to repeat myself.",
+                "[17] Still those who do not shrink from the task but are at pains to study the books which precede these, ought to perceive that practically everything there said about simplicity includes the thought of courage, since it is the mark of a soul, vigorous, gallant and full of mettle, that it despises everything which vanity is wont to glorify to the destruction of life in any true sense."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[18] So earnestly and carefully does the law desire to train and exercise the soul to manly courage that it lays down rules even about the kind of garment which should be worn. It strictly forbids a man to assume a woman’s garb, in order that no trace, no merest shadow of the female, should attach to him to spoil his masculinity. For as it always follows nature, its will is to lay down rules suitable and consistent with each other, even down to the very smallest matters, whose commonplace nature seems to set them in the background.",
+                "[19] For since it saw as clearly, as if they were outlines on a flat surface, how unlike the bodily shapes of man and woman are, and that each of the two has a different life assigned to it, to the one a domestic, to the other a civic life, it judged it well in other matters too to prescribe rules all of which though not directly made by nature were the outcome of wise reflection and in accordance with nature. These were such as dealt with habits of life and dress and any similar matters.",
+                "[20] It considered that in such matters the true man should maintain his masculinity, particularly in his clothes, which as he always wears them by day and night ought to have nothing to suggest unmanliness.",
+                "[21] In the same way he trained the woman to decency of adornment and forbade her to assume the dress of a man, with the further object of guarding against the mannish-woman as much as the womanish-man. He knew that as in buildings, if one of the foundation stones is removed, the rest will not remain as they were."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[22] To proceed, since the time in which human events occur may be divided into war-time and peacetime, we may observe the place taken by the virtues in both. In regard to the others this has been discussed already and will be again if need arise, but courage at this point calls for a close examination. The effects it produces in peace are extolled by him in many places of the law book, and he is always ready to seize opportunity for so doing. These have been noted in their proper places and we will now begin to describe its feats in war. One prefatory remark, however, must be made.",
+                "[23] He considers that in drawing up the roll of soldiers, the summons should not include all those of military age, but he would have some excluded, reasonable excuses being added for their exemption from service. These are in the first instance the cravens and cowards who are sure to be the victims of their ingrained feebleness and create fear in the other combatants.",
+                "[24] For the evil in one man is often well reproduced in his neighbour, particularly in war, where trepidation has confused the reasoning faculty and rendered it incapable of nicely estimating facts. People are then accustomed to call cowardice caution and timidity foresight and unmanliness safety-seeking, and so invest the basest actions with grand and fair-sounding titles.",
+                "[25] And, therefore, unwilling that his own cause should be injured by the cowardice of those who are to take the field and that of the enemy glorified by an easy victory over a contemptible body of degenerates and knowing that a crowd of idlers is no help but an impediment to success, he excludes the timid and faint-hearted cowards on the same principle, I think, that a general does not enforce war-service on persons who are diseased in body and are, therefore, excused by their infirmity.",
+                "[26] But cowardice, too, is a disease, graver than any that affects the body since it destroys the faculties of the soul. Diseases of the body flourish but for a short time, but cowardice is an inbred evil, as closely inherent or more so than any part of the bodily system from the earliest years to extreme old age, unless it is healed by God. For all things are possible to Him.",
+                "[27] Furthermore, he does not even enlist all the most courageous, be they ever so robust both in body and soul, and willing to fight and face danger in the forefront. While He praises them for their resolution and for the public-spirited, zealous and undaunted temper which they show, he carefully inquires whether they are in bondage to any cogent considerations, whose force leads them where it will.",
+                "[28] If, he says, a man has lately built a house, but has not yet had time to occupy it, or just planted a vineyard, setting the shoots in the ground with his own hand, and yet has had no opportunity to enjoy the fruits, or has betrothed himself to a maiden, but has not married her, he is to be exempted from all war service, and so gain security through the humaneness of the law. And this for two reasons.",
+                "[29] One is that, since the issues of war are uncertain, others should not take without toil or trouble the property of those who have laboured to get it. For it seems cruel that a man should not be able to enjoy his own, and that one should build a house and another live in it, or should plant a vineyard and another who did not plant it should reap the fruit, or should pledge himself to a maiden and another not so pledged should marry her, and, therefore, it was not right to render futile the hopes of those who expected to find themselves living under happy conditions.",
+                "[30] Another object was that when their bodies were fighting their souls should not play the laggard. In such circumstances, their minds must needs be feeling the strain of yearning for the joys from which they have been torn. Just as hungry or thirsty people, when some food or drink presents itself, race in pursuit of it without a backward glance in their eagerness to partake of it, so those who have laboured to gain a lawful wife or a house or a farm, and hopefully think that a time for using it is on the point of arriving, are distressed when they are robbed of its enjoyment, and thus though present in the body, are absent in the better part, the soul, which is the determining factor of success or failure."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[31] So then he did not think that the military enlistment should include these or others like them, but rather persons into whom no passion has found an entry and there made its home, in order that with free and unfettered alacrity they might gird themselves to face danger without evasion. For just as a body which suffers from sickness or injuries has no use for a full suit of armour and will discard it as beyond its feeble strength, so a robust body will be ruined if the soul is afflicted with a passion which does not accord with the task before it.",
+                "[32] With these considerations before him he selects not only his captains and generals, and other officers, but also each soldier, by testing him to see how far his body is in good condition, and his thinking sound. Of the body he inquires if it is without defect, healthy through and through, with all its parts and limbs well adjusted for the postures and movements required of each: of the soul, whether it is charged with valour and enterprise, whether it is proof against panic and full of generous sagacity, whether it cherishes honour and prefers death with renown to inglorious life?",
+                "[33] Each of these qualities separately in itself is in very truth a power; if they all meet and combine, those who possess them will display a strength sufficient and more than sufficient to defy all combatants and opponents, and will win a bloodless victory over their enemies."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[34] A very clear proof of these statements is included in the sacred books. The Arabians, whose name in old times was Midianites, are a very populous nation. They were disposed to be hostile to the Hebrews, the main reason being the reverence and honour which that people, dedicated to the Maker and Father of all, pays to the supreme and primal Cause. Accordingly they contrived all possible devices and made all possible attempts to turn them away from honouring the One, the truly Existent, and to change their religion to impiety. For if they succeeded in this, they thought they would make an easy conquest. But when after countless efforts of word and deed they were utterly exhausted, like men in peril of death, where there is no hope of salvation, they as a last resource devised a scheme of the following kind.",
+                "[35] They sent for the most exquisitely beautiful among their women and said to them, “You see how unlimited is the number of the Hebrews, but their number is not so dangerous and menacing a weapon as their unanimity and mutual attachment. And the highest and greatest source of this unanimity is their creed of a single God, through which, as from a fountain, they feel a love for each other, uniting them in an indissoluble bond.",
+                "[36] Now man is easily led captive by pleasure, and particularly by the pleasure of intercourse with women. You are exceedingly comely; beauty is naturally seductive, and youth easily lapses into incontinence.",
+                "[37] Do not fear the names of harlotry or adultery as likely to bring disgrace, but set against them the benefits arising from your action—benefits which will enable you to convert the transient disrepute into a renown which knows no old age or death. For though in outward appearance you prostitute your bodies, to outwit and out-general our enemies, you will keep your souls virgin, and crown them with a chastity which will last into the future.",
+                "[38] And this war will have a glory without precedent in that it was brought to a successful conclusion by women and not by men, for it is our sex, we confess, which will suffer defeat, because our opponents are more distinguished in all warlike qualities, while yours will be completely victorious, and in addition to victory will have also the high excellence that your exploits have entailed no dangers. For you have merely to be seen, and at that first appearance, without bloodshed or rather without an effort, the day will be yours.”",
+                "[39] When they heard these words, the women, who had never dreamt of such a thing as purity of life, nor had a taste of sound education, gave their consent. For their hitherto assumed modesty of character was mere hypocrisy. They decked themselves with costly garments and necklaces, and with everything else with which women are accustomed to bedizen themselves and took great pains to make their natural beauty still more comely. For the prize they aimed at was of no small magnitude, the capture of the youths who had hitherto been uncaptured.",
+                "[40] They then openly presented themselves, and when they were near at hand, with meretricious glances and wheedling talk and lewd attitudes and movements, they set their bait before the weaker-minded part of the younger men, whose character had no ballast or stability. And when by the shameful use of their bodies they had got the souls of their lovers on their hook, they summoned them to join in offering to the works of men’s hands, sacrifices which were no sacrifices, and libations which brought no peace. Thus they estranged them from the service of the One, the truly existing God, and having effected this, reported the good news to the men.",
+                "[41] And they would have enticed others also of the less stable kind had not God the beneficent and merciful, taking pity for their sad condition, lost no time in punishing the mad folly of the offenders, 24,000 in number, and restrained those who were like to be overwhelmed as by a torrent, but were brought by Him to their senses through fear.",
+                "[42] The leader of the nation pouring into the ears of his subjects the truths that uphold piety, and with them persuading their souls, selected and enlisted a thousand of the best from each tribe, in order to exact retribution for the snare which the enemy had contrived with the women for their instrument, and by which they hoped to dash the whole multitude down to destruction from the high pinnacle of holiness, though they were only able to succeed with those mentioned above."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[43] The small army arrayed against many myriads, with skill and daring combined, each man as it were a company in himself, scorning all thoughts of danger, flew at their close-packed ranks, slaughtered all those who stood in their way and made a clean sweep of the solid masses of troops and of all the reserves who came to fill the gaps in the lines, so that by the mere onset they laid low many myriads and left none of the enemy’s fighting force alive. They slew also the women, who had been confederates in the unholy designs of the men, but gave quarter to the maidens in pity for their innocent youthfulness.",
+                "[44] And great as was the war thus successfully conducted, they lost none of their own people, but returned in the same numbers and condition as they had gone forth to fight, unwounded and unscathed, or rather it may truly be said with redoubled vigour. For the strength produced by the joy of victory was no less than what they had had at the first.",
+                "[45] And the sole source of all this was the zeal which met danger bravely and led them to champion the cause of piety in a fight where God was the foremost combatant, an invincible auxiliary, inspiring their minds with wise counsels and enduing their bodies with irresistible doughtiness.",
+                "[46] The proof that God was their ally is that so many myriads were routed at the hands of a few and that none of the enemy escaped, while none of their friends were slain and neither their number nor their bodily force was diminished.",
+                "[47] Therefore, he says in his Exhortations “If thou pursuest justice and holiness and the other virtues, thou shalt live a life free from war and in unbroken peace, or if war arises, thou shalt easily overcome the foe under the invisible generalship of God, who makes it His care mightily to save the good.",
+                "[48] So then if a well-armed host of foot and horse of many myriads pour in upon thee, or if they seize in advance the strong positions and such as are liable to be attacked, and so become masters of the situation or are amply supplied with abundance of equipments, be not panic-stricken and fearful, though thou lackest all of which they have abundance, allies, arms, suitable positions, equipments.”",
+                "[49] All those, like a merchantman laden with all manner of valuables, are often suddenly upset and wrecked by a squall of wind; but where they are mean and poor, God sends His saving powers like rain or snow showers on ears of corn shrivelled through drought and want of moisture, and gives them power to awake to fresh life and bring their fruit to its fullness.",
+                "[50] Thence it is clear that we must cling to what is just and holy. For we are supremely happy if the Godhead is our friend, utterly miserable if He is our enemy.",
+                "We have now said enough on the subject of courage and that too must be left for the present."
+            ],
+            [
+                "<b>On Humanity</b><br>[51] The next subject to be examined is humanity, the virtue closest akin to piety, its sister and its twin. The prophetic legislator who perhaps loved her more than anyone else has done, since he knew that she was a high road leading to holiness, used to incite and train all his subjects to fellowship, setting before them the monument of his own life like an original design to be their beautiful model.",
+                "[52] Now the actions which he performed from his earliest years to old age for the care and protection of each single man and of them all have been set forth already in two treatises in which I wrote about the life of Moses. But there are one or two achievements at the end of his life, which deserve to be mentioned as proofs of the constant and unbroken nobleness of life which he impressed as a final sealing, clear and distinct, on a soul which had taken shape under the graving of God.",
+                "[53] When the appointed limit of his mortal life was about to be reached and he knew by unmistakable warnings that he must depart hence, he did not imitate any of the other kings and commoners, whose one eager desire and prayer is to leave behind them sons as heirs; but although he was the father of two, he did not bequeath the leadership to either. Nor did he let himself be governed by family affection and favouritism to his own connexions, though even if the claims of his sons were under suspicion he had nephews at any rate of great excellence who held the highest priesthood as a reward for their virtue.",
+                "[54] But perhaps he did not think fit to withdraw them from the service of God, or reasonably enough considered that it was impossible for the same persons to do justice to both offices, the priesthood and sovereignty, one of which professes the service of God, the other the guardianship of men. Perhaps, too, he did not think it well to constitute himself the judge of a great matter, and no matter is so great as the task of testing and selecting the person best fitted by nature for command, a task which almost demands the divine power that alone can see with ease into the character of a man."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[55] The clearest proof I can give of this statement is as follows. He had a friend whom he had known well almost from his earliest years, Joshua by name. This friendship had not been effected in any of the ways that other friends are usually made, but by the rapturous love, which is of heaven, all pure, and truly from God, from which in fact all virtue springs. This Joshua had shared his home and board, except when solitude was prescribed to him, that is when he was under inspiration and receiving the oracles. All other services he rendered him on a different footing from the multitude and was almost his lieutenant, associated with him in the duties of government.",
+                "[56] Yet although Moses had so long carefully tested his excellence in word and deed, and, what was most vital of all, his loyal affection for the nation, he did not think he should leave the succession even to him. He feared that he might be deceived in thinking him a good man when he was not really so, since the standards of human judgement are such as to be vague and uncertain.",
+                "[57] And therefore, slow to trust in himself, he besought and entreated God, who surveys the invisible soul and to whom alone it is given to discern the secrets of the mind, to choose on his merits the man most fitted to command, who would care for his subjects as a father. And stretching up to heaven his pure, and, as it might be put figuratively,",
+                "[58] his virgin hands he said, “Let the God of spirits and all flesh look to find a man to set over the multitude to guard and protect it, a shepherd who shall lead it blamelessly that the nation may not decay like a flock scattered about without one to guide it.”",
+                "[59] Yet who of those who heard this prayer would not have been astounded? “Master,” he would say, “what do you mean, have you not lawful sons, have you not nephews? Bequeath the sovereignty to your sons as the first choice, for they naturally take precedence as heirs, or if you reject them, at least to your nephews,",
+                "[60] or if you count them also unsuitable and prefer the people at large to your nearest and closest, you have a blameless friend who has given proof of perfect virtue to your unerring wisdom. Why do you not think fit to approve of him, if the choice is not to rest on birth but on high excellence of life.”",
+                "[61] He will say in reply, “It is very right that we should take God for our Judge in all things and particularly in great matters, where a decision for good or ill brings happiness, or, contrariwise, misery to countless multitudes. No matter is greater than sovereignty, to which is committed the charge of all the affairs of cities and countries in war and peace. For just as successful navigation demands a pilot of good judgement and knowledge, so, too, a governor of all-round wisdom is needed to secure for his subjects in every place a happy and orderly life.",
+                "[62] Now wisdom’s years are from of old, ere not only I, but the whole universe was born, and it is not lawful or possible that any other should judge her save God, and those who love her with a love that is guileless and pure and genuine.",
+                "[63] I have learnt from my own history not to choose anyone else from among those who seem to be suitable and approve him for government. I did not of my own free-will choose to superintend and preside over public affairs, nor did I receive the office through appointment by some other of mankind, but when God by plain oracles and manifest declarations made clear to me His will and bade me take command, considering the greatness of the task I held back with prayers and supplications, until, when He many times repeated the command, I trembled but obeyed.",
+                "[64] With this example before me, surely reason requires that I should follow in the same steps, and, after having had God for my approver when I was about to take command, should give the election of my successor to Him alone without the participation of human judgement, which is nearer akin to the seeming than to the true. It is a special reason for so doing that the person appointed will preside not over some ordinary nation, but over the most populous of all the nations upon earth, one which makes the greatest of all professions that it is a suppliant of Him who truly exists and is the Maker and Father of all.",
+                "[65] For what the disciples of the most excellent philosophy gain from its teaching, the Jews gain from their customs and laws, that is to know the highest, the most ancient Cause of all things and reject the delusion of created gods. For no created being is God in reality, but only in men’s fancies, bereft as it is of the essential attribute of eternality.”"
+            ],
+            [
+                "[66] Here we have the first proof of the kindness and faithfulness, which he showed to all his compatriots, but there is another not inferior to it. When his disciple, Joshua, who modelled himself on his master’s characteristics with the love which they deserved, had been approved by divine judgement as best fitted to command, Moses was not depressed as another might have been because the choice had not fallen on his sons or nephews, but was filled with intense joy,",
+                "[67] to think that the nation would be in the charge of one excelling in every way, since he knew that one in whom God is well pleased must needs be of a noble character. So taking Joshua by the right hand he brought him forward to where the multitude was congregated. He had no tremors at the thought of his own end, but had added other new joys to the old, for he had not only the memory of earlier felicities, which every kind of virtue had given him, filling him to overflowing with delight, but also the hope of coming immortality as he passed from the corruptible life to the incorruptible. Thus with a face beaming with the gladness of his soul, he said brightly and cheerfully,",
+                "[68] “The time has come for me to depart from the life of the body, but here is a successor to take charge of you, chosen by God,” and he at once proceeded to recite the messages declaring God’s approval, to which they gave credence;",
+                "[69] then turning his eyes on Joshua he bade him be of good courage and mighty in wise policy, initiate good plans of action and carry out his decisions with strong and resolute thinking to a happy conclusion. For though he to whom he addressed these words did not perhaps need the exhortation, Moses would not keep hidden the personal friendship and patriotism which urged him like a spur to lay bare what he thought would be profitable.",
+                "[70] Also he had received the divine command that he should exhort his successor and create in him the spirit to undertake the charge of the nation with a high courage, and not to fear the burden of sovereignty. Thus all future rulers would find a law to guide them right by looking to Moses as their archetype and model, and none would grudge to give good advice to their successors, but all would train and school their souls with admonitions and exhortations.",
+                "[71] For a good man’s exhortation can raise the disheartened, lift them on high and establish them superior to occasions and circumstances, and inspire them with a gallant and dauntless spirit.",
+                "[72] Having discoursed thus suitably to his subjects and the heir of his headship, he proceeded to hymn God in a song in which he rendered the final thanksgiving of his bodily life for the rare and extraordinary gifts with which he had been blest from his birth to his old age.",
+                "[73] He convoked a divine assemblage of the elements of all existence and the chiefest parts of the universe, earth and heaven, one the home of mortals, the other the house of immortals. With these around him he sang his canticles with every kind of harmony and sweet music in the ears of both mankind and ministering angels:",
+                "[74] of men that as disciples they should learn from him the lesson of like thankfulness of heart: of angels as watchers, observing, as themselves masters of melody, whether the song had any discordant note, and scarce able to credit that any man imprisoned in a corruptible body could like the sun and moon and the most sacred choir of the other stars attune his soul to harmony with God’s instrument, the heaven and the whole universe.",
+                "[75] Thus in his post amid the ethereal choristers the great Revealer blended with the strains of thankfulness to God his own true feelings of affection to the nation, therein joining with his arraignment of them for past sins his admonitions for the present occasion and calls to a sounder mind, and his exhortations for the future expressed in hopeful words of comfort which needs must be followed by their happy fulfilment."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[76] When he had ended his anthems, a blend we may call them of religion and humanity, he began to pass over from mortal existence to life immortal and gradually became conscious of the disuniting of the elements of which he was composed. The body, the shell-like growth which encased him, was being stripped away and the soul laid bare and yearning for its natural removal hence.",
+                "[77] Then after accomplishing the preparations for his departure he did not set out for his new home until he had honoured all the tribes of his nation with the concent of his benedictions, mentioning the founders of the tribes by name. That these benedictions will be fulfilled we must believe, for he who gave them was beloved of God the lover of men and they for whom he asked were of noble lineage and held the highest rank in the army led by the Maker and Father of all.",
+                "[78] [The prayers were requests for true goods, not only that they should have them in this mortal life but much more when the soul is set free from the bonds of the flesh.]",
+                "[79] For Moses alone, it is plain, had grasped the thought that the whole nation from the very first was akin to things divine, a kinship most vital and a far more genuine tie than that of blood, and, therefore, he declared it the heir of all good things that human nature can contain. What he had himself he gave them ready for their use, what he did not possess he supplicated God to grant them, knowing that though the fountains of His grace are perennial they are not free for all, but only to suppliants. And suppliants are all those who love a virtuous life, to whom it is permitted to quench their thirst for wisdom with water drawn from the fountains of true holiness."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[80] We have stated the proofs of the legislator’s humanity and fellow feeling, a quality which he possessed through a happy gift of natural goodness, and also as the outcome of the lessons which he learnt from the holy oracles. But we must also speak of the ordinances which he gave to posterity, if not all of them, which would be difficult, at least those which are closest akin to his way of thinking.",
+                "[81] He did not set up consideration and gentleness as fundamental to the relations of men to their fellows only, but poured it out richly with a lavish hand on animals of irrational nature and the various kinds of cultivated trees. We must mention the laws which he gave on each of these, taking them in turn and beginning with mankind."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[82] He forbids anyone to lend money on interest to a brother, meaning by this name not merely a child of the same parents, but anyone of the same citizenship or nation. For he does not think it just to amass money bred from money as their yeanlings are from cattle.",
+                "[83] And he bids them not take this as a ground for holding back or showing unwillingness to contribute, but without restriction of hand and heart to give free gifts to those who need, reflecting that a free gift is in a sense a loan that will be repaid by the recipient, when times are better, without compulsion and with a willing heart. This is the best course, but, if they are unwilling to give, they should at least lend with all readiness and alacrity, not with the prospect of receiving back anything except the principal.",
+                "[84] For in this way the poor would not become more helpless, by being forced to pay more than they received, and the contributors would not be wronged though they recovered only what they spent. Yet not “only.” For with the capital in place of the interest which they determine not to accept they receive a further bonus of the fairest and most precious things that human life has to give, mercy, neighbourliness, charity, magnanimity, a good report and good fame. And what acquisition can rival these?",
+                "[85] Nay, even the Great King will appear as the poorest of men if compared with a single virtue. For his wealth is soulless, buried deep in store-houses and recesses of the earth, but the wealth of virtue lies in the sovereign part of the soul, and the purest part of existence, that is heaven, and God the parent of all claim it as their own. And can we then hold the poverty-in-wealth of the money-grubbing usurers to be of any account? They may seem to be kings with purses full of gold, but they never even in their dreams have had a glimpse of the wealth that has eyes to see.",
+                "[86] But there are some who have reached such a pitch of depravity that, when they have no money, they supply food on loan on condition that they receive in return a greater quantity than they gave. It would be long before these people would give a free meal to beggars if they create famine when they have plenty and abundance and draw a revenue out of the wretches’ empty stomachs and as good as measure out food and drink on a balance to make sure that they do not overweight the scale.",
+                "[87] So then he absolutely commands those who shall be members of his holy commonwealth to discard such methods of profit-making, for these practices show the marks of a slavish and utterly illiberal soul transformed into savagery and the nature of wild beasts."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[88] The following also is one of the commandments promoting humanity. The wages of the poor man are to be paid on the same day, not only because it was felt to be just that one who has rendered the service for which he was engaged should receive in full and without delay the reward for his employment, but also because the manual worker or load carrier, who toils painfully with his whole body like a beast of burden, “lives from day to day,” as the phrase goes, and his hopes rest upon his payment. If he gets it at once, he is glad and is braced up for the morrow to work with redoubled willingness. If he does not get it, besides the great trouble that this gives him, his nervous system is unstrung by his sorrow and renders him incapable to meet the routine of his task."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[89] Again, he says, a creditor must not enter the houses of his debtors, to take with violence a pledge or surety for the loan, but must stand outside in the porch and quietly bid them bring it out. They, if they have it, must not hold it back, since the right course is that, while the creditor must not abuse his power to deal inconsiderately and insolently with the borrowers, the latter must render the proper surety as a reminder to repay what belongs to another."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[90] Again who could fail to admire the ordinance about reapers or grape-pickers? He bids them at harvest time not take up what drops from the sheaves, nor put in the sickle to the whole crop, but leave part of the field uncut. In this way he makes the well-to-do high-minded and liberal by sacrificing something of their own property instead of casting greedy eyes on the whole crop, and stacking and carting it all home to be kept like a treasure. At the same time he gives fresh courage to the poor, for since they themselves own no landed property he permits them to enter the estates of their fellow-countrymen and reap a harvest from what is still left as if it were their own.",
+                "[91] Again in the autumn when the owners have the fruit picked he forbids them to collect the grapes that fall or to glean the vineyards. He gives the same order to the olive pickers, acting like a very loving and very just father of children who have not prospered alike, some of them living in abundance, others sunk into the deepest poverty. These last in his pity and compassion he invites into the possession of their brethren to partake of what belongs to others as though it were their own, not in any shameless fashion, but to redress their privations and to make them partners, not only in the fruits but to all appearance in the estates also.",
+                "[92] But there are some so corrupted in mind, so engrossed in money-getting and every kind of profiteering as though it were a matter of life and death, never considering what its source can be, that they glean the olive-yards and vineyards and give a second reaping to the barley fields and wheat fields, thus convicting themselves of a slavish and illiberal meanness and of impiety to boot.",
+                "[93] For they themselves have contributed but little to the husbandry. The most numerous and most indispensable parts of all that goes to produce fruit-bearing and fertility are due to nature—the seasonable rains, the happily tempered states of the air, the gentle dews, those constant nurses of the growing plants, the truly life-giving breezes, the seasons benignly brought about so that neither the summer should over-scorch, nor frost over-chill, nor the transitions of spring and autumn injure the produce.",
+                "[94] And though they know these things and see that it is nature who ever brings the accomplishment and bestows these rich boons upon them, they nevertheless dare to appropriate her benefactions, and, as though they themselves caused everything, refuse to share anything with anybody. Their practice shows inhumanity and impiety as well, and, since they have not of their own free will laboured to get virtue, he deals with them against their will admonishing and calling them to wisdom with holy laws which the good obey voluntarily and the bad unwillingly."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[95] The laws bid us give as first fruits to the officiating priests tithes of corn and wine and oil and domestic animals and wool and bring from the autumn produce of the fields and the other tree fruits offerings proportional to their gains in full baskets with hymns composed in honour of God. These hymns are preserved in written records in the sacred books. Further the first-born of oxen and sheep and goats are not to be ranked among the herds as personal property, but they are to be regarded as first fruits, that thus accustomed on the one hand to honour the Godhead, and on the other to refrain from taking all things as gain, they may have the ornament of those queens of the virtues, piety and humanity.",
+                "[96] Again he says, if you see a beast belonging to one of your relations or friends, or in general to a person you know, straying in the wilderness, take it away and restore it; and if the owner is away at a distance, keep it carefully with your own, until on his return he can receive it as a deposit which he did not give, but which you, the finder, yourself restore through natural neighbourly feeling."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[97] Then there is the legislation on the seventh year, which enacts that all the land should be left during that year to stand idle, and that the poor may resort securely to the estates of the rich to gather the gift of nature, the fruit which springs without cultivation. Does not this show charity and humanity?",
+                "[98] For six years, says the law, the owners should have the enjoyment in virtue of their ownership and labour on the land. But during one year, the seventh, when nothing in the way of cultivation has been performed, that enjoyment goes to those who have no landed possessions nor money. For it was felt to be unjust that some persons should labour and others have the produce. What is intended is that since the estates have been left, in a sense, without masters, and husbandry has had no hand in the work, the free gifts which come from God alone should come full and complete anticipating the wants of the needy.",
+                "[99] Again, in all the rules prescribed for the fiftieth year, do we not find the utmost height of humanity? Who would not agree to this, if he belongs to the company which has not just tasted and sipped the contents of the law, but has feasted abundantly and revelled in its most sweet and lovely principles?",
+                "[100] The measures taken in the seventh year are repeated, but he adds others even greater, by which possessions ceded to others through untoward circumstances are returned to the original owners. He does not allow the purchasers to have absolute possession of what belongs to others, thus barring the roads to covetousness, in order to curb that insidious foe and source of all evils, desire. And also he did not think it right that the original holders should be deprived of their own for ever, and so pay a penalty for their poverty, which cannot justly be visited with punishment, but must on every ground receive compassion.",
+                "[101] The particular enactments include a host of others bearing on conduct to fellow-countrymen, but as I have sufficiently noted them in my former treatises, I will content myself with those just mentioned, which I have added as examples suitable to prove my point."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[102] Having laid down laws for members of the same nation, he holds that the incomers too should be accorded every favour and consideration as their due, because abandoning their kinsfolk by blood, their country, their customs and the temples and images of their gods, and the tributes and honours paid to them, they have taken the journey to a better home, from idle fables to the clear vision of truth and the worship of the one and truly existing God.",
+                "[103] He commands all members of the nation to love the incomers, not only as friends and kinsfolk but as themselves both in body and soul: in bodily matters, by acting as far as may be for their common interest; in mental by having the same griefs and joys, so that they may seem to be the separate parts of a single living being which is compacted and unified by their fellowship in it.",
+                "[104] I will not go on to speak of the food and drink and raiment and all the rights concerning daily life and necessary needs, which the law assigns to incomers as due from the native born, for all these follow the statutes, which speak of the friendliness shown by him who loves the incomer even as himself."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[105] Again he extends the influence which humanity naturally exerts and carries it farther afield in his instructions about settlers. He would have those who have immigrated under stress of circumstances, pay some honour to the people which has accepted them, in every possible way if the admission is accompanied by kind and hospitable treatment, in a more moderate degree if it is confined to mere acceptance. For the grant of a harbour in an alien state, or rather the mere permission to set foot on foreign soil is in itself a sufficient boon for those who are unable to dwell in their own.",
+                "[106] Mere fairness itself demands thus much, but he goes beyond its limits, when he considers that no malice should be borne to those whose hospitality to strangers is followed by maltreatment, for nominally they are humane though their actions are not. Thus he says without reservation, “Thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian because thou wast a sojourner in Egypt”;",
+                "[107] and yet what maltreatment did the Egyptians spare to inflict on the nation, ever combining old and new outrages in their ingenious devices for wreaking their cruelty? Still since originally they received the nation and did not close their cities against them, nor make their country inaccessible to the newcomers, they should, he says, in recognition of this acceptance be admitted as a privilege to terms of amity.",
+                "[108] And if any of them should wish to pass over into the Jewish community, they must not be spurned with an unconditional refusal as children of enemies, but be so far favoured that the third generation is invited to the congregation and made partakers in the divine revelations, to which also the native born, whose lineage is beyond reproach, are rightfully admitted."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[109] These are the laws which he lays down on the conduct to be observed in accepting settlers, but there are other charitable and very merciful regulations as to the treatment of enemies in wartime. They must not he declares be yet regarded as enemies, even if they are at the gates or stationed beside the walls in full array and planting their engines, until envoys have been sent with invitations to peace, so that if they yield they may obtain the supreme boon of friendship, but if they refuse to listen and continue their opposition, you may with justice to reinforce you advance to defend yourselves in the hope of victory.",
+                "[110] Further, he says, if you find among the booty a comely woman for whom you feel a desire, do not treat her as a captive, and vent your passion on her, but in a gentler spirit pity her for her change of lot and alleviate her misfortunes by changing her condition for the better in every way.",
+                "[111] And you will give this alleviation if you shave the hair of her head and pare her nails and take off the garment which she wore when captured, leave her alone for thirty days, and allow her without fear of disturbance to mourn and weep for her father and mother and the rest of her family, from whom she had been parted either through their death or because they are suffering the pains of slavery, which are worse than death.",
+                "[112] After this, live with her as your lawful wife, because holiness requires that she who is to enter a husband’s bed, not as a hired harlot, trafficking her youthful bloom, but either for love of her mate or for the birth of children, should be admitted to the rights of full wedlock as her due.",
+                "[113] Each of these regulations is quite admirable. First he did not allow rebellious desire to go unbridled, but curbed its violence by the thirty days grant of liberty. Secondly, he tests whether the man’s love is wild and giddy and wholely inspired by passion, or contains an element of reason and so has something of the purer kind. For reason will fetter desire and, instead of allowing it to commit an outrage, compel it to wait for the appointed period of a month.",
+                "[114] Thirdly, he shows pity for the captive, if she is a maiden, because there are no parents to plight her and make fast the union which they have so longed to see, if she is a widow, because bereft of her wedded mate, she is about to make trial of another, menaced too by the dread of a master, even if he deals with her as an equal; for the subject condition always fears the might of the superior even though it be tempered with gentleness.",
+                "[115] And if anyone, having satisfied his desire to the full and surfeited therewith, is no longer minded to continue his association with the captive, the law imposes what is not so much a loss of property as an admonition and correction leading him to improve his ways. For it bids him not sell her, nor yet keep her as a slave, but grant her freedom, and grant her, too, the right to depart in security from the house, lest if another wife comes in to supersede her, and quarrels ensue as they often do, this jealousy, with the master too under the sway of the charms of a new love and neglectful of the old, may bring her some fatal disaster."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[116] In another fresh list of injunctions to kindness, which he pours into docile ears, he commands that if beasts of burden fall under the oppression of the weight they bear, we should not pass them by, even if they belong to our enemies, but help to relieve and raise them. By this he implies a further lesson, that one should not take pleasure in the adversities of those who have shown him hatred. He knew that this malignant joy was a savagely rancorous passion, closely akin, and at the same time, opposite to envy; akin, because each of them comes under the head of passion, and in their action upon us cover the same field, and are almost sure to follow each other; opposites, because grief at our neighbour’s good things is the effect of the one, pleasure at his evil things of the other.",
+                "[117] Again, if you see an enemy’s beast straying, leave the points on which you quarrel to serve as incentives for other more vindictive dispositions, and lead the animal away and restore it. You will benefit yourself more than him: he gains an irrational and possibly worthless animal, you the greatest and most precious treasure in the whole world, true goodness.",
+                "[118] And this, as surely as the shadow follows the body, will be followed by a termination of the feud. He, the receiver of a benefit which he has not willed, is drawn towards amity by the kindness which holds him in bondage. You, his helper, with a good action to assist your counsels, are predisposed to thoughts of reconciliation.",
+                "[119] This is what our most holy prophet through all his regulations especially desires to create, unanimity, neighbourliness, fellowship, reciprocity of feeling, whereby houses and cities and nations and countries and the whole human race may advance to supreme happiness.",
+                "[120] Hitherto, indeed, these things live only in our prayers, but they will, I am convinced, become facts beyond all dispute, if God, even as He gives us the yearly fruits, grants that the virtues should bear abundantly. And may some share in them be given to us, who from well-nigh our earliest days have carried with us the yearning to possess them."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[121] These and others similar to these are his judgements as applied to the free. In the same strain, as is evident, he legislates for slaves as well, and allows them also to benefit by measures conceived in a spirit of kindness and humanity.",
+                "[122] The serfs who through the lack of the necessaries of life have subjected themselves to servitude to others ought not he holds to suffer anything unworthy of the freedom to which they were born, and he exhorts those who obtain their services to consider how incalculable is fortune and to respect their changed condition. As for the debtors, who through temporary loans have sunk into bearing both the name and the painfulness which their cruel situation entails, and those whom a more imperious compulsion has brought from freedom into slavery, he would not allow them to remain for ever in their evil plight, but gave them total remission in the seventh year.",
+                "[123] For creditors who have not recovered the debt, or have gained possession in some other way of those who were formerly free should be content, he says, with six years as a time for their service, and those who were not born to slavery should not be altogether deprived of comforting hope, but should pass back to the old independence of which they were deprived through adverse circumstances.",
+                "[124] And if another man’s slave, it may be with two generations of slavery behind him, takes refuge with you to obtain protection in fear of his master’s threats or through consciousness of some misdeed, or because without having committed any offence, he has found his master generally cruel and merciless, do not disregard his plea. For it is a sacrilegious act to surrender a suppliant and the slave is a suppliant who has fled to your hearth as to a temple, where he has a right to obtain sanctuary, and protected from treachery may preferably come to an honest and open agreement, or if that is not possible, be sold as a last resort. For though in changing masters there is no certainty which way the scale will turn, the uncertain evil is not so grave as the acknowledged."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[125] This is his legislation about compatriots and foreigners, about friends and enemies, about slaves and free and mankind in general. But he carries on the idea of moderation and gentleness to the sphere of irrational animals, and grants them, too, a draught of goodness, as from a sweet and grateful spring.",
+                "[126] He bids them in dealing with the domestic kinds, sheep, goats and oxen, to abstain from availing themselves of their young, by taking them at once either for food or on the grounds of offering them for sacrifice. For he considered that it showed a cruel soul to be lying in wait for the newly born in order to separate instantly mothers and offspring, just to please the belly but still more displease and horrify the soul by so unnatural a meal.",
+                "[127] He says then to him, whose life would conform to his most holy commonwealth, “Good Sir, food for your enjoyment to which no blame can attach you have in abundance. Otherwise such an action might perhaps be pardonable, since poverty and dearth compel us to do many things which we would not. But your duty is to excel in self-restraint and the other virtues, stationed as you are in the most honourable of posts, captained by nature’s right reason, for whose sake you must learn gentleness and admit no brutality into your mind.”",
+                "[128] And what could be more brutal than to bring in from outside other pangs to add to the pangs of travail by separating the mothers straightway from their offspring. For if they are snatched away, the mothers are bound to be in great distress, because of the maternal affection natural to them, particularly at the time of motherhood, when the breasts, whose flowing fountain is obstructed through lack of its suckling, grow indurated and strained by the weight of the milk coagulated within them and suffer a painful oppression.",
+                "[129] “Make a present,” he continues, “of the child to its mother, if not for all time, to be suckled, at least, for the seven first days and do not render useless the fountain which nature has rained into the breasts by destroying the second of the boons which her grace distributes, boons prepared by the profound forethought in which with everlasting and consummate wisdom she looks into the distant sequence of events.",
+                "[130] Her first gift was birth, through which the non-existent is brought into existence, and the second is the efflux of milk, the happily timed aliment which flows so gently fostering the tender growth of every creature. It is at once food and drink, for the watery part of milk is drink, and its denser part food, both provided that the newly born should not suffer from the need, which, never far off, seizes it at different times, but with both kinds of nourishment applied in the same single form should at once escape those bitter mistresses, hunger and thirst.”",
+                "[131] Read this law, you good and highly prized parents, and hide your faces for shame, you who ever breathe slaughter against your infants, who mount your wicked watch over them as they leave the womb, waiting to cast them away, you deadly enemies of the whole human race.",
+                "[132] For to whom will you have any feeling of kindliness, you the murderers of your own children, who do what you can to make a desolation of cities and begin the destruction with your own flesh and blood, who overturn the statutes of nature and demolish all that she builds, who in the cruelty of your savage and ferocious souls arm dissolution to fight against generation and death against life?",
+                "[133] Can you not see that our all-excellent lawgiver was at pains to insure that even in the case of irrational animals, the offspring should not be separated from their mother so long as it is being suckled? Still more for your sake, good sirs, was that order given, that if nature does not, instruction may teach you the duty of family love. Learn it from the sight of lambs and kids, who are not hindered from feasting on abundant supplies of what they need. Nature has provided this abundance in places best suited for the purpose, where those who require it will easily find means of enjoyment, while the lawgiver greatly careful for the future looks to see that none interferes with the gifts of God, which bring welfare and safety."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[134] So desirous is he to sow in divers forms the seeds of gentleness and moderation in their minds, that he lays down another enactment of the same nature as the preceding. He forbids them to sacrifice the mother and its offspring on the same day, for if they must be sacrificed, at any rate let it be at different times. It is the height of savagery to slay on the same day the generating cause and the living creature generated.",
+                "[135] And why does anyone do so? It must either be on the ground of sacrificing or to gratify the belly. If sacrifice is the reason, it gives the lie to the name, for such actions are slaughters, not sacrifices. Which of God’s altars will accept oblations so unhallowed; what fire would not fly asunder divided into two, shrinking from union with a thing so ill to blend with? Indeed, I think, it could not last for any time, however short, but would straightway die out, providing as it were that the air and sacred element of breath should not be defiled by the rising flame.",
+                "[136] If the object is not to sacrifice but to feast thereon, who would not spurn the strange and unnatural craving of this monstrous gluttony? For pleasure in abnormal forms is what such persons pursue, but though they have flesh to eat, what pleasure can they have, when the flesh which they taste is that of mother and offspring together? Indeed, if one should mix the limbs of the two and fix them on the spits to eat of the roast, these limbs, I think, would not remain mute, but break out into speech, indignant at the enormity of the unexampled treatment which they suffer, and hurl a host of invectives against the greediness of those who prepare these meats, fitter for a fast than for a feast.",
+                "[137] But observe that the law also banishes from the sacred precincts all pregnant animals and does not permit them to be sacrificed until they have been delivered, thus counting what is still in the depths of the womb as on the same footing as what has already been brought to the birth, not because creatures not yet advanced into the light rank equally with the others, but by implication to restrain the licence of those whose way is to bring everything to disorder.",
+                "[138] For if the life which is still growing like a plant and reckoned as part of the parent which carries it and now is at one with it, but in the course of months will be severed from the common organism, is, in the hope that it will become a living animal, safeguarded by the invulnerability of the mother, to prevent the occurrence of the above said defilement, how much more is this the case with the creatures already brought to the birth and endued with a body and soul of their own? For it is the very height of unholiness to kill mother and offspring on the same occasion and on the same day.",
+                "[139] It was on this principle, I think, that some legislators introduced the law that condemned women who commit deeds worthy of death should, if pregnant, be kept in custody until the child is born, lest their execution should carry with it the destruction of the life within the womb.",
+                "[140] These decrees of theirs apply to human beings, but Moses rising to a further height extended the duty of fair treatment even to irrational animals, so that by practising on creatures of dissimilar kind we may show humanity in a far fuller measure to beings of like kind to ourselves, abstaining from strokes and counter-strokes to vex each other, and not hoarding our personal good things as treasures, but throwing them into the common stock for all in every place, as for kinsmen and brothers by nature.",
+                "[141] After this let those clever libellers continue, if they can, to accuse the nation of misanthropy and charge the laws with enjoining unsociable and unfriendly practices, when these laws so clearly extend their compassion to flocks and herds, and our people through the instructions of the law learn from their earliest years to correct any wilfulness of souls to gentle behaviour.",
+                "[142] But so prolific is he in virtue and versatile in giving admirable lessons, that not content with his own prowess, he challenges it to a further contest. He has forbidden any lamb or kid or other like kind of livestock to be snatched away from its mother before it is weaned. He has also forbidden the killing of the mother and offspring on the same day. He now crowns his bounty with the words “Thou shalt not seethe a lamb in his mother’s milk.”",
+                "[143] For he held that it was grossly improper that the substance which fed the living animal should be used to season and flavour the same after its death, and that while nature provided for its conservation by creating the stream of milk and ordaining that it should pass through the mother’s breasts as through conduits, the licence of man should rise to such a height as to misuse what had sustained its life to destroy also the body which remains in existence.",
+                "[144] If indeed anyone thinks good to boil flesh in milk, let him do so without cruelty and keeping clear of impiety. Everywhere there are herds of cattle innumerable, which are milked every day by cowherds, goat-herds and shepherds, whose chief source of income as cattle rearers is milk, sometimes liquid and sometimes condensed and coagulated into cheese; and since milk is so abundant, the person who boils the flesh of lambs or kids or any other young animal in their mother’s milk, shows himself cruelly brutal in character and gelded of compassion, that most vital of emotions and most nearly akin to the rational soul."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[145] I also admire another law attuned to the harmonious choir of those above mentioned. This law forbids muzzling the ox when it treads out the corn. It is the ox who, before the deep soiled lowlands receive the seed, cleaves the furrows and sets the fields ready for heaven and the husbandman; for the husbandman that he may sow the seed in due season, for heaven that its kindly gifts of rain may be received in the deep hollows which store them up and deal them out part by part as rich nourishment to the crop, until it brings forth first the ear and then the consummation of the yearly fruit. And after that consummation the ox is again necessary for another service, to purge the sheaves and sift the refuse from the genuine and useful material.",
+                "[146] But since I have mentioned the kindly and benevolent injunction on behalf of the oxen when treading the corn, I will cite next the law enacted in behalf of cattle which plough the land. This is a law of the same family. It forbids the yoking together of an ox and an ass for ploughing the land, and has in view not merely the incongruity of the animals, since the ox is clean and the ass belongs to the unclean, and it is not fitting to put together creatures so alien in status, but also their disparity of strength. It takes thought for the weaker, and would not have them suffer discomfort or oppression from superior force, and although the weaker, the ass, is banished from the sacred precincts and the stronger, the ox, is accepted by the law as a victim in sacrifices where perfection is most required,",
+                "[147] it did not despise the weakness of the unclean, nor permit the clean to employ strength rather than justice. Those whose souls have ears can almost hear it speaking plainly in a voice loud and insistent that we should do no wrongs to men of other nations, if we can accuse them of nothing save difference of race, which is no matter for accusation, since nothing which is neither vice nor springs from vice is liable to any impeachment."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[148] So generously does he bestow his mercy that he shows it further in all its richness and profusion by passing, first from rational beings to the irrational, and from the irrational to plants and vegetation. I must proceed at once to these last, as we have treated the first two classes, mankind and those who are endued with animal life.",
+                "[149] On this third subject he gives the plain direction that no trees of the cultivated type are to be cut down, nor the lowland fields mischievously mown in the ear-bearing stage before the proper time, and in general no fruit is to be destroyed, in order that the human race may be well supplied with a rich stock of abundant kinds of food, and that this rich stock may consist, not only of necessaries, but also of things which make life comfortable. For the fruit of the corn-field is set apart as a necessary for the sustenance of men, but the numberless varieties of tree-fruits provide the comfortable life, and often in times of dearth a second line of sustenance."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[150] Rising to a still higher pitch he forbids them to devastate the land even of their enemies and enjoins them to abstain from cutting down trees and other forms of ravaging, holding it to be against all reason that indignation against men should be visited on things which are not guilty of any misdeed.",
+                "[151] But further, he calls upon them to look not only to the present, but, as though from some far-off height, with the keen-sighted vision of reason to consider the future also. For no one continues in the same stay, but all things are subject to vicissitudes and mutations, so that it may be expected that our enemies for the time may send ambassadors to initiate negotiations and straightway come to amicable terms.",
+                "[152] Now as friends it would be a great hardship to deprive them of the necessities of life and by so doing lay nothing by which may be of service to meet the uncertainty of the future. It is a very admirable saying of the ancients that in joining friendship we should not ignore the possibility of enmity, and conduct our quarrels with future friendship in view, so that everyone in his own nature lays by something to ensure his safety, and does not, through having neither deeds nor words to clothe his nakedness, repent the past and blame himself when it is no use, for his overcarelessness.",
+                "[153] This maxim should also be observed by states, who in peace should provide for the needs of war and in war for the needs of peace and be slow to trust their allies too freely, assuming that they will never change and become opponents, nor yet absolutely distrust their enemies as though they could never pass over into amity.",
+                "[154] But even if we need not do anything to help an enemy in hope of reconciliation, no plant is our enemy, but they are all pacific and serviceable, while the cultivated kind are particularly necessary, as their fruit is either food in the full sense or a possession as valuable as food. Why then should we carry on hostilities against trees which are not hostile, by cutting them down or burning them or pulling them up by the roots—these trees, which nature itself has brought to their fullness with the waters which it showers and the breezes which it tempers so happily, that they may pay their yearly tributes to mankind as subjects to a king?",
+                "[155] Like a good guardian he was also concerned to produce the strength and robustness which training gives, not only in animals but in plants, particularly in the cultivated kind, since they deserve more care and have not the same vigour as the wild species, but need the husbandman’s science to give them greater force and power.",
+                "[156] He bids them nurse the newly planted trees for three successive years, both by cutting off their superfluous overgrowths, to save them from being oppressed by the weight and starved into exhaustion through the subdivision of the nutriment, and also by digging rings and trenches around them, so that nothing mischievous may spring up at their side and hinder their growth. Also he does not permit them to pick the fruit to get enjoyment, not only because from the incomplete plant only incomplete fruit could come, just as animals not fully grown are not fully ripe for breeding, but also because of the damage it would do to the young plants, which are still, so to speak, lying low just above the ground, by preventing them from shooting.",
+                "[157] Thus many farmers during the spring season watch the young trees to squeeze off at once any fruit they bear before they advance in quality and size, for fear of weakening the parent plants. For, if these precautions are not taken, the result is that when they should bear fully ripened fruit they bring forth either nothing at all or abortions nipped in the bud, exhausted as they are by the labour of prematurely bearing the crops which lay such a weight upon the branches that at last they wear out the trunk and roots as well.",
+                "[158] But after three years when the roots have sunk deep in and are more firmly attached to the soil, and the trunk supported as it were on immovable foundations has grown and acquired vigour, it will be able to bear fully in the fourth year in harmony with the perfect number four.",
+                "[159] But in this fourth year he commands them not to pluck the fruit for their own enjoyment but to dedicate the whole of it as a first fruit to God, partly as a thank-offering for the past, partly in hope of fertility to come and the acquisition of wealth to which this will lead.",
+                "[160] You see how great is the kindness and graciousness which he shows, and how liberally he has spread it on every kind, first of men, even though it be an alien or an enemy, then of irrational animals, even though they be unclean, and last of all of sown crops and also trees. For he who has first learnt the lesson of fairness in dealing with the unconscious forms of existence will not offend against any that are endued with animal life, and he who does not set himself to molest the animal creation is trained by implication to extend his care to reasonable beings."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[161] With such instructions he tamed and softened the minds of the citizens of his commonwealth and set them out of the reach of pride and arrogance, evil qualities, grievous and noxious in the highest degree, though embraced as most excellent by the majority of men, particularly when riches and distinctions and high offices bestow their gifts in unstinted superabundance.",
+                "[162] For arrogance springs up in the insignificant and obscure, as does each of the other passions and diseases and distempers of the soul, though it does not increase to any extent and grows dull as fire does for want of its essential fuel. But it is conspicuous in the great, who as I have said are amply provided with the evil thing by riches and distinctions and high offices and so charged with these, like men who have drunk deep of strong wine, become intoxicated and vent their sottish rage on slave and free alike and sometimes on whole cities. For “satiety begets insolence,” as the ancients have said.",
+                "[163] And therefore Moses in his work as Revealer admirably exhorts them to abstain from all sins, but especially from pride. Then he reminds them of the causes which are wont to inflame this passion, unlimited means of satisfying the belly and unstinted superabundance of houses and land and cattle. For men at once lose their self-mastery, and are elated and puffed up, and the one hope of their cure is that they should never lose the remembrance of God.",
+                "[164] For as when the sun has risen the darkness disappears, and all things are filled with light, so when God, the spiritual sun, rises and shines upon the soul, the gloomy night of passions and vices is scattered, and virtue reveals the peerless brightness of her form in all its purity and loveliness."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[165] And judging it well still further to repress and destroy pride, he recites the reasons why they should keep the memory of God, as an image enshrined, never to be forgotten. “For He,” he says, “gives thee strength to make power”—words full of instruction, for he who has been carefully taught that his vigour and robustness is a gift received from God will take account of his own natural weakness, the weakness which was his before he enjoyed the gift of God, and will thrust aside the spirit of lofty arrogance and give thanks to Him who brought about the happy change. And the thankful soul is the enemy of arrogance, just as conversely unthankfulness is akin to pride.",
+                "[166] What he means to say is “if thy fortunes are thriving and lusty, if thou hast received and gained possession of strength, which perhaps thou didst not expect, make power.” What this signifies must be clearly explained to those who fail to discern the full meaning. Many persons try to do to others the opposite of the good which they have experienced. They become rich and make others poor, or having received a great measure of glory and honour they bring about ingloriousness and dishonour to others.",
+                "[167] Rather should the wise man, as far as possible, impart to his neighbours his sagacity, the continent his temperance, the valiant his gallantry, the just his justice, and in general the good his goodness. For these are evidently powers, and the man of worth will aim at these as most akin to himself, while impotence and weakness, their opposites, are alien to upright character.",
+                "[168] Especially does he give this lesson as most suitable to the rational nature that a man should imitate God as much as may be and leave nothing undone that may promote such assimilation as is possible."
+            ],
+            [
+                "“When then,” he says, “you have received strength from the most powerful, give of your strength to others and do to them as has been done to you, that you may imitate God by bestowing freely boons of the same kind.",
+                "[169] For the gifts of the Chief Ruler are of universal benefit, given to some, not to be hidden by them when received, nor misused to harm others, but thrown into the common stock so that as in a public banquet they may invite as many as they possibly can to use and enjoy them.",
+                "[170] We say then to him who has much wealth or reputation or soundness of body or knowledge, that he should make those whom he meets rich, highly reputed, well-conditioned in body, and full of knowledge, and in general good, instead of preferring jealousy and envy to virtue and setting himself in opposition to those who might thrive in these ways.",
+                "[171] But with the men of windy pride, whose intensified arrogance sets them quite beyond cure, the law deals admirably in not bringing them to be judged by men but handing them over to the divine tribunal only, for it says, “Whosoever sets his hand to do anything with presumptuousness provokes God.” Why is this? First,",
+                "[172] because arrogance is a vice of the soul and the soul is invisible save only to God. Chastisement is not for the blind to give but for him who can see; in the one it deserves censure, because his ignorance bears witness against him, in the other it is laudable, because he acts throughout with knowledge. Secondly, the arrogant man is always filled with the spirit of unreason, holding himself, as Pindar says, to be neither man nor demigod, but wholly divine, and claiming to overstep the limits of human nature.",
+                "[173] His body like his soul is at fault in every posture and movement. With haughty airs and perked up neck he struts about rising above his natural stature, puffs himself out, sees only by looking out of the side of his eyes, and hears only to misunderstand. Slaves he treats as cattle, the free as slaves, kinsfolk as strangers, friends as parasites, fellow-citizens as foreigners.",
+                "[174] He considers himself superior to all in riches, estimation, beauty, strength, wisdom, temperance, justice, eloquence, knowledge; while everyone else he regards as poor, disesteemed, unhonoured, foolish, unjust, ignorant, outcast, in fact good-for-nothing. Naturally such a person will, as the Revealer tells us, have God for his accuser and avenger."
+            ],
+            [
+                "<b>On Repentance</b><br>[175] Our most holy Moses, who so dearly loved virtue and goodness and especially his fellowmen, exhorts everyone everywhere to pursue piety and justice, and offers to the repentant in honour of their victory the high rewards of membership in the best of commonwealths and of the felicities both great and small which that membership confers.",
+                "[176] For in the scale of values the primary place is taken in bodies by health free from disease, in ships by travelling happily free from danger and in souls by memory of things worth remembering without lapse into forgetfulness. But second to these stands rectification in its various forms, recovery from disease, deliverance so earnestly desired from the dangers of the voyage, and recollection supervening on forgetfulness. This last has for its brother and close kinsman repentance, which though it does not stand in the first and highest rank of values has its place in the class next to this and takes the second prize.",
+                "[177] For absolute sinlessness belongs to God alone, or possibly to a divine man; conversion from sin to a blameless life shows a man of wisdom who has not been utterly ignorant of what is for his good.",
+                "[178] And, therefore, when Moses convokes such people and would initiate them into his mysteries, he invites them with conciliatory and amicable offers of instruction, exhorting them to practise sincerity and reject vanity, to embrace truth and simplicity as vital necessaries and the sources of happiness, and to rise in rebellion against the mythical fables impressed on their yet tender souls from their earliest years by parents and nurses and tutors and the multitude of other familiars, who have caused them to go endlessly astray in their search for the knowledge of the best.",
+                "[179] And what is the best of all that is but God, whose honours they have assigned to those who were no gods and glorified them beyond measure, while Him in their senseless folly they forgot? So therefore all these who did not at the first acknowledge their duty to reverence the Founder and Father of all, yet afterwards embraced the creed of one instead of a multiplicity of sovereigns, must be held to be our dearest friends and closest kinsmen. They have shown the godliness of heart which above all leads up to friendship and affinity, and we must rejoice with them, as if, though blind at the first they had recovered their sight and had come from the deepest darkness to behold the most radiant light."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[180] We have described the first and most essential form of repentance, but a man should show repentance not only for the delusions under which he long laboured in revering things created before the Creator and Maker, but also in the other fundamental concerns of life, by passing, as it were, from mob-rule, which is the vilest of misgovernments, into democracy, the government in which good order is best observed. This means passing from ignorance to knowledge of things which it is disgraceful not to know, from senselessness to good sense, from incontinence to continence, from injustice to justice, from timidity to boldness.",
+                "[181] For it is excellent and profitable to desert without a backward glance to the ranks of virtue and abandon vice that malignant mistress; and where honour is rendered to the God who IS, the whole company of the other virtues must follow in its train as surely as in the sunshine the shadow follows the body.",
+                "[182] The proselytes become at once temperate, continent, modest, gentle, kind, humane, serious, just, high-minded, truth-lovers, superior to the desire for money and pleasure, just as conversely the rebels from the holy laws are seen to be incontinent, shameless, unjust, frivolous, petty-minded, quarrelsome, friends of falsehood and perjury, who have sold their freedom for dainties and strong liquor and cates and the enjoyment of another’s beauty, thus ministering to the delights of the belly and the organs below it—delights which end in the gravest injuries both to body and soul.",
+                "[183] Admirable indeed too are the admonitions to repentance, in which we are taught to refit our life from its present misfit into a better and changed condition. He tells us that the thing is not overgreat nor very distant, neither in the ether far above nor at the ends of the earth, nor beyond the great sea, that we should be unable to receive it, but very near, residing in three parts of our being, mouth, heart and hands, thus symbolizing words and thoughts and actions, for the mouth is a symbol of speech, the heart of thoughts and intentions, the hand of action, and in these three lies happiness.",
+                "[184] For when thoughts correspond to words and actions correspond to intentions, life is praiseworthy and perfect, but when they are at strife with each other, it is imperfect and a matter for reproach. If a man does not forget to keep this harmony, he will be well-pleasing to God, thus becoming at once God-loving and God-beloved. And so in full accordance with these words there was given from above the good saying, “Thou hast chosen to-day God to be God to thee, and the Lord has chosen thee to-day to be a people to Him.”",
+                "[185] Glorious is this reciprocation of choice, when man hastens to serve the Existent, and God delays not to take the suppliant to Himself and anticipates the will of him who honestly and sincerely comes to do Him service. And that true servant and suppliant, even though in actual number he be but one, is in real value, what God’s own choice makes him, the whole people, in worth equal to a complete nation. And, indeed, this is true to nature.",
+                "[186] In a ship the pilot is worth as much as all the crew, and in an army the general as much as all the soldiers, since if he fall, defeat results as certainly as it would if the whole force were annihilated. So, too, against the worth of a whole nation the wise man can hold his own, protected by the impregnable wall of godliness."
+            ],
+            [
+                "<b>On Nobleness of Birth</b><br>[187] This shows also that those who hymn nobility of birth as the greatest of good gifts and the source too of other great gifts deserve no moderate censure, because in the first place they think that those who have many generations of wealth and distinction behind them are noble, though neither did the ancestors from whom they boast descent find happiness in the superabundance of their possessions. For the true good cannot find its home in anything external, nor yet in things of the body, and further not even in every part of the soul, but only in its sovereign part.",
+                "[188] When in His mercy and loving kindness God willed to establish the good among us also, He found no worthier temple on earth than the reasoning faculty, for in this alone as the more excellent part the good is enshrined, even though some may disbelieve, who have never tasted or only just sipped wisdom. For silver and gold and honour and offices and good condition and beauty of body are like men set in command for ordinary purposes compared with service to queenly virtue and have never seen the light in its full radiance.",
+                "[189] Since then nobility is the peculiar portion of a mind purged clean of every spot, we must give the name of noble only to the temperate and just, even though their parents were slaves, home-bred or purchased; but to the evil children of good parents that portion must be closed ground.",
+                "[190] For the fool has no home and no city; he is expatriated from virtue, and virtue is in very truth the native land of the wise. With the fool inevitably comes ignobleness, even though his grandfather or ancestors be men of blameless life, for he habitually treats nobility as a stranger and sets a wide gulf between himself and her both in words and deeds.",
+                "[191] But not only do the wicked fail to be noble, but they are actually, I see well, all mortal enemies of nobility, since they destroy ancestral prestige and dim and finally quench all the glory which illumines the family."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[192] That is the reason, I think, why fathers of the most affectionate kind formally disinherit their sons and debar them from their home and kinship, when the depravity which they show overcomes the peculiar and intense affection implanted in parents by nature.",
+                "[193] The truth of what I say can easily be recognized from other examples. If a man has lost the use of his eyes, will the keen-sightedness of his ancestors help him to see? If his tongue is paralysed, will he express himself better because his parents or grandparents possessed strong voices? If he is worn to a thread by a long and wasting sickness, will it profit for restoring him to vigour that the athletic prowess of the founders of the family has placed them in the list of victors at the Olympic or all the other great games? Their bodily debilities remain just as they were and cannot be improved by the better luck of their relations.",
+                "[194] In the same way, just parents are no help to the unjust, nor temperate parents to the intemperate, nor, in general, good parents to the wicked, any more than the laws to law-breakers, whom they exist to punish, and the lives of those who have earnestly followed virtue may be called unwritten laws.",
+                "[195] And, therefore, I think, that if God had so formed nobility as to take a human shape, she would stand to face the rebellious descendants and address them thus. “In the court where truth presides, kinship is not measured only by blood, but by similarity of conduct and pursuit of the same objects. But your practice has been the opposite. What I hold dear you regard as hostile and my enemies you love. In my sight, modesty and truth and control of the passions and simplicity and innocence are honourable, in your eyes dishonourable. Shamelessness, falsehood, passion uncontrolled, vanity, vices are my enemies, but to you they are the closest of friends.",
+                "[196] You have done your best by your actions to make yourselves strangers, why do you hypocritically assume a specious name and call yourselves kinsmen? Seductive arts and clever wiles I cannot away with. It is easy for anybody to devise prettily-sounding words, but it is not easy to change bad morals to good.",
+                "[197] With these things before my eyes, I count now as enemies and hereafter shall hold as such, those who have kindled the fuel of enmity into a flame, and I shall frown on them, more than on those whose reproach is their ignoble birth. They may plead in defence that they have no pattern of high excellence for their own, but you stand accused, you who spring from great houses, which boast and glory in the splendour of their race. For though you have good models at your side, almost, indeed, your birth fellows, you have never been minded to reproduce any of their excellence.”",
+                "[198] That he held nobility to depend on the acquisition of virtue and considered that the possessor of virtue and not anyone born of highly excellent parents is noble can be shown from many examples."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[199] For instance, who would deny that the sons of the Earth-born were of high birth and progenitors of high-born children? Their lot was to be born under circumstances which distinguished them above their posterity, sprung as they were from the first bridal pair, the man and woman who then first came together in mutual intercourse to procreate their like. Nevertheless, of the sons thus born the elder did not shrink from treacherously murdering the younger, and by committing the most accursed of crimes, fratricide, was the first to pollute the earth with human blood.",
+                "[200] What profit was noble birth to him, who displayed in his soul an ignobleness, which God, the Overseer of human affairs, saw and abhorred and cast him forth to pay the penalty. And that penalty was this. He did not slay him at once and so make him insensible to his sufferings, but held suspended over him a multitude of deaths—deaths which made themselves felt in a constant succession of griefs and fears, carrying with them full apprehension of the miseries of his most evil plight.",
+                "[201] Among the worthiest men of later time was one of special holiness, whose piety the framer of the code held worthy to be recorded in the sacred books. In the great deluge when cities were submerged and annihilated, since even the highest mountains were swallowed up by the increasing magnitude and force of the mass of water which the flood produced, he alone was saved with his family, so receiving for his high excellence a reward of unsurpassed value.",
+                "[202] Yet of the three sons born to him, who shared in the boon bestowed on their father, one ventured to pour reproach upon the author of his preservation. He held up to scorn and laughter some lapse into which his father had fallen involuntarily, and laid bare what should have been hidden to those who knew it not, casting shame on him who begat him. He then had no profit from the glories of his birth, laid under a curse and a source of misery to his successors, a worthy fate for one who had no thought for the honour due to parents.",
+                "[203] Yet why should we mention these and leave out of sight the first and earth-born man, who for nobility of birth stands beyond comparison with all other mortals, moulded with consummate skill into the figure of the human body by the hand of God, the Master Sculptor, and judged worthy to receive his soul not from any other thing already created, but through the breath of God imparting of His own power such measure as mortal nature could receive? Have we not here a transcendance of noble birth, which cannot be brought into comparison with any of the other examples known to fame?",
+                "[204] For their renown rests on the good fortune of their ancestors, who were men, creatures which lived only to decay and perish, and their happier experiences are mostly uncertain and short-lived. But his father was no mortal but the eternal God, whose image he was in a sense in virtue of the ruling mind within the soul.",
+                "[205] Yet though he should have kept that image undefiled and followed as far as he could in the steps of his Parent’s virtues, when the opposites were set before him to choose or avoid, good and evil, honourable and base, true and false, he was quick to choose the false, the base and the evil and spurn the good and honourable and true, with the natural consequence that he exchanged mortality for immortality, forfeited his blessedness and happiness and found an easy passage to a life of toil and misery."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[206] These examples may serve as landmarks common to all mankind to remind them that those who have no true excellence of character should not pride themselves on the greatness of their race. But besides these common examples, the Jews have others peculiar to themselves. For among the founders of the race, there are some who profited nothing by the virtues of their ancestors, proved to be guilty of highly reprehensible conduct, convicted, if not by any other judge, at any rate by their conscience, the one and only court which is never misled by oratorical artifices.",
+                "[207] The first was the father of many children, begotten on three wives, not for indulgence in pleasure but in the hope of multiplying the race. But of his many sons, only one was appointed to inherit the patrimony. All the rest failed to show sound judgement and as they reproduced nothing of their father’s qualities, were excluded from the home and denied any part in the grandeur of their noble birth.",
+                "[208] Again, the one who was approved as heir begat two twins, who had no resemblance to each other, either in body or disposition [except in the hands, and in these only for a particular act of policy]. For the younger was obedient to both his parents and won such favour that God, too, joined in praising him, but the elder was disobedient, indulging without restraint in the pleasures of the belly and the lower lying parts. Influenced by these he surrendered his birth-right to his junior, then, at once, repenting of the surrender, sought his brother’s life, and all his concern was to act in such a way as would cause grief to his parents.",
+                "[209] Therefore, for the younger they prayed that he should be blessed above all others, all which prayers God confirmed and would not that any of them should be left unfulfilled. But to the elder in compassion they granted an inferior station to serve his brother, rightly thinking that it is not good for the fool to be his own master.",
+                "[210] And if, indeed, he had endured his servitude contentedly, he would have been awarded the second prize for prowess in the arena of virtue. As it was, by his wilfulness, a runagate from the excellent rule set over him, he brought heavy reproaches upon himself and his descendants, so that his life so little worth living stands recorded as the clearest proof that to those who are unworthy of nobility, nobility is of no value."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[211] Now these belong to the erring class, evil children of good parents, who gained no profit from the virtues of their fathers, but suffered countless injuries from the vices of their minds. But I can cite others of the opposite and better class, whose ancestors were men of guilt, but their own lives were worthy of emulation and full of good report.",
+                "[212] The most ancient member of the Jewish nation was a Chaldaean by birth, the son of an astrologer, one of those who study the lore of that science, and think that the stars and the whole heaven and universe are gods, the authors, they say, of the events which befall each man for good or for ill, and hold that there is no originating cause outside the things we perceive by our senses.",
+                "[213] What could be more grievous or more capable of proving the total absence of nobility in the soul than this, that its knowledge of the many, the secondary, the created, only leads it to ignore the One, the Primal, the Uncreated and Maker of all, whose supreme excellence is established by these and countless other attributes of such magnitude that no human reason can contain them?",
+                "[214] Perception of these truths and divine inspiration induced him to leave his native country, his race and paternal home, knowing that if he stayed the delusions of the polytheistic creed would stay within him and render it impossible for him to discover the One, who alone is eternal and the Father of all things, conceptual and sensible, whereas if he removed, the delusion would also remove from his mind and its false creed be replaced by the truth.",
+                "[215] At the same time, also, the fire of yearning, which possessed him to know the Existent, was fanned by the divine warnings vouchsafed to him. With these to guide his steps, he went forth never faltering in his ardour to seek for the One, nor did he pause until he received clearer visions, not of His essence, for that is impossible, but of His existence and providence.",
+                "[216] And, therefore, he is the first person spoken of as believing in God, since he first grasped a firm and unswerving conception of the truth that there is one Cause above all, and that it provides for the world and all that there is therein. And having gained faith, the most sure and certain of the virtues, he gained with it all the other virtues, so that by those among whom he settled he was regarded as a king, not because of the outward state which surrounded him, mere commoner that he was, but because of his greatness of soul, for his spirit was the spirit of a king.",
+                "[217] Indeed, they continued to treat him with a respect which subjects pay to a ruler, being awe-struck at the all-embracing greatness of his nature and its more than human perfection. For the society also which he sought was not the same as they sought, but oftener under inspiration another more august. Thus whenever he was possessed, everything in him changed to something better, eyes, complexion, stature, carriage, movements, voice. For the divine spirit which was breathed upon him from on high made its lodging in his soul, and invested his body with singular beauty, his voice with persuasiveness, and his hearers with understanding.",
+                "[218] Would you not say that this lone wanderer without relatives or friends was of the highest nobility, he who craved for kinship with God and strove by every means to live in familiarity with Him, he who while ranked among the prophets, a post of such high excellence, put his trust in nothing created rather than in the Uncreated and Father of all, he who as I have said was regarded as a king by those in whose midst he settled, a sovereignty gained not with weapons, nor with mighty armies, as is the way of some, but by the election of God, the friend of virtue, who rewards the lovers of piety with imperial powers to benefit those around them?",
+                "[219] He is the standard of nobility for all proselytes, who, abandoning the ignobility of strange laws and monstrous customs which assigned divine honours to stocks and stones and soulless things in general, have come to settle in a better land, in a commonwealth full of true life and vitality, with truth as its director and president."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[220] To this nobility not only did men beloved of God aspire, but women also, who unlearnt the errors of their breeding, the ignorance which led them to honour the works of men’s hands, and became schooled in the knowledge of the monarchical principle by which the world is governed.",
+                "[221] Tamar was a woman from Palestinian Syria, bred in a house and city which acknowledged a multitude of gods and was full of images and wooden busts and idols in general. But when passing, as it were, from profound darkness she was able to glimpse a little ray of truth, she deserted to the camp of piety at the risk of her life, caring little for its preservation, if it were not to be a good life. This good life she held to mean nothing else than to be the servant and suppliant of the one great Cause.",
+                "[222] Although she was married to two brothers in turn, both of them wicked, to the elder as her husband in the usual way, to the younger under the law of the duties of the next of kin, as the elder had left no issue, she nevertheless kept her own life stainless and was able to win the good report which belongs to the good and to become the original source to which the nobility of all who followed her can be traced.",
+                "But she, though a foreigner, was, at any rate, a free woman, of free lineage, and that perhaps of no little note.",
+                "[223] There were women born beyond the Euphrates, in the extreme parts of Babylonia, who were handmaids and were given as dowry to the ladies of the house at their marriage. But when they had been judged worthy to pass on to the wise man’s bed, the first consequence was that they passed on from mere concubinage to the name and position of wedded wives, and were treated no longer as handmaids, but as almost equal in rank to their mistresses, who, indeed, incredible as it seems, promoted them to the same dignity as themselves. For jealousy finds no home in the souls of the wise and free from its presence they share their good things with others.",
+                "[224] Secondly, the base-born sons of the handmaids received the same treatment as the legitimate, not only from the father, who might fairly be expected to show the same kindness to the children of different mothers, since his paternity extends to all alike, but also from the stepmothers. They rid themselves of hatred for the step-children and replaced it by an extraordinary regard for their interests,",
+                "[225] while the step-children returned their goodwill and honoured their stepmothers as fully as if they were their natural mothers. The brothers, though reckoned as half-brothers by blood, did not think it enough to give a half affection to each other, but showed a twofold increase of tenderness in the love which they gave and received in return; and the seeming defectiveness in their relationship they made good by the eagerness with which they hastened to unite both families in harmony and reciprocity of feeling."
+            ],
+            [
+                "[226] Must we not then absolutely reject the claims of those who assume as their own precious possession the nobility which belongs to others, who, different from those just mentioned, might well be considered enemies of the Jewish nation and of every person in every place? Enemies of our nation, because they give their compatriots licence to put their trust in the virtue of their ancestors and despise the thought of living a sound and stedfast life. Enemies of people in general, who even if they reach the very summit of moral excellence, will not benefit thereby, if their parents and grandparents were not beyond reproach.",
+                "[227] I doubt indeed if any more mischievous doctrine could be propounded than this, that avenging justice will not follow the children of good parents if they turn to wickedness, and that honour will not be the reward of the good children of the wicked, thus contradicting the law, which assesses each person on his own merits and does not take into account the virtues or vices of his kinsmen in awarding praise or punishment."
+            ]
+        ],
+        "Appendix": [
+            "APPENDIX TO DE VIRTUTIBUS",
+            "(The title.) This as given by Cohn is based mainly on Eusebius’s description of the treatise (<i>Hist. Eccl.</i> ii. 18) Περὶ τῶν τριῶν ἀρετῶν ἃς σὺν ἄλλαις ἀνέγραψε Μωυσῆς (see Gen. Introd., p. xvi), and on the title in S, the oldest MS., Περὶ γʹ ἀρετῶν ἃς σὺν ἄλλαις ἀνέγραψε Μωυσῆς περὶ ἀνδρείας καὶ φιλανθρωπίας καὶ μετανοίας. Cohn seems to me to have dealt somewhat arbitrarily with these. Since the other MSS., which do not have either τριῶν or ἃς … Μωυσῆς, persist in including the non-extant Περὶ εὐσεβείας (see Gen. Introd., p. xiii. note <i>b</i>), he has added it against the authority of S and consequently has to exclude τριῶν.",
+            "Mangey gives περὶ τριῶν ἀρετῶν ἤτοι περὶ ἀνδρείας καὶ φιλανθρωπίας καὶ μετανοίας. I presume that he thought, as I should be inclined to think, that Eusebius did not intend the words ἃς … Μωυσῆς to be part of the title, but a note added to avoid any misconception to the effect that Moses only recognized three virtues. Incidentally, I am not clear about the correct meaning of ἀνέγραψε. I have followed Cohn’s “geschildert” in translating it by “described.” But Moses can hardly be said to have “described” the virtues. Goodhart and Goodenough give “discussed.” Perhaps rather “set forth” (as laws), <i>i.e.</i> “enjoined.”",
+            "§ 17. ἀτυφίας … τῦφος. These two words are of course opposites and are definitely named together below, §§ 178 and 195, as well as here. In <i>De Cong.</i> 138 and <i>Mos.</i> ii. 96 ἀτυφία is contrasted with οἴησις (“conceit”) and may be given by “humility” or “modesty,” but this is exceptional. τῦφος itself constantly recurs in Philo, but in rather different senses. Goodenough on pp. 34 f. of his <i>Philo’s Politics</i> has a description of it with useful references, but the word which he adopts, “arrogance,” seems to me to be rarely if ever applicable. Nearer to it is “vanity,” meaning either the disposition which follows vain things or the vain things themselves. Very frequently it is applied to the vain imagination of idolaters, as for example in § 178, and sometimes, particularly when coupled with “Egyptian,” to the object of the false worship, <i>e.g.</i> <i>Spec. Leg.</i> iii. 125. Elsewhere as here it is the love of the vanities of life in general and particularly its pomps, and in <i>In Flacc.</i> 4 he gives it this meaning in a not unfavourable sense, for in describing Flaccus’s earlier good government he says that “he upheld the dignity of his position (σεμνότερον ἦγεν αὑτόν), for τῦφος is very useful to a ruler.” In a more general sense ἀτυφία is coupled with ἀχρηματία (<i>De Fug.</i> 25), and opposed to φιλοδοξία (<i>De Abr.</i> 24, 104), while in <i>De Vit. Cont.</i> 39 it is applied to the more extreme asceticism of the Therapeutae. In such cases it is fairly well given by “simplicity,” but when it is contrasted with τῦφος in the sense of false beliefs or worship, I do not know of any suitable word. When Philo says that everything he has said about ἀτυφία connotes the idea of courage he means no doubt all that he has said against τῦφος in the sense of the pomps and vanities of life.",
+            "I may take this opportunity of correcting a very careless slip in the version of <i>Mos.</i> ii. 96, where ἀτυφίας was translated as if it was τύφου.",
+            "§ 28. (Comparison of these sections with <i>De Agr.</i> 148–156.) This is the most striking example of the way in which Philo alternates between a penetrating criticism of the Pentateuch and literal orthodoxy. In the <i>De Agr.</i> the law on this point is discussed in a dialogue between a hostile critic (A.) and a defender (B.). A. remarks first, that those who hope to enjoy their possessions will make better soldiers than those who have no possessions to fight for, secondly, that if their country is conquered they will not enjoy them. To this last B. replies that they will not be captured. A. “On the contrary they will fare the worst, since being non-combatants they will not be able to protect themselves.” B. “But they will be protected by the strength of their fellow-countrymen.” A. “How shameful then that they should be living at ease, when their fellow-countrymen are suffering the hardships of war.” B. “But it is hard that they should lose their lives before they have enjoyed what they have worked for.” A. “Far less hard to die in battle and leave their property to their kinsfolk, than to live to see it fall into the hands of enemies.”",
+            "Philo does not actually say that he agrees with A., but he feels his arguments so forcible that he prefers to meet them by interpreting the passage with one of his most fantastic allegories. The war is the war of the wise against the clever sophist, which only those who are specially trained can undertake with success. He who is betrothed to a maiden represents the beginner in wisdom, the planter of the vineyard is anyone who is “progressing,” and the builder of the house is he who has reached perfection. Yet all three without special training are unfit to undertake such a contest and had better hold their tongues.",
+            "§ 28. (See end of footnote 2.) I think Clement’s introduction of στρατηγικῶς can be satisfactorily explained without supposing that he found anything corresponding to it in his text of Philo. In the chapter of the <i>Stromateis</i> in which this comes (ii. 18) he is showing that all the virtues, including φρόνησις and σωφροσύνη as well as δικαιοσύνη and ἀνδρεία, are enjoined in the Scriptures, and to prove this he makes a number of unacknowledged borrowings, almost extracts, from the <i>De Virtutibus</i> (see Gen. Introd., p. xii.). But while constantly reproducing Philo’s phraseology he often adds explanations of his own, as for instance that noted on § 111 (p. 446). So too in quoting “thou shalt not abhor an Egyptian” (<i>cf.</i> § 106) he adds that by “Egyptian” a gentile may be meant, or indeed any κοσμικός (“worldly person”?). In dealing with § 28 he follows Philo very closely, even quoting Deut. 20:5–7 from Philo’s paraphrase instead of from the LXX, but he seems rather at a loss as to what moral is to be drawn. He reproduces Philo’s φιλανθρωπίᾳ νόμου by ὁ φιλάνθρωπος νόμος κελεύει, but rightly observes that the second reason is not “philanthropic” but “strategic.” He then passes on to the “philanthropic” side and, finally catching at Philo’s words in § 29 about not rendering hopes futile, declares that the law is encouraging ἀνδρεία by pointing out that those who have built or planted may hope to enjoy the fruits of their labour. By στρατηγικῶς he may mean, I think, that the law is enjoining φρόνησις also. That the wise man is στρατηγικός, as well as having other qualities, is a Stoic maxim (<i>S.V.F.</i> iii. 567, i. 216).",
+            "§ 29. ὡς οὐ δεῖν. Both Cohn and Mangey think that a causal clause giving the reason for χαλεπὸν ἔδοξεν is required rather than a consecutive. I do not feel this. “It is not right, because it is cruel” is as logical as “it is cruel, because it is not right.” Cohn, <i>Hermes</i>, 1908, p. 211 gives as an additional reason that οὐ with a consecutive infinitive is bad grammar. This, I think, is quite wrong. In Oratio Obliqua, as this is, οὐ in such cases is a recognized, perhaps indeed the regular, usage (see Goodwin, <i>Moods and Tenses</i>, p. 227). But while Mangey would correct δεῖν to δέον, Cohn retains it as an example of the Attic use of δεῖν for the participle. He refers to an article by Usener, <i>Jahrb. class. Philol.</i> cv. 743 ff.), where examples of this usage, which is mentioned by the Greek grammarians, are quoted from Lysias, Xenophon and Plutarch. They seem to be authentic and suggest that the form is better extablished than the notice of it in L. &amp; S. revised would lead one to think. Still, there seems no need to invoke it here.",
+            "§ 31. ἣν ἀδυνατοῦν ἀπορρίψει. Lit. “which being without strength it will cast off.” This is a strange expression, both in assigning the action to the body instead of the man and in the use of ἀδυνατέω without the infinitive expressed, as it is in <i>e.g.</i> § 12 above and § 88 below. Stephanus notes this as a rare usage but quotes no examples. It may perhaps be worth considering a correction to ἣν ἀδύνατον ἀπορρίψαι or ἢν ἀδύνατον ᾖ ἀπορρίψαι. I think this has more point. The encumbrance could not be got rid of on the battlefield and so is analogous to the body from which the diseased soul cannot rid itself.",
+            "§ 34. (The Midianites.) Cohn notes here that Philo ascribes to the Midianites what the Bible (and also Philo in <i>Mos.</i> i. 300 ff.) relates of Balaam and the Moabites, because he is here concerned with the war of revenge which was waged against the Midianites for this act (Num. 31:2 ff.). The note seems to me misleading. Philo steers his way rather well through the hopeless confusion, caused perhaps by the mixture of two different narratives. Num. 25 begins with stating that the daughters of Moab led Israel into fornication and idolatry. But after this the Moabites disappear. It is a Midianitish woman who is killed by Phinehas (<i>v.</i> 7), Midianites who are to be smitten for “beguiling you in the matter of Peor” (<i>v.</i> 18), and Midianitish women who are all put to death because “they caused the children of Israel through the counsels of Balaam to commit trespass against the Lord in the matter of Peor” (31:16). In <i>Mos.</i> i. 300 ff. Philo does not mention the Moabites or the Midianites at all. The war was waged against Balak (<i>ibid.</i> 305), but Balak has been described as one of the neighbouring kings who had brought under his sway a great and populous part of the East. That phrase looks as if he was trying to harmonize the narrative by supposing that Balak was king of Midian and Moab.",
+            "Josephus in <i>Ant.</i> iv. 102 ff. represents Balak as king of Moab, but having an ancestral alliance with the Midianites. He sends an embassy to them to enlist their help against Israel, and it is they who invite and press Balaam to come to their aid.",
+            "§ 34. πείρας καθιέντες. L. &amp; S. (old and revised) <i>s.v.</i> καθίημι give for this phrase “make attempts,” and cite Aelian, <i>V.H.</i> ii. 13 and <i>N.A.</i> i. 57. In the first of these the phrase is used of the intrigues of the accusers of Socrates to create a prejudice against him, in the second of a curious scheme devised by a parent to test the paternity of his presumed child. Taken together with our passage, the examples suggest that the phrase means more than the colourless “make attempts” and something like the “laid down snares” suggested in the footnote. The special sense belongs perhaps more to καθίημι than to πεῖρα. So L. &amp; S. cite Aristoph. <i>Vesp.</i> 174 οἵαν πρόφασιν καθῆκε, and <i>Dion. Cass.</i> i. 47 λόγους συμβατηρίους καθίει, where the context suggests insincerity.",
+            "§ 44. (<i>Cf.</i> footnote <i>b</i>, διαφωνεῖν.) This word occurs twice in the Pentateuch, Ex. 24:11, and Num. 31:49, as well as a few times elsewhere in the LXX. Both examples in the Pentateuch are quoted by Philo more than once, and of the former he says (fr. 59 Harris) that while the literal meaning of the text τῶν ἐπιλέκτων τοῦ Ἰσραὴλ οὐ διεφώνησεν οὐδὲ εἷς is that they were all kept safe, the inner meaning is that they were not out of harmony with the good. So too in <i>De Conf.</i> 56, and also on Num. 31:49, there and elsewhere.",
+            "In a note on <i>De Conf.</i> 56 I was misled by the old L. &amp; S., which following Stephanus’s “extremam vocem edidit” disposed of this special use of διαφωνεῖν with “to breathe one’s last,” “die,” “perish,” “be lost.” But the word does not in its literal sense mean to “cease speaking,” and it is more likely that the special use is derived from the regular use for “speak differently,” “be at discord.” Though in later use it seems to have been strengthened to “die” or “perish,” it need not mean in either place in the Pentateuch more than “suffer some harm,” and Philo may be right in supposing that in Num. 31 διαπεφώνηκεν οὐδὲ εἷς means “all have come out unscathed.”",
+            "L. &amp; S. revised deals with this usage more fully, but not very accurately. In Ex. 24:11 it cannot mean “fail to answer roll-calls,” “desert,” and in the fragment, where it is opposed to συμφώνους, “fail” is misleading.",
+            "§ 78. Cohn is, I think, probably right in regarding this section as an interpolation, though his reasons are not all of equal strength. (1) The section is omitted in S, which he considers, I daresay rightly, the best authority. (2) αἰτήσεις ἀγαθῶν is an awkward expression for αἰτήσεις περὶ ἀγαθῶν. (3) θνητῷ ὅπως is a difficult hiatus. (4) ὑπάρχωσιν with a neuter plural is contrary to Philo’s usage. (5) ἐπάν for ἐπειδάν is un-Philonic. (6) τοῦ τῆς σαρκὸς δεσμοῦ “belongs to a Christian interpolator.” Philo would have said τοῦ σώματος. (7) The whole sentence is frigid (“frostig”) and disturbs the connexion between §§ 77 and 79.",
+            "I think that (2) cannot have much weight when we compare εὐχή ἐστιν αἴτησις ἀγαθῶν, <i>Quod Deus</i> 87 and <i>De Agr.</i> 99. On (3) see note on <i>Spec. Leg.</i> iv. 40, App. p. 428. (4) may be true of Philo, but not always so of his scribes. See <i>De Praem.</i> 142 and 172, where the MSS. have κενωθήσονται and βλαστάνουσι with neuter plural subjects, though Cohn has corrected them. (5) ἐπάν is found in the MSS. of <i>De Agr.</i> 158 and retained in the text of Cohn, but the sentence is quite ungrammatical. There is not much in (6): σάρξ or σάρκες is often used as an alternative for σῶμα in opposition to ψυχή or νοῦς, and such a phrase as (ψυχαὶ) τὸν σαρκὸς φόρτον ἀχθοφοροῦσι is a fair parallel. But I quite agree with the last part of (7), and also have great doubt whether the thought is really Philonic. Philo’s conception of immortality, when he uses the word in any literal sense, seems (as Kennedy says) “surrounded by a rarefied philosophical atmosphere,” and altogether different from the <i>ordinary</i> Christian conception. And such passages as <i>Quis Rerum</i> 276 (of Abraham) and this and <i>De Sac.</i> 8 and <i>Mos.</i> ii. 288 (of Moses) do not lead me to expect that he would represent Moses as praying for “true goods” beyond the grave for his people.",
+            "§ 100. πενίᾳ or πενίας? (See footnote 1.) Clement’s paraphrase is τούς τε πενίᾳ μακρᾷ ὑποσχόντας δίκην μὴ διὰ βίου κολαζομένους ἐλεῶν. Here Cohn wished to correct μὴ to καὶ. But the text should stand, “pitying those who have undergone punishment through their long poverty, but (through his pity) do not suffer a lifelong punishment.” The long poverty is clearly that of their years of dispossession.",
+            "Perhaps πενίᾳ ‹πενίας› might be worth consideration, as an effective and very easy correction.",
+            "§ 111. <i>Shave the hair of her head and pare her nails</i>. Philo does not give, nor perhaps know any reason for this. Modern commentators apparently explain it taken in connexion with her change of dress as “elements in her purification from heathenism.” See Adam Smith. Josephus, <i>Ant.</i> iv. 257 says nothing about the nails, but evidently takes the shaving of the head as a sign of mourning. Clement, <i>Strom.</i> ii. 18, while also ignoring the nails, supposed that the cutting off the hair is to test the self-control of her lover. “For if reason urges him to marry her, he will hold to her, even when she has become ugly.”",
+            "§ 115. <i>Nor yet keep her as a slave</i>. So too Jos. <i>Ant.</i> iv. 259. Is this one of the cases where Philo shews some knowledge of or information about the Hebrew and corrects the LXX? But apart from the fact that the Hebrew verb (see Driver) is said to mean rather “play the master over her,” the phrase “thou shalt not set her at naught (or treat her contemptuously), because thou hast humiliated her” naturally suggests that her status would be that of a slave, and the possibility of selling her suggests the same.",
+            "§ 122. Philo’s interpretation of the law of slavery is difficult, and Heinemann in <i>Bildung</i>, pp. 329 ff., while discussing at length Philo’s attitude to slavery, throws no light on the details. In what follows I must be understood as asking for enlightenment quite as much as giving it.",
+            "(1) The θῆτες (see footnote <i>a</i>) are persons who from sheer penury have sold themselves. So E.V. in Lev. 25:39, and so indeed Philo (ὑποβεβληκότας ἑαυτούς), though the LXX ἐὰν πραθῇ τις would suggest that he had been sold by others. (2) From these are distinguished the debtors of “temporary loans,” if that is the meaning of the word. They have not been sold, for the creditor retains the use of their services (§ 173). And indeed I do not think the Pentateuch recognizes the sale of a person for ordinary debt, though there are glimpses of the practice in the O.T. (2 Kings 4:1 and elsewhere). Does the creditor simply make him work out his debt? (3) What are the other ways in which the free man is reduced to slavery? The thief unable to make restitution (<i>Spec. Leg.</i> iv. 3) would be a case in point, but what else?",
+            "It should be noted that Philo in prescribing the seventh year for the release is following Exodus and Deuteronomy rather than Leviticus, which limits the release to the year of Jubile (25:40). But he would hardly know this, for the LXX has there the “year of release” (ἀφέσεως), and in Deut. 15:1 and 9 he would find the seventh year called by the same name.",
+            "§ 122. (Footnote <i>c.</i>) Out of respect for Mangey I give his ingenious, but I fear impossible, emendation and explanation of this which he calls “mendosus et mutilus locus.” Reading παραβολῆς with F and apparently transposing ἐφημερινῶν, he suggests χρεώστας, τὸ τῆς παραβολῆς ἐφημέρων ὄνομα, κτλ., <i>i.e.</i> debtors, who, to use a figurative phrase, get the name and condition of one-day-creatures. He gives examples from Aristotle and Athenaeus to show that ἐφήμερα ζῷα is a name applied to animals who live only for a day, and the παραβολή consists in transferring the name to people who subsist on what they can borrow day by day. For this last he might have quoted ἐφημερόβιος in § 88.",
+            "§ 124. (Footnote <i>a. In accordance with Attic law</i>.) See Lipsius, <i>Attisches Recht</i>, p. 643 to the effect that a slave taking refuge in a sanctuary from the cruelty of his master had a right to demand to be sold to another. He quotes a fragment of Aristophanes,",
+            "ἐμοὶ <br>κράτιστόν ἐστιν εἰς τὸ Θησεῖον δραμεῖν, <br>ἐκεῖ δʼ ἕως ἂν πρᾶσιν εὕρωμεν μένειν.",
+            "The idea of the hearth as a sanctuary is, as both Goodenough and Heinemann point out, entirely Greek, not Jewish. The most familiar example is that of Themistocles at the hearth of Admetus (Thuc. i. 136). <i>Cf.</i> also on κοινὴ ἑστία in <i>De Praem.</i> 154.",
+            "§ 139. For the practice here noted Cohn gives the following references, (<i>a</i>) Diodorus i. 77. Diodorus mentions it as an Egyptian law and adds that the same rule was observed by many Greeks, also as demanded by justice to the unborn child. (<i>b</i>) Aelian, <i>V.H.</i> v. 18, who ascribes it to the Areopagus at Athens. (<i>c</i>) Plutarch, <i>De sera num. vind.</i> 7 as an Egyptian law which has been copied ἀπογράψασθαι by some of the Greeks. (<i>d</i>) Roman law, as stated by Ulpian, <i>Dig.</i> xlviii. 19. 3. Clement in his paraphrase of this passage substitutes the Romans for Philo’s “some legislators.”",
+            "§ 152. (The maxim of Bias.) This in its original form as given by Diog. Laert. i. 5. 87 was φιλεῖν ὡς μισήσοντας· τοὺς γὰρ πλείστους εἶναι κακούς, and says nothing of “hating as about to love.” And it is the first half which has attracted most attention, being regarded sometimes as merely enjoining caution in forming intimacies, sometimes as purely cynical. Thus Cic. <i>De Am.</i> xvi. 59 makes Scipio describe it as abominable and unworthy of a sage. It is quoted with the other half added, and attributed to Bias by Aristot. <i>Rhet.</i> ii. 13. 4, and later (<i>ib.</i> 21. 13), when, talking about the rhetorical value of maxims, he says that it would create an impression of amiability, if you say οὐ δεῖ, ὥσπερ φασί, φιλεῖν ὡς μισήσοντας, ἀλλὰ μᾶλλον μισεῖν ὡς φιλήσοντας, showing that the kernel of the maxim is in general opinion the first part. Sophocles puts both parts into the mouth of Ajax (<i>Aj.</i> 679 ff.), but the stress is laid on the unreliability of friends, and Dem. <i>Contra. Arist.</i> 122, though he deals fairly with both sides, and concludes ἄχρι τούτου καὶ φιλεῖν, οἶμαι, χρὴ καὶ μισεῖν, μηδετέρου τὸν καιρὸν ὑπερβάλλοντας, is really concerned with warning against ill-considered acts of friendship.",
+            "Sandys on Aristot. <i>Rhet. l.c.</i> and Jebb on Soph. <i>Aj. l.c.</i> have collected other comments from later writers, such as Bacon, Montaigne and La Bruyère. I think it is worth while noting (1) that Philo, while quoting and commenting on both sides of the saying, is really concerned, unlike the others, with the lesson of forbearance in enmity, (2) that he applies the maxim in a way that no other does to international relations, (3) that the fact that neither of the two great scholars mentioned cites this passage reflects the neglect generally shown in England by classicists to Philo during the last hundred years.",
+            "§ 185. καθάπερ (or καθʼ ὅπερ) αὐτὸς αἱρεῖται. A possible emendation might be καθʼ ὅπερ ‹αὐτὸν› αὐτὸς αἱρεῖται ‹εἶναι›. This would obviously be easily corrupted into what we have. Or again there may be an allusion to the double choice mentioned in the text, καθὰ ὅνπερ αὐτὸς αἱρεῖται αὐτὸν αἱρεῖται, with or without εἶναι added = “as He whom he himself chooses, chooses him (to be).” In this case αὐτός = the man, in the former it = God.",
+            "§ 188. (Last part.) Mangey, like Cohn, takes ἄργυρος … ὑπηρεσίαν as a parenthesis, so making αὐγοειδέστατον … ἰδόντες an attribute of men who have only sipped wisdom. He translates ἐοίκασι, κτλ. by “assimilantur his qui in principatu ad negotia administranda constituti sunt virtutis tanquam reginae ministerio servientes.” This, apart from other difficulties, gives an impossibly high character to the inferior goods. Mangey, as perhaps also Cohn, failed to see that πρός, instead of expressing a connexion, might bear the quite common sense of “in comparison with”!",
+            "I may not have done justice to their view that ἰδόντες goes back to τινες. But the form of the sentence postulated seems to me almost impossibly awkward, and the change of metaphor is as abrupt as on my hypothesis.",
+            "§ 189. <i>Give the name of noble only to the … just</i>. This sentiment is no doubt a definite Stoic doctrine on a line with the other paradoxes about the sage being rich, king, etc. Chrysippus asserted the worthlessness of εὐγένεια in the literal sense, declaring it to be “mere scrapings and offscourings” (περίτηγμα καὶ διάξυσμα), and supported his argument by quotations from Homer (Plut. <i>De Nobilitate</i> 17 and 12). Cohn quotes Sen. <i>De Benef.</i> iii. 28. 1 “nemo altero nobilior, nisi cui rectius ingenium et artibus bonis aptius.” <i>Cf. Ep. 44</i> <i>passim</i>, <i>e.g.</i> “Quis est generosus? Ad virtutem bene a natura compositus.” But outside Stoicism it is a common piece of moralizing, from Eur. fr.",
+            "ὁ μὲν γὰρ ἐσθλὸς εὐγενὴς ἔμοι γʼ ἀνήρ,",
+            "ὁ δʼ οὐ δίκαιος, κἂν ἀμείνονος πατρὸς",
+            "Ζηνὸς πεφύκῃ, δυσγενὴς εἶναι δοκεῖ,",
+            "down to Tennyson’s “’tis only noble to be good.” See the collection of quotations in Stobaeus, <i>Fl.</i> lxxxvi. The best known statement of it in ancient literature is Juv. viii. 20 “nobilitas sola est atque unica virtus.”",
+            "§ 208. <i>Except … policy</i>. Before definitely accepting Cohn’s condemnation of this clause, one would like to know what he thought of Clement’s evidence. Clement, after giving a short summary of Philo’s remarks about Jacob and Esau with a very similar wording, adds ἡ δὲ οἰκονομία αὕτη καὶ προφητικὴ καὶ τυπική. Cohn quotes the summary but not the addition. The use of the word οἰκονομία looks like a reminiscence of the clause, but nothing is said about the hands.",
+            "Also in <i>Quaest. in Gen.</i> iv. 206, Jacob’s answers to his father are described as a “virtutis dispensatio,” where we may reasonably assume that the Greek word translated by “dispensatio” is οἰκονομία. The context shews that the οἰκονομία is a euphemistic word for a stratagem or, as I have translated it, “an act of policy.” If the clause is genuine that will be the meaning here.",
+            "On the other hand οἰκονομία in the Fathers often means a divine dispensation, an over-ruling of evil by good (<i>cf.</i> the Jewish view of Tamar’s sin in the next note). Stephanus among his examples of this use quotes Chrysostom on this particular case. “Jacob has deceived his father, but it was not an ἀπατή but an οἰκονομία.” This is the sense in which, as the adjectives show, Clement uses the word, and presumably also the interpolator, if the clause is an interpolation. So too Mangey, who translates “quadam certa providentia.”",
+            "On the whole I incline to the view that the clause, so peculiarly inept where the point is the permanent difference of the two, is spurious, and that Clement’s phrase is independent of Philo, an early expression of the Christian feeling that Jacob’s mendacity needs justification.",
+            "§ 221. <i>Tamar.</i> “The story of Tamar,” says Cohn, “is greatly idealized.” In the allegorizing of her story in <i>De Fug.</i> 149 ff., <i>De Mut.</i> 134 ff. and elsewhere, we do not expect any censure. But this beatification of the actress in what to our minds is a peculiarly shocking story outdoes the other extravagances of the <i>De Nobilitate</i>. A number of Rabbinical comments are collected in Strack and Billerbeck’s Talmudic commentary on Matthew 1:3. I do not think they show much signs of admiration for Tamar, though the sin of her and Judah is regarded as overruled by Providence. One reason for this seems to be as follows: Tamar was believed to be of pure blood descended from Shem (quite in opposition to Philo). Judah had married a Canaanite (Gen. 38:2) and her sons were tainted. The union between him and Tamar produced the offspring which was fit to be the progenitor of David and the Messiah."
+        ]
+    },
+    "versions": [
+        [
+            "Loeb Classical Library, Harvard University Press, 1939",
+            "https://www.nli.org.il/en/books/NNL_ALEPH001216057/NLI"
+        ]
+    ],
+    "heTitle": "על המידות הטובות",
+    "categories": [
+        "Second Temple",
+        "Philo"
+    ],
+    "schema": {
+        "heTitle": "על המידות הטובות",
+        "enTitle": "On the Virtues",
+        "key": "On the Virtues",
+        "nodes": [
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הקדמה",
+                "enTitle": "Introduction"
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "",
+                "enTitle": ""
+            },
+            {
+                "heTitle": "הערות",
+                "enTitle": "Appendix"
+            }
+        ]
+    }
+}
\ No newline at end of file