Question: Dihydrotestosterone acts on

Ref; Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-425Dihydrotestosterone (commonly abbreted to DHT), or 5a-dihydrotestosterone (5a-DHT), also known as androstanolone (5a-androstane-17b-ol-3-one) as well as 17b-hydroxy-5a-androstane-3-one, is a sex steroid and androgen hormone. The enzyme 5a-reductase synthesizes DHT in the prostate, testes, hair follicles, and adrenal glands. This enzyme reduces the 4,5 double-bond of the hormone testosterone. During embryogenesis, DHT has an essential role in the formation of the male external genitalia, while in the adult DHT acts as the primary androgen in the prostate and in hair follicles.


Question: The first physiological response to high environmental temperature is

Under mechanisms activated by heat cutaneous vasodilation comes first followed by sweating increased respiration, decreased heat production, anorexia, apathy, and ineia. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg: 285; Table 18-4.


Question: FSH is secreted by

Gonadotropic cells are endocrine cells in the anterior pituitary that produce the gonadotropins, such as the follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH). Release of FSH and LH by gonadotropes is regulated by gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus.Gonadotropes appear basophilic in histological preparations.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-333


Question: Laminar flow is dependent ona) Critical velocityb) Viscosityc) Constant velocityd) Critical closing pressure

The flow of blood (Laminar or turbulent) depends on
-        Fluid density (S)
-        Tube diameter (D)
-        Velocity of fluid (V)
-        Viscosity of fluid (n)
This can be expressed by Reynold’s number (R) = SDV/n

Normal flow is laminar. But if the velocity crosses a critical limit (Critical velocity) flow becomes turbulent. If R>2000, flow is turbulent.


Question: During diastole, the arterial pressure is maintained by

Ans. (a) Elastic recoil of aortaRef: Ganong, 25th ed/p.576Because of its elastic recoil nature, blood flow is continuous and the diastolic pressure stays at 80mmHg. This elastic recoil effect is called "Windkessel effect"


Question: 'Foification spectra' are feature of

Foification spectra are more complicated images that can float in your vision during a migraine. These get their name from their resemblance to an aerial view of an intricately built fo. Ref ganong's review of medical physiology 25e p874


Question: Central cyanosis is seen if

Oxygen saturation should be less than 85% for central cyanosis to occur. Deoxyhemoglobin level should be at least 5gm%.


Question: Most abundant extracellular buffer is

Bicarbonate buffer is rhe major buffer system in the body It is responsible for about 80%of extra cellular buffering Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:489,490,491


Question: Glucagon is secreted by

Glucagon, a peptide hormone secreted by the pancreas, raises blood glucose levels. Its effect is opposite that of insulin, which lowers blood glucose levels. The pancreas releases glucagon when blood sugar (glucose) levels fall too low. Glucagon causes the liver to conve stored glycogen into glucose, which is released into the bloodstream. High blood glucose levels stimulate the release of insulin. Insulin allows glucose to be taken up and used by insulin-dependent tissues. Thus, glucagon and insulin are pa of a feedback system that keeps blood glucose levels at a stable level.The hormone is synthesized and secreted from alpha cells (a-cells) of the islets of Langerhans, which are located in the endocrine poions of the pancreas.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-443


Question: Number of ovum at bih is

In humans no ova formed after bih. at time of bih there are 2 million ova.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 401


Question: The high sodium content in renal medulla is because

In the renal medulla, there are two mechanisms that work to initiate and maintain a hyperosmolar state. Counter current multiplier system and Counter current exchange system.
Na+ is actively reabsorbed from the tubules to medullary interstitium, along with Cl- and K+, at the thick ascending limb of the loop of Henle, which is impermeable to water. So the medullary interstitium becomes hyperosmolar. Urea is also believed to help in increasing the solute content of the medullary interstitium by diffusing out of the collecting ducts and thus increasing the osmolarity of the interstitium. Water, in turn, is reabsorbed in the thin descending limb of the loop of Henle by osmosis. The cycle continues to work so that the medullary interstitial osmotic pressure is multiplied over and over. Counter current exchange system by the vasa recta maintains this osmotic pressure, as they do not wash out the solutes concentrated in the medullary interstitium.

At the loop of Henle, there is counter current mechanism


Question: If the alveolar oxygenation is halved, the PACO2 will be

Ans: d (Halved in a few minutes) Ref: Ganong 22nd ed/ p.675, 21st ed/p.680When the alveolar oxygenation is halved, the resulting hypoxia will increase the respiratory rate (ventilation).This will lead to washing out of CO,. Since the effect on PACO, is due to increase in the respiratory rate, it will not occur immediately.There will be increase in respiratory rate only if the PO, drops from 100 to below 60 mm of Hg.


Question: The only inducible urinary buffer is

Ammonia is only inducible buffer

It is an extracellular buffer


Question:
The liver is the principal site for
A. Synthesis of plasma albumin
B. synthesis of plasma globulins
C. Synthesis of vitamin B12
D. Storage of Vitamin C
E Storage of iron

The liver has many different functions in the body, but the main function of the liverin digestion is the production of bile and its secretion into the small intestine. The gallbladder is a small, pear-shaped organ located just posterior to the liver.


Question: Formula to calculate minute ventilation volume

Minute respiratory volume- The minute respiratory volume I the total amount of new air moved into the respiratory passage each minute and is equal to tidal volume times the respiratory rate per minute. The normal tidal volume is about 500 milliliters, and the normal respiratory rate is about 12 breaths per minute. Therefore, the minute respiratory volume averages about 6-8L/min. A person can live for a sho period with a minute volume as low as 1.5L/min and a respiratory rate of only 2 to 4 breaths per minute. Respiratory minute vol: - (TV x RR) = 6 - 8 L / min


Question: Erythropoiesis in early fetal life occurs in


Question: Hyperkalemia stimulates secretion of

Hyperkalaemia is an elevated level of potassium (K+) in the blood serum. Normal potassium levels are between 3.5 and 5.0 mmol/L with levels above 5.5 mmol/L defined as hyperkalemia.ADH - hormone secreted by the posterior pituitary gland and also by nerve endings in the hypothalamus; affects blood pressure by stimulating capillary muscles and reduces urine flow by affecting reabsorption of water by kidney tubules.Secretin - A polypeptide hormone that is produced in the duodenum, especially on contact with acid, and that inhibits gastric secretion of acid and stimulates secretion of bile, insulin, and pancreatic digestive enzymes.Aldosterone - a hormone produced by the coex of the adrenal gland, helps in the regulation of sodium and potassium resorption by the cells of the tubular poion of the kidney.Parathormone - hormone synthesized and released into the bloodstream by the parathyroid glands; regulates phosphorus and calcium in the body.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology- 24th edition page no;370


Question: Juxtaglomerular apparatus lies in relation to

The thick end of the ascending limb of the loop of Henle reaches the glomerulus of the nephron from which the tubule arose and nestles between its afferent and efferent aerioles. Specialized cells at the end form the macula densa, which is close to the efferent and paicularly the afferent aeriole. The macula, the neighboring lacis cells, and the renin-secreting juxtaglomerular cells in the afferent aeriole form the juxtaglomerular apparatus. Ref: Ganong's review of medical physiology,23rd edition, page: 641


Question: If a single spinal nerve is cut, the area of  tactile  loss  is  always  greater  than the area of loss of painful sensations, because

There is much overlapping between pain carrying fibers as compared to touch.

Tactile information is carried by myelinated fast conducting fibres

Degree of overlap of fibres carrying tactile sensation is much less

In the primary sensory cortex, tactile sensation is represented on a larger  area


Question: The plateau phase of Myocardial action potential is due to

Ca2+ influx through more slowly opening Ca2+ channels produces the plateau phaseRef: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No: 491


Question: Spermatozoa gets its nutrition from

Ans: B. Fructose(Ref KS Sanoop 3'd/e p.171)Nutrition to sperms is mainly provided by fructose.Fructose (f .5-6.5 mg/ml).


Question: Growth hormone level decreased in

Growth hormone (GH or HGH), also known as somatotropin or somatropin, is a peptide hormone that stimulates growth, cell reproduction and regeneration in humans and other animals. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-327


Question: EEG waves seen in Hippocampus are

(C) theta > Large amplitude, pattern of regular 4-7/sec waves called theta rhythm occurs in children and is generated in the hippocampus in experimental animals.> a-rhythm occurs in adult humans who are awake but at rest within eyes closed, EEG shows a regular pattern of waves at a frequency of 8-12 Hz and amplitude of 50-100 mv, most marked in parieto-occipital area.> b-rhythm is harmonic of alpha, showing patterns of lower amplitude, 18-30 Hz, seen over frontal regions.> Delta waves are large slow waves of frequency less than 4 Hz, seen in deep sleep.


Question: Acclimatization does NOT include

It includes increase in pulmonary ventilation, increases in RBC count and hemoglobin content, increase in 2,3-DPG.(Ref. Textbook of physiology N Geetha 2nd edition page no.265)

Decreased concentration of 2,3 DPG in RBC


Question: The main cause of increased blood flow to exercising muscles is

During prolonged exercise blood flow to skeletal muscle will increase up to 20 times this is called exercise hyperemiaThis is made possible by local metabolite induced vasodilationRef: Medical Physiology Indu Khurana 2015 edition, Page No:276

Increased sympathetic discharge to peripheral vessels


Question: In high altitude mountain sickness, feature of pulmonary edema isa) Decreased pulmonary capillary permeabilityb) Increased pulmonary capillary pressurec) Normal left atrial pressured) Increases left ventricular back pressure

At high altitudes, there is pulmonary vasoconstriction leading to pulmonary hypertension. This results in leakage of fluid to the pulmonary tissue ending up in pulmonary edema. Since there is pulmonary hypertension, there is a resultant back pressure on right ventricle.


Question: Baroreceptor stimulation producesa) Decreased heart rate & BPb) Increased heart rate & BPc) Increased cardiac contractilityd) Decreased cardiac contractility

Baroreceptors are present in carotid sinus and aortic arch. Increase in BP activates them which results in decrease in the sympathetic discharge. This leads to decrease in cardiac contraction, heart rate and BP.


Question: Vibration sensation is mediated by

Ans. (c) Pacinian corpuscle(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p. 160)Pacinian corpuscle respond to deep pressure and high frequency fast vibration


Question: Surfactant in lung alveoli stas appearing at gestational age

Surfactant does not normally begin to be secreted into the alveoli until between the sixth and seventh months of gestation, and in some cases, even later than that. Therefore, many premature babies have little or no surfactant in the alveoli when they are born, and their lungs have an extreme tendency to collapse, sometimes as great as six to eight times that in a normal adult person. This causes the condition called respiratory distress syndrome of the newborn. It is fatal if not treated with strong measures, especially properly applied continuous positive pressure breathing.Ref: Guyton and Hall Textbook of Medical Physiology, 12th edition, page no: 878


Question: Nernst potential for K+ is

Nernst potential is also called equlibrium potential It is the potential at which tjer is no net moment of a paicular ion across membrane Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:35,36


Question: The basis of Korotkoff sound is

The sounds of Korotkoff are produced by turbulent flow in the brachial aery. When the aery is narrowed by the cuff, the velocity of flow through the constriction exceeds the critical velocity and turbulent flow results.


Question: Administration of pure O2 to hypoxic patients is dangerous because

The respiratory centres maybe depressed in hypercapnic patients. Breathing may only be occurring due to the activation of peripheral chemoreceptors sensitive to the hypoxia. When pure Oxygen is given to the patients, the stimulus to the peripheral receptors is gone and may result in apnoea.

Apnea occurs due to hypostimulation of peripheral chemoreceptors


Question: Amacrine cells are seen in

(B) Retina > 4 type of cells: bipolar cells, ganglion cells, horizontal cells & amacrine cells are present in retina.


Question: According to myogenic theory of renal autoregulation, the afferent aerioles contract in response to stretch induced by

Myogenic autoregulation - through opening of Calcium channels Tubuloglomerular feedback - through release of adenosine Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 678


Question: Testosterone secreted by,

Ans:A. Leydig's cells.The hypothalamus sends a signal to pituitary gland to release gonadotrophic substances (follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone).Luteinizing hormone (LH) stimulates testosterone production.Testosterone is produced by gonads (by Leydig cells in testes in men & by ovaries in women).


Question: Maximum absorption of short chain fatty acids produced by bacteria occurs in the

A. (Colon) (475. Ganong 22nd) / (458 - Ganong 23rd)Short-chain Fatty Acids in the colon (SCFAs) are produced in the colon and absorbed from it *** ** Absorption of long chain FA is greatest in the upper parts of the small intestine* Average normal concentration of about 80 mmol/ L in the lumen* About 60% of this total is acetate, 25% propionate, and 15% butyrate.* They exert a trophic effect on the colonic epithelial cells, combat inflammation, and are absorbed in part by exchange for H+, helping to maintain acid -base equilibrium.* Also promote the absorption of Na+* Cholesterol, like the short chain fatty acids is absorbed directly into lymphatics and reconverted (esterified) therefrom as cholesterol esters. Its absorption requires presence of bile, fatty acids and pancreatic juice. It is mainly absorbed from the distal small intestine (276- A. K. Jain 3rd)


Question: ECF best value is given by

ECF volume is measured using inulin which is a polysaccharide.(Ref: Textbook of physiology N Geetha 2nd edition page no.61)


Question: Energy expenditure during normal breathing


Question: High glycogen content is seen in

Glycogen content is high in white fibres.(REF: TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N 2 EDITION, PAGE NO - 44)


Question: Killian's dehiscence is seen in

Killian's dehiscence (also known as Killian's triangle, Laimer's triangle, and Killian-Laimer triangle) is a triangular area in the wall of the pharynx between the thyropharyngeus pa of the inferior constrictor of the pharynx and the cricopharyngeus muscle, also of the inferior constrictor muscle of the pharynx. It represents a potentially weak spot where a pharyngoesophageal diveiculum (Zenker's diveiculum) is more likely to occur


Question: Fastest absorbing sugar in the intestine

In the intestine, absorption is faster in case of monosaccharides when compared to disaccharides or polysaccharides. Glucose, fructose and galactose are hexoses which are monosaccharides.


Question: Comparison of the apex of the lung, the base of the lung has

Overall, perfusion increases more than ventilation at the base of the lung, resulting in lower V/Q ratios in the base of the lung compared to the apex. In a healthy individual, the V/Q ratio is 1 at the middle of the lung, with a minimal spread of V/Q ratios from 0.3 to 2.1 from base to apex Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:332,333,334


Question: Na dependent glucose transpo is/are inhibited by

phlorizin inhibits the intestinal glucose transpoer. is a glucoside of phloretin, a dihydrochalcone, a family of bicyclic flavonoids Phlorizin is a competitive inhibitor of SGLT1 and SGLT2 because it competes with D-glucose for binding to the carrier; this reduces renal glucose transpo, lowering the amount of glucose in the blood. Phlorizin was studied as a potential pharmaceutical treatment for type 2 diabetes, but has since been superseded by more selective and more promising synthetic analogs, such as empagliflozin, canagliflozin and dapagliflozin. Phlorizin is not an effective drug because when orally consumed, it is nearly entirely conveed into phloretin by hydrolytic enzymes in the small intestine. Ref guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12/e 938


Question: Acetylcholine is secreted in eyes by

Amacrine cells are inhibitory neurons, and they project their dendritic arbors onto the inner plexiform layer (IPL), they interact with retinal ganglion cells and/or bipolar cells Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:731,732,733


Question: Androgen binding protein is secreted by

Seoli cells are the somatic cells of the testis that are essential for testis formation and spermatogenesis. Seoli cells facilitate the progression of germ cells to spermatozoa direct contact and by controlling the environment milieu within the seminiferous tubules Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:630,631,632


Question: Catecholamines

Catecholamines decrease the motility and contraction of GIT REF.Textbook of physiology by AK Jain 7th edition page no.742


Question: Intrapleural Pressure during forceful expiration is

Intrapleural Pressure: (ITP) / Intrathoracic Pressure
It is the pressure within pleural space (space between visceral and parietal pleura)

At beginning of inspiration = -2.5 mm Hg / - 5 cm H2O
At end of inspiration = - 6.0 mm Hg / - 10 cm H2O
At end of expiration = - 2.5 mm Hg / - 5 cm H2O
Forceful inspiration = - 20 mm Hg
Forceful expiration = + 20 to  + 30 mm Hg


Question: EDRF is

Endothelial cells that line the inside of blood cells could release a substance that relaxes smooth muscle (endothelial-derived relaxing factor, EDRF). CLINICAL BOX 5-7 Common Drugs That Act on Smooth Muscle Overexcitation of smooth muscle in the airways, such as that observed during an asthma attack, can lead to bronchoconstriction. Inhalers that deliver drugs to the conducting airway are commonly used to offset this smooth muscle bronchoconstriction, as well as other symptoms in the asthmatic airways. The rapid effects of drugs in inhalers are related to smooth muscle relaxation. Rapid response inhaler drugs (eg, Ventolin, albuterol, sambuterol) frequently target b-adrenergic receptors in the airway smooth muscle to elicit a relaxation. Although these b-adrenergic receptor agonists targeting the smooth muscle do not treat all symptoms associated with asthma (eg, inflammation and increased mucus), they act rapidly and frequently allow for sufficient opening of the conducting airway to restore airflow and thus allow for other treatments to reduce airway obstruction. Smooth muscle is also a target for drugs developed to increase blood flow. As discussed in the text, NO is a natural signaling molecule that relaxes smooth muscle by raising cyclic guanosine monophosphate (cGMP). This signaling pathway is naturally downregulated by the action of phosphodiesterase (PDE), which transforms cGMP into a non-signaling form, GMP. The drugs sildenafil, tadalafil, and vardenafil are all specific inhibitors of PDE V, an isoform found mainly in the smooth muscle in the corpus cavernosum of the penis (see Chapters 25 and 32). Thus, oral administration of these drugs can block the action of PDE V, increasing blood flow in a very limited region in the body and offsetting erectile dysfunction. EDRF was later identified as the gaseous second messenger molecule, nitric oxide (NO).Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 117


Question: Plasma cells are constituent of


Question: The average value of total body water in a young man In....... % of body weight

(C) 60-65 # BODY COMPOSITION:> In an average young adult male, 18% of body wt is protein.7% is mineral, and 15%is fat.> The remaining 60% is water.> The intracellular component of body water accounts for about 40% of body wt. and the extracellular component for about 20%.> Approximately 25% of the extracellular component is in the vascular system(plasma =5% of body wt.) and 75% outside the blood vessels(interstitialfluid=15% of body wt.).> The total blood volume is about 8% of the body wt".


Question: According to the myogenic hypothesis of renal autoregulation, the afferent arterioles contract in response to stretch induced by

According to the myogenic hypothesis of renal autoregulation, the afferent arterioles contract in response to stretch by the opening of Ca2+ channels, whereas, tubuloglomerular feedback is due to the opening of ligand-gated Ca2+ channels by adenosine.


Question: Parasympathetic supply is from

Parasympathetic division is also called craniosacral division and it is composed of cranial nerves 3,7,9,10 and sacral 2,3,4. See figure 17-3 Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:263


Question: ECF is measured by

Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23ed edition, page no:2 Inulin A polysaccharide with the general formula C6nH10n+2O5n+1 that yields fructose when hydrolyzed and is found in the roots of many plants, especially those of the composite family. It is used as an additive in processed foods to replace fat or sugar and to increase fiber content.


Question: Plateau phase of ventricular muscle is d/f opening of

C i.e. Ca++-Nat Channel In cardiac (e.g. ventricular) muscle, rapid depolarization phase (0) is d/t Nat influx through rapidly opening fast Nat channels (Nat current, INa); initial rapid repolarization phase (1) is d/t inactivation of Nat channel; platue phase (2) is d/t Cattinflux (Ca+tcurrent, Ica) through more slowly opening (slow) Ca++channels (also called calcium-sodium channels) and a slow repolarization phase (3) due to net Kt efflux through multiple types of K+ channels, allows the cell to return to resting membrane potential. Myocardial fibers (cells) have RMP of approximately -90mv. Action Potential in Cardiac Ventricular Muscles volts in ventricular muscle fibers instead of -55 milivolts in the nodal fibers. - Action potential in cardiac muscle fibers averages about 105 mili volts i.e. the intracellular potential rises form a very negative -90 mV between beats to slightly positive +20 mV during each beat. 3 type of membrane ion channels in cardiac muscles responsible for causing the voltage changes include Channel Effect Fast Na' Rapidly opening of fast sodium channels for Channel 10,000 the of a second) causes rapid influx of positive sodium ion (Na+) to the interior of cardiac muscle fiber (Necurrent, IN.). It is responsible for rapid upstroke spike of action potential or rapid depolarization phase 0. Initial rapid repolarization phase lis caused by inactivation of Na+ channels. Slow Ca++ Slower opening of slow calcium (or sodium? (Na+ - Ca++) calcium) channels for about 0.3 second (i.e Channels longer duration) causes large influx of both Ca*+ and Na+ positive ions to interior of cardiac muscle fibre. This (Ca++ current/influx, Ica mainly) is responsible for maintenance of prolonged period of depolarization or platue phase (2) of ventricular AP. Potassium Rapid diffusion of large amounts of positive K+ (K+) Channels ions in outward direction (efflux) from the cardiac muscle fibre (Ek+, K+ current) immediately returns the membrane potential to its resting levels, thus ending the AP Difference b/w AP of Cardiac of Skeletal Muscles Cardiac muscles have prolonged AP (Action potential) and a platue phase, whereas skeletal muscles do not because AP of skeletal muscle is caused and almost entirely by sudden opening of fast Na+ channels for a very sho period. At the end of this abrupt closure, repolarization occurs and AP is over in another thousandth of a second. Whereas AP in cardiac muscle is caused by same fast Na+ channels as well as slow Ca+ (Na+ - channels which are slower to open and more impoantly remain open for several tenths of a second (i.e prolonged duration) thereby maintaining prolonged period of depolarization, causing the platue phase. In skeletal muscles, Ca++ ions for contraction is derived from intracellular sacroplasmic reticulum. Whereas, in cardiac muscles the Ca** that enters during plate phase activate the muscle contractile process. Immediately after the onset of AP, the permeability of cardiac muscle fiber for K+ decreases about 5 folds as a result of excess Ca++ influx through Ca++ channels. Therefore, greatly decreased outflux of positively charged K+ ions during AP platue in cardiac muscles prevents early return of AP voltage to its resting levels. This greatly decreased K+ permeability is not seen in skeletal muscles. Difference b/w AP of Cardiac Muscle & Sinus Nodal Fibers - AT the less negative (- 55 mV) RMP of nodal fibers the fast Na* channels mainly have already become inactivated (or blocked). Therefore only the slow Na+ channels can become activated (open) and cause AP. - So AP is slower to develop in nodal fibers than ventricular fibers. Similarly return of potential to its negative resting state occurs slowly as well rather than the abrupt return that occurs in ventricular muscles.


Question: Normal Brown colour of stool is due to

Hemoglobin from RBC undergo metabolism and produces bilirubin and biliverdin. This, in turn, conveed into urobilinogen and stercobilinogen.This urobilin and stercobilin are responsible for giving colour to urine and stool respectively.During obstructive jaundice absence of this stercobilin leads to clay colored urine(Ref: Vasudevan, textbook of biochemistry)


Question: Pneumotaxic center is located in

Pneumotaxic centre is located in pons Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:370,371,372


Question: The myocardial contraction is stimulated by

The initial depolarisation is due to Na+ influx through rapidly opening Na+channels. The inactivation of Na+ channels contributes to rapid repolarization phase. Ca2+ influx through more slowly opening Ca2+ channels produces plateau phase, and depolarization is due to net K+ efflux through multiple types of K+ channels. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:491.


Question: Not a characteristic feature of Lowe's syndrome

Oculocerebrorenal syndrome (also called Lowe syndrome) is a rare X-linked recessive disorder characterized by congenital cataracts, hypotonia and areflexia, mental retardation, proximal tubular acidosis, aminoaciduria, phosphaturia, and low-molecular-weight proteinuria. Glaucoma is present in about 50% of cases.


Question: The principal steroid secreted by testes is

Testosterone is the principal male sex hormone (androgen) that is produced by Leydig&;s cells of the testes in response to the luteinizing hormone secreted by the pituitary gland. Its chief function is to stimulate the development of the male reproductive organs, including the prostate, and the secondary sex characters, such as the beard. It encourages the growth of bone and muscle and helps maintain muscle strength.Ref; Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no:-423


Question: Normal adult GFR is

(120-130 ml/min, 1.73 msq/cm2) (706-GN) (646- Ganong 23rd)* The GFR in an average-sized normal man is approximately 125 mL/min. Its magnitude correlates fairly well with surface area, but values in woman are 10% lower than those in men even after correction for surface area.Factors that can decrease the GFR (288-Gyton 10th)Physiologic/ Pathophysiologic causes* Renal disease, DM, hypertension* Urinary tract obstruction (eg. Kidney stones)* | Renal blood flow, increased plasma proteins* | Arterial pressure (has only small effect due to autoregulation)* | Angiotensin II (drugs that block angiotensin II formation)* | Sympathetic activity, vasoconstriction hormones (eg. Norepinephrine, endothelin)


Question: The coronary blood flow is regulated by

Coronary blood flow is regulated by Adenosine. Blood flow through the coronary system is regulated mostly by local aeriolar vasodilation in response to the nutritional needs of cardiac muscle. Increased local metabolism - decrease in O2 - breakdown of ATP to form adenosine - vasodilation - increased local coronary blood flow Ref: Guyton and hall 13th edition Pgno: 262,263


Question: Caisson’s disease


Question: Depolarization of human ventricular muscle starts from

Order of depolarization in the heart.
-        First- Left side of the interventricular septum
-        Moves to right across the mid portion of the septum
-        Apex of heart
-        Along ventricular walls to AV groove (Endocardium to epicardium)
-        Last- Posterobasal portion of the left ventricle, pulmonary conus, uppermost portion of the septum.

Uppermost portion of interventricular septum


Question: Mesangial cells are contracted by

Contraction Relaxation Endothelins ANP AngiotensinII Dopamine Vasopressin PGE2 Norepinephrine cAMP Platelet-activating factor Platelet-derived growth factor Thromboxane A2 PGF2 Leukotrienes C4 and D4 Histamine Ref: Ganong's Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 678 Table 37-3


Question: Pulmonary lymph flow rate is

Pulmonary lymph flow rate is 20 ml per hour Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition


Question: Prothrombin activator complex is made of

Activated Factor X combines with Factor V and platelet or tissue phospholipids to form the complex called prothrombin activator. Reference: Guyton Physiology; 13th ed; Page: 488


Question: Prosopagnosia is

Ans. (a) Inability to recognize faces(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.294)Prosopagnosia:Inability to recognize familiar facesUsually seen in lesions of anterior and inferior temporal cortex


Question: Menopausal hot flushes coincide with

Before menopause, a woman&;s periods typically become irregular, which means that periods may be longer or shoer in duration or be lighter or heavier in the amount of flow. During this time, women often experience hot flashes; these typically last from 30 seconds to ten minutes and may be associated with shivering, sweating, and reddening of the skin. Hot flashes often stop occurring after a year or twoRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 400


Question: Optimal operation theatre temperature should be

Optimal operation theatre temperature for adults is 21degC and for children is 28degC.


Question: GnRH is a

Gonadotropin-releasing hormone is a releasing hormone responsible for the release of follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone from the anterior pituitary. GnRH is a tropic peptide hormone synthesized and released from GnRH neurons within the hypothalamus Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:550,551,552


Question: The most significant immediate result of lowered serum calcium is


Question: The most sensitive index for renal tubular function is

The main function of renal tubules is the concentration of urine and this can be measured by the specific gravity of urine.


Question: Somatomedin mediates

Somatomedin is a group of peptides found in the liver and in other tissues which mediate the effect of growth hormone (somatotropin)on cailage; also called insulin-like growth factor II, is synthesized in the liver and probably in the kidney; it is capable of stimulating ceain anabolic processes in bone and cailage, such as synthesis of DNA, RNA, and protein (including chondro mucoprotein), and the sulfation of mucopolysaccharides; secretion and biologic activity of somatomedin is known to depend on somatotropin.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-327

Decreased rate of glucose uptake by cells


Question: Two major types of muscle fibres are found in humans


Question: Thyroid hormone receptors bind to DNA as a heterodimer with

Thyroid hormone receptors most commonly bind to DNA as a heterodimer with Retinoid X receptor (RXR). Mechanism of action of Thyroid Receptors: Thyroid hormone acts by binding to a specific Nuclear Thyroid Receptor (TR) Nuclear Thyroid Receptor (TR) in-turn forms a heterodimer with Retinoid X receptor (RXR) another nuclear receptor Thyroid receptors function primarily by Heterodimerization with Retinoid X receptor (RXR) The TR/RXR Heterodimer then binds to DNA at specific sequences called Thyroid Hormone Response Elements Note that: Thyroid receptors (TR) may bind to DNA as monomers, homodimers, and heterodimers, but TR binding to DNA is greatly enhanced in response to thyroid hormones when the receptor is in the form of this heterodimer. Retinoid X receptor (RXR) stays silent and does not bind its natural liagands when it is complexed with Thyroid Receptors (The TR/RXR heterodimer doesnot bind to 9-cis retinoic acid, the usual ligand for RXR) Ref: Ganong 24th edition pgno: 348


Question: In posterior pituitary releases ADH & oxytocin its function disorganised lesion in

(A) Supraoptic & paraventricular nuclei > The hormones of the posterior pituitary gland are synthesized in the cell bodies of the magnocellular neurons in the supraoptic and paraventricular nuclei and transported down the axons of these neurons to their endings in the posterior lobe, where they are secreted in response to electrical activity in the endings.* Some of the neurons make oxytocin and others make vasopressin, and oxytocin-containing and vasopressin-containing cells are found in both nuclei.


Question: Second order neuron in optic pathway

Visual pathway

Receptors- Rods & Cons
First order neurons- Bipolar cell axons (In retina)
Second order neurons- Ganglion cell axons ( In optic disc, optic nerve, optic chiasma, optic tracts)
Third order neurons- Lateral geniculate body nerve cell axons (optic radiation)


Question: Hemiveebra is a defect of

Veebral bodies mainly develop from ventral sclerotome (VS) & thus hemiveebra is a defect of VS Hemiveebra can lead to defects in the veebral column - scoliosis. Posterior veebral arches (PVA) contribute mainly to the lamina & spines. PVA are contributed by the dorsal sclerotome.


Question: The type of inhibition seen in cerebellum is

(D) Feed forward inhibition> Feed forward inhibition--Seen in cerebellum. Stimulation of basket cells produces IPSP (inhibitory post-synaptic potential) in Purkinje cells.> However, both these cells are excited by the same excitatory inputs.> This arrangement is called feed forward inhibition, presumably limits the duration of excitation produced by any afferent volley.


Question: Nerve fibers innervating sweat glands release the following at their endings

Sweat glands are innervated by cholinergic nerve fibres. Those fibres that secrete acetylcholine are said to be cholinergic. All preganglionic neurons are cholinergic in both the sympathetic and the parasympathetic nervous systems. Acetylcholine and acetylcholine-like substances, when applied to the ganglia, will excite both sympathetic and parasympathetic postganglionic neurons. Either all or almost all of the postganglionic neurons of the parasympathetic system are also cholinergic. Conversely, most of the postganglionic sympathetic neurons are adrenergic. However, the postganglionic sympathetic nerve fibres to the sweat glands are cholinergic.
Thus, the terminal nerve endings of the parasympathetic system all or virtually all secrete acetylcholine. These neurotransmitters in turn act on different organs to cause respective parasympathetic or sympathetic effects. Therefore, acetylcholine is called a parasympathetic transmitter.


Question: Alveoli are kept dry because of

Pulmonary surfactant is a mixture of lipids and proteins which is secreted into the alveolar space by epithelial type II cells. The main function of surfactant is to lower the surface tension at the air/liquid interface within the alveoli of the lung. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 317,318,319


Question: Most susceptible tissue to hypoxia

Neurons are the most susceptible to hypoxia.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 92


Question: Basal cardiac output in an adult is nearly


Question: Hypehermia

Hypehermia is elevated body temperature due to failed thermoregulation that occurs when a body produces or absorbs more heat than it dissipates. Extreme temperature elevation then becomes a medical emergency requiring immediate treatment to prevent disability or death.Hypothermia<35.0 degC (95.0 degF)Normal36.5-37.5 degC (97.7-99.5 degF)Fever>37.5-38.3 degC (99.5-100.9 degF)Hypehermia>37.5-38.3 degC (99.5-100.9 degF)Hyperpyrexia>40.0-41.5 degC (104-106.7 degF)Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology-24th edition; page no-317


Question: The prime driving force for counter current multiplier system is

Ans. (b) Reabsorption of Na+ in thick ascending limb(Ref: Ganongy 25th ed/p.685)The primary driving force for counter current system is Reabsorption of Na+ in thick ascending limb through Na-K-2Cl cotransporter


Question: During contraction of the muscle, ATP is constantly maintained due to

(A) Creatinine kinase # THE STRENGTH ENZYME SYSTEM: When muscle strength is required, ATP is created quickly form the following chemical reaction. The enzyme creatine kinase mediates ATP production from the high energy molecule creatine phosphate by an anaerobic reaction: CP + ADP > ATP + Creatine The CP (Creatine Phosphate) is depleted in just a few seconds. To continue producing high strength power, the speed enzyme system kicks in.> Creatine kinase (CK), also known as creatine phosphokinase (CPK) or phospho-creatine kinase (and sometimes incorrectly as creatinine kinase), is an enzyme expressed by various tissues and cell types.> CK catalyses the conversion of creatine and consumes adenosine triphosphate (ATP) to create phosphocreatine (PCr) and adenosine diphosphate (ADP).> This CK enzyme reaction is reversible, such that also ATP can be generated from PCr and ADP. In tissues and cells that consume ATP rapidly, especially skeletal muscle, but also brain, photoreceptor cells of the retina, hair cells of the inner ear, spermatozoa and smooth muscle, PCr serves as an energy reservoir for the rapid buffering and regeneration of ATP in situ, as well as for intracellular energy transport by the PCr shuttle or circuit. Thus creatine kinase is an important enzyme in such tissues.> Clinically, creatine kinase is assayed in blood tests as a marker of Myocardial infarction, Rhabdomyolysis, Muscular dystrophy, the Autoimmune Myositides and in Acute Renal Failure.


Question: Transthoracic compliance formula

Transthoracic pressure Transthoracic compliance : Alveolar pressure - Atmospheric pressure


Question: Albumin is


Question: In stretch reflex, the stimulus is

The stretch reflex (myotatic reflex) is a muscle contraction in response to stretching within the muscle. It is a monosynaptic reflex which provides automatic regulation of skeletal muscle length.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 158


Question: Intrauterine growth of fetus is affected by

Intrauterine growth of fetus is affected by insulinRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 431


Question: If the hea rate is 70 beats/min, then the cardiac output of this ventricle is closest to

Stroke volume is the volume ejected from the ventricle and is represented on the pressure-volume loop as phase 2 - 3; End-diastolic volume is about 140 mL and end-systolic volume is about 65 mL; The difference, or stroke volume, is 75 mL. Cardiac output is calculated as stroke volume x hea rate or 75 mL x 70 beats /min = 5250 mL/min or 5.25 L/min


Question: Phagocytic cells in the CNS are

Microglia are scavenger cells that resemble tissue macrophages and remove debris resulting from injury infection and disease. Microglia arise from macrophages outside the nervous system. (Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:80)


Question: Tinea versicolor is seen with

Tinea versicolor is caused by Pityrosporum orbiculare (also called Malassezia furfur).


Question: Diffusion of gas in the respiratory membrane

The rate of diffusion of gas across the respiratory membrane is
-        Directly proportional to

The pressure gradient across the membrane
Lipid solubility of the gas
The surface area of the membrane

-        Inversely proportional to

The thickness of the membrane
The molecular weight of the gas

Directly proportional to thickness of respiratory membrane

Inversely proportional to molecular weight of the gas

Inversely proportional to pressure gradient


Question: CSF is formed by

The choroid plexus is a plexus of cells that produces the cerebrospinal fluid in the ventricles of the brain. The CSF occupies the subarachnoid space and the ventricular system around and inside the brain and spinal cord. It constitutes the content of the ventricles, cisterns, and sulci of the brain, as well as the central canal of the spinal cord. CSF serves several purposes: Buoyancy Protection Chemical stability Clearing waste Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 813,814,815


Question: Secretion of bile into bile canaliculus is by

Most of the bilirubin in the body is formed in the tissues by the break down of hemoglobin. The bilirubin is bound to albumin in the circulation. Some of it is tightly bound, but most of it can dissociate in the liver, and free bilirubin enters liver cells a member of the organic anion transpoing polypeptide (OATP) family and then becomes bound to cytoplasmic proteins. It is next conjugated to glucuronic acid in a reaction catalyzed by the enzyme glucuronyl transferase (UDP-glucuronosyltransferase). This enzyme is located primarily in the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Each bilirubin molecule reacts with two uridines diphosphoglucuronic acid (UDPG) molecules to form bilirubin diglucuronide. This glucuronide, which is more water-soluble than the free bilirubin, is then transpoed against a concentration gradient most likely by an active transpoer known as multidrug resistance protein-2 (MRP-2) into the bile canaliculi. A small amount of the bilirubin glucuronide escapes into the blood, where it is boundless tightly to albumin than is free bilirubin and is excreted in the urine. Thus, the total plasma bilirubin normally includes free bilirubin plus a small amount of conjugated bilirubin. Most of the bilirubin glucuronide passes the bile ducts to the intestine.Reference: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 483


Question: Most active form of vitamin D

Vitamin D- is a fat-soluble vitamin, chemically related to the steroids and essential for the normal formation of bones and teeth and for the absorption of calcium and phosphorus from the GI tract.1a,25-Dihydroxycholecalciferol (or 1,3,25-triol); or calcitriol is the active form of vitamin D, it is more potent than calcidiol. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-379


Question: Mitral cells and periglomerular cells are seen in

In the olfactory bulbs, the axons of the olfactory sensory neurons contact the primary dendrites of the mitral cells and tufted cells to form anatomically discrete synaptic units called olfactory glomeruli. The olfactory bulbs also contain periglomerular cells, which are inhibitory neurons connecting one glomerulus to another, and granule cells, which have no axons and make reciprocal synapses with the lateral dendrites of the mitral and tufted cells.


Question: Following acute respiratory response to ascent to high altitude, there is normalization of blood pH.The mechanism is

Decrease in PaO2 stimulates the peripheral chemoreceptors at high altitudes. This triggers hyperventilation. Hyperventilation results in CO2 washout and respiratory alkalosis. This is compensated by increased excretion of bicarbonates by the kidney.

Increased erythropoiesis leads to increased buffering by haemoglobin

Increased excretion of HCO3– by the kidneys


Question: In a male newborn the adrenogenital syndrome (congenital hyperplasia of the adrenal glands) is most often associated with

Adrenogenital syndrome is defined as Over secretion of adrenal sex hormones, resulting in intense masculinizing of the body.mulleian ducts area pair of embryonic ducts which give rise to the genital passages in the female, but disappear in the male.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-374

Persistent paramesonephros (Mullerian ducts)


Question: Estrogen beta receptors are found on

Oestrogen beta receptors are found in blood vessels Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:636,637,638


Question: Osmotic adaptation is NE


Question: Bilirubin is synthesized from

Ans. B HemoglobinRef: Quantitative Human Physiology; An Introduction.pg. 432-33* An average weighing adult turns over approx 6 gm of Hb daily* 1 g of Hb yield - 35 mg of Bilirubin* Therefore daily bilirubin formation in an adult is approx 250-350 mg


Question: The optical power of the eye is

(C) 60 Dioptres > The human eye has a refractive power of approximately 60 diopters at rest.


Question: Hormones secreted by kidney

The kidneys produce three hormones: 1,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol, renin, and erythropoietin.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd edition, page no: 670


Question: Most potent stimulus for secretin

Acidic chyme is the most potent stimulus for secretin Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:416,417,418


Question: Adenylyl cyclase is associated with

Adenylyl cyclase is a transmembrane protein, and it crosses the membrane 12 times. Ten isoforms of this enzyme have been described and each can have distinct regulatory propeies, permitting the cAMP pathway to be customized to specific tissue needs. Notably, stimulatory heterotrimeric G proteins (Gs) activate, while inhibitory heterotrimeric G proteins (Gi) inactivate adenylyl cyclase (Figure 2-28). When the appropriate ligand binds to a stimulatory receptor, a Gs a subunit activates one of the adenylyl cyclases.(Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 56)

Seven transmembrane domain receptors or GPCR


Question: Arousal response is mediated by

Arousal response in cerebral cortex is activated by stimulation of Reticular activating system.


Question: Increased LH secretion just before ovulation is due to

Luteinizing hormone (LH) a gonadotropin of the anterior pituitary gland, acting with follicle-stimulating hormone to cause ovulation of mature follicles and secretion of estrogen by thecal and granulosa cells of the ovary; it is also concerned with corpus luteum formation. In the male, it stimulates development of the interstitial cells of the testes and their secretion of testosterone. Called also interstitial cell-stimulating hormone.LH peak is a positive feedback mechanism from estradiol. The levels keep rising through the follicular phase and when they reach an unknown threshold, this results in the peak of the LH. This effect is opposite from the usual negative feedback mechanism presented at lower levels. In other words, the mechanism(s) are not yet clear. The increase in LH production only lasts for 24 to 48 hours. This "LH surge" triggers ovulation, thereby not only releasing the egg from the follicle but also initiating the conversion of the residual follicle into a corpus luteum that, in turn, produces progesterone to prepare the endometrium for a possible implantation. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-407


Question: Fick's law, flux of Geomembrane increased in

There is a net flux of solute paicles from areas of high to areas of low concentration. The time required for equilibrium by diffusion is propoionate to the square of the diffusion distance. The magnitude of the diffusing tendency from one region to another is directly propoionate to the cross-sectional area across which diffusion is taking place and the concentration gradient, or chemical gradient, which is the difference in concentration of the diffusing substance divided by the thickness of the boundary(Fick's law of diffusion).Thus,J = -DA Dc/Dxwhere J is the net rate of diffusion, D is the diffusion coefficient, A is the area, and D c/ D x is the concentration gradient. (REF.Ganong's review of medical physiology 23rd Edition page no.5)


Question: Colonic bacteria, on digestion of dietary fibres would give

Colonic bacteria break down dietary fibers into short chain fatty acids - acetate, butyrate and propionate.


Question: Not a direct effect of Ach

Contractility increase is not a direct effect of Ach.Reference: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 263


Question: Hypothalamus controls the hormone secretion of

Hypothalamus a structure within the brain responsible for a large number of normal functions throughout the body, including regulating sleep, temperature, eating, and sexual development. The hypothalamus also regulates the functions of the pituitary gland by directing the pituitary to stop or sta production of its hormones.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-311


Question: Increased temperature after ovulation is due to

Ovulation is the release of egg from the ovaries. In humans, this event occurs when the de Graaf&;s follicles rupture and release the secondary oocyte ovarian cellsThe follicle proper has met the end of its lifespan. Without the oocyte, the follicle folds inward on itself, transforming into the corpus luteum(pl. corpora lutea), a steroidogenic cluster of cells that produce estrogen and progesterone. These hormones induce the endometrial glands to begin production of the proliferative endometrium and later into secretory endometrium, the site of embryonic growth if implantation occurs. The action of progesterone increases basal body temperature by one-quaer to one-half degree Celsius (one-half to one degree Fahrenheit). The corpus luteum continues this paracrine action for the remainder of the menstrual cycle, maintaining the endometrium, before disintegrating into scar tissue during menses.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no:-401


Question: Not done by insulin

Insulin is a peptide hormone produced by beta cells of the pancreatic islets, It has impoant effects on the metabolism of carbohydrates, fats, and protein by promoting the absorption of, especially, glucose from the blood into fat, liver and skeletal muscle cells. In these tissues, the absorbed glucose is conveed into either glycogen glycogenesis or fats (triglycerides) lipogenesis, or, in the case of the liver, into both. Glucose production (and excretion into the blood) by the liver is strongly inhibited by high concentrations of insulin in the blood. Circulating insulin also affects the synthesis of proteins in a wide variety of tissues. In high concentrations in the blood, it is, therefore, an anabolic hormone, promoting the conversion of small molecules in the blood into large molecules inside the cells. Low insulin levels in the blood have the opposite effect by promoting widespread catabolism.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-433


Question: Spontaneous rhythmic respiration initiated in


Question: Amino acid responsible for buffering action of Hemoglobin

The second buffer system is provided by the dissociation of the imidazole groups of the histidine residues in hemoglobin.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 644


Question: Krause end bulbs are specialised receptors for


Question: Meissner&;s corpuscle are for

Meissner's corpuscle is a type of tactile receptor. A touch receptor with great sensitivity is the Meissner's corpuscle, an elongated encapsulated nerve ending of a large (type Ab) myelinated sensory nerve fiber. Inside the capsulation are many branching terminal nerve filaments. These corpuscles are present in the nonhairy pas of the skin and are paicularly abundant in the fingeips, lips, and other areas of the skin where one's ability to discern spatial locations of touch sensations is highly developed. Meissner corpuscles adapt in a fraction of a second after they are stimulated, which means that they are paicularly sensitive to movement of objects over the surface of the skin, as well as to low-frequency vibration.Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology, 13th edition.


Question: Patient is able to recognize voice but not face

Memory and language problems after temporal lobectomy. Temporary double vision after temporal lobectomy. Increased number of seizures after corpus callosotomy, but the seizures should be less severe. Reduced visual field after a hemispherectomy. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:835,836,837


Question: Phantom limb phenomenon is explained by

The sensory fibres are experimentally stimulated anywhere in their course to the coex, the conscious sensation produced is referred to the loaction of the receptor. This principle is called the law of projection. Due to this, after amputation of a limb, sometimes patient complains of intense pain in the absent limb (phantom limb). These sensations are produced due to irritation of the damaged nociceptive and proprioceptive afferents at the stump of amputated limb. The sensations are evoked are projected to the area where receptors are used to be located. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 671,672,673


Question: Saltatory Conduction is

(B) Action potential through nodes of Ranvier > Jumping of depolarisation from one node of Ranvier to the next in myelinated axons is called saltatory conduction.> It is rapid process and myelinated axons conduct up to 50 times faster than the fastest unmyelinated fibres.


Question: Earliest symptom of acute mountain sickness is

The low paial pressure of oxygen at high altitude causes aeriolar dilatation and if cerebral autoregulation does not compensate, there is an increase in capillary pressure that ors increased transudation of fluid into brain tissue.Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Kim E Barrett, Susan M Barman, Scott Boitano, Heddwen L Brooks 23rd edition page no - 619


Question: Flare in triple response is mediated by


Question: PO2 is maximum

Paial pressure of oxygen is maximum at the apex of the lung Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 332,333,334


Question: Increased calcium levels lead to

24,25-dihydroxycholecalciferol; a metabolite in calcium metabolism, formed in the kidney from 25-hydroxycholecalciferol by the activation of a 24-hydroxylase.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-379


Question: Myosin filament has a fixed length of

Myosin filament is about 1.6 micrometers in length Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:85,86,87,88


Question: GFR is measured by

Inulin is uniquely treated by nephrons in that it is completely filtered at the glomerulus but neither secreted nor reabsorbed by the tubules. This propey of inulin allows the clearance of inulin to be used clinically as a highly accurate measure of glomerular filtration rate (GFR) -- the rate of plasma from the afferent aeriole that is filtered into Bowman&;s capsule measured in mL/min.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no; 679


Question: During high temperature body is prevented from heat by

(C) Increased cutaneous vasodilatation and cooling effect of sweat TEMPERATURE-REGULATING MECHANISMS.Mechanisms activated by coldMechanisms activated by heat* Increase heat production* Increase heat loss* Shivering* Cutaneous vasodilation* Hunger* Sweating* Increased voluntary activity* Increased respiration* Increased secretion of norepinephrine and epinephrine* Decrease heat production* Decrease heat loss* Anorexia* Cutaneous vasoconstriction* Apathy and inertia* Curling up * Horripilation


Question: In apoptotic permeabilization of membrane occurs in

Mitochondrial membrane ruptures releasing substances like cytochrome c ....which play major role in apoptosis Ref guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12/e pg 40


Question: The resting membrane potential of a cell is due to permeability of

K+ permeability is greater than Na+ permeability, therefore, K+channels maintain the RMP.(Ref: Textbook of physiology AK Jain 5th edition page no.35)


Question: The normal respiratory quotient for carbohydrates is

“Respiratory Quotient” Is the Ratio of CO2  Production to O2 Utilization and Can Be Used to Estimate Fat and Carbohydrate Utilization.  When carbohydrates are metabolized with oxygen, exactly one carbon dioxide molecule is formed for each molecule of oxygen consumed. This ratio of carbon dioxide output to oxygen usage is called the respiratory quotient, so the respiratory quotient for carbohydrates is 1.0.


Question: Ubiquitin is a key molecule in protein degeneration. Ubiquitinated proteins are degraded by

Ubiquinated proteins are degraded by Proteasomes. Abnormal proteins and aged normal proteins conjugate to the polypeptide ubiquitin and then it marks them for degradation(Ubiquitination). The Ubiquitinated proteins are degraded by Proteasomes. Proteasome inhibitor, Boezomib, is used in multiple myeloma and hepatocellular carcinoma Ref: Harper's illustrated Biochemistry 31st edition Pgno: 664, 1434


Question: 'c' wave of JVP

c' wave of JVP

Occurs due to bulging of tricuspid valve into right atrium
Occurs during isovolumetric contraction phase
In tricuspid regurgitation, v wave merge with c wave.

Occurs during rapid filling phase of cardiac cycle

Occurs due to opening of tricuspid valve

Occurs due to closure of tricuspid valve into right atrium


Question: In thyroid gland, iodine is transpoed into the lumen of the follicles by

Pendrin protein is a chloride-iodide transpoer protein encoded by the gene responsible for Pendred syndrome, impoant in function of thyroid gland, kidney, and inner ear.Endocytosis is defined as the uptake by a cell of material from the environment by invagination of the plasma membrane; it includes both phagocytosis and pinocytosis.Antipo a cell membrane transpo mechanism that transpos two molecules at once through the membrane in opposite directions.Primary active transpo - Active transpo is the movement of all types of molecules across a cell membrane against its concentration gradient (from low to high concentration). In all cells, this is usually concerned with accumulating high concentrations of molecules that the cell needs, such as ions, glucose, and amino acids. If the process uses chemical energy, such as from adenosine triphosphate (ATP), it is termed primary active transpo.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no-341


Question: Increased airway resistance is/are caused bya)  Forced expirationb) Denser airc)  Low lung volumed) High lung volue

There is dynamic compression of the small airways during forceful expiration, resulting in increased airway resistance. When the air is denser, the airway resistance is more. Less volume of the lung also increases the airway resistance.


Question: In children, hypothyroidism causes

Cretinism
Cretinism is caused by extreme hypothyroidism during fetal life, infancy, or childhood. This condition is characterized especially by failure of body growth and by mental retardation. It results from congenital lack of a thyroid gland (congenital cretinism), from failure of the thyroid gland to produce thyroid hormone because of a genetic defect of the gland, or from a lack of iodine in the diet (endemic cretinism).
A neonate without a thyroid gland may have a normal appearance and function because it was supplied with some (but usually not enough) thyroid hormone by the mother while in utero. A few weeks after birth, however, the  neonate’s movements become sluggish and both physical and mental growth begin to be greatly retarded. Treatment of the neonate with cretinism at any time with adequate iodine or thyroxine usually causes normal return of physical growth, but unless the cretinism is treated within a few weeks after birth, mental growth remains permanently retarded. This state results from retardation of the growth, branching, and myelination of the neuronal cells of the central nervous system at this critical time in the normal development of the mental powers.
Skeletal growth in a child with cretinism is characteristically more inhibited than is soft tissue growth. As a result of this disproportionate rate of growth, the soft tissues are likely to enlarge excessively, giving the child with cretinism an obese, stocky, and short appearance. Occasionally the tongue becomes so large in relation to the skeletal growth that it  obstructs swallowing and breathing, inducing a characteristic guttural breathing that sometimes chokes the child.
Reference: GUYTON AND HALL TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY, THIRTEENTH EDITION(INTERNATIONAL EDITION ) page no 963


Question: The major role of 2,3 DPG in RBC includes

The normal BPG in the blood keeps the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve shifted slightly to the right all the time. In hypoxic conditions that last longer than a few hours, the quantity of BPG in the blood increases considerably, thus shifting the O2-hemoglobin dissociation curve even faher to the right. This shift causes O2 to be released to the tissues at as much as 10 mm Hg higher tissue O2 pressure than would be the case without this increased BPG. Therefore, under some conditions, the BPG mechanism can be impoant for adaptation to hypoxia, especially to hypoxia caused by poor tissue blood flow.Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 13th edition. Page:532


Question: Vagal stimulation of the hea causes

The right and left vagus nerves in the neck region were exposed by dissection, and bipolar, multiturn, helical, silicone leads were wrapped around the vagus nerves. Stimulation was applied by an external device with multivariable settings: frequency 10-100 Hz, pulse duration 100-700 usec; delay 0-0.5 msec; current 0.5-14 mA. Measurements were performed under normal sinus rhythm (RR-interval 501 +- 30 msec) and during isoprenaline-induced tachycardia (RR-interval 284 +- 11 msec). Results. VNS, under optimal pacing conditions (100 Hz; 5 mA; 0.2 msec; 70 msec delay), in an electrocardiogram-triggered (ECG-triggered) pacing mode, increased RR-intervals by approximately 40%, irrespective of the duration of the RR-interval preceding VNS.


Question: Basal Metabolic Rate depends most closely on

Basal metabolic rate usually expressed in terms of daily rates of energy expenditure. The early work of the scientists J. Ahur Harris and Francis G. Benedict showed that approximate values could be derived using body surface area (computed from height and weight), age, and sex, along with the oxygen and carbon dioxide measures taken from calorimetry. Studies also showed that by eliminating the sex differences that occur with the accumulation of adipose tissue by expressing metabolic rate per unit of "fat-free" or lean body mass, the values between sexes for basal metabolism are essentially the same.BMR estimation formulasSeveral prediction equations exist. Historically, the most notable one was the Harris-Benedict equation, which was created in1919.The Original Harris-Benedict Equation: for men, for women, The Katch-McArdle Formula (BMR): , where LBM is the lean body mass in kg.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology-24th edition; page no-489


Question: Glucose is transpoed in muscle cells by

GLUT 4 Found in adipose tissues and striated muscle (skeletal muscle and cardiac muscle).Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition


Question: Calculate the Alveolar ventilation per minute of a patient with respiratory rate 14/min, tidal volume of 500 ml with a vital capacity 7000 ml

Alveolar ventilation= Respiratory rate X (Tidal volume – Dead space)
Respiratory rate provided in question- 14 per minute
Tidal Volume- 500ml
Dead Space- 150 ml
AV= 14 (500-150)= 14 X 350 = 4900ml/min = 4.9 L/min


Question: Conduction velocity is maximum in

Purkinje fibers lead from the A-V node through the A-V bundle into the ventricles. Except for the initial poion of these fibers where they penetrate the A-V fibrous barrier, they have functional characteristics that are quite the opposite of those of the A-V nodal fibers. They are very large fibers, even larger than the normal ventricular muscle fibers, and they transmit action potentials at a velocity of 1.5 to 4.0 m/sec, a velocity about six times that in the usual ventricular muscle and 150 times that in some of the A-V nodal fibers. The rapid transmission of action potentials is caused by very high level of permeability of the gap junctions at the intercalated discs between the successive cells that make up the prkinje fibres. They have very few myofibrils--contract little or not at all during the impulse transmission. Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 13th edition. Page: 125


Question: ADH is secreted by

Vasopressin a hormone secreted by cells of the hypothalamic nuclei and stored in the posterior pituitary for release as necessary; it stimulates contraction of the muscular tissues of the capillaries and aerioles, raising the blood pressure, and increases peristalsis, exes some influence on the uterus, and influences resorption of water by the kidney tubules, resulting in concentration of urine. Its rate of secretion is regulated chiefly by the osmolarity of the plasma. Also prepared synthetically or obtained from the posterior pituitary of domestic animals; used as an anti-diuretic. Called also antidiuretic hormone.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-313


Question: Ha's rule is related to

Elastic recoil of Levator Ani occurs bringing the occiput forwards in the midline. The process is repeated until the occiput is placed anteriorly. This is called as rotation by law of pelvic floor- Ha's rule.


Question: Hyponatremia has no effect on the RMP (resting membrane potential) because

Resting membrane potential depends on the concentration of potassium ion and not on sodium ion. (REF TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N 2 EDITION, 23)


Question: Cardiac muscles action potential at plateau is due to

Ca2+ influx through more slowly opening Ca2+ channels (the Ca2+ current, ICA) produces the plateau phaseRepolarization is due to net K+ efflux through multiple types of K+ channelsThe initial depolarization is due to Na+ influx through rapidly opening Na+ channels Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition pg:491


Question: Residual volume is the volume of air in lung after

The air left in the lungs after a maximal expiratory effo is the residual volume.Ref: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 593


Question: Centroacinar cells are characteristic of

Pancreatic centroacinar cells. The regulator of both exocrine and endocrine function. Pour PM1. Author information Abstract The relationship between pancreatic centroacinar cells (CAC), the acinar cells, and the endocrine cells was examined in fetuses and newborn Syrian hamsters histologically, immunohistochemically, and electron microscopically. Pancreatic anlage, composed of undifferentiated cells and a few alpha cells, were found at day 12, delta cells at day 13, acinar cells at day 14, and beta cells at day 15 of the gestation. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:414,415,416


Question: Percentage of 02 carried in chemical combination


Question: 1st response to hypoglycemia

Hypoglycemia is defined as the condition of low blood sugar. Hypoglycemia occurs when blood sugar (or blood glucose) concentrations fall below a level necessary to properly suppo the body&;s need for energy and stability throughout its cells.Carbohydrates are the main dietary source of the glucose that is manufactured in the liver and absorbed into the bloodstream to fuel the body&;s cells and organs. Glucose concentration is controlled by hormones, primarily insulin and glucagon. Glucose concentration also is controlled by epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, as well as growth hormone. If these regulators are not working properly, levels of blood sugar can become either excessive (as in hyperglycemia) or inadequate (as in hypoglycemia).Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-448


Question: The total fluid secreted by the salivary gland, stomach, and intestine in a day is

Daily water turnover in the GITIngested2000Endogenous secretions7000Salivary glands1500Stomach2500Bile500Pancreas1500Intestine1000Total Input9000Reabsorbed8800Jejunum5500Ileum2000Colon1300Balance in stool200Reference: Ganong's review of Medical Physiology, 25th ed, Page: 464


Question: Number of Golgi tendon organs per 100 extrafusal muscle fibres

About 1 golgi tendon organ is responsible for 10 to 20 extrafusal fibers Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:689


Question: Functions of limbic system

Emotional behaviour is one of the most impoant functions of the limbic system. Emotions refer to an aroused state involving intense feeling, autonomic activation and related behaviour, which accompany many of our conscious experiences. Emotions have two major components: mental and physical. - MENTAL OR SENSORY COMPONENT: mental or sensory component of emotions comprises cognition, affect and conation. PHYSICAL OR EXPRESSIVE OR PERIPHERAL COMPONENT: it is the motor side of emotional behaviour. It consists of two subcomponents - the somatic and autonomic. Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology 26th edition pg no:621


Question: During this phenomenon (arrow mark), changes in hormone levels noted are,

Ans. (d) Increased estrogen, decreased progesterone(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.403)LH surge happen 24 - 36 hrs before ovulationAt that time, there is increased estrogen, decreased progesterone.

Increased estrogen, increased progesterone

Decreased estrogen, increased progesterone

Decreased estrogen, decreased progesterone


Question: Pancreatic juice becomes thick if it has impaired

As the volume of pancreatic secretion increases, its Cl- concentration falls and its HCO3- concentration increases.The magnitude of the exchange is inversely propoionate to the rate of flow.In cystic fibrosis where this exchange mechanism is lost, pancreatic secretions become dehydrated and thickenedREF: GANONG&;S REVIEW OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY, TWENTY-THIRD EDITION, PAGE NO:435,436


Question: Effort during normal respiration is done due to


Question: Weber Fechner Law is

The magnitude of the sensation felt is propoional to the log of the intensity of the stimulus (Weber-Fechner law) . It now appears, however, that a power function more accurately describes this relation. In other words, R = KSA where R is the sensation felt, S is the intensity of the stimulus, and, for any specific sensory modality, K and A are constants. P = K lnS/S0 (REF: Ganong's review of medical physiology 23rd Edition page no.153)

Magnitude of stimulus strength perceived is approximately propoionate to the log of the intensity of stimulus strength

Magnitude of stimulus strength perceived is directly propoional to the intensity of stimulus strength

Threshold of receptor is directly propoional to stimulus strength

Threshold of receptor is inversely propoional to stimulus strength


Question: Number of RBC excreted per day in urine is

(A) 1 million# Microscopic Heamaturia: A few RBC can be found in urine of normal people. The upper limit of normal for RBC excretion is 1 million per 24 hours> Transient microscopic heamaturia can occur following rigorous exercise , sexual inter course , or from menstrual contamination


Question: Most afferent fibers from the lateral nucleus terminate in the primary visual coex is

Like almost all other poions of the visual coex, the primary visual coex has six distinct layers. Also, as is true for the other sensory systems, the geniculocalcarine fibres terminate mainly in layer 4. REF: TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GUYTON AND HALL, 12e Page no 755


Question: The basis of Korotkoff sound is related to

At the point at which systolic pressure in the aery just exceeds the cuff pressure, a spu of blood passes through with each heabeat and, synchronously with each beat, a tapping sound is heard below the cuff. The cuff pressure at which the sounds are first heard is the systolic pressure. As the cuff pressure is lowered fuher, the sounds become louder, then dull and muffled. These are the sounds of Korotkoff. The sounds of Korotkoff are produced by turbulent flow in the brachial aery. Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page:577


Question: Calcitonin is produced by

Calcitonin (also known as thyrocalcitonin) is a 32-amino acid linear polypeptide hormone that is produced in humans primarily by the parafollicular cells (also known as C-cells) of the thyroid, and in many other animals in the ultimobranchial body. It acts to reduce blood calcium (Ca2+), opposing the effects of parathyroid hormone (PTH). Calcitonin has been found in fish, reptiles, birds, and mammals. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no-377


Question: In anemia the conc. Of 2,3 DPG is


Question: ICF is

In a 70 kg normal manThe intracellular compament contains on average about 28 litres of fluid.The extracellular compament contains on average about 14 litres of fluid, of which the interstitial space has approximately 10.5 litres of fluid and intravascular is approximately 3.5 litres.(Ref. Textbook of physiology AK Jain 5th edition page no.24 table 1.3.1)


Question: Posterior dorsal columns transmit


Question: Effect of fetal hemoglobin on O2 dissociation curve

Oxygen dissociation curve is the graphic expression of the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen as a function of the paial pressure of oxygen. Dissociation is influenced by pH, temperature, and carbon dioxide pressure. Formerly called oxyhemoglobin dissociation curve.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology,3red edition, page no:610


Question: Following hea sound is almost Pathological;

Fouh Hea Sound (S4) It is due to ventricular filling and cannot be heard even by a stethoscope since its frequency is below the audible limit (20 Hz). It is always pathological. It can sometimes be heard immediately before the first sound when atrial pressure is high or the ventricle is stiff in conditions such as ventricular hyperophy. It is produced during last rapid filling of ventricles, which occurs due to atrial systole. Hence, it is also called "atrial sound".


Question: The largest compliance in the circulatory system is of

The largest compliance in the circulatory system is of veins. Vascular compliance/capacitance is the total quantity of blood that can be stored in a given poion of the circulation for each mmHg pressure rise. vascular compliance= Distensibility * Volume The compliance of a systemic vein is about 24 times that of its corresponding aery because it is about 8 times as distensible and has a volume about 3 times as aery (8*3=24) Ref: Guyton and Hall 13th edition Pgno: 179


Question: Isocapnic exercise is

the effects of changes in the level of ventilation on respiratory discomfo during isocapnic exercise. Six subjects exercised at 60 W on a cycle ergometer. They initially breathed 2.5% CO2 in oxygen for 75 breaths. Ventilatory parameters of the last 10 breaths were used as controls. In 7 subsequent test sessions each lasting 2 min alternating with 2 min free breathing periods, subjects tried to achieve a target ventilation ranging from 0.7 to 1.3 times the control with a visual feedback system. End-tidal CO2 was regulated automatically at the control level by changing the inspired CO2. Breathing discomfo was measured at the end of each session using a visual analog scale. Isocapnic constraining of ventilation (0.7 times the control) during exercise significantly increased respiratory discomfo (p < 0.05). Increases in ventilation had no significant effect. These results indicate that respiratory discomfo during exercise is exaggerated when the level of ventilation falls below that spontaneously adopted even when chemical drives are held constant. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 385,386,387

Breathing for sho duration against resistance

Breathing of decreased volume of ventillation

Breathing of increased volume of ventilation for long period

Breathing of decreased volume for long period


Question: Physiological dead space in lung is


Question: Receptor w hich itself is a dendrite of a nerve

(C) Olfactory > Olfactory Mucous Membrane contains supporting cells & progenitor cells for the olfactory receptors.> Interspersed between these cells are 10-20 million receptor cells.> Each olfactory receptor is a neuron & the olfactory mucous membrane is said to be the place in the body where the nervous system is closest to the external world.


Question: Function of Golgi tendon organ is to detect

Ref:- Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology 25th ed; pg num:- 232


Question: Function of phospholamban is

Phospholamban increases the activity of SERCA
↓
It causes accumulation of Ca2+ by sarcoplasmic reticulum
↓
It leads to Lusiotropic effect, Increase in rate of relaxation

Collects calcium into sarcoplasmic reticulum


Question: Superior cerebellar peduncle carries the following fibres

In the human brain, the superior cerebellar peduncle (brachium conjunctivum) is a paired structure of white matter that connects the cerebellum to the midbrain. It consists mainly of efferent fibers, the cerebellothalamic tract that runs from a cerebellar hemisphere to the contralateral thalamus, and the cerebellorubral tract that runs from acerebellar hemisphere to the red nucleus. It also contains afferent tracts, most prominent of which is the ventral spinocerebellar tract. Other afferent tracts are the trigeminothalamic fibers, tecto cerebellar fibers, and noradrenergic fibers from the locus coeruleus. The superior peduncle emerges from the upper and medial pas of the white matter of each hemisphere and is placed under cover of the upper pa of the cerebellum.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology, 23rd edition, Page no:254


Question: Saliva is

Saliva has a pH normal range of 6.2-7.6 with 6.7 being the average pH. Resting pH of mouth does not fall below 6.3. In the oral cavity, the pH is maintained near neutrality (6.7-7.3) by saliva. The saliva contributes to maintenance of the pH by two mechanisms Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:400,401,402


Question: Preload is increased by

The amount of pressure on the muscles before the contraction starts is the preload. In regards to heart, preload is the amount of pressure on the ventricles at the end of diastole. That is the amount of blood which remains in the ventricles at the end of the diastole.


Question: Gas used to measure the diffusion capacity of lung

Diffusion Capacity. Diffusion capacity assesses how well a tracer gas in inspired air can cross from the air into the blood. The test measures the absorption of a low concentration of carbon monoxide in inhaled air by hemoglobin in red blood cells that circulate through pulmonary capillaries. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 348,349,350


Question: Weber Fechner law is related with

The magnitude of the sensation felt is proportional to the log of the intensity of the stimulus strength.


Question: Structure of brain involved in emotiona) Neocortexb) Limbic systemc) Thalamusd) Hippocampuse) Basal ganglia

The limbic system has a central component and a peripheral component. The central component is limbic cortex or the allocortex which is located around the peripheral margins of basal ganglia and includes orbitofrontal cortex, cingulate gyrus, parahippocampal gyrus, subcallosal gyrus and uncus. The peripheral component is hypothalamus. The co-ordination between both these components is managed by amygdala. Emotions originate in the limbic system which includes hippocampus.


Question: Normal alveolar ventilation pressure on inspiration is

Alveolar ventilation is normally adjusted by the respiratory control center in the brain to keep mean aerial and alveolar at about 40 mm Hg (see Chapter 9). Mean alveolar is about 104 mm Hg. The alveolar increases by 2 to 4 mm Hg with each normal tidal inspiration and falls slowly until the next inspiration Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:316,317,318


Question: Compensating mechanisms involved at high altitude is

The most important compensatory mechanism that occurs at high altitude is hyperventilation. This may lead to respiratory alkalosis which is not a compensatory effect but may cause an opposing effect at the respiratory centre, to hypoxic stimulation.


Question: The maintenance of posture in a normal adult | human being depends upon

the connection between the afferent and efferent neurons is usually in the cns and activity in the reflex arc is modified by the multiple inputs converging on the efferent neurons or at any synaptic station within the reflex loop. Therefore integrity of reflex arc is necessary for maintenance of posture. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;23rd edition; pg:157.


Question: Ablation of the "somatosensory area I" of the cerebral cortex leads to

Ans. (d) Loss of tactile localization and two point discrimination(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.168)Lesions of somatosensory area I causes loss of tactile localization and two point discrimination

Loss of tactile localization but not of two point discrimination


Question: Interstitial cells of cajal are located in

Interstitial cells of cajal are located in the gastrointestinal tract They act as pace makers and produce slow waves which help in peristalsis Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition ,page no :396


Question: Excessive production of aldosterone results in


Question: Slowest conductig nerve fibre is

Postganglionic autonomic fibres are type C fibres which are unmyelinated. Hence they are slowest conducting nerve fibre.


Question: A person unacclimitised develops pulmonary edema in

A small percentage of people who ascend rapidly to high altitudes become acutely sick and can die if not given O2 or rapidly moved to a low altitude. The sickness begins from a few hours up to about 2 days after ascent. Two events frequently occur. Acute cerebral edema and acute pulmonary edema.


Question: Secretin

Secretin is secreted by S cells in the upper pa of the small intestine. Secretin increases the secretion of bicarbonate by the pancreas. It also augments the action of CCK. It decreases gastric acid secretion and May cause contraction of pyloric sphincter.(Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology, 23 rd edition, page 446 )


Question: Major neurotransmitter in afferents in nucleus tractus solitarius to regulate cardiovascular system is

Vitamin is the major neurotransmitter in afferents of nucleus tractus solitarius to regulate cardiovascular system Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 370,371,372


Question: Erythropoietin is inhibited by

Glycoprotein hormone that controls erythropoiesis, or red blood cell production. Estrogen inhibits the erythropoietin whereas testosterone stimuates production . Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology; 24th edition; page no: 709


Question: A person with eyes closed and mind wandering will have the following wave in EEG


Question: Normal sperm count is

Sperm count, or sperm concentration to avoid confusion with total sperm count, measures the concentration of sperm in a man&;s ejaculate, distinguished from total sperm count, which is the sperm count multiplied with volume. Over 15 million sperm per milliliter is considered normal, according to the WHO in 2010. Older definitions state 20 millionRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 421


Question: Electromechanical Systole is best defined as the interval between

A i.e Q wave and S2 (Q-S2 Interval)Cardiac Cycle : Pecualirities- Cardiac muscle contract & repolarize faster at higher hea rates (HR) and the duration of systole decreases mainly d/t a decrease in the duration of systolic ejection.- However, the duration of systole is much more fixed and the diastole is shoened to a much greater degree- Only during diastole, coronary blood flows to the endocardial poion of left ventricle and hea muscles rest. Most of the ventricular filling occurs in diastole. So at very high hea rates (>180/min) filling may be compromised decreasing cardiac output per minute.- Because of prolonged action potential, cardiac muscles cannot contract in response to a second stimulus until near the end of initial contraction. That's why cardiac muscles cannot be tetanized like skeletal muscles. The highest rate atwhich hea can contract is 400/min (theoretically) but AV node will not conduct >230 impulses/min b/o its long refractory period. Hence ventricular rate > 230/min is onlyseen in paroxysmal ventricular tachycardia.- Exact clinical measurement of isovolumetric ventricular contraction is difficult but simultaneous recordings of ECG, phonocardiogram and carotid pulse can easily measureTotal Electromechanical systole (Q-S2 interval)It is period from onset of ventricular depolarization (activation) or QRS complex to the closure of aoic valves, as determined by the onset on second hea sound (S2)Pre-ejection Period (PEP)It is difference between QS2 and LVET and represents the electrical and mechanical events preceding systolic ejectionLeft Ventricular Ejection Time (LVET)It is the period between the begining of carotid pressure rise to dicrotic notch (incisura)- Normal PEP/ LVET ratio is 0.35; which increases without change in QS2 when left ventricular function is compromized


Question: Most potent Chemoattractant for neutrophils is

Manor activity of IL8 is chemotaxis of neutrophils, basophils and T cellsIL1- Activation of T cells and macrophages. IL 6 -- Activation of lymphocytes, differentiation of B cells, stimulation of production of acute phase proteinIL2 - Activation of lymphocytes, NK cells, and macrophages Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology, 24th edition.Pg no: 73


Question: Aerial carbon dioxide level


Question: Inspiratory reserve volume measures around

Inspiratory Reserve volume
It is the amount of air in excess of tidal inspiration that can be inhaled with maximum effort.
Normal value : 3,000 ml.


Question: The immunoglobulin lacking hinge region is

Hinges contribute to flexibility of immunoglobulin molecules. They contain cysteine and proline. Cysteine provides interchain linkage.Proline cannot be incorporated into secondary structure of immunoglobulin molecules. The immunoglobulins Ig M & Ig E lack the hinge region. They have an extra domain in the constant region-Ch4


Question: A person stands up. Compared with the recumbent position, 1 minute after standing, the

Standing up increases the transmural pressure in the veins of the legs. Because the veins are highly compliant, their volume increases at the expense of central blood volume.A lower central blood volume means reduced cardiac filling pressure (preload). Within seconds, the decrease in preload decreases stroke volume, cardiac output, and aerial pressure.


Question: Gamma globulin is synthesized in

Gamma globulins are a class of globulins, identified by their position after serum protein electrophoresis. The most significant gamma globulins are immunoglobulins (antibodies), although some immunoglobulins are not gamma globulins, and some gamma globulins are not immunoglobulins Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 130,131,132


Question: Site of RBC formation in 20 year old healthy male is

A i.e. Flat bonesThe marrow of the long bones except for the proximal humerus and tibia (Guyton) / upper humerus & femur (Ganong) becomes inactive (fatty) and produces no more red blood cells after about age 20 years. Beyond this age most RBC are produced in marrow of membranous flat bones such as veebrae, sternum, ribs & iliaQ.ErythropoesisIt stas in 3rd week of intra uterine life. Upto middle trimester of gestation blood is formed out of medullary cavity (extramedullary erythropoesis).It is one of the largest and most active organ approaching weight & size of liver. Active cellular marrow is called red marrow, inactive fatty marrow is K/a yellow marrowNormally 75% marrow cells belong to white blood producing myeloid series & only 25% are maturing RBCs. Even though in circulation RBCs are 500 times more than WBCs d/t the fact that average life span of WBCs is sho and RBC is long.Cellularity & RBC production after 15 years onward is Veebrae > sternum > rib > femur shaft > tibia shaftBefore bihAgeSite3weks - 3 months(Intra vascularphase)Mesoderm of yolk sacQwithin the blood vessel.3-5 months (Hepaticphase)Liver (main), spleen &lymph nodesQ5-9 months(Myeloid phase)Red bone marrowQ* All marrow of long& flat bones is red atthis stageAfter bihAgeSiteBih -5 yearsRed bone marrowQ(myeloid phase)* All marrow of long & flat bone is red at this stage.5-20 yearsRed bone marrowQ of all flat & long bones * There is gradual decrease of red marrow in long bonesand so gradually increasing production from flat bones>20 years- Red marrow of flat membranous bones such asveebrae, sternum, ribs & iliamQ. - Very little production in upper humerus, tibia & femur


Question: Sweat glands receives cholinergic innervation from

(B) Post ganglionic sympathetic > On the basis of chemical mediator released, ANS can be divided into- Cholinergic Noradrenergic All preganglionic neurons Remaining post ganglionic sympathetic neurons Anatomically sympathetic post Ganglionic neurons which innervate sweat glands Anatomically sympathetic neurons which end on blood vessels and skeletal muscles (Sympathetic vasodilators)


Question: In severe exercise, decrease in pH is due to

In case of sever exercise, lactic acid deposits in muscles due to anaerobic respiration by white muscle fibers, This results in fatigue Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition ,pag number:96


Question: Angiotensinogen is produced by

Angiotensiogen is produced in liver and is conveed into AT1 by RAAS mechanism Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:489,490,491


Question: Parkinosn's disease results from a lesion in the

(A) Striatum Chorea is characterized by rapid, involuntary dancing movements.> Athetosis: Continuous, slow, writhing movements is due to globus pallidus lesion> Hemiballismus: A lesion in subthalamus often leads to sudden flailing movements of an entire limb, a condition called hemiballismus.> Parkinson's disease: Lesions of the substantia nigra leads to the Parkinsonism.


Question: Gastrin is produced by

D. i.e. (Pyloric antrum) (443-Ganong 23rd) (484 - Ganong 22nd)* GASTRIN - is produced by cells called G-cells in the lateral walls of the glands in the antral portion of the gastric mucosa. It is polypeptide** containing* G-14, G-17 or G-34 amino acids. Found in pituitary gland, hypothalamus, medulla oblongata, vagus and sciatic nerves* SECRETIN is produced by S. cells of mucus membrane in duodenum and jejunum Stimuli that Increases gastrin secretion (a) luminal peptides and amino acids, Distension (b) Neural- increased vagal discharge via GRD (c) blood borne - calcium, Epinephrine Stimuli that inhibit gastrin secretion (a) Luminal acid, somatostatin** (b) Blood borne - secretin** GIP,VIP Glucagon**, Calcitonin* GASTRINOMA are gastrin producing tumours which can occur in stomach or duodenum or pancreatic tumour of d cells (Zollinger- Ellision Syndrome). These tumours secrete large amounts of gastrin which causes excessive secretion of HC1 and predisposes to peptic ulcer.


Question: Drug transpo process that requires energy

The passage of substances against their electrical and chemical gradient at the expenditure of energy is called active transpo. (REF: TEXTBOOK OF MEDICAL PHYSIOLOGY GEETHA N 2 EDITION, PAGE NO - 6)


Question: Conscious proprioception is carried by

Sensations carried by posterior column
-        Proprioception, Vibration, kinesthesia, fine touch.
Sensations carried by anterolateral column
-        Temperature, pain (lateral) and crude touch (anterior)


Question: Sensations of pain from teeth and temperature are carried by


Question: Functions of basal ganglia include

The clear and best known function of basal ganglia is planning and programming of motor functions. Mainly- Complex actions such as writing alphabets and skilled movements such as using scissors to cut.


Question: The inability to perceive the texture and shape of an object occurs in lesion of

Damage to the dorsal column-medial lemniscus pathway below the crossing point of its fibers results in loss of vibration and joint sense (proprioception) on the same side of the body as the lesion. Damage above the crossing point result a loss of vibration and joint sense on the opposite side of the body to the lesion. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:691,692,693


Question: Broca's area is present in

Broca&;s area 44 is in the frontal lobe immediately in front of the inferior end of motor coex which is the inferior frontal gyrus. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:297


Question: The Golgi complex

One or more Golgi apparati are present in all eukaryotic cells, usually near the nucleus. There are more than 200 enzymes that function to add, remove, or modify sugars from proteins and lipids in the Golgi apparatus.
Ganong 23 rd ed, pg 40

is an organelle that participates in the breakdown of proteins and lipids.

is an organelle that participates in posttranslational processing of proteins.

is an organelle that participates in energy production.

is an organelle that participates in transcription and translation.


Question: Caisson's disease is

Decompression sickness (DCS; also known as divers' disease, the bends, aerobullosis, or caisson disease) describes a condition arising from dissolved gases coming out of solution into bubbles inside the body on depressurisation Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:375,376,377


Question: Ganglion cell order of neuron

A ganglion cell is a cell found in a ganglion. The term is also sometimes used to refer specifically to: a retinal ganglion cell (RGC) found in the ganglion cell layer of the retina; cells that reside in the adrenal medulla, where they are involved in the sympathetic nervous system&;s release of epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream; and cells of the sympathetic ganglia, parasympathetic ganglia, and spiral ganglia. cells of the parasympathetic ganglia cells of the spiral ganglia.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 180


Question: Transfer of solutes between cells is

Gap junction permits the direct transfer of ions and other small molecules upto MW 1000, between the cells without traversing the extracellular spaces.(Ref: Textbook of physiology AK Jain 5th edition page no.9)


Question: Cerebellum functions include

Voluntary movement in the lower half of body


Question: Most isolated trochlear nerve palsies are due to

The most common cause of congenital trochlear nerve palsies is congenital cranial dysinnervation syndrome, followed by an abnormal superior oblique tendon. The most common cause of acquired isolatedfouh nerve palsy, after idiopathic, is head trauma. ... Fouh nerve palsymay become manifest after cataract surgery Ref ganong's review of medical physiology 25e 542


Question: Myocardial oxygen demand depends upona) Preloadb) Afterloadc) Intramyocardial tensiond) Blood Hb concentration

There are two terms to remember. Myocardial oxygen demand and myocardial oxygen supply. Hb concentration is a factor for oxygen supply.
Oxygen demand depends on the work being done. The work done is to pump the blood which is in the ventricles (preload) against the resistance in the aorta (afterload).
So, myocardial oxygen demand depends on

Rate- Directly proportional
Contractility- Directly proportional
Intramyocardial tension- Directly proportional
After load- Directly proportional
Preload- Directly proportional
Wall thickness- Inversely proportional


Question: Functional residual capacity of lung is defined as

The amount of air that remains in lung after a normal expiration.

Volume remaining after forced expiration

Tidal volume + volume inspired forcefully


Question: Increased ratio of insulin to glucagon causes

Insulin is hypoglycemic hormone hence incerased ratio of insulin to glucagon causes hypoglycemiaRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition page no 431


Question: In human males, testosterone is mainly produced by

(A) Leydig cells # Testosterone, the principal hormone of the testes, is a C19 steroid with an -OH group in the 17 position.> It is synthesized from cholesterol in the Leydig cells & is also formed from androstenedione secreted by the adrenal cortex> The testes are made up of loops of convoluted seminiferous tubules, in the walls of which the spermatozoa are formed from the primitive germ cells (spermatogenesis). Both ends of each loop drain into a network of ducts in the head of the epididymis. From there, spermatozoa pass through the tail of the epididymis into the vas deferens. They enter through the ejaculatory ducts into the urethra in the body of the prostate at the time of ejaculation. Between the tubules in the testes are nests of cells containing lipid granules, the interstitial cells of Leydig , which secrete testosterone into the bloodstream. The spermatic arteries to the testes are tortuous, and blood in them runs parallel but in the opposite direction to blood in the pampiniform plexus of spermatic veins. This anatomic arrangement may permit countercurrent exchange of heat and testosterone.> Leydig cells secrete testosterone in response to LH