Anatomy_And_Physio/queries.csv

fig_num,sub_section_headings,images-src,image_caption
Figure 28.7.1,From Genotype to Phenotype,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2923_Male_Chromosomes.jpg,"Figure 28.7.1 – Chromosomal Complement of a Male: Each pair of chromosomes contains hundreds to thousands of genes. The banding patterns are nearly identical for the two chromosomes within each pair, indicating the same organization of genes. As is visible in this karyotype, the only exception to this is the XY sex chromosome pair in males. (credit: National Human Genome Research Institute)"
Figure 28.7.2,Mendel’s Theory of Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2924_Mendelian_Pea_Plant_Cross.jpg,"Figure 28.7.2 – Random Segregation: In the formation of gametes, it is equally likely that either one of a pair alleles from one parent will be passed on to the offspring. This figure follows the possible combinations of alleles through two generations following a first-generation cross of homozygous dominant and homozygous recessive parents. The recessive phenotype, which is masked in the second generation, has a 1 in 4, or 25 percent, chance of reappearing in the third generation."
Figure 28.7.3,Autosomal Dominant Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2925_Autosomal_Dominant_Inheritance.jpg,"Figure 28.7.3 – Autosomal Dominant Inheritance: Inheritance pattern of an autosomal dominant disorder, such as neurofibromatosis, is shown in a Punnett square."
Figure 28.7.4,Autosomal Recessive Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2926_Autosomal_Recessive_Inheritance-new.jpg,Figure 28.7.4 – Autosomal Recessive Inheritance: The inheritance pattern of an autosomal recessive disorder with two carrier parents reflects a 3:1 probability of expression among offspring. (credit: U.S. National Library of Medicine)
Figure 28.7.5,X-linked Dominant or Recessive Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2927_X-linked_Dominant_Inheritance-new.jpg,Figure 28.7.5 – X-Linked Patterns of Inheritance: A chart of X-linked dominant inheritance patterns differs depending on whether (a) the father or (b) the mother is affected with the disease. (credit: U.S. National Library of Medicine)
Figure 28.7.5,X-linked Dominant or Recessive Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2927_X-linked_Dominant_Inheritance-new.jpg,Figure 28.7.5 – X-Linked Patterns of Inheritance: A chart of X-linked dominant inheritance patterns differs depending on whether (a) the father or (b) the mother is affected with the disease. (credit: U.S. National Library of Medicine)
Figure 28.7.6,X-linked Dominant or Recessive Inheritance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2928_X-linked_Recessive_Inheritance-new.jpg,"Figure 28.7.6 – X-Linked Recessive Inheritance: Given two parents in which the father is normal and the mother is a carrier of an X-linked recessive disorder, a son would have a 50 percent probability of being affected with the disorder, whereas daughters would either be carriers or entirely unaffected. (credit: U.S. National Library of Medicine)"
Figure 28.6.1,The Process of Lactation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2922_Let_Down_Reflex-new-scaled.jpg,Figure 28.6.1 – Let-Down Reflex: A positive feedback loop ensures continued milk production as long as the infant continues to breastfeed.
Figure 28.5.1,Circulatory Adjustments,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2921_Neonatal_Circulatory_System.jpg,"Figure 28.5.1 – Neonatal Circulatory System: A newborn’s circulatory system reconfigures immediately after birth. The three fetal shunts have been closed permanently, facilitating blood flow to the liver and lungs."
Figure 28.4.1,Gastrointestinal and Urinary Adjustments,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2917_Size_of_Uterus_Throughout_Pregnancy-02.jpg,Figure 28.4.1 – Size of Uterus throughout Pregnancy: The uterus grows throughout pregnancy to accommodate the fetus.
Figure 28.4.3,Physiology of Labor,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2919_Hormones_Initiating_Labor-02.jpg,Figure 28.4.3 – Hormones Initiating Labor: A positive feedback loop of hormones works to initiate labor.
Figure 28.4.4,Stages of Childbirth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2920_Stages_of_Childbirth-02-scaled.jpg,"Figure 28.4.4 – Stages of Childbirth: The stages of childbirth include Stage 1, early cervical dilation; Stage 2, full dilation and expulsion of the newborn; and Stage 3, delivery of the placenta and associated fetal membranes. (The position of the newborn’s shoulder is described relative to the mother.)"
Figure 28.3.1,Sexual Differentiation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2915_Sexual_Differentation-02.jpg,Figure 28.3.1 – Sexual Differentiation: Differentiation of the male and female reproductive systems does not occur until the fetal period of development.
Figure 28.3.2,The Fetal Circulatory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2916_Fetal_Circulatory_System-02.jpg,"Figure 28.3.2 – Fetal Circulatory System: The fetal circulatory system includes three shunts to divert blood from undeveloped and partially functioning organs, as well as blood supply to and from the placenta."
Figure 28.2.1,Pre-implantation Embryonic Development,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2903_Preembryonic_Cleavages-02-1.jpg,Figure 28.2.1 – Pre-Embryonic Cleavages: Pre-embryonic cleavages make use of the abundant cytoplasm of the conceptus as the cells rapidly divide without changing the total volume.
Figure 28.2.2,Implantation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2904_Preembryonic_Development-02-1.jpg,"Figure 28.2.2 – Pre-Embryonic Development: Ovulation, fertilization, pre-embryonic development, and implantation occur at specific locations within the female reproductive system in a time span of approximately 1 week."
Figure 28.2.3,Implantation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2905_Implantation-1.jpg,"Figure 28.2.3 – Implantation: During implantation, the trophoblast cells of the blastocyst adhere to the endometrium and digest endometrial cells until it is attached securely."
Figure 28.2.5,Embryonic Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2907_Embroyonic_Disc_Amniotic_Cavity_Yolk_Sac-02-1.jpg,Figure 28.2.5 – Development of the Embryonic Disc: Formation of the embryonic disc leaves spaces on either side that develop into the amniotic cavity and the yolk sac.
Figure 28.2.6,Embryogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2908_Germ_Layers-02-1.jpg,Figure 28.2.6 – Germ Layers: Formation of the three primary germ layers occurs during the first 2 weeks of development. The embryo at this stage is only a few millimeters in length.
Figure 28.2.7,Embryogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2909_Embryo_Week_3-02-1.jpg,"Figure 28.2.7 – Fates of Germ Layers in Embryo: Following gastrulation of the embryo in the third week, embryonic cells of the ectoderm, mesoderm, and endoderm begin to migrate and differentiate into the cell lineages that will give rise to mature organs and organ systems in the infant."
Figure 28.2.8,Development of the Placenta,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2910_The_Placenta-02.jpg,"Figure 28.2.8 – Cross-Section of the Placenta: In the placenta, maternal and fetal blood components are conducted through the surface of the chorionic villi, but maternal and fetal bloodstreams never mix directly."
Figure 28.2.9,Development of the Placenta,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2911_Photo_of_Placenta-02.jpg,Figure 28.2.9 – Placenta: This post-expulsion placenta and umbilical cord (white) are viewed from the fetal side.
Figure 28.2.10,Organogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2912_Neurulation-02.jpg,Figure 28.2.10 – Neurulation: The embryonic process of neurulation establishes the rudiments of the future central nervous system and skeleton.
Figure 28.2.11,Organogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2913_Embryonic_Folding.jpg,"Figure 28.2.11 – Embryonic Folding: Embryonic folding converts a flat sheet of cells into a hollow, tube-like structure."
Figure 28.2.12,Organogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2914_Photo_of_Embryo-02.jpg,"Figure 28.2.12 – Embryo at 7 Weeks: An embryo at the end of 7 weeks of development is only 10 mm in length, but its developing eyes, limb buds, and tail are already visible. (This embryo was derived from an ectopic pregnancy.) (credit: Ed Uthman)"
Figure 28.1.1,Contact Between Sperm and Oocyte,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2901_Sperm_Fertilization.jpg,"Figure 28.1.1 – Sperm and the Process of Fertilization: Before fertilization, hundreds of capacitated sperm must break through the surrounding corona radiata and zona pellucida so that one can contact and fuse with the oocyte plasma membrane."
Figure 27.3.1,Oogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/cb3a51b134cfa417cf88f924fed1d8731ef8754f.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.1 Oogenesis The unequal cell division of oogenesis produces one to three polar bodies that later degrade, as well as a single haploid ovum, which is produced only if there is penetration of the secondary oocyte by a sperm cell."
Figure 27.3.1,Oogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/cb3a51b134cfa417cf88f924fed1d8731ef8754f.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.1 Oogenesis The unequal cell division of oogenesis produces one to three polar bodies that later degrade, as well as a single haploid ovum, which is produced only if there is penetration of the secondary oocyte by a sperm cell."
Figure 27.3.2,Folliculogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/b192057b57e4b471054c0d5a361f661824607e63.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.2 Folliculogenesis (a) The maturation of a follicle is shown in a clockwise direction proceeding from the primordial follicles. FSH stimulates the growth of a tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates the production of estrogen by granulosa and theca cells. Once the follicle is mature, it ruptures and releases the oocyte. Cells remaining in the follicle then develop into the corpus luteum. (b) In this electron micrograph of a secondary follicle, the oocyte, theca cells (thecae folliculi), and developing antrum are clearly visible. EM × 1100. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 27.3.2,Folliculogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/b192057b57e4b471054c0d5a361f661824607e63.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.2 Folliculogenesis (a) The maturation of a follicle is shown in a clockwise direction proceeding from the primordial follicles. FSH stimulates the growth of a tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates the production of estrogen by granulosa and theca cells. Once the follicle is mature, it ruptures and releases the oocyte. Cells remaining in the follicle then develop into the corpus luteum. (b) In this electron micrograph of a secondary follicle, the oocyte, theca cells (thecae folliculi), and developing antrum are clearly visible. EM × 1100. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 27.3.3,Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0dbf6852b50fac8780909f0855e32e87bdc761af.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.3 Hormonal Regulation of Ovulation The hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate the ovarian cycle and ovulation. GnRH activates the anterior pituitary to produce LH and FSH, which stimulate the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries."
Figure 27.3.3,Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0dbf6852b50fac8780909f0855e32e87bdc761af.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.3 Hormonal Regulation of Ovulation The hypothalamus and pituitary gland regulate the ovarian cycle and ovulation. GnRH activates the anterior pituitary to produce LH and FSH, which stimulate the production of estrogen and progesterone by the ovaries."
Figure 27.3.2,Hormonal Control of the Ovarian Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/b192057b57e4b471054c0d5a361f661824607e63.jpeg,"Figure 27.3.2 Folliculogenesis (a) The maturation of a follicle is shown in a clockwise direction proceeding from the primordial follicles. FSH stimulates the growth of a tertiary follicle, and LH stimulates the production of estrogen by granulosa and theca cells. Once the follicle is mature, it ruptures and releases the oocyte. Cells remaining in the follicle then develop into the corpus luteum. (b) In this electron micrograph of a secondary follicle, the oocyte, theca cells (thecae folliculi), and developing antrum are clearly visible. EM × 1100. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 27.2.1,Onset of Puberty,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/Figure_28_03_01.jpg,"Figure 27.2.1 – Hormones of Puberty: During puberty, the release of LH and FSH from the anterior pituitary stimulates the gonads to produce sex hormones in adolescents"
Figure 27.1.1,Signs of Puberty,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/Figure_28_02_02.jpg,"Figure 27.1.1 – Vulva: The mons pubis, labia minora, labia majora and vestibule are referred to collectively as the vulva."
Figure 27.1.3,Vagina,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_02_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.3  Anatomy of a vagina, uterus, ovaries and pelvic cavity"
Figure 27.1.3,Ovaries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_02_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.3  Anatomy of a vagina, uterus, ovaries and pelvic cavity"
Figure 27.1.4,Breasts,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_02_09.jpg,"Figure 27.1.4 – Anatomy of a Breast: During lactation, milk moves from the alveoli through the lactiferous ducts to the nipple."
Figure 27.1.4,Breasts,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_02_09.jpg,"Figure 27.1.4 – Anatomy of a Breast: During lactation, milk moves from the alveoli through the lactiferous ducts to the nipple."
Figure 27.1.5,The Penis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.5 – Penis and Testes: The structures of this reproductive system often include the testes, the epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen. Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to create semen."
Figure 27.1.7,Testes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_02.jpg,Figure 27.1.7 – Scrotum and Testes: This anterior view shows the structures of a scrotum and two testes.
Figure 27.1.6,Epididymis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_03.jpg,"Figure 27.1.6 – Anatomy of a Testis: This sagittal view shows seminiferous tubules, the site of sperm production. Formed sperm are transferred to the epididymis, where they mature. They leave the epididymis during an ejaculation via the ductus deferens."
Figure 27.1.5,Scrotum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.5 – Penis and Testes: The structures of this reproductive system often include the testes, the epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen. Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to create semen."
Figure 27.1.7,Scrotum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_02.jpg,Figure 27.1.7 – Scrotum and Testes: This anterior view shows the structures of a scrotum and two testes.
Figure 27.1.5,Duct System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.5 – Penis and Testes: The structures of this reproductive system often include the testes, the epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen. Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to create semen."
Figure 27.1.5,Seminal Vesicles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.5 – Penis and Testes: The structures of this reproductive system often include the testes, the epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen. Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to create semen."
Figure 27.1.5,Prostate Gland,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Figure_28_01_01.jpg,"Figure 27.1.5 – Penis and Testes: The structures of this reproductive system often include the testes, the epididymides, the penis, and the ducts and glands that produce and carry semen. Sperm exit the scrotum through the ductus deferens, which is bundled in the spermatic cord. The seminal vesicles and prostate gland add fluids to the sperm to create semen."
Figure 26.5.1,Disorders of the Prostate gland,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2716_Symptoms_of_Acidosis_Alkalosis.jpg,Figure 26.5.1 – Symptoms of Acidosis and Alkalosis: Symptoms of acidosis affect several organ systems. Both acidosis and alkalosis can be diagnosed using a blood test.
Figure 26.4.1,Compensation Mechanisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2713_pH_Scale-01.jpg,Figure 26.4.1 – The pH Scale: This chart shows where many common substances fall on the pH scale.
Figure 26.4.3,Renal Regulation of Acid-Base Balance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2715_Conservation_of_Bicarbonate_in_Kidney-01.jpg,"Figure 26.4.3 Conservation of Bicarbonate in the Kidney. Tubular cells are not permeable to bicarbonate; thus, bicarbonate is conserved rather than reabsorbed. Steps 1 and 2 of bicarbonate conservation are indicated."
Figure 26.2.1,Regulation of Water Intake,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2708_Flowchart_of_Thirst_Response-01.jpg,Figure 26.2.1 – A Flowchart Showing the Thirst Response: The thirst response begins when osmoreceptors detect a decrease in water levels in the blood.
Figure 26.2.2,Role of ADH,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2709_ADH.jpg,"Figure 26.2.2 – Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH): ADH is produced in the hypothalamus and released by the posterior pituitary gland. It causes the kidneys to retain water, constricts arterioles in the peripheral circulation, and affects some social behaviors in mammals."
Figure 26.2.3,Role of ADH,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2710_Aquaporins-01.jpg,"Figure 26.2.3 – Aquaporins: The binding of ADH to receptors on the cells of the collecting tubule results in aquaporins being inserted into the plasma membrane, shown in the lower cell. This dramatically increases the flow of water out of the tubule and into the bloodstream."
Figure 26.1.1,Body Water Content,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2701_Water_Content_in_the_Body-01.jpg,"Figure 26.1.1 – Water Content of the Body’s Organs and Tissues: Water content varies in different body organs and tissues, from as little as 8 percent in the teeth to as much as 85 percent in the brain."
Figure 26.1.2,Fluid Compartments,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2702_Fluid_Compartments_ICF_ECF.jpg,Figure 26.1.2 – Fluid Compartments in the Human Body: The intracellular fluid (ICF) is the fluid within cells. The interstitial fluid (IF) is part of the extracellular fluid (ECF) between the cells. Blood plasma is the second part of the ECF. Materials travel between cells and the plasma in capillaries through the IF.
Figure 26.1.4,Composition of Body Fluids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2704_Concentration_of_Elements_in_Body_Fluids.jpg,"Figure 26.1.4 – The Concentrations of Different Elements in Key Bodily Fluids: The graph shows the composition of the ICF, IF, and plasma. The compositions of plasma and IF are similar to one another but are quite different from the composition of the ICF."
Figure 26.1.5,Composition of Body Fluids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2705_Sodium_Potassium_Pump.jpg,Figure 26.1.5 – The Sodium-Potassium Pump: The sodium-potassium pump is powered by ATP to transfer sodium out of the cytoplasm and into the ECF. The pump also transfers potassium out of the ECF and into the cytoplasm. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Figure 26.1.6,Fluid Movement between Compartments,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2108_Capillary_Exchange.jpg,Figure 26.1.6 – Capillary Exchange: Net filtration occurs near the arterial end of the capillary since capillary hydrostatic pressure (CHP) is greater than blood colloidal osmotic pressure (BCOP). There is no net movement of fluid near the midpoint of the capillary since CHP = BCOP. Net reabsorption occurs near the venous end of the capillary since BCOP is greater than CHP.
Figure 26.1.7,Solute Movement between Compartments,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2706_Facilitated_Diffusion.jpg,Figure 26.1.7 – Facilitated Diffusion: Glucose molecules use facilitated diffusion to move down a concentration gradient through the carrier protein channels in the membrane. (credit: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villarreal)
Figure 25.4.2,Blood Pressure Regulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2626_Renin_Aldosterone_Angiotensin.jpg,Figure 25.4.2 – Conversion of Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II: The enzyme renin converts the pro-enzyme angiotensin I; the lung-derived enzyme ACE converts angiotensin I into active angiotensin II.
Figure 25.8.1,Describe how the kidney modifies filtrate to influence urine production,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2601_Urine_Color_Chart.jpg,Figure 25.8.1 Urine Color can change due to degree of hydration.
Figure 25.4.2,Regulation of Extracellular Na+,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2626_Renin_Aldosterone_Angiotensin.jpg,Figure 25.4.2 – Conversion of Angiotensin I to Angiotensin II: The enzyme renin converts the pro-enzyme angiotensin I; the lung-derived enzyme ACE converts angiotensin I into active angiotensin II.
Figure 25.7.1,Regulation of Nitrogen Wastes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2627_Nitrogen_Wastes.jpg,Figure 25.7.1 Nitrogen Wastes.
Figure 25.6.1,Elimination of Drugs and Hormones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2621_Loop_of_Henle_Countercurrent_Multiplier_System.jpg,Figure 25.6.1 Countercurrent Multiplier System.
Figure 25.5.1,Answers for Critical Thinking Questions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2618_Nephron_Secretion_Reabsorption.jpg,Figure 25.5.1 Locations of Secretion and Reabsorption in the Nephron.
Figure 25.5.2,Reabsorption in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2619_Substances_Reabsorbed_And_Secreted_By_The_PCT.jpg,Figure 25.5.2 Substances Reabsorbed and Secreted by the PCT.
Figure 25.5.3,Reabsorption in the Proximal Convoluted Tubule,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2620_Reabsorption_of_Bicarbonate_from_the_PCT.jpg,Figure 25.5.3 Reabsorption of Bicarbonate from the PCT.
Figure 25.4.1,Glomerular Filtration,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2617_Net_Filtration_Pressure_revised-e1568240504781.png,Figure 25.4.1 – Net Filtration Pressure: The NFP is the sum of osmotic and hydrostatic pressures.
Figure 25.1.1,External Anatomy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2608_Kidney_Position_in_Abdomen_revised-e1568240294915.png,Figure 25.1.1 – Kidneys: The kidneys are slightly protected by the ribs and are surrounded by fat for protection. On the superior aspect of each kidney is an adrenal gland.
Figure 25.1.2,External Anatomy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2610_The_Kidney_revised.png,Figure 25.1.2 Left Kidney.
Figure 24.7.1,Food and Metabolism,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2524_MyPlate.jpg,Figure 24.7.1 – MyPlate: The U.S. Department of Agriculture developed food guidelines called MyPlate to help demonstrate how to maintain a healthy lifestyle.
Figure 24.6.1,Minerals,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2523_The-Hypothalamus_Controls_Thermoregulation-608x1024-1.jpg,Figure 24.6.1 – Hypothalamus Controls Thermoregulation: The hypothalamus controls thermoregulation.
Figure 24.5.1,The Absorptive State,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2521_The_Absorptive_Stage-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.5.1 – Absorptive State: During the absorptive state, the body digests food and absorbs the nutrients into cells."
Figure 24.5.2,The Postabsorptive State,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2522_The_Postabsorptive_Stage-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.5.2 – Postabsorptive State: During the postabsorptive state, the body must rely on stored glycogen for energy, breaking down glycogen in the cells and releasing it to cell (muscle) or the body (liver)."
Figure 24.1.1,Starvation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2501_The_Structure_of_ATP_Molecules.jpg,"Figure 24.1.1 – Structure of ATP Molecule: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy molecule of the cell. During catabolic reactions, ATP is created and energy is stored until needed during anabolic reactions."
Figure 24.4.1,Starvation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2517_Protein-Digesting_EnzymesN.jpg,"Figure 24.4.1 – Digestive Enzymes and Hormones: Enzymes in the stomach and small intestine break down proteins into amino acids. HCl in the stomach aids in proteolysis by denaturing proteins, and hormones secreted by intestinal cells direct the digestive processes."
Figure 24.4.2,Urea Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2518_Urea_Cycle-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.4.2 – Urea Cycle: Nitrogen is transaminated, creating ammonia and intermediates of the Krebs cycle. Ammonia is processed in the urea cycle to produce urea that is eliminated through the kidneys."
Figure 24.4.3,Urea Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2519_Energy_From_Amino_Acids.jpg,Figure 24.4.3 – Energy from Amino Acids: Amino acids can be broken down into precursors for glycolysis or the Krebs cycle. Amino acids (in bold) can enter the cycle through more than one pathway.
Figure 24.3.1,Urea Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2511_A_Triglyceride_Molecule_a_Is_Broken_Down_Into_Monoglycerides_b.jpg,Figure 24.3.1 – Triglyceride Broken Down into a Monoglyceride: A triglyceride molecule (a) breaks down into a monoglyceride and two free fatty acids (b).
Figure 24.3.1,Urea Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2511_A_Triglyceride_Molecule_a_Is_Broken_Down_Into_Monoglycerides_b.jpg,Figure 24.3.1 – Triglyceride Broken Down into a Monoglyceride: A triglyceride molecule (a) breaks down into a monoglyceride and two free fatty acids (b).
Figure 24.3.2,Urea Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2512_Chylomicrons_Contain_Triglycerides_Cholesterol_Molecules_and_Other_Lipids.jpg,"Figure 24.3.2 – Chylomicrons: Chylomicrons contain triglycerides, cholesterol molecules, and other apolipoproteins (protein molecules). They function to carry these water-insoluble molecules from the intestine, through the lymphatic system, and into the bloodstream, which carries the lipids to adipose tissue for storage."
Figure 24.3.3,Lipolysis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2513_The_Breakdown_of_Fatty_Acids-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.3.3 – Breakdown of Fatty Acids: During fatty acid oxidation, triglycerides can be broken down into acetyl CoA molecules and used for energy when glucose levels are low."
Figure 24.3.4,Ketogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2514_Ketogenesis.jpg,"Figure 24.3.4 – Ketogenesis: Excess acetyl CoA is diverted from the Krebs cycle to the ketogenesis pathway. This reaction occurs in the mitochondria of liver cells. The result is the production of β-hydroxybutyrate, the primary ketone body found in the blood."
Figure 24.3.5,Ketone Body Oxidation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2515_Ketone_Oxidation.jpg,"Figure 24.3.5 – Ketone Oxidation: When glucose is limited, ketone bodies can be oxidized to produce acetyl CoA to be used in the Krebs cycle to generate energy."
Figure 24.3.6,Lipogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2516_Lipid_Metabolism.jpg,Figure 24.3.6 – Lipid Metabolism: Lipids may follow one of several pathways during metabolism. Glycerol and fatty acids follow different pathways.
Figure 24.2.1,Lipogenesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2503_Cellular_Respiration.jpg,"Figure 24.2.1 – Cellular Respiration: Cellular respiration oxidizes glucose molecules through glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation to produce ATP."
Figure 24.2.2,Glycolysis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2504_Glycosis_Overview-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.2.2 – Glycolysis Overview: During the energy-consuming phase of glycolysis, two ATPs are consumed, transferring two phosphates to the glucose molecule. The glucose molecule then splits into two three-carbon compounds, each containing a phosphate. During the second phase, an additional phosphate is added to each of the three-carbon compounds. The energy for this endergonic reaction is provided by the removal (oxidation) of two electrons from each three-carbon compound. During the energy-releasing phase, the phosphates are removed from both three-carbon compounds and used to produce four ATP molecules."
Figure 24.2.4,Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2507_The_Krebs_Cycle.jpg,"Figure 24.2.4 – Krebs Cycle: During the Krebs cycle, each pyruvate that is generated by glycolysis is converted into a two-carbon acetyl CoA molecule. The acetyl CoA is systematically processed through the cycle and produces high-energy NADH, FADH2, and ATP molecules."
Figure 24.2.4,Krebs Cycle/Citric Acid Cycle/Tricarboxylic Acid Cycle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2507_The_Krebs_Cycle.jpg,"Figure 24.2.4 – Krebs Cycle: During the Krebs cycle, each pyruvate that is generated by glycolysis is converted into a two-carbon acetyl CoA molecule. The acetyl CoA is systematically processed through the cycle and produces high-energy NADH, FADH2, and ATP molecules."
Figure 24.2.5,Oxidative Phosphorylation and the Electron Transport Chain,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2508_The_Electron_Transport_Chain.jpg,Figure 24.2.5 – Electron Transport Chain: The electron transport chain is a series of electron carriers and ion pumps that are used to pump H+ ions out of the inner mitochondrial matrix.
Figure 24.2.6,Oxidative Phosphorylation and the Electron Transport Chain,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2509_Carbohydrate_Metabolism-scaled.jpg,"Figure 24.2.6 – Carbohydrate Metabolism: Carbohydrate metabolism involves glycolysis, the Krebs cycle, and the electron transport chain."
Figure 24.1.1,Catabolic Reactions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2501_The_Structure_of_ATP_Molecules.jpg,"Figure 24.1.1 – Structure of ATP Molecule: Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is the energy molecule of the cell. During catabolic reactions, ATP is created and energy is stored until needed during anabolic reactions."
Figure 24.1.2,Catabolic Reactions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2502_Catabolic_Reactions.jpg,"Figure 24.1.2 – Sources of ATP: During catabolic reactions, proteins are broken down into amino acids, lipids are broken down into fatty acids, and polysaccharides are broken down into monosaccharides. These building blocks are then used for the synthesis of molecules in anabolic reactions."
Figure 23.7.1,Oxidation-Reduction Reactions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2426_Mechanical_and_Chemical_DigestionN.jpg,Figure 23.7.1 – Digestion and Absorption: Digestion begins in the mouth and continues as food travels through the small intestine. Most absorption occurs in the small intestine.
Figure 23.7.2,Carbohydrate Digestion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2427_Carbon_Digestion.jpg,Figure 23.7.2 – Carbohydrate Digestion Flow Chart: Carbohydrates are broken down into their monomers in a series of steps.
Figure 23.7.3,Protein Digestion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2429_Digestion_of_Proteins_Physiology.jpg,Figure 23.7.3 – Digestion of Protein: The digestion of protein begins in the stomach and is completed in the small intestine.
Figure 23.7.5,Absorption,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2430_Digestive_Secretions_Absorption_of_WaterN.jpg,"Figure 23.7.5 – Digestive Secretions and Absorption of Water: Absorption is a complex process, in which nutrients from digested food are harvested."
Figure 23.7.6,Lipid Absorption,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2431_Lipid_Absorption.jpg,"Figure 23.7.6 – Lipid Absorption: Unlike amino acids and simple sugars, lipids are transformed as they are absorbed through epithelial cells."
Figure 23.5.1,The Large Intestine,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2422_Accessory_Organs.jpg,"Figure 23.5.1 – Accessory Organs: The liver, pancreas, and gallbladder are considered accessory digestive organs, but their roles in the digestive system are vital."
Figure 23.5.2,The Liver,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2423_Microscopic_Anatomy_of_Liver.jpg,Figure 23.5.2 – Microscopic Anatomy of the Liver: The liver is organized into repeating structures called lobules made up of hepatocytes. The liver receives oxygenated blood from the hepatic artery and nutrient-rich deoxygenated blood from the hepatic portal vein and drain the bile formed by the hepatocytes into the bile duct.
Figure 23.5.3,The Pancreas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2424_Exocrine_and_Endocrine_Pancreas.jpg,"Figure 23.5.3 – Exocrine and Endocrine Pancreas: The pancreas has a head, a body, and a tail. It delivers pancreatic juice to the duodenum through the pancreatic duct."
Figure 23.5.4,The Gallbladder,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2425_Gallbladder.jpg,"Figure 23.5.4 – Gallbladder: The gallbladder stores and concentrates bile, and releases it into the two-way cystic duct when it is needed by the small intestine."
Figure 23.4.1,Structure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2414_Stomach.jpg,"Figure 23.4.1 – Stomach: The stomach has four major regions: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus. The addition of an inner oblique smooth muscle layer gives the muscularis the ability to vigorously churn and mix food."
Figure 23.4.2,Histology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2415_Histology_of_StomachN.jpg,"Figure 23.4.2 – Histology of the Stomach: The stomach wall is adapted for the functions of the stomach. In the epithelium, gastric pits lead to gastric glands that secrete gastric juice. The gastric glands (one gland is shown enlarged on the right) contain different types of cells that secrete a variety of enzymes, including hydrochloride acid, which activates the protein-digesting enzyme pepsin."
Figure 23.4.3,Gastric Secretion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2416_Three_Phases_Gastric_Secretion.jpg,"Figure 23.4.3 – The Three Phases of Gastric Secretion: Gastric secretion occurs in three phases: cephalic, gastric, and intestinal. During each phase, the secretion of gastric juice can be stimulated or inhibited. EDITOR’S NOTE: Each place where figure says “Stimulates stomach secretory activity,” describe what that activity is and how much it is activated. In the section on the cephalic phase it could say something like: secretion of HCl and pepsin. In the section on the gastric phase it could say something like: increased secretion of HCl and pepsin and increased gastric motility. Etc."
Figure 23.3.1,The Mouth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2406_Structures_of_the_Mouth.jpg,"Figure 23.3.1 – Mouth: The mouth includes the lips, tongue, palate, gums, and teeth."
Figure 23.3.1,The Mouth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2406_Structures_of_the_Mouth.jpg,"Figure 23.3.1 – Mouth: The mouth includes the lips, tongue, palate, gums, and teeth."
Figure 23.3.2,The Tongue,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2407_Tongue.jpg,Figure 23.3.2 – Tongue: This superior view of the tongue shows the locations and types of lingual papillae.
Figure 23.3.6,The Pharynx,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2411_Pharynx.jpg,Figure 23.3.6 – Pharynx: The pharynx runs from the nostrils to the esophagus and the larynx.
Figure 23.3.7,The Esophagus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2412_The_Esophagus.jpg,Figure 23.3.7 – Esophagus: The upper esophageal sphincter controls the movement of food from the pharynx to the esophagus. The lower esophageal sphincter controls the movement of food from the esophagus to the stomach.
Figure 23.3.8,Deglutition,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2413_Deglutition_revised.png,Figure 23.3.8 – Deglutition: Deglutition includes the voluntary phase and two involuntary phases: the pharyngeal phase and the esophageal phase.
Figure 23.2.1,Digestive Processes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2404_PeristalsisN.jpg,Figure 23.2.1 – Peristalsis: Peristalsis moves food through the digestive tract with alternating waves of muscle contraction and relaxation.
Figure 23.2.2,Digestive Processes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2405_Digestive_Process.jpg,"Figure 23.2.2 – Digestive Processes: The digestive processes are ingestion, propulsion, mechanical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and defecation."
Figure 23.1.1,Regulatory Mechanisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2401_Components_of_the_Digestive_System_revised-e1568240853144.png,Figure 23.1.1 – Components of the Digestive System: All digestive organs play integral roles in the life-sustaining process of digestion.
Figure 23.1.2,Histology of the Alimentary Canal,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2402_Layers_of_the_Gastrointestinal_Tract.jpg,"Figure 23.1.2 – Layers of the Alimentary Canal: The wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa."
Figure 23.1.2,Nerve Supply,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2402_Layers_of_the_Gastrointestinal_Tract.jpg,"Figure 23.1.2 – Layers of the Alimentary Canal: The wall of the alimentary canal has four basic tissue layers: the mucosa, submucosa, muscularis, and serosa."
Figure 23.1.3,The Peritoneum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2403_The_PeritoneumN.jpg,"Figure 23.1.3 – The Peritoneum: A cross-section of the abdomen shows the relationship between abdominal organs and the peritoneum (darker lines). EDITOR’S NOTE: Please add an anterior and sagittal image showing the mesentery, mesocolon, greater omentum, and lesser omentum."
Figure 22.5.1,Oxygen Transport in the Blood,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2322_Fig_23.22-a.jpg,"Figure 22.5.1 – Erythrocyte and Hemoglobin: Hemoglobin consists of four subunits, each of which contains one molecule of iron."
Figure 22.5.4,Carbon Dioxide Transport in the Blood,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2325_Carbon_Dioxide_Transport.jpg,"Figure 22.5.4 – Carbon Dioxide Transport: Carbon dioxide is transported by three different methods: (a) in erythrocytes; (b) after forming carbonic acid (H2CO3 ), which is dissolved in plasma; (c) and in plasma."
Figure 22.3.3,Pulmonary Ventilation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2316_Inspiration_and_Expiration.jpg,"Figure 22.3.3 – Inspiration and Expiration: Inspiration and expiration occur due to the expansion and contraction of the thoracic cavity, respectively."
Figure 22.3.4,Respiratory Volumes and Capacities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2317_Spirometry_and_Respiratory_Volumes.jpg,Figure 22.3.4 – Respiratory Volumes and Capacities: These two graphs show (a) respiratory volumes and (b) the combination of volumes that results in respiratory capacity.
Figure 22.3.4,Respiratory Volumes and Capacities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2317_Spirometry_and_Respiratory_Volumes.jpg,Figure 22.3.4 – Respiratory Volumes and Capacities: These two graphs show (a) respiratory volumes and (b) the combination of volumes that results in respiratory capacity.
Figure 22.2.1,Gross Anatomy of the Lungs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2312_Gross_Anatomy_of_the_Lungs.jpg,Figure 22.2.1 Gross Anatomy of the Lungs.
Figure 22.2.2,Pleura of the Lungs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2313_The_Lung_Pleurea.jpg,Figure 22.2.2 Parietal and Visceral Pleurae of the Lungs.
Figure 22.1.1,Pleura of the Lungs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2301_Major_Respiratory_Organs.jpg,Figure 22.1.1 – Major Respiratory Structures: The major respiratory structures span the nasal cavity to the diaphragm.
Figure 22.1.9,Respiratory Zone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2309_The_Respiratory_Zone.jpg,"Figure 22.1.9 – Respiratory Zone: Bronchioles lead to alveolar sacs in the respiratory zone, where gas exchange occurs."
Figure 21.7.1,The Rh Factor,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2230_Erythroblastosis_Fetalis.jpg,"Figure 21.7.1 – Erythroblastosis Fetalis: Erythroblastosis fetalis (hemolytic disease of the newborn) is the result of an immune response in an Rh-negative mother who has multiple children with an Rh-positive father. During the first birth, fetal blood enters the mother’s circulatory system, and anti-Rh antibodies are made. During the gestation of the second child, these antibodies cross the placenta and attack the blood of the fetus. The treatment for this disease is to give the mother anti-Rh antibodies (RhoGAM) during the first pregnancy to destroy Rh-positive fetal red blood cells from entering her system and causing the anti-Rh antibody response in the first place."
Figure 21.7.2,Immune Responses Against Cancer,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2231_Kaposis_Sacroma_Lesions.jpg,Figure 21.7.2 Karposi’s Sarcoma Lesions. (credit: National Cancer Institute)
Figure 21.6.1,Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2228_Immune_Hypersensitivity_new-scaled.jpg,"Figure 21.6.1 – Immune Hypersensitivity: Components of the immune system cause four types of hypersensitivity. Notice that types I–III are B cell mediated, whereas type IV hypersensitivity is exclusively a T cell phenomenon."
Figure 21.6.2,Autoimmune Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2229_Autoimmune_Disorders_Rheumatoid_Arthritis_and_Lupus.jpg,Figure 21.6.2 – Autoimmune Disorders: Rheumatoid Arthritis and Lupus. (a) Extensive damage to the right hand of a rheumatoid arthritis sufferer is shown in the x-ray. (b) The diagram shows a variety of possible symptoms of systemic lupus erythematosus.
Figure 21.4.5,T cell-dependent versus T cell-independent Antigens,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2224_T_and_B_Cell_Binding.jpg,"Figure 21.4.5 – T and B Cell Binding: To elicit a response to a T cell-dependent antigen, the B and T cells must come close together. To become fully activated, the B cell must receive two signals from the native antigen and the T cell’s cytokines."
Figure 21.3.1,T Cell-Mediated Immune Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2215_Alpha-Beta_T_Cell_Receptor.jpg,"Figure 21.3.1 – Alpha-beta T Cell Receptor: Notice the constant and variable regions of each chain, anchored by the transmembrane region."
Figure 21.3.2,Antigens,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2214_Antigenic_Determinants.jpg,"Figure 21.3.2 – Antigenic Determinants: A typical protein antigen has multiple antigenic determinants, shown by the ability of T cells with three different specificities to bind to different parts of the same antigen."
Figure 21.3.4,T Cell Development and Differentiation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2217_Differentiation_of_T_Cells_Within_the_Thymus.jpg,Figure 21.3.4 – Differentiation of T Cells within the Thymus: Thymocytes enter the thymus and go through a series of developmental stages that ensures both function and tolerance before they leave and become functional components of the adaptive immune response.
Figure 21.3.4,T Cell Development and Differentiation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2217_Differentiation_of_T_Cells_Within_the_Thymus.jpg,Figure 21.3.4 – Differentiation of T Cells within the Thymus: Thymocytes enter the thymus and go through a series of developmental stages that ensures both function and tolerance before they leave and become functional components of the adaptive immune response.
Figure 21.3.5,Mechanisms of T Cell-mediated Immune Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2218_Clonal_Selection_and_Expansion_of_T_Lymphocytes.jpg,"Figure 21.3.5 – Clonal Selection and Expansion of T Lymphocytes: Stem cells differentiate into T cells with specific receptors, called clones. The clones with receptors specific for antigens on the pathogen are selected for and expanded."
Figure 21.3.5,Clonal Selection and Expansion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2218_Clonal_Selection_and_Expansion_of_T_Lymphocytes.jpg,"Figure 21.3.5 – Clonal Selection and Expansion of T Lymphocytes: Stem cells differentiate into T cells with specific receptors, called clones. The clones with receptors specific for antigens on the pathogen are selected for and expanded."
Figure 21.3.6,T Cell Types and their Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2219_Pathogen_Presentation.jpg,"Figure 21.3.6 – Pathogen Presentation: (a) CD4 is associated with helper and regulatory T cells. An extracellular pathogen is processed and presented in the binding cleft of a class II MHC molecule, and this interaction is strengthened by the CD4 molecule. (b) CD8 is associated with cytotoxic T cells. An intracellular pathogen is presented by a class I MHC molecule, and CD8 interacts with it."
Figure 21.2.1,T Cell Types and their Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2211_Cooperation_Between_Innate_and_Immune_Responses.jpg,Figure 21.2.1 – Cooperation between Innate and Adaptive Immune Responses: The innate immune system enhances adaptive immune responses so they can be more effective
Figure 21.2.3,Inflammatory Response,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2213_Inflammatory_Process.jpg,Figure 21.2.3 Inflammatory Response.
Figure 21.1.1,Structure of the Lymphatic System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2201_Anatomy_of_the_Lymphatic_System.jpg,Figure 21.1.1 – Anatomy of the Lymphatic System: Lymphatic vessels in the arms and legs convey lymph to the larger lymphatic vessels in the torso.
Figure 21.1.4,The Organization of Immune Function,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2204_The_Hematopoietic_System_of_the_Bone_Marrow_new.jpg,Figure 21.1.4 – Hematopoietic System of the Bone Marrow: All the cells of the immune response as well as of the blood arise by differentiation from hematopoietic stem cells. Platelets are cell fragments involved in the clotting of blood.
Figure 20.6.1,Secondary Lymphoid Organs and their Roles in Active Immune Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2139_Fetal_Circulation.jpg,"Figure 20.6.1 – Fetal Shunts: The foramen ovale in the interatrial septum allows blood to flow from the right atrium to the left atrium. The ductus arteriosus is a temporary vessel, connecting the aorta to the pulmonary trunk. The ductus venosus links the umbilical vein to the inferior vena cava largely through the liver."
Figure 20.5.1,Secondary Lymphoid Organs and their Roles in Active Immune Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2141_CircSyst_vs_OtherSystemsN.jpg,Figure 20.5.1 Interaction of the Circulatory System with Other Body Systems
Figure 20.5.2,Pulmonary Circulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2119_Pulmonary_Circuit.jpg,"Figure 20.5.2 – Pulmonary Circuit: Blood exiting from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary trunk, which bifurcates into the two pulmonary arteries. These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. Blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium."
Figure 20.5.3,Overview of Systemic Arteries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2120_Major_Systemic_Artery.jpg,Figure 20.5.3 – Systemic Arteries: The major systemic arteries shown here deliver oxygenated blood throughout the body.
Figure 20.5.4,The Aorta,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2121_Aorta.jpg,"Figure 20.5.4 – Aorta: The aorta has distinct regions, including the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and the descending aorta, which includes the thoracic and abdominal regions."
Figure 20.5.4,Coronary Circulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2121_Aorta.jpg,"Figure 20.5.4 – Aorta: The aorta has distinct regions, including the ascending aorta, aortic arch, and the descending aorta, which includes the thoracic and abdominal regions."
Figure 20.5.2,Aortic Arch Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2119_Pulmonary_Circuit.jpg,"Figure 20.5.2 – Pulmonary Circuit: Blood exiting from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary trunk, which bifurcates into the two pulmonary arteries. These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. Blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium."
Figure 20.5.2,Aortic Arch Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2119_Pulmonary_Circuit.jpg,"Figure 20.5.2 – Pulmonary Circuit: Blood exiting from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary trunk, which bifurcates into the two pulmonary arteries. These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. Blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium."
Figure 20.5.5,Aortic Arch Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2122_Common_Carotid_Artery.jpg,"Figure 20.5.5 – Arteries Supplying the Head and Neck: The common carotid artery gives rise to the external and internal carotid arteries. The external carotid artery remains superficial and gives rise to many arteries of the head. The internal carotid artery first forms the carotid sinus and then reaches the brain via the carotid canal and carotid foramen, emerging into the cranium via the foramen lacerum. The vertebral artery branches from the subclavian artery and passes through the transverse foramen in the cervical vertebrae, entering the base of the skull at the vertebral foramen. The subclavian artery continues toward the arm as the axillary artery."
Figure 20.5.7,Thoracic Aorta and Major Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2124_Thoracic_Abdominal_Arteries.jpg,Figure 20.5.7 – Arteries of the Thoracic and Abdominal Regions: The thoracic aorta gives rise to the arteries of the visceral and parietal branches.
Figure 20.5.7,Abdominal Aorta and Major Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2124_Thoracic_Abdominal_Arteries.jpg,Figure 20.5.7 – Arteries of the Thoracic and Abdominal Regions: The thoracic aorta gives rise to the arteries of the visceral and parietal branches.
Figure 20.5.8,Abdominal Aorta and Major Branches,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2125_Thoracic_Abdominal_Arteries_Chart-scaled.jpg,Figure 20.5.8 – Major Branches of the Aorta: The flow chart summarizes the distribution of the major branches of the aorta into the thoracic and abdominal regions.
Figure 20.5.10,Arteries Serving the Upper Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2127_Thoracic_Upper_Limb_Arteries.jpg,Figure 20.5.10 – Major Arteries Serving the Thorax and Upper Limb: The arteries that supply blood to the arms and hands are extensions of the subclavian arteries.
Figure 20.5.12,Arteries Serving the Lower Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2129ab_Lower_Limb_Arteries_Anterior_Posterior.jpg,Figure 20.5.12 – Major Arteries Serving the Lower Limb: Major arteries serving the lower limb are shown in anterior and posterior views.
Figure 20.5.13,Arteries Serving the Lower Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2130_Lower_Limb_Arteries_Chart.jpg,Figure 20.5.13 – Systemic Arteries of the Lower Limb: The flow chart summarizes the distribution of the systemic arteries from the external iliac artery into the lower limb.
Figure 20.5.14,Overview of Systemic Veins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2131_Major_Systematic_Veins.jpg,Figure 20.5.14 – Major Systemic Veins of the Body: The major systemic veins of the body are shown here in an anterior view.
Figure 20.5.15,The Superior Vena Cava,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2132_Thoracic_Abdominal_Veins.jpg,"Figure 20.5.15 – Veins of the Thoracic and Abdominal Regions: Veins of the thoracic and abdominal regions drain blood from the area above the diaphragm, returning it to the right atrium via the superior vena cava."
Figure 20.5.16,Veins of the Head and Neck,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2133_Head_and_Neck_Veins.jpg,"Figure 20.5.16 – Veins of the Head and Neck: This left lateral view shows the veins of the head and neck, including the intercranial sinuses."
Figure 20.5.17,Veins Draining the Upper Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2134_Thoracic_Upper_Limb_Veins.jpg,Figure 20.5.17 – Veins of the Upper Limb: This anterior view shows the veins that drain the upper limb.
Figure 20.5.18,Veins Draining the Upper Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2135_Veins_Draining_into_Superior_Vena_Cava_Chart.jpg,Figure 20.5.18 – Veins Flowing into the Superior Vena Cava: The flow chart summarizes the distribution of the veins flowing into the superior vena cava.
Figure 20.5.15,The Inferior Vena Cava,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2132_Thoracic_Abdominal_Veins.jpg,"Figure 20.5.15 – Veins of the Thoracic and Abdominal Regions: Veins of the thoracic and abdominal regions drain blood from the area above the diaphragm, returning it to the right atrium via the superior vena cava."
Figure 20.5.19,The Inferior Vena Cava,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2140_FlowChart_Veins_into_VenaCava.jpg,Figure 20.5.19 – Venous Flow into Inferior Vena Cava: The flow chart summarizes veins that deliver blood to the inferior vena cava.
Figure 20.5.20,Veins Draining the Lower Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2136ab_Lower_Limb_Veins_Anterior_Posterior.jpg,Figure 20.5.20 – Major Veins Serving the Lower Limbs: Anterior and posterior views show the major veins that drain the lower limb into the inferior vena cava.
Figure 20.5.21,Veins Draining the Lower Limbs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2137_Lower_Limb_Veins_Chart.jpg,Figure 20.5.21 – Major Veins of the Lower Limb: The flow chart summarizes venous flow from the lower limb.
Figure 20.5.22,Hepatic Portal System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2138_Hepatic_Portal_Vein_System.jpg,"Figure 20.5.22 – Hepatic Portal System: The liver receives blood from the normal systemic circulation via the hepatic artery. It also receives and processes blood from other organs, delivered via the veins of the hepatic portal system. All blood exits the liver via the hepatic vein, which delivers the blood to the inferior vena cava. (Different colors are used to help distinguish among the different vessels in the system.)"
Figure 20.4.1,Hepatic Portal System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2115_Vascular_Homeostasis_Flow_Art-1-scaled.jpg,"Figure 20.4.1 – Summary of Factors Maintaining Vascular Homeostasis: Adequate blood flow, blood pressure, distribution, and perfusion involve autoregulatory, neural, and endocrine mechanisms."
Figure 20.4.4,Effect of Exercise on Vascular Homeostasis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2143_Mechanism_Regulating_Arteries_and_Veins-1-scaled.jpg,Figure 20.4.4 Summary of Mechanisms Regulating Arteriole Smooth Muscle and Veins.
Figure 20.2.1,Arterial Blood Pressure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2109_Systemic_Blood_Pressure.jpg,"Figure 20.2.1 – Systemic Blood Pressure: The graph shows blood pressure throughout the blood vessels, including systolic, diastolic, mean arterial, and pulse pressures."
Figure 20.2.2,Pulse,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2110_Pulse_Sites.jpg,"Figure 20.2.2 – Pulse Sites: The pulse is most readily measured at the radial artery, but can be measured at any of the pulse points shown."
Figure 20.2.3,Measurement of Blood Pressure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2111_Blood_Pressure_Graph.jpg,"Figure 20.2.3 – Blood Pressure Measurement: When pressure in a sphygmomanometer cuff is released, a clinician can hear the Korotkoff sounds. In this graph, a blood pressure tracing is aligned to a measurement of systolic and diastolic pressures."
Figure 20.2.1,Four variables influence blood flow and blood pressure:,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2109_Systemic_Blood_Pressure.jpg,"Figure 20.2.1 – Systemic Blood Pressure: The graph shows blood pressure throughout the blood vessels, including systolic, diastolic, mean arterial, and pulse pressures."
Figure 20.1.1,Venous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2101_Blood_Flow_Through_the_Heart.jpg,"Figure 20.1.1 – Cardiovascular Circulation: The pulmonary circuit moves blood from the right side of the heart to the lungs and back to the heart. The systemic circuit moves blood from the left side of the heart to the head and body and returns it to the right side of the heart to repeat the cycle. The arrows indicate the direction of blood flow, and the colors show the relative levels of oxygen concentration."
Figure 20.1.3,Arteries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2103_Muscular_and_Elastic_Artery_Arteriole.jpg,"Figure 20.1.3 – Types of Arteries and Arterioles: Comparison of the walls of an elastic artery, a muscular artery, and an arteriole is shown. In terms of scale, the diameter of an arteriole is measured in micrometers compared to millimeters for elastic and muscular arteries."
Figure 20.1.3,Arterioles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2103_Muscular_and_Elastic_Artery_Arteriole.jpg,"Figure 20.1.3 – Types of Arteries and Arterioles: Comparison of the walls of an elastic artery, a muscular artery, and an arteriole is shown. In terms of scale, the diameter of an arteriole is measured in micrometers compared to millimeters for elastic and muscular arteries."
Figure 20.1.4,Capillaries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2104_Three_Major_Capillary_Types.jpg,"Figure 20.1.4 – Types of Capillaries: The three major types of capillaries: continuous, fenestrated, and sinusoid."
Figure 20.1.5,Metarterioles and Capillary Beds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2105_Capillary_Bed.jpg,"Figure 20.1.5 – Capillary Bed: In a capillary bed, arterioles give rise to metarterioles. Precapillary sphincters located at the junction of a metarteriole with a capillary regulate blood flow. A thoroughfare channel connects the metarteriole to a venule. An arteriovenous anastomosis, which directly connects the arteriole with the venule, is shown at the bottom."
Figure 20.1.6,Venules,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2106_Large_Medium_Vein_Venule.jpg,"Figure 20.1.6 – Comparison of Veins and Venules: Many veins have valves to prevent back flow of blood, whereas venules do not. In terms of scale, the diameter of a venule is measured in micrometers compared to millimeters for veins."
Figure 20.1.6,Veins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2106_Large_Medium_Vein_Venule.jpg,"Figure 20.1.6 – Comparison of Veins and Venules: Many veins have valves to prevent back flow of blood, whereas venules do not. In terms of scale, the diameter of a venule is measured in micrometers compared to millimeters for veins."
Figure 20.1.8,Veins as Blood Reservoirs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2142_Distribution_of_Blood_Flow.jpg,Figure 20.1.8 Distribution of Blood Flow
Figure 20.1.8,Veins as Blood Reservoirs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2142_Distribution_of_Blood_Flow.jpg,Figure 20.1.8 Distribution of Blood Flow
Figure 19.5.1,Veins as Blood Reservoirs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2037_Embryonic_Development_of_Heart.jpg,Figure 19.5.1 – Development of the Human Heart: This diagram outlines the embryological development of the human heart during the first eight weeks and the subsequent formation of the four heart chambers.
Figure 19.4.1,CO = HR × SV,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2031_Factors_in_Cardiac_Output.jpg,"Figure 19.4.1 – Major Factors Influencing Cardiac Output: Cardiac output is influenced by heart rate and stroke volume, both of which are also variable."
Figure 19.4.2,HRMax = 160 bpm,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2032_Automatic_Innervation.jpg,Figure 19.4.2 – Autonomic Innervation of the Heart: Cardioacceleratory and cardioinhibitory areas are components of the paired cardiac centers located in the medulla oblongata of the brain. They innervate the heart via sympathetic cardiac nerves that increase cardiac activity and vagus (parasympathetic) nerves that slow cardiac activity.
Figure 19.4.3,HRMax = 160 bpm,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2033_Depolarization_in_Sinus_Rhythm.jpg,"Figure 19.4.3 – Effects of Parasympathetic and Sympathetic Stimulation on Normal Sinus Rhythm: The wave of depolarization in a normal sinus rhythm shows a stable resting HR. Following parasympathetic stimulation, HR slows. Following sympathetic stimulation, HR increases."
Figure 19.3.1,Stroke Volume,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2014_Phase_of_Cardiac_Cycle_revised.png,"Figure 19.3.1 – Overview of the Cardiac Cycle: The cardiac cycle begins with atrial systole and progresses to ventricular systole, atrial diastole, and ventricular diastole, when the cycle begins again. Correlations to the ECG are highlighted."
Figure 19.3.3,Heart Sounds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2029_Cardiac_Cycle_vs_Heart_Sounds_revised.png,"Figure 19.3.3 – Heart Sounds and the Cardiac Cycle: In this illustration, the x-axis reflects time with a recording of the heart sounds. The y-axis represents pressure."
Figure 19.3.4,Heart Sounds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2030_Stethoscope_Placement.jpg,"Figure 19.3.4 – Stethoscope Placement for Auscultation: Proper placement of the bell of the stethoscope facilitates auscultation. At each of the four locations on the chest, a different valve can be heard."
Figure 19.2.1,Structure of Cardiac Muscle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2017abc_Cardiac_Muscle.jpg,"Figure 19.2.1 – Cardiac Muscle: (a) Cardiac muscle cells have myofibrils composed of myofilaments arranged in sarcomeres, T tubules to transmit the impulse from the sarcolemma to the interior of the cell, numerous mitochondria for energy, and intercalated discs that are found at the junction of different cardiac muscle cells. (b) A photomicrograph of cardiac muscle cells shows the nuclei and intercalated discs. (c) An intercalated disc connects cardiac muscle cells and consists of desmosomes and gap junctions. LM × 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of the University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 19.2.1,Structure of Cardiac Muscle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2017abc_Cardiac_Muscle.jpg,"Figure 19.2.1 – Cardiac Muscle: (a) Cardiac muscle cells have myofibrils composed of myofilaments arranged in sarcomeres, T tubules to transmit the impulse from the sarcolemma to the interior of the cell, numerous mitochondria for energy, and intercalated discs that are found at the junction of different cardiac muscle cells. (b) A photomicrograph of cardiac muscle cells shows the nuclei and intercalated discs. (c) An intercalated disc connects cardiac muscle cells and consists of desmosomes and gap junctions. LM × 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of the University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 19.2.2,Conduction System of the Heart,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2018_Conduction_System_of_Heart.jpg,"Figure 19.2.2 -Conduction System of the Heart: Specialized conducting components of the heart include the sinoatrial node, the internodal pathways, the atrioventricular node, the atrioventricular bundle, the right and left bundle branches, and the Purkinje fibers."
Figure 19.2.6,Electrocardiogram,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2021_ECG_Placement_of_Electrodes.jpg,"Figure 19.2.6 – Standard Placement of ECG Leads: In a 12-lead ECG, six electrodes are placed on the chest, and four electrodes are placed on the limbs."
Figure 19.2.7,Electrocardiogram,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2022_Electrocardiogram.jpg,"Figure 19.2.7 – Electrocardiogram: A normal tracing shows the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. Also indicated are the PR, QT, QRS, and ST intervals, plus the P-R and S-T segments."
Figure 19.2.7,Electrocardiogram,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2022_Electrocardiogram.jpg,"Figure 19.2.7 – Electrocardiogram: A normal tracing shows the P wave, QRS complex, and T wave. Also indicated are the PR, QT, QRS, and ST intervals, plus the P-R and S-T segments."
Figure 19.1.1,Location and Size of the Heart,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2001_Heart_Position_in_Thorax_revised.png,"Figure 19.1.1 – Position of the Heart in the Thorax: The heart is located within the thoracic cavity, medially between the lungs in the mediastinum. It is about the size of a fist, is broad at the top, and tapers toward the base."
Figure 19.1.1,Shape and Size of the Heart,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2001_Heart_Position_in_Thorax_revised.png,"Figure 19.1.1 – Position of the Heart in the Thorax: The heart is located within the thoracic cavity, medially between the lungs in the mediastinum. It is about the size of a fist, is broad at the top, and tapers toward the base."
Figure 19.1.2,Circulation through the Heart and Body,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2003_Dual_System_of_Human_Circulation_revised.png,"Figure 19.1.2 – Dual System of the Human Blood Circulation: Blood flows from the right atrium to the right ventricle, where it is pumped into the pulmonary circuit. The blood in the pulmonary artery branches is low in oxygen but relatively high in carbon dioxide. Gas exchange occurs in the pulmonary capillaries (oxygen into the blood, carbon dioxide out), and blood high in oxygen and low in carbon dioxide is returned to the left atrium. From here, blood enters the left ventricle, which pumps it into the systemic circuit. Following exchange in the systemic capillaries (oxygen and nutrients out of the capillaries and carbon dioxide and wastes in), blood returns to the right atrium and the cycle is repeated."
Figure 19.1.8,Internal Structure of the Heart,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/2008_Internal_Anatomy_of_the_HeartN.jpg,"Figure 19.1.8 – Internal Structures of the Heart: This anterior view of the heart shows the four chambers, the major vessels and their early branches, as well as the four valves. The presence of the pulmonary trunk and aorta covers the interatrial septum, and the atrioventricular septum is cut away to show the atrioventricular valves."
Figure 18.6.1,Rh Blood Groups,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1910_Erythroblastosis_Fetalis.jpg,"Figure 18.6.1 – Erythroblastosis Fetalis: The first exposure of an Rh− mother to Rh+ erythrocytes during pregnancy induces sensitization. Anti-Rh antibodies begin to circulate in the mother’s bloodstream. A second exposure occurs with a subsequent pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus in the uterus. Maternal anti-Rh antibodies may cross the placenta and enter the fetal bloodstream, causing agglutination and hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes."
Figure 18.6.2,Determining ABO Blood Types,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1912_Cross_Matching_Blood_Types.jpg,"Figure 18.6.2 – Cross Matching Blood Types: This sample of a commercially produced “bedside” card enables quick typing of both a recipient’s and donor’s blood before transfusion. The card contains three reaction sites or wells. One is coated with an anti-A antibody, one with an anti-B antibody, and one with an anti-D antibody (tests for the presence of Rh factor D). Mixing a drop of blood and saline into each well enables the blood to interact with a preparation of type-specific antibodies. Agglutination of RBCs in a given site indicates a positive identification of the blood antigens, in this case A and Rh antigens for blood type A+. For the purpose of transfusion, the donor’s and recipient’s blood types must match."
Figure 18.6.3,ABO Transfusion Protocols,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1913_ABO_Blood_Groups.jpg,Figure 18.6.3 – ABO Blood Group: This chart summarizes the characteristics of the blood types in the ABO blood group. See the text for more on the concept of a universal donor or recipient.
Figure 18.5.1,Coagulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1909_Blood_Clotting.jpg,"Figure 18.5.1 -Hemostasis: (a) An injury to a blood vessel initiates the process of hemostasis. Blood clotting involves three steps. First, vascular spasm constricts the flow of blood. Next, a platelet plug forms to temporarily seal small openings in the vessel. Coagulation then enables the repair of the vessel wall once the leakage of blood has stopped. (b) The synthesis of fibrin in blood clots involves either an intrinsic pathway or an extrinsic pathway, both of which lead to a common pathway. (credit a: Kevin MacKenzie)"
Figure 18.5.1,Fibrinolysis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1909_Blood_Clotting.jpg,"Figure 18.5.1 -Hemostasis: (a) An injury to a blood vessel initiates the process of hemostasis. Blood clotting involves three steps. First, vascular spasm constricts the flow of blood. Next, a platelet plug forms to temporarily seal small openings in the vessel. Coagulation then enables the repair of the vessel wall once the leakage of blood has stopped. (b) The synthesis of fibrin in blood clots involves either an intrinsic pathway or an extrinsic pathway, both of which lead to a common pathway. (credit a: Kevin MacKenzie)"
Figure 18.4.1,Characteristics of Leukocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1906_Emigration.jpg,"Figure 18.4.1 – Emigration: Leukocytes exit the blood vessel and then move through the connective tissue of the dermis toward the site of a wound. Some leukocytes, such as the eosinophil and neutrophil, are characterized as granular leukocytes. They release chemicals from their granules that destroy pathogens; they are also capable of phagocytosis. The monocyte, an agranular leukocyte, differentiates into a macrophage that then phagocytizes the pathogens."
Figure 18.4.3,Platelets,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1908_Platelet_Development.jpg,Figure 18.4.3 – Platelets: Platelets are derived from cells called megakaryocytes.
Figure 18.3.1,Disorders of Platelets,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1914_Table_19_3_1-scaled.jpg,Figure 18.3.1 Summary of Formed Elements in Blood
Figure 18.3.2,Shape and Structure of Erythrocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1903_Shape_of_Red_Blood_Cells.jpg,"Figure 18.3.2 – Shape of Red Blood Cells: Erythrocytes are biconcave discs with very shallow centers. This shape optimizes the ratio of surface area to volume, facilitating gas exchange. It also enables them to fold up as they move through narrow blood vessels."
Figure 18.3.3,Hemoglobin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1904_Hemoglobin.jpg,"Figure 18.3.3 – Hemoglobin: (a) A molecule of hemoglobin contains four globin proteins, each of which is bound to one molecule of the iron-containing pigment heme. (b) A single erythrocyte can contain 300 million hemoglobin molecules, and thus more than 1 billion oxygen molecules."
Figure 18.3.4,Lifecycle of Erythrocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1905_Erythrocyte_Life_Cycle-scaled.jpg,"Figure 18.3.4 – Erythrocyte Lifecycle: Erythrocytes are produced in the bone marrow and sent into the circulation. At the end of their lifecycle, they are destroyed by macrophages, and their components are recycled."
Figure 18.2.1,Differentiation of Formed Elements from Stem Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2204_The_Hematopoietic_System_of_the_Bone_Marrow_new.jpg,"Figure 18.2.1. Hematopoietic System of Bone Marrow. Hemopoiesis is the proliferation and differentiation of the formed elements of blood. Lymphoid stem cells give rise to lymphocytes including T cells, B cells, and natural killer (NK) cells. Myeloid stem cells give rise to all the other formed elements."
Figure 18.1.1,Composition of Blood,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1901_Composition_of_Blood.jpg,"Figure 18.1.1. Composition of Blood: The cellular elements of blood include a vast number of erythrocytes and comparatively fewer leukocytes and platelets. Plasma is the fluid in which the formed elements are suspended. A sample of blood spun in a centrifuge reveals that plasma is the least dense component. It floats at the top of the tube separated from the densest elements, the erythrocytes, which are separated by a buffy coat of leukocytes and platelets. Hematocrit is the percentage of the total sample that is comprised of erythrocytes. Depressed and elevated hematocrit levels are shown for comparison."
Figure 17.9.1,Liver,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1820_The_Pancreas.jpg,Figure 17.9.1 – Pancreas   Pancreas endocrine function involves the secretion of insulin (produced by beta cells) and glucagon (produced by alpha cells) within the pancreatic islets. These two hormones regulate the rate of glucose metabolism in the body. The micrograph reveals pancreatic islets. LM × 760. Also shown are the exocrine acinar cells. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012.
Figure 17.6.1,Discuss the hormonal regulation of the reproductive system,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1818_The_Adrenal_Glands.jpg,"Figure 17.6.1 – Adrenal Glands: Both adrenal glands sit atop the kidneys and are composed of an outer cortex and an inner medulla, all surrounded by a connective tissue capsule. The cortex can be subdivided into additional zones, all of which produce different types of hormones. LM × 204. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 17.5.1,Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1814_The_Parathyroid_Glands.jpg,Figure 17.5.1 – Parathyroid Glands: The small parathyroid glands are embedded in the posterior surface of the thyroid gland. LM × 760. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 17.5.2,Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1817_The_Role_of_Parathyroid_Hormone_in_Maintaining_Blood_Calcium_Homeostasis.jpg,"Figure 17.5.2 – Parathyroid Hormone in Maintaining Blood Calcium Homeostasis: Parathyroid hormone increases blood calcium levels when they drop too low. Conversely, calcitonin, which is released from the thyroid gland, decreases blood calcium levels when they become too high. These two mechanisms constantly maintain blood calcium concentration at homeostasis."
Figure 17.4.1,Disorders Involving the Adrenal Glands,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1811_The_Thyroid_Gland_revised-e1568244258246.png,Figure 17.4.1 – Thyroid Gland: The thyroid gland is located in the neck where it wraps around the trachea. (a) Anterior view of the thyroid gland. (b) Posterior view of the thyroid gland. (c) The glandular tissue is composed primarily of thyroid follicles. The larger parafollicular cells often appear within the matrix of follicle cells. LM × 1332. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 17.4.2,Regulation of TH Synthesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1813_A_Classic_Negative_Feedback_Loop.jpg,Figure 17.4.2 – Classic Negative Feedback Loop: A classic negative feedback loop controls the regulation of thyroid hormone levels.
Figure 17.3.1,Calcitonin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1806_The_Hypothalamus-Pituitary_Complex_revised-e1568244059979.png,"Figure 17.3.1 – Hypothalamus–Pituitary Complex: The hypothalamus region lies inferior and anterior to the thalamus. It connects to the pituitary gland by the stalk-like infundibulum. The pituitary gland consists of an anterior and posterior lobe, with each lobe secreting different hormones in response to signals from the hypothalamus."
Figure 17.3.2,Posterior Pituitary,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1807_The_Posterior_Pituitary_Complex.jpg,Figure 17.3.2 – Posterior Pituitary: Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus release oxytocin (OT) or ADH into the posterior lobe of the pituitary gland. These hormones are stored or released into the blood via the capillary plexus.
Figure 17.3.3,Anterior Pituitary,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1808_The_Anterior_Pituitary_Complex.jpg,Figure 17.3.3 – Anterior Pituitary: The anterior pituitary manufactures seven hormones. The hypothalamus produces separate hormones that stimulate or inhibit hormone production in the anterior pituitary. Hormones from the hypothalamus reach the anterior pituitary via the hypophyseal portal system.
Figure 17.3.5,Intermediate Pituitary: Melanocyte-Stimulating Hormone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1810_Major_Pituitary_Hormones_revised.png,Figure 17.3.5 – Major Pituitary Hormones: Major pituitary hormones and their target organs.
Figure 17.2.1,Types of Hormones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1802_Examples_of_Amine_Peptide_Protein_and_Steroid_Hormone_Structure.jpg,"Figure 17.2.1:  Amine, Peptide, Protein, and Steroid Hormone Structure"
Figure 17.1.1,Endocrine Organs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1801_The_Endocrine_System.jpg,Figure 17.1.1 – Endocrine System: Endocrine glands and cells are located throughout the body and play an important role in homeostasis.
Figure 16.4.1,Broad Autonomic Effects,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1512_Connections_to_Heart.jpg,"Figure 16.4.1 – Autonomic Connections to Heart and Blood Vessels: The nicotinic receptor is found on all autonomic ganglia, but the cardiovascular connections are particular, and do not conform to the usual competitive projections that would just cancel each other out when stimulated by nicotine. The opposing signals to the heart would both depolarize and hyperpolarize the heart cells that establish the rhythm of the heartbeat, likely causing arrhythmia. Only the sympathetic system governs systemic blood pressure so nicotine would cause an increase."
Figure 16.4.3,Parasympathetic Effects,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1514_Belladona_Plant.jpg,"Figure 16.4.3 – Belladonna Plant: The plant from the genus Atropa, which is known as belladonna or deadly nightshade, was used cosmetically to dilate pupils, but can be fatal when ingested. The berries on the plant may seem attractive as a fruit, but they contain the same anticholinergic compounds as the rest of the plant."
Figure 16.3.1,Parasympathetic Effects,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1509_Pupillary_Reflex_Pathways.jpg,"Figure 16.3.1 – Pupillary Reflex Pathways: The pupil is under competing autonomic control in response to light levels hitting the retina. The sympathetic system will dilate the pupil when the retina is not receiving enough light, and the parasympathetic system will constrict the pupil when too much light hits the retina."
Figure 16.2.1,The Structure of Reflexes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1505_Comparison_of_Somatic_and_Visceral_Reflexes-scaled.jpg,"Figure 16.2.1 – Comparison of Somatic and Visceral Reflexes: The afferent inputs to somatic and visceral reflexes are essentially the same, whereas the efferent branches are different. Somatic reflexes, for instance, involve a direct connection from the ventral horn of the spinal cord to the skeletal muscle. Visceral reflexes involve a projection from the central neuron to a ganglion, followed by a second projection from the ganglion to the target effector."
Figure 16.1.1,Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1501_Connections_of_the_Sympathetic_Nervous_System.jpg,Figure 16.1.1 – Connections of Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System: Neurons from the lateral horn of the spinal cord (preganglionic nerve fibers – solid lines)) project to the chain ganglia on either side of the vertebral column or to collateral (prevertebral) ganglia that are anterior to the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Axons from these ganglionic neurons (postganglionic nerve fibers – dotted lines) then project to target effectors throughout the body.
Figure 16.1.2,Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1502_Symphatetic_Connections_and_the_Ganglia.jpg,"Figure 16.1.2 – Sympathetic Connections and Chain Ganglia: The axon from a central sympathetic neuron in the spinal cord can project to the periphery in a number of different ways. (a) The fiber can project out to the ganglion at the same level and synapse on a ganglionic neuron. (b) A branch can project to more superior or inferior ganglion in the chain. (c) A branch can project through the white ramus communicans, but not terminate on a ganglionic neuron in the chain. Instead, it projects through one of the splanchnic nerves to a collateral ganglion or the adrenal medulla (not pictured)."
Figure 16.1.2,Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1502_Symphatetic_Connections_and_the_Ganglia.jpg,"Figure 16.1.2 – Sympathetic Connections and Chain Ganglia: The axon from a central sympathetic neuron in the spinal cord can project to the periphery in a number of different ways. (a) The fiber can project out to the ganglion at the same level and synapse on a ganglionic neuron. (b) A branch can project to more superior or inferior ganglion in the chain. (c) A branch can project through the white ramus communicans, but not terminate on a ganglionic neuron in the chain. Instead, it projects through one of the splanchnic nerves to a collateral ganglion or the adrenal medulla (not pictured)."
Figure 16.1.2,Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1502_Symphatetic_Connections_and_the_Ganglia.jpg,"Figure 16.1.2 – Sympathetic Connections and Chain Ganglia: The axon from a central sympathetic neuron in the spinal cord can project to the periphery in a number of different ways. (a) The fiber can project out to the ganglion at the same level and synapse on a ganglionic neuron. (b) A branch can project to more superior or inferior ganglion in the chain. (c) A branch can project through the white ramus communicans, but not terminate on a ganglionic neuron in the chain. Instead, it projects through one of the splanchnic nerves to a collateral ganglion or the adrenal medulla (not pictured)."
Figure 16.1.1,Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1501_Connections_of_the_Sympathetic_Nervous_System.jpg,Figure 16.1.1 – Connections of Sympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System: Neurons from the lateral horn of the spinal cord (preganglionic nerve fibers – solid lines)) project to the chain ganglia on either side of the vertebral column or to collateral (prevertebral) ganglia that are anterior to the vertebral column in the abdominal cavity. Axons from these ganglionic neurons (postganglionic nerve fibers – dotted lines) then project to target effectors throughout the body.
Figure 16.1.3,Parasympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1503_Connections_of_the_Parasympathetic_Nervous_System-scaled.jpg,"Figure 16.1.3 – Connections of Parasympathetic Division of the Autonomic Nervous System: Neurons from brain-stem nuclei, or from the lateral horn of the sacral spinal cord, project to terminal ganglia near or within the various organs of the body. Axons from these ganglionic neurons then project the short distance to those target effectors."
Figure 16.1.4,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1504_Autonomic_Varicosities.jpg,"Figure 16.1.4 – Autonomic Varicosities: The connection between autonomic fibers and target effectors is not the same as the typical synapse, such as the neuromuscular junction. Instead of a synaptic end bulb, a neurotransmitter is released from swellings along the length of a fiber that makes an extended network of connections in the target effector."
Figure 15.5.1,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1411_Eye_in_The_Orbit.jpg,Figure 15.5.1 – The Eye in the Orbit: The eye is located within the orbit and surrounded by soft tissues that protect and support its function. The orbit is surrounded by cranial bones of the skull.
Figure 15.5.2,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1412_Extraocular_Muscles.jpg,Figure 15.5.2 – Extraocular Muscles: The extraocular muscles move the eye within the orbit.
Figure 15.5.3,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1413_Structure_of_the_Eye.jpg,"Figure 15.5.3 – Structure of the Eye: The sphere of the eye can be divided into anterior and posterior chambers. The wall of the eye is composed of three layers: the fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, and neural tunic. Within the neural tunic is the retina, with three layers of cells and two synaptic layers in between. The center of the retina has a small indentation known as the fovea."
Figure 15.5.3,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1413_Structure_of_the_Eye.jpg,"Figure 15.5.3 – Structure of the Eye: The sphere of the eye can be divided into anterior and posterior chambers. The wall of the eye is composed of three layers: the fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, and neural tunic. Within the neural tunic is the retina, with three layers of cells and two synaptic layers in between. The center of the retina has a small indentation known as the fovea."
Figure 15.5.3,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1413_Structure_of_the_Eye.jpg,"Figure 15.5.3 – Structure of the Eye: The sphere of the eye can be divided into anterior and posterior chambers. The wall of the eye is composed of three layers: the fibrous tunic, vascular tunic, and neural tunic. Within the neural tunic is the retina, with three layers of cells and two synaptic layers in between. The center of the retina has a small indentation known as the fovea."
Figure 15.5.4,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1414_Rods_and_Cones.jpg,"Figure 15.5.4 – Photoreceptor: (a) All photoreceptors have inner segments containing the nucleus and other important organelles and outer segments with membrane arrays containing the photosensitive opsin molecules. Rod outer segments are long columnar shapes with stacks of membrane-bound discs that contain the rhodopsin pigment. Cone outer segments are short, tapered shapes with folds of membrane in place of the discs in the rods. (b) Tissue of the retina shows a dense layer of nuclei of the rods and cones. LM × 800. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 15.5.5,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1415_Retinal_Isomers.jpg,"Figure 15.5.5 – Retinal Isomers: The retinal molecule has two isomers, (a) one before a photon interacts with it and (b) one that is altered through photoisomerization."
Figure 15.5.6,Chemical Signaling in the Autonomic Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1416_Color_Sensitivity.jpg,Figure 15.5.6 – Comparison of Color Sensitivity of Photopigments: Comparing the peak sensitivity and absorbance spectra of the four photopigments suggests that they are most sensitive to particular wavelengths.
Figure 15.4.1,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1409_Maculae_and_Equilibrium.jpg,"Figure 15.4.1 – Linear Acceleration Coding by Maculae: The maculae are specialized for sensing linear acceleration, such as when gravity acts on the tilting head, or if the head starts moving in a straight line. The difference in inertia between the hair cell stereocilia and the otolithic membrane in which they are embedded leads to a shearing force that causes the stereocilia to bend in the direction of that linear acceleration."
Figure 15.4.2,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1410_Equilibrium_and_Semicircular_Canals.jpg,"Figure 15.4.2 – Rotational Coding by Semicircular Canals: Rotational movement of the head is encoded by the hair cells in the base of the semicircular canals. As one of the canals moves in an arc with the head, the internal fluid moves in the opposite direction, causing the cupula and stereocilia to bend. The movement of two canals within a plane results in information about the direction in which the head is moving, and activation of all six canals can give a very precise indication of head movement in three dimensions."
Figure 15.4.3,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1419_Vestibulo-Ocular_Reflex.jpg,"Figure 15.4.3 – Vestibulo-ocular Reflex: Connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves controlling eye movement keep the eyes centered on a visual stimulus, even though the head is moving. During head movement, the eye muscles move the eyes in the opposite direction as the head movement, keeping the visual stimulus centered in the field of view."
Figure 15.3.1,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1404_The_Structures_of_the_Ear.jpg,"Figure 15.3.1 – Structures of the Ear: The external ear contains the auricle, ear canal, and tympanic membrane. The middle ear contains the ossicles and is connected to the pharynx by the Eustachian tube. The inner ear contains the cochlea and vestibule, which are responsible for audition and equilibrium, respectively."
Figure 15.3.2,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1405_Sound_Waves_and_the_Ear.jpg,"Figure 15.3.2 – Transmission of Sound Waves to Cochlea: A sound wave causes the tympanic membrane to vibrate. This vibration is amplified as it moves across the malleus, incus, and stapes. The amplified vibration is picked up by the oval window causing pressure waves in the fluid of the scala vestibuli and scala tympani. The complexity of the pressure waves is determined by the changes in amplitude and frequency of the sound waves entering the ear."
Figure 15.3.3,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1406_Cochlea.jpg,"Figure 15.3.3 – Cross Section of the Cochlea: The three major spaces within the cochlea are highlighted. The scala tympani and scala vestibuli lie on either side of the cochlear duct. The organ of Corti, containing the mechanoreceptor hair cells, is adjacent to the scala tympani, where it sits atop the basilar membrane."
Figure 15.3.4,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1407_The_Hair_Cell.jpg,"Figure 15.3.4 – Hair Cell: The hair cell is a mechanoreceptor with an array of stereocilia emerging from its apical surface. The stereocilia are tethered together by proteins that open ion channels when the array is bent toward the tallest member of their array, and closed when the array is bent toward the shortest member of their array."
Figure 15.3.6,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1408_Frequency_Coding_in_The_Cochlea.jpg,"Figure 15.3.6 – Frequency Coding in the Cochlea: The standing sound wave generated in the cochlea by the movement of the oval window deflects the basilar membrane on the basis of the frequency of sound. Therefore, hair cells at the base of the cochlea are activated only by high frequencies, whereas those at the apex of the cochlea are activated only by low frequencies."
Figure 15.3.7,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1418_Auditory_Brainstem_Mechanisms.jpg,Figure 15.3.7 – Auditory Brain Stem Mechanisms of Sound Localization: Localizing sound in the horizontal plane is achieved by processing in the medullary nuclei of the auditory system. Connections between neurons on either side are able to compare very slight differences in sound stimuli that arrive at either ear and represent interaural time and intensity differences.
Figure 15.2.1,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1403_Olfaction.jpg,Figure 15.2.1 – The Olfactory System: (a) The olfactory system begins in the peripheral structures of the nasal cavity. (b) The olfactory receptor neurons are within the olfactory epithelium. (c) Axons of the olfactory receptor neurons project through the cribriform plate of the ethmoid bone and synapse with the neurons of the olfactory bulb (tissue source: simian). LM × 812. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 15.1.1,primary sensory cortex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1402_The_Tongue.jpg,"Figure 15.1.1 – The Tongue: The tongue is covered with small bumps, called papillae, which contain taste buds that are sensitive to chemicals in ingested food or drink. Different types of papillae are found in different regions of the tongue. The taste buds contain specialized gustatory receptor cells that respond to chemical stimuli dissolved in the saliva. These receptor cells activate sensory neurons that are part of the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves. LM × 1600. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 14.5.2,Cortical Processing,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1421_Sensory_Homunculus.jpg,Figure 14.5.2 – The Sensory Homunculus: A cartoon representation of the sensory homunculus arranged adjacent to the cortical region in which the processing takes place.
Figure 14.5.3,Cortical Processing,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Phineas_gage_-_1868_skull_diagram.jpg,"Figure 14.5.3 – Phineas Gage: The victim of an accident while working on a railroad in 1848, Phineas Gage had a large iron rod impaled through the prefrontal cortex of his frontal lobe. After the accident, his personality appeared to change, but he eventually learned to cope with the trauma and lived as a coach driver even after such a traumatic event. (credit b: John M. Harlow, MD)"
Figure 14.2.5,Cortical Processing,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1317_CFS_Circulation.jpg,"Figure 14.2.5 – Cerebrospinal Fluid Circulation: The choroid plexus in the four ventricles produce CSF, which is circulated through the ventricular system and then enters the subarachnoid space through the median and lateral apertures. The CSF is then reabsorbed into the blood at the arachnoid granulations, where the arachnoid membrane emerges into the dural sinuses."
Figure 14.5.4,Descending Pathways,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1426_Corticospinal_Pathway.jpg,"Figure 14.5.4 – Corticospinal Tract: The major descending tract that controls skeletal muscle movements is the corticospinal tract. It is composed of two neurons, the upper motor neuron and the lower motor neuron. The upper motor neuron has its cell body in the primary motor cortex of the frontal lobe and synapses on the lower motor neuron, which is in the ventral horn of the spinal cord and projects to the skeletal muscle in the periphery."
Figure 14.5.5,The Sensory and Motor Exams,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg,Figure 14.5.5 Locations of Spinal Fiber Tracts
Figure 14.4.1,check reflex,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1313_Spinal_Cord_Cross_Section.jpg,"Figure 14.4.1 – Cross-section of Spinal Cord: The cross-section of a thoracic spinal cord segment shows the posterior, anterior, and lateral horns of gray matter, as well as the posterior, anterior, and lateral columns of white matter. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 14.3.1,The Cerebrum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1305_CerebrumN-1.jpg,"Figure 14.3.1 – The Cerebrum: The cerebrum is a large component of the CNS in humans, and the most obvious aspect of it is the folded surface called the cerebral cortex."
Figure 14.3.6,Cognitive Abilities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1308_Frontal_Section_Basal_Nuclei-1.jpg,"Figure 14.3.6 – Frontal Section of Cerebral Cortex and Basal Nuclei: The major components of the basal nuclei, shown in a frontal section of the brain, are the caudate (just lateral to the lateral ventricle), the putamen (inferior to the caudate and separated by the large white-matter structure called the internal capsule), and the globus pallidus (medial to the putamen)."
Figure 14.3.7,Cognitive Abilities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1309_Basal_Nuclei_Connections-1.jpg,"Figure 14.3.7 – Connections of Basal Nuclei: Input to the basal nuclei is from the cerebral cortex, which is an excitatory connection releasing glutamate as a neurotransmitter. This input is to the striatum, or the caudate and putamen. In the direct pathway, the striatum projects to the internal segment of the globus pallidus and the substantia nigra pars reticulata (GPi/SNr). This is an inhibitory pathway, in which GABA is released at the synapse, and the target cells are hyperpolarized and less likely to fire. The output from the basal nuclei is to the thalamus, which is an inhibitory projection using GABA."
Figure 14.3.8,The Diencephalon,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1310_Diencephalon.jpg,"Figure 14.3.8 – The Diencephalon: The diencephalon is composed primarily of the thalamus and hypothalamus, which together define the walls of the third ventricle. The thalami are two elongated, ovoid structures on either side of the midline that make contact in the middle. The hypothalamus is inferior and anterior to the thalamus, culminating in a sharp angle to which the pituitary gland is attached."
Figure 14.3.9,Brain Stem,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1311_Brain_Stem.jpg,"Figure 14.3.9 – The Brain Stem: The brain stem comprises three regions: the midbrain, the pons, and the medulla."
Figure 14.3.10,The Cerebellum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1312_CerebellumN.jpg,"Figure 14.3.10 – The Cerebellum: The cerebellum is situated on the posterior surface of the brain stem. Descending input from the cerebellum enters through the large white matter structure of the pons. Ascending input from the periphery and spinal cord enters through the fibers of the inferior olive. Output goes to the midbrain, which sends a descending signal to the spinal cord."
Figure 14.2.3,Blood Supply to the Brain,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1602_The_Hemorrhagic_Stroke-02.jpg,Figure 14.2.3 – Hemorrhagic Stroke: (a) A hemorrhage into the tissue of the cerebrum results in a large accumulation of blood with an additional edema in the adjacent tissue. The hemorrhagic area causes the entire brain to be disfigured as suggested here by the lateral ventricles being squeezed into the opposite hemisphere. (b) A CT scan shows an intraparenchymal hemorrhage within the parietal lobe. (credit b: James Heilman)
Figure 14.2.4,Protective Coverings of the Brain and Spinal Cord,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1316_Meningeal_LayersN.jpg,"Figure 14.2.4 – Meningeal Layers of Superior Sagittal Sinus: The layers of the meninges in the longitudinal fissure of the superior sagittal sinus are shown, with the dura mater adjacent to the inner surface of the cranium, the pia mater adjacent to the surface of the brain, and the arachnoid and subarachnoid space between them. An arachnoid villus is shown emerging into the dural sinus to allow CSF to filter back into the blood for drainage."
Figure 14.1.1,The Neural Tube,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1301_Neural_Tube_Dev.jpg,"Figure 14.1.1 – Early Embryonic Development of Nervous System: The neuroectoderm begins to fold inward to form the neural groove. As the two sides of the neural groove converge, they form the neural tube, which lies beneath the ectoderm. The anterior end of the neural tube will develop into the brain, and the posterior portion will become the spinal cord. The neural crest develops into peripheral structures."
Figure 14.1.2,Primary Vesicles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg,"Figure 14.1.2 – Primary and Secondary Vesicle Stages of Development: The embryonic brain develops complexity through enlargements of the neural tube called vesicles; (a) The primary vesicle stage has three regions, and (b) the secondary vesicle stage has five regions."
Figure 14.1.2,Secondary Vesicles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1302_Brain_Vesicle_DevN.jpg,"Figure 14.1.2 – Primary and Secondary Vesicle Stages of Development: The embryonic brain develops complexity through enlargements of the neural tube called vesicles; (a) The primary vesicle stage has three regions, and (b) the secondary vesicle stage has five regions."
Figure 14.1.3,Relating Embryonic Development to the Adult Brain,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1303_Human_Neuroaxis.jpg,"Figure 14.1.3 – Human Neuraxis: The mammalian nervous system is arranged with the neural tube running along an anterior to posterior axis, from nose to tail for a four-legged animal like a dog. Humans, as two-legged animals, have a bend in the neuraxis between the brain stem and the diencephalon, along with a bend in the neck, so that the eyes and the face are oriented forward."
Figure 13.7.1,Sensory Nerves,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1606_Snellen_Chart-02.jpg,"Figure 13.7.1 – The Snellen Chart: The Snellen chart for visual acuity presents a limited number of Roman letters in lines of decreasing size. The line with letters that subtend 5 minutes of an arc from 20 feet represents the smallest letters that a person with normal acuity should be able to read at that distance. The different sizes of letters in the other lines represent rough approximations of what a person of normal acuity can read at different distances. For example, the line that represents 20/200 vision would have larger letters so that they are legible to the person with normal acuity at 200 feet."
Figure 13.7.2,Sensory Nerves,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1614_Pituitary_Tumor-02.jpg,"Figure 13.7.2 – Pituitary Tumor: The pituitary gland is located in the sella turcica of the sphenoid bone within the cranial floor, placing it immediately inferior to the optic chiasm. If the pituitary gland develops a tumor, it can press against the fibers crossing in the chiasm. Those fibers are conveying peripheral visual information to the opposite side of the brain, so the patient will experience “tunnel vision”—meaning that only the central visual field will be perceived."
Figure 13.7.3,Gaze Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1607_Saccadic_Movements.jpg,"Figure 13.7.3 – Saccadic Eye Movements: Saccades are rapid, conjugate movements of the eyes to survey a complicated visual stimulus, or to follow a moving visual stimulus. This image represents the shifts in gaze typical of a person studying a face. Notice the concentration of gaze on the major features of the face and the large number of paths traced between the eyes or around the mouth."
Figure 13.7.4,Gaze Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1608_Vestibulo-Ocular_Reflex-02.jpg,"Figure 13.7.4 – Vestibulo-ocular Reflex: If the head is turned in one direction, the coordination of that movement with the fixation of the eyes on a visual stimulus involves a circuit that ties the vestibular sense with the eye movement nuclei through the MLF."
Figure 13.7.5,Motor Nerves of the Neck,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1610_Muscles_Controlled_by_the_Accessory_Nerve-02.jpg,"Figure 13.7.5 – Muscles Controlled by the Accessory Nerve: The accessory nerve innervates the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, both of which attach to the head and to the trunk and shoulders. They can act as antagonists in head flexion and extension, and as synergists in lateral flexion toward the shoulder."
Figure 13.6.1,The Cranial Nerve Exam,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1615_Locations_Spinal_Fiber_Tracts.jpg,Figure 13.6.1 Locations of Spinal Fiber Tracts
Figure 13.6.2,Sensory Modalities and Location,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1611_Dermatomes-02.jpg,Figure 13.6.2 – Dermatomes: The surface of the skin can be divided into topographic regions that relate to the location of sensory endings in the skin based on the spinal nerve that contains those fibers. (credit: modification of work by Mikael Häggström)
Figure 13.4.1,Reflexes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1313_Spinal_Cord_Cross_Section.jpg,"Figure 13.4.1 – Cross-section of Spinal Cord: The cross-section of a thoracic spinal cord segment shows the posterior, anterior, and lateral horns of gray matter, as well as the posterior, anterior, and lateral columns of white matter. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 13.3.1,Reflexes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1321_Spinal_Nerve_Plexuses.jpg,"Figure 13.3.1 – Nerve Plexuses of the Body: There are four main nerve plexuses in the human body. The cervical plexus supplies nerves to the posterior head and neck, as well as to the diaphragm. The brachial plexus supplies nerves to the arm. The lumbar plexus supplies nerves to the anterior leg. The sacral plexus supplies nerves to the posterior leg."
Figure 13.2.1,Ganglia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1318b_Dorsal_Root_Ganglion.jpg,"Figure 13.2.1 – Dorsal Root Ganglion: The cell bodies of sensory neurons, which are unipolar neurons by shape, are seen in this photomicrograph. Also, the fibrous region is composed of the axons of these neurons that are passing through the ganglion to be part of the dorsal nerve root (tissue source: canine). LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 13.2.3,Nerves,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1319_Nerve_Structure.jpg,"Figure 13.2.3 – Nerve Structure. The structure of a nerve is organized by the layers of connective tissue on the outside, around each fascicle, and surrounding the individual nerve fibers (tissue source: simian). LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 12.5.1,Electrically Active Cell Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1215_Cell_Membrane_Channels.jpg,"Figure 12.5.1 – Cell Membrane and Transmembrane Proteins: The cell membrane is composed of a phospholipid bilayer and has many transmembrane proteins, including different types of channel proteins that serve as ion channels."
Figure 12.5.2,Electrically Active Cell Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1216_Ligand-gated_Channels.jpg,"Figure 12.5.2 – Ligand-Gated Channels: When the ligand, in this case the neurotransmitter acetylcholine, binds to a specific location on the extracellular surface of the channel protein, the pore opens to allow select ions through. The ions, in this case, are cations of sodium, calcium, and potassium."
Figure 12.5.3,Electrically Active Cell Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1217_Mechanically-gated_Channels-02.jpg,"Figure 12.5.3 – Mechanically-Gated Channels: When a mechanical change occurs in the surrounding tissue (such as pressure or stretch) the channel is physically opened, and ions can move through the channel, down their concentration gradient."
Figure 12.5.4,Electrically Active Cell Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1218_Voltage-gated_Channels_revised-e1568245968412.png,Figure 12.5.4 – Voltage-Gated Channels: Voltage-gated channels open when the transmembrane voltage changes around them. Amino acids in the structure of the protein are sensitive to charge and cause the pore to open to the selected ion.
Figure 12.5.5,Electrically Active Cell Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1219_Leakage_Channels.jpg,"Figure 12.5.5 – Leak Channels: These channels open and close at random, allowing ions to pass through when they are open."
Figure 12.5.6,The Membrane Potential,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1220_Resting_Membrane_Potential.jpg,"Figure 12.5.6 – Measuring Charge across a Membrane with a Voltmeter: A recording electrode is inserted into the cell and a reference electrode is outside the cell. By comparing the charge measured by these two electrodes, the transmembrane voltage is determined. It is conventional to express that value for the cytosol relative to the outside."
Figure 12.4.1,Synapses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1225_Chemical_Synapse.jpg,"Figure 12.4.1 – The Synapse: The synapse is a connection between a neuron and its target cell (which is not necessarily a neuron). The presynaptic element is the synaptic end bulb of the axon where Ca2+ enters the bulb to cause vesicle fusion and neurotransmitter release. The neurotransmitter diffuses across the synaptic cleft to bind to its receptor. The neurotransmitter is cleared from the synapse either by enzymatic degradation, neuronal reuptake, or glial reuptake."
Figure 12.4.2,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1226_Receptor_Types.jpg,"Figure 12.4.2 – Receptor Types: (a) An ionotropic receptor is a channel that opens when the neurotransmitter binds to it. (b) A metabotropic receptor is a complex that causes metabolic changes in the cell when the neurotransmitter binds to it (1). After binding, the G protein hydrolyzes GTP and moves to the effector protein (2). When the G protein contacts the effector protein, a second messenger is generated, such as cAMP (3). The second messenger can then go on to cause changes in the neuron, such as opening or closing ion channels, metabolic changes, and changes in gene transcription."
Figure 12.4.3,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1223_Graded_Potentials_revised.png,"Figure 12.4.3 – Graded Potentials: Graded potentials are temporary changes in the membrane voltage, the characteristics of which depend on the size of the stimulus. Some types of stimuli cause depolarization of the membrane, whereas others cause hyperpolarization. It depends on the specific ion channels that are activated in the cell membrane."
Figure 12.4.4,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1224_Post_Synaptic_Potential_Summation.jpg,"Figure 12.4.4 – Postsynaptic Potential Summation: The result of summation of postsynaptic potentials is the overall change in the membrane potential. At point A, several different excitatory postsynaptic potentials add up to a large depolarization. At point B, a mix of excitatory and inhibitory postsynaptic potentials result in a different end result for the membrane potential."
Figure 12.3.1,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1212_Sensory_Neuron_Test_Water_revised-copy-e1568245696709.png,Figure 12.3.1 Testing the Water. Use the text below with this figure to describe signal transmission in the body.
Figure 12.3.1,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1212_Sensory_Neuron_Test_Water_revised-copy-e1568245696709.png,Figure 12.3.1 Testing the Water. Use the text below with this figure to describe signal transmission in the body.
Figure 12.3.1,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1212_Sensory_Neuron_Test_Water_revised-copy-e1568245696709.png,Figure 12.3.1 Testing the Water. Use the text below with this figure to describe signal transmission in the body.
Figure 12.3.3,Neurotransmitter and Receptor Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1214_Motor_Response_Test_Water.jpg,"Figure 12.3.3 – The Motor Response: On the basis of the sensory input and the integration in the CNS, a motor response is formulated and executed."
Figure 12.1.1,The Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1201_Overview_of_Nervous_System_revised.png,"Figure 12.1.1 – Central and Peripheral Nervous System: The CNS contains the brain and spinal cord, the PNS includes nerves."
Figure 11.4.22,Gluteal Region Muscles That Move the Thigh,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1122_Gluteal_Muscles_that_Move_the_Femur.jpg,"Figure 11.4.22 – Hip and Thigh Muscles: The large and powerful muscles of the hip that move the femur generally originate on the pelvic girdle and insert into the femur. The muscles that move the lower leg typically originate on the femur and insert into the bones of the knee joint. The anterior muscles of the femur extend the lower leg but also aid in flexing the thigh. The posterior muscles of the femur flex the lower leg but also aid in extending the thigh. A combination of gluteal and thigh muscles also adduct, abduct, and rotate the thigh and lower leg."
Figure 11.4.27,Muscles That Move the Feet and Toes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1124_Intrinsic_Muscles_of_the_Foot.jpg,"Figure 11.4.27 – Intrinsic Muscles of the Foot: The muscles along the dorsal side of the foot (a) generally extend the toes while the muscles of the plantar side of the foot (b, c, d) generally flex the toes. The plantar muscles exist in three layers, providing the foot the strength to counterbalance the weight of the body. In this diagram, these three layers are shown from a plantar view beginning with the bottom-most layer just under the plantar skin of the foot (b) and ending with the top-most layer (d) located just inferior to the foot and toe bones."
Figure 11.4.1,Muscles of Facial Expression,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1106_Front_and_Side_Views_of_the_Muscles_of_Facial_Expressions.jpg,"Figure 11.4.1 – Muscles of Facial Expression: Many of the muscles of facial expression insert into the skin surrounding the eyelids, nose and mouth, producing facial expressions by moving the skin rather than bones."
Figure 11.4.2,Muscles of Facial Expression,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1125_Muscles_in_Facial_Expression_revised.png,Figure 11.4.2 Muscles in Facial Expression
Figure 11.4.7,Muscles of the Anterior Neck,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1110_Muscle_of_the_Anterior_Neck_revised.png,Figure 11.4.7 – Muscles of the Anterior Neck: The anterior muscles of the neck facilitate swallowing and speech. The suprahyoid muscles originate from above the hyoid bone in the chin region. The infrahyoid muscles originate below the hyoid bone in the lower neck.
Figure 11.4.8,Muscles That Move the Head,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1117_Muscles_of_the_Neck_and_Back-scaled.jpg,"Figure 11.4.8 – Muscles of the Neck and Back: The large, complex muscles of the neck and back move the head, shoulders, and vertebral column."
Figure 11.4.8,Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1117_Muscles_of_the_Neck_and_Back-scaled.jpg,"Figure 11.4.8 – Muscles of the Neck and Back: The large, complex muscles of the neck and back move the head, shoulders, and vertebral column."
Figure 11.3.1,Muscles of the Posterior Neck and the Back,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1105_Anterior_and_Posterior_Views_of_Muscles-scaled.jpg,"Figure 11.3.1 – Overview of the Muscular System: On the anterior and posterior views of the muscular system above, superficial muscles (those at the surface) are shown on the right side of the body while deep muscles (those underneath the superficial muscles) are shown on the left half of the body. For the legs, superficial muscles are shown in the anterior view while the posterior view shows both superficial and deep muscles."
Figure 10.2.1,Patterns of Fascicle Organization,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2019/07/1001_Muscle_Tissue_revised.png,"Figure 10.2.1 – The Three Connective Tissue Layers: Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium."
Figure 11.2.1,Patterns of Fascicle Organization,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1102_Fascicle_Muscle_Shapes.jpg,Figure 11.2.1 – Muscle Shapes and Fiber Alignment: The skeletal muscles of the body typically come in seven different general shapes.
Figure 11.2.1,Patterns of Fascicle Organization,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1102_Fascicle_Muscle_Shapes.jpg,Figure 11.2.1 – Muscle Shapes and Fiber Alignment: The skeletal muscles of the body typically come in seven different general shapes.
Figure 11.1.1,Compare and contrast agonist and antagonist muscles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1101_Biceps_Muscle.jpg,"Figure 11.1.1 – Prime Movers and Synergists: The biceps brachii flex the lower arm. The brachoradialis, in the forearm, and brachialis, located deep to the biceps in the upper arm, are both synergists that aid in this motion."
Figure 10.7.2,Explain the criteria used to name skeletal muscles,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1028_Smooth_Muscle_Contraction.jpg,"Figure 10.7.2 – Muscle Contraction: The dense bodies and intermediate filaments are networked through the sarcoplasm, which cause the muscle fiber to contract."
Figure 10.6.1,Endurance Exercise,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1026_Marathoners.jpg,Figure 10.6.1 – Marathoners: Long-distance runners have a large number of slow oxidative fibers and relatively few fast oxidative and fast glycolytic fibers. (credit: “Tseo2”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 10.6.2,Resistance Exercise,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1027_Hypertrophy.jpg,Figure 10.6.2 – Muscle hypertrophy: Body builders work on increasing the size of the fast glycolytic fibers through resistance training. (credit: Lin Mei/flickr)
Figure 10.4.1,Resistance Exercise,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/1015_Types_of_Contraction_new.jpg,"Figure 10.4.1- Types of Muscle Contractions: During isotonic contractions (concentric and eccentric contractions), muscle length changes to move a load. During isometric contractions, muscle length does not change because the load equals the tension the muscle generates."
Figure 10.4.2,Motor Units,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.4.2.-new.png,Figure 10.4.2 – Skeletal Muscle Contractions
Figure 10.4.2,Motor Units,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1029_Smooth_Muscle_Motor_Units_noLeaders.png,Figure 10.4.2b
Figure 10.4.4,The Length-Tension Range of a Sarcomere,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1012_Muscle_Twitch_Myogram.jpg,"Figure 10.4.4 – A Myogram of a Muscle Twitch: A single muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase when tension increases, and a relaxation phase when tension decreases. During the latent period, the action potential is being propagated along the sarcolemma. During the contraction phase, Ca++ ions in the sarcoplasm bind to troponin, tropomyosin moves from actin-binding sites, cross-bridges form, and sarcomeres shorten. During the relaxation phase, tension decreases as Ca++ ions are pumped out of the sarcoplasm and cross-bridge cycling stops."
Figure 10.4.4,The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1012_Muscle_Twitch_Myogram.jpg,"Figure 10.4.4 – A Myogram of a Muscle Twitch: A single muscle twitch has a latent period, a contraction phase when tension increases, and a relaxation phase when tension decreases. During the latent period, the action potential is being propagated along the sarcolemma. During the contraction phase, Ca++ ions in the sarcoplasm bind to troponin, tropomyosin moves from actin-binding sites, cross-bridges form, and sarcomeres shorten. During the relaxation phase, tension decreases as Ca++ ions are pumped out of the sarcoplasm and cross-bridge cycling stops."
Figure 10.4.5,The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.4.4-replacement.png,"Figure 10.4.5 – Wave Summation and Tetanus: (a) The excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive motor neuron signaling is added together which is referred to as wave summation. The peaks in the lower portion of the image represent stimuli to the muscle cell. (b) When the stimulus frequency is so high that the relaxation phase disappears completely, the contractions become continuous; this is called tetanus."
Figure 10.4.5,The Frequency of Motor Neuron Stimulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.4.4-replacement.png,"Figure 10.4.5 – Wave Summation and Tetanus: (a) The excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive motor neuron signaling is added together which is referred to as wave summation. The peaks in the lower portion of the image represent stimuli to the muscle cell. (b) When the stimulus frequency is so high that the relaxation phase disappears completely, the contractions become continuous; this is called tetanus."
Figure 10.4.5,Treppe,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.4.4-replacement.png,"Figure 10.4.5 – Wave Summation and Tetanus: (a) The excitation-contraction coupling effects of successive motor neuron signaling is added together which is referred to as wave summation. The peaks in the lower portion of the image represent stimuli to the muscle cell. (b) When the stimulus frequency is so high that the relaxation phase disappears completely, the contractions become continuous; this is called tetanus."
Figure 10.3.1,Excitation-Contraction Coupling,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1009_Motor_End_Plate_and_Innervation_revised-1024x735.png,"Figure 10.3.1 – Motor End-Plate and Innervation: At the NMJ, the axon terminal releases acetylcholine (ACh). The motor end-plate is the location of the ACh-receptors in the muscle fiber sarcolemma. When ACh molecules are released, they diffuse across a minute space called the synaptic cleft and bind to the receptors."
Figure 10.3.2,Excitation-Contraction Coupling,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1023_T-tubule.jpg,"Figure 10.3.2 – The T-tubule: Narrow T-tubules permit the conduction of electrical impulses. The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) functions to regulate intracellular levels of calcium. Two terminal cisternae (where enlarged SR connects to the T-tubule) and one T-tubule comprise a triad—a “threesome” of membranes, with those of SR on two sides and the T-tubule sandwiched between them."
Figure 10.3.5,Contraction and Relaxation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1010a_Contraction-and-Relaxation-1024x751.png,"Figure 10.3.5 – Contraction of a Muscle Fiber: A cross-bridge forms between actin and the myosin heads triggering contraction. As long as Ca++ ions remain in the sarcoplasm to bind to troponin, and as long as ATP is available, the muscle fiber will continue to shorten. Relaxation of a Muscle Fiber: Ca++ ions are pumped back into the SR, which causes the tropomyosin to reshield the binding sites on the actin strands. A muscle may also stop contracting when it runs out of ATP and becomes fatigued."
Figure 10.3.2,Contraction and Relaxation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/1023_T-tubule.jpg,"Figure 10.3.2 – The T-tubule: Narrow T-tubules permit the conduction of electrical impulses. The sarcoplasmic reticulum (SR) functions to regulate intracellular levels of calcium. Two terminal cisternae (where enlarged SR connects to the T-tubule) and one T-tubule comprise a triad—a “threesome” of membranes, with those of SR on two sides and the T-tubule sandwiched between them."
Figure 10.2.1,Muscle Strength,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2019/07/1001_Muscle_Tissue_revised.png,"Figure 10.2.1 – The Three Connective Tissue Layers: Bundles of muscle fibers, called fascicles, are covered by the perimysium. Muscle fibers are covered by the endomysium."
Figure 10.2.2,Skeletal Muscle Fibers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2021/02/1022_Muscle_Fibers_small_revised-1.png,"Figure 10.2.2 – Muscle Fiber: A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many myofibrils, which contain sarcomeres with light and dark regions that give the cell its striated appearance."
Figure 10.2.2,The Sarcomere,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2021/02/1022_Muscle_Fibers_small_revised-1.png,"Figure 10.2.2 – Muscle Fiber: A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many myofibrils, which contain sarcomeres with light and dark regions that give the cell its striated appearance."
Figure 10.2.2,The Sarcomere,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2021/02/1022_Muscle_Fibers_small_revised-1.png,"Figure 10.2.2 – Muscle Fiber: A skeletal muscle fiber is surrounded by a plasma membrane called the sarcolemma, which contains sarcoplasm, the cytoplasm of muscle cells. A muscle fiber is composed of many myofibrils, which contain sarcomeres with light and dark regions that give the cell its striated appearance."
Figure 10.2.3,The Sarcomere,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/156/2021/02/1003_Thick_and_Thin_Filaments_revised.png,"Figure 10.2.3 – The Sarcomere: The sarcomere, the region from one Z-disc to the next Z-disc, is the functional unit of a skeletal muscle fiber."
Figure 10.2.4,The Sliding Filament Model of Contraction,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.2.4-replacement.png,"Figure 10.2.4 – The Sliding Filament Model of Muscle Contraction: When a sarcomere shortens, the Z-discs move closer together, and the I band becomes smaller. The A band stays the same width. At full contraction, the thin and thick filaments have the most amount of overlap."
Figure 10.1.1,Answers for Critical Thinking Questions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.1.1.-replacement.png,"Figure 10.1.1 – The Three Types of Muscle Tissue: The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle. From top, LM × 1600, LM × 1600, LM × 1600. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 10.1.1,Answers for Critical Thinking Questions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/10.1.1.-replacement.png,"Figure 10.1.1 – The Three Types of Muscle Tissue: The body contains three types of muscle tissue: (a) skeletal muscle, (b) smooth muscle, and (c) cardiac muscle. From top, LM × 1600, LM × 1600, LM × 1600. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 9.1.2,Articulations of the Vertebral Column,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/902_Intervertebral_Disk-02.jpg,Figure 9.1.2 – Intervertebral Disc: An intervertebral disc unites the bodies of adjacent vertebrae within the vertebral column. Each disc allows for limited movement between the vertebrae and thus functionally forms an amphiarthrosis type of joint. Intervertebral discs are made of fibrocartilage and thereby structurally form a symphysis type of cartilaginous joint.
Figure 9.6.1,Articulations of the Vertebral Column,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/912_Atlantoaxial_Joint.jpg,"Figure 9.6.1 – Atlantoaxial Joint: The atlantoaxial joint is a pivot type of joint between the dens portion of the axis (C2 vertebra) and the anterior arch of the atlas (C1 vertebra), with the dens held in place by a ligament."
Figure 9.6.2,Temporomandibular Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/913_Tempomandibular_Joint.jpg,"Figure 9.6.2 – Temporomandibular Joint: The temporomandibular joint is the articulation between the temporal bone of the skull and the condyle of the mandible, with an articular disc located between these bones. During depression of the mandible (opening of the mouth), the mandibular condyle moves both forward and hinges downward as it travels from the mandibular fossa onto the articular tubercle."
Figure 9.6.3,Shoulder Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0914_Shoulder_Joint_revised-1024x757.png,Figure 9.6.3 – Glenohumeral Joint: The glenohumeral (shoulder) joint is a ball-and-socket joint that provides the widest range of motions. It has a loose articular capsule and is supported by ligaments and the rotator cuff muscles.
Figure 9.6.4,Elbow Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0915_Elbow_Joint_revised-1024x842.png,"Figure 9.6.4 – Elbow Joint: (a) The elbow is a hinge joint that allows only for flexion and extension of the forearm. (b) It is supported by the ulnar and radial collateral ligaments. (c) The annular ligament supports the head of the radius at the proximal radioulnar joint, the pivot joint that allows for rotation of the radius"
Figure 9.6.5,Hip Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0916_Hip_Joint_revised-761x1024.png,"Figure 9.6.5 – Hip Joint: (a) The ball-and-socket joint of the hip is a multiaxial joint that provides both stability and a wide range of motion. (b–c) When standing, the supporting ligaments are tight, pulling the head of the femur into the acetabulum."
Figure 9.6.6,Knee Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0917_Knee_Joint_revised-1024x879.png,"Figure 9.6.6 – Knee Joint: (a) The knee joint is the largest joint of the body. (b)–(c) It is supported by the tibial and fibular collateral ligaments located on the sides of the knee outside of the articular capsule, and the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments found inside the capsule. The medial and lateral menisci provide padding and support between the femoral condyles and tibial condyles."
Figure 9.6.6,Knee Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0917_Knee_Joint_revised-1024x879.png,"Figure 9.6.6 – Knee Joint: (a) The knee joint is the largest joint of the body. (b)–(c) It is supported by the tibial and fibular collateral ligaments located on the sides of the knee outside of the articular capsule, and the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments found inside the capsule. The medial and lateral menisci provide padding and support between the femoral condyles and tibial condyles."
Figure 9.6.6,Knee Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0917_Knee_Joint_revised-1024x879.png,"Figure 9.6.6 – Knee Joint: (a) The knee joint is the largest joint of the body. (b)–(c) It is supported by the tibial and fibular collateral ligaments located on the sides of the knee outside of the articular capsule, and the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments found inside the capsule. The medial and lateral menisci provide padding and support between the femoral condyles and tibial condyles."
Figure 9.6.8,Ankle and Foot Joints,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/919_Ankle_Feet_Joints.jpg,"Figure 9.6.8 – Ankle Joint: The talocrural (ankle) joint is a uniaxial hinge joint that only allows for dorsiflexion or plantar flexion of the foot. Movements at the subtalar joint, between the talus and calcaneus bones, combined with motions at other intertarsal joints, enables eversion/inversion movements of the foot. Ligaments that unite the medial or lateral malleolus with the talus and calcaneus bones serve to support the talocrural joint and to resist excess eversion or inversion of the foot."
Figure 9.5.1,Define and identify the different body movements,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-1-865x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.1 – Movements of the Body, Part 1: Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d) Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation)."
Figure 9.5.1,Flexion and Extension,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-1-865x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.1 – Movements of the Body, Part 1: Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d) Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation)."
Figure 9.5.1,Abduction and Adduction,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-1-865x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.1 – Movements of the Body, Part 1: Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d) Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation)."
Figure 9.5.1,Circumduction,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-1-865x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.1 – Movements of the Body, Part 1: Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d) Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation)."
Figure 9.5.1,Rotation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-1-865x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.1 – Movements of the Body, Part 1: Synovial joints give the body many ways in which to move. (a)–(b) Flexion and extension motions are in the sagittal (anterior–posterior) plane of motion. These movements take place at the shoulder, hip, elbow, knee, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, metatarsophalangeal, and interphalangeal joints. (c)–(d) Anterior bending of the head or vertebral column is flexion, while any posterior-going movement is extension. (e) Abduction and adduction are motions of the limbs, hand, fingers, or toes in the coronal (medial–lateral) plane of movement. Moving the limb or hand laterally away from the body, or spreading the fingers or toes, is abduction. Adduction brings the limb or hand toward or across the midline of the body, or brings the fingers or toes together. Circumduction is the movement of the limb, hand, or fingers in a circular pattern, using the sequential combination of flexion, adduction, extension, and abduction motions. Adduction/abduction and circumduction take place at the shoulder, hip, wrist, metacarpophalangeal, and metatarsophalangeal joints. (f) Turning of the head side to side or twisting of the body is rotation. Medial and lateral rotation of the upper limb at the shoulder or lower limb at the hip involves turning the anterior surface of the limb toward the midline of the body (medial or internal rotation) or away from the midline (lateral or external rotation)."
Figure 9.5.2,Supination and Pronation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.5.2,Dorsiflexion and Plantar Flexion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.5.2,Inversion and Eversion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.5.2,Protraction and Retraction,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.5.2,Depression and Elevation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.5.2,Opposition and Reposition,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/911_Body_MovementsPage-2-948x1024-1.jpg,"Figure 9.5.2 – Movements of the Body, Part 2: (g) Supination of the forearm turns the hand to the palm forward position in which the radius and ulna are parallel, while forearm pronation turns the hand to the palm backward position in which the radius crosses over the ulna to form an “X.” (h) Dorsiflexion of the foot at the ankle joint moves the top of the foot toward the leg, while plantar flexion lifts the heel and points the toes. (i) Eversion of the foot moves the bottom (sole) of the foot away from the midline of the body, while foot inversion faces the sole toward the midline. (j) Protraction of the mandible pushes the chin forward, and retraction pulls the chin back. (k) Depression of the mandible opens the mouth, while elevation closes it. (l) Opposition of the thumb brings the tip of the thumb into contact with the tip of the fingers of the same hand and reposition brings the thumb back next to the index finger."
Figure 9.4.1,Describe the characteristic features for synovial joints and give examples,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/907_Synovial_Joints.jpg,Figure 9.4.1 – Synovial Joints: Synovial joints allow for smooth movements between the adjacent bones. The joint is surrounded by an articular capsule that defines a joint cavity filled with synovial fluid. The articulating surfaces of the bones are covered by a thin layer of articular cartilage. Ligaments support the joint by holding the bones together and resisting excess or abnormal joint motions.
Figure 9.4.2,Additional Structures Associated with Synovial Joints,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/908_Bursa_revised-e1568231910936.png,"Figure 9.4.2 – Bursae: Bursae are fluid-filled sacs that serve to prevent friction between skin, muscle, or tendon and an underlying bone. Three major bursae and a fat pad are part of the complex joint that unites the femur and tibia of the leg"
Figure 9.4.3,Types of Synovial Joints,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Pivot Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Hinge Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Condyloid Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Saddle Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Plane Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.4.3,Ball-and-Socket Joint,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/909_Types_of_Synovial_Joints-scaled.jpg,"Figure 9.4.3 – Types of Synovial Joints: The six types of synovial joints allow the body to move in a variety of ways. (a) Pivot joints allow for rotation around an axis, such as between the first and second cervical vertebrae, which allows for side-to-side rotation of the head. (b) The hinge joint of the elbow works like a door hinge. (c) The articulation between the trapezium carpal bone and the first metacarpal bone at the base of the thumb is a saddle joint. (d) Plane joints, such as those between the tarsal bones of the foot, allow for limited gliding movements between bones. (e) The radiocarpal joint of the wrist is a condyloid joint. (f) The hip and shoulder joints are the only ball-and-socket joints of the body."
Figure 9.3.1,Describe the characteristic features for fibrous joints and give examples,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/906_Cartiliginous_Joints.jpg,"Figure 9.3.1 – Cartiliginous Joints: At cartilaginous joints, bones are united by hyaline cartilage to form a synchondrosis or by fibrocartilage to form a symphysis. (a) The hyaline cartilage of the epiphyseal plate (growth plate) forms a synchondrosis that unites the shaft (diaphysis) and end (epiphysis) of a long bone and allows the bone to grow in length. (b) The pubic portions of the right and left hip bones of the pelvis are joined together by fibrocartilage, forming the pubic symphysis."
Figure 9.2.1,Describe the characteristic features for fibrous joints and give examples,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/904_Fibrous_Joints_revised-1024x772.png,Figure 9.2.1 – Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints form strong connections between bones. (a) Sutures join most bones of the skull. (b) An interosseous membrane forms a syndesmosis between the radius and ulna bones of the forearm. (c) A gomphosis is a specialized fibrous joint that anchors a tooth to its socket in the jaw.
Figure 9.2.1,Suture,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/904_Fibrous_Joints_revised-1024x772.png,Figure 9.2.1 – Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints form strong connections between bones. (a) Sutures join most bones of the skull. (b) An interosseous membrane forms a syndesmosis between the radius and ulna bones of the forearm. (c) A gomphosis is a specialized fibrous joint that anchors a tooth to its socket in the jaw.
Figure 9.2.2,Suture,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/905_The_Newborn_Skull.jpg,Figure 9.2.2 – The Newborn Skull: The fontanelles of a newborn’s skull are broad areas of fibrous connective tissue that form fibrous joints between the bones of the skull.
Figure 9.2.1,Syndesmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/904_Fibrous_Joints_revised-1024x772.png,Figure 9.2.1 – Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints form strong connections between bones. (a) Sutures join most bones of the skull. (b) An interosseous membrane forms a syndesmosis between the radius and ulna bones of the forearm. (c) A gomphosis is a specialized fibrous joint that anchors a tooth to its socket in the jaw.
Figure 9.2.1,Gomphosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/904_Fibrous_Joints_revised-1024x772.png,Figure 9.2.1 – Fibrous Joints: Fibrous joints form strong connections between bones. (a) Sutures join most bones of the skull. (b) An interosseous membrane forms a syndesmosis between the radius and ulna bones of the forearm. (c) A gomphosis is a specialized fibrous joint that anchors a tooth to its socket in the jaw.
Figure 8.5.1,Limb Growth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/2914_Photo_of_Embryo-02.jpg,Figure 8.5.1 – Embryo at Seven Weeks: Limb buds are visible in an embryo at the end of the seventh week of development (embryo derived from an ectopic pregnancy). (credit: Ed Uthman/flickr)
Figure 8.4.1,Femur,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/810_Femur_and_Patella.jpg,"Figure 8.4.1 – Femur and Patella: The femur is the single bone of the thigh region. It articulates superiorly with the hip bone at the hip joint, and inferiorly with the tibia at the knee joint. The patella only articulates with the distal end of the femur."
Figure 8.4.1,Patella,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/810_Femur_and_Patella.jpg,"Figure 8.4.1 – Femur and Patella: The femur is the single bone of the thigh region. It articulates superiorly with the hip bone at the hip joint, and inferiorly with the tibia at the knee joint. The patella only articulates with the distal end of the femur."
Figure 8.4.3,Tibia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/811_Tibia_and_fibula_revised-793x1024.png,"Figure 8.4.3 – Tibia and Fibula: The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg. The fibula is the slender bone of the lateral side of the leg and does not bear weight."
Figure 8.4.3,Fibula,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/811_Tibia_and_fibula_revised-793x1024.png,"Figure 8.4.3 – Tibia and Fibula: The tibia is the larger, weight-bearing bone located on the medial side of the leg. The fibula is the slender bone of the lateral side of the leg and does not bear weight."
Figure 8.4.4,Tarsal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/812_Bones_of_the_Foot.jpg,Figure 8.4.4 – Bones of the Foot: The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior foot is formed by the seven tarsal bones. The mid-foot has the five metatarsal bones. The toes contain the phalanges.
Figure 8.4.4,Metatarsal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/812_Bones_of_the_Foot.jpg,Figure 8.4.4 – Bones of the Foot: The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior foot is formed by the seven tarsal bones. The mid-foot has the five metatarsal bones. The toes contain the phalanges.
Figure 8.4.4,Phalanges,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/812_Bones_of_the_Foot.jpg,Figure 8.4.4 – Bones of the Foot: The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior foot is formed by the seven tarsal bones. The mid-foot has the five metatarsal bones. The toes contain the phalanges.
Figure 8.4.4,Arches of the Foot,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/812_Bones_of_the_Foot.jpg,Figure 8.4.4 – Bones of the Foot: The bones of the foot are divided into three groups. The posterior foot is formed by the seven tarsal bones. The mid-foot has the five metatarsal bones. The toes contain the phalanges.
Figure 8.3.1,Arches of the Foot,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/807_Pelvis.jpg,"Figure 8.3.1 – Pelvis: The pelvic girdle is formed by a single hip bone. The hip bone attaches the lower limb to the axial skeleton through its articulation with the sacrum. The right and left hip bones, plus the sacrum and the coccyx, together form the pelvis."
Figure 8.3.2,Hip Bone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/808_Hip_Bone.jpg,"Figure 8.3.2 – The Hip Bone: Each adult hip bone consists of three regions. The ilium forms the large, fan-shaped superior portion, the ischium forms the posteroinferior portion, and the pubis forms the anteromedial portion."
Figure 8.3.1,Hip Bone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/807_Pelvis.jpg,"Figure 8.3.1 – Pelvis: The pelvic girdle is formed by a single hip bone. The hip bone attaches the lower limb to the axial skeleton through its articulation with the sacrum. The right and left hip bones, plus the sacrum and the coccyx, together form the pelvis."
Figure 8.3.1,Pelvis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/807_Pelvis.jpg,"Figure 8.3.1 – Pelvis: The pelvic girdle is formed by a single hip bone. The hip bone attaches the lower limb to the axial skeleton through its articulation with the sacrum. The right and left hip bones, plus the sacrum and the coccyx, together form the pelvis."
Figure 8.3.3,Pelvis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/817_Ligaments_of_Pelvis.jpg,"Figure 8.3.3 – Ligaments of the Pelvis: The posterior sacroiliac ligament supports the sacroiliac joint. The sacrospinous ligament spans the sacrum to the ischial spine, and the sacrotuberous ligament spans the sacrum to the ischial tuberosity. The sacrospinous and sacrotuberous ligaments contribute to the formation of the greater and lesser sciatic foramens."
Figure 8.3.4,Pelvis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/809_Male_Female_Pelvic_Girdle.jpg,"Figure 8.3.4 – Male and Female Pelvis: The female pelvis is adapted for childbirth and is broader, with a larger subpubic angle, a rounder pelvic brim, and a wider and more shallow lesser pelvic cavity than the male pelvis."
Figure 8.2.1,Humerus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/Humerus__elbow_joint-872x1024.png,Figure 8.2.1 – Humerus and Elbow Joint: The humerus is the single bone of the arm region. It articulates with the radius and ulna bones of the forearm to form the elbow joint.
Figure 8.2.2,Ulna,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Forearm_-1024x989.png,"Figure 8.2.2 – Ulna and Radius: The ulna is located on the medial side of the forearm, and the radius is on the lateral side. These bones are attached to each other by an interosseous membrane."
Figure 8.2.2,Radius,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Forearm_-1024x989.png,"Figure 8.2.2 – Ulna and Radius: The ulna is located on the medial side of the forearm, and the radius is on the lateral side. These bones are attached to each other by an interosseous membrane."
Figure 8.2.3,Carpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/806_Hand_and_Wrist.jpg,Figure 8.2.3 – Bones of the Wrist and Hand: The eight carpal bones form the base of the hand. These are arranged into proximal and distal rows of four bones each. The metacarpal bones form the palm of the hand. The thumb and fingers consist of the phalanx bones.
Figure 8.2.4,Carpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/814_Radiograph_of_Hand.jpg,Figure 8.2.4 – Bones of the Hand: This radiograph shows the position of the bones within the hand. Note the carpal bones that form the base of the hand. (credit: modification of work by Trace Meek
Figure 8.2.4,Carpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/814_Radiograph_of_Hand.jpg,Figure 8.2.4 – Bones of the Hand: This radiograph shows the position of the bones within the hand. Note the carpal bones that form the base of the hand. (credit: modification of work by Trace Meek
Figure 8.2.5,Carpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/815_The_Carpal_Tunnel.jpg,"Figure 8.2.5 – Carpal Tunnel: The carpal tunnel is the passageway by which nine muscle tendons and the median nerve enter the hand from the anterior forearm. The walls and floor of the carpal tunnel are formed by the U-shaped grouping of the carpal bones, and the roof is formed by the flexor retinaculum, a strong ligament that anteriorly unites the bones."
Figure 8.2.3,Metacarpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/806_Hand_and_Wrist.jpg,Figure 8.2.3 – Bones of the Wrist and Hand: The eight carpal bones form the base of the hand. These are arranged into proximal and distal rows of four bones each. The metacarpal bones form the palm of the hand. The thumb and fingers consist of the phalanx bones.
Figure 8.2.6,Metacarpal Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/816_Hand_Gripping.jpg,"Figure 8.2.6 – Hand During Gripping: During tight gripping—compare (b) to (a)—the fourth and, particularly, the fifth metatarsal bones are pulled anteriorly. This increases the contact between the object and the medial side of the hand, thus improving the firmness of the grip."
Figure 8.2.3,Phalanx Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/806_Hand_and_Wrist.jpg,Figure 8.2.3 – Bones of the Wrist and Hand: The eight carpal bones form the base of the hand. These are arranged into proximal and distal rows of four bones each. The metacarpal bones form the palm of the hand. The thumb and fingers consist of the phalanx bones.
Figure 8.1.1,Phalanx Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/802_Pectoral_Girdle.jpg,"Figure 8.1.1 – Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula, which serve to attach the upper limb to the sternum of the axial skeleton."
Figure 8.1.1,Clavicle,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/802_Pectoral_Girdle.jpg,"Figure 8.1.1 – Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula, which serve to attach the upper limb to the sternum of the axial skeleton."
Figure 8.1.2,Scapula,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/803_The_Scapula_revised-1024x438.png,"Figure 8.1.2 – Scapula: The isolated scapula is shown here from its anterior (deep) side, lateral side and its posterior (superficial) side."
Figure 8.1.1,Scapula,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/802_Pectoral_Girdle.jpg,"Figure 8.1.1 – Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula, which serve to attach the upper limb to the sternum of the axial skeleton."
Figure 8.1.1,Scapula,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/802_Pectoral_Girdle.jpg,"Figure 8.1.1 – Pectoral Girdle: The pectoral girdle consists of the clavicle and the scapula, which serve to attach the upper limb to the sternum of the axial skeleton."
Figure 8.0.2,Scapula,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/801_Appendicular_Skeleton.jpg,"Figure 8.0.2 – Axial and Appendicular Skeletons: The axial skeleton forms the central axis of the body and consists of the skull, vertebral column, and thoracic cage. The appendicular skeleton consists of the pectoral and pelvic girdles, the limb bones, and the bones of the hands and feet."
Figure 7.6.1,Development of the Skull,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/702_Newborn_Skull-01.jpg,"Figure 7.6.1 – Newborn Skull: The bones of the newborn skull are not fully ossified and are separated by large areas called fontanelles, which are filled with fibrous connective tissue. The fontanelles allow for continued growth of the brain and skull after birth. At the time of birth, the facial bones are small and underdeveloped, and the mastoid process has not yet formed."
Figure 7.5.1,Describe the components of the thoracic cage,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/721_Rib_Cage.jpg,"Figure 7.5.1 – Thoracic Cage: The thoracic cage is formed by the (a) sternum and (b) 12 pairs of ribs with their costal cartilages. The ribs are anchored posteriorly to the 12 thoracic vertebrae. The sternum consists of the manubrium, body, and xiphoid process. The ribs are classified as true ribs (1–7) and false ribs (8–12). The last two pairs of false ribs are also known as floating ribs (11–12)."
Figure 7.4.1,Ribs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/715_Vertebral_Column.jpg,"Figure 7.4.1 – Vertebral Column: The adult vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae, plus the fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebrae are divided into three regions: cervical C1–C7 vertebrae, thoracic T1–T12 vertebrae, and lumbar L1–L5 vertebrae. The vertebral column is curved, with two primary curvatures (thoracic and sacrococcygeal curves) and two secondary curvatures (cervical and lumbar curves)."
Figure 7.4.1,Curvatures of the Vertebral Column,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/715_Vertebral_Column.jpg,"Figure 7.4.1 – Vertebral Column: The adult vertebral column consists of 24 vertebrae, plus the fused vertebrae of the sacrum and coccyx. The vertebrae are divided into three regions: cervical C1–C7 vertebrae, thoracic T1–T12 vertebrae, and lumbar L1–L5 vertebrae. The vertebral column is curved, with two primary curvatures (thoracic and sacrococcygeal curves) and two secondary curvatures (cervical and lumbar curves)."
Figure 7.4.4,General Structure of a Vertebra,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/718_Vertebra.jpg,"Figure 7.4.4 – Parts of a Typical Vertebra: A typical vertebra consists of a body and a vertebral arch. The arch is formed by the paired pedicles and paired laminae. Arising from the vertebral arch are the transverse, spinous, superior articular, and inferior articular processes. The vertebral foramen provides for passage of the spinal cord. Each spinal nerve exits through an intervertebral foramen, located between adjacent vertebrae. Intervertebral discs unite the bodies of adjacent vertebrae."
Figure 7.4.5,General Structure of a Vertebra,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/716_Intervertebral_Disk.jpg,"Figure 7.4.5 – Intervertebral Disc: The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are separated and united by an intervertebral disc, which provides padding and allows for movements between adjacent vertebrae. The disc consists of a fibrous outer layer called the anulus fibrosus and a gel-like center called the nucleus pulposus. The intervertebral foramen is the opening formed between adjacent vertebrae for the exit of a spinal nerve."
Figure 7.3.1,Intervertebral Discs and Ligaments of the Vertebral Column,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/703_Parts_of_Skull_revised-1024x842.png,"Figure 7.3.1 – Parts of the Skull: The skull consists of the rounded cranium that houses the brain and the facial bones that form the upper and lower jaws, nose, orbits, and other facial structures."
Figure 7.3.2,Anterior View of Skull,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/704_Skull-01.jpg,"Figure 7.3.2 – Anterior View of Skull: An anterior view of the skull shows the bones that form the forehead, orbits (eye sockets), nasal cavity, nasal septum, and upper and lower jaws."
Figure 7.3.3,Lateral View of Skull,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/lateral-sagittal_skull-795x1024.png,"Figure 7.3.3 – Lateral View and Sagittal Section of Skull:  (a) Lateral View of Skull. The lateral skull shows the large rounded brain case, zygomatic arch, and the upper and lower jaws. The zygomatic arch is formed jointly by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. The shallow space above the zygomatic arch is the temporal fossa. (b) Sagittal Section of Skull. This midline view of the sagittally sectioned skull shows the nasal septum."
Figure 7.3.4,Bones of the Cranium,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/727_Cranial_Fossae_revised.png,"Figure 7.3.4 – Cranial Fossae: The bones of the brain case surround and protect the brain, which occupies the cranial cavity. The base of the brain case, which forms the floor of cranial cavity, is subdivided into the shallow anterior cranial fossa, the middle cranial fossa, and the deep posterior cranial fossa."
Figure 7.3.3,Sutures of the Skull,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/lateral-sagittal_skull-795x1024.png,"Figure 7.3.3 – Lateral View and Sagittal Section of Skull:  (a) Lateral View of Skull. The lateral skull shows the large rounded brain case, zygomatic arch, and the upper and lower jaws. The zygomatic arch is formed jointly by the zygomatic process of the temporal bone and the temporal process of the zygomatic bone. The shallow space above the zygomatic arch is the temporal fossa. (b) Sagittal Section of Skull. This midline view of the sagittally sectioned skull shows the nasal septum."
Figure 7.3.15,The Orbit,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/713_Bones_Forming_Orbit.jpg,Figure 7.3.15 – Bones of the Orbit: Seven skull bones contribute to the walls of the orbit. Opening into the posterior orbit from the cranial cavity are the optic canal and superior orbital fissure.
Figure 7.3.16,The Nasal Septum and Nasal Conchae,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/714_Bone_of_Nasal_Cavity.jpg,Figure 7.3.16 – Nasal Septum: The nasal septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer bone. The septal cartilage fills the gap between these bones and extends into the nose.
Figure 7.3.12,The Nasal Septum and Nasal Conchae,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Sutures_of_the_skull-1009x1024.png,Figure 7.3.12 Sutures of the skull
Figure 7.3.17,Paranasal Sinuses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/724_Paranasal_Sinuses.jpg,"Figure 7.3.17 – Paranasal Sinuses: The air-filled paranasal sinuses, each named for the bone in which it is found, drain into the nasal cavity."
Figure 7.3.16,Paranasal Sinuses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/714_Bone_of_Nasal_Cavity.jpg,Figure 7.3.16 – Nasal Septum: The nasal septum is formed by the perpendicular plate of the ethmoid bone and the vomer bone. The septal cartilage fills the gap between these bones and extends into the nose.
Figure 7.3.18,Hyoid Bone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/712_Hyoid_Bone_revised-805x1024.png,"Figure 7.3.18 – Hyoid Bone: The hyoid bone is located in the upper neck and does not join with any other bone. It provides attachments for muscles that act on the tongue, larynx, and pharynx."
Figure 7.2.1,Bone Markings,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/602_Bone_Markings.jpg,"Figure 7.2.1 – Bone Features: The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves."
Figure 7.1.1,The Axial Skeleton,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/Ventral_skeleton_app-1024x803.png,"Figure 7.1.1 – Axial and Appendicular Skeleton: The axial skeleton supports the head, neck, back, and chest and thus forms the vertical axis of the body. It consists of the skull, vertebral column (including the sacrum and coccyx), and the thoracic cage, formed by the ribs and sternum. The appendicular skeleton is made up of all bones of the upper and lower limbs and the girdles which attach them to the axial skeleton."
Figure 6.7.1,The Appendicular Skeleton,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/625_Calcium_Homeostasis.jpg,Figure 6.7.1 – Pathways in Calcium Homeostasis: The body regulates calcium homeostasis with two pathways; one is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels drop below normal and one is the pathway that is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels are elevated.
Figure 6.7.1,The Appendicular Skeleton,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/625_Calcium_Homeostasis.jpg,Figure 6.7.1 – Pathways in Calcium Homeostasis: The body regulates calcium homeostasis with two pathways; one is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels drop below normal and one is the pathway that is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels are elevated.
Figure 6.7.1,The Appendicular Skeleton,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/625_Calcium_Homeostasis.jpg,Figure 6.7.1 – Pathways in Calcium Homeostasis: The body regulates calcium homeostasis with two pathways; one is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels drop below normal and one is the pathway that is signaled to turn on when blood calcium levels are elevated.
Figure 6.6.1,Calcium and Vitamin D,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/614_Synthesis_of_Vitamin_D.jpg,Figure 6.6.1 – Synthesis of Vitamin D: Sunlight is one source of vitamin D.
Figure 6.5.1,Types of Fractures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/612_Types_of_Fractures_revised-475x1024.png,"Figure 6.5.1 – Types of Fractures: Compare healthy bone with different types of fractures: (a) open fracture, (b) closed fracture, (c) oblique fracture, (d) comminuted fracture, (e) spiral fracture , (f) impacted fracture, (g) greenstick fracture, and (h) transverse fracture."
Figure 6.5.2,Bone Repair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/613_Stages_of_Fracture_Repair.jpg,"Figure 6.5.2 – Stages in Fracture Repair: The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) Broken blood vessels leak blood that clots into a fracture hematoma. (b) Internal and external calluses form made of cartilage and bone. (c) Cartilage of the calluses is gradually eroded and replaced by trabecular bone, forming the hard callus. (d) Remodeling occurs to replace immature bone with mature bone."
Figure 6.5.2,Bone Repair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/613_Stages_of_Fracture_Repair.jpg,"Figure 6.5.2 – Stages in Fracture Repair: The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) Broken blood vessels leak blood that clots into a fracture hematoma. (b) Internal and external calluses form made of cartilage and bone. (c) Cartilage of the calluses is gradually eroded and replaced by trabecular bone, forming the hard callus. (d) Remodeling occurs to replace immature bone with mature bone."
Figure 6.5.2,Bone Repair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/613_Stages_of_Fracture_Repair.jpg,"Figure 6.5.2 – Stages in Fracture Repair: The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) Broken blood vessels leak blood that clots into a fracture hematoma. (b) Internal and external calluses form made of cartilage and bone. (c) Cartilage of the calluses is gradually eroded and replaced by trabecular bone, forming the hard callus. (d) Remodeling occurs to replace immature bone with mature bone."
Figure 6.5.2,Bone Repair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/613_Stages_of_Fracture_Repair.jpg,"Figure 6.5.2 – Stages in Fracture Repair: The healing of a bone fracture follows a series of progressive steps: (a) Broken blood vessels leak blood that clots into a fracture hematoma. (b) Internal and external calluses form made of cartilage and bone. (c) Cartilage of the calluses is gradually eroded and replaced by trabecular bone, forming the hard callus. (d) Remodeling occurs to replace immature bone with mature bone."
Figure 6.4.1,Intramembranous Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/611_Intramembraneous_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.1 – Intramembranous Ossification: Intramembranous ossification follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, differentiate into osteoblasts, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into red bone marrow."
Figure 6.4.1,Intramembranous Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/611_Intramembraneous_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.1 – Intramembranous Ossification: Intramembranous ossification follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, differentiate into osteoblasts, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into red bone marrow."
Figure 6.4.1,Intramembranous Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/611_Intramembraneous_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.1 – Intramembranous Ossification: Intramembranous ossification follows four steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells group into clusters, differentiate into osteoblasts, and ossification centers form. (b) Secreted osteoid traps osteoblasts, which then become osteocytes. (c) Trabecular matrix and periosteum form. (d) Compact bone develops superficial to the trabecular bone, and crowded blood vessels condense into red bone marrow."
Figure 6.4.2,Endochondral Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/608_Endochrondal_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.2 – Endochondral Ossification: Endochondral ossification follows five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes that produce a cartilage model of the future bony skeleton. (b) Blood vessels on the edge of the cartilage model bring osteoblasts that deposit a bony collar. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage and deposit bone inside cartilage model, forming primary ossification center. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone while medullary cavity expands and remodels. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop after birth. (f) Hyaline cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage."
Figure 6.4.2,Endochondral Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/608_Endochrondal_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.2 – Endochondral Ossification: Endochondral ossification follows five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes that produce a cartilage model of the future bony skeleton. (b) Blood vessels on the edge of the cartilage model bring osteoblasts that deposit a bony collar. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage and deposit bone inside cartilage model, forming primary ossification center. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone while medullary cavity expands and remodels. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop after birth. (f) Hyaline cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage."
Figure 6.4.2,Endochondral Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/608_Endochrondal_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.2 – Endochondral Ossification: Endochondral ossification follows five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes that produce a cartilage model of the future bony skeleton. (b) Blood vessels on the edge of the cartilage model bring osteoblasts that deposit a bony collar. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage and deposit bone inside cartilage model, forming primary ossification center. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone while medullary cavity expands and remodels. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop after birth. (f) Hyaline cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage."
Figure 6.4.2,Endochondral Ossification,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/608_Endochrondal_Ossification_revised.png,"Figure 6.4.2 – Endochondral Ossification: Endochondral ossification follows five steps. (a) Mesenchymal cells differentiate into chondrocytes that produce a cartilage model of the future bony skeleton. (b) Blood vessels on the edge of the cartilage model bring osteoblasts that deposit a bony collar. (c) Capillaries penetrate cartilage and deposit bone inside cartilage model, forming primary ossification center. (d) Cartilage and chondrocytes continue to grow at ends of the bone while medullary cavity expands and remodels. (e) Secondary ossification centers develop after birth. (f) Hyaline cartilage remains at epiphyseal (growth) plate and at joint surface as articular cartilage."
Figure 6.4.3,How Bones Grow in Length,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/622_Longitudinal_Bone_Growth_revised-657x1024.png,Figure 6.4.3 – Longitudinal Bone Growth: The epiphyseal plate is responsible for longitudinal bone growth.
Figure 6.4.4,How Bones Grow in Length,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/623_Epiphyseal_Plate-Line.jpg,"Figure 6.4.4 – Progression from Epiphyseal Plate to Epiphyseal Line: As a bone matures, the epiphyseal plate progresses to an epiphyseal line. (a) Epiphyseal plates are visible in a growing bone. (b) Epiphyseal lines are the remnants of epiphyseal plates in a mature bone."
Figure 6.3.1,Gross Anatomy of Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/603_Anatomy_of_a_Long_Bone_revised-606x1024.png,Figure 6.3.1 – Anatomy of a Long Bone: A typical long bone showing gross anatomical features.
Figure 6.3.4,Gross Anatomy of Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/lossy-page1-1280px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif_-300x225-1.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4a Calcified collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron micrograph, 10,000 X, By Sbertazzo – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20904735)"
Figure 6.3.4,Gross Anatomy of Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Bone-matrices-300x146-1.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4b Contributions of the organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Image from Ammerman figure 6-5, Pearson"
Figure 6.3.4,Gross Anatomy of Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/602_Bone_Markings.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves."
Figure 6.3.3,Gross Anatomy of Bones,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/621_Anatomy_of_a_Flat_Bone.jpg,Figure 6.3.3 – Anatomy of a Flat Bone: This cross-section of a flat bone shows the spongy bone (diploë) covered on either side by a layer of compact bone.
Figure 6.3.5,Bone Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/604_Bone_cells_revised.png,"Figure 6.3.5 – Bone Cells: Four types of cells are found within bone tissue. Osteogenic cells are undifferentiated and develop into osteoblasts. Osteoblasts deposit bone matrix. When osteoblasts get trapped within the calcified matrix, they become osteocytes. Osteoclasts develop from a different cell lineage and act to resorb bone."
Figure 6.3.6,Compact Bone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/624_Diagram_of_Compact_Bone_revised.png,"Figure 6.3.6 – Diagram of Compact Bone: (a) This cross-sectional view of compact bone shows several osteons, the basic structural unit of compact bone. (b) In this micrograph of the osteon, you can see the concentric lamellae around the central canals. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 6.3.8,Spongy (Cancellous) Bone,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/606_Spongy_Bone.jpg,Figure 6.3.8 – Diagram of Spongy Bone: Spongy bone is composed of trabeculae that contain the osteocytes. Red marrow fills the spaces in some bones.
Figure 6.3.10,Blood and Nerve Supply,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/609_Body_Supply_to_the_Bone.jpg,Figure 6.3.10 – Diagram of Blood and Nerve Supply to Bone: Blood vessels and nerves enter the bone through the nutrient foramen.
Figure 6.3.4,Define and list examples of bone markings,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/lossy-page1-1280px-Bertazzo_S_-_SEM_deproteined_bone_-_wistar_rat_-_x10k.tif_-300x225-1.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4a Calcified collagen fibers from bone (scanning electron micrograph, 10,000 X, By Sbertazzo – Own work, CC BY-SA 3.0, https://commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=20904735)"
Figure 6.3.4,Define and list examples of bone markings,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Bone-matrices-300x146-1.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4b Contributions of the organic and inorganic matrices of bone. Image from Ammerman figure 6-5, Pearson"
Figure 6.3.4,Define and list examples of bone markings,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/602_Bone_Markings.jpg,"Figure 6.3.4 Bone Features The surface features of bones depend on their function, location, attachment of ligaments and tendons, or the penetration of blood vessels and nerves."
Figure 6.2.1,Describe the classes of bones.,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/601_Bone_Classification_revised-874x1024.png,Figure 6.2.1 – Classifications of Bones: Bones are classified according to their shape.
Figure 6.1.1,"Support, Movement, and Protection",https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/mineral_storage_revised-838x1024.png,Figure 6.1.1 Functions of the skeletal system.
Figure 6.1.2,"Mineral and Fat Storage, Blood Cell Formation",https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/marrow_skele-1024x920.png,Figure 6.1.2 – Bone Marrow: Bones contain variable amounts of yellow and/or red bone marrow. Yellow bone marrow stores fat and red bone marrow is responsible for producing blood cells (hematopoiesis).
Figure 6.1.3,bone marrow,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/620_Arms_Brace.jpg,Figure 6.1.3 – Arm Brace: An orthopedist will sometimes prescribe the use of a brace that reinforces the underlying bone structure it is being used to support. (credit: Juhan Sonin)
Figure 5.3.1,Sensory Function,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/514_Light_Micrograph_of_a_Meissner_Corpuscle.jpg,"Figure 5.3.1 – Light Micrograph of a Meissner Corpuscle: In this micrograph of a skin cross-section, you can see a Meissner corpuscle (arrow), a type of touch receptor located in a dermal papilla adjacent to the basement membrane and stratum basale of the overlying epidermis. LM × 100. (credit: “Wbensmith”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 5.3.2,Thermoregulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/515_Thermoregulation.jpg,"Figure 5.3.2 – Thermoregulation: During strenuous physical activities, such as skiing (a) or running (c), the dermal blood vessels dilate and sweat secretion increases (b). These mechanisms prevent the body from overheating. In contrast, the dermal blood vessels constrict to minimize heat loss in response to low temperatures (b). (credit a: “Trysil”/flickr; credit c: Ralph Daily)"
Figure 5.3.2,Thermoregulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/515_Thermoregulation.jpg,"Figure 5.3.2 – Thermoregulation: During strenuous physical activities, such as skiing (a) or running (c), the dermal blood vessels dilate and sweat secretion increases (b). These mechanisms prevent the body from overheating. In contrast, the dermal blood vessels constrict to minimize heat loss in response to low temperatures (b). (credit a: “Trysil”/flickr; credit c: Ralph Daily)"
Figure 5.3.3,Thermoregulation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/516_Aging.jpg,"Figure 5.3.3 – Aging: Generally, skin, especially on the face and hands, starts to display the first noticeable signs of aging, as it loses its elasticity over time. (credit: Janet Ramsden)"
Figure 5.2.1,Hair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/506_Hair.jpg,Figure 5.2.1 – Hair: Hair follicles originate in the epidermis and have many different parts.
Figure 5.2.2,Hair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/511_Hair_Follicle.jpg,Figure 5.2.2 – Hair Follicle: The slide shows a cross-section of a hair follicle. Basal cells of the hair matrix in the center differentiate into cells of the inner root sheath. Basal cells at the base of the hair root form the outer root sheath. LM × 4. (credit: modification of work by “kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 5.2.3,Nails,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/507_Nails.jpg,Figure 5.2.3 – Nails: The nail is an accessory structure of the integumentary system.
Figure 5.2.4,Sweat Glands,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/508_Eccrine_gland.jpg,Figure 5.2.4 – Eccrine Gland: Eccrine glands are coiled glands in the dermis that release sweat that is mostly water.
Figure 5.1.1,Sebaceous Glands,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/501_Structure_of_the_skin.jpg,"Figure 5.1.1 – Layers of Skin: The skin is composed of two main layers: the epidermis, made of closely packed epithelial cells, and the dermis, made of dense, irregular connective tissue that houses blood vessels, hair follicles, sweat glands, and other structures. Beneath the dermis lies the hypodermis, which is composed mainly of loose connective and fatty tissues."
Figure 5.1.2,The Epidermis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/502ab_Thin_Skin_versus_Thick_Skin.jpg,"Figure 5.1.2 – Thin Skin versus Thick Skin: These slides show cross-sections of the epidermis and dermis of (a) thin and (b) thick skin. Note the significant difference in the thickness of the epithelial layer of the thick skin. From top, LM × 40, LM × 40. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 5.1.3,The Epidermis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/503_Epidermis.jpg,"Figure 5.1.3 – Epidermis: The epidermis is epithelium composed of multiple layers of cells. The basal layer consists of cuboidal cells, whereas the outer layers are squamous, keratinized cells, so the whole epithelium is often described as being keratinized stratified squamous epithelium. LM × 40. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 5.1.6,Dermis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/506_Layers_of_the_Dermis.jpg,"Figure 5.1.6 – Layers of the Dermis: This stained slide shows the two components of the dermis—the papillary layer and the reticular layer. Both are made of connective tissue with fibers of collagen extending from one to the other, making the border between the two somewhat indistinct. The dermal papillae extending into the epidermis belong to the papillary layer, whereas the dense collagen fiber bundles below belong to the reticular layer. LM × 10. (credit: modification of work by “kilbad”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 5.1.7,Pigmentation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/504_Melanocytes.jpg,Figure 5.1.7 – Skin Pigmentation: The relative coloration of the skin depends of the amount of melanin produced by melanocytes in the stratum basale and taken up by keratinocytes.
Figure 4.6.1,Tissue Injury and Repair,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/417_Tissue_Repair.jpg,"Figure 4.6.1 – Tissue Healing: During wound repair, collagen fibers are laid down randomly by fibroblasts that move into repair the area."
Figure 4.6.2,Homeostatic Imbalances: Tissues and Cancer,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/418_Development_of_Cancer.png,"Figure 4.6.2 – Development of Cancer: Note the change in cell size, nucleus size, and organization in the tissue."
Figure 4.5.1,References,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/415_Neuron.jpg,"Figure 4.5.1 – The Neuron: The cell body of a neuron, also called the soma, contains the nucleus and mitochondria. The dendrites transfer the nerve impulse to the soma. The axon carries the action potential away to another excitable cell (LM × 1600). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 4.5.2,References,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/416_Nervous_Tissue-new.jpg,Figure 4.5.2 – Nervous Tissue: Nervous tissue is made up of neurons and neuroglia. The cells of nervous tissue are specialized to transmit and receive impulses (LM × 872). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 4.4.1,References,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/414_Skeletal_Smooth_Cardiac.jpg,"Figure 4.4.1 – Muscle Tissue: (a) Skeletal muscle cells have prominent striation and nuclei on their periphery. (b) Smooth muscle cells have a single nucleus and no visible striations. (c) Cardiac muscle cells appear striated and have a single nucleus. From top, LM × 1600, LM × 1600, LM × 1600. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 4.2.2,Embryonic Connective Tissue,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg,Figure 4.2.2 – Cells of Epithelial Tissue: Simple epithelial tissue is organized as a single layer of cells and stratified epithelial tissue is formed by several layers of cells.
Figure 4.3.1,Connective Tissue Proper,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/408_Connective_Tissue-1.jpg,"Figure 4.3.1 – Connective Tissue Proper: Fibroblasts produce this fibrous tissue. Connective tissue proper includes the fixed cells fibrocytes, adipocytes, and mesenchymal cells (LM × 400). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 4.3.2,Loose Connective Tissue,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/409_Adipose_Tissue-1.jpg,Figure 4.3.2 – Adipose Tissue: This is a loose connective tissue that consists of fat cells with little extracellular matrix. It stores fat for energy and provides insulation (LM × 800). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 4.3.2,Loose Connective Tissue,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/areolar1_enhanced.png,Figure 4.3.2a – Areolar tissue
Figure 4.3.5,Cartilage,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/412_Types_of_Cartilage-new-1.jpg,"Figure 4.3.5 – Types of Cartilage: Cartilage is a connective tissue consisting of collagenous fibers embedded in a firm matrix of chondroitin sulfates. (a) Hyaline cartilage provides support with some flexibility. The example is from dog tissue. (b) Fibrocartilage provides some compressibility and can absorb pressure. (c) Elastic cartilage provides firm but elastic support. From top, LM × 300, LM × 1200, LM × 1016. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 4.3.6,Fluid Connective Tissue,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/424_Blood_A_Fluid_Connective_Tissue-new-1024x541-1.jpg,Figure 4.3.6 – Blood: A Fluid Connective Tissue: Blood is a fluid connective tissue containing erythrocytes and various types of leukocytes that circulate in a liquid extracellular matrix (LM × 1600). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 4.2.1,The Epithelial Cell,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/402_Types_of_Cell_Junctions_new-scaled.jpg,"Figure 4.2.1 – Types of Cell Junctions: The three basic types of cell-to-cell junctions are tight junctions, gap junctions, and anchoring junctions."
Figure 4.2.2,Classification of Epithelial Tissues,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg,Figure 4.2.2 – Cells of Epithelial Tissue: Simple epithelial tissue is organized as a single layer of cells and stratified epithelial tissue is formed by several layers of cells.
Figure 4.2.2,Classification of Epithelial Tissues,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/403_Epithelial_Tissue.jpg,Figure 4.2.2 – Cells of Epithelial Tissue: Simple epithelial tissue is organized as a single layer of cells and stratified epithelial tissue is formed by several layers of cells.
Figure 4.2.4,Glandular Structure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/406_Types_of_Glands.jpg,Figure 4.2.4 – Types of Exocrine Glands: Exocrine glands are classified by their structure.
Figure 4.2.5,Glandular Structure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/405_Modes_of_Secretion_by_Glands_updated.jpg,"Figure 4.2.5 – Modes of Glandular Secretion: (a) In merocrine secretion, the cell remains intact. (b) In apocrine secretion, the apical portion of the cell is released, as well. (c) In holocrine secretion, the cell is destroyed as it releases its product and the cell itself becomes part of the secretion."
Figure 4.2.6,Glandular Structure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/407_Sebaceous_Glands.jpg,Figure 4.2.6 – Sebaceous Glands: These glands secrete oils that lubricate and protect the skin. They are holocrine glands and they are destroyed after releasing their contents. New glandular cells form to replace the cells that are lost (LM × 400). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 4.1.1,The Four Primary Tissue Types,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/401_Types_of_Tissue.jpg,"Figure 4.1.1 – The Four Primary Tissue Types: Examples of nervous tissue, epithelial tissue, muscle tissue, and connective tissue found throughout the human body. Clockwise from nervous tissue, LM × 872, LM × 282, LM × 460, LM × 800. (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 4.1.2,Embryonic Origin of Tissues,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/04-13_EmbryoTissue_1-copy-1024x777.png,Figure 4.1.2 – Embryonic Origin of Tissues and Major Organs: Embryonic germ layers and the resulting primary tissue types formed by each.
Figure 4.1.3,Tissue Membranes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/413_Types_of_Membranes.jpg,"Figure 4.1.3 – Tissue Membranes: The two broad categories of tissue membranes in the body are (1) connective tissue membranes, which include synovial membranes, and (2) epithelial membranes, which include mucous membranes, serous membranes, and the cutaneous membrane, in other words, the skin."
Figure 3.5.1,Interphase,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/0329_Cell_Cycle.jpg,"Figure 3.5.1 – Cell Cycle: The two major phases of the cell cycle include mitosis (cell division), and interphase, when the cell grows and performs all of its normal functions. Interphase is further subdivided into G1, S, and G2 phases."
Figure 3.5.3,Mitosis and Cytokinesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0331_Stages_of-_Mitosis_and_Cytokinesis.jpg,"Figure 3.5.3 – Cell Division: Mitosis Followed by Cytokinesis: The stages of cell division oversee the separation of identical genetic material into two new nuclei, followed by the division of the cytoplasm."
Figure 3.5.4,Mechanisms of Cell Cycle Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0332_Cell_Cycle_With_Cyclins_and_Checkpoints.jpg,"Figure 3.5.4 – Control of the Cell Cycle: Cells proceed through the cell cycle under the control of a variety of molecules, such as cyclins and cyclin-dependent kinases. These control molecules determine whether or not the cell is prepared to move into the following stage."
Figure 3.4.1,Homeostatic Imbalances: Cancer Arises from Homeostatic Imbalances,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/0324_DNA_Translation_and_Codons.jpg,Figure 3.4.1 – The Genetic Code: DNA holds all of the genetic information necessary to build a cell’s proteins. The nucleotide sequence of a gene is ultimately translated into an amino acid sequence of the gene’s corresponding protein.
Figure 3.4.2,From DNA to RNA: Transcription,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0325_Transcription.jpg,"Figure 3.4.2 – Transcription: from DNA to mRNA: In the first of the two stages of making protein from DNA, a gene on the DNA molecule is transcribed into a complementary mRNA molecule."
Figure 3.4.3,From DNA to RNA: Transcription,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0326_Splicing.jpg,"Figure 3.4.3 – Splicing DNA: In the nucleus, a structure called a spliceosome cuts out introns (noncoding regions) within a pre-mRNA transcript and reconnects the exons."
Figure 3.4.4,From RNA to Protein: Translation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0327_Translation.jpg,"Figure 3.4.4 – Translation from RNA to Protein: During translation, the mRNA transcript is “read” by a functional complex consisting of the ribosome and tRNA molecules. tRNAs bring the appropriate amino acids in sequence to the growing polypeptide chain by matching their anti-codons with codons on the mRNA strand."
Figure 3.4.5,From RNA to Protein: Translation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0328_Transcription-translation_Summary.jpg,"Figure 3.4.5 – From DNA to Protein: Transcription through Translation: Transcription within the cell nucleus produces an mRNA molecule, which is modified and then sent into the cytoplasm for translation. The transcript is decoded into a protein with the help of a ribosome and tRNA molecules."
Figure 3.3.1,From RNA to Protein: Translation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/0318_Nucleus.jpg,Figure 3.3.1 – The Nucleus: The nucleus is the control center of the cell. The nucleus of living cells contains the genetic material that determines the entire structure and function of that cell.
Figure 3.3.4,Organization of the Nucleus and its DNA,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0321_DNA_Macrostructure.jpg,"Figure 3.3.4 – DNA Macrostructure: Strands of DNA are wrapped around supporting histones. These proteins are increasingly bundled and condensed into chromatin, which is packed tightly into chromosomes when the cell is ready to divide."
Figure 3.3.5,DNA Replication,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0322_DNA_Nucleotides.jpg,Figure 3.3.5 – Molecular Structure of DNA: The DNA double helix is composed of two complementary strands. The strands are bonded together via their nitrogenous base pairs using hydrogen bonds.
Figure 3.3.6,DNA Replication,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0323_DNA_Replication.jpg,"Figure 3.3.6 – DNA Replication: DNA replication faithfully duplicates the entire genome of the cell. During DNA replication, a number of different enzymes work together to pull apart the two strands so each strand can be used as a template to synthesize new complementary strands. The two new daughter DNA molecules each contain one pre-existing strand and one newly synthesized strand. Thus, DNA replication is said to be “semiconservative.”"
Figure 3.2.1,DNA Replication,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/0312_Animal_Cell_and_Components.jpg,"Figure 3.2.1 – Prototypical Human Cell: While this image is not indicative of any one particular human cell, it is a prototypical example of a cell containing the primary organelles and internal structures."
Figure 3.2.2,Endoplasmic Reticulum,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0313_Endoplasmic_Reticulum.jpg,"Figure 3.2.2 – Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): (a) The ER is a winding network of thin membranous sacs found in close association with the cell nucleus. The smooth and rough endoplasmic reticula are very different in appearance and function (source: mouse tissue). (b) Rough ER is studded with numerous ribosomes, which are sites of protein synthesis (source: mouse tissue, EM × 110,000). (c) Smooth ER synthesizes phospholipids, steroid hormones, regulates the concentration of cellular Ca++, metabolizes some carbohydrates, and breaks down certain toxins (source: mouse tissue, EM × 110,510). (Micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 3.2.4,Mitochondria,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0315_Mitochondrion_new.jpg,"Figure 3.2.4 – Mitochondrion: The mitochondria are the energy-conversion factories of the cell. (a) A mitochondrion is composed of two separate lipid bilayer membranes. Along the inner membrane are various molecules that work together to produce ATP, the cell’s major energy currency. (b) An electron micrograph of mitochondria (EM × 236,000). (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 3.2.5,Peroxisomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0316_Peroxisome.jpg,Figure 3.2.5 – Peroxisome: Peroxisomes are membrane-bound organelles that contain an abundance of enzymes for detoxifying harmful substances and lipid metabolism.
Figure 3.2.6,Peroxisomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0317_Cytoskeletal_Components.jpg,"Figure 3.2.6 – The Three Components of the Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton consists of (a) microtubules, (b) microfilaments, and (c) intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton plays an important role in maintaining cell shape and structure, promoting cellular movement, and aiding cell division."
Figure 3.2.6,Peroxisomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0317_Cytoskeletal_Components.jpg,"Figure 3.2.6 – The Three Components of the Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton consists of (a) microtubules, (b) microfilaments, and (c) intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton plays an important role in maintaining cell shape and structure, promoting cellular movement, and aiding cell division."
Figure 3.2.6,Peroxisomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0317_Cytoskeletal_Components.jpg,"Figure 3.2.6 – The Three Components of the Cytoskeleton: The cytoskeleton consists of (a) microtubules, (b) microfilaments, and (c) intermediate filaments. The cytoskeleton plays an important role in maintaining cell shape and structure, promoting cellular movement, and aiding cell division."
Figure 3.1.1,Structure and Composition of the Cell Membrane,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/phospholipid1-1024x669.png,"Figure 3.1.1 – Phospholipid Structure and Bilayer: A phospholipid molecule consists of a polar phosphate “head,” which is hydrophilic and a non-polar lipid “tail,” which is hydrophobic. Unsaturated fatty acids result in kinks in the hydrophobic tails. The phospholipid bilayer consists of two adjacent sheets of phospholipids, arranged tail to tail. The hydrophobic tails associate with one another, forming the interior of the membrane. The polar heads contact the fluid inside and outside of the cell."
Figure 3.1.2,Membrane Proteins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0303_Lipid_Bilayer_With_Various_Components.jpg,"Figure 3.1.2- Cell Membrane:  The cell membrane of the cell is a phospholipid bilayer containing many different molecular components, including proteins and cholesterol, some with carbohydrate groups attached."
Figure 3.1.3,Passive Transport,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0305_Simple_Diffusion_Across_Plasma_Membrane-1.jpg,"Figure 3.1.3 – Simple Diffusion Across the Cell (Plasma) Membrane: The structure of the lipid bilayer allows small, uncharged substances such as oxygen and carbon dioxide, and hydrophobic molecules such as lipids, to pass through the cell membrane, down their concentration gradient, by simple diffusion."
Figure 3.1.4,Passive Transport,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/Facilitated_Diffusion-804x1024.jpg,"Figure 3.1.4 – Facilitated Diffusion: (a) Facilitated diffusion of substances crossing the cell (plasma) membrane takes place with the help of proteins such as channel proteins and carrier proteins. Channel proteins are less selective than carrier proteins, and usually mildly discriminate between their cargo based on size and charge. (b) Carrier proteins are more selective, often only allowing one particular type of molecule to cross."
Figure 3.1.5,Osmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0307_Osmosis.jpg,"Figure 3.1.5 – Osmosis: Osmosis is the diffusion of water through a semipermeable membrane down its concentration gradient. If a membrane is permeable to water, though not to a solute, water will equalize its own concentration by diffusing to the side of lower water concentration (and thus the side of higher solute concentration). In the beaker on the left, the solution on the right side of the membrane is hypertonic."
Figure 3.1.6,Osmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0346_Concentration_of_Solutions.jpg,Figure 3.1.6 – Concentration of Solution: A hypertonic solution has a solute concentration higher than another solution. An isotonic solution has a solute concentration equal to another solution. A hypotonic solution has a solute concentration lower than another solution.
Figure 3.1.8,Other Forms of Membrane Transport,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0309_Three_Forms_of_Endocytosis.jpg,"Figure 3.1.8 – Three Forms of Endocytosis: Endocytosis is a form of active transport in which a cell envelopes extracellular materials using its cell membrane. (a) In phagocytosis, which is relatively nonselective, the cell takes in large particles into larger vesicles known as vacuoles. (b) In pinocytosis, the cell takes in small particles in fluid. (c) In contrast, receptor-mediated endocytosis is quite selective. When external receptors bind a specific ligand, the cell responds by endocytosing the ligand."
Figure 3.1.9,Other Forms of Membrane Transport,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0310_Exocytosis.jpg,"Figure 3.1.9 – Exocytosis: Exocytosis is much like endocytosis in reverse. Material destined for export is packaged into a vesicle inside the cell. The membrane of the vesicle fuses with the cell membrane, and the contents are released into the extracellular space."
Figure 3.1.10,Other Forms of Membrane Transport,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/0311_Pancreatic_Cells_Micrograph.jpg,Figure 3.1.10 – Pancreatic Cells’ Enzyme Products: The pancreatic acinar cells produce and secrete many enzymes that digest food. The tiny black granules in this electron micrograph are secretory vesicles filled with enzymes that will be exported from the cells via exocytosis. LM × 2900. (Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 2.4.1,The Chemistry of Carbon,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/213_Dehydration_Synthesis_and_Hydrolysis-01.jpg,"Figure 2.4.1 – Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Monomers, the basic units for building larger molecules, form polymers (two or more chemically-bonded monomers). (a) In dehydration synthesis, two monomers are covalently bonded in a reaction in which one gives up a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen atom. A molecule of water is released as a byproduct during dehydration reactions. (b) In hydrolysis, the covalent bond between two monomers is split by the addition of a hydrogen atom to one and a hydroxyl group to the other, which requires the contribution of one molecule of water."
Figure 2.5.1,Monosaccharides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/217_Five_Important_Monosaccharides-01.jpg,Figure 2.5.1 Five Important Monosaccharides
Figure 2.5.2,Disaccharides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/218_Three_Important_Disaccharides-01.jpg,Figure 2.5.2 – Three Important Disaccharides: All three important disaccharides form by dehydration synthesis.
Figure 2.5.3,Polysaccharides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/219_Three_Important_Polysaccharides-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.3 – Three Important Polysaccharides: Three important polysaccharides are starches, glycogen, and fiber."
Figure 2.5.4,Triglycerides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/220_Triglycerides-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.4 – Triglycerides: Triglycerides are composed of glycerol attached to three fatty acids via dehydration synthesis. Notice that glycerol gives up a hydrogen atom, and the carboxyl groups on the fatty acids each give up a hydroxyl group"
Figure 2.5.5,Triglycerides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/221_Fatty_Acids_Shapes-01.jpg,Figure 2.5.5 – Fatty Acid Shapes: The level of saturation of a fatty acid affects its shape. (a) Saturated fatty acid chains are straight. (b) Unsaturated fatty acid chains are kinked.
Figure 2.5.6,Phospholipids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/222_Other_Important_Lipids-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.6 – Other Important Lipids: (a) Phospholipids are composed of two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group. (b) Sterols are ring-shaped lipids. Shown here is cholesterol. (c) Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) includes hydroxyl and carboxyl groups."
Figure 2.5.6,Steroids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/222_Other_Important_Lipids-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.6 – Other Important Lipids: (a) Phospholipids are composed of two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group. (b) Sterols are ring-shaped lipids. Shown here is cholesterol. (c) Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) includes hydroxyl and carboxyl groups."
Figure 2.5.6,Prostaglandins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/222_Other_Important_Lipids-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.6 – Other Important Lipids: (a) Phospholipids are composed of two fatty acids, glycerol, and a phosphate group. (b) Sterols are ring-shaped lipids. Shown here is cholesterol. (c) Prostaglandins are derived from unsaturated fatty acids. Prostaglandin E2 (PGE2) includes hydroxyl and carboxyl groups."
Figure 2.5.7,Microstructure of Proteins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/223_Structure_of_an_Amino_Acid-01.jpg,Figure 2.5.7 Structure of an Amino Acid
Figure 2.5.8,a variable group,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/224_Peptide_Bond-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.8 – Structure of an Amino Acid: Different amino acids join together to form peptides, polypeptides, or proteins via dehydration synthesis. The bonds between the amino acids are peptide bonds."
Figure 2.5.9,Shape of Proteins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/225_Peptide_Bond-01-1024x870-1.jpg,"Figure 2.5.9 – The Shape of Proteins: (a) The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain. (b) The secondary structure, which can take the form of an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet, is maintained by hydrogen bonds between amino acids in different regions of the original polypeptide strand. (c) The tertiary structure occurs as a result of further folding and bonding of the secondary structure. (d) The quaternary structure occurs as a result of interactions between two or more tertiary subunits. The example shown here is hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen to body tissues."
Figure 2.5.9,Shape of Proteins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/225_Peptide_Bond-01-1024x870-1.jpg,"Figure 2.5.9 – The Shape of Proteins: (a) The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain. (b) The secondary structure, which can take the form of an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet, is maintained by hydrogen bonds between amino acids in different regions of the original polypeptide strand. (c) The tertiary structure occurs as a result of further folding and bonding of the secondary structure. (d) The quaternary structure occurs as a result of interactions between two or more tertiary subunits. The example shown here is hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen to body tissues."
Figure 2.5.9,Shape of Proteins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/225_Peptide_Bond-01-1024x870-1.jpg,"Figure 2.5.9 – The Shape of Proteins: (a) The primary structure is the sequence of amino acids that make up the polypeptide chain. (b) The secondary structure, which can take the form of an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet, is maintained by hydrogen bonds between amino acids in different regions of the original polypeptide strand. (c) The tertiary structure occurs as a result of further folding and bonding of the secondary structure. (d) The quaternary structure occurs as a result of interactions between two or more tertiary subunits. The example shown here is hemoglobin, a protein in red blood cells which transports oxygen to body tissues."
Figure 2.5.10,Proteins Function as Enzymes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/227_Steps_in_an_Enzymatic_Reaction-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.10 – Steps in an Enzymatic Reaction: (a) Substrates approach active sites on enzyme. (b) Substrates bind to active sites, producing an enzyme–substrate complex. (c) Changes internal to the enzyme–substrate complex facilitate interaction of the substrates. (d) Products are released and the enzyme returns to its original form, ready to facilitate another enzymatic reaction."
Figure 2.5.11,Nucleotides,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/228_Nucleotides-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.11 – Nucleotides: (a) The building blocks of all nucleotides are one or more phosphate groups, a pentose sugar, and a nitrogen-containing base. (b) The nitrogen-containing bases of nucleotides. (c) The two pentose sugars of DNA and RNA."
Figure 2.5.12,Nucleic Acids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/229_Nucleotides-01.jpg,"Figure 2.5.12 – DNA: In the DNA double helix, two strands attach via hydrogen bonds between the bases of the component nucleotides."
Figure 2.5.13,Adenosine Triphosphate,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/230_Structure_of_Adenosine_Triphosphate_ATP-01.jpg,Figure 2.5.13 Structure of Adenosine Triphosphate (ATP)
Figure 2.4.1,The Role of Water in Chemical Reactions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/213_Dehydration_Synthesis_and_Hydrolysis-01.jpg,"Figure 2.4.1 – Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Monomers, the basic units for building larger molecules, form polymers (two or more chemically-bonded monomers). (a) In dehydration synthesis, two monomers are covalently bonded in a reaction in which one gives up a hydroxyl group and the other a hydrogen atom. A molecule of water is released as a byproduct during dehydration reactions. (b) In hydrolysis, the covalent bond between two monomers is split by the addition of a hydrogen atom to one and a hydroxyl group to the other, which requires the contribution of one molecule of water."
Figure 2.4.2,Salts,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/214_Dissociation_of_Sodium_Chloride_in_Water-01.jpg,"Figure 2.4.2 – Dissociation of Sodium Chloride in Water: Notice that the crystals of sodium chloride dissociate not into molecules of NaCl, but into Na+ cations and Cl– anions, each completely surrounded by water molecules."
Figure 2.4.3,Acids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/215_Acids_and_Bases-01.jpg,"Figure 2.4.3 – Acids and Bases: (a) In aqueous solution, an acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions. Nearly every molecule of a strong acid dissociates, producing a high concentration of H+. (b) In aqueous solution, a base dissociates into hydroxyl ions (OH–) and cations. Nearly every molecule of a strong base dissociates, producing a high concentration of OH–."
Figure 2.4.3,Bases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/215_Acids_and_Bases-01.jpg,"Figure 2.4.3 – Acids and Bases: (a) In aqueous solution, an acid dissociates into hydrogen ions (H+) and anions. Nearly every molecule of a strong acid dissociates, producing a high concentration of H+. (b) In aqueous solution, a base dissociates into hydroxyl ions (OH–) and cations. Nearly every molecule of a strong base dissociates, producing a high concentration of OH–."
Figure 2.4.4,The Concept of pH,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/216_pH_Scale-01.jpg,Figure 2.4.4 The pH Scale
Figure 2.3.2,Enzymes and Other Catalysts,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/212_Enzymes-01.jpg,"Figure 2.3.2 – Enzymes:  Enzymes decrease the activation energy required for a given chemical reaction to occur. (a) Without an enzyme, the energy input needed for a reaction to begin is high. (b) With the help of an enzyme, less energy is needed for a reaction to begin."
Figure 2.2.1,Ions and Ionic Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/207_Ionic_Bonding-01.jpg,"Figure 2.2.1 – Ionic Bonding: (a) Sodium readily donates the solitary electron in its valence shell to chlorine, which needs only one electron to have a full valence shell. (b) The opposite electrical charges of the resulting sodium cation and chloride anion result in the formation of a bond of attraction called an ionic bond. (c) The attraction of many sodium and chloride ions results in the formation of large groupings called crystals."
Figure 2.2.2,Nonpolar Covalent Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/208_Covalent_Bonding-01.jpg,Figure 2.2.2 Covalent Bonding
Figure 2.2.2,Nonpolar Covalent Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/208_Covalent_Bonding-01.jpg,Figure 2.2.2 Covalent Bonding
Figure 2.2.3,Polar Covalent Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/209_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_in_a_Water_Molecule.jpg,Figure 2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water Molecule
Figure 2.2.3,Polar Covalent Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/209_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_in_a_Water_Molecule.jpg,Figure 2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water Molecule
Figure 2.2.3,Polar Covalent Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/209_Polar_Covalent_Bonds_in_a_Water_Molecule.jpg,Figure 2.2.3 Polar Covalent Bonds in a Water Molecule
Figure 2.2.4,Hydrogen Bonds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/210_Hydrogen_Bonds_Between_Water_Molecules-01.jpg,"Figure 2.2.4 – Hydrogen Bonds between Water Molecules: Notice that the bonds occur between the weakly positive charge on the hydrogen atoms and the weakly negative charge on the oxygen atoms. Hydrogen bonds are relatively weak, and therefore are indicated with a dotted (rather than a solid) line."
Figure 2.1.1,Elements and Compounds,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/201_Elements_of_the_Human_Body-01.jpg,Figure 2.1.1 – Elements of the Human Body: The main elements that compose the human body are shown from most abundant to least abundant.
Figure 2.1.2,Atomic Structure and Energy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/202_Two_Models_of_Atomic_Structure.jpg,"Figure 2.1.2 – Two Models of Atomic Structure: (a) In the planetary model, the electrons of helium are shown in fixed orbits, depicted as rings, at a precise distance from the nucleus, somewhat like planets orbiting the sun. (b) In the electron cloud model, the electrons of carbon are shown in the variety of locations they would have at different distances from the nucleus over time."
Figure 2.1.3,Atomic Number and Mass Number,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/203_Periodic_Table-02-scaled.jpg,"Figure 2.1.3 – The Periodic Table of the Elements (credit: R.A. Dragoset, A. Musgrove, C.W. Clark, W.C. Martin)"
Figure 2.1.4,Isotopes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/204_Isotopes_of_Hydrogen-01.jpg,"Figure 2.1.4  -Isotopes of Hydrogen: Protium, designated 1H, has one proton and no neutrons. It is by far the most abundant isotope of hydrogen in nature. Deuterium, designated 2H, has one proton and one neutron. Tritium, designated 3H, has two neutrons."
Figure 2.1.6,The Behavior of Electrons,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/206_Electron_Shells-01.jpg,"Figure 2.1.6 Electron Shells: Electrons orbit the atomic nucleus at distinct levels of energy called electron shells. (a) With one electron, hydrogen only half-fills its electron shell. Helium also has a single shell, but its two electrons completely fill it. (b) The electrons of carbon completely fill its first electron shell, but only half-fills its second. (c) Neon, an element that does not occur in the body, has 10 electrons, filling both of its electron shells."
Figure 1.5.1,X-Rays,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/01_16_X-ray_of_Hand.jpg,"Figure 1.5.1 – X-Ray of a Hand:  High energy electromagnetic radiation allows the internal structures of the body, such as bones, to be seen in X-rays like these. (credit: Trace Meek/flickr)"
Figure 1.5.2,Computed Tomography,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/113abcd_Medical_Imaging_Techniques.jpg,Figure 1.5.2 – Medical Imaging Techniques: (a) The results of a CT scan of the head are shown as successive transverse sections. (b) An MRI machine generates a magnetic field around a patient. (c) PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted. (d) Ultrasound technology is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation. (credit a: Akira Ohgaki/flickr; credit b: “Digital Cate”/flickr; credit c: “Raziel”/Wikimedia Commons; credit d: “Isis”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 1.5.2,Magnetic Resonance Imaging,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/113abcd_Medical_Imaging_Techniques.jpg,Figure 1.5.2 – Medical Imaging Techniques: (a) The results of a CT scan of the head are shown as successive transverse sections. (b) An MRI machine generates a magnetic field around a patient. (c) PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted. (d) Ultrasound technology is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation. (credit a: Akira Ohgaki/flickr; credit b: “Digital Cate”/flickr; credit c: “Raziel”/Wikimedia Commons; credit d: “Isis”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 1.5.2,Positron Emission Tomography,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/113abcd_Medical_Imaging_Techniques.jpg,Figure 1.5.2 – Medical Imaging Techniques: (a) The results of a CT scan of the head are shown as successive transverse sections. (b) An MRI machine generates a magnetic field around a patient. (c) PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted. (d) Ultrasound technology is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation. (credit a: Akira Ohgaki/flickr; credit b: “Digital Cate”/flickr; credit c: “Raziel”/Wikimedia Commons; credit d: “Isis”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 1.5.2,Ultrasonography,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/113abcd_Medical_Imaging_Techniques.jpg,Figure 1.5.2 – Medical Imaging Techniques: (a) The results of a CT scan of the head are shown as successive transverse sections. (b) An MRI machine generates a magnetic field around a patient. (c) PET scans use radiopharmaceuticals to create images of active blood flow and physiologic activity of the organ or organs being targeted. (d) Ultrasound technology is used to monitor pregnancies because it is the least invasive of imaging techniques and uses no electromagnetic radiation. (credit a: Akira Ohgaki/flickr; credit b: “Digital Cate”/flickr; credit c: “Raziel”/Wikimedia Commons; credit d: “Isis”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 1.4.1,Anatomical Position,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/107_Regions_of_Human_Body_new.jpg,Figure 1.4.1 – Regions of the Human Body: The human body is shown in anatomical position in an (a) anterior view and a (b) posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface.
Figure 1.4.1,Regional Terms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/107_Regions_of_Human_Body_new.jpg,Figure 1.4.1 – Regions of the Human Body: The human body is shown in anatomical position in an (a) anterior view and a (b) posterior view. The regions of the body are labeled in boldface.
Figure 1.4.2,Directional Terms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/108_Directional_Terms.jpg,Figure 1.4.2 – Directional Terms Applied to the Human Body: Paired directional terms are shown as applied to the human body.
Figure 1.4.3,Body Planes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/109_Planes_of_Body.jpg,"Figure 1.4.3 – Planes of the Body: The three planes most commonly used in anatomical and medical imaging are the sagittal, frontal (or coronal), and transverse planes."
Figure 1.4.4,Abdominal Regions and Quadrants,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/111_Abdominal_Quadrant_Regions.jpg,Figure 1.4.4 – Regions and Quadrants of the Peritoneal Cavity: There are (a) nine abdominal regions and (b) four abdominal quadrants in the peritoneal cavity.
Figure 1.3.2,Abdominal Regions and Quadrants,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/105_Negative_Feedback_Loops.jpg,"Figure 1.3.2 – Negative Feedback Loop: In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis. (a) A negative feedback loop has four basic parts. (b) Body temperature is regulated by negative feedback."
Figure 1.3.2,Abdominal Regions and Quadrants,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/105_Negative_Feedback_Loops.jpg,"Figure 1.3.2 – Negative Feedback Loop: In a negative feedback loop, a stimulus—a deviation from a set point—is resisted through a physiological process that returns the body to homeostasis. (a) A negative feedback loop has four basic parts. (b) Body temperature is regulated by negative feedback."
Figure 1.3.3,Abdominal Regions and Quadrants,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/106_Pregnancy-Positive_Feedback.jpg,"Figure 1.3.3 – Positive Feedback Loop: Normal childbirth is driven by a positive feedback loop. A positive feedback loop results in a change in the body’s status, rather than a return to homeostasis."
Figure 1.2.2,The Levels of Organization,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2021/02/102_Organ_Systems_of_BodyPage2_revised-Recovered_modified.png,Figure 1.2.2 – Organ Systems of the Human Body: Organs that work together are grouped into organ systems.
Figure 1.1.1,The Levels of Organization,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/157/2019/07/01_01ab_Gross_and_Microscopic_Anatomy.jpg,"Figure 1.1.1 – Gross and Microscopic Anatomy: (a) Gross anatomy considers large structures such as the brain. (b) Microscopic anatomy can deal with the same structures, though at a different scale. This is a micrograph of nerve cells from the brain. LM × 1600. (credit a: “WriterHound”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"