microbiology/queries.csv

fig_num,sub_section_headings,images-src,image_caption
Figure 21.12,Zika Virus Infection,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.14.png,"Figure 21.12 (a) This colorized electron micrograph shows Zika virus particles (red). (b) Women infected by the Zika virus during pregnancy may give birth to children with microcephaly, a deformity characterized by an abnormally small head and brain. (credit a, b: modifications of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 21.13,Rabies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.15.png,Figure 21.13 Virions of the rabies virus have a characteristic bullet-like shape. (credit: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.14,Poliomyelitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.16.png,Figure 21.14 (a) An Emerson respiratory (or iron lung) that was used to help some polio victims to breathe. (b) Polio can also result in impaired motor function. (credit b: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.15,Poliomyelitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.17.png,Figure 21.15 (a) Polio is caused by the poliovirus. (b) Two American virologists developed the first polio vaccines: Albert Sabin (left) and Jonas Salk (right). (credit a: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.16,Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.18.png,Figure 21.16 The replicative cycle of misfolded prion proteins.
Figure 20.19,Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.28.png,Figure 20.19 A blood smear (human blood stage) shows an early trophozoite in a delicate ring form (upper left) and an early stage schizont form (center) of Plasmodium falciparum from a patient with malaria. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.16,Transmissible Spongiform Encephalopathies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.18.png,Figure 21.16 The replicative cycle of misfolded prion proteins.
Figure 21.5,Bacterial Meningitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.5.png,Figure 21.5 (a) A normal human brain removed during an autopsy. (b) The brain of a patient who died from bacterial meningitis. Note the pus under the dura mater (being retracted by the forceps) and the red hemorrhagic foci on the meninges. (credit b: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.6,Meningococcal Meningitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.6.png,Figure 21.6 N. meningitidis (arrows) associated with neutrophils (the larger stained cells) in a gram-stained CSF sample. (credit: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.7,Meningococcal Meningitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-26.7.png,"Figure 21.7 To prevent campus outbreaks, some colleges now require students to be vaccinated against meningogoccal meningitis. (credit: modification of work by James Gathany, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 21.9,Tetanus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.9.png,Figure 21.9 A tetanus patient exhibiting the rigid body posture known as opisthotonos. (credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.10,Listeriosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.10.png,"Figure 21.10 (a) An electron micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes infecting a host cell. (b) Listeria is able to use host cell components to cause infection. For example, phagocytosis allows it to enter host cells, and the host’s cytoskeleton provides the materials to help the pathogen move to other cells. (credit a: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Keith Ireton)"
Figure 21.7,Listeriosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-26.7.png,"Figure 21.7 To prevent campus outbreaks, some colleges now require students to be vaccinated against meningogoccal meningitis. (credit: modification of work by James Gathany, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 21.9,Clostridium-Associated Diseases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.9.png,Figure 21.9 A tetanus patient exhibiting the rigid body posture known as opisthotonos. (credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 21.10,Clostridium-Associated Diseases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.10.png,"Figure 21.10 (a) An electron micrograph of Listeria monocytogenes infecting a host cell. (b) Listeria is able to use host cell components to cause infection. For example, phagocytosis allows it to enter host cells, and the host’s cytoskeleton provides the materials to help the pathogen move to other cells. (credit a: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Keith Ireton)"
Figure 21.3,The Central Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.3.png,"Figure 21.3 The layers of tissue surrounding the human brain include three meningeal membranes: the dura mater, arachnoid mater, and pia mater. (credit: modification of work by National Institutes of Health)"
Figure 21.4,The Cells of the Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.4.png,Figure 21.4 (a) A myelinated neuron is associated with oligodendrocytes. Oligodendrocytes are a type of glial cell that forms the myelin sheath in the CNS that insulates the axon so that electrochemical nerve impulses are transferred more efficiently. (b) A synapse consists of the axonal end of the presynaptic neuron (top) that releases neurotransmitters that cross the synaptic space (or cleft) and bind to receptors on dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron (bottom).
Figure 21.4,The Cells of the Nervous System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-26.4.png,Figure 21.4 (a) A myelinated neuron is associated with oligodendrocytes. Oligodendrocytes are a type of glial cell that forms the myelin sheath in the CNS that insulates the axon so that electrochemical nerve impulses are transferred more efficiently. (b) A synapse consists of the axonal end of the presynaptic neuron (top) that releases neurotransmitters that cross the synaptic space (or cleft) and bind to receptors on dendrites of the postsynaptic neuron (bottom).
Figure 20.18,Malaria,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.27.png,Figure 20.18 The life cycle of Plasmodium. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.19,Malaria,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.28.png,Figure 20.19 A blood smear (human blood stage) shows an early trophozoite in a delicate ring form (upper left) and an early stage schizont form (center) of Plasmodium falciparum from a patient with malaria. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.20,Toxoplasmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.29.png,Figure 20.20 The infectious cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. (credit: “diagram”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “cat”: modification of work by “KaCey97078”/Flickr)
Figure 20.21,Toxoplasmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.30.png,"Figure 20.21 (a) Giemsa-stained Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites from a smear of peritoneal fluid obtained from a mouse inoculated with T. gondii. Tachyzoites are typically crescent shaped with a prominent, centrally placed nucleus. Microscopic cyst containing T. gondii from mouse brain tissue. Thousands of resting parasites (stained red) are contained in a thin parasite cyst wall. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by USDA)"
Figure 20.20,Toxoplasmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.29.png,Figure 20.20 The infectious cycle of Toxoplasma gondii. (credit: “diagram”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “cat”: modification of work by “KaCey97078”/Flickr)
Figure 20.21,Toxoplasmosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.30.png,"Figure 20.21 (a) Giemsa-stained Toxoplasma gondii tachyzoites from a smear of peritoneal fluid obtained from a mouse inoculated with T. gondii. Tachyzoites are typically crescent shaped with a prominent, centrally placed nucleus. Microscopic cyst containing T. gondii from mouse brain tissue. Thousands of resting parasites (stained red) are contained in a thin parasite cyst wall. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by USDA)"
Figure 20.14,Ebola Virus Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.22.png,Figure 20.14 An Ebola virus particle viewed with electron microscopy. These filamentous viruses often exhibit looped or hooked ends. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.15,Human Immunodeficiency Virus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.23.png,Figure 20.15 This micrograph shows HIV particles (green) budding from a lymphocyte (top right). (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.17,Human Immunodeficiency Virus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.25.png,"Figure 20.17 This graph shows the clinical progression of CD4 T cells (blue line), clinical symptoms, and viral RNA (red line) during an HIV infection. (credit: modification of work by Kogan M, and Rappaport J)"
Figure 20.17,Human Immunodeficiency Virus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.25.png,"Figure 20.17 This graph shows the clinical progression of CD4 T cells (blue line), clinical symptoms, and viral RNA (red line) during an HIV infection. (credit: modification of work by Kogan M, and Rappaport J)"
Figure 20.6,Plague,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.9.png,"Figure 20.6 Yersinia pestis, the causative agent of plague, has numerous modes of transmission. The modes are divided into two ecological classes: urban and sylvatic (i.e., forest or rural). The urban cycle primarily involves transmission from infected urban mammals (rats) to humans by flea vectors (brown arrows). The disease may travel between urban centers (purple arrow) if infected rats find their way onto ships or trains. The sylvatic cycle involves mammals more common in nonurban environments. Sylvatic birds and mammals (including humans) may become infected after eating infected mammals (pink arrows) or by flea vectors. Pneumonic transmission occurs between humans or between humans and infected animals through the inhalation of Y. pestis in aerosols. (credit “diagram”: modification of work by Stenseth NC, Atshabar BB, Begon M, Belmain SR, Bertherat E, Carniel E, Gage KL, Leirs H, and Rahalison L; credit “cat”: modification of work by “KaCey97078”/Flickr)"
Figure 20.7,Plague,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.10.png,"Figure 20.7 (a) Yersinia pestis infection can cause inflamed and swollen lymph nodes (buboes), like these in the groin of an infected patient. (b) Septicemic plague caused necrotic toes in this patient. Vascular damage at the extremities causes ischemia and tissue death. (credit a: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 20.7,Plague,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.10.png,"Figure 20.7 (a) Yersinia pestis infection can cause inflamed and swollen lymph nodes (buboes), like these in the groin of an infected patient. (b) Septicemic plague caused necrotic toes in this patient. Vascular damage at the extremities causes ischemia and tissue death. (credit a: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 20.8,Plague,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.11.png,Figure 20.8 This Wright’s stain of a blood sample from a patient with plague shows the characteristic “safety pin” appearance of Yersinia pestis. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.9,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.14.png,"Figure 20.9 This image shows the 2-year life cycle of the black-legged tick, the biological vector of Lyme disease. (credit “mouse”: modification of work by George Shuklin)"
Figure 20.9,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.14.png,"Figure 20.9 This image shows the 2-year life cycle of the black-legged tick, the biological vector of Lyme disease. (credit “mouse”: modification of work by George Shuklin)"
Figure 20.10,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.15.png,"Figure 20.10 (a) A characteristic bull’s eye rash of Lyme disease forms at the site of a tick bite. (b) A darkfield micrograph shows Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 20.10,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.15.png,"Figure 20.10 (a) A characteristic bull’s eye rash of Lyme disease forms at the site of a tick bite. (b) A darkfield micrograph shows Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 20.8,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.11.png,Figure 20.8 This Wright’s stain of a blood sample from a patient with plague shows the characteristic “safety pin” appearance of Yersinia pestis. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 20.9,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.14.png,"Figure 20.9 This image shows the 2-year life cycle of the black-legged tick, the biological vector of Lyme disease. (credit “mouse”: modification of work by George Shuklin)"
Figure 20.10,Lyme Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.15.png,"Figure 20.10 (a) A characteristic bull’s eye rash of Lyme disease forms at the site of a tick bite. (b) A darkfield micrograph shows Borrelia burgdorferi, the causative agent of Lyme disease. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 20.2,The Circulatory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.2.png,"Figure 20.2 The major components of the human circulatory system include the heart, arteries, veins, and capillaries. This network delivers blood to the body’s organs and tissues. (credit top left: modification of work by Mariana Ruiz Villareal; credit bottom right: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)"
Figure 20.3,The Lymphatic System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.3.png,Figure 20.3 The essential components of the human lymphatic system drain fluid away from tissues.
Figure 20.5,The Lymphatic System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.5.png,Figure 20.5 (a) The spleen is a lymphatic organ located in the upper left quadrant of the abdomen near the stomach and left kidney. It contains numerous phagocytes and lymphocytes that combat and prevent circulatory infections by killing and removing pathogens from the blood. (b) Lymph nodes are masses of lymphatic tissue located along the larger lymph vessels. They contain numerous lymphocytes that kill and remove pathogens from lymphatic fluid that drains from surrounding tissues.
Figure 20.3,The Lymphatic System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-25.3.png,Figure 20.3 The essential components of the human lymphatic system drain fluid away from tissues.
Figure 19.17,Ascariasis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.32.png,"Figure 19.17 (a) Adult Ascaris lumbricoides roundworms can cause intestinal blockage. (b) This mass of A. lumbricoides worms was excreted by a child. (c) A micrograph of a fertilized egg of A. lumbricoides. Fertilized eggs can be distinguished from unfertilized eggs because they are round rather than elongated and have a thicker cell wall. (credit a: modification of work by South African Medical Research Council; credit b: modification of work by James Gathany, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 19.18,Pinworms (Enterobiasis),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.34.png,Figure 19.18 (a) E. vermicularis are tiny nematodes commonly called pinworms. (b) This micrograph shows pinworm eggs.
Figure 19.14,Gastroenteritis Caused by Rotaviruses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.24.png,Figure 19.14 Rotaviruses in a fecal sample are visualized using electron microscopy. (credit: Dr. Graham Beards)
Figure 19.14,Gastroenteritis Caused by Rotaviruses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.24.png,Figure 19.14 Rotaviruses in a fecal sample are visualized using electron microscopy. (credit: Dr. Graham Beards)
Figure 19.12,Clostridium difficile,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.21.png,"Figure 19.12 Clostridium difficile is able to colonize the mucous membrane of the colon when the normal microbiota is disrupted. The toxins TcdA and TcdB trigger an immune response, with neutrophils and monocytes migrating from the bloodstream to the site of infection. Over time, inflammation and dead cells contribute to the development of a pseudomembrane. (credit micrograph: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 19.12,Clostridium difficile,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.21.png,"Figure 19.12 Clostridium difficile is able to colonize the mucous membrane of the colon when the normal microbiota is disrupted. The toxins TcdA and TcdB trigger an immune response, with neutrophils and monocytes migrating from the bloodstream to the site of infection. Over time, inflammation and dead cells contribute to the development of a pseudomembrane. (credit micrograph: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 19.7,Dental Caries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.7.png,"Figure 19.7 Tooth decay occurs in stages. When bacterial biofilms (plaque) develop on teeth, the acids produced gradually dissolve the enamel, followed by the dentin. Eventually, if left untreated, the lesion may reach the pulp and cause an abscess. (credit: modification of work by “BruceBlaus”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 19.8,Dental Caries,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.8.png,Figure 19.8 (a) Tartar (dental calculus) is visible at the bases of these teeth. The darker deposits higher on the crowns are staining. (b) This tooth shows only a small amount of visible decay. (c) An X-ray of the same tooth shows that there is a dark area representing more decay inside the tooth. (d) Removal of a portion of the crown reveals the area of damage. (e) All of the cavity must be removed before filling. (credit: modification of work by “DRosenbach”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 19.5,Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the GI Tract,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.5.png,"Figure 19.5 (a) The structure of the wall of the small intestine allows for the majority of nutrient absorption in the body. (b) Villi are folds in the surface of the small intestine. Microvilli are cytoplasmic extensions on individual cells that increase the surface area for absorption. (c) A light micrograph shows the shape of the villi. (d) An electron micrograph shows the shape of the microvilli. (credit b, c, d: Modification of micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 19.5,Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the GI Tract,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.5.png,"Figure 19.5 (a) The structure of the wall of the small intestine allows for the majority of nutrient absorption in the body. (b) Villi are folds in the surface of the small intestine. Microvilli are cytoplasmic extensions on individual cells that increase the surface area for absorption. (c) A light micrograph shows the shape of the villi. (d) An electron micrograph shows the shape of the microvilli. (credit b, c, d: Modification of micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 19.5,Anatomy and Normal Microbiota of the GI Tract,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-24.5.png,"Figure 19.5 (a) The structure of the wall of the small intestine allows for the majority of nutrient absorption in the body. (b) Villi are folds in the surface of the small intestine. Microvilli are cytoplasmic extensions on individual cells that increase the surface area for absorption. (c) A light micrograph shows the shape of the villi. (d) An electron micrograph shows the shape of the microvilli. (credit b, c, d: Modification of micrographs provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 18.16,Protozoan Infection,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.24.png,Figure 18.16 Trichomonas vaginalis is visible in this Gram stained specimen. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)
Figure 18.15,Fungal Infection,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.22.png,"Figure 18.15 Candida can produce germ tubes, like the one in this micrograph, that develop into hyphae. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 18.9,Genital Herpes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.16.png,Figure 18.9 Virions of the herpes simplex virus are shown here in this transmission electron micrograph. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 18.10,Genital Herpes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.17.png,"Figure 18.10 Genital herpes is typically characterized by lesions on the genitals (left), but lesions can also appear elsewhere on the skin or mucous membranes (right). The lesions can be large and painful or small and easily overlooked. (credit b: modification of work by Schiffer JT, Swan D, Al Sallaq R, Magaret A, Johnston C, Mark KE, Selke S, Ocbamichael N, Kuntz S, Zhu J, Robinson B, Huang ML, Jerome KR, Wald A, and Corey)"
Figure 18.11,Human Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.18.png,"Figure 18.11 Genital warts may occur around the anus (left) or genitalia (right). (credit left, right: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 18.12,Human Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.19.png,"Figure 18.12 In this image, the cervical cells on the left are normal and those on the right show enlarged nuclei and hyperchromasia (darkly stained nuclei) typical of HPV-infected koilocytes. (credit: modification of work by Ed Uthman)"
Figure 18.13,Human Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.13-1.png,Figure 18.13 Details associated with two different viral infections of the reproductive tract.
Figure 18.5,Bacterial Vaginitis and Vaginosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.9.png,"Figure 18.5 In this vaginal smear, the cell at the lower left is a clue cell with a unique appearance caused by the presence of bacteria on the cell. The cell on the right is a normal cell."
Figure 18.6,Gonorrhea,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.10.png,"Figure 18.6 (a) Clinical photograph of gonococcal discharge from penis. The lesions on the skin could indicate co- infection with another STI. (b) Purulent discharge originating from the cervix and accumulating in the vagina of a patient with gonorrhea. (c) A micrograph of urethral discharge shows gram-negative diplococci (paired cells) both inside and outside the leukocytes (large cells with lobed nuclei). These results could be used to diagnose gonorrhea in a male patient, but female vaginal samples may contain other Neisseria spp. even if the patient is not infected with gonorrhoeae. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit c: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 18.6,Gonorrhea,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.10.png,"Figure 18.6 (a) Clinical photograph of gonococcal discharge from penis. The lesions on the skin could indicate co- infection with another STI. (b) Purulent discharge originating from the cervix and accumulating in the vagina of a patient with gonorrhea. (c) A micrograph of urethral discharge shows gram-negative diplococci (paired cells) both inside and outside the leukocytes (large cells with lobed nuclei). These results could be used to diagnose gonorrhea in a male patient, but female vaginal samples may contain other Neisseria spp. even if the patient is not infected with gonorrhoeae. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit c: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 18.4,Cystitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.5.png,"Figure 18.4 A urine dipstick is compared against a color key to determine levels of various chemicals, proteins, or cells in the urine. Abnormal levels may indicate an infection. (credit: modification of work by Suzanne Wakim)"
Figure 18.4,Cystitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.5.png,"Figure 18.4 A urine dipstick is compared against a color key to determine levels of various chemicals, proteins, or cells in the urine. Abnormal levels may indicate an infection. (credit: modification of work by Suzanne Wakim)"
Figure 18.2,Anatomy of the Urinary Tract,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.2.png,Figure 18.2 These structures of the human urinary system are present in both males and females.
Figure 18.3,Anatomy of the Reproductive System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.4.png,"Figure 18.3 The female reproductive system is located in close proximity to the urinary system. In males, the urethra is shared by the reproductive and urinary systems."
Figure 18.3,Anatomy of the Reproductive System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.4.png,"Figure 18.3 The female reproductive system is located in close proximity to the urinary system. In males, the urethra is shared by the reproductive and urinary systems."
Figure 18.3,Anatomy of the Reproductive System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-23.4.png,"Figure 18.3 The female reproductive system is located in close proximity to the urinary system. In males, the urethra is shared by the reproductive and urinary systems."
Figure 17.15,Influenza,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.17.png,"Figure 17.15 The illustration shows the structure of an influenza virus. The viral envelope is studded with copies of the proteins neuraminidase and hemagglutinin, and surrounds the individual seven or eight RNA genome segments. (credit: modification of work by Dan Higgins, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.15,Influenza,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.14-1.png,Figure 17.15
Figure 17.16,Measles (Rubeola),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.18.png,"Figure 17.16 (a) Measles typically presents as a raised macular rash that begins on the face and spreads to the extremities. (b) Koplik’s spots on the oral mucosa are also characteristic of measles. (c) A thin-section transmission electron micrograph of a measles virion. (credit a, b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.17,Measles (Rubeola),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.20.png,"Figure 17.17 (a) The characteristic appearance of the pustular chickenpox rash is concentrated on the trunk region. (b) This transmission electron micrograph shows a viroid of human herpesvirus 3, the virus that causes chickenpox in children and shingles when it is reactivated in adults. (credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.18,Measles (Rubeola),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.21.png,Figure 17.18 (a) An individual suffering from shingles. (b) The rash is formed because of the reactivation of a varicella-zoster infection that was initially contracted in childhood. (credit a: modification of work by National Institute of Allergy and Infectious Diseases (NIAID); credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 17.15,Measles (Rubeola),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.17.png,"Figure 17.15 The illustration shows the structure of an influenza virus. The viral envelope is studded with copies of the proteins neuraminidase and hemagglutinin, and surrounds the individual seven or eight RNA genome segments. (credit: modification of work by Dan Higgins, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.15,Measles (Rubeola),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.14-1.png,Figure 17.15
Figure 17.16,Viral Respiratory Diseases Causing Skin Rashes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.18.png,"Figure 17.16 (a) Measles typically presents as a raised macular rash that begins on the face and spreads to the extremities. (b) Koplik’s spots on the oral mucosa are also characteristic of measles. (c) A thin-section transmission electron micrograph of a measles virion. (credit a, b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.17,Viral Respiratory Diseases Causing Skin Rashes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.20.png,"Figure 17.17 (a) The characteristic appearance of the pustular chickenpox rash is concentrated on the trunk region. (b) This transmission electron micrograph shows a viroid of human herpesvirus 3, the virus that causes chickenpox in children and shingles when it is reactivated in adults. (credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.5,Streptococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.5.png,Figure 17.5 This scanning electron micrograph of Streptococcus pyogenes shows the characteristic cellular phenotype resembling chains of cocci. (credit: modification of work by U.S. Centers for Disease Control and Prevention – Medical Illustrator)
Figure 17.6,Streptococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.6.png,Figure 17.6 Streptococcal infections of the respiratory tract may cause localized pharyngitis or systemic signs and symptoms. (a) The characteristic appearance of strep throat: bright red arches of inflammation with the presence of dark-red spots (petechiae). (b) Scarlet fever presents as a rash on the skin. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Alicia Williams)
Figure 17.6,Streptococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.6.png,Figure 17.6 Streptococcal infections of the respiratory tract may cause localized pharyngitis or systemic signs and symptoms. (a) The characteristic appearance of strep throat: bright red arches of inflammation with the presence of dark-red spots (petechiae). (b) Scarlet fever presents as a rash on the skin. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Alicia Williams)
Figure 17.7,Acute Otitis Media,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.7.png,"Figure 17.7 (a) A healthy tympanic membrane; the middle ear bones can be seen behind the membrane. (b) An ear with chronic inflammation that has resulted in a torn membrane, erosion of the inner ear bones, and mucus buildup. (credit a: modification of work by “DrER.tv”/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by Li Mg, Hotez PJ, Vrabec JT, Donovan DT)"
Figure 17.8,Bacterial Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.9.png,Figure 17.8 A chest radiograph of a patient with pneumonia shows the consolidations (lesions) present as opaque patches. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 17.9,Bacterial Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.10.png,"Figure 17.9 (a) This micrograph of Streptococcus pneumoniae grown from a blood culture shows the characteristic lancet-shaped diplococcal morphology. (b) A colorized scanning electron micrograph of S. pneumoniae. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.10,Haemophilus Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.11.png,Figure 17.10 Culture of Haemophilus influenzae on a chocolate agar plate. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 17.11,Haemophilus Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.12.png,Figure 17.11 The micrograph shows Mycoplasma pneumoniae using their specialized receptors to attach to epithelial cells in the trachea of an infected hamster. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)
Figure 17.12,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.13.png,"Figure 17.12 In the infectious cycle of tuberculosis, the immune response of most infected individuals (approximately 90%) results in the formation of tubercles in which the infection is walled off.[footnote]G. Kaplan et al. “Mycobacterium tuberculosis Growth at the Cavity Surface: A Microenvironment with Failed Immunity.” Infection and Immunity 71 no.12 (2003):7099–7108.[/footnote] The remainder will suffer progressive primary tuberculosis. The sequestered bacteria may be reactivated to form secondary tuberculosis in immunocompromised patients at a later time. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.12,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.13.png,"Figure 17.12 In the infectious cycle of tuberculosis, the immune response of most infected individuals (approximately 90%) results in the formation of tubercles in which the infection is walled off.[footnote]G. Kaplan et al. “Mycobacterium tuberculosis Growth at the Cavity Surface: A Microenvironment with Failed Immunity.” Infection and Immunity 71 no.12 (2003):7099–7108.[/footnote] The remainder will suffer progressive primary tuberculosis. The sequestered bacteria may be reactivated to form secondary tuberculosis in immunocompromised patients at a later time. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.13,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.14.png,"Figure 17.13 (a) The Mantoux skin test for tuberculosis involves injecting the subject with tuberculin protein derivative. The injection should initially produce a raised wheal. (b) The test should be read in 48–72 hours. A positive result is indicated by redness, swelling, or hardness; the size of the responding region is measured to determine the final result. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.7,Acute Otitis Media,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.7.png,"Figure 17.7 (a) A healthy tympanic membrane; the middle ear bones can be seen behind the membrane. (b) An ear with chronic inflammation that has resulted in a torn membrane, erosion of the inner ear bones, and mucus buildup. (credit a: modification of work by “DrER.tv”/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by Li Mg, Hotez PJ, Vrabec JT, Donovan DT)"
Figure 17.9,Bacterial Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.10.png,"Figure 17.9 (a) This micrograph of Streptococcus pneumoniae grown from a blood culture shows the characteristic lancet-shaped diplococcal morphology. (b) A colorized scanning electron micrograph of S. pneumoniae. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.10,Bacterial Pneumonia,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.11.png,Figure 17.10 Culture of Haemophilus influenzae on a chocolate agar plate. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 17.12,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.13.png,"Figure 17.12 In the infectious cycle of tuberculosis, the immune response of most infected individuals (approximately 90%) results in the formation of tubercles in which the infection is walled off.[footnote]G. Kaplan et al. “Mycobacterium tuberculosis Growth at the Cavity Surface: A Microenvironment with Failed Immunity.” Infection and Immunity 71 no.12 (2003):7099–7108.[/footnote] The remainder will suffer progressive primary tuberculosis. The sequestered bacteria may be reactivated to form secondary tuberculosis in immunocompromised patients at a later time. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.12,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.13.png,"Figure 17.12 In the infectious cycle of tuberculosis, the immune response of most infected individuals (approximately 90%) results in the formation of tubercles in which the infection is walled off.[footnote]G. Kaplan et al. “Mycobacterium tuberculosis Growth at the Cavity Surface: A Microenvironment with Failed Immunity.” Infection and Immunity 71 no.12 (2003):7099–7108.[/footnote] The remainder will suffer progressive primary tuberculosis. The sequestered bacteria may be reactivated to form secondary tuberculosis in immunocompromised patients at a later time. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.13,Tuberculosis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.14.png,"Figure 17.13 (a) The Mantoux skin test for tuberculosis involves injecting the subject with tuberculin protein derivative. The injection should initially produce a raised wheal. (b) The test should be read in 48–72 hours. A positive result is indicated by redness, swelling, or hardness; the size of the responding region is measured to determine the final result. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 17.2,Anatomy of the Upper Respiratory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.2.png,"Figure 17.2 (a) The ear is connected to the upper respiratory tract by the eustachian tube, which opens to the nasopharynx. (b) The structures of the upper respiratory tract."
Figure 17.2,Anatomy of the Upper Respiratory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.2.png,"Figure 17.2 (a) The ear is connected to the upper respiratory tract by the eustachian tube, which opens to the nasopharynx. (b) The structures of the upper respiratory tract."
Figure 17.3,Anatomy of the Lower Respiratory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.3.png,Figure 17.3 The structures of the lower respiratory tract are identified in this illustration. (credit: modification of work by National Cancer Institute)
Figure 17.3,Anatomy of the Lower Respiratory System,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-22.3.png,Figure 17.3 The structures of the lower respiratory tract are identified in this illustration. (credit: modification of work by National Cancer Institute)
Figure 16.24,Loiasis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.36.png,"Figure 16.24 This Loa loa worm, measuring about 55 mm long, was extracted from the conjunctiva of a patient with loiasis. The Loa loa has a complex life cycle. Biting deerflies native to the rain forests of Central and West Africa transmit the larvae between humans. (credit a: modification of work by Eballe AO, Epée E, Koki G, Owono D, Mvogo CE, Bella AL; credit b: modification of work by NIAID; credit c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Controland Prevention)"
Figure 16.25,Loiasis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.25.png,"Figure 16.25 Details associated with loiasis, a parasitic skin and eye infection."
Figure 16.22,Tineas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.29.png,"Figure 16.22 Tineas are superficial cutaneous mycoses and are common. (a) Tinea barbae (barber’s itch) occurs on the lower face. (b) Tinea pedis (athlete’s foot) occurs on the feet, causing itching, burning, and dry, cracked skin between the toes. (c) A close-up view of tinea corporis (ringworm) caused by Trichophyton mentagrophytes. (credit a, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Al Hasan M, Fitzgerald SM, Saoudian M, Krishnaswamy G)"
Figure 16.19,Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.25.png,Figure 16.19 Warts can vary in shape and in location. (a) Multiple plantar warts have grown on this toe. (b) A filiform wart has grown on this eyelid.
Figure 16.20,Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.26.png,Figure 16.20 This cold sore was caused by HSV-1. (credit: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 16.19,Papillomas,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.25.png,Figure 16.19 Warts can vary in shape and in location. (a) Multiple plantar warts have grown on this toe. (b) A filiform wart has grown on this eyelid.
Figure 16.7,Staphylococcal Infections of the Skin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.9.png,"Figure 16.7 (a) A mannitol salt agar plate is used to distinguish different species of staphylococci. In this plate, S. aureus is on the left and S. epidermidis is in the right. Because S. aureus is capable of fermenting mannitol, it produces acids that cause the color to change to yellow. (b) This scanning electron micrograph shows the characteristic grapelike clusters of S. aureus. (credit a: modification of work by “ScienceProfOnline”/YouTube; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.8,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.10.png,Figure 16.8 Furuncles (boils) and carbuncles are infections of the skin often caused by Staphylococcus bacteria. (a) A furuncle contains pus and exhibits swelling. (b) A carbuncle is a pus-filled lesion that is typically deeper than the furuncle. It often forms from multiple furuncles. (credit a: modification of work by “Mahdouch”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by “Drvgaikwad”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 16.8,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.10.png,Figure 16.8 Furuncles (boils) and carbuncles are infections of the skin often caused by Staphylococcus bacteria. (a) A furuncle contains pus and exhibits swelling. (b) A carbuncle is a pus-filled lesion that is typically deeper than the furuncle. It often forms from multiple furuncles. (credit a: modification of work by “Mahdouch”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by “Drvgaikwad”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 16.9,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.11.png,"Figure 16.9 A newborn with staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), which results in large regions of peeling, dead skin. (credit: modification of work by D Jeyakumari, R Gopal, M Eswaran, and C MaheshKumar)"
Figure 16.10,Impetigo,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.12.png,"Figure 16.10 Impetigo is characterized by vesicles, pustules, or bullae that rupture, producing encrusted sores. (credit: modification of work by FDA)"
Figure 16.11,Streptococcal Infections of the Skin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.13.png,Figure 16.11 Streptococcus pyogenes forms chains of cocci. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 16.12,"Cellulitis, Erysipelas, and Erythema Nosodum",https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.14.png,"Figure 16.12 S. pyogenes can cause a variety of skin conditions once it breaches the skin barrier through a cut or wound. (a) Cellulitis presents as a painful, red rash. (b) Erysipelas presents as a raised rash, usually with clear borders. (c) Erythema nodosum is characterized by red lumps or nodules, typically on the lower legs. (credit a: modification of work by “Bassukas ID, Gaitanis G, Zioga A, Boboyianni C, Stergiopoulou C; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit c: modification of work by Dean C, Crow WT)"
Figure 16.13,Necrotizing Fasciitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.15.png,"Figure 16.13 (a) The left leg of this patient shows the clinical features of necrotizing fasciitis. (b) The same patient’s leg is surgically debrided to remove the infection. (credit a, b: modification of work by Piotr Smuszkiewicz, Iwona Trojanowska, and Hanna Tomczak)"
Figure 16.14,Acne,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.18.png,"Figure 16.14 (a) Acne is characterized by whitehead and blackhead comedones that result from clogged hair follicles. (b) Blackheads, visible as black spots on the skin, have a dark appearance due to the oxidation of lipids in sebum via exposure to the air. (credit a: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)"
Figure 16.15,Anthrax,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.19.png,"Figure 16.15 (a) Cutaneous anthrax is an infection of the skin by B. anthracis, which produces tissue-damaging exotoxins. Dead tissues accumulating in this nodule have produced a small black eschar. (b) Colonies of B. anthracis grown on sheep’s blood agar. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.15,Anthrax,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.19.png,"Figure 16.15 (a) Cutaneous anthrax is an infection of the skin by B. anthracis, which produces tissue-damaging exotoxins. Dead tissues accumulating in this nodule have produced a small black eschar. (b) Colonies of B. anthracis grown on sheep’s blood agar. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.16,Anthrax,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.16-1.png,Figure 16.16. Details associated with various bacterial infections of the skin.
Figure 16.17,Bacterial Conjunctivitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.21.png,"Figure 16.17 Acute, purulent, bacterial conjunctivitis causes swelling and redness in the conjunctiva, the membrane lining the whites of the eyes and the inner eyelids. It is often accompanied by a yellow, green, or white discharge, which can dry and become encrusted on the eyelashes. (credit: “Tanalai”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 16.18,Bacterial Conjunctivitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/08/Fig.-16.18.png,"Figure 16.18 Details associated with acute bacterial conjunctivitis, a bacterial infection of the eyes."
Figure 16.8,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.10.png,Figure 16.8 Furuncles (boils) and carbuncles are infections of the skin often caused by Staphylococcus bacteria. (a) A furuncle contains pus and exhibits swelling. (b) A carbuncle is a pus-filled lesion that is typically deeper than the furuncle. It often forms from multiple furuncles. (credit a: modification of work by “Mahdouch”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by “Drvgaikwad”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 16.8,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.10.png,Figure 16.8 Furuncles (boils) and carbuncles are infections of the skin often caused by Staphylococcus bacteria. (a) A furuncle contains pus and exhibits swelling. (b) A carbuncle is a pus-filled lesion that is typically deeper than the furuncle. It often forms from multiple furuncles. (credit a: modification of work by “Mahdouch”/Wikimedia Commons; credit b: modification of work by “Drvgaikwad”/Wikimedia Commons)
Figure 16.9,Superficial Staphylococcal Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.11.png,"Figure 16.9 A newborn with staphylococcal scalded skin syndrome (SSSS), which results in large regions of peeling, dead skin. (credit: modification of work by D Jeyakumari, R Gopal, M Eswaran, and C MaheshKumar)"
Figure 16.13,Necrotizing Fasciitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.15.png,"Figure 16.13 (a) The left leg of this patient shows the clinical features of necrotizing fasciitis. (b) The same patient’s leg is surgically debrided to remove the infection. (credit a, b: modification of work by Piotr Smuszkiewicz, Iwona Trojanowska, and Hanna Tomczak)"
Figure 16.14,Acne,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.18.png,"Figure 16.14 (a) Acne is characterized by whitehead and blackhead comedones that result from clogged hair follicles. (b) Blackheads, visible as black spots on the skin, have a dark appearance due to the oxidation of lipids in sebum via exposure to the air. (credit a: modification of work by Bruce Blaus)"
Figure 16.15,Anthrax,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.19.png,"Figure 16.15 (a) Cutaneous anthrax is an infection of the skin by B. anthracis, which produces tissue-damaging exotoxins. Dead tissues accumulating in this nodule have produced a small black eschar. (b) Colonies of B. anthracis grown on sheep’s blood agar. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.15,Anthrax,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.19.png,"Figure 16.15 (a) Cutaneous anthrax is an infection of the skin by B. anthracis, which produces tissue-damaging exotoxins. Dead tissues accumulating in this nodule have produced a small black eschar. (b) Colonies of B. anthracis grown on sheep’s blood agar. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.17,Bacterial Conjunctivitis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.21.png,"Figure 16.17 Acute, purulent, bacterial conjunctivitis causes swelling and redness in the conjunctiva, the membrane lining the whites of the eyes and the inner eyelids. It is often accompanied by a yellow, green, or white discharge, which can dry and become encrusted on the eyelashes. (credit: “Tanalai”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 16.2,Layers of the Skin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.2.png,"Figure 16.2 (a) A micrograph of a section through human skin shows the epidermis and dermis. (b) The major layers of human skin are the epidermis, dermis, and hypodermis. (credit b: modification of work by National Cancer Institute)"
Figure 16.3,Normal Microbiota of the Skin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.3.png,"Figure 16.3 The normal microbiota varies on different regions of the skin, especially in dry versus moist areas. The figure shows the major organisms commonly found in different locations of a healthy individual’s skin and external mucosa. Note that there is significant variation among individuals. (credit: modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute)"
Figure 16.4,Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.6.png,Figure 16.4 The lacrimal apparatus includes the structures of the eye associated with tear production and drainage. (credit: modification of work by “Evidence Based Medical Educator Inc.”/YouTube)
Figure 16.5,Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.7.png,"Figure 16.5 Some microbes live on the conjunctiva of the human eye, but the vitreous humor is sterile."
Figure 16.6,Infections of the Eye,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.8.png,"Figure 16.6 (a) Conjunctivitis is inflammation of the conjunctiva. (b) Blepharitis is inflammation of the eyelids. (c) Keratitis is inflammation of the cornea. (credit a: modification of work by Lopez-Prats MJ, Sanz Marco E, Hidalgo- Mora JJ, Garcia-Delpech S, Diaz-Llopis M; credit b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 16.3,Normal Microbiota of the Skin,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.3.png,"Figure 16.3 The normal microbiota varies on different regions of the skin, especially in dry versus moist areas. The figure shows the major organisms commonly found in different locations of a healthy individual’s skin and external mucosa. Note that there is significant variation among individuals. (credit: modification of work by National Human Genome Research Institute)"
Figure 16.4,Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.6.png,Figure 16.4 The lacrimal apparatus includes the structures of the eye associated with tear production and drainage. (credit: modification of work by “Evidence Based Medical Educator Inc.”/YouTube)
Figure 16.5,Anatomy and Microbiota of the Eye,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-21.7.png,"Figure 16.5 Some microbes live on the conjunctiva of the human eye, but the vitreous humor is sterile."
Figure 15.11,Autoimmune Addison Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.15.png,Figure 15.11 Hyperpigmentation is a sign of Addison disease. (credit: modification of work by Petros Perros)
Figure 15.12,Rheumatoid Arthritis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.17.png,Figure 15.12 The radiograph (left) and photograph (right) show damage to the hands typical of rheumatoid arthritis. (credit right: modification of work by “handarmdoc”/Flickr)
Figure 15.13,Systemic Lupus Erythematosus,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.18.png,"Figure 15.13 (a) Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by autoimmunity to the individual’s own DNA and/ or proteins. (b) This patient is presenting with a butterfly rash, one of the characteristic signs of lupus. (credit a: modification of work by Mikael Häggström; credit b: modification of work by Shrestha D, Dhakal AK, Shiva RK, Shakya A, Shah SC, Shakya H)"
Figure 15.12,Systemic Autoimmune Diseases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.17.png,Figure 15.12 The radiograph (left) and photograph (right) show damage to the hands typical of rheumatoid arthritis. (credit right: modification of work by “handarmdoc”/Flickr)
Figure 15.13,Systemic Autoimmune Diseases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.18.png,"Figure 15.13 (a) Systemic lupus erythematosus is characterized by autoimmunity to the individual’s own DNA and/ or proteins. (b) This patient is presenting with a butterfly rash, one of the characteristic signs of lupus. (credit a: modification of work by Mikael Häggström; credit b: modification of work by Shrestha D, Dhakal AK, Shiva RK, Shakya A, Shah SC, Shakya H)"
Figure 15.2,Type I Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.2.png,"Figure 15.2 (a) Allergens in plant pollen, shown here in a colorized electron micrograph, may trigger allergic rhinitis or hay fever in sensitive individuals. (b) Skin rashes are often associated with allergic reactions. (c) Peanuts can be eaten safely by most people but can provoke severe allergic reactions in sensitive individuals."
Figure 15.3,Type I Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.3.png,"Figure 15.3 On first exposure to an allergen in a susceptible individual, antigen-presenting cells process and present allergen epitopes with major histocompatibility complex (MHC) II to T helper cells. B cells also process and present the same allergen epitope to TH2 cells, which release cytokines IL-4 and IL-13 to stimulate proliferation and differentiation into IgE-secreting plasma cells. The IgE molecules bind to mast cells with their Fc region, sensitizing the mast cells for activation with subsequent exposure to the allergen. With each subsequent exposure, the allergen cross-links IgE molecules on the mast cells, activating the mast cells and causing the release of preformed chemical mediators from granules (degranulation), as well as newly formed chemical mediators that collectively cause the signs and symptoms of type I hypersensitivity reactions."
Figure 15.4,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2023/04/Figure-15.4v2.png,Figure 15.4. This figure shows the isohemagglutinins and antigens associated with the different human blood types.
Figure 15.4,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2023/04/Figure-15.4v2.png,Figure 15.4. This figure shows the isohemagglutinins and antigens associated with the different human blood types.
Figure 15.5,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.5.png,"Figure 15.5 A type II hypersensitivity hemolytic transfusion reaction (HTR) leading to hemolytic anemia. Blood from a type A donor is administered to a patient with type B blood. The anti-A isohemagglutinin IgM antibodies in the recipient bind to and agglutinate the incoming donor type A red blood cells. The bound anti-A antibodies activate the classical complement cascade, resulting in destruction of the donor red blood cells."
Figure 15.6,Rh Factors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.6.png,"Figure 15.6 (a) When an Rh− mother has an Rh+ fetus, fetal erythrocytes are introduced into the mother ’s circulatory system before or during birth, leading to production of anti-Rh IgG antibodies. These antibodies remain in the mother and, if she becomes pregnant with a second Rh+ baby, they can cross the placenta and attach to fetal Rh+ erythrocytes. Complement-mediated hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes results in a lack of sufficient cells for proper oxygenation of the fetus. (b) HDN can be prevented by administering Rho(D) immune globulin during and after each pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus. The immune globulin binds fetal Rh+ RBCs that gain access to the mother ’s bloodstream, preventing activation of her primary immune response."
Figure 15.6,Rh Factors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.6.png,"Figure 15.6 (a) When an Rh− mother has an Rh+ fetus, fetal erythrocytes are introduced into the mother ’s circulatory system before or during birth, leading to production of anti-Rh IgG antibodies. These antibodies remain in the mother and, if she becomes pregnant with a second Rh+ baby, they can cross the placenta and attach to fetal Rh+ erythrocytes. Complement-mediated hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes results in a lack of sufficient cells for proper oxygenation of the fetus. (b) HDN can be prevented by administering Rho(D) immune globulin during and after each pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus. The immune globulin binds fetal Rh+ RBCs that gain access to the mother ’s bloodstream, preventing activation of her primary immune response."
Figure 15.7,Type III Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.7.png,"Figure 15.7 Type III hypersensitivities and the systems they affect. (a) Immune complexes form and deposit in tissue. Complement activation, stimulation of an inflammatory response, and recruitment and activation of neutrophils result in damage to blood vessels, heart tissue, joints, skin, and/or kidneys. (b) If the kidneys are damaged by a type III hypersensitivity reaction, dialysis may be required."
Figure 15.8,Type IV Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.8.png,"Figure 15.8 Exposure to hapten antigens in poison ivy can cause contact dermatitis, a type IV hypersensitivity. (a) The first exposure to poison ivy does not result in a reaction. However, sensitization stimulates helper T cells, leading to production of memory helper T cells that can become reactivated on future exposures. (b) Upon secondary exposure, the memory helper T cells become reactivated, producing inflammatory cytokines that stimulate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells to induce an inflammatory lesion at the exposed site. This lesion, which will persist until the allergen is removed, can inflict significant tissue damage if it continues long enough."
Figure 15.4,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2023/04/Figure-15.4v2.png,Figure 15.4. This figure shows the isohemagglutinins and antigens associated with the different human blood types.
Figure 15.6,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.6.png,"Figure 15.6 (a) When an Rh− mother has an Rh+ fetus, fetal erythrocytes are introduced into the mother ’s circulatory system before or during birth, leading to production of anti-Rh IgG antibodies. These antibodies remain in the mother and, if she becomes pregnant with a second Rh+ baby, they can cross the placenta and attach to fetal Rh+ erythrocytes. Complement-mediated hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes results in a lack of sufficient cells for proper oxygenation of the fetus. (b) HDN can be prevented by administering Rho(D) immune globulin during and after each pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus. The immune globulin binds fetal Rh+ RBCs that gain access to the mother ’s bloodstream, preventing activation of her primary immune response."
Figure 15.6,Type II (Cytotoxic) Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.6.png,"Figure 15.6 (a) When an Rh− mother has an Rh+ fetus, fetal erythrocytes are introduced into the mother ’s circulatory system before or during birth, leading to production of anti-Rh IgG antibodies. These antibodies remain in the mother and, if she becomes pregnant with a second Rh+ baby, they can cross the placenta and attach to fetal Rh+ erythrocytes. Complement-mediated hemolysis of fetal erythrocytes results in a lack of sufficient cells for proper oxygenation of the fetus. (b) HDN can be prevented by administering Rho(D) immune globulin during and after each pregnancy with an Rh+ fetus. The immune globulin binds fetal Rh+ RBCs that gain access to the mother ’s bloodstream, preventing activation of her primary immune response."
Figure 15.7,Type III Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.7.png,"Figure 15.7 Type III hypersensitivities and the systems they affect. (a) Immune complexes form and deposit in tissue. Complement activation, stimulation of an inflammatory response, and recruitment and activation of neutrophils result in damage to blood vessels, heart tissue, joints, skin, and/or kidneys. (b) If the kidneys are damaged by a type III hypersensitivity reaction, dialysis may be required."
Figure 15.8,Type IV Hypersensitivities,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-19.8.png,"Figure 15.8 Exposure to hapten antigens in poison ivy can cause contact dermatitis, a type IV hypersensitivity. (a) The first exposure to poison ivy does not result in a reaction. However, sensitization stimulates helper T cells, leading to production of memory helper T cells that can become reactivated on future exposures. (b) Upon secondary exposure, the memory helper T cells become reactivated, producing inflammatory cytokines that stimulate macrophages and cytotoxic T cells to induce an inflammatory lesion at the exposed site. This lesion, which will persist until the allergen is removed, can inflict significant tissue damage if it continues long enough."
Figure 14.24,Classifications of Adaptive Immunity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.24.png,"Figure 14.24 The four classifications of immunity. (credit top left photo: modification of work by USDA; credit top right photo: modification of work by “Michaelberry”/Wikimedia; credit bottom left photo: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit bottom right photo: modification of work by Friskila Silitonga, Indonesia, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 14.25,Variolation and Vaccination,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.26.png,"Figure 14.25 (a) A painting of Edward Jenner depicts a cow and a milkmaid in the background. (b) Lesions on a patient infected with cowpox, a zoonotic disease caused by a virus closely related to the one that causes smallpox. (credit b: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 14.24,Classifications of Adaptive Immunity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.24.png,"Figure 14.24 The four classifications of immunity. (credit top left photo: modification of work by USDA; credit top right photo: modification of work by “Michaelberry”/Wikimedia; credit bottom left photo: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit bottom right photo: modification of work by Friskila Silitonga, Indonesia, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 14.25,Variolation and Vaccination,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.26.png,"Figure 14.25 (a) A painting of Edward Jenner depicts a cow and a milkmaid in the background. (b) Lesions on a patient infected with cowpox, a zoonotic disease caused by a virus closely related to the one that causes smallpox. (credit b: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 14.20,B-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.20.png,Figure 14.20 B-cell receptors are embedded in the membranes of B cells. The variable regions of all of the receptors on a single cell bind the same specific antigen.
Figure 14.21,B-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.21.png,"Figure 14.21 T-independent antigens have repeating epitopes that can induce B cell recognition and activation without involvement from T cells. A second signal, such as interaction of TLRs with PAMPs (not shown), is also required for activation of the B cell. Once activated, the B cell proliferates and differentiates into antibody-secreting plasma cells."
Figure 14.21,B-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.21.png,"Figure 14.21 T-independent antigens have repeating epitopes that can induce B cell recognition and activation without involvement from T cells. A second signal, such as interaction of TLRs with PAMPs (not shown), is also required for activation of the B cell. Once activated, the B cell proliferates and differentiates into antibody-secreting plasma cells."
Figure 14.22,B-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.22.png,"Figure 14.22 In T cell-dependent activation of B cells, the B cell recognizes and internalizes an antigen and presents it to a helper T cell that is specific to the same antigen. The helper T cell interacts with the antigen presented by the B cell, which activates the T cell and stimulates the release of cytokines that then activate the B cell. Activation of the B cell triggers proliferation and differentiation into B cells and plasma cells."
Figure 14.23,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.23.png,"Figure 14.23 Compared to the primary response, the secondary antibody response occurs more quickly and produces antibody levels that are higher and more sustained. The secondary response mostly involves IgG."
Figure 14.23,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.23.png,"Figure 14.23 Compared to the primary response, the secondary antibody response occurs more quickly and produces antibody levels that are higher and more sustained. The secondary response mostly involves IgG."
Figure 14.21,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.21.png,"Figure 14.21 T-independent antigens have repeating epitopes that can induce B cell recognition and activation without involvement from T cells. A second signal, such as interaction of TLRs with PAMPs (not shown), is also required for activation of the B cell. Once activated, the B cell proliferates and differentiates into antibody-secreting plasma cells."
Figure 14.21,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.21.png,"Figure 14.21 T-independent antigens have repeating epitopes that can induce B cell recognition and activation without involvement from T cells. A second signal, such as interaction of TLRs with PAMPs (not shown), is also required for activation of the B cell. Once activated, the B cell proliferates and differentiates into antibody-secreting plasma cells."
Figure 14.22,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.22.png,"Figure 14.22 In T cell-dependent activation of B cells, the B cell recognizes and internalizes an antigen and presents it to a helper T cell that is specific to the same antigen. The helper T cell interacts with the antigen presented by the B cell, which activates the T cell and stimulates the release of cytokines that then activate the B cell. Activation of the B cell triggers proliferation and differentiation into B cells and plasma cells."
Figure 14.23,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.23.png,"Figure 14.23 Compared to the primary response, the secondary antibody response occurs more quickly and produces antibody levels that are higher and more sustained. The secondary response mostly involves IgG."
Figure 14.23,Primary and Secondary Responses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.23.png,"Figure 14.23 Compared to the primary response, the secondary antibody response occurs more quickly and produces antibody levels that are higher and more sustained. The secondary response mostly involves IgG."
Figure 14.14,T Cell Production and Maturation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.14.png,"Figure 14.14 (a) Red bone marrow can be found in the head of the femur (thighbone) and is also present in the flat bones of the body, such as the ilium and the scapula. (b) Red bone marrow is the site of production and differentiation of many formed elements of blood, including erythrocytes, leukocytes, and platelets. The yellow bone marrow is populated primarily with adipose cells."
Figure 14.15,T Cell Production and Maturation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.15.png,"Figure 14.15 The thymus is a bi-lobed, H-shaped glandular organ that is located just above the heart. It is surrounded by a fibrous capsule of connective tissue. The darkly staining cortex and the lighter staining medulla of individual lobules are clearly visible in the light micrograph of the thymus of a newborn (top right, LM × 100). (credit micrograph: modification of micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 14.16,T-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.16.png,Figure 14.16 A T-cell receptor spans the cytoplasmic membrane and projects variable binding regions into the extracellular space to bind processed antigens associated with MHC I or MHC II molecules.
Figure 14.17,Activation and Differentiation of Helper T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.17.png,Figure 14.17 This illustration depicts the activation of a naïve (unactivated) helper T cell by an antigen-presenting cell and the subsequent proliferation and differentiation of the activated T cell into different subtypes.
Figure 14.18,Activation and Differentiation of Cytotoxic T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.18.png,"Figure 14.18 This figure illustrates the activation of a naïve (unactivated) cytotoxic T cell (CTL) by an antigen- presenting MHC I molecule on an infected body cell. Once activated, the CTL releases perforin and granzymes that invade the infected cell and induce controlled cell death, or apoptosis."
Figure 14.19,Superantigens and Unregulated Activation of T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.19.png,"Figure 14.19 (a) The macrophage in this figure is presenting a foreign epitope that does not match the TCR of the T cell. Because the T cell does not recognize the epitope, it is not activated. (b) The macrophage in this figure is presenting a superantigen that is not recognized by the TCR of the T cell, yet the superantigen still is able to bridge and bind the MHC II and TCR molecules. This nonspecific, uncontrolled activation of the T cell results in an excessive release of cytokines that activate other T cells and cause excessive inflammation. (credit: modification of work by “Microbiotic”/YouTube)"
Figure 14.15,T Cell Production and Maturation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.15.png,"Figure 14.15 The thymus is a bi-lobed, H-shaped glandular organ that is located just above the heart. It is surrounded by a fibrous capsule of connective tissue. The darkly staining cortex and the lighter staining medulla of individual lobules are clearly visible in the light micrograph of the thymus of a newborn (top right, LM × 100). (credit micrograph: modification of micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 14.16,T-Cell Receptors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.16.png,Figure 14.16 A T-cell receptor spans the cytoplasmic membrane and projects variable binding regions into the extracellular space to bind processed antigens associated with MHC I or MHC II molecules.
Figure 14.17,Activation and Differentiation of Helper T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.17.png,Figure 14.17 This illustration depicts the activation of a naïve (unactivated) helper T cell by an antigen-presenting cell and the subsequent proliferation and differentiation of the activated T cell into different subtypes.
Figure 14.18,Activation and Differentiation of Cytotoxic T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.18.png,"Figure 14.18 This figure illustrates the activation of a naïve (unactivated) cytotoxic T cell (CTL) by an antigen- presenting MHC I molecule on an infected body cell. Once activated, the CTL releases perforin and granzymes that invade the infected cell and induce controlled cell death, or apoptosis."
Figure 14.19,Superantigens and Unregulated Activation of T Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.19.png,"Figure 14.19 (a) The macrophage in this figure is presenting a foreign epitope that does not match the TCR of the T cell. Because the T cell does not recognize the epitope, it is not activated. (b) The macrophage in this figure is presenting a superantigen that is not recognized by the TCR of the T cell, yet the superantigen still is able to bridge and bind the MHC II and TCR molecules. This nonspecific, uncontrolled activation of the T cell results in an excessive release of cytokines that activate other T cells and cause excessive inflammation. (credit: modification of work by “Microbiotic”/YouTube)"
Figure 14.11,Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.11.png,"Figure 14.11 MHC I are found on all nucleated body cells, and MHC II are found on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells (along with MHC I). The antigen-binding cleft of MHC I is formed by domains α1 and α2. The antigen- binding cleft of MHC II is formed by domains α1 and β1."
Figure 14.11,Major Histocompatibility Complex Molecules,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.11.png,"Figure 14.11 MHC I are found on all nucleated body cells, and MHC II are found on macrophages, dendritic cells, and B cells (along with MHC I). The antigen-binding cleft of MHC I is formed by domains α1 and α2. The antigen- binding cleft of MHC II is formed by domains α1 and β1."
Figure 14.12,Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.12.png,"Figure 14.12 A dendritic cell phagocytoses a bacterial cell and brings it into a phagosome. Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome to create a phagolysosome, where antimicrobial chemicals and enzymes degrade the bacterial cell. Proteases process bacterial antigens, and the most antigenic epitopes are selected and presented on the cell’s surface in conjunction with MHC II molecules. T cells recognize the presented antigens and are thus activated."
Figure 14.12,Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.12.png,"Figure 14.12 A dendritic cell phagocytoses a bacterial cell and brings it into a phagosome. Lysosomes fuse with the phagosome to create a phagolysosome, where antimicrobial chemicals and enzymes degrade the bacterial cell. Proteases process bacterial antigens, and the most antigenic epitopes are selected and presented on the cell’s surface in conjunction with MHC II molecules. T cells recognize the presented antigens and are thus activated."
Figure 14.2,Antigen-Presenting Cells (APCs),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.2.png,Figure 14.2 This graph illustrates the primary and secondary immune responses related to antibody production after an initial and secondary exposure to an antigen. Notice that the secondary response is faster and provides a much higher concentration of antibody.
Figure 14.3,Antigens,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.3.png,Figure 14.3 An antigen is a macromolecule that reacts with components of the immune system. A given antigen may contain several motifs that are recognized by immune cells.
Figure 14.5,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.5.png,Figure 14.5 (a) The typical four-chain structure of a generic antibody monomer. (b) The corresponding three- dimensional structure of the antibody IgG. (credit b: modification of work by Tim Vickers)
Figure 14.6,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.6.png,Figure 14.6 Details associated with the different human antibodies or immunoglobulin (Ig) classes.
Figure 14.7,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.7.png,"Figure 14.7 Neutralization involves the binding of specific antibodies to antigens found on bacteria, viruses, and toxins, preventing them from attaching to target cells."
Figure 14.8,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.8.png,"Figure 14.8 Antibodies serve as opsonins and inhibit infection by tagging pathogens for destruction by macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. These phagocytic cells use Fc receptors to bind to IgG-opsonized pathogens and initiate the first step of attachment before phagocytosis."
Figure 14.9,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.9.png,"Figure 14.9 Antibodies, especially IgM antibodies, agglutinate bacteria by binding to epitopes on two or more bacteria simultaneously. When multiple pathogens and antibodies are present, aggregates form when the binding sites of antibodies bind with separate pathogens."
Figure 14.10,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.10.png,"Figure 14.10 In this example of ADCC, antibodies bind to a large pathogenic cell that is too big for phagocytosis and then bind to Fc receptors on the membrane of a natural killer cell. This interaction brings the NK cell into close proximity, where it can kill the pathogen through release of lethal extracellular cytotoxins."
Figure 14.3,Antigens,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.3.png,Figure 14.3 An antigen is a macromolecule that reacts with components of the immune system. A given antigen may contain several motifs that are recognized by immune cells.
Figure 14.5,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.5.png,Figure 14.5 (a) The typical four-chain structure of a generic antibody monomer. (b) The corresponding three- dimensional structure of the antibody IgG. (credit b: modification of work by Tim Vickers)
Figure 14.6,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.6.png,Figure 14.6 Details associated with the different human antibodies or immunoglobulin (Ig) classes.
Figure 14.7,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.7.png,"Figure 14.7 Neutralization involves the binding of specific antibodies to antigens found on bacteria, viruses, and toxins, preventing them from attaching to target cells."
Figure 14.8,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.8.png,"Figure 14.8 Antibodies serve as opsonins and inhibit infection by tagging pathogens for destruction by macrophages, dendritic cells, and neutrophils. These phagocytic cells use Fc receptors to bind to IgG-opsonized pathogens and initiate the first step of attachment before phagocytosis."
Figure 14.9,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.9.png,"Figure 14.9 Antibodies, especially IgM antibodies, agglutinate bacteria by binding to epitopes on two or more bacteria simultaneously. When multiple pathogens and antibodies are present, aggregates form when the binding sites of antibodies bind with separate pathogens."
Figure 14.10,Antibodies,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-18.10.png,"Figure 14.10 In this example of ADCC, antibodies bind to a large pathogenic cell that is too big for phagocytosis and then bind to Fc receptors on the membrane of a natural killer cell. This interaction brings the NK cell into close proximity, where it can kill the pathogen through release of lethal extracellular cytotoxins."
Figure 13.15,Acute Inflammation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.23.png,"Figure 13.15 (a) Mast cells detect injury to nearby cells and release histamine, initiating an inflammatory response. Histamine increases blood flow to the wound site, and increased vascular permeability allows fluid, proteins, phagocytes, and other immune cells to enter infected tissue. These events result in the swelling and reddening of the injured site, and the increased blood flow to the injured site causes it to feel warm. Inflammation is also associated with pain due to these events stimulating nerve pain receptors in the tissue. The interaction of phagocyte PRRs with cellular distress signals and PAMPs and opsonins on the surface of pathogens leads to the release of more proinflammatory chemicals, enhancing the inflammatory response."
Figure 13.16,Chronic Inflammation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.24.png,"Figure 13.16 A tubercle is a granuloma in the lung tissue of a patient with tuberculosis. In this micrograph, white blood cells (stained purple) have walled off a pocket of tissue infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Granulomas also occur in many other forms of disease. (credit: modification of work by Piotrowski WJ, Górski P, Duda-Szymańska J, Kwiatkowska S)"
Figure 13.16,Chronic Inflammation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.24.png,"Figure 13.16 A tubercle is a granuloma in the lung tissue of a patient with tuberculosis. In this micrograph, white blood cells (stained purple) have walled off a pocket of tissue infected with Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Granulomas also occur in many other forms of disease. (credit: modification of work by Piotrowski WJ, Górski P, Duda-Szymańska J, Kwiatkowska S)"
Figure 13.13,Pathogen Recognition,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.20.png,"Figure 13.13 Phagocytic cells contain pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) capable of recognizing various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These PRRs can be found on the plasma membrane or in internal phagosomes. When a PRR recognizes a PAMP, it sends a signal to the nucleus that activates genes involved in phagocytosis, cellular proliferation, production and secretion of antiviral interferons and proinflammatory cytokines, and enhanced intracellular killing."
Figure 13.14,Pathogen Degradation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.21.png,"Figure 13.14 The stages of phagocytosis include the engulfment of a pathogen, the formation of a phagosome, the digestion of the pathogenic particle in the phagolysosome, and the expulsion of undigested materials from the cell."
Figure 13.13,Pathogen Recognition,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.20.png,"Figure 13.13 Phagocytic cells contain pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) capable of recognizing various pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These PRRs can be found on the plasma membrane or in internal phagosomes. When a PRR recognizes a PAMP, it sends a signal to the nucleus that activates genes involved in phagocytosis, cellular proliferation, production and secretion of antiviral interferons and proinflammatory cytokines, and enhanced intracellular killing."
Figure 13.14,Pathogen Degradation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.21.png,"Figure 13.14 The stages of phagocytosis include the engulfment of a pathogen, the formation of a phagosome, the digestion of the pathogenic particle in the phagolysosome, and the expulsion of undigested materials from the cell."
Figure 13.9,Hematopoiesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.12.png,Figure 13.9 All the formed elements of the blood arise by differentiation of hematopoietic stem cells in the bone marrow.
Figure 13.10,Basophils,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.14.png,Figure 13.10 Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)
Figure 13.11,Mast Cells,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.15.png,"Figure 13.11 Mast cells function similarly to basophils by inducing and promoting inflammatory responses. (a) This figure shows mast cells in blood. In a blood smear, they are difficult to differentiate from basophils (b). Unlike basophils, mast cells migrate from the blood into various tissues. (credit right: modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)"
Figure 13.12,Monocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.18.png,"Figure 13.12 Monocytes are large, agranular white blood cells with a nucleus that lacks lobes. When monocytes leave the bloodstream, they differentiate and become macrophages with tissue-specific properties. (credit left: modification of work by Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; credit right: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 13.10,Granulocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.14.png,Figure 13.10 Granulocytes can be distinguished by the number of lobes in their nuclei and the staining properties of their granules. (credit “neutrophil” micrograph: modification of work by Ed Uthman)
Figure 13.11,Granulocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.15.png,"Figure 13.11 Mast cells function similarly to basophils by inducing and promoting inflammatory responses. (a) This figure shows mast cells in blood. In a blood smear, they are difficult to differentiate from basophils (b). Unlike basophils, mast cells migrate from the blood into various tissues. (credit right: modification of work by Greenland JR, Xu X, Sayah DM, Liu FC, Jones KD, Looney MR, Caughey GH)"
Figure 13.12,Agranulocytes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.18.png,"Figure 13.12 Monocytes are large, agranular white blood cells with a nucleus that lacks lobes. When monocytes leave the bloodstream, they differentiate and become macrophages with tissue-specific properties. (credit left: modification of work by Armed Forces Institute of Pathology; credit right: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 13.7,Chemical and Enzymatic Mediators Found in Body Fluids,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.8.png,"Figure 13.7 Sebaceous glands secrete sebum, a chemical mediator that lubricates and protect the skin from invading microbes. Sebum is also a food source for resident microbes that produce oleic acid, an exogenously produced mediator. (credit micrograph: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)"
Figure 13.8,Cytokines,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.11.png,"Figure 13.8 Interferons are cytokines released by a cell infected with a virus. Interferon-α and interferon-β signal uninfected neighboring cells to inhibit mRNA synthesis, destroy RNA, and reduce protein synthesis (top arrow).Interferon-α and interferon-β also promote apoptosis in cells infected with the virus (middle arrow). Interferon-γ alerts neighboring immune cells to an attack (bottom arrow). Although interferons do not cure the cell releasing them or other infected cells, which will soon die, their release may prevent additional cells from becoming infected, thus stemming the infection."
Figure 13.8,Plasma Protein Mediators,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.11.png,"Figure 13.8 Interferons are cytokines released by a cell infected with a virus. Interferon-α and interferon-β signal uninfected neighboring cells to inhibit mRNA synthesis, destroy RNA, and reduce protein synthesis (top arrow).Interferon-α and interferon-β also promote apoptosis in cells infected with the virus (middle arrow). Interferon-γ alerts neighboring immune cells to an attack (bottom arrow). Although interferons do not cure the cell releasing them or other infected cells, which will soon die, their release may prevent additional cells from becoming infected, thus stemming the infection."
Figure 13.2,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.3.png,"Figure 13.2 Human skin has three layers, the epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis, which provide a thick barrier between microbes outside the body and deeper tissues. Dead skin cells on the surface of the epidermis are continually shed, taking with them microbes on the skin’s surface. (credit: modification of work by National Institutes of Health)"
Figure 13.3,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.4.jpg,"Figure 13.3 Rose gardener’s disease can occur when the fungus Sporothrix schenkii breaches the skin through small cuts, such as might be inflicted by thorns. (credit left: modification of work by Elisa Self; credit right: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 13.4,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.5.png,"Figure 13.4 This scanning electron micrograph shows ciliated and nonciliated epithelial cells from the human trachea. The mucociliary escalator pushes mucus away from the lungs, along with any debris or microorganisms that may be trapped in the sticky mucus, and the mucus moves up to the esophagus where it can be removed by swallowing."
Figure 13.5,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.6.png,Figure 13.5 Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus. The arrows in this micrograph point to the mucus-secreting goblet cells (magnification 1600⨯) in the intestinal epithelium. (credit micrograph: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 13.6,Mechanical Defenses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.7.png,"Figure 13.6 Tears flush microbes away from the surface of the eye. Urine washes microbes out of the urinary tract as it passes through; as a result, the urinary system is normally sterile."
Figure 13.2,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.3.png,"Figure 13.2 Human skin has three layers, the epidermis, the dermis, and the hypodermis, which provide a thick barrier between microbes outside the body and deeper tissues. Dead skin cells on the surface of the epidermis are continually shed, taking with them microbes on the skin’s surface. (credit: modification of work by National Institutes of Health)"
Figure 13.4,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.5.png,"Figure 13.4 This scanning electron micrograph shows ciliated and nonciliated epithelial cells from the human trachea. The mucociliary escalator pushes mucus away from the lungs, along with any debris or microorganisms that may be trapped in the sticky mucus, and the mucus moves up to the esophagus where it can be removed by swallowing."
Figure 13.5,Physical Barriers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.6.png,Figure 13.5 Goblet cells produce and secrete mucus. The arrows in this micrograph point to the mucus-secreting goblet cells (magnification 1600⨯) in the intestinal epithelium. (credit micrograph: Micrograph provided by the Regents of University of Michigan Medical School © 2012)
Figure 13.6,Mechanical Defenses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-17.7.png,"Figure 13.6 Tears flush microbes away from the surface of the eye. Urine washes microbes out of the urinary tract as it passes through; as a result, the urinary system is normally sterile."
Figure 12.14,Emerging and Reemerging Infectious Diseases,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.16.png,"Figure 12.14 Even before the Ebola epidemic of 2014–15, Ebola was considered an emerging disease because of several smaller outbreaks between the mid-1990s and 2000s."
Figure 12.9,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.9.png,"Figure 12.9 Direct contact transmission of pathogens can occur through physical contact. Many pathogens require contact with a mucous membrane to enter the body, but the host may transfer the pathogen from another point of contact (e.g., hand) to a mucous membrane (e.g., mouth or eye). (credit left: modification of work by Lisa Doehnert)"
Figure 12.10,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.10.png,"Figure 12.10 Fomites are nonliving objects that facilitate the indirect transmission of pathogens. Contaminated doorknobs, towels, and syringes are all common examples of fomites. (credit left: modification of work by Kate Ter Haar; credit middle: modification of work by Vernon Swanepoel; credit right: modification of work by “Zaldylmg”/Flickr)"
Figure 12.11,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.11.png,"Figure 12.11 Food is an important vehicle of transmission for pathogens, especially of the gastrointestinal and upper respiratory systems. Notice the glass shield above the food trays, designed to prevent pathogens ejected in coughs and sneezes from entering the food. (credit: Fort George G. Meade Public Affairs Office)"
Figure 12.12,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.12.png,"Figure 12.12 (a) A mechanical vector carries a pathogen on its body from one host to another, not as an infection. (b) A biological vector carries a pathogen from one host to another after becoming infected itself."
Figure 12.12,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.12.png,"Figure 12.12 (a) A mechanical vector carries a pathogen on its body from one host to another, not as an infection. (b) A biological vector carries a pathogen from one host to another after becoming infected itself."
Figure 12.13,Quarantining,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.15.png,"Figure 12.13 (a) The Aeromedical Biological Containment System (ABCS) is a module designed by the CDC and Department of Defense specifically for transporting highly contagious patients by air. (b) An isolation ward for Ebola patients in Lagos, Nigeria. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by CDC Global)"
Figure 12.9,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.9.png,"Figure 12.9 Direct contact transmission of pathogens can occur through physical contact. Many pathogens require contact with a mucous membrane to enter the body, but the host may transfer the pathogen from another point of contact (e.g., hand) to a mucous membrane (e.g., mouth or eye). (credit left: modification of work by Lisa Doehnert)"
Figure 12.10,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.10.png,"Figure 12.10 Fomites are nonliving objects that facilitate the indirect transmission of pathogens. Contaminated doorknobs, towels, and syringes are all common examples of fomites. (credit left: modification of work by Kate Ter Haar; credit middle: modification of work by Vernon Swanepoel; credit right: modification of work by “Zaldylmg”/Flickr)"
Figure 12.11,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.11.png,"Figure 12.11 Food is an important vehicle of transmission for pathogens, especially of the gastrointestinal and upper respiratory systems. Notice the glass shield above the food trays, designed to prevent pathogens ejected in coughs and sneezes from entering the food. (credit: Fort George G. Meade Public Affairs Office)"
Figure 12.12,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.12.png,"Figure 12.12 (a) A mechanical vector carries a pathogen on its body from one host to another, not as an infection. (b) A biological vector carries a pathogen from one host to another after becoming infected itself."
Figure 12.12,Transmission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.12.png,"Figure 12.12 (a) A mechanical vector carries a pathogen on its body from one host to another, not as an infection. (b) A biological vector carries a pathogen from one host to another after becoming infected itself."
Figure 12.13,Quarantining,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.15.png,"Figure 12.13 (a) The Aeromedical Biological Containment System (ABCS) is a module designed by the CDC and Department of Defense specifically for transporting highly contagious patients by air. (b) An isolation ward for Ebola patients in Lagos, Nigeria. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by CDC Global)"
Figure 12.5,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.5.png,"Figure 12.5 (a) John Snow (1813–1858), British physician and father of epidemiology. (b) Snow’s detailed mapping of cholera incidence led to the discovery of the contaminated water pump on Broad street (red square) responsible for the 1854 cholera epidemic. (credit a: modification of work by “Rsabbatini”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 12.6,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.6.png,"Figure 12.6 (a) Outbreaks that can be attributed to point source spread often have a short duration. (b) Outbreaks attributed to propagated spread can have a more extended duration. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 12.7,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.7.png,"Figure 12.7 (a) Florence Nightingale reported on the data she collected as a nurse in the Crimean War. (b) Nightingale’s diagram shows the number of fatalities in soldiers by month of the conflict from various causes. The total number dead in a particular month is equal to the area of the wedge for that month. The colored sections of the wedge represent different causes of death: wounds (pink), preventable infectious diseases (gray), and all other causes (brown)."
Figure 12.8,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.8.png,Figure 12.8 Joseph Lister initiated the use of a carbolic acid (phenol) during surgeries. This illustration of a surgery shows a pressurized canister of carbolic acid being sprayed over the surgical site.
Figure 12.5,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.5.png,"Figure 12.5 (a) John Snow (1813–1858), British physician and father of epidemiology. (b) Snow’s detailed mapping of cholera incidence led to the discovery of the contaminated water pump on Broad street (red square) responsible for the 1854 cholera epidemic. (credit a: modification of work by “Rsabbatini”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 12.6,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.6.png,"Figure 12.6 (a) Outbreaks that can be attributed to point source spread often have a short duration. (b) Outbreaks attributed to propagated spread can have a more extended duration. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 12.7,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.7.png,"Figure 12.7 (a) Florence Nightingale reported on the data she collected as a nurse in the Crimean War. (b) Nightingale’s diagram shows the number of fatalities in soldiers by month of the conflict from various causes. The total number dead in a particular month is equal to the area of the wedge for that month. The colored sections of the wedge represent different causes of death: wounds (pink), preventable infectious diseases (gray), and all other causes (brown)."
Figure 12.8,Pioneers of Epidemiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.8.png,Figure 12.8 Joseph Lister initiated the use of a carbolic acid (phenol) during surgeries. This illustration of a surgery shows a pressurized canister of carbolic acid being sprayed over the surgical site.
Figure 12.2,Analyzing Disease in a Population,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.2.png,Figure 12.2 This graph compares the incidence of HIV (the number of new cases reported each year) with the prevalence (the total number of cases each year). Prevalence and incidence can also be expressed as a rate or proportion for a given population.
Figure 12.3,Patterns of Incidence,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.3.png,Figure 12.3 The 2007–2008 influenza season in the United States saw much higher than normal numbers of visits to emergency departments for influenza-like symptoms as compared to the previous and the following years. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 12.3,Patterns of Incidence,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-16.3.png,Figure 12.3 The 2007–2008 influenza season in the United States saw much higher than normal numbers of visits to emergency departments for influenza-like symptoms as compared to the previous and the following years. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 11.8,Exoenzymes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.11.png,"Figure 11.8 (a) Hyaluronan is a polymer found in the layers of epidermis that connect adjacent cells. (b) Hyaluronidase produced by bacteria degrades this adhesive polymer in the extracellular matrix, allowing passage between cells that would otherwise be blocked."
Figure 11.9,Toxins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.13.png,"Figure 11.9. Lipopolysaccharide is composed of lipid A, a core glycolipid, and an O-specific polysaccharide side chain. Lipid A is the toxic component that promotes inflammation and fever."
Figure 11.10,Toxins,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.14.png,"Figure 11.10 (a) In A-B toxins, the B component binds to the host cell through its interaction with specific cell surface receptors. (b) The toxin is brought in through endocytosis. (c) Once inside the vacuole, the A component (active component) separates from the B component and the A component gains access to the cytoplasm. (credit: modification of work by “Biology Discussion Forum”/YouTube)"
Figure 11.11,Virulence Factors for Survival in the Host and Immune Evasion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.17.png,"Figure 11.11 (a) A micrograph of capsules around bacterial cells. (b) Antibodies normally function by binding to antigens, molecules on the surface of pathogenic bacteria. Phagocytes then bind to the antibody, initiating phagocytosis. (c) Some bacteria also produce proteases, virulence factors that break down host antibodies to evade phagocytosis. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 11.12,Antigenic Variation in Viruses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.18.png,"Figure 11.12 Antigenic drift and antigenic shift in influenza viruses. (a) In antigenic drift, mutations in the genes for the surface proteins neuraminidase and/or hemagglutinin result in small antigenic changes over time. (b) In antigenic shift, simultaneous infection of a cell with two different influenza viruses results in mixing of the genes. The resultant virus possesses a mixture of the proteins of the original viruses. Influenza pandemics can often be traced to antigenic shifts."
Figure 11.8,Bacterial Exoenzymes and Toxins as Virulence Factors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.11.png,"Figure 11.8 (a) Hyaluronan is a polymer found in the layers of epidermis that connect adjacent cells. (b) Hyaluronidase produced by bacteria degrades this adhesive polymer in the extracellular matrix, allowing passage between cells that would otherwise be blocked."
Figure 11.9,Bacterial Exoenzymes and Toxins as Virulence Factors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.13.png,"Figure 11.9. Lipopolysaccharide is composed of lipid A, a core glycolipid, and an O-specific polysaccharide side chain. Lipid A is the toxic component that promotes inflammation and fever."
Figure 11.10,Bacterial Exoenzymes and Toxins as Virulence Factors,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.14.png,"Figure 11.10 (a) In A-B toxins, the B component binds to the host cell through its interaction with specific cell surface receptors. (b) The toxin is brought in through endocytosis. (c) Once inside the vacuole, the A component (active component) separates from the B component and the A component gains access to the cytoplasm. (credit: modification of work by “Biology Discussion Forum”/YouTube)"
Figure 11.11,Virulence Factors for Survival in the Host and Immune Evasion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.17.png,"Figure 11.11 (a) A micrograph of capsules around bacterial cells. (b) Antibodies normally function by binding to antigens, molecules on the surface of pathogenic bacteria. Phagocytes then bind to the antibody, initiating phagocytosis. (c) Some bacteria also produce proteases, virulence factors that break down host antibodies to evade phagocytosis. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 11.12,Virulence Factors for Survival in the Host and Immune Evasion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.18.png,"Figure 11.12 Antigenic drift and antigenic shift in influenza viruses. (a) In antigenic drift, mutations in the genes for the surface proteins neuraminidase and/or hemagglutinin result in small antigenic changes over time. (b) In antigenic shift, simultaneous infection of a cell with two different influenza viruses results in mixing of the genes. The resultant virus possesses a mixture of the proteins of the original viruses. Influenza pandemics can often be traced to antigenic shifts."
Figure 11.3,Pathogenicity and Virulence,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.5.png,"Figure 11.3 A graph like this is used to determine LD50 by plotting pathogen concentration against the percent of infected test animals that have died. In this example, the LD50 = 104 pathogenic particles."
Figure 11.3,Pathogenicity and Virulence,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.3.png,"Figure 11.3 The progression of an infectious disease can be divided into five periods, which are related to the number of pathogen particles (red) and the severity of signs and symptoms (blue)."
Figure 11.4,Exposure,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.6.png,"Figure 11.4 Shown are different portals of entry where pathogens can gain access into the body. With the exception of the placenta, many of these locations are directly exposed to the external environment."
Figure 11.5,Adhesion,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.7.png,Figure 11.5 Glycocalyx produced by bacteria in a biofilm allows the cells to adhere to host tissues and to medical devices such as the catheter surface shown here. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 11.2,Classifications of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.2.png,"Figure 11.2 Blood smears showing two diseases of the blood. (a) Malaria is an infectious, zoonotic disease caused by the protozoan pathogen Plasmodium falciparum (shown here) and several other species of the genus Plasmodium. It is transmitted by mosquitoes to humans. (b) Sickle cell disease is a noninfectious genetic disorder that results in abnormally shaped red blood cells, which can stick together and obstruct the flow of blood through the circulatory system. It is not caused by a pathogen, but rather a genetic mutation. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Ed Uthman)"
Figure 11.3,Periods of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.5.png,"Figure 11.3 A graph like this is used to determine LD50 by plotting pathogen concentration against the percent of infected test animals that have died. In this example, the LD50 = 104 pathogenic particles."
Figure 11.3,Periods of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.3.png,"Figure 11.3 The progression of an infectious disease can be divided into five periods, which are related to the number of pathogen particles (red) and the severity of signs and symptoms (blue)."
Figure 11.2,Classifications of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-15.2.png,"Figure 11.2 Blood smears showing two diseases of the blood. (a) Malaria is an infectious, zoonotic disease caused by the protozoan pathogen Plasmodium falciparum (shown here) and several other species of the genus Plasmodium. It is transmitted by mosquitoes to humans. (b) Sickle cell disease is a noninfectious genetic disorder that results in abnormally shaped red blood cells, which can stick together and obstruct the flow of blood through the circulatory system. It is not caused by a pathogen, but rather a genetic mutation. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Ed Uthman)"
Figure 10.10,The Kirby-Bauer Disk Diffusion Test,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.19.png,"Figure 10.10 In a dilution test, the lowest dilution that inhibits turbidity (cloudiness) is the MIC. In this example, the MIC is 8 μg/mL. Broth from samples without turbidity can be inoculated onto plates lacking the antimicrobial drug. The lowest dilution that kills ≥99.9% of the starting inoculum is observed on the plates is the MBC. (credit: modification of work by Suzanne Wakim)"
Figure 10.10,Dilution Tests,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.19.png,"Figure 10.10 In a dilution test, the lowest dilution that inhibits turbidity (cloudiness) is the MIC. In this example, the MIC is 8 μg/mL. Broth from samples without turbidity can be inoculated onto plates lacking the antimicrobial drug. The lowest dilution that kills ≥99.9% of the starting inoculum is observed on the plates is the MBC. (credit: modification of work by Suzanne Wakim)"
Figure 10.11,Dilution Tests,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.20.png,"Figure 10.11 A microdilution tray can also be used to determine MICs of multiple antimicrobial drugs in a single assay. In this example, the drug concentrations increase from left to right and the rows with clindamycin, penicillin, and erythromycin have been indicated to the left of the plate. For penicillin and erythromycin, the lowest concentrations that inhibited visible growth are indicated by red circles and were 0.06 μg/mL for penicillin and 8 μg/ mL for erythromycin. For clindamycin, visible bacterial growth was observed at every concentration up to 32 μg/mL and the MIC is interpreted as >32 μg/mL. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 10.9,Mechanisms for Drug Resistance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.22.jpg,"Figure 10.9 In recent decades, approvals of new antimicrobials by the FDA have steadily fallen. In the five- year period from 1983–1987, 16 new antimicrobial drugs were approved, compared to just two from 2008–2012."
Figure 10.9,Mechanisms for Drug Resistance,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-10.18.png,"Figure 10.9 There are multiple strategies that microbes use to develop resistance to antimicrobial drugs. (Not shown: target overproduction, target mimicry, and enzymatic bypass). (credit: modification of work by Gerard D Wright)"
Figure 10.7,Antifungal Drugs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.13.png,"Figure 10.7 The predominant sterol found in human cells is cholesterol, whereas the predominant sterol found in fungi is ergosterol, making ergosterol a good target for antifungal drug development."
Figure 10.8,Antiviral Drugs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.17.png,Figure 10.8 Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is typically used for the treatment of HIV. The targets of drug classes currently in use are shown here. (credit: modification of work by Thomas Splettstoesser)
Figure 10.8,Antiviral Drugs,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.17.png,Figure 10.8 Antiretroviral therapy (ART) is typically used for the treatment of HIV. The targets of drug classes currently in use are shown here. (credit: modification of work by Thomas Splettstoesser)
Figure 10.5,Inhibitors of Protein Biosynthesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.11.png,Figure 10.5 The major classes of protein synthesis inhibitors target the 30S or 50S subunits of cytoplasmic ribosomes.
Figure 10.6,Inhibitors of Metabolic Pathways,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.12.png,"Figure 10.6 Sulfonamides and trimethoprim are examples of antimetabolites that interfere in the bacterial synthesis of folic acid by blocking purine and pyrimidine biosynthesis, thus inhibiting bacterial growth."
Figure 10.5,Inhibitors of Protein Biosynthesis,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.11.png,Figure 10.5 The major classes of protein synthesis inhibitors target the 30S or 50S subunits of cytoplasmic ribosomes.
Figure 10.6,Inhibitors of Metabolic Pathways,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.12.png,"Figure 10.6 Sulfonamides and trimethoprim are examples of antimetabolites that interfere in the bacterial synthesis of folic acid by blocking purine and pyrimidine biosynthesis, thus inhibiting bacterial growth."
Figure 10.2,Spectrum of Activity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-14.6.png,Figure 10.2 Broad-spectrum antimicrobial use may lead to the development of a superinfection. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 9.6,Disk-Diffusion Method,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.31.png,"Figure 9.6 A disk-diffusion assay is used to determine the effectiveness of chemical agents against a particular microbe. (a) A plate is inoculated with various antimicrobial discs. The zone of inhibition around each disc indicates how effective that antimicrobial is against the particular species being tested. (b) On these plates, four antimicrobial agents are tested for efficacy in killing Pseudomonas aeruginosa (left) and Staphylococcus aureus (right). These antimicrobials are much more effective at killing S. aureus, as indicated by the size of the zones of inhibition. (credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 9.7,In-Use Test,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.32.png,Figure 9.7 Used disinfectant solutions in a clinical setting can be checked with the in-use test for contamination with microbes.
Figure 9.7,In-Use Test,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.32.png,Figure 9.7 Used disinfectant solutions in a clinical setting can be checked with the in-use test for contamination with microbes.
Figure 9.2,Laboratory Biological Safety Levels,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.2.png,"Figure 9.2 A protective suit like this one is an additional precaution for those who work in BSL-4 laboratories. This suit has its own air supply and maintains a positive pressure relative to the outside, so that if a leak occurs, air will flow out of the suit, not into it from the laboratory. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 9.4,Other Methods of Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.4.png,Figure 9.4 Details associated with the different protocols used for control of microbial growth.
Figure 9.5,Measuring Microbial Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.5.png,"Figure 9.5 Microbial death is logarithmic and easily observed using a semilog plot instead of an arithmetic one. The decimal reduction time (D-value) is the time it takes to kill 90% of the population (a 1-log decrease in the total population) when exposed to a specific microbial control protocol, as indicated by the purple bracket."
Figure 9.5,Measuring Microbial Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.5.png,"Figure 9.5 Microbial death is logarithmic and easily observed using a semilog plot instead of an arithmetic one. The decimal reduction time (D-value) is the time it takes to kill 90% of the population (a 1-log decrease in the total population) when exposed to a specific microbial control protocol, as indicated by the purple bracket."
Figure 9.2,Measuring Microbial Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.2.png,"Figure 9.2 A protective suit like this one is an additional precaution for those who work in BSL-4 laboratories. This suit has its own air supply and maintains a positive pressure relative to the outside, so that if a leak occurs, air will flow out of the suit, not into it from the laboratory. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 9.4,Other Methods of Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.4.png,Figure 9.4 Details associated with the different protocols used for control of microbial growth.
Figure 9.5,Measuring Microbial Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.5.png,"Figure 9.5 Microbial death is logarithmic and easily observed using a semilog plot instead of an arithmetic one. The decimal reduction time (D-value) is the time it takes to kill 90% of the population (a 1-log decrease in the total population) when exposed to a specific microbial control protocol, as indicated by the purple bracket."
Figure 9.5,Measuring Microbial Control,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-13.5.png,"Figure 9.5 Microbial death is logarithmic and easily observed using a semilog plot instead of an arithmetic one. The decimal reduction time (D-value) is the time it takes to kill 90% of the population (a 1-log decrease in the total population) when exposed to a specific microbial control protocol, as indicated by the purple bracket."
Figure 8.5,Mechanisms and Risks of Gene Therapy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-12.29.png,Figure 8.5 Gene therapy using an adenovirus vector can be used to treat or cure certain genetic diseases in which a patient has a defective gene. (credit: modification of work by National Institutes of Health)
Figure 8.2,"Genomics, Transcriptomics, and Proteomics",https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-12.26.png,"Figure 8.2 (a) The gene encoding green fluorescence protein is a commonly used reporter gene for monitoring gene expression patterns in organisms. Under ultraviolet light, GFP fluoresces. Here, two mice are expressing GFP, while the middle mouse is not. (b) GFP can be used as a reporter gene in bacteria as well. Here, a plate containing bacterial colonies expressing GFP is shown. (c) Blue-white screening in bacteria is accomplished through the use of the lacZ reporter gene, followed by plating of bacteria onto medium containing X-gal. Cleavage of X-gal by the LacZ enzyme results in the formation of blue colonies. (credit a: modification of work by Ingrid Moen, Charlotte Jevne, Jian Wang, Karl-Henning Kalland, Martha Chekenya, Lars A Akslen, Linda Sleire, Per Ø Enger, Rolf K Reed, Anne M Øyan, Linda EB Stuhr; credit b: modification of work by “2.5JIGEN.com”/Flickr; credit c: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 8.4,RNA Interference Technology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-12.28.png,Figure 8.4 This diagram illustrates the process of using siRNA or miRNA in a eukaryotic cell to silence genes involved in the pathogenesis of various diseases. (credit: modification of work by National Center for Biotechnology Information)
Figure 7.14,Temperature and Growth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.28.png,"Figure 7.14 A black smoker at the bottom of the ocean belches hot, chemical-rich water, and heats the surrounding waters. Sea vents provide an extreme environment that is nonetheless teeming with macroscopic life (the red tubeworms) supported by an abundant microbial ecosystem. (credit: NOAA)"
Figure 7.12,Temperature and Growth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.26.png,Figure 7.12 The curves show the approximate pH ranges for the growth of the different classes of pH-specific prokaryotes. Each curve has an optimal pH and extreme pH values at which growth is much reduced. Most bacteria are neutrophiles and grow best at near-neutral pH (center curve). Acidophiles have optimal growth at pH values near 3 and alkaliphiles have optimal growth at pH values above 9.
Figure 7.12,Temperature and Growth,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.26.png,Figure 7.12 The curves show the approximate pH ranges for the growth of the different classes of pH-specific prokaryotes. Each curve has an optimal pH and extreme pH values at which growth is much reduced. Most bacteria are neutrophiles and grow best at near-neutral pH (center curve). Acidophiles have optimal growth at pH values near 3 and alkaliphiles have optimal growth at pH values above 9.
Figure 7.9,Oxygen Requirements of Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.19.png,"Figure 7.9 Anaerobic environments are still common on earth. They include environments like (a) a bog where undisturbed dense sediments are virtually devoid of oxygen, and (b) the rumen (the first compartment of a cow’s stomach), which provides an oxygen-free incubator for methanogens and other obligate anaerobic bacteria. (credit a: modification of work by National Park Service; credit b: modification of work by US Department of Agriculture)"
Figure 7.10,Oxygen Requirements of Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.20.png,Figure 7.10 Diagram of bacterial cell distribution in thioglycolate tubes.
Figure 7.10,Oxygen Requirements of Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.20.png,Figure 7.10 Diagram of bacterial cell distribution in thioglycolate tubes.
Figure 7.2,Binary Fission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.2.png,"Figure 7.2 (a) The electron micrograph depicts two cells of Salmonella typhimurium after a binary fission event. (b) Binary fission in bacteria starts with the replication of DNA as the cell elongates. A division septum forms in the center of the cell. Two daughter cells of similar size form and separate, each receiving a copy of the original chromosome. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 7.3,Binary Fission,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.3.png,Figure 7.3 FtsZ proteins assemble to form a Z ring that is anchored to the plasma membrane. The Z ring pinches the cell envelope to separate the cytoplasm of the new cells.
Figure 7.5,The Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.5.png,"Figure 7.5 The growth curve of a bacterial culture is represented by the logarithm of the number of live cells plotted as a function of time. The graph can be divided into four phases according to the slope, each of which matches events in the cell. The four phases are lag, log, stationary, and death."
Figure 7.6,The Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.6.png,"Figure 7.6 Both graphs illustrate population growth during the log phase for a bacterial sample with an initial population of one cell and a doubling time of 1 hour. (a) When plotted on an arithmetic scale, the growth rate resembles a curve. (b) When plotted on a semilogarithmic scale (meaning the values on the y-axis are logarithmic), the growth rate appears linear."
Figure 7.5,The Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.5.png,"Figure 7.5 The growth curve of a bacterial culture is represented by the logarithm of the number of live cells plotted as a function of time. The graph can be divided into four phases according to the slope, each of which matches events in the cell. The four phases are lag, log, stationary, and death."
Figure 7.5,The Death Phase,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.5.png,"Figure 7.5 The growth curve of a bacterial culture is represented by the logarithm of the number of live cells plotted as a function of time. The graph can be divided into four phases according to the slope, each of which matches events in the cell. The four phases are lag, log, stationary, and death."
Figure 7.5,The Death Phase,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.5.png,"Figure 7.5 The growth curve of a bacterial culture is represented by the logarithm of the number of live cells plotted as a function of time. The graph can be divided into four phases according to the slope, each of which matches events in the cell. The four phases are lag, log, stationary, and death."
Figure 7.8,Biofilms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.17.png,Figure 7.8 Stages in the formation and life cycle of a biofilm. (credit: modification of work by Public Library of Science and American Society for Microbiology)
Figure 7.6,The Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.6.png,"Figure 7.6 Both graphs illustrate population growth during the log phase for a bacterial sample with an initial population of one cell and a doubling time of 1 hour. (a) When plotted on an arithmetic scale, the growth rate resembles a curve. (b) When plotted on a semilogarithmic scale (meaning the values on the y-axis are logarithmic), the growth rate appears linear."
Figure 7.5,The Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.5.png,"Figure 7.5 The growth curve of a bacterial culture is represented by the logarithm of the number of live cells plotted as a function of time. The graph can be divided into four phases according to the slope, each of which matches events in the cell. The four phases are lag, log, stationary, and death."
Figure 7.8,Biofilms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-9.17.png,Figure 7.8 Stages in the formation and life cycle of a biofilm. (credit: modification of work by Public Library of Science and American Society for Microbiology)
Figure 6.2,Biofilms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-7.26.png,"Figure 6.2 MALDI-TOF methods are now routinely used for diagnostic procedures in clinical microbiology laboratories. This technology is able to rapidly identify some microorganisms that cannot be readily identified by more traditional methods. (credit “MALDI plate photo”: modification of work by Chen Q, Liu T, Chen G; credit “graphs”: modification of work by Bailes J, Vidal L, Ivanov DA, Soloviev M)"
Figure 6.3,Biofilms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-7.27.png,Figure 6.3 Fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis in bacterial identification results in a chromatogram unique to each bacterium. Each peak in the gas chromatogram corresponds to a particular fatty acid methyl ester and its height is proportional to the amount present in the cell. (credit “culture”: modification of work by the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “graph”: modification of work by Zhang P. and Liu P.)
Figure 5.10,Prions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.25.png,"Figure 5.10 Endogenous normal prion protein (PrPc) is converted into the disease-causing form (PrPsc) when it encounters this variant form of the protein. PrPsc may arise spontaneously in brain tissue, especially if a mutant form of the protein is present, or it may originate from misfolded prions consumed in food that eventually find their way into brain tissue. (credit b: modification of work by USDA)"
Figure 5.11,Prions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.26.png,"Figure 5.11 Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease (CJD) is a fatal disease that causes degeneration of neural tissue. (a) These brain scans compare a normal brain to one with CJD. (b) Compared to a normal brain, the brain tissue of a CJD patient is full of sponge-like lesions, which result from abnormal formations of prion protein. (credit a (right): modification of work by Dr. Laughlin Dawes; credit b (top): modification of work by Suzanne Wakim; credit b (bottom): modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 5.7,Life Cycle of Viruses with Animal Hosts,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.10.png,"Figure 5.7 In influenza virus infection, viral glycoproteins attach the virus to a host epithelial cell. As a result, the virus is engulfed. Viral RNA and viral proteins are made and assembled into new virions that are released by budding."
Figure 5.8,Latent Infection,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.13.png,"Figure 5.8 (a) Varicella-zoster, the virus that causes chickenpox, has an enveloped icosahedral capsid visible in this transmission electron micrograph. Its double-stranded DNA genome becomes incorporated in the host DNA. (b) After a period of latency, the virus can reactivate in the form of shingles, usually manifesting as a painful, localized rash on one side of the body. (credit a: modification of work by Erskine Palmer and B.G. Partin—scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by Rosmarie Voegtli)"
Figure 5.9,Viral Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.14.png,"Figure 5.9 The one-step multiplication curve for a bacteriophage population follows three steps: 1) inoculation, during which the virions attach to host cells; 2) eclipse, during which entry of the viral genome occurs; and 3) burst, when sufficient numbers of new virions are produced and emerge from the host cell. The burst size is the maximum number of virions produced per bacterium."
Figure 5.8,Persistent Infections,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.13.png,"Figure 5.8 (a) Varicella-zoster, the virus that causes chickenpox, has an enveloped icosahedral capsid visible in this transmission electron micrograph. Its double-stranded DNA genome becomes incorporated in the host DNA. (b) After a period of latency, the virus can reactivate in the form of shingles, usually manifesting as a painful, localized rash on one side of the body. (credit a: modification of work by Erskine Palmer and B.G. Partin—scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by Rosmarie Voegtli)"
Figure 5.9,Viral Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.14.png,"Figure 5.9 The one-step multiplication curve for a bacteriophage population follows three steps: 1) inoculation, during which the virions attach to host cells; 2) eclipse, during which entry of the viral genome occurs; and 3) burst, when sufficient numbers of new virions are produced and emerge from the host cell. The burst size is the maximum number of virions produced per bacterium."
Figure 5.2,Viral Growth Curve,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.2.png,"Figure 5.2 (a) Tobacco mosaic virus (TMV) viewed with transmission electron microscope. (b) Plants infected with tobacco mosaic disease (TMD), caused by TMV. (credit a: modification of work by USDA Agricultural Research Service—scale-bar data from Matt Russell; credit b: modification of work by USDA Forest Service, Department of Plant Pathology Archive North Carolina State University)"
Figure 5.4,Viral Structures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.4.png,Figure 5.4 The size of a virus is small relative to the size of most bacterial and eukaryotic cells and their organelles.
Figure 5.5,Viral Structures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.5.png,Figure 5.5 (a) The naked atadenovirus uses spikes made of glycoproteins from its capsid to bind to host cells. (b) The enveloped human immunodeficiency virus uses spikes made of glycoproteins embedded in its envelope to bind to host cells (credit a “micrograph”: modification of work by NIAID; credit b “micrograph”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 5.6,Viral Structures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.6.png,"Figure 5.6 Viral capsids can be (a) helical, (b) polyhedral, or (c) have a complex shape. (credit a “micrograph”: modification of work by USDA ARS; credit b “micrograph”: modification of work by U.S. Department of Energy)"
Figure 5.4,Viral Structures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.4.png,Figure 5.4 The size of a virus is small relative to the size of most bacterial and eukaryotic cells and their organelles.
Figure 5.5,Viral Structures,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-6.5.png,Figure 5.5 (a) The naked atadenovirus uses spikes made of glycoproteins from its capsid to bind to host cells. (b) The enveloped human immunodeficiency virus uses spikes made of glycoproteins embedded in its envelope to bind to host cells (credit a “micrograph”: modification of work by NIAID; credit b “micrograph”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)
Figure 4.14,Characteristics of Fungi,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.25.png,"Figure 4.14 Multicellular fungi (molds) form hyphae, which may be septate or nonseptate. Unicellular fungi (yeasts) cells form pseudohyphae from individual yeast cells."
Figure 4.14,Characteristics of Fungi,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.25.png,"Figure 4.14 Multicellular fungi (molds) form hyphae, which may be septate or nonseptate. Unicellular fungi (yeasts) cells form pseudohyphae from individual yeast cells."
Figure 4.15,Characteristics of Fungi,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.28.png,"Figure 4.15 These images show asexually produced spores. (a) This brightfield micrograph shows the release of spores from a sporangium at the end of a hypha called a sporangiophore. The organism is a Mucor sp. fungus, a mold often found indoors. (b) Sporangia grow at the ends of stalks, which appear as the white fuzz seen on this bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer. The tips of bread mold are the dark, spore-containing sporangia. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b right: modification of work by “Andrew”/Flickr)"
Figure 4.17,Fungal Diversity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.33.png,"Figure 4.17 Table showing the groups of fungi of particular importance for human health. (Credit “Ascomycota”: modification of work by Dr. Lucille Georg, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Microsporidia”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.16,Fungal Diversity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.29.png,"Figure 4.16 (a) This brightfield micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus Talaromyces flavus var. flavus. (b) This electron micrograph shows the conidia (spores) borne on the conidiophore of Aspergillus, a type of toxic fungus found mostly in soil and plants. (c) This brightfield micrograph shows the yeast Candida albicans, the causative agent of candidiasis and thrush. (credit a, b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.15,Fungal Diversity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.28.png,"Figure 4.15 These images show asexually produced spores. (a) This brightfield micrograph shows the release of spores from a sporangium at the end of a hypha called a sporangiophore. The organism is a Mucor sp. fungus, a mold often found indoors. (b) Sporangia grow at the ends of stalks, which appear as the white fuzz seen on this bread mold, Rhizopus stolonifer. The tips of bread mold are the dark, spore-containing sporangia. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b right: modification of work by “Andrew”/Flickr)"
Figure 4.17,Fungal Diversity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.33.png,"Figure 4.17 Table showing the groups of fungi of particular importance for human health. (Credit “Ascomycota”: modification of work by Dr. Lucille Georg, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Microsporidia”: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.16,Fungal Diversity,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.29.png,"Figure 4.16 (a) This brightfield micrograph shows ascospores being released from asci in the fungus Talaromyces flavus var. flavus. (b) This electron micrograph shows the conidia (spores) borne on the conidiophore of Aspergillus, a type of toxic fungus found mostly in soil and plants. (c) This brightfield micrograph shows the yeast Candida albicans, the causative agent of candidiasis and thrush. (credit a, b, c: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.11,Nematoda (Roundworms),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.19.png,"Figure 4.11 A micrograph of the nematode Enterobius vermicularis, also known as the pinworm. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.12,Platyhelminths (Flatworms),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.21.png,"Figure 4.12 (a) The oral sucker is visible on the anterior end of this liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini. (b) This micrograph shows the scolex of the cestode Taenia solium, also known as the pork tapeworm. The visible suckers and hooks allow the worm to attach itself to the inner wall of the intestine. (credit a: modification of work by Sripa B, Kaewkes S, Sithithaworn P, Mairiang E, Laha T, and Smout M; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.11,Nematoda (Roundworms),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.19.png,"Figure 4.11 A micrograph of the nematode Enterobius vermicularis, also known as the pinworm. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.12,Nematoda (Roundworms),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-5.21.png,"Figure 4.12 (a) The oral sucker is visible on the anterior end of this liver fluke, Opisthorchis viverrini. (b) This micrograph shows the scolex of the cestode Taenia solium, also known as the pork tapeworm. The visible suckers and hooks allow the worm to attach itself to the inner wall of the intestine. (credit a: modification of work by Sripa B, Kaewkes S, Sithithaworn P, Mairiang E, Laha T, and Smout M; credit b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 4.3,Characteristics of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.5.png,Figure 4.3 (a) Paramecium spp. have hair-like appendages called cilia for locomotion. (b) Amoeba spp. use lobe- like pseudopodia to anchor the cell to a solid surface and pull forward. (c) Euglena spp. use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel the cell.
Figure 4.3,Characteristics of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.5.png,Figure 4.3 (a) Paramecium spp. have hair-like appendages called cilia for locomotion. (b) Amoeba spp. use lobe- like pseudopodia to anchor the cell to a solid surface and pull forward. (c) Euglena spp. use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel the cell.
Figure 4.4,Taxonomy of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-4.4-1.png,"Figure 4.4 This tree shows a proposed classification of the domain Eukarya based on evolutionary relationships. Currently, the domain Eukarya is divided into six supergroups. Within each supergroup are multiple kingdoms. Dotted lines indicate suggested evolutionary relationships that remain under debate. The subgroups with members of clinical relevance have a start next to them."
Figure 4.7,Subgroups Apicomplexan and Ciliates,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.12.png,Figure 4.7 (a) Apicomplexans are parasitic protists. They have a characteristic apical complex that enables them to infect host cells. (b) A colorized electron microscope image of a Plasmodium sporozoite. (credit b: modification of work by Ute Frevert)
Figure 4.8,Subgroups Apicomplexan and Ciliates,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.13.png,"Figure 4.8 This specimen of the ciliate Balantidium coli is a trophozoite form isolated from the gut of a primate. B. coli is the only ciliate capable of parasitizing humans. (credit: modification of work by Kouassi RYW, McGraw SW, Yao PK, Abou-Bacar A, Brunet J, Pesson B, Bonfoh B, N’goran EK & Candolfi E)"
Figure 4.10,"Subgroups Fornicata, Parabasalia, Euglenozoa",https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.17.png,"Figure 4.10 (a) This illustration of a Euglena shows the characteristic structures, such as the stigma and flagellum. (b) The pellicle, under the cell membrane, gives the cell its distinctive shape and is visible in this image as delicate parallel striations over the surface of the entire cell (especially visible over the grey contractile vacuole). (credit a: modification of work by Claudio Miklos; credit b: modification of work by David Shykind)"
Figure 4.3,Characteristics of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.5.png,Figure 4.3 (a) Paramecium spp. have hair-like appendages called cilia for locomotion. (b) Amoeba spp. use lobe- like pseudopodia to anchor the cell to a solid surface and pull forward. (c) Euglena spp. use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel the cell.
Figure 4.3,Characteristics of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.5.png,Figure 4.3 (a) Paramecium spp. have hair-like appendages called cilia for locomotion. (b) Amoeba spp. use lobe- like pseudopodia to anchor the cell to a solid surface and pull forward. (c) Euglena spp. use a whip-like structure called a flagellum to propel the cell.
Figure 4.4,Taxonomy of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-4.4-1.png,"Figure 4.4 This tree shows a proposed classification of the domain Eukarya based on evolutionary relationships. Currently, the domain Eukarya is divided into six supergroups. Within each supergroup are multiple kingdoms. Dotted lines indicate suggested evolutionary relationships that remain under debate. The subgroups with members of clinical relevance have a start next to them."
Figure 4.7,Taxonomy of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.12.png,Figure 4.7 (a) Apicomplexans are parasitic protists. They have a characteristic apical complex that enables them to infect host cells. (b) A colorized electron microscope image of a Plasmodium sporozoite. (credit b: modification of work by Ute Frevert)
Figure 4.8,Taxonomy of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.13.png,"Figure 4.8 This specimen of the ciliate Balantidium coli is a trophozoite form isolated from the gut of a primate. B. coli is the only ciliate capable of parasitizing humans. (credit: modification of work by Kouassi RYW, McGraw SW, Yao PK, Abou-Bacar A, Brunet J, Pesson B, Bonfoh B, N’goran EK & Candolfi E)"
Figure 4.10,Taxonomy of Protists,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-5.17.png,"Figure 4.10 (a) This illustration of a Euglena shows the characteristic structures, such as the stigma and flagellum. (b) The pellicle, under the cell membrane, gives the cell its distinctive shape and is visible in this image as delicate parallel striations over the surface of the entire cell (especially visible over the grey contractile vacuole). (credit a: modification of work by Claudio Miklos; credit b: modification of work by David Shykind)"
Figure 1.11,Prokaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.13.png,"Figure 1.11 Common bacterial shapes. Note how coccobacillus is a combination of spherical (coccus) and rod- shaped (bacillus). (credit “Coccus”: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Coccobacillus”: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Spirochete”: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.12,Prokaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.14.png,"Figure 1.12 Some archaea live in extreme environments, such as the Morning Glory pool, a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park. The color differences in the pool result from the different communities of microbes that are able to thrive at various water temperatures."
Figure 1.13,Eukaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.15.png,"Figure 1.13 Assorted diatoms, a kind of algae, live in annual sea ice in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Diatoms range in size from 2 μm to 200 μm and are visualized here using light microscopy. (credit: modification of work by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)"
Figure 1.15,Eukaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.17.png,"Figure 1.15 Candida albicans is a unicellular fungus, or yeast. It is the causative agent of vaginal yeast infections as well as oral thrush, a yeast infection of the mouth that commonly afflicts infants. C. albicans has a morphology similar to that of coccus bacteria; however, yeast is a eukaryotic organism (note the nuclei) and is much larger. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.16,Eukaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.18.png,"Figure 1.16 Large colonies of microscopic fungi can often be observed with the naked eye, as seen on the surface of these moldy oranges."
Figure 1.17,Helminths,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.19.png,"Figure 1.17 (a) The beef tapeworm, Taenia saginata, infects both cattle and humans. T. saginata eggs are microscopic (around 50 µm), but adult worms like the one shown here can reach 4–10 m, taking up residence in the digestive system. (b) An adult guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, is removed through a lesion in the patient’s skin by winding it around a matchstick. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.18,Viruses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.20.jpg,"Figure 1.18 (a) Members of the Coronavirus family can cause respiratory infections like the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Here they are viewed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM). (b) Ebolavirus, a member of the Filovirus family, as visualized using a TEM. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Thomas W. Geisbert)"
Figure 1.18,Microbiology as a Field of Study,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.20.jpg,"Figure 1.18 (a) Members of the Coronavirus family can cause respiratory infections like the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Here they are viewed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM). (b) Ebolavirus, a member of the Filovirus family, as visualized using a TEM. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Thomas W. Geisbert)"
Figure 1.11,Prokaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.13.png,"Figure 1.11 Common bacterial shapes. Note how coccobacillus is a combination of spherical (coccus) and rod- shaped (bacillus). (credit “Coccus”: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Coccobacillus”: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Spirochete”: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.12,Prokaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.14.png,"Figure 1.12 Some archaea live in extreme environments, such as the Morning Glory pool, a hot spring in Yellowstone National Park. The color differences in the pool result from the different communities of microbes that are able to thrive at various water temperatures."
Figure 1.13,Eukaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.15.png,"Figure 1.13 Assorted diatoms, a kind of algae, live in annual sea ice in McMurdo Sound, Antarctica. Diatoms range in size from 2 μm to 200 μm and are visualized here using light microscopy. (credit: modification of work by National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration)"
Figure 1.15,Eukaryotic Microorganisms,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.17.png,"Figure 1.15 Candida albicans is a unicellular fungus, or yeast. It is the causative agent of vaginal yeast infections as well as oral thrush, a yeast infection of the mouth that commonly afflicts infants. C. albicans has a morphology similar to that of coccus bacteria; however, yeast is a eukaryotic organism (note the nuclei) and is much larger. (credit: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.17,Helminths,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.19.png,"Figure 1.17 (a) The beef tapeworm, Taenia saginata, infects both cattle and humans. T. saginata eggs are microscopic (around 50 µm), but adult worms like the one shown here can reach 4–10 m, taking up residence in the digestive system. (b) An adult guinea worm, Dracunculus medinensis, is removed through a lesion in the patient’s skin by winding it around a matchstick. (credit a, b: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention)"
Figure 1.18,Viruses,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.20.jpg,"Figure 1.18 (a) Members of the Coronavirus family can cause respiratory infections like the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Here they are viewed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM). (b) Ebolavirus, a member of the Filovirus family, as visualized using a TEM. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Thomas W. Geisbert)"
Figure 1.18,Microbiology as a Field of Study,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig.-1.20.jpg,"Figure 1.18 (a) Members of the Coronavirus family can cause respiratory infections like the common cold, severe acute respiratory syndrome (SARS), and Middle East respiratory syndrome (MERS). Here they are viewed under a transmission electron microscope (TEM). (b) Ebolavirus, a member of the Filovirus family, as visualized using a TEM. (credit a: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit b: modification of work by Thomas W. Geisbert)"
Figure 1.6,The Science of Taxonomy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.8-1.png,"Figure 1.6 Swedish botanist, zoologist, and physician Carolus Linnaeus developed a new system for categorizing plants and animals. In this 1853 portrait by Hendrik Hollander, Linnaeus is holding a twinflower, named Linnaea borealis in his honor."
Figure 1.7,Evolving Trees of Life (Phylogenies),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/b0de7b2434ccb8cece67d06d598ea539c716f852.jpeg,"Figure 1.7 Ernst Haeckel’s rendering of the tree of life, from his 1866 book General Morphology of Organisms, contained three kingdoms: Plantae, Protista, and Animalia. He later added a fourth kingdom, Monera, for unicellular organisms lacking a nucleus."
Figure 1.8,Evolving Trees of Life (Phylogenies),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.10.png,"Figure 1.8 This timeline shows how the shape of the tree of life has changed over the centuries. Even today, the taxonomy of living organisms is continually being reevaluated and refined with advances in technology."
Figure 1.9,The Role of Genetics in Modern Taxonomy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.11.png,"Figure 1.9 Woese and Fox’s phylogenetic tree contains three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Domains Archaea and Bacteria contain all prokaryotic organisms, and Eukarya contains all eukaryotic organisms. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)"
Figure 1.7,Evolving Trees of Life (Phylogenies),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/b0de7b2434ccb8cece67d06d598ea539c716f852.jpeg,"Figure 1.7 Ernst Haeckel’s rendering of the tree of life, from his 1866 book General Morphology of Organisms, contained three kingdoms: Plantae, Protista, and Animalia. He later added a fourth kingdom, Monera, for unicellular organisms lacking a nucleus."
Figure 1.8,Evolving Trees of Life (Phylogenies),https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.10.png,"Figure 1.8 This timeline shows how the shape of the tree of life has changed over the centuries. Even today, the taxonomy of living organisms is continually being reevaluated and refined with advances in technology."
Figure 1.9,The Role of Genetics in Modern Taxonomy,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.11.png,"Figure 1.9 Woese and Fox’s phylogenetic tree contains three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, and Eukarya. Domains Archaea and Bacteria contain all prokaryotic organisms, and Eukarya contains all eukaryotic organisms. (credit: modification of work by Eric Gaba)"
Figure 1.2,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.3.png,"Figure 1.2 A microscopic view of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast responsible for making bread rise (left). Yeast is a microorganism. Its cells metabolize the carbohydrates in flour (middle) and produce carbon dioxide, which causes the bread to rise (right). (credit middle: modification of work by Janus Sandsgaard; credit right: modification of work by “MDreibelbis”/Flickr)"
Figure 1.3,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.4.png,"Figure 1.3 (a) The Cloaca Maxima, or “Greatest Sewer” (shown in red), ran through ancient Rome. It was an engineering marvel that carried waste away from the city and into the river Tiber. (b) These ancient latrines emptied into the Cloaca Maxima."
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.5,The Birth of Microbiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.6.png,"Figure 1.5 (a) Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) is credited with numerous innovations that advanced the fields of microbiology and immunology. (b) Robert Koch (1843–1910) identified the specific microbes that cause anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis."
Figure 1.2,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.3.png,"Figure 1.2 A microscopic view of Saccharomyces cerevisiae, the yeast responsible for making bread rise (left). Yeast is a microorganism. Its cells metabolize the carbohydrates in flour (middle) and produce carbon dioxide, which causes the bread to rise (right). (credit middle: modification of work by Janus Sandsgaard; credit right: modification of work by “MDreibelbis”/Flickr)"
Figure 1.3,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.4.png,"Figure 1.3 (a) The Cloaca Maxima, or “Greatest Sewer” (shown in red), ran through ancient Rome. It was an engineering marvel that carried waste away from the city and into the river Tiber. (b) These ancient latrines emptied into the Cloaca Maxima."
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.4,Fermented Foods and Beverages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.5.png,"Figure 1.4 (a) Hippocrates, the “father of Western medicine,” believed that diseases had natural, not supernatural, causes. (b) The historian Thucydides observed that survivors of the Athenian plague were subsequently immune to the infection. (c) Marcus Terentius Varro proposed that disease could be caused by “certain minute creatures . . . which cannot be seen by the eye.” (credit c: modification of work by Alessandro Antonelli)"
Figure 1.5,The Birth of Microbiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-1.6.png,"Figure 1.5 (a) Louis Pasteur (1822–1895) is credited with numerous innovations that advanced the fields of microbiology and immunology. (b) Robert Koch (1843–1910) identified the specific microbes that cause anthrax, cholera, and tuberculosis."
Figure 2.10,The Birth of Microbiology,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.12.png,"Figure 2.10 A typical prokaryotic cell contains a cell membrane, chromosomal DNA that is concentrated in a nucleoid, ribosomes, and a cell wall. Some prokaryotic cells may also possess flagella, pili, fimbriae, and capsules."
Figure 2.11,Common Cell Morphologies and Arrangements,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.13.png,"Figure 2.11 (credit “Coccus” micrograph: modification of work by Janice Haney Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Coccobacillus” micrograph: modification of work by Janice Carr, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention; credit “Spirochete” micrograph: modification of work by Centers for Disease Control and Prevention."
Figure 2.12,The Nucleoid,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.17.png,"Figure 2.12 The nucleoid region (the area enclosed by the green dashed line) is a condensed area of DNA found within prokaryotic cells. Because of the density of the area, it does not readily stain and appears lighter in color when viewed with a transmission electron microscope."
Figure 2.13,Ribosomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.18.png,"Figure 2.13 Prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) are composed of two subunits: the 30S (small subunit) and the 50S (large subunit), each of which are composed of protein and rRNA components."
Figure 2.14,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.20.png,"Figure 2.14 (a) Sporulation begins following asymmetric cell division. The forespore becomes surrounded by a double layer of membrane, a cortex, and a protein spore coat, before being released as a mature endospore upon disintegration of the mother cell. (b) An electron micrograph of a Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans endospore. These Bacillus spp. cells are undergoing sporulation. The endospores have been visualized using Malachite Green spore stain. (credit b: modification of work by Jonathan Eisen)"
Figure 2.15,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.21.png,"Figure 2.15 The bacterial plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with a variety of embedded proteins that perform various functions for the cell. Note the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids, whose carbohydrate components extend out from the surface of the cell. The abundance and arrangement of these proteins and lipids can vary greatly between species."
Figure 2.15,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.21.png,"Figure 2.15 The bacterial plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with a variety of embedded proteins that perform various functions for the cell. Note the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids, whose carbohydrate components extend out from the surface of the cell. The abundance and arrangement of these proteins and lipids can vary greatly between species."
Figure 2.16,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.25.png,"Figure 2.16 Peptidoglycan is composed of polymers of alternating NAM and NAG subunits, which are cross-linked by peptide bridges linking NAM subunits from various glycan chains. This provides the cell wall with tensile strength in two dimensions."
Figure 2.17,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.26.png,"Figure 2.17 Bacteria contain two common cell wall structural types. Gram-positive cell walls are structurally simple, containing a thick layer of peptidoglycan with embedded teichoic acid external to the plasma membrane.[footnote]B. Zuber et al. “Granular Layer in the Periplasmic Space of Gram-Positive Bacteria and Fine Structures of Enterococcus gallinarum and Streptococcus gordonii Septa Revealed by Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Sections.” Journal of Bacteriology 188 no. 18 (2006):6652–6660[/footnote] Gram- negative cell walls are structurally more complex, containing three layers: the inner membrane, a thin layer of peptidoglycan, and an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide. (credit: modification of work by “Franciscosp2”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.17,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.26.png,"Figure 2.17 Bacteria contain two common cell wall structural types. Gram-positive cell walls are structurally simple, containing a thick layer of peptidoglycan with embedded teichoic acid external to the plasma membrane.[footnote]B. Zuber et al. “Granular Layer in the Periplasmic Space of Gram-Positive Bacteria and Fine Structures of Enterococcus gallinarum and Streptococcus gordonii Septa Revealed by Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Sections.” Journal of Bacteriology 188 no. 18 (2006):6652–6660[/footnote] Gram- negative cell walls are structurally more complex, containing three layers: the inner membrane, a thin layer of peptidoglycan, and an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide. (credit: modification of work by “Franciscosp2”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.19,Glycocalyces and S-Layers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.29.png,"Figure 2.19 (a) Capsules are a type of glycocalyx composed of an organized layer of polysaccharides. (b) A capsule stain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacterial pathogen capable of causing many different types of infections in humans. (credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 2.20,Filamentous Appendages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.30.png,"Figure 2.20 Bacteria may produce two different types of protein appendages that aid in surface attachment. Fimbriae typically are more numerous and shorter, whereas pili (shown here) are longer and less numerous per cell. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 2.21,Filamentous Appendages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.31.png,"Figure 2.21 The basic structure of a bacterial flagellum consists of a basal body, hook, and filament. The basal body composition and arrangement differ between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. (credit: modification of work by “LadyofHats”/Mariana Ruiz Villareal)"
Figure 2.12,The Nucleoid,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.17.png,"Figure 2.12 The nucleoid region (the area enclosed by the green dashed line) is a condensed area of DNA found within prokaryotic cells. Because of the density of the area, it does not readily stain and appears lighter in color when viewed with a transmission electron microscope."
Figure 2.13,Ribosomes,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.18.png,"Figure 2.13 Prokaryotic ribosomes (70S) are composed of two subunits: the 30S (small subunit) and the 50S (large subunit), each of which are composed of protein and rRNA components."
Figure 2.14,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.20.png,"Figure 2.14 (a) Sporulation begins following asymmetric cell division. The forespore becomes surrounded by a double layer of membrane, a cortex, and a protein spore coat, before being released as a mature endospore upon disintegration of the mother cell. (b) An electron micrograph of a Carboxydothermus hydrogenoformans endospore. These Bacillus spp. cells are undergoing sporulation. The endospores have been visualized using Malachite Green spore stain. (credit b: modification of work by Jonathan Eisen)"
Figure 2.15,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.21.png,"Figure 2.15 The bacterial plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with a variety of embedded proteins that perform various functions for the cell. Note the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids, whose carbohydrate components extend out from the surface of the cell. The abundance and arrangement of these proteins and lipids can vary greatly between species."
Figure 2.15,Endospores,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.21.png,"Figure 2.15 The bacterial plasma membrane is a phospholipid bilayer with a variety of embedded proteins that perform various functions for the cell. Note the presence of glycoproteins and glycolipids, whose carbohydrate components extend out from the surface of the cell. The abundance and arrangement of these proteins and lipids can vary greatly between species."
Figure 2.16,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.25.png,"Figure 2.16 Peptidoglycan is composed of polymers of alternating NAM and NAG subunits, which are cross-linked by peptide bridges linking NAM subunits from various glycan chains. This provides the cell wall with tensile strength in two dimensions."
Figure 2.17,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.26.png,"Figure 2.17 Bacteria contain two common cell wall structural types. Gram-positive cell walls are structurally simple, containing a thick layer of peptidoglycan with embedded teichoic acid external to the plasma membrane.[footnote]B. Zuber et al. “Granular Layer in the Periplasmic Space of Gram-Positive Bacteria and Fine Structures of Enterococcus gallinarum and Streptococcus gordonii Septa Revealed by Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Sections.” Journal of Bacteriology 188 no. 18 (2006):6652–6660[/footnote] Gram- negative cell walls are structurally more complex, containing three layers: the inner membrane, a thin layer of peptidoglycan, and an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide. (credit: modification of work by “Franciscosp2”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.17,Cell Wall,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.26.png,"Figure 2.17 Bacteria contain two common cell wall structural types. Gram-positive cell walls are structurally simple, containing a thick layer of peptidoglycan with embedded teichoic acid external to the plasma membrane.[footnote]B. Zuber et al. “Granular Layer in the Periplasmic Space of Gram-Positive Bacteria and Fine Structures of Enterococcus gallinarum and Streptococcus gordonii Septa Revealed by Cryo-Electron Microscopy of Vitreous Sections.” Journal of Bacteriology 188 no. 18 (2006):6652–6660[/footnote] Gram- negative cell walls are structurally more complex, containing three layers: the inner membrane, a thin layer of peptidoglycan, and an outer membrane containing lipopolysaccharide. (credit: modification of work by “Franciscosp2”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.19,Glycocalyces and S-Layers,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.29.png,"Figure 2.19 (a) Capsules are a type of glycocalyx composed of an organized layer of polysaccharides. (b) A capsule stain of Pseudomonas aeruginosa, a bacterial pathogen capable of causing many different types of infections in humans. (credit b: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 2.20,Filamentous Appendages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.30.png,"Figure 2.20 Bacteria may produce two different types of protein appendages that aid in surface attachment. Fimbriae typically are more numerous and shorter, whereas pili (shown here) are longer and less numerous per cell. (credit: modification of work by American Society for Microbiology)"
Figure 2.21,Filamentous Appendages,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.31.png,"Figure 2.21 The basic structure of a bacterial flagellum consists of a basal body, hook, and filament. The basal body composition and arrangement differ between gram-positive and gram-negative bacteria. (credit: modification of work by “LadyofHats”/Mariana Ruiz Villareal)"
Figure 2.5,The Origins of Cell Theory,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.5.png,Figure 2.5 Robert Hooke (1635–1703) was the first to describe cells based upon his microscopic observations of cork. This illustration was published in his work Micrographia.
Figure 2.6,Endosymbiotic Theory,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.7.png,"Figure 2.6 According to the endosymbiotic theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts are each derived from the uptake of bacteria. These bacteria established a symbiotic relationship with their host cell that eventually led to the bacteria evolving into mitochondria and chloroplasts."
Figure 2.7,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.8.png,Figure 2.7 Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865) was a proponent of the importance of handwashing to prevent transfer of disease between patients by physicians.
Figure 2.4,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.4.png,"Figure 2.4 (a) French scientist Louis Pasteur, who definitively refuted the long-disputed theory of spontaneous generation. (b) The unique swan-neck feature of the flasks used in Pasteur ’s experiment allowed air to enter the flask but prevented the entry of bacterial and fungal spores. (c) Pasteur’s experiment consisted of two parts. In the first part, the broth in the flask was boiled to sterilize it. When this broth was cooled, it remained free of contamination. In the second part of the experiment, the flask was boiled and then the neck was broken off. The broth in this flask became contaminated. (credit b: modification of work by “Wellcome Images”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.8,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.9.png,Figure 2.8 (a) Joseph Lister developed procedures for the proper care of surgical wounds and the sterilization of surgical equipment. (b) Robert Koch established a protocol to determine the cause of infectious disease. Both scientists contributed significantly to the acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
Figure 2.8,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.9.png,Figure 2.8 (a) Joseph Lister developed procedures for the proper care of surgical wounds and the sterilization of surgical equipment. (b) Robert Koch established a protocol to determine the cause of infectious disease. Both scientists contributed significantly to the acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
Figure 2.6,Endosymbiotic Theory,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.7.png,"Figure 2.6 According to the endosymbiotic theory, mitochondria and chloroplasts are each derived from the uptake of bacteria. These bacteria established a symbiotic relationship with their host cell that eventually led to the bacteria evolving into mitochondria and chloroplasts."
Figure 2.7,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.8.png,Figure 2.7 Ignaz Semmelweis (1818–1865) was a proponent of the importance of handwashing to prevent transfer of disease between patients by physicians.
Figure 2.4,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.4.png,"Figure 2.4 (a) French scientist Louis Pasteur, who definitively refuted the long-disputed theory of spontaneous generation. (b) The unique swan-neck feature of the flasks used in Pasteur ’s experiment allowed air to enter the flask but prevented the entry of bacterial and fungal spores. (c) Pasteur’s experiment consisted of two parts. In the first part, the broth in the flask was boiled to sterilize it. When this broth was cooled, it remained free of contamination. In the second part of the experiment, the flask was boiled and then the neck was broken off. The broth in this flask became contaminated. (credit b: modification of work by “Wellcome Images”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.8,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.9.png,Figure 2.8 (a) Joseph Lister developed procedures for the proper care of surgical wounds and the sterilization of surgical equipment. (b) Robert Koch established a protocol to determine the cause of infectious disease. Both scientists contributed significantly to the acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
Figure 2.8,The Germ Theory of Disease,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.9.png,Figure 2.8 (a) Joseph Lister developed procedures for the proper care of surgical wounds and the sterilization of surgical equipment. (b) Robert Koch established a protocol to determine the cause of infectious disease. Both scientists contributed significantly to the acceptance of the germ theory of disease.
Figure 2.2,The Theory of Spontaneous Generation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.2.png,"Figure 2.2 Francesco Redi’s experimental setup consisted of an open container, a container sealed with a cork top, and a container covered in mesh that let in air but not flies. Maggots only appeared on the meat in the open container. However, maggots were also found on the gauze of the gauze-covered container."
Figure 2.3,The Theory of Spontaneous Generation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.3.png,"Figure 2.3 (a) Francesco Redi, who demonstrated that maggots were the offspring of flies, not products of spontaneous generation. (b) John Needham, who argued that microbes arose spontaneously in broth from a “life force.” (c) Lazzaro Spallanzani, whose experiments with broth aimed to disprove those of Needham."
Figure 2.4,Disproving Spontaneous Generation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.4.png,"Figure 2.4 (a) French scientist Louis Pasteur, who definitively refuted the long-disputed theory of spontaneous generation. (b) The unique swan-neck feature of the flasks used in Pasteur ’s experiment allowed air to enter the flask but prevented the entry of bacterial and fungal spores. (c) Pasteur’s experiment consisted of two parts. In the first part, the broth in the flask was boiled to sterilize it. When this broth was cooled, it remained free of contamination. In the second part of the experiment, the flask was boiled and then the neck was broken off. The broth in this flask became contaminated. (credit b: modification of work by “Wellcome Images”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 2.3,Disproving Spontaneous Generation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.3.png,"Figure 2.3 (a) Francesco Redi, who demonstrated that maggots were the offspring of flies, not products of spontaneous generation. (b) John Needham, who argued that microbes arose spontaneously in broth from a “life force.” (c) Lazzaro Spallanzani, whose experiments with broth aimed to disprove those of Needham."
Figure 2.4,Disproving Spontaneous Generation,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-2.4.png,"Figure 2.4 (a) French scientist Louis Pasteur, who definitively refuted the long-disputed theory of spontaneous generation. (b) The unique swan-neck feature of the flasks used in Pasteur ’s experiment allowed air to enter the flask but prevented the entry of bacterial and fungal spores. (c) Pasteur’s experiment consisted of two parts. In the first part, the broth in the flask was boiled to sterilize it. When this broth was cooled, it remained free of contamination. In the second part of the experiment, the flask was boiled and then the neck was broken off. The broth in this flask became contaminated. (credit b: modification of work by “Wellcome Images”/Wikimedia Commons)"
Figure 3.2,Prokaryote Habitats and Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-3.2.png,"Figure 3.2 (a) Some prokaryotes, called halophiles, can thrive in extremely salty environments such as the Dead Sea, pictured here. (b) The archaeon Halobacterium salinarum, shown here in an electron micrograph, is a halophile that lives in the Dead Sea. (credit a: modification of work by Jullen Menichini; credit b: modification of work by NASA)"
Figure 3.3,Prokaryote Habitats and Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-3.3.png,Figure 3.3 (a) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium live in the root nodules of legumes such as clover. (b) This micrograph of the root nodule shows bacteroids (bacterium-like cells or modified bacterial cells) within the plant cells. The bacteroids are visible as darker ovals within the larger plant cell. (credit a: modification of work by USDA)
Figure 3.2,Prokaryote Habitats and Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-3.2.png,"Figure 3.2 (a) Some prokaryotes, called halophiles, can thrive in extremely salty environments such as the Dead Sea, pictured here. (b) The archaeon Halobacterium salinarum, shown here in an electron micrograph, is a halophile that lives in the Dead Sea. (credit a: modification of work by Jullen Menichini; credit b: modification of work by NASA)"
Figure 3.3,Prokaryote Habitats and Functions,https://open.oregonstate.education/app/uploads/sites/8/2019/06/Fig-3.3.png,Figure 3.3 (a) Nitrogen-fixing bacteria such as Rhizobium live in the root nodules of legumes such as clover. (b) This micrograph of the root nodule shows bacteroids (bacterium-like cells or modified bacterial cells) within the plant cells. The bacteroids are visible as darker ovals within the larger plant cell. (credit a: modification of work by USDA)