Question: Most common cause of secondary amenorrhea is

C. i.e. (Pregnancy) (447- Ganong 22nd) (422 - Ganong 23rd)* If menstrual bleeding has never occurred the condition is called primary amenorrhea* Cessation of cycle in a woment with previously normal periods is called secondary amenorrhea. The commonest cause of secondary amenorrhea is pregnancy*** Effect of pregnancy on respiration is - Increased tidal volume*** Sec-amenorrhoea is - Absence of menstruation for > 6 months*** Hypothalamic amonorrhoea is seen in - Kallaman *s syndrome**


Question: Type I muscle fibers rich in myosin heavy chain are

Ans. d (Slow contracting, resistant to fatigue)Two Major Fiber Types: type I and type II fibers Type IType II Slow TwitchFast TwitchMyosin ATPaseLowHighEnergy utilizationLowHighMitochondriaManyFewColorRedWhiteMyoglobinYesNoContraction rateSlowFastDurationProlongedShortResistance to fatigueincreased /morelessEducational points:ProteinLocationComment orjunctionTitinReaches from the Z line to the M lineLargest protein in body. Role in relaxation of muscle.NebulinFrom Z line along length of actin filamentsMay regulate assembly and length of actin filaments.ctr Act in inAnchors actin to Z linesStabilizes actin filaments.DesminLies alongside actin filamentsAttaches to plasma membrane (plasmalemma).DystrophinAttached to plasmalemmaDeficient in Duchenne muscular dystrophy.Mutations of its gene can also cause dilated cardiomyopathy.CalcineurinCytosolA calmodulin-regulated protein phosphatase.May play important roles in cardiac hypertrophy and in regulating amounts of slow and fast twitch muscles.Myosin-binding protein CArranged transversely in sarcomere A-bandsBinds myosin and titin. Plays a role in maintaining the structural integrity of the sarcomere.

Fast contracting, susceptible to fatigue

Slow contracting, susceptible to fatigue


Question: Type I muscle fibers are

Type 1 muscle fibres are present in slow muscle. They are red muscles because have greater capillary network. (REF: TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N, PAGE NO - 44)


Question: An index of the binding affinity of a hormone for its receptor can be obtained by examining the

Scatchard plots of hormone-receptor binding data give information regarding the number of receptors and the affinity of the hormone for its receptor. The x-intercept provides data regarding total receptor number, and the slope is equal to the negative of the association constant (-Ka).

Maximum point on a biological dose-response curve


Question: The dicrotic notch on the aortic pressure curve is caused by

The dicrotic notch, a small oscillation on the falling phase of the pulse wave caused by vibrations set up when the aortic valve snaps shut, is visible if the pressure wave is recorded but is not palpable at the wrist. The pulmonary artery pressure curve also has a dicrotic notch produced by the closure of the pulmonary valves.


Question: Commonest cause for hyperparathyroidism is

A parathyroid adenoma causes the affected gland to release more PTH than it should. This disrupts your calcium and phosphorus balance. This condition is called hyperparathyroidism. Ref ganong's review of medical physiology 25e


Question: Menopausal hot flushes coincides with

Luteinizing hormone is a hormone produced by gonadotropic cells in the anterior pituitary gland. In females, an acute rise of LH triggers ovulation and development of the corpus luteum. In males, where LH had also been called interstitial cell-stimulating hormone, it stimulates Leydig cell production of testosterone Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 636,637,638


Question: In sickle cell anemia

Sickle cell anemia is caused by mutation in the beta globin chain, that changes the amino acid glutamate to valine in the 6th position of beta globin chain of HbRef: Textbook of medical physiology by N Geetha, 3rd edition, page no. 94


Question: Maximum osmotic gradient is found in

In inner medulla osmotic gradient is high as 1200milliosmolarRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 687


Question: A person unacclimatised develops pulmonary edema

When they first arrive at a high altitude, many individuals develop transient "mountain sickness." This syndrome devel- ops 8 to 24 h after arrival at altitude and lasts 4 to 8 d. It is characterized by headache, irritability, insomnia, breathlessness, and nausea and vomiting. Its cause is unsettled, but it appears to be associated with cerebral edema. The low PO2 at high altitude causes aeriolar dilation, and if cerebral autoregulation does not compensate, there is an increase in capillary pressure that ors increased transudation of fluid into brain tissue. Individuals who do not develop mountain sickness have a diuresis at high altitude, and urine volume is decreased in individuals who develop the condition. High-altitude illness includes not only mountain sickness but also two more serious syndromes that complicate it: high-altitude cerebral edema and high-altitude pulmonary edema. In high-altitude cerebral edema, the capillary leakage in mountain sickness progresses to frank brain swelling, with ataxia, disorientation, and in some cases coma and death due to herniation of the brain through the tentorium. High-altitude pulmonary edema is a patchy edema of the lungs that is related to the marked pulmonary hypeension that develops at high altitude. It has been argued that it occurs because not all pulmonary aeries have enough smooth muscle to constrict in response to hypoxia, and in the capillaries supplied by those aeries, the general rise in pulmonary aerial pressure causes a capillary pressure increase that disrupts their walls (stress failure).Ref: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 619


Question: Most diffusible ion in excitable tissue is

Most diffusible ion in excitable tissue skeletal muscle and nerve cell is potassium Ref: www.gradestack.com


Question: Seoli cells have receptors for

Seoli cells elongated cells in the seminiferous tubules that ensheathe spermatogenic cells, providing a microenvironment that suppos spermiogenesis and spermatocytogenesis; they secrete androgen-binding protein and establish the blood-testis barrier by forming tight junctions with adjacent Seoli cells. In the male, the FSH receptor has been identified on the Seoli cells that are critical for spermatogenesis.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-420


Question: Stereoanesthesia is due to lesion of

(C) Cerebral cortex # Stereognosis:> The ability to identify objects by handling them with out looking at them is called stereognosis.> Ability obviously depends upon relatively intact touch & pressure sensation & is compromised when the dorsal columns are dam- aged.> It also has a large cortical component; impaired cortex & sometimes occurs in the absence of any detectable defect in touch & pressure sensation when there is a lesion in the parietal lobe posterior to the postcentral gyrus.


Question: Pulmonary function changes seen in Emphysema are

Changes in lung function tests in obstructive lung diseases- Eg: Emphysema
TLC- Increase
RV- Increase
FRC- Increase
Peak expiratory flow rate- Decrease
FEV1- Decreased out of proportion to FVC (Forced vital capacity)
Forced expiratory vital capacity (FEVC)- Normal to slightly decreased
FEV1/FEVC- Decreased (May decrease as low as 20-30%)
Changes in lung function tests in restrictive lung diseases
TLC- Decreased
RV- Decreased
FRC- Decreased
Forced mid-expiratory flow rate- Decrease
FEV1- Decreased in proportion to FVC (Forced vital capacity)
Forced vital capacity (FVC)- Decreased
FEV1/FEVC- Near-normal or increased.
Lung compliance- decreased
Diffusion capacity- decreased


Question: The extrinsic pathway of clotting is activated by

The extrinsic system is triggered by the release of tissue thromboplastin, a protein–phospholipid mixture that activates factor VII.


Question: The nerve root value of knee jerk reflex is

(B) L2 L3 L4 > Knee Jerk reflex: Striking the patellar tendon with a tendon hammer just below the patella stretches the sensory nerve fiber of the femoral nerve which synapses (without interneurons) at the level of L4 in the spinal cord, completely independent of higher centres.> From there, an alpha-motor neuron conducts an efferent impulse back to the quadriceps femoris muscle, triggering contraction.> This contraction, coordinated with the relaxation of the antagonistic flexor hamstring muscle causes the leg to kick> This reflex helps maintain posture and balance, allowing one to walk without consciously thinking about each step.> The patellar reflex is a clinical and classic example of the monosynaptic reflex arc.> There is no interneuron in the pathway leading to contraction of the quadriceps muscle.> Instead the bipolar sensory neuron synapses directly on a motor neuron in the spinal cord. However, there is an inhibitory interneuron used to relax the antagonistic hamstring muscle.> It tests L2, L3, and L4.


Question: Functional residual capacity represents the volume of air remaining in lungs

Functional residual capacity * Functional residual capacity is the volume of air remaining in the lungs after expiration of a normal breath * Normal value - 2.5 L * (Residual volume + Expiratory reserve volume) Ref:- Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology 25th ed; pg num:- 629


Question: Myocardial oxygen demand depend upon

Oxygen consumption has also been shown to be nearly propoional to the tension that occurs in the hea muscle during contractionOxygen consumption has also been shown to be nearly propoional to the tension that occurs in the hea muscle during contraction multiplied by the duration of time that the contraction persists, called the tension-time indexRef: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology (12th Edn) page No:209


Question: Stereocilia and kinocilium are present in

(B) Inner ear > A kinocilium is a special type of cilium on the apex of hair cells located in the sensory epithelium of the vertebrate inner ear. Stereocilia (or stereovilli) are apical modifications of the cell, which are distinct from cilia and microvilli, but closely related to the latter. They are found in three regions of the body: the ductus deferens, the epididymis and the inner ear.


Question: Hyperinflation of the lungs is prevented by

Hering-Breuer inflation reflex: This reflex is mediated by pulmonary stretch receptors in which inflation of lungs above a particular volume results in reflex inhibition of inspiration and union of expiration.
The reflex tends to limit the tidal volume while increasing the respiratory frequency.
Hering-Breuer deflation reflex: - Rapid deflation of lungs tends to initiate prolonged inspiration, i.e., reflex hyperpnea in response to deflation.


Question: The following diagram is from adrenal gland, name the hormone produced from the area marked as "A"

Layer A is Zona glomerulosa, it produces aldosterone Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 353


Question: CO2 content in aerial blood is

Approximately 49 mL of CO2 in each deciliter of aerial bloodRef: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No: 613


Question: Thickening of axon leads to

Thickening of axon leads to increased speed of conduction as the action potential velocity increases propoionately with axon diameter. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:76,77,78


Question: Blood supply of liver in ml/min. is

The blood inflow rate to the liver is about 1500 mL/min in a normal adult. On the other hand, blood draw rates to a BAL system are restricted to the range of 100-300 mL/min. Toxins that are rapidly cleared by the liver (for example, the ammonia clearance of the normal human liver is several hundred mL/min) cannot be effectively eliminated from the systemic blood by BAL systems currently under clinical evaluation. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:418,419,420


Question: 'd' (delt

(A) Deep sleep # A delta wave is a large, slow (2 Hz or less) brain wave recorded with an EEG and is usually associated with deep sleep.> Delta activity is characterized by frequencies under 3 Hz and is absent in awake healthy adults, but is physiological and normal in awake children under the age of 13 years.> Delta waves are also naturally present in stage three and four of sleep (deep sleep) but not in stages 1,2, and rapid eye movement (REM) of sleep. Finally, delta rhythm can be observed in cases of brain injury and comatic patients.> Human non-rapid eye movement (NREM) sleep is divided in the categories 2,3, and 4 by the percentage of slow waves.> "Delta waves occur mainly in infants, sleeping adults or adults with brain tumors. Theta waves occur mainly in children ages 2-5 years old. Alpha waves occur in adults who have their eyes closed or who are relaxed. Beta waves mainly occur in adults who are awake, alert or focused."


Question: Elimination of waste product from a normal person requires a minimal amount of urine of

For excretion of solutes (waste products) from kidney:-
Normal (at a concentration of 290 mOsm/L) → 1 litre of urine per day is required.
When there is maximum concentration (1400 mOsm/L) → Only 500 ml of urine per day is required.
When there is maximum dilution (30-50 mOsm/L) → 23.3 L of urine is required.


Question: Result of storage of packed RBCs

Answer: b) Decrease in 2-3DPG.* 2, 3-BPG is essential for the normal oxygen transport function of hemoglobin.* However, storing blood in the currently available media results in a decrease in 2, 3-PBG.* Stored blood displays an abnormally high oxygen affinity, and fails to unload its bound oxygen properly in the tissues.* Hemoglobin deficient in 2,3-BPG thus acts as an oxygen "trap" rather than as an oxygen transport system.* Transfused RBCs are able to restore their depleted supplies of 2,3-BPG in 6-24 hours.* However, severely ill patients may be compromised if transfused with large quantities of such 2, 3-BPG-"stripped" blood.* Note: The maximum storage time for red cells has been doubled (21 to 42 days, with median time of 15 days) by changes in H+, phosphate and hexose sugar concentration, and by the addition of adenine. Although the content of 2,3-BPG was not greatly affected by these changes, ATP production was increased and improved RBC survival.* Transfusion of large volumes of stored blood, which has a low level of 2,3-BPG can lead to sudden hypoxia, since it can cause a left-shifted ODC.


Question: CO2 is primarily transpoed in the aerial blood as

D i.e. Bicarbonate Transpo of CO2 in the form of bicarbonate ions accounts for approximately 70% of transpoed carbon dioxide from the tissues to lungs Q. So CO2 is transpoed as plasma HCO3 - > RBC > HCO3- > Carbamino compound > dissolved CO2 Q &Transpo of Carbon Dioxide Carbon dioxide is transpoed in the blood as: HCO3- (70%) > carbamino compounds (23%) > dissolved CO2 (7%) Chloride Shift/ Hamburger Phenomenon When the negatively charged (HCO3-) bicarbonate ions move out of red blood cell into the plasma, to maintain the electrolytic equilibrium the negatively charged chloride ions move into the Red blood Cells from plasma (In plasma plenty of sodium chloride is present). This process is mediated by band 3 membrane protein Chloride shift occurs in: 1 secondQ Hematocrit of venous blood is: greater (by 3%)than that of aerial bloodQ PH of venous blood (7.36) is lower than that of aerial blood (7.40)Q * For each CO2 molecule added to RBC there is increase in one osmotically active paicle in cell either HCO3- or CI-. So RBC take up water & swell. For this reason plus a fact that some aerial fluid returns lymphatics rather than the veins, the hematocrit of venous blood is 3% greater than aerial bloodQ. Amount of 02 enters the body/min = 250 inVininQ Amount of CO2 excreted by lung/ min = 200 inVininQ (288 L/day)Q * CO2 is 20 times more soluble than 02


Question: Cyanosis does not occur in severe anemia because

Because reduced Hb is purple, a low aerial O2 saturation causes cyanosis. However, this is not a reliable sign of mild desaturation because its recognition depends on so many variables, such as lighting conditions and skin pigmentation. Because it is the amount of reduced Hb that is impoant, cyanosis is often marked when polycythemia is present but is difficult to detect in anemic patients.

Hypoxia stimulates erythropoietin secretion

Oxygen carrying capacity of available Hb is increased

Critical concentration of Hb required to produce cyanosis is reduced

Oxygen Dissociation Curve shifts to right


Question: Feilization occurs at

The ampulla is the second poion of the fallopian tube. It is an intermediate dilated poion, which curves over the ovary.It is the most common site of human feilization.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-413


Question: HCO3 is absorbed through

Renal Tubular Reabsorption and Secretion


Question: Not absorbed from the PCT

PCT is the convoluted poion of the veebrate nephron lying between Bowman&;s capsule and the loop of Henle; functions in the resorption of sugar, sodium and chloride ions, and water.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no; 685


Question: Ganglion of hay fever is

In hay fever, the allergen-reagin reaction occurs in the nose. Histamine released in response to the reaction causes local intranasal vascular dilation, with resultant increased capillary pressure and increased capillary permeability. Both these effects cause rapid fluid leakage into the nasal cavities and into associated deeper tissues of the nose, and the nasal linings become swollen and secretory. Pterygopalatine ganglion is also called as hay fever ganglion because it serves as a relay station for secretomotor fibres to the -lacrimal glands -mucous glands of nose -paranasal sinuses -palate -pharynx. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 671,672,673


Question: Minimal reabsorption in kidney occurs for

Minimal reabsorption for ureaRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no; 682, 681


Question: In a normal resting person, breathing air at sea level with RQ of 0.8, Pa CO2 of 40mm Hg, Pi O2 of 149 mm Hg and Fi O2 of 21 %. Calculate alveolar partial pressure of oxygen

From Alveolar Gas Equation,
Alveolar partial pressure of Oxygen is


Question: Carbon dioxide transpoed in blood mostly as

Transpo of Carbon Dioxide in the Blood Carbon dioxide molecules are transpoed in the blood from body tissues to the lungs by one of three methods: dissolution directly into the blood, binding to hemoglobin, or carried as a bicarbonate ion. Several propeies of carbon dioxide in the blood affect its transpo Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:359,360,361


Question: A mountaineer ascents 18,000 feet in 2 days without supplemental oxygen. At the height of ascent the changes area) ↑ed PaCO2b) ↓ed Barometric pressurec) ↓ed Inspired O2 d) ↓ed PaO2e) ↑ed pH

At high altitude, the atmospheric pressure is low and partial pressure of O2 in air is low. This results in decreased PaO2, though the fraction of inspired air remains same. Hyperventilation results in CO2 washout and respiratory alkalosis.


Question: Erythropoietin is/are produced by

Ans. (b) Interstitial cells of the peritubular capillary bed of the kidneys(Ref. Ganong25th edp.701)Major source of erythropoietin is Interstitial cells of the peritubular capillary bed of the kidneys


Question: Golgi tendons and muscle fibre ratio are

Approximately about 1 golgi tendon organ innervate 10 to 20 muscle fibers They are responsible for inverse stretch reflex Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:689


Question: Tremors on movements is seen in


Question: The representational hemisphere (cerebral) is better than the categorical hemisphere at

Left hemisphere is specialized for language and analytical ability, and is also called categorical hemisphere. The right hemisphere specialized for visuospatial ability is the representational hemisphere --is true for 97% of all people Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:543,544,545


Question: Total cutaneous blood flow is

At rest, the cutaneous blood flow is approximately 450 ml/min in the average ... It accounts for 5% of the total body oxygen consumption.


Question: Inhibitory Neurotransmitter in brain (Cerebellum, cerebral cortex etc.) is

(A) GABA # Inhibitory amino acids:> Glycine in brain stem & spinal cord> GABA in brain (Cerebellum, cerebral cortex etc.)# Excitatory amino acids:> Glutamate in cerebral cortex & brain stem> Aspartate in spinal cord.


Question: Compliance of lungs is measured by

For practical purpose, lung compliance is measured by different methods. Based on the method of measurement, lung compliance can be described as static or dynamic Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 318,319,320


Question: Function of oxytocin

Oxytocin - a hypothalamic hormone stored in and released from the posterior pituitary; it may also be prepared synthetically or obtained from the posterior pituitary of domestic animals. It acts as a powerful stimulant to the pregnant uterus, especially toward the end of gestation, and also causes milk to be expressed from the alveoli into the lactiferous ducts during breastfeeding.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no:-311


Question: Pressure sensation is carried by


Question: Increase in threshold level on applying subthreshold, slowly rising stimulus is kia


Question: Bile acids are synthesized from

Bile is a digestive juice formed continuously in liver. Bile contains organic substances like bile salts which are formed when conjugated bile acids combine with Na/K. Bile acids are of two types: Primary bile acids are choilc acid & chenodeoxycholic acid.These are synthesized by hepatocytes from cholesterol. Secondary bile acids are deoxycholic acid & lithocholic acid. These are formed from the primary bile acids in the colon by the action of intestinal bacteria.Ref: Medical Physiology, Indu Khurana


Question: On acclimatizing to new height, our body maintains the body pH by

Ans: d (Increasing 2,3-DPG) Ref: Ganong 22nd ed/ p.686AcclimatizationAn acclimatized person is one who has developed compensatory mechanisms, so that hypoxia causes less adverse effects on the body.Compensatory mechanisms in acclimatization:-*Ventilatorv response:-The initial ventilatory response is small as alkalosis tends to counteract effect of hypoxia. However, ventilation increases over the next 4 days. After 4 days, ventilatory response begins to decline slowly.The respiratory alkalosis produced by hyperventilation shifts O2-Hb dissociation curve to the left, but a concomitant increase in 2,3- DPG tends to decrease the O2 affinity of haemoglobin.*Bloodresponse:-Erythropoetin secretion increases and then falls after 4 days.The increase in RBC begins in 2-3 days (polycythemia)* Compensatory changes in tissue:-Mitochondria increases in number.Myoglobin increases.Cytochrome oxidase content increases.


Question: Transpo of neutral substances across the cell membrane occurs

D i.e. DiffusionTranspo simple passive diffusion is oured by small size, lipid solubility (hydrophobicity) absence of charge (neutrality), and absence of polarity (nonpolar nature)Q.


Question: Resting membrane potential in nerve fibre

D i.e. Depends on potassium ion equilibrium

Is equal to the potential of ventricular muscle fibre

Increases as extra cellular K+ increases


Question: Striate coex of brain controls

Striate coex is the primary sensory coical area for vision. Damage to striate coex causes blind regions, called scotomas, in the field of vision Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:753,754,755


Question: Fouh hea sound is caused by

A fouh sound can sometimes be heard immediately before the first sound when atrial pressure is high or the ventricle is stiff in conditions such as ventricular hyperophy. It is due to ventricular filling and is rarely heard in normal adults.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 542


Question: The mass movement of the colon would be abolished by

Distension of the colon and gastro - colic reflex stimulates mass movement through the myenteric plexus / Auerbach plexus. So if it destroyed, mass movement gets abolished.


Question: Elasticity of hea muscle mainly depends on

Titin, the largest known protein (with a molecular mass near 3,000,000 Da), connects the Z lines to the M lines and provides scaffolding for the sarcomere. It contains two kinds of folded domains that provide muscle with its elasticity.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 101


Question: Plasma ceruloplasmin alpha 2 globulin is a


Question: Resting membrane potential is maintained due to

K+ is responsible for resting membrane potential It diffuses passively across the k+ channal from high to low concentration Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:34,35,36


Question: Major androgen precursor from adrenal coex is

DHEA( dehydroepiandrosterone) is an androgenic steroid hormone secreted largely by the adrenal coex and found in human urine.(DHEA), Asteroid secreted chiefly by the adrenal coex, but also by the testis; it is the principal precursor of urinary 17-ketosteroids. Weakly androgenic itself, it is metabolized to d-5 androstenediol, a hormone with both androgenic and estrogenic effects, and is one of the precursors of testosterone. Serum levels are elevated in adrenal virilism. It may function as a neurotransmitter.Dihydrotestosterone an androgenic hormone formed in peripheral tissue from testosterone; thought to be the androgen responsible for development of the male primary sex characters during embryogenesis and of male secondary sex characters at pubey, and for adult male sexual function.Testosterone the principal male sex hormone (androgen) that is produced by Leydig&;s cells of the testes in response to luteinizing hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. Androstenedione an androgenic steroid produced by the testis, adrenal coex, and ovary; conveed metabolically to testosterone and other androgens.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-423


Question: Myotatic reflex is carried by

The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. It is a monosynaptic reflex which provides automatic regulation of skeletal muscle length. When a muscle lengthens, the muscle spindle is stretched and its nerve activity increases.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 158


Question: Disruption of the hypothalamic pituitary poal system will lead to

High circulating levels of PRL, low levels of LH and FSH, and ovarian atrophy

Enhanced follicular development as a result of increased circulating levels of PRL

Ovulation, followed by increased circulating levels of progesterone

A reduction of ovarian inhibin levels, followed by increased circulating FSH


Question: Afferent fibres for stretch reflex includes


Question: Ovarian reserve is best indicated by

B i.e. FSHOvarian reserve can be best assessed by measuring FSH levels on 3rd day of menstrual cycle, clomiphene citrate challenge / provocative test (measures FSH levels on cycle day 10 after antiestrogen clomiphene citrate 100 mg administration from day 5 to 9). Serum inhibin B level and ultrasonic scanning to count the number of antral follicles in ovary are other methods.Ovarian Reserve- It refers to the size of resting / nongrowing /primordial follicle population, which reflects the quantity (no) of growing follicles and quality of oocytes within it. So ovarian reserve determines the functional reproductive potential of ovary.- Under the influence of FSH and LH, there is rapid growth of several follicles in ovary, during first few days of each menstrual cycle. But after a week only 1 follicle begins to outgrow all the others /which involute by a process called atresia and thus preventing more than one child from developing with each pregnancy).- Ovarian reserve (& capacity of ovary to produce eggs) decline with advancing age. Best predictor of ovarian reserve is age. Tests that can determine ovarian reserve include


Question: Albumin exeing high oncotic pressure because

Albumin (69000)molecular weight is less compared to globulin(90000-150000) and fibrinogen (340000).80%of osmotic pressure of blood is exeed by albumin since it has highest concentration. Ref: Textbook of medical physiology by N Geetha, 2nd edition, page no. 67

High molecular weight and low concentration

Low molecular weight and high concentration*

High molecular weight and high concentration

Low molecular weight and low concentration


Question: The parvocellular pathway, from the lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex, carries signals for the detection of

The parvocellular pathway, from the lateral geniculate nucleus (Layers 3-6) to the visual cortex, carries signals for the detection of colour vision, texture, shape and fine details.


Question: Spermatogenesis takes place in

Spermatogenesis is the entire process by which spermatogonial stem cells(in seminiferous tubule) divide and differentiate into sperms. The process has three phases: spermatocytogenesis, meiosis, and spermiogenesis.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-420


Question: Area of brain responsible for self stimulation reward on induction


Question: Normal plasma osmolality in mOsmol/kg H2O

The osmolarity is the number of osmoles per litre of solution The freezing point of normal human plasma averages -0.54 degC, which corresponds to an osmolal concentration in plasma of 290 mOsm/L Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No:6


Question: Group B muscle fibres are


Question: "Umami" is type of

Ans. c (Taste sensation) (Ref. Ganong Physiology 23rd/pg. Chapter 10, Figure 10-6.)Umami is the fifth taste sense triggered by glutamate and particularly by the monosodium glutamate (MSG) used so extensively in Asian cooking. The taste is pleasant and sweet but differs from the standard sweet taste. The action of umami receptors explains why foods treated with MSG often taste fuller.UMAMI# Humans have five established basic tastes: sweet, sour, bitter, salt, and umami.# Umami is one of the five basic tastes sensed by specialized receptor cells present on the human tongue.# Umami is a Japanese word meaning "savory" or "meaty" and thus applies to the sensation of savoriness--specifically, to the detection of glutamates, which are especially common in meats, cheese and other protein-heavy foods.# Afferent nerves to the nucleus tractus solitarius contain fibers from all types of taste buds, without any clear localization of types.TASTE RECEPTORS# The sour taste is triggered by protons.# Umami taste is due to activation of a truncated metabotopic glutamate receptor, mGluR4, in the taste buds, and the agonists are purine 5-ribonucleotides such as IMP and GMP in the food.# Bitter taste is produced by a variety of unrelated compounds, many of which are poisons. It was originally thought that a single bitter receptor was linked to the heterotrimeric G protein gustducin.# A taste modifier protein, miraculin, has been discovered in a plant. When applied to the tongue, this protein makes acids taste sweet.# A protein that binds taste-producing molecules has been cloned. It is produced by Ebner's glands--glands that secrete mucus into the cleft around vallate papillae and probably have a concentrating and transport function similar to that of the OBP in olfaction.# In humans, the taste buds are located in the mucosa of the epiglottis, palate, and pharynx and in the walls of the fungiform and vallate papillae of the tongue.# The fungiform papillae are rounded structures most numerous near the tip of the tongue; the vallate papillae are prominent structures arranged in a V on the back of the tongue. Each fungiform papilla has up to five taste buds, and they are usually located at the top of the papilla.# The larger vallate papillae each contain up to 100 taste buds, usually located along the sides of the papillae. The small conical filiform papillae that cover the dorsum of the tongue do not usually contain taste buds.# There are a total of about 10,000 taste buds.


Question: Skilled voluntary movement is initiated at

"The fundamental impulses for the muscle contraction originate from the motor cortex"


Question: Baroreceptors stimulation would result in

Baroreceptor stimulation results in

Inhibition of sympathetic activity
Excitation of parasympathetic activity
Decrease in heart rate
Decrease in blood pressure


Question: Chemical regulation of respiration is not affected by

The chemical control of breathing is aimed at maintaining the PCX and PCO2 of arterial blood at about 95 mm Hg and 40 mm Hg, respectively.
Chemical signals which regulate respiration are sensed by respiratory chemoreceptors. Respiratory chemoreceptors are sensory receptors for detection of PO2 PCO2 and pH of blood. Their location may be central ( within the CNS) or peripheral (in the PNS). They bring about reflex changes in the rate and depth of respiration in response to change in PO2 PCO2 and pH. The response to changes in PO2 (hypoxia) is mediated entirely by peripheral chemoreceptors, whereas the response to hypercapnia ( ↑ PCO2) and academia (↓ pH) is mediated mainly (75%) by central chemoreceptors and partly (25%) by peripheral chemoreceptors.


Question: 2nd hea sound is due to

The second is a shoer, high-pitched "dup" (second sound), caused by vibrations associated with the closure of the aoic and pulmonary valves just after the end of ventricular systole.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 542


Question: The second messengers cyclic AMP and cyclic GMP

The cAMP is called a second messenger because it is not the hormone itself that directly institutes the intracellular changes; instead, the cAMP serves as a second messenger to cause these effects.For a few peptide hormones, such as the atrial natriuretic peptide, cyclic guanosine monophosphate, which is only slightly different from cAMP, serves in a similar manner as a second messenger.Adenylyl Cyclase-cAMP Second Messenger SystemStimulation of adenylyl cyclase, a membrane-bound enzyme, by the Gs protein then catalyzes the conversion of a small amount of cytoplasmic adenosine triphosphate into cAMP inside the cell. This then activates cAMP-dependent protein kinase, which phosphorylates specific cell proteins, triggering biochemical reactions that ultimately lead to the cell's response to the hormone.Ref: Guyton; 13th edition; Chapter 75; Introduction to Endocrinology

Activate the same signal transduction pathways

Are generated by the activation of cyclases

Are impoant only in sensory transduction


Question: Brain pa resistant to hypoxia is

The brainstem (or brain stem) is the posterior pa of the brain, adjoining and structurally continuous with the spinal cord. In the human brain, the brainstem includes the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla oblongata. Sometimes the diencephalon, the caudal pa of the forebrain, is included.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 246


Question: The weight of the uterus at 8 weeks postpaum is

The uterus weight about 1000 to 1200 gm immediately after delivery, As a result of involution, it decreases in weight to about 500 gm by one week, and to about 30 gm at the end of second week At the end of 6 weeks, its measurement is almost similar to that of the non-pregnant state and weight about 60 gm.


Question: For development of alveolar PO2 of 60 mm Hg and high altitude illness to develop in an otherwise healthy person from sea level, rapid ascent to following height is required

People have different susceptible to altitude sickness,on an average it begins around 2000 to 3000 meters above sea level Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:375,376


Question: Beta 2 transferrin is found in

Beta 2 transferrin is found in CSF Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:813,814,815


Question: Afterhyperpolarization due to

Slow return of the K+ channels to the closed state thus K+ efflux.(Ref: Textbook of physiology AK Jain 5th edition page no.36)


Question: Best prognosis in never injury

Ans. (a) Neuropraxia(Ref: Maheshwari, orthopedics/p.60)Neuropraxia#Nerve in continuity#Due to compression or ischemia#Only local conduction block seen#Spontaneous recovery in minutes (best prognosis)


Question: Prolactin release is inhibited by

Dopamine serves as the major prolactin-inhibiting factor or brake on prolactin secretion. Dopamine is secreted into poal blood by hypothalamic neurons, binds to receptors on lactotrophs, and inhibits both the synthesis and secretion of prolactin. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 550,551,552


Question: Iron absorption occurs in


Question: In right handed individuals, the left cerebral hemisphere is more developed than the right cerebral hemisphere. The left cerebral hemisphere is mainly responsible for


Question: The maintenance of posture in a normal adult human being depends upon


Question: The part of nephron "least permeable to water" is


Question: Circadian rhythm is regulated by

Circadian rhythm refers to the rhythmic fluctuations in ceain physiological parameters of the body. The suprachiasmatic nuclei of hypothalamus are the main site of most circadian rhythms in the body. The suprachiasmatic nuclei receive impoant inputs from: The eyes retinohypothalamic fibres. The lateral geniculate nuclei. Visual fibers pass to several older areas of the brain from the optic tracts to the suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus, presumably to control circadian rhythms that synchronize various physiological changes of the body with night and day. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 810,811,812


Question: The parvocellular pathway, from die lateral geniculate nucleus to the visual cortex, carries signals for the detection of

From the lateral geniculate nucleus, a magnocellular pathway and a parvocellular pathway project to the visual cortex. The parvocellular pathway, from layers 3–6, carries signals for color vision, texture, shape, and fine detail. The parvocellular pathway also carries color opponent data to the deep part of layer 4.


Question: Calmodulin acts by

Calmodulin contains myosin light-chain kinase, which phosphorylates myosin and phosphorylase kinase which activates phosphorylase.(Ref: Textbook of physiology AK JAIN 5th edition page no.20)

Phosphorylation of myosine by protein kinase


Question: Nernst potential for K

In case of K+, concentration gradient is outwards and electric gradient is inwards. The Nernst potential of K+ is -90mV.(Ref: Textbook of physiology 5th edition page no.33)


Question: Catabolism of H2O2 is carried out by

Peroxisome contain enzyme that oxidize various organic substances producing H2O2(REF TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N, PAGE NO - 10)


Question: NERST's potential of Na+ is

NERNST potential of an ion is the potential at which there is net flow of the ion across the cell membrane..........and for sodum it's about +55mv to +60mv REF: GANONG'S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY -23rd EDITION. Page No-7)


Question: Most important buffer system present in the distal convoluted tubule

Most important buffer in proximal tubules - Bicarbonate
Most important buffer in distal tubules - Ammonia


Question: Commonest cause of Cushing syndrome is

MC cause of Cushing's syndrome is iatrogenic exogenous administration of steroids. MC endogenous cause of Cushing's syndrome is bilateral adrenal hyperplasia secondary to hypersecretion of ACTH from pituitary or from an ectopic non-pituitary source


Question: Pacemaker generating the rhythm for breathing is

Pro-Botzinger complex generates the rhythm for automated breathing. These are also known as pacemaker cells located in the medulla. These are the first set of neurons which initiate inspiration. These neurons discharge rhythmically, and they produce rhythmic discharges in the phrenic motor neurons. Breathing is under the control of both the following: Voluntary control: Located in the cerebral coex ( coicospinal tract) Automatic Control: Driven by pacemaker cells in the medulla (Pre-Botzinger complex). These activate motor neurons cervical (Phrenic nerve innervating diaphragm) and thoracic spinal cord (external intercostal muscle). There is a reciprocal innervation to expiratory and inspiratory muscles in that motor neurons supplying expiratory muscles are inactive when motor neurons supplying inspiratory muscles are active, and vice versa. Inspiration Initiation Pre-Botzinger complex (pacemaker cells) in Medulla Maintenance Apneustic center in lower pons stimulates Dorsal group of neurons in the medulla Termination Apneustic center initiated by vagus and Pneumotaxic center Regulation of expiration: During quiet breathing, expiration is a passive process; there is no firing of neurons. Ventral respiratory group of neurons are involved in forceful expiration like during excercise. Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology 26th edition Pgno: 646


Question: Aerobic capacity is increased by


Question: Most of the CO2 transported in the blood is

The CO2 that diffuses into red blood cells is rapidly hydrated to H2CO3 because of the presence of carbonic anhydrase.
The H2CO3 dissociates to H+ and HCO3-, and the H+ is buffered, primarily by hemoglobin, while the HCO3- enters the plasma.

In carbamino compounds formed from plasma proteins.

In carbamino compounds formed from hemoglobin.


Question: Maternal chromosome 15 disomy results in


Question: The inverse stretch reflex is due


Question: Spermatogenesis is mostly controlled by

Spermatogenesis is the process in which spermatozoa are produced from spermatogonial stem cells by way of mitosis and meiosis. The initial cells in this pathway are called spermatogonia, which yield primary spermatocytes by mitosis. The primary spermatocyte divides meiotically (Meiosis I) into two secondary spermatocytes; each secondary spermatocyte divides into two spermatids by Meiosis II. These develop into mature spermatozoa, also known as sperm cells.LH appears to have little role in spermatogenesis outside of inducing gonadal testosterone productionRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-420


Question: Heparin acts by activation of

Ans: c (Antithrombin III) Ref: Ganong 22nd ed/p.543.* Heparin (acid proteoglycan) binds to cationic site of antithrombin III and greatly potentiates its activity. Heparin antithrombin complex removes free thrombin from blood.* Thrombin is an activator of factor 5 and 8.* Heparin- antithrombin complex also inhibits activated clotting factors IX. X, XI, XII.* Antidote for heparin is Protamine sulphate.* Direct thrombin inhibitors are bivaluridin, lepirudin and agratroban.* Plasminogen is activated by tissue plasminogen activator (t-PA).* Plasminogen (profibrinolysin), when activated becomes plasmin (fibrinolysin), which digests fibrin and fibrinogen with the production of fibrinogen degradation products (FDP) that inhibit thrombin. It also lyses prothrombin, factor V, VIII and XII.


Question: The function of myenteric plexus is mainly

Enteric Nervous System (ENS)

Organized into ganglia interconnected by 2 plexuses:

— Outer myenteric  (Auerbach's) plexus found along entire length of GI tract
— Inner submucosal (Meissner's) plexus located only in small and large intestine

ENS contains 100 million neurons and similar diversity of neurotransmitters as CNS

— Has interneurons, sensory, autonomic ganglia.
— Peristalsis is controlled by ENS
NOTE:

Myenteric plexus is primarily concerned with motor control of longitudinal and circular muscles.
Meissner plexus is mainly involved in intestinal secretions.


Question: Relaxation of mesangial cells is caused by

Dopamine causes relaxation of mesangial cells. Other three are agents causing contraction.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd edition, page no: 646


Question: Dysmetria is seen in lesions of

Dysmetria is manifested by past pointing in the cerebellum. The cerebellum controls all aspects of movements like rate, range, direction & force of movement, hence ataxia is a prominent feature of the cerebellar disease Ref : Ganong 25th ed/page 248


Question: Pulmonary function test of FEV1 ↓, FEV1 / FVC ↑ or Normal with ↓ Compliance of lung tissue is seen in


Question: TSH secreted from the pituitary gland is under control by

Releasing factors same as those of cortisol

Releasing factors bypass neurohypophysis to act on the anterior pituitary


Question: Total lung capacity is

Total lung capacity - Maximum amount of air the lungs can contain (RV + VC)- 5900 mlRef: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 593


Question: The approximate amount of air left in the lungs after maximal forced expiration in a normal woman is


Question: Valve of Hasner is present at


Question: Glucose increases plasma insulin by a process that involves

Ans. (b) GLUT 2(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.432)The most important stimulus for secretion of insulin is glucoseGlucose enters pancreatic beta cells through glucose transporter- 2 (GLUT -2)


Question: Blood flow to brain is not influenced by

Carotid and aoic bodies have very high rates of blood flow. These receptors are primarily activated by a reduction in paial pressure of oxygen (PaO2), but they also respond to an increase in the paial pressure of carbon dioxide (PaCO2) That is chemo receptors regulating blood flow to brain are insensitive to PaO2 despite the fact that it controls O2 content Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No: 562


Question: D2O is used to measure

The concentration of the marker in the plasma is measured and from this value, the total body water can be measured. The markers are D2O, tritium oxide, aminopyrine.(Ref: Textbook of medical physiology N Geetha 2nd edition page no.61)


Question: The mode of secretion of sebaceous gland is

Sebaceous  Glands
Sebaceous glands, producing an oily secretion, are widely  distributed all over the dermis of the skin, except for the palms and soles.
Sebaceous glands are holocrine in nature, i.e. they produce their secretion by complete fatty degeneration of the central cells of the alveolus, which are then replaced by the proliferating peripheral  cells. The secretion is under hormonal control, especially the androgens. The oily secretion of sebaceous glands is called sebum.
Reference: BD Chaurasia’s Handbook of GENERAL ANATOMY Fourth  Edition page no 180


Question: Liddle syndrome is caused by a genetic defect in

Liddle syndrome is caused by hyperactivity of the Amiloride-sensitive sodium channel (ENaC) of the principal cell of the coical collecting tubule. Liddle syndrome is a rare autosomal dominant disorder of renal epithelial transpo that clinically resembles primary aldosteronism with hypeension and hypokalemia metabolic alkalosis and with low plasma renin and aldosterone levels. Bater syndrome (Mimics loop diuretics) Gitelman&;s syndrome (MImics Thiazide Diuretics) Liddle Syndrome (Mimics Primary Aldosteronism) Autosomal recessive disorders Autosomal recessive disorder Autosomal Dominant Genetic defect in the thick ascending limb of loop of henle Defects in Na-K-2Cl co-transpoer , K or Cl channels result in lack of concentrating ability Genetic defect in the distal tubule Defect in Na-Cl cotranspoer in the distal tubule Genetic defect in the collecting tubule Caused by hyperactivity of the Amiloride-sensitive sodium channel (ENaC) of the principal cell of the coical collecting tubule Presentation Diagnosis Hypokalemic- Metabolic acidosis with Hypeension Liddle&;s syndrome Hypokalemic Metabolic Alkalosis without hypeension Bater syndrome (Increased urinary Ca Excretion) Gitelman&;s syndrome (Decreased Urinary Ca Excretion) Ref: Ganong

Na-K-2Cl co-transpoer in the thick ascending limb of loop of henle

ENasodium Channel in collecting duct/tubule

The aquaporin 2 (AQP2) channel in collecting duct


Question: At the sta of inspiration, the intrapleural pressure at the base of the lungs is

At the sta of inspiration intrapleural pressure of the lung is 2.5 mm HG Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:316,317,318


Question: Group A nerve fibers most susceptible to


Question: "Intranuclear inclusions" in oligodendrocytes are seen in

progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy, JC virus-infected oligodendroglia display 2 distinct patterns of intranuclear viral inclusions: full inclusions in which progeny virions are present throughout enlarged nuclei and dot-shaped inclusions in which virions are clustered in subnuclear domains termed "promyelocytic leukemia nuclear bodies" (PML-NBs) Surrounding the demyelinated areas, the oligodendrocytes are enlarged and contain intranuclear inclusionbodies filled with papovavirus paicles, often forming pseudocrystalline arrays Ref ganong's review of medical physiology 25e


Question: | ECF K+ levels are seen in

(C) Endolymph # Endolymph is formed in the scala media by the stria vascularis and has a high concentration of K+ and a low concentrtion of Na+.> Cells in the stria vascularis have a high concentration of Na+-K+ATPase.> In addition, it appears that there is a unique electrogenic K+ pump in the stria vascularis, which accounts for the fact that the scala media is electrically positive by 85 mV relative to the scala vestibuli and scala tympani.


Question: Nightmare is seen in

REM sleep events
-        Narcolepsy
-        Night mares

-        Nocturnal penile tumescence


Question: Amacrine cells secrete

Amacrine cells secrete neurotransmitters that act as inhibitors like GABA, Glycine, dopamine, acetylcholine, indolamine etc.


Question: Vasopressin acts bya) Water transport across collecting ductb) Water absorption at medullary ductsc) Water secretion at loop of Henled) Water transport at PCT

Angiotensin II acts on

PCT
Thick ascending limb of loop of Henle
DCT
Collecting duct

 Aldosterone acts on

Late DCT
Collecting duct

 ADH acts on

DCT
Collecting duct

 ANP acts on

DCT
Collecting duct


Question: Intrapulmonary shunting refers to

A pulmonary shunt often occurs when the alveoli fill with fluid, causing pas of the lung to be unventilated although they are still perfused. Intrapulmonary shunting is the main cause of hypoxemia (inadequate blood oxygen) in pulmonary edema and conditions such as pneumonia in which the lungs become consolidated Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:333,334,335


Question: Increase in intracranial pressure is NOT associated with

Raised intracranial pressure initiates Cushing’s reflex. Cushing’s reflex leads to a rise in arterial pressure, which restores the blood supply to the brain. At the same time, the raised BP causes reflex Bradycardia through the baroreceptors.


Question: Pricking pain, cold , crude touch is conducted by


Question: Caspase are involved in

The activation of the caspase cascade is the most central step in apoptosis.


Question: Slow vibration sensation is mediated by

Touch and pressure are sensed by 4 types of mechanoreceptors : Meissner's corpuscles (respond to changes in texture. and slow vibrations) Merkel cells (respond to sustained pressure and touch) Ruffini corpuscles (respond to sustained pressure ) Pacinian corpuscles (respond to deep pressure and fast vibrations) Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology 26th edition pg no: 382


Question: Compared with serum, CSF has

Compared with serum, cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) has a higher chloride concentration. CSF is an ultrafiltrate of plasma. It is produced primarily by the choroid plexus cells in the lateral ventricles. From the lateral ventricles, CSF flows through the foramen of Munro into the third ventricle, through the aqueduct of Sylvius, and into the fouh ventricle. It then exits the fouh ventricle through the foramina of Luschka and Magendie and enters the subarachnoid space located between the arachnoid and pia mater. The CSF in the subarachnoid space cushions the brain and spinal cord. CSF is resorbed through the arachnoid villi, extending into the dural venous sinuses located along the summit of the brain. The venous sinuses empty into the jugular venous system.CSF has a lower glucose, lower protein (15 to 45 mg/dl), fewer lymphocytes, and higher chloride (120 to 130 mEq/dl) than serum. These differences help distinguish serum from CSF in trauma cases.


Question: Preload leads to

The force of contraction of cardiac muscle depends on its preloading and its after loading. The initial phase of contraction is isometric; the elastic component in series with the contractile element is stretched and the tension increases until it is sufficient to lift the load. The tension at which load is lifted is the afterload. The muscle then contracts isotonically. In vivo preload is the degree to which myocardium is stretched before it contracts.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology, 24th edition.Pg no. 547

Parasympathetic nervous system activation


Question: Local anesthetics depress transmission first in

Local anesthetics depress transmission in the group C fibre before they affect group A touch fibres. Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology;25th edition; pg: 95.


Question: Ohopnea is hea failure develops due to

When a normal individual lies down, the pulmonary blood volume increases by up to 400 mL When the person stands up this blood is discharged into the general circulation. This shift is the cause of the decrease in vital capacity in the supine position and is responsible for the occurrence of ohopnea in hea failure. Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No:603 In normal individuals ,this has minimal effect but in patients whom the additional volume cannot be pumped out by the left ventricle because of disease there is a significant reduction in vital capacity and pulmonary compliance and leads to shoness of breath.


Question: Normal CSF volume in adults is

(B) 150 ml # CEREBROSPINAL FLUID:> Lumbar CSF pressure is normally 70-180 mm CSF.> Up to pressures well above this range, the rate of CSF formation is independent of intraventricular pressure.> However, absorption, which takes place largely by bulk flow, is proportionate to the pressure.> At a pressure of 112 mm CSF, which is the average normal CSF pressure, filtration and absorption are equal.> Below a pressure of approximately 68 mm CSF, absorption stops.


Question: The inverse stretch reflex is due to

The receptor for the inverse stretch reflux is in the Golgi tendon organ.(Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 23rd edition page no.162)


Question: The hormone associated with cold adaption is


Question: P wave is absent

Ans. (a) Atrial fibrillationRef: Ganong, 25th ed/p.524P wave is absent in atrial fibrillationInstead of p waves, only fibrillatory f waves are seenP wave is absent also in hyperkalemia


Question: Most distinguishing feature between skeletal muscle and smooth muscle

Troponin is the calcium binding protein in the Skeletal muscle. In smooth muscle, calmodulin is the calcium binding protein. (REF: TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N 2 EDITION, PAGE NO - 40,59)


Question: At the end of isovolumetric relaxation phase


Question: In infants, defecation often follows a meal. The cause Gastroileal reflex of colonic contractions in this situation is

Gastrocolic reflex refers to the contraction of colon induced by entry of food into the stomach. This reflex results in an urge to defaecate after a meal. Because of this, defaecation after meals is a rule in children.However, in adults, the bowel training suppresses this reflex. Ref: Medical physiology, Indu Khurana


Question: The setting of posture before a planned movement is believed to be by

Premotor cortex is believed to be involved in getting prepared the body for a planned movement, especially the control of proximal limb muscles needed to orient the body for movement.


Question: Submucosal plexus of GIT

Two major networks of nerve fibers are intrinsic to the gastrointestinal tract: the myenteric plexus (Auerbach's plexus), between the outer longitudinal and middle circular muscle layers, and the submucous plexus (Meissner's plexus), between the middle circular layer and the mucosa. Collectively, these neurons constitute the enteric nervous system. The system contains about 100 million sensory neurons, interneurons, and motor neurons in humans--as many as are found in the whole spinal cord and the system is probably best viewed as a displaced pa of the central nervous system (CNS) that is concerned with the regulation of gastrointestinal function. It is sometimes referred to as the "little brain" for this reason. It is connected to the CNS by parasympathetic and sympathetic fibers but can function autonomously without these connections. The myenteric plexus innervates the longitudinal and circular smooth muscle layers and is concerned primarily with motor control, whereas the submucous plexus innervates the glandular epithelium, intestinal endocrine cells, and submucosal blood vessels and is primarily involved in the control of intestinal secretion. The neurotransmitters in the system include acetylcholine, the amines norepinephrine and serotonin, the amino acid g-aminobutyrate (GABA), the purine adenosine triphosphate (ATP), the gases NO and CO, and many different peptides and polypeptides. Some of these peptides also act in a paracrine fashion, and some enter the bloodstream, becoming hormones. Not surprisingly, most of them are also found in the brain.REF: GANONG&;S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY, KIM BARRETT, HEDDWEN BROOKS, SCOTT BOITANO, SUSAN BARMANTWENTY THIRD EDITIONPAGE NO:448


Question: The blood pressure measured by a sphygmomanometer

At the point at which systolic pressure in the aery just exceeds the cuff pressure, a spu of blood passes through with each heabeat and, synchronously with each beat, a tapping sound is heard below the cuff.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology 25th Edition. Page: 577


Question: Mineral essential for Hb synthesis


Question: Daily insensible water loss through respiratory tract is

insensible water loss includes respiratory loss and water loss through skin Water loss through skin-350 Insensible loss through respiratory tract-350 Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition pg 43


Question: Regarding Dead space Volume in a normal individual

The space in the trachea, bronchi, and other air passages which contains air that does not reach the alveoli during respiration, the amount of air being about 140 milliliters. Also known as anatomical dead space. (physiology) A calculated expression of the anatomical dead space plus whatever degree of overventilation or underperfusion is present; it is alleged to reflect the relationship of ventilation to pulmonary capillary perfusion. Also known as physiological dead space.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23ed edition, page no:599

Anatomical dead space>Physiological dead space

Anatomical dead space=Physiological dead space

Anatomical dead space<Physiological dead space

Anatomical dead space is not related to Physiological dead space


Question: Micelles are formed by

Bile salts help in the absorption of Fatty acidsMonoglycerides CholesterolOther lipids from the intestinal tractThey do this by forming very small physical complexes with these lipids; the complexes are called micelles. As amphipathic molecules with hydrophobic and hydrophilic regions, conjugated bile salts sit at the lipid/water interface and, at the right concentration, form micelles. Ref:Guyton ,11e,pg no:840


Question: The decrease in p50 in Oxygen Dissociation curve is due to increase in

Conversely, a fall in temperature or a rise in pH shifts the curve to the left, and a lower Po2 is required to bind a given amount of O2. A convenient index for comparison of such shifts is the P50, the Po2 at which hemoglobin is half saturated with O2. The higher the P50, the lower the affinity of hemoglobin for O2. Reference: Berne& Levy Physiology updated 6th ed, p 462


Question: Inner mitochondrial membrane contains protein to lipid ratio as


Question: The resting membrane potential depends mainly on gradient of

Ans. b (Potassium). (Ref. Ganong Physiology, 21st ed., 55, 56)Myocardial action potentialPhase 0Rapid upstrokeVoltage-gated Na-channels open.Phase 1Initial repolarizationInactivation of voltage-gated Na+ balances K+ effiux.Phase 2PlateauCa2+ influx through voltage-gated Ca2+ channels balances K+ efflux.Ca2+ influx triggers myocyte contraction.Phase 3Rapid repolarizationMassive K+ efflux due to opening of voltage gated slow K+ channels and closure of voltage-gated Ca2+ channelsPhase 4Resting potentialHigh K+ permeability through K+ channels


Question: Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed from PCT or absorbed from intestinal lumen by

Glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed from PCT by sympo along with sodium. Ref: Ganong's review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no; 682 Ref of image;


Question: Bitemporal hemianopia is seen in lesion of

(B) Optic chiasma > Bitemporal hemianopsia - The loss of the fields closest to the temples.Bitemporal hemianopsia most commonly occurs as a result of tumors located at the mid-optic chiasm.> Since the adjacent structure is the pituitary gland, some common tumors causing compression are pituitary adenomas, and craniopharyngiomas.> Also another relatively common neoplastic etiology is meningiomas. An etiology of vascular origin is an aneurysm of the anterior communicating artery which arise superior to the chiasm, enlarge, and compress it from above.


Question: Volume of blood in a child, per kg of body weight

Newborn baby weighing between 5 and 8 lbs. (2.3 to 3.6 kg) has only about 1 cup (0.2 liters) of blood in their body. therefore approximately per kg of body weight, it comes around 60-70kg.


Question: Bowl of spaghetti appearance is seen in

Some of the filamentous (negatively stained) virions were fused together, end-to-end, giving the appearance of a "bowl of spaghetti."


Question: Sensitivity of chemoreceptors in COPD

The main chemoreceptors involved in respiratory feedback are: Central chemoreceptors: These are located on the ventrolateral surface of medulla oblongata and detect changes in the pH of spinal fluid. They can be desensitized over time from chronic hypoxia (oxygen deficiency) and increased carbon dioxide Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:365,366,367


Question: The electrical potential difference necessary for a single ion to be at equilibrium across a membrane is best described by the

At normal body temperature (37degC), the electrical difference that will balance a given concentration difference of univalent ions--such as Na+ ions--can be determined from the following formula, called the Nernst equation.Ref: Guyton; 13th edition; Chapter 4 Transpo of Substances Through Cell Membranes


Question: Ectopic rest of normal tissue is known as

choristoma is an ectopic rest of normal tissue. These are proliferation of any histologically normal tissue in an abnormal location Ref ganong's review of medical physiology 25e


Question: Efferent's from cerebellum is through

The only output from the cerebellum is the axons of Purkinje cells, they are the biggest neurons of CNS & are inhibitory in nature (GABA ) Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 250


Question: Thromboxane A, is produced mainly by

Platelet Activating Factor(PAF) secreted by platelets act G protein-coupled receptor to produce arachidonic acid derivative like Thromboxane A2 Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition pg no:75 Thromboxane A2 is produced by activated platelets during hemostasis and has prothrombotic activity. It activates new platelets and increase platelet aggregation.


Question: Major cation in ECF

Na, K ATPase catalyzes the hydrolysis of ATP to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and uses the energy to extrude three Na+ from the cell to ECF and take two K+ into the cell for each molecule of ATP hydrolyzed.(REF: GANONG'S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY 23rd EDITION page no.47.)


Question: Calculate alveolar ventilation per minute of a patient with respiratory rate of 12/min, tidal volume is 500ml.

Alveolar Ventilation
= (Tidal volume - Dead space) X Respiratory rate
= (500 - 150) X 12
= 350 X 12
= 4.2 L / min


Question: Following change is noted during exercise.

Body temperature increases 00767837] Heat is produced whenever muscles contract. This is due to 2 reasons The maximal efficiency for conversion of nutrient energy into muscle work, even under best conditions, is only 20 to 25 per cent. Almost all the energy used to contract the muscle is conveed into heat d/t overcoming viscous resistance to the movement of the muscle and joints. overcoming the friction of blood flowing through the blood vessels. other similar effects. Changes in Muscle blood flow during exercise: The blood flow of resting skeletal muscle is low (2-4 ml./100 g/inin). The muscle blood flow can increase a maximum of about 25 fold during the most strenuous exercise. Almost one half of this increase in flow is due to intramuscular vasodilatation caused by the direct effects of increased muscle metabolism. The remaining increase results from multiple factors, the most impoant of which is probably the moderate increase in aerial blood pressure that occurs in exercise, usually about a 30 per cent increase. The increase in pressure not only forces more blood through the blood vessels but also stretches the walls of the aerioles and fuher reduces the vascular resistance. The local mechanisms maintaining a high blood flow in exercising muscle include a fall in tissue P02, a rise in tissue PCO2, and accumulation of K+, and other vasodilator metabolites. The rise in temperature fuher dilates the vessels. The increase in blood flow is instantaneous (and not half a minute later). When the contractions first begin, blood flow briefly decreases because of compressive forces exeed by the contracting muscles on the vasculature within the muscle. Each time the muscles contract aerial inflow decreases due to extravascular compression, and then aerial inflow increases as the muscles relax. This is repeated each time the muscles contract and relax. If flow were measured in the outflow vein, the venous outflow would increase during contraction and decrease during relaxation - the opposite of what occurs on the aerial side of the circulation. After just a couple of seconds, mean and peak flows begin to increase. After 15-20 seconds the increased flow will reach a steady state that is determined by the force and frequency of contraction, and the metabolic demands of the tissue. When contractions cease, blood flow may transiently increase because of the loss of compressive forces, and then over the next minute or so the flow will return to control. Blood flow can sometime increase at or even before the sta of exercise. This shows that the initial rise in muscle blood flow in probably a neurally mediated response. Once exercise has staed the high blood flow is maintained by the local mechanisms as described above. Blood flow to brain remains unchanged during exercise. Below given table shows that exercise causes increased blood flow to the exercising muscle with reduction of flow to liver, kidney, GI tract and inactive muscles. Blood flow to the brain remains unchanged. Quiet standing Exercise Cardiac Output 5900 24000 Blood flow to: Hea 250 1000 Brain 750 750 Active skeletal muscle 650 20850 Inactive skeletal ' muscle 650 300 Skin 500 500 Kidney, liver, GIT 3100 600 Lymphatic Flow: The lymphatic system. unlike the circulatory system, has no pump to move lymph fluid. Any form of exercise that incorporates major muscle groups and deep breathing will encourage lymph flow. Muscle movement squeezes lymph vessels.

Blood flow to brain increases with increase in mean systolic blood pressure.

Blood flow to muscles increase after half a minute.


Question: Human brain is more intelligent than monkey's brain due to

Association areas, which are related to intelligence and higher functions, are about 85% of the human brain. These are smaller in other animals.

Increased brain area compared to body surface area


Question: The first reflex response to appear as spinal Shock wears off in humans is

(B) Withdrawal reflex CENTERREFLEXESCerebral cortex* Conditional reflexes* Optical righting reflex* Placing reaction* Hooping reactionSpinal cord* Stretch reflexes* Positive supporting reaction* Negative supporting reactionMidbrain* Righting reflexes* Neck righting reflex* Labrynthine righting reflex* Body or head righting reflex* Body on body righting reflex* Locomotor reflexesMedulla* Tonic labrynthine reflex* Tonic neck reflexThalamus* Locomotor reflex


Question: Difference in trajectory between inspiratory loop and the expiratory loop in the curve is due to

Ans. (b) Difference in conc, of surfactant during inspiration and expiration(Ref - Boron, Medical physiology, 2nd ed p.634)Important points to be noted in compliance curve are:The curve has inspiratory and expiratory componentsNote that the inspiratory and expiratory compliance curves do not coincide. This difference is called hysteresisThe difference between the inflation and the deflation paths--hysteresis--exists because a greater transpulmonary pressure is required to open a previously closed airway, owing to a deficit of surfactant at the air-water interface, than to keep an open airway from closing, reflecting abundant surfactantCompliance is the slope DV/DPThe lung volume at any given pressure is greater during expiration than during inspirationCompliance is greatest at mid pressure range

Difference in alveolar pressure during inspiration and expiration

Difference in airway resistance during inspiration and expiration

Inspiration is active and expiration is passive


Question: Pulmonary wedge pressure is indirectly

(A) Left atrial pressure # Pulmonary capillary pressure is about 10 mm Hg.> Whereas the oncotic pressure is 25 mm Hg, which keeps the alveoli free of fluid.> When pulmonary capillary pressure is more than 25 mm Hg - as it may be, for example, when there is "backward failure" of the left ventricle-pulmonary congestion and edema result.> Pulmonary capillary wedge pressure or PCWP (also called the pulmonary wedge pressure or PWP, or pulmonary artery occlusion pressure or PAOP) is the pressure measured by wedging a pulmonary catheter with an inflated balloon into a small pulmonary arlerial branch.> Because of the large compliance of the pulmonary circulation, it provides an indirect measure of the left atrial pressure.> For example, it is considered the gold standard for determining the cause of acute pulmonary edema; this is likely to be present at a PCWP of >20mmHg.> It has also been used to diagnose severity of left ventricular failure and mitral stenosisCalculating PCWP is also important in diagnosis of acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS).Physiological pressure: 6-12 mm Hg.


Question: The major initiating response for peristalsis is

The major initiating response for peristalsis is local stretching of the gut. Peristalsis is a reflex that is initiated when the gut wall is stretched by the contents of the lumen. It occurs in all pas of the gastrointestinal tract from the esophagus to the rectum. The stretch initiates a circular contraction behind the stimulus and an area of relaxation in front of it. The wave of contraction then moves in an oral-to-caudal direction. This propels the contents of the lumen forward at rates that vary from 2 to 25 cm/s Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology 26th edition Pgno: 485


Question: Pseudounipolar cells

Ans. (d) Dorsal Root Ganglion(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.86)Pseudo unipolar neuron* Are variants of bipolar cells in which one ends goes to the spinal cord and the other end goes to peripheral skin* Example- Dorsal root ganglion cell


Question: Buerger waves (alpha waves) of EEG have the rhythm per sec of

Stages of sleep and rhythm
-        Beta rhythm- Alert, awake, maximum concentration- 13-30Hz
-        Alpha rhythm- Eyes closed, mind wandering, less attentiveness- 8-13Hz
-        Theta rhythm- Stage 1 NREM- 4-7 Hz
-        Sleep spindles, K complex- Stage 2 NREM
-        Delta rhythm- Deep sleep (Stage 3 & 4 NREM)- 3-5 Hz
-        Beta Rhythm and occasional alpha rhythm- REM


Question: Cell motility is due to protein

Microtubules contains globular proteins - α and β tubulin which helps in cell motility and intracellular transport.


Question: Structure not passing through the esophageal hiatus

the esophageal hiatus is an opening in the diaphragm through which the esophagus and the vagus nerve pass. It is located in the right crus, one of the two tendinous structures that connect the diaphragm to the spine. Fibers of the right crus cross one another below the hiatus Left Phrenic Nerve Passes anteriorly over the medial pa of the left subclan aery. ... Crosses the aoic arch and bypasses the vagus nerve. Coursesalong the pericardium of the leftventricle. Pierces and innervates the inferior surface of the diaphragm


Question: Blood flow to skeletal muscles (ml/min)

Blood Flow Regulation in Skeletal Muscle at Rest and During Exercise Very strenuous exercise is one of the most stressful condi- tions that the normal circulatory system faces. This is true because there is such a large mass of skeletal muscle in the body, all of it requiring large amounts of blood flow. Also, the cardiac output often must increase in the nonathlete to four to five times normal, or in the well-trained ath- lete to six to seven times normal, to satisfy the metabolic needs of the exercising muscles. Rate of Blood Flow Through the Muscles During rest, blood flow through skeletal muscle averages 3 to 4ml/min/100g of muscle. During extreme exercise in the well-conditioned athlete, this can increase 25- to 50-fold, rising to 100 to 200ml/min/100g of muscle. Peak blood flows as high as 400ml/min/100g of muscle have been repoed in thigh muscles of endurance-trained athletes. Blood Flow During Muscle Contractions. Figure 21-1 shows a record of blood flow changes in a calf muscle of a human leg during strong rhythmical muscular exercise. Note that the flow increases and decreases with each muscle contraction. At the end of the contractions, the blood flow remains very high for a few seconds but then returns toward normal during the next few minutes. The cause of the lower flow during the muscle contrac- tion phase of exercise is compression of the blood vessels by the contracted muscle. During strong tetanic contrac- tion, which causes sustained compression of the blood vessels, the blood flow can be almost stopped, but this also causes rapid weakening of the contraction. Increased Blood Flow in Muscle Capillaries During Exercise. During rest, some muscle capillaries have little or no flowing blood. But during strenuous exercise, all the capillaries open. This opening of dormant capillaries diminishes the distance that oxygen and other nutrients must diffuse from the capillaries to the contracting muscle fibers and sometimes contributes a twofold to threefold increased capillary surface area through which oxygen and nutrients can diffuse from the blood to the tissues. Control of Blood Flow in Skeletal Muscles Local Regulation--Decreased Oxygen in Muscle Greatly Enhances Flow. The tremendous increase in muscle blood flow that occurs during skeletal muscle activity is caused mainly by chemicals acting directly on the muscle aerioles to cause dilation. One of the most impoant chemical effects is reduction of oxygen in the muscle tissues. When muscles are active they use oxygen rapidly, thereby decreasing the oxygen concentration in the tissue fluids. This in turn causes local aeriolar vaso- dilation because the aeriolar walls cannot maintain contraction in the absence of oxygen and because oxy- gen deficiency causes release of vasodilator substances. Adenosine may be an impoant vasodilator substance, but experiments have shown that even large amounts of adenosine infused directly into a muscle aery cannot increase blood flow to the same extent as during intense exercise and cannot sustain vasodilation in skeletal muscle for more than about 2 hours. Founately, even after the muscle blood vessels have become insensitive to the vasodilator effects of adeno- sine, still other vasodilator factors continue to maintain increased capillary blood flow as long as the exercise continues. These factors include (1) potassium ions, (2) adenosine triphosphate (ATP), (3) lactic acid, and (4) carbon dioxide. We still do not know quantitatively how great a role each of these plays in increasing muscle blood flow during muscle activity; this subject was dis- cussed in additional detail in Chapter 17. Nervous Control of Muscle Blood Flow. In addition to local tissue vasodilator mechanisms, skeletal muscles are provided with sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerves and (in some species of animals) sympathetic vasodilator nerves as well. Sympathetic Vasoconstrictor Nerves. The sympa- thetic vasoconstrictor nerve fibers secrete norepineph- rine at their nerve endings. When maximally activated, this can decrease blood flow through resting muscles to as little as one-half to one-third normal. This vasocon- striction is of physiologic impoance in circulatory shock and during other periods of stress when it is necessary to maintain a normal or even high aerial pressure. In addition to the norepinephrine secreted at the sym- pathetic vasoconstrictor nerve endings, the medullae of the two adrenal glands also secrete large amounts of nor- epinephrine plus even more epinephrine into the circu- lating blood during strenuous exercise. The circulating norepinephrine acts on the muscle vessels to cause a vaso- constrictor effect similar to that caused by direct sympa- thetic nerve stimulation. The epinephrine, however, often has a slight vasodilator effect because epinephrine excites more of the beta-adrenergic receptors of the vessels, which are vasodilator receptors, in contrast to the alpha vasocon- strictor receptors excited especially by norepinephrine At rest, skeletal muscle blood flows may be 1-4 ml/min per 100g; maximal blood flows may reach 50-100 ml/min per 100g depending upon the muscle type. Therefore, blood flow can increase 20 to 50-fold with maximal vasodilation or <a style="color: ; font-family: arial, helvetica, verdana, sans-serif;" href=" hyperemia Totally800ml


Question: The primary form of coisol in the plasma is

The majority of coisol is bound to a specific carrier protein, coicosteroid binding globulin (CBG), while smaller amounts are bound nonspecifically to albumin. Few, if any, coisol receptors would be expected in the plasma and transthyretin binds primarily thyroxine.Ref: Guyton; 13th edition

Bound to coicosteroid-binding globulin (CBG)


Question: Increased velocity of conduction in a nerve is oured by

In unmyelinated fibers, electrical impulses (action potentials) travel as continuous waves, but, in myelinated fibers, they "hop" or propagate by saltatory conduction. ... Myelin decreases capacitance and increases electrical resistance across the axonal membrane (the axolemma) Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:57,58,59


Question: The normal range of serum osmolarity is

Normal serum osmolarity ranges from 275 to 295 mOsm/L It is used to monitor hyponatremia,and other conditions Reference : guyton and hall12 Ed pg no: 45,46,47


Question: A 0.5 litre blood loss in 30 minutes will lead to

B i.e. Slight increase in H.R, normal BPBlood loss of upto 20% of blood volume are normally tolerated by redistribution of blood flow, mediated by vasospasmQ.500m1 blood accounts for about 10% of total blood volume (5 litres)Blood loss<15%15-30%Q30-40%>40%BPNo changeNo changeReducedMarkedly reducedHea rateSlight Increase100-120 (slight)>120, weak>120, threadyRespiratory rateNormalIncreased>2020-30


Question: Clathrin is used in

Ans. (a) Receptor mediated endocytosisClathrin is involved in receptor mediated endocytosisClathrin is required for the endocytosis of LDL receptor cholesterol, transferrin bound iron, Nerve growth factor (Neurotrophins), hormones(insulin), epidermal growth factor


Question: Depth of inspiration controlled by

The pneumotaxic center, also known as the pontine respiratory group (PRG), is a network of neurons in the rostral dorsal lateral pons. It consists of the subparabrachial nucleus and the medial parabrachial nucleus. It is considered an antagonist to the apneustic center, which produces abnormal breathing during inhalation. It limits inspiration. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 370,371,372


Question: Regulation of coronary circulation

Ans. (b) AutoregulatoryRef: Ganong, 25th ed/p.612AutoregulationIt is the capacity of the tissue to regulate their blood flow - intrinsic basal myogenic toneLocal Metabolism is the primary controller of coronary flow - O2 demand is a major factorThis mechanism works well even when the nerves are removed


Question: In a foetus, the insulin secretion begins by

Insulin is a peptide hormone, produced by beta cells of the pancreas, and is central to regulating carbohydrate and fat metabolism in the body. Insulin causes cells in the liver, skeletal muscles, and fat tissue to absorb glucose from the blood. In the liver and skeletal muscles, glucose is stored as glycogen, and in fat cells (adipocytes) it is stored as triglycerides. In mammals, insulin is synthesized in the pancreas within the b-cells of the islets of Langerhans. One million to three million islets of Langerhans (pancreatic islets) form the endocrine pa of the pancreas, which is primarily an exocrine gland. The endocrine poion accounts for only 2% of the total mass of the pancreas. Within the islets of Langerhans, beta cells constitute 65-80% of all the cellsRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no-432


Question: Mass movement of the colon would be abolished by

Mass movements are special type of peristaltic contractions which are observed in colon only. A mass movement can be initiated by Gastrocolic reflex Intense stimulation of parasympathetic nerves Overdistension of a segment of colon Gastrocolic reflex refers to contraction of colon induced by entry of food into the stomach. This reflex results in an urge to defecate after a meal. Gastrocolic reflexes results from distension of stomach & duodenum & these are transmitted by way of autonomic nervous system. Trypanosoma cruzi, a species of parasitic euglenoid protozoan causes destruction of Auerbach&;s plexus in walls of colon which leads to the blockage of both the peristalsis & mass contractions. Therefore, the feces pass with difficulty & get accumulated in large intestine leading to dilatation of colon (megacolon). Reference: Medical Physiology, Indu Khurana


Question: Hydroxyethyl starch is a

C i.e. Plasma expander Plasma expanders are high molecular weight substances which exe colloidal osmotic pressure and when infused intravenously retain fluid in the vascular compament.Substances em lo ed as Plasma expanders include Human albuminDextran QHydroxyethyl starch (Hetastarch) QDegraded gelatin polymerPolyvinyl pyrrolidane


Question: Bradykinin causes

They cause contraction of visceral smooth muscle, but they relax vascular smooth muscle NO, lowering blood pressure. Bradykinin is a potent vasodilator. (Ref: Ganong's review of medical physiology 23rd Edition page no.566)

Stimulation of the visceral smooth muscle

Stimulation of the vascular smooth muscle

Inhibition of the visceral smooth muscIe

Inhibition of the vascular smooth muscle


Question: Hypocalcemia due to calcitonin is by

Calcitonin lowers circulating calcium and phosphate levels. It exes its calcium-lowering effect by inhibiting bone resorption. This action is direct, and calcitonin inhibits the activity of osteoclasts in vitro. It also increases Ca2+ excretion in the urine. More hormone is secreted in young individuals, and it may play a role in skeletal development. In addition, it may protect the bones of the mother from excess calcium loss during pregnancy. Bone formation in the infant and lactation are major drains on Ca2+ stores, and plasma concentrations of 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol are elevated in pregnancy. They would cause bone loss in the mother if bone resorption were not simultaneously inhibited by an increase in the plasma calcitonin level.


Question: Duration of second hea sound is

The second sound lasts about 0.12 s, with a frequency of 50 Hz. It is loud and sharp when the diastolic pressure in the aoa or pulmonary aery is elevated, causing the respective valves to shut briskly at the end of systole.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 542


Question: Ascending pain pathway is inhibited in dorsal midbrain by

The cell bodies of serotonin containing neurons are localized in the raphe nuclei of midbrain and brainstem. ... Serotonin therefore acts descending pathway to modulate spinal pain signals Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:699,700,701


Question: Function of basal ganglia

Neurons in the basal ganglia, like those in the lateral poions of the cerebellar hemispheres, discharge before movements begin. This observation, plus careful analysis of the effects of diseases of the basal ganglion in humans and the effects of drugs that destroy dopaminergic neurons in animals, have led to the idea that the basal ganglia are involved in the planning and programming of movement or, more broadly, in the processes by which an abstract thought is conveed into voluntary action. They influence the motor coex the thalamus, and the coicospinal pathways provide the final common pathway to motor neurons.Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition


Question: Action of ADH

Ans. (b) Reabsorption of water in DCT(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.696)ADH facilitates water resorption by acting in DCT and collecting tubules


Question: Maximum postprandial motility is seen in

Nonpropagating colonic motor activity increased in all colonic segments immediately after eating the meal (p less than 0.05). The increase in motility was significantly greater in the descending colon than in the transverse and sigmoid colon (p less than 0.05). In one-half of the subjects propagating contractions occurred postprandially. The movement of the intraluminal tracer occurred during both types of motility. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:442,443,444


Question: Oxygen dissociation curve is shifted to right in

ODC shifted to right in anemia. Ref: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 610 The causes of shift to right can be remembered using the mnemonic, "CADET, face Right!" for CO2, Acid, 2,3-DPG, Exercise and Temperature. Ref: wikipedia


Question: Roots valves of deep tendon reflexes

Deep tendon reflex also usually refers to this sense. A deep tendon reflex is often associated with muscle stretching. Tendon reflex tests are used to determine the integrity of the spinal cord and peripheral nervous system, and they can be used to determine the presence of a neuromuscular disease. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 775,776,777


Question: Sperms acquirs motility in

(Epididymus) (424- Gcmong22nd) (421- K.S 4th)(404- Ganong 23rd)Maturation of sperm in the Epididvmus* Sperm removal from the seminiferous tubules and from the early portions of the epididymis are non motile and they cannot fertilize an ovum. However, after the sperm have been in the epididymus for some 18 to 24 hours , they develop the capability of motility* After ejaculation, the sperm become motile and they become capable of fertilizing of ovum, a process called maturation* Capacitance of sperm is attained in - Fallopian tube**


Question: Major regulator of interdigestive myoelectric complexes

C i.e. Motilin - Glucagon derivative GLP- 1 (7-36) amide (most potent) > gastric inhibitory peptide (GIP) also known as glucose -dependent insulinotropic polypeptide >> gastrin, CCK, secretin and glucagon stimulates insulin secretionQ. But only GLP-1 (7-36) amide & GIP stimulate insulin secretion when adminstered in dose that produce blood levels comparable to those produced by oral glucose. - Motolin is secreted by entero chromaffin cells & M0 cells in stomach, small intestine and colon during fasting. It is released cyclically (so 1' ed levels) at intervals of 90- 100 minutes in a fasted person which stimulates waves of gastrointestinal motality called myoelectric interdigestive cmplexes (MIC). Erythromycin binds to motolin receptors so its derivatives may be of value in treating decreased intestinal motality. - Neurotensin is produced by neurons & cells of ileum. Its release is stimulated by fatty acid and it increases ileal blood flow and inhibits gastro intestinal motality. - GIP is produced by K cells in mucosa of duodenum & jejunum. Its secretion is stimulated by glucose & fatQ in duodenum. It is named so because in large doses it inhibits gastric secretion & motality. However in small dose (that are seen after meal) it does not have significant gastric inhibitory activity.


Question: Function of basal ganglia include

Basal ganglia are involved in planning and programming of movement or more broadly in the process by which an abstract thought is conveed into voluntary action which is required for skilled movements. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:251


Question: Tubuloglomerular feedback occurs in

Balance between ascending and descending loop of henle


Question: Cutaneous vasoconstriction is mediated by

Sympathetic noradrenergic division constricts the blood vessels of the skin(which limits bleeding from wounds). Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg: 268.


Question: Equlilibrium potential of resting membrane for a given electrolyte is given by

Nernst equation gives equilibrium potential for a paicular ion Goldman equation gives equilibrium potential for more than 1 ion Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:58,59,60


Question: For a sensory nerve fiber that is connected to a Pacinian corpuscle located on palmar surface of the right hand, the synaptic connection with the subsequent neuron in the corresponding sensory pathway is located in

The Pacinian corpuscle transmits a modality of sensation (vibration) that is transmitted in the dorsal column-medial lemniscal system. The first synaptic connection in this sensory pathway is in the dorsal column nuclei on the ipsilateral side of the body

The dorsal horn of the right side of the spinal cord

The dorsal horn of the left side of the spinal cord


Question: Broca's area is presents in

Both Wernicke&;s area and Broca&;s area are in the superior temporal gyrus earlier is in the end of superior temporal gyrus while the latter is at the beginning. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:297


Question: The low pressure receptors are

The low-pressure receptors are stimulated by atrial systole and diastole.. The low-pressure receptors are those in the great veins, right and left atria and pulmonary vessels. Atrial stretch receptors are of two types: Type A: discharge primarily during atrial systole . Type B: discharge primarily during late diastole. Distension of the atrial walls - stimulation of atrial receptors - vasodilatation, fall in BP and increased hea rate. Ref: Ganong review of Medical Physiology 26th edition Pgno: 577,578

Stimulated by atrial systole and diastole

Stimuation by left ventricular contraction


Question: Maximum absorption of bicarbonate occurs at

About 67% of filtered, sodium, water, potassium, urea, 80% of filtered phosphate and bicarbonate, 100% of filtered glucose and amino acids are reabsorbed in PCT Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 679


Question: Pressure volume loop is shifted to left side in

Ans. (c) Aortic stenosis(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.540)In aortic stenosis,PV loop is shifted to left sideVentricular systolic pressure increases to overcome the stenosisThere is increase in End systolic volumeStroke volume decreases


Question: Routine spirometry can't estimatea)  FRCb)  VCc)  RVd)  ERVe)  FEV1

Direct measurement can be done by Spirometry for
-        TV, IRV, ERV, VC, Forced vital capacity, FEV1
Direct measurement by spirometry cannot be done for

-        RV, FRC, TLC


Question: Stimulation of the nerves of the pelvic parasympathetic plexus results in

(A) Penile erection # PELVIC SPLANCHNIC NERVES or NERVI ERIGENTES are splanchnic nerves that arise from sacral spinal nerves S2, S3, S4 to provide parasympathetic innervation to the hindgut.> Structure: The pelvic splanchnic nerves arise from the ventral rami of the S2-S4 and enter the sacral plexus. They travel to their side's corresponding inferior hypogastric plexus, located bilaterally on the walls of the rectum. From there, they contribute to the innervation of the pelvic and genital organs. The nerves regulate the emptying of the urinary bladder and the rectum as well as sexual functions like erection. They contain both preganglionic parasympathetic fibers as well as visceral afferent fibers. The parasympathetic nervous system is referred to as the craniosacral outflow; the pelvic splanchnic nerves are the sacral component. They are in the same region as the sacral splanchnic nerves, which arise from the sympathetic trunk and provide sympathetic efferent fibers. The proximal 2/3 of the transverse colon, and the rest of the proximal gastrointestinal tract is supplied its parasympathetic fibers by the vagus nerve. In the distal 1/3 of the transverse colon, and through the sigmoid and rectum, the pelvic splanchnic nerves take over.

Constriction of the internal urethral sphincter

Contraction of the genital smooth muscle


Question: The immediate response of J receptor stimulation is

The immediate reflex response of J receptor stimulation is apnea. It is followed by rapid breathing, bradycardia, and hypotension. Juxtacapillary receptors are the C fiber endings located close to the pulmonary vessels in the alveolar interstitium. They are not invloved in quiet or normal respiration,. They are stimulated by Hyperinflation of the lung Intravenous or intracardiac administration of chemicals like capsaicin P. Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology 26th edition Pgno: 642


Question: Breast feeding often

Prolactin a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that promotes the growth of breast tissue and stimulates and sustains milk production in postpaum mammals, and shows luteotropic activity in ceain mammals. Called also lactogenic hormone and mammotropin.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-416


Question: Symbol 'X' denotes

.An "O" often is used to represent responses for the right ear and an "X" is used to represent responses for the left ear. A key on the audiogram, similar to one found on a map, identifies what the different symbols mean Hence, indicates air conduction test for left year Ref physiology textbook A. K Jain.. 3e


Question: The genotype of blood group A would be

The genotype for a blood group can be AA OR AO blood groups are three genes Ia,Ib,Io Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:155,156,157


Question: Erythropoietin is secreted from

In adults, about 85% of the erythropoietin comes from the kidneys and 15% from the liver. Both these organs contain the mRNA for erythropoietin. Erythropoietin can also be extracted from the spleen and salivary glands, but these tissues do not contain the mRNA and consequently do not appear to manufacture the hormone. When renal mass is reduced in adults by renal disease or nephrectomy, the liver cannot compensate and anemia develops. Erythropoietin is produced by interstitial cells in the peritubular capillary bed of the kidneys and by perivenous hepatocytes in the liver. It is also produced in the brain, where it exes a protective effect against excitotoxic damage triggered by hypoxia; and in the uterus and oviducts, where it is induced by estrogen and appears to mediate estrogen-dependent angiogenesis. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology,23rd edition, page: 677


Question: Most potent pain producing neurotransmitter

Algogens are pain producing substances and Bradykinin is the most potent algogen Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:698,699,700


Question: Rennin is present in

Rennin is present in the Gastric juice whereas Renin is related to kidney. Ref: Ganong's review of medical physiology; 24th edition


Question: Acidophils secrete

Acidophils are one of the hormone-producing acidophilic cells of the adenohypophysis; types include coicotrophs, lactotrophs, lipotrophs, and somatotrophs. Called also alpha cell. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:550,551,552


Question: Two important byproducts of HMP shunt are

The HMP shunt pathway has oxidative and non-oxidative phases. During the oxidative phase, glucose-6-phosphate is oxidized with the generation of 2 molecules of NADPH, and one molecule of pentose phosphate, with the liberation of one molecule of CO2. During the non-oxidative phase, the pentose phosphates are converted to intermediates of glycolysis.


Question: ECF volume is best evaluated by

ECF volume is measured by inulin which is a polysaccharide.(Ref: Textbook of physiology N Geetha 2nd edition page no.61)


Question: Myentric plexus and meissner plexus respectively controls

Myentric / auerbachs plexus control motility.
Meissner / submucosal plexues control secretion.


Question: Nissil's granules contains

Nissil's granules contains rough endoplasmic reticulum and ribosomes


Question: Under physiological conditions heat acclimatization is accomplished WE.


Question: Delay in blood coagulation results from


Question: Key regulators of sleep are located in

Sleep is regulated by two parallel mechanisms, homeostatic regulation, and circadian regulation, controlled by the hypothalamus and the suprachiasmatic nucleus (SCN), respectivelyr Ref:guyton hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:711,712,713


Question: Events occurring in the past one week is an example of

recent memory is the ability to remember information from days hours minutes ago ref:Ganong's review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no; 290


Question: Mechanism of action of Nitric oxide is through

Nitric oxide is formed from Arginine, released from endothelial cells and acts through cGMP to cause vasodilation.