Question: Visible range of electromagnetic spectrum of human eye

Electromagnetic radiation of wavelengths approx. 400nm to 700nm, elicits a retinal response in human eye.


Question: Melanopsin is present in

Ganglion cells that mediate pupillary constriction and circadian rhythms are light sensitive, owing to a novel visual pigment, melanopsin.


Question: Cephalic phase of gastric secretion is mediated by

The cephalic phase of gastric secretion occurs even before food enters the stomach, especially while it is being eaten. It results from the sight, smell, thought, or taste of food, and the greater the appetite, the more intense is the stimulation. Neurogenic signals that cause the cephalic phase of gastric secretion originate from the cerebral coex and in the appetite centers of the amygdala and hypothalamus. They are transmitted through the dorsal motor nuclei of the vagi and then through the vagus nerve to the stomach. This phase of secretion normally accounts for about 20 percent of the gastric secretion associated with eating a meal.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 432


Question: Anterior pituitary secretes

(C) FSH # Pituitary gland divided into anterior and posterior:> From Anterior lobe: TSH, ACTH, FSH, LH, GH, Prolactin, B-Lipotropin> From Intermediate lobe: Melanocyte stimulating hormone> From Posterior Lobe: Vasopressin, Oxytocin


Question: The inverse myostatic reflex

(B) requires influence of supraspinal fibres to be activated > The Golgi tendon reflex is a normal component of the reflex arc of the peripheral nervous system. In a Golgi tendon reflex, skeletal muscle contraction causes the antagonist muscle to simultaneously lengthen and relax.> This reflex is also called the inverse myotatic reflex, because it is the inverse of the stretch reflex. Though muscle tension is in- creasing during the contraction, alpha motor neurons in the spinal cord supplying the muscle are inhibited.> However, antagonistic muscles are activated.The receptor for the inverse stretch reflex is in the Golgi tendon organ (Figure 9-5).> This organ consists of a netlike collection of knobby nerve endings among the fascicles of a tendon. There are 3-25 muscle fibers per tendon organ.> The fibers from the Golgi tendon organs make up the lb group of myelinated, rapidly conducting sensory nerve fibers.> Stimulation of these lb fibers leads to the production of IPSPs on the motor neurons that supply the muscle from which the fibers arise.> The lb fibers end in the spinal cord on inhibitory interneurons that in turn terminate directly on the motor neurons.> They also make excitatory connections with motor neurons supplying antagonists to the muscle.

has a lower threshold than the stretch reflex


Question: A factor favouring the transport across a cell membrane

• Simple diffusion refers to the diffusion of the molecule across the membrane following a concentration gradient or chemical gradient, but without the help of any carrier protein.
• The rate of diffusion depends on the following factors : -
A) The rate of diffusion is directly proportionate
i) The concentration (chemical) gradient
ii) The cross-sectional area of the membrane through which diffusion takes place
iii) Lipid solubility of the substance
B) The rate of diffusion is inversely proportionate
i) The thickness of the diffusion membrane
ii) Size of the particle
iii) Charge or polarity of the substance
• So, simple diffusion is favoured by small size, lipid solubility and absence of polarity (non-polar substance) and charge (neutral molecule) through a thin, large membrane where the concentration gradient is more.


Question: Cardiac output is decreased by

The amount of blood pumped out of the hea per beat is the stroke volume, is about 70 mL.The output of the hea per unit of time is the cardiac output cardiac output = stroke voume*hea rate Therefore decrease in hea rate decrease cardiac outputIncrease in either of hea rate or stroke volume or both increase cardiac outputRef: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology Twenty-Third Edition Page No:514


Question: Absolute refractory period is due to

Ans. (d) Closure of inactive gates of sodium channel(Ref: BRS physiology, Costanzo, 5th ed/p.11)Absolute refractory period:Corresponding to the period from the time the firing level is reached until repolarization is about one-third complete.No stimulus, no matter how strong, will not excite the nerve during absolute refractory periodCause - inactivation gates of the Na+ channel are closed when the membrane potential is depolarized. They remain closed until repolarization occurs. No action potential can occur, until the inactivation gates open.Relative refractory period:Begins from the remaining part of repolarization to the end of action potentialStronger than normal stimulus(suprathreshold stimulus) produces action potential in relative refractory periodCause: The K+ conductance is higher than at rest, and the membrane potential is closer to the K+ equilibrium potential and farther from threshold; therefore, more inward current is required to bring the membrane to threshold

Closure of active gates of sodium channel


Question: Meissner's corpuscle are for

Touch receptors
-        For superficial touch- Meissner’s corpuscles & Merkel’s disc (Rapidly adapting)
-        For pressure (Deep touch)- Ruffini’s end organ (slowly adapting)
-        For vibrations- Pacinian corpuscle (rapidly adapting)


Question: Middle ear deafness can be tested by


Question: ATPase activity is present in

Ans. a (Myosin head); (Ref: Ganong, Physiology, 21st ed., 84; Harper 27th ed. Table 48-3.)* FEATURES OF MYOSIN HEAD# Two heavy and four light chains# Cross-bridges and hinges# ATPase activity (It is greater in type II/fast-twitch fibres than in type I/slow-twitch fibres).* Tropomyosin lies on top of active site of actin so that attraction cannot occur between actin & myosin at rest.*Troponin C has strong affinity for Ca*+ and it initiates contraction. SKELETAL MUSCLECARDIAC MUSCLESMOOTH MUSCLE1. Striated.1. Striated.1. Nonstriated.2. No syncytium.2. Syncytial.2. Syncytial.3. Small T tubules.3. Large T tubules.3. Generally rudimentary T tubules.4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum well developed and Ca2+ pump acts rapidly.4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum present and Ca2+ pump acts relatively rapidly.4. Sarcoplasmic reticulum often rudimentary and Ca2+ pump acts slowly.5. Plasmalemma lacks many hormone receptors.5. Plasmalemma contains a variety of receptors.5. Plasmalemma contains a variety of receptors.6. Nerve impulse initiates contraction.6. Has intrinsic rhythmicity.6. Contraction initiated by nerve impulses, hormones, etc.7. Extracellular fluid Ca2+ not important for contraction.7. Extracellular fluid Ca2+ important for contraction.7. Extracellular fluid Ca2+ important for contraction.8. Troponin system present.8. Troponin system present.8. Lacks troponin system; uses regulatory head of myosin.9. Caldesmon not involved.9. Caldesmon not involved.9. Caldesmon is important regulatory protein.10.Very rapid cycling of the cross-bridges.10.Relatively rapid cycling of the cross-bridges.10.Slow cycling of the cross-bridges permits slow, prolonged contraction and less utilization of ATP.


Question: Mean cerebral blood flow is

The average cerebral blood flow in young adults is 54 mL/100 g/min. The average adult brain weighs about 1400 g, so the flow for the whole brain is about 756 mL/min.Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, Twenty-Third Edition


Question: Renshaw inhibition

The feedback inhibition, also known as Renshaw cell inhibition, is known to occur in spinal alpha motor neurons through an inhibitory inter-neuron. In feedback inhibition, a neuron inhibits that very neuron (s) that excite it. In this way, firing of an action potential by a motor neuron of the spinal cord is followed by a phase of hyperpolarization (inhibition) of not only the same motor neuron but also many others in the neighborhood. The feedback inhibition is thus basically a post-synaptic inhibition but is classified separately because the inhibitor Renshaw cells are activated by collateral of the ventral horn cell rather an afferent neuron. This type of feedback inhibition is also seen in other pas of CNS as well. It serves to limit the excitability of the motor neurons. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 677,678,679


Question: Bronchial circulation is associated with


Question: The stomach motility is inhibited by

The physiologic function of the dopamine in the circulation is unknown. However, injected dopamine produces renal vasodilation, probably by acting on a specific dopaminergic receptor. It also produces vasodilation in the mesentery. Elsewhere, it produces vasoconstriction, probably by releasing norepinephrine, and it has a positive inotropic effect on the hea by an action on b 1 -adrenergic receptors. The net effect of moderate doses of dopamine is an increase in systolic pressure and no change in diastolic pressure. Because of these actions, dopamine is useful in the treatment of traumatic and cardiogenic shock (see Chapter 33). Dopamine is made in the renal coex. It causes natriuresis and may exe this effect by inhibiting renal Na+-K+ ATPase.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 342


Question: Pancreatic lipase that digests lipids require

Colipase, abbreted CLPS, is a protein co-enzyme required for optimal enzyme activity of pancreatic lipase. It is secreted by the pancreas in an inactive form, procolipase, which is activated in the intestinal lumen by trypsin Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:437,438,439


Question: Gatekeeper of the hea is

The atrioventricular (AV) node is the "gatekeeper" between the atria and the ventricles and is located at the AV junction on the right side of the hea (Figure 1A). The primary role of the node is to conduct the action potential from the atria to the ventricles. However, the AV node also acts as a backup pacemaker in the case of failure of the sinus node and stops arrhythmias in the atria, such as atrial fibrillation, from being conducted into the ventricles at dangerously high rates. Atrial conductive system is organised so that the cardiac impulse do not travel frim atria to ventricle too rapidly. This delay allows time for the atria to empty their blood into ventricle before ventricular contravtion begins .


Question: CSF pressure (lumbar)


Question: Myosin and actin filaments are kept in place by

Titin keeps actin and myosin in place It povides elasticity It is present in skeletal and cardic muscles Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition ,pag number:85,86,87


Question: Kluver Bucy syndrome is due to the lesion in

Bilateral destruction of amygdala leads to Kluver Bucy syndrome.


Question: Sperm motility is increased in

Sperm motility describes the ability of sperm to move properly through the female reproductive tract (internal feilization)Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no:-421


Question: Fine touch and position sense is carried by

Ans. (d) Dorsal column(Ref: Ganong, 25th ed/p.168)Dorsal column pathway is the principal pathways for touch, vibration and proprioception. They primarily contain Aa and Ab afferentsThey ascend ipsilaterally (same side) in dorsal column of spinal cord to medullaIn medulla, they synapses with two important nuclei namely gracilis and cuneate nuclei. They cross the midline and ascend in the medial lemniscus to end in the contralateral ventral posterior lateral (VPL) nucleus


Question: S3 is due to

S3 is due to the rapid gush of blood in the ventricle Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 540


Question: Weber's syndrome occurs due to lesions in the(P. J. Mehta

(Mid- brain) (P-J) Mehta (193, 2525-H17th)Penetrating branch to Mid - brain occlusion1. Ipsilateral oculomotor palsy with contralateral hemiplegia (Weber's syndrome)2. Ipsilateral oculomotor palsy with contralateral cerebellar ataxia (Nothnagel syndrome)3. Ipsilateral oculomotor palsy with contra lateral ataxia and choreoathetosis (Benedikt's syndrome)4. Perinaud's syndrome(a) Supranuclear paralysis of elevation(b) Convergence retraction nystagmus (c) Defective convergence(d) Lid retraction (Collier's sign)(e) Skew deviation(f) Light near dissociation5. Unilateral or bilateral intemuclear ophthalmoplegia6. Pseudo abducent palsy7. Peduncular hallucinations8. Decerebrate rigidity - Locked in syndrome and disturbances in consciousness


Question: Flocculonodular lobe has direct connections with

Flocculonodular lobe has direct connections with vestibular nuclei and it is concerned with balance, equilibrium and eyeball movements Ref: Ganong 25th ed/page 248


Question: In renal agenesis, the adrenal gland is

Embryological development of kidneys and adrenal is different, hence even in renal agenesis, adrenal glands will be in normal position


Question: In transection at pontomedullary junction, respiration is maintained with slight irregularity. It is due to

Lesions of DRG, VRG neurons do not abolish respiratory activity because they apparently project to the pre-BOTC pacemaker neurons. The pre-Botzinger complex (preBotC) is a cluster of interneurons in the ventral respiratory group of the medulla of the brainstem. This complex has been proven to be essential for the generation of the respiratory rhythm in mammals.The exact mechanism of the rhythm generation and transmission to motor nuclei remains controversial and the topic of much research Reference: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology; 25th edition; Page no 656, 657


Question: The normal brown red colour of feces results from the presence of


Question: In radial nerve injures paralysis of the brachioradialis, extensor carpi radialis longus and brevis, extensor digitorum and extensor pollicis longus but sparing of the triceps places the nerve lesion at

The level of the humeral shaft (mid) Nerve supply to the triceps is proximal to the mid shaft level


Question: Increased glycolysis and decreased gluconeogenesis

Insulin helps control blood glucose levels by signaling the liver and muscle and fat cells to take in glucose from the blood. Insulin therefore helps cells to take in glucose to be used for energy. If the body has sufficient energy, insulin signals the liver to take up glucose and store it as glycogen. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:610,611,612


Question: The conduction velocity is maximum in

The velocity of conduction of the excitatory action potential signal along both atrial and ventricular muscle fibers is about 0.3 to 0.5 m/sec, or about 1/250 the velocity in very large nerve fibers and about 1/10 the velocity in skeletal muscle fibers. The velocity of conduction in the specialized hea conductive system--in the Purkinje fibers is as great as 4 m/sec in most pas of the system, which allows reasonably rapid conduction of the excitatory signal to the different pas of the hea. Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 13th edition. Page: 111


Question: Testosterone is secreted by

Testosterone * C19 steroid with a hydroxyl group in the 17th position * Testosterone is synthesized from cholesterol in the leydig cells (by 17 alpha hydroxylase) * Testosterone is also formed androstenedione secreted by adrenal coex(by 11 and 21 hydroxylases) * Secretion of testosterone is under the control of LH * Rate of secretion of testosterone - 4-9mg/dl in adult men * Plasma testosterone level (free and bound) - 300- 1000ng/dL in adult men * 98% of testosterone in plasma is bound to protein (65% -bound to beta globulin / gonadal steroid binding globulin / sex steroid binding globulin) and (33% bound to albumin) * Testosterone binds to an intracellular receptor * The receptor/steroid complex then binds to DNA in the nucleus * This facilitates the transcription of many genes * In addition, testosterone is also conveed to Dihydrotestosterone by 5 alpha reductase in some target cells. DHT binds to the same intracellular receptor as testosterone Ref:- Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology 25th ed; pg num:- 422


Question: Adrenaline, noradrenaline and dopamine act through

C i.e. Seven pass - receptorCatecholamines (epinephrine, norepinephrine and dopamine) act through G protein coupled receptors (GPCRs), which span the cell membrane 7 times; hence also referred to as seven pass (seven helix) or serpentine receptors.* Catecholamines (adrenaline, noradrenaline& dopamine) act through G protein coupled receptors. al adrenargic catecholamine use phospholipid C(IP3 ?DAG) and az & adrenergic catecholamines use C-AMP (adenyl cyclase) second messenger system. * Hetrotrimeric GTP binding proteins (G? proteins) are cell membrane proteins that have seven trans membrane segments that loop (pass) in & out of cell membraneQ. (serpentine protein)* Cytoplasmic tail is coupled to GTP that has 3 pa (trimeric) - a, 13, y subunits. Ligands for GPCRs NeurotransmittersTachykininsArachidonic Acid- AdrenalineQ- NoradrenalineQ- DopamineQ- Neurokinin A- Neuropeptide K- Substance Pderivatives- Thromboxane A2- 5-Hydroxytryptamine Other Ligands- HistaminePeptides- Endothelins- Acetylcholine (ACH)- Angiotensis II- Platelet activating factor- Adenosine- Arginine- Cannabinoids- Opioidsvasopressin- OdorantsGlycoprotein - Hormones- Oxytocin- Light- LH, FSH, hCG- TSH- VIP, PTH, GRP,TRH- Tastants


Question: Membrane potential of hair cell is

The resting membrane potential of the hair cell is about -60mV. When the stereocilia are pushed toward the kinocilium, the membrane potential is decreased to about -50mV.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology;25th edition; pg: 204


Question: Efferent pathway for milk ejection reflex

Milk ejection reflex - a normal reflex in a lactating woman elicited by tactile stimulation of the nipple, resulting in release of milk from the glands of the breast. This reflex requires intact nerve connections from nipple to hypothalamus and release of the hormone oxytocin from the posterior pituitary into the bloodstream. Also called let-down reflex.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-311


Question: Massage and application of liniments to painful areas in the body relieves pain due to

Many people have learned from practical experience that rubbing or shaking an injured area decreases the pain due to the injury. The relief may be due to the simultaneous activation of innocuous cutaneous mechanoreceptors whose afferents emit collaterals that terminate in the dorsal horn. The activity of these cutaneous mechanosensitive afferents may reduce the responsiveness of dorsal horn neurons to their input from nociceptive afferent terminals. This is called the gate-control mechanism of pain modulation and it serves as the rationale behind the use of transcutaneous electrical nerve stimulation (TENS) for pain relief. This method uses electrodes to activate Aa and Ab fibers in the vicinity of the injury.

Stimulation of endogenous analgesic system

Release of endorphins by first order neurons in brainstem

Release of glutamate and substance P in the spinal cord


Question: Normal cardiac index in an adult is

Cardiac index: - Cardiac output per square meter of body surface area. i.e. Cardiac index = Cardiac output/Body surface area Experiments have shown that the cardiac output increases approximately in propoion to the surface area of body. The average human being who weighs 70 kilograms has a body surface area of about 1.7square meters, which means that the normal average cardiac index for adults is about 3 L / min/ M2 of body surface area.


Question: Catabolism of H202 is carried out by


Question: Prolactin is secreted by

Prolactin a hormone secreted by the anterior pituitary gland that promotes the growth of breast tissue and stimulates and sustains milk production in postpaum mammals, and shows luteotropic activity in ceain mammals. Called also lactogenic hormone and mammotropin.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-324


Question: Latest mode of ventilation in patient with poor oxygenation in ARDS

Liquid ventilation (LV) is a technique of mechanical ventilation in which the lungs are insufflated with an oxygenated perfluorochemical liquid rather than an oxygen-containing gas mixture.


Question: Synaptic transmission in autonomic ganglion is due to


Question: Neovascular glaucoma is not seen in

In JRA, glaucoma generally presents as acute angle closure, due to posterior synechiae, or chronic angle closure, which results from progressive, peripheral anterior synechiae.


Question: Main enzyme involved in digestion of fatty food

Ebner’s glands on the dorsum of the tongue secrete lingual lipase and the stomach also secretes a lipase (gastric lipase}.
However, they are of very little significance in fat digestion.
Fat digestion essentially begins in the duodenum with the entry of pancreatic and biliary secretions.
Pancreatic juice contains lipase (pancreatic lipase), the most important enzyme for fat digestion.
The pancreatic lipase digests triglycerides (triacylglycerols) into free fatty acids and 2-monoglycerides (2- monoacylglycerols).


Question: The hormone involved in the regulation of blood pressure is

The hormone involved in the regulation of blood pressure is Angiotensin II. Angiotensin II is a powerful vasoconstrictor that increases the total peripheral resistance and decreases Na+ and H2O excretion by kidney, thereby causing an increase in aerial BP. Humoral Regulation of BP Ref: Ganong Medical Physiology 26th edition PGno: 586


Question: Bilateral destruction of auditory cortex in man causes

(C) Deficiency in interpretation of sounds # Lesion of auditory cortex leads to loss of recognition of total patterns with loss of analysis of properties of sound and sound localisation.> Thus lesion of auditory cortex leads to defect in interpretation of sounds.

Hearing defect for higher frequency sounds


Question: A travelling nerve impulse does not depolarize the area immediately behind it, because

The area immediately behind does not depolarize because it is in a state of relative refractoriness.


Question: A 10oC decrease in temperature causes decrease in cerebral metabolic rate by

With each degree fall in temperature the metabolic rate is reduced by 7%, so by reducing temperature by 10degC the metabolic rate can be reduced by 70% and cerebral coex can be protected for 10 minutes at 30degC and for 1 hour at 15degC.


Question: Frequency of 1st hea sound

The first sound has a duration of about 0.15 s and a frequency of 25-45 Hz. It is soft when the hea rate is low because the ventricles are well filled with blood and the leaflets of the AV valves float together before systole.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 542


Question: Net filtration pressure is

The Net Filtration Pressure (NFP) at the glomerulus is the difference between the net hydrostatic pressure and the blood colloid osmotic pressure acting across the glomerular capillaries and is normally 10mm of Hg. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 464,465,466


Question: Vestibulo ocular relfex is concerned with

Functions of flocculonodular lobe
-        Postural equilibrium
-        Balance
-        Co-ordinated eye movement with head (Vestibulo-ocular reflex)


Question: The neurotransmitter in the autonomic ganglia is

Acetylcholine is the neurotransmitter in NMJ, in autonomic ganglia, and in postganglionic parasympathetic nerve target organ junctions and some postganglionic sympathetic nerve target junctions.(Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg:134)


Question: Purkinje cells from cerebellum end in

Purkinje cells from cerebellum and in in deep cerebellar nuclei Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:780,781,782


Question: Baroreceptor stimulation produces

Baroreceptor reflex stimulates the vagus nerves causes release of acetylcholine at the vagal endings in the hea, thus giving a parasympathetic effect.Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 13th edition. Page:155


Question: During diastole, the aerial pressure is maintained by

Due to the presence of elastic fibers in the Windkessel vessels, there is an elastic recoil during the diastole (they are stretched during systole), which results in a forward flow and an aoic pressure wave called as diastolic pressure. Entry of blood in the aeries causes the walls of these aeries stretched., and pressure increases to 120mmHg. At the end of the systole when the left ventricle stops ejecting blood and aoic valve closes ,the elastic valves of the aery maintains a high pressure even during diastole. A so- called insisura occurs in aoic pressure curve when the aoic valve closes--caused by sho period of backward flow of blood,immediately before the closure of valve,followed by sudden cessation of backflow.


Question: The main cause of minimal change ds is

Etiology of minimal change ds is unknown. Electron microscopy reveals the primary injury to the visceral epithelial cells, which may be caused by:- A) immunological mechanism: Lack of immune deposits in the glomerulus exclude the possibility of immune complex mechanism. But several features suggest immunological mechanisms like 1.H/o respiratory infection or routine prophylactic immunization 2.dramatic response to coicosteroids 3.asscoiated with allergies or atopic disorder 4.increased incidence in Hodgkin&;s lymphoma patient s. Immune dysfn _>increased cytokine production_these damage visceral epithelial cells _ increase glomerular permeability _proteinuria B) Non-immunological mechanism:- 1.mutations in structural proteins -nephrin(found in congenital nephrotic syndrome -Finnish type)& podocin. MCD is accompanied by loss of glomerular polyanions on GBM. Defects in charge barrier allows selective proteinuria-albumins. Ref: General and systemic pathology -Ramadas Nayak-First edition -page no: 521


Question: Caisson's disease


Question: The feature of JVP in cardiac tamponade is

Prominent x descent with prominent y descent

Prominent x descent with absent y descent

Absent x descent with prominent y descent


Question: Synaptic potentials can be recorded by

Potential" refers to electrical potential, or voltage, and paicularly to voltage recorded with a microelectrode embedded within neuronal tissue, typically in the brain of an anesthetized animal or within a thin slice of brain tissue maintained in vitro. The electrical activities in the neurons are rapid being measured in milliseconds, and the voltage changes are too small measured in millivolts.........the microelectrode has a tip diameter of less thanone mirometer .....hence it is used to measure the synaptic potential. Ref guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12/e p58


Question: Receptor for BDNF is

BDNF acts TRK B receptor BDNF plays an impoant role in brain plasticity, neuronal differentiation and growth Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:74,75,76


Question: You are attending rounds in cardiology department. Your professor asks you to calculate the volume of blood pumped with each beat of Mr X. He gives you the following values. BP of 130/80, cardiac output of 5000 ml and HR of 70/min.

Ans: A (70 ml) Ref: Ganong's Review of Medical Physiology, 21st edExplanation:Stroke volume (SV) is the volume of blood, in milliliters (mL), pumped out of the heart with each beat.Cardiac output (CO) is the volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute {mL blood/min}.Cardiac output is a function of heart rate and stroke volume.The heart rate is simply the number of heart beats per minute.In this question:CO is 5000 ml.HR is 70 / min.The volume of blood pumped by heart in one minute (Cardiac output) is 5000 ml.The heart pumps 70 times a minute.So the volume of blood pumped by the heart with each beat {Stroke volume) is 5000;70 = 71.43 ml.

Circulation: Cardiac Output, Venous Return


Question: The maximum motility of the colon is seen in

The maximum motility of the colon is seen in the sigmoid colon. The rate of BER at sigmoid colon is 6/min. Rate of basal electric rhythm in various regions Segment Rate of BER Stomach 4/min Duodenum 12/min Distal ileum 8/min Cecum 2/min Sigmoid 6/min Ref: Ganong&;s Review of medical physiology 26th edition Pgno: 486


Question: Amount of sodium in plasma is

(A) 143 # Blood plasma is a straw colored liquid component of blood that normally holds the blood cells in whole blood in suspension; this makes plasma the extracellular matrix of blood cells.> It makes up about 55% of the body's total blood volume.> It is the intravascular fluid part of extracellular fluid (all body fluid outside of cells).> It is mostly water (up to 95% by volume), and contains dissolved proteins (6-8%) (i.e.--serum albumins, globulins, and fibrinogen), glucose, clotting factors, electrolytes (Na+, Ca2+, Mg2+, HCO3-, Cl-, etc.), hormones, carbon dioxide (plasma being the main medium for excretory product transportation) and oxygen.> Plasma also serves as the protein reserve of the human body.> It plays a vital role in an intravascular osmotic effect that keeps electrolytes in balanced form and protects the body from infection and other blood disorders. Ion Normal concentration range (mEq.L-1) Sodium 135-145 Potassium 3.6-5.1 Chloride 95-105 Calcium 2.1-2.8


Question: Tetrodotoxin blocks

A i.e. y Na+ during action potentialInhibitors & toxinsSodium dependent glucose transpoer (SGLT or Na+ glucose co transpoer) is inhibited by phlorizinQ whereas, phloretin inhibits sodium (Na+) independent glucose transpoer (GLUT 2) in intestineQ.Fish neurotoxin tetrodotoxin (applied externally) block Na' channelsQ (esp early membrane voltage dependent Na' current; hence 'm' gates controlling Na' channels externally) where as enzyme pronase (applied internally) block voltage dependent inactivation of Na* current (hence 'h.' gates controlling Na' channels from inside).Tetraethyl ammonium or 4 aminopyridine block potassium channelQ (esp delyed voltage dependent increase in K* permeability and hence 'n' gate).Absorption of Hexose in intestineHexoses are rapidly and completely absorbed before the meal reach terminal ileumTranspo of most hexoses (glucose & galactose) is dependent on Na' ions in intestinal lumen; a high Na' concentration facilitates and a low concenteration inhibits sugar influx into the epithelial cells.This is because Na' & glucose share a same cotranspoer or sympo, the sodium dependent glucose transmpoer (SGLT), Na' glucose cntranspoer). These (SGLT 1 & 2) resemble glucose transpoers responsible for facilitated diffusion in that they cross cell membrane 12 times and have their - COOH & - NH2 terminals on cytoplasmic side of membrane. However , there is no homology to glucose transpoer (GLUT). SGLT- 1 is responsible for uptake of dietary glucose from gut where as SGLT-2 is responsible for glucose transpo out of renal tubules.


Question: Meiotic division of male germ cells commence

During formation of the embryo, the primordial germ cells migrate into the testes and become immature germ cells called spermatogonia, which lie in two or three layers of the inner surfaces of the seminiferous tubules. At puberty the spermatogonia begin to undergo mitotic division and continually proliferate and differentiate through definite stages of development to form sperm.
Key Concept:
Cell divisions during spermatogenesis. During embryonic development, the primordial germ cells migrate to the testis, where they become spermatogonia. At puberty (usually 12 to 14 years after birth), the spermatogonia proliferate rapidly by mitosis. Some begin meiosis to become primary spermatocytes and continue through meiotic division I to become secondary spermatocytes. After completion of meiotic division II, the secondary spermatocytes produce spermatids, which differentiate to form spermatozoa.


Question: Slowest conduction of velosity occurs in

(A.V. node) (549 - Ganong 22nd) (487-488-K.S 4th) (492- Ganong 23rd)The velocity of impulse is maximum in purkinje fibres and minimum at AV nodeTissueConduction rate (m/s) (Ganong)K. Sembulingum* S A node0.05Intemodal fibres - l.0m/s* Atrial pathway1Atrial muscle = 0.3m/s* A V. node0.050.05 m/s* Bundle of His10.12 m/s* Purkinje system44 m/s* Ventricular muscle10.5 m/s


Question: Respiratory distress syndrome is due to a defect in the biosynthesis of

Causes. RDS is a type of neonatal respiratory disease that is caused most often by a lack of surfactant in the lungs. A fetus's lungs sta making surfactant during the third trimester of pregnancy, or weeks 26 through labor and delivery. Surfactant coats the insides of the air sacs, or alveoli, in the lungs. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:312,313,314


Question: Stimulator of secretin secretion

The secretion of secretin is increased by the products of protein digestion and by acid bathing the mucosa of the upper small intestine. The release of secretin by acid is another example of feedback control: Secretin causes alkaline pancreatic juice to flood into the duodenum, neutralizing the acid from the stomach and thus inhibiting fuher secretion of the hormoneRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 446


Question: Hormone acting by genetic modification is

Thyroxine is a thyroid hormone that contains iodine and is a derivative of the amino acid tyrosine, occurring naturally as l-thyroxine; its chemical name is tetraiodothyronine. It is formed and stored in the thyroid follicles as thyroglobulin and released from the gland by the action of a proteolytic enzyme. It is deiodinated in peripheral tissues to form triiodothyronine (T3), which has a greater biological activity.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no: 300


Question: Section of the vagus nerve results in

Vagus nerve causes contraction of bronchial muscle helping in expiration. Section of vagus nerve leads to difficulty in expiration and therefore increasing breath holding time. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition; pg: 267; table 17-1.


Question: EEG in a male fully awake with eyes closed, electrodes placed at occipital position will record

In adult humans who are awake but at rest with mind wandering and the eyes closed, the most prominent component of the EEG is a fairly regular pattern of waves at a frequency of 8-13Hz and amplitude of 50-100uV when recorded from the scalp. This pattern is the alpha rhythm. It is most marked in the parietal and occipital lobes and is associated with decreased levels of attention. Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 23rd edition ; pg :235


Question: Dorsal root ganglia have

Pseudounipolar neuron a unipolar neuron, almost always a primary sensory neuron, that was originally bipolar but whose two processes fused during development to form a single process that bifurcates at a distance from the cell body. One branch is structurally an axon with a myelin sheath but functions as a dendrite, with afferent conduction originating in a nerve ending.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 81


Question: Isotonic urine is formed at the level of

PCT ⇒ Isotonic urine
Decending loop of hanle ⇒ Hypertonic urine
DCT ⇒ Hypotonic urine.


Question: Protein responsible for preventing overstretching of cardiac muscle

Titin is responsible for elasticity of muscle and preventing overstretching of cardiac muscle.


Question: Maximum number of Na+ channels per square micrometer is present in

"Saltatory" Conduction in Myelinated Fibers from Node to Node: Even though almost no ions can flow through the thick myelin sheaths of myelinated nerves, they can flow with ease through the nodes of Ranvier.Therefore, action potentials occur only at the nodes. Yet the action potentials are conducted from node to node, this is called saltatory conduction.That is, electrical current flows through the surrounding extracellular fluid outside the myelin sheath, as well as through the axoplasm inside the axon from node to node, exciting successive nodes one after another. Thus, the nerve impulse jumps along the fiber, which is the origin of the term "saltatory."Ref: Guyton; 13th edition; Chapter 5; Membrane Potentials and Action Potentials


Question: Delta waves are seen in

Delta waves include all the waves of the EEG with frequencies less than 3.5 cycles/sec, and they often have voltages two to four times greater than most other types of brain waves. They occur in very deep sleep, in infancy, and in persons with serious organic brain disease. They also occur in the coex of animals that have had subcoical transactions in which the cerebral coex is separated from the thalamus. Therefore, delta waves can occur strictly in the coex independent of activities in lower regions ofthe brain. Delta waves also occur during deep slow-wave sleep, which suggests that the coex then is mainly released from the activating influences of the thalamus and other lower centers. Slow-wave sleep is divided into four stages. In the first stage, a stage of light sleep, the voltage of the EEG waves becomes low. This stage is broken by "sleep spindles" (i.e., sho spindle-shaped bursts of alpha waves that occur periodically). In stages 2, 3, and 4 of slow-wave sleep, the frequency of the EEG becomes progressively slower until it reaches a frequency of only one to three waves per second in stage 4; these waves are delta waves.Ref: Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology, 13th edition.


Question: Fibers most susceptible to hypoxia are


Question: The major ion in extracellular compartment

Ans: b (Na+) Ref: Ganong 22nd ed/ p. 30, 32Most abundant ion in ECF is Na+.ECFMost abundant ion - Na+Most abundant cation - Na+Most abundant anion - Cl-ICF:-Most abundant cation - K+Most abundant anion - PO43- (followed by protein).ECF contains more of Na+, Cl-, HCO3, Ca2+.ICF contains more of K+, PO4, organic anion, protein, magnesium.


Question: In a case of ectopic pregnancy, medical treatment is contraindicated if

Indications for management of ectopic pregnancy medically.is 1) Ectopic mass <3.5cm 2) No fetal cardiac activity 3) Initial hCG <3000miu/l 4) The patient must be hemodynamically stable, with no signs or symptoms of active bleeding or hemoperitoneum. 5) She should not have any contraindications to the use of methotrexate.


Question: A wave in JVP is due to

The atrial pressure changes are transmitted to the great veins, producing three characteristic waves in the record of jugular pressure. The A wave is due to atrial systole. C wave due to ventricular systole. It is caused paly by paial backflow of blood into atria during onset of ventricular contraction but mainly due to bulging of av valves backwards towards atria due to increasing pressure in ventricle. V wave is occurs towards end of ventricular contraction as a result of Slow flow of blood into atria frim the veins when the av valves are closed during ventricular contraction. Ref: Ganong's Review of medical physiology 25th edition. Page: 542, Gyton textbook of medical physiology, page 106


Question: Hot water bottle relieves pain of abdominal spasm by

The gate control theory of pain asses that non-painful input closes the nerve "gates" to painful input, which prevents pain sensation from traveling to the central nervous system. Gate Control Theory of Pain describes how non-painful sensations can override and reduce painful sensations Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:559,560,561


Question: Refractive Index of cornea is about

Refractive index of the cornea (1.37), Refractive index of the aqueous humour (1.33), Refractive index of the crystalline lens (1.42), and Refractive index of the vitreous humour (1.33) Ref:Khurana 4e pg: 26


Question: If the ejection fraction increases, there will be a decrease in

An increase in ejection fraction means that a higher fraction of the end-diastolic volume is ejected in the stroke volume (e.g., because of the administration of a positive inotropic agent). When this situation occurs, the volume remaining in the ventricle after systole, the end-systolic volume, will be reduced. Cardiac output, pulse pressure, stroke volume, and systolic pressure will be increased.


Question: The syndrome of growth failure, rash, and hypogonadism is due to deficiency of

Zinc deficiency- A condition caused by inadequate dietary ingestion of zinc, and characterized by dermatitis, diarrhea, delayed hypersensitivity response, fatigue, hair loss, loss of taste, difficult pregnancy, retarded growth, hypogonadism, poor wound healing, and in children, stunted growth and sexual development.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology; 24th edition; page no:-492


Question: Negative intrapleural pressure is due to

Pleural pressure is the pressure of the fluid in the narrow space between the lung and the chest wall pleura which is normally a slight suction, which means a slightly negative pressure. There are no attachments between the lung and the walls of the chest cage except where it is suspended at its hilum from the mediastinum. Instead, the lung literally floats in the thoracic cavity. Fuhermore, continual suction of excessive fluid into lymphatic channels maintain a slight suction between the visceral surface of the lung pleura and the parietal pleural surface of the thoracic cavity. Therefore, the lungs are held to the thoracic wall as if glued there, except that they can slide freely, well lubricated as the chest expands and contracts. A concept from Boron&;s physiology/2nd Ed/ 630 The interaction between lungs and chest wall does not occur by direct attachment but through the intrapleural space between the visceral and parietal pleurae. This space is filled with a small amount of pleural fluid and is extremely thin (5 to 30 micrometer). Because the lungs and chest wall pull away from each other on opposite sides of the intrapleural space, the intrapleural pressure (PIP) is less than barometric pressure (PB); that is; the intrapleural space is a relative vacuum. Although the designation P implies that we are referring exclusively to the intrapleural space, this description is not entirely accurate. Indeed, in addition to the intrapleural space, PIP is probably similar to the pressure in several other regions of the chest cavity.The viual space between the chest wall or diaphragm and the parietal pleura.The viual space between the lung and the visceral pleura.The interstitial space that surrounds all pulmonary airways.Around the Hea and Vessels.Around and to the extent that smooth muscle tone can be neglected- inside the Esophagus.Ref: Guyton/10th Ed/ 432

Uniform distribution of surfactant over elveoli


Question: The nucleus of basal ganglia

Basal ganglia
-        Caudate nucleus
-        Putamen
-        Globus pallidus
-        Subthalamic nucleus
-        Substantia nigra


Question: Vitamin B12 is mainly absorbed from

Normally, vitamin B12 is readily absorbed in the last pa of the small intestine (ileum), which leads to the large intestine. However, to be absorbed, the vitamin must combine with intrinsic factor, a protein produced in the stomach.Ref: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 458


Question: A 50 years old male presents with severe refractory hypeension, weakness, muscle cramps and hypokalemia, the most likely diagnosis is

Manifestation of Conn's Syndrome (Primary Hyperaldosteronism) Muscle weakness and fatigue (due to hypokalemia) Hypeension without edema Polyuria and polydipsia Investigations Hypokalemia * Metabolic alkalosis * Hypernatremia * Increased Aldosterone * Low renin


Question: CO2 diffuses more easily through the respiratory membrane than O2 because it is

Diffusion of Gases Through Liquids The more soluble a gas is, the faster it will diffuse. In this case carbon dioxide diffuses much faster than oxygen, as it is much more soluble. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:348,349,350


Question: Loss of feel of size & shape of a object is seen in lesion ofa) Tractus solitariusb)  Tractus cuneatusc) Lateral spinothalamic tract d) Cerebral cortex

Astereognosis- Loss of ability to recognize size and shape of an object.
Seen in- lesion of somatosensory cortex, lesion of tractus cuneatus, lesion of tractus gracilis.
Somatosensory cortex lesion- proprioception and tactile sensations are lost while pain and temperature sensations are preserved.
Tractus cuneatus- formed by fasciculus cuneatus (spinal cord) and nucleus cuneatus (medulla). Pass through lateral portion of dorsal column. Carries sensations of dorsal column- proprioception and tactile sensations from upper part of the body.
Tractus gracilis- formed by fasciculus gracilis (spinal cord) and nucleus gracilis (medulla). Pass through medial portion of dorsal column. Carries sensations of dorsal column- proprioception and tactile sensations from lower part of the body.


Question: Myelination in peripheral nervous system is done by

In PNS myelination is done by schwann cells In CNS myelination is done by oligodendrocytes Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:671,672,673


Question: The inability to perceive the texture & shape an object occurs in a lesion of

Though both nucleus cuneatus & nucleus gracilis are correct, since it is a single answer question, the best answer would be tractus cuneatus, as we commonly use hands to recognize size and shape of objects, more than the foot.
Somatosensory cortex lesion- proprioception and tactile sensations are lost while pain and temperature sensations are preserved.
Tractus cuneatus- formed by fasciculus cuneatus (spinal cord) and nucleus cuneatus (medulla). Pass through the lateral portion of the dorsal column. Carries sensations of the dorsal column- proprioception and tactile sensations from upper part of the body.
Tractus gracilis- formed by fasciculus gracilis (spinal cord) and nucleus gracilis (medulla). Pass through the medial portion of the dorsal column. Carries sensations of the dorsal column- proprioception and tactile sensations from the lower part of the body.


Question: Cause of myasthenia gravis

Myasthenia gravis is rare autoimmune disease caused by the formation of circulating antibodies to the nicotinic A-ch receptors. These antibodies destroy some of the receptors and bind others to neighboring receptors. The disease is characterized by rapid onset of fatigue with marked generalized weakness of muscles. The most commonly affected muscles are: extraocular muscles, facial, swallowing and mastication muscles.Ref: Textbook of physiology, Dir. Prof. AK Jain, 5th edition.


Question: Earliest change in high altitude is

Immediate exposure to low PO2 stimulates the aerial chemoreceptors, and this stimulation increases alveolar ventilation to a maximum of about 1.65 times normal. Therefore, compensation occurs within seconds for the high altitude, and it alone allows the person to rise several thousand feet higher than would be possible without the increased ventilationGuyton 13 e pg: 563


Question: Interstitial fluid volume can be measure by

Interstitial fluid volume cannot be calculated directly. It is measure as ECF volume. Plasma volume
ECF volume calculated by Inulin. Plasma volume calculated by Serum albumin labelled with radioactive Iodine.

Inulin - Sodium albumin labelled with radioactive Iodine.


Question: Daily rhythm regulation

Hypothalamic control of circadian rhythm: A large number of physiologic rhythms ( body temperature, sleep-wakefulness, coisol secretion among a host of others ) in the body run to a cyclic pattern that is approximately 25 hours long. These rhythms are entrained to 24 hours due to environmental signals such as light and darkness. These signals are called zeitgebers. The suprachiasmatic nucleus of the hypothalamus is believed to be responsible for the rhythmicity of these circadian cyclesRef: Guyton & Hall Textbook of medical physiology- a south Indian edition 2014 pg no: 812


Question: Golgi tendon organs are concerned with


Question: Liver does not produce

Gamma globulin is not produced by liver.


Question: Hyperinflation of lungs is prevented by

The shoening of inspiration produced by vagal afferent activity is mediated by slowly adapting receptors, as are the Hering-Breuer reflexes. The Hering-Breuer inflation reflex is an increase in the duration of expiration produced by steady lung inflation, and the Hering-Breuer deflation reflex is a decrease in the duration of expiration produced by marked deflation of the lung. Because the rapidly adapting receptors are stimulated by chemicals such as histamine, they have been called irritant receptors. Activation of rapidly adapting receptors in the trachea causes coughing, bronchoconstriction, and mucus secretion, and activation of rapidly adapting receptors in the lung may produce hyperpnea.Ref: Ganong review of medical physiology 23rd edition Page no: 632


Question: Glomerular feedback for decreased GFR is by

Whenever blood flow to the kidney diminishes, renin is secreted and angiotensin is formed. The angiotensin causes widespread vasoconstriction and elevation of blood pressure consequent to greatly increased total peripheral resistance. A second effect, the increased secretion of aldosterone, results in retention of salt and water by the kidneys and therefore increased extracellular fluid volume, cardiac output, and aerial pressure. Additionally, the angiotensin acts directly on the kidneys to cause salt and water retention, which causes a long-term increase in aerial blood pressure.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd edition, page no: 669


Question: Energy expenditure in resting state depends on

Both basal metabolic rate and resting metabolic rate are usually expressed in terms of daily rates of energy expenditure. The early work of the scientists J. Ahur Harris and Francis G. Benedict showed that approximate values could be derived using body surface area (computed from height and weight), age, and sex, along with the oxygen and carbon dioxide measures taken from calorimetry. Studies also showed that by eliminating the sex differences that occur with the accumulation of adipose tissue by expressing metabolic rate per unit of "fat-free" or lean body mass, the values between sexes for basal metabolism are essentially the same. The Katch-McArdle Formula (BMR) , where LBM is the lean body mass in kg. The Cunningham Formula (RMR): , where LBM is the lean body mass in kgRef: Ganong&;s review of medical physiology;24th edition; page no-489


Question: Total cardiac output doesn't change during


Question: Blood supply of skeletal muscle is

At rest ,skeletal muscle blood flow may be 1to 4 ml /min per 100gms Maximum blood flow may reach upto 50to 100ml/min per 100gms Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition ,pag number:94,95


Question: Chromatolysis is seen in

Chromatolysis is a pa of proximal degradation in a nerve It occurs with in 24 hrs of injury Ref:Guyton and Hall textbook of medical physiology 12th edition,page number:74,75,76


Question: The prime driving force for countercurrent multiplier system is

In juxtamedullary nephrons with longer loops and thin ascending limbs, the osmotic gradient is spread over a greater distance and the osmolality at the tip of the loop is greater. This is because the thin ascending limb is relatively impermeable to water but permeable to Na+ and Cl-. Therefore, Na+ and Cl- move down their concentration gradients into the interstitium, and there is additional passive countercurrent multiplication.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology, 23rd edition, page no: 655

Reabsorption of Na+ in thick ascending limb


Question: Estrogen action on carbohydrate metabolism

Reduced estrogen may also lower metabolic rate, the rate at which the body conves stored energy into working energy. It's possible the same thing happens with women when estrogen levels drop after menopause. Some evidence suggests that estrogen hormone therapy increases a woman's resting metabolic rate. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number:637,638,639

Increases uptake of glucose through increase in insulin sensitivity


Question: Minimum reabsorption through renal tubule, among the following

Urea is a toxic waste product and it reabsorbed in minimal level.Ref: Ganong&;s Review of Medical Physiology; 24th edition; page no: 678


Question: Weber's syndrome occurs due to lesions in the

Weber's syndrome (superior alternating hemiplegia) is a form of stroke characterized by the presence of an ipsilateral oculomotor nerve palsy and contralateral hemiparesis or hemiplegia. It is caused by midbrain infarction as a result of occlusion of the paramedian branches of the posterior cerebral aery or of basilar bifurcation perforating aeries. Ref: guyton and hall textbook of medical physiology 12 edition page number: 761,762763


Question: The mechanism of action of surfactant is

Ans. is 'd' i.e. Breaks the structure of water in the alveoli The water molecules on the surface of water (at air-water interphase) have an especially strong attraction for one another. This results in the water surface to contract producing surface tension.Thus the water molecules lining the alveoli produce an elastic contractile force due to surface tension which causes the alveoli to collapse.This surface tension force of water molecules is broken by surfactant (a mixture of phospholipids, proteins and ions, most important phospholipid of which is dipalmitoylphosphatidyl-choline-DPCC). It is secreted by type II alveolar epithelial cells and lines the alveoli.The phospholipid molecules have a hydrophilic head and two parallel hydrophobic 'tails'. Thus only head part of the molecule dissolves in the fluid lining the alveolar surface and the hydrophobic tails face the alveolar lumen. This new surface thus formed of the surfactant has a significantly reduced surface tension than the water molecules.By reducing the surface tension, surfactant serves two purposes:Prevents the alveoli from collapsingPrevents pulmonary edema.


Question: An open wound contracts by

Direct quote: "Perhaps the feature that most clearly differentiates primary from secondary wound healing is the phenomenon of wound contraction. The initial steps of contraction involve the formation of a network of acting containing fibroblasts at the edge of the wound. Permanent wound contraction requires the action of myofibroblasts. Contraction of these cells at the wound site decrease the gap between the dermal edges of the wound". Also, Know Classification of wound healing By primary intention Wound edges opposed. Normal healing, Minimal scar By secondary intention Wound left open. Heals by granulation wound contraction and epithelialization. Increased inflammation of proliferation Poor scar By teiary intention (also called delayed primary intention) Wound initially left open. Edges later opposed when healing conditions orable. Ref: Robbin's Pathology, 9th edn. Pg. 113, Bailey Love's, 25th edn. Pg. 25, Summary Box 3.2.


Question: Cardiac index in a normal person is


Question: Oxygen affinity increases with

Oxygen affinity increases with left shift of O2-Hb dissociation curve. It is seen in fetal hemoglobin and carbon monoxide.Oxygen affinity decreases with right shift of O2-Hb dissociation curve. It is seen in hypoxia, high altitude, anemia, acidosis, and exercise.Ref: Medical physiology for UG students, Indu Khurana, page: 328