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+{"metadata":{"id":"0009b6b41b2487f2292829fd7f07b317","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-tata/PDFs/iwmi-tata_water_policy_research_highlight-issue_07_2017.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Minor rrigaঞon chemes are defined as those irrigaঞon i s schemes or structures, in either groundwater or surface water category, which have Culturable Command Area (CCA) up to 2000 ha. Owing to low capital investment, short gestaঞon period and widespread coverage, they deliver irrigaঞon benefits to millions of farmers and account for a major share (> 60 ) of the total irrigaঞon economy of the % country. The Ministry of Water Resources, River Development and Ganga Rejuvenaঞon (MoWR) conducts a census of minor irrigaঞon structures to obtain detailed informaঞon on their existence, ownership, working condiঞon, cost of construcঞon, operaঞonal expenses and related issues. The census provides a clear picture of the distribuঞon and uঞlizaঞon of different types of minor irrigaঞon schemes and is the only available data at the naঞonal scale on minor irrigaঞon. So far, five minor irrigaঞon censuses (MIC) have been completed with reference years 1986-87 (GoI 1993), 1993-94 (GoI 2001), 2000-01 (GoI 2005), 2006-07 (Go 2014) and 2013-14 (GoI 2017))."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"In 2014, the IWMI-Tata Program assisted MoWR to analyse data from the fourth MIC and prepare an analyঞcal report to encourage its wider use in policy making and program implementaঞon. In 2017, when the data collecঞon for the fi[ h MIC was completed, MoWR shared the (provisional) data with IWMI. ITP researchers used the data to prepare an analyঞcal report and shared it with MoWR (ITP 2017). The official report of the fi[ h MIC was published on the MoWR website in December 2017. The purpose of this Highlight is to present key insights from the ITP report to shed light on the evolving nature of India's minor irrigaঞon economy."}]},{"head":"D M ATA AND ETHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"This paper uses data from the fourth and fi[ h MI Censuses."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Both the censuses covered 33 states and union territories."},{"index":3,"size":48,"text":"The fi[ h census covered 673 districts and more than 650,000 villages to gather informaঞon on 21.71 million minor irrigaঞon schemes. Where relevant, we also use data from eighth and ninth Agriculture Censuses (MoA 2012; MoA 2015) and CGWB's data on dynamic groundwater resource of India (CGWB 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":162,"text":"Table 1 compares state-wise number of MI structures covered in the provisional data that we have analysed and the numbers in the data officially released. The official numbers are marginally higher in a few states, with the largest difference being in Madhya Pradesh where the official data included 1,513 more structures vis-à-vis the provisional data. However, overall the difference is , less than negligible 0.01%. We have used the revised data for state-level analyses; the district-level analyses relies primarily on provisional data. The total number of minor irrigaঞon structures conঞnues to grow, at a slower rate and with some change in the albeit relaঞve share of different scheme types. Between the fourth census (reference year: 2006-07) and the fi[ h census (reference year: 2013-14), the total number of structures increased by more than 700,000 to 21.71 million. While the surface schemes declined marginally from 1.25 million to 1.19 million, the number of groundwater schemes increased from 19.76 million to 20.52 million ("},{"index":5,"size":231,"text":").    Against a potenঞal of 20.6 million hectares (mha), dug wells irrigate 16.8 mha; up from 15.6 mha in 2006-07. All but 1.1% of DWs are privately owned; this has changed from the fourth census where 2.8% of DWs were publically owned. 78% of the dug wells operate in the shallow aquifers with depth less than 20m while another 12.3% have a depth of 20 -40m; only 4.8% go beyond 70m depth. A li le over 70% dug wells are owned by marginal and small farmers; up from 66% in the fourth census. 23.4% of the dug wells are jointly owned by groups of farmers; up from 20% in the fourth census. 85.1% DWs operate on electricity; up from only 69% in 2006-07. Dug wells are predominantly financed through the farmers' own savings (71%). 21% DWs cost less than 10,000; 19.9% cost between 10,000 and 50,000; 25.8% between 50,000 and 1 lakh; 32.2% between 1 lakh and 10 lakh; and only 1% cost more than 10 lakh. 94.4% DWs were reported to be funcঞonal with 3.4% temporarily not in use and 2.2% permanently out of use. Low discharge, possibly as a result of decline in groundwater level, was reported as the primary reason for dug wells being temporarily out of use; like-wise, drying up of wells was cited as the most common reason for dug wells being permanently out of use."}]},{"head":"Shallow Tubewells (STWs)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"A STW consists of a bore hole drilled into the ground with the purpose of tapping groundwater from porous zones in the aquifer. STWs grew from 4. STWs operate at a depth of less than 20m while the rest (66.2%) operate between 20 -40m depth. All but 0.5% of STWs are privately owned; 79% owned by marginal and small farmers; and only 2% by large farmers. The main source of energy for STWs is diesel (63.5%) followed by electricity (35.9%). Predominantly financed through farmers' savings, 98.3% STWs are funcঞonal with 1.3% temporarily not in use and 0.4% permanently out of use. Nearly half (48.9%) STWs cost between 10,000 and 50,000; 27.6% between 50,000 and 1 lakh; 15.6% between 1 lakh and 10 lakh; 6.9% less than 10,000 and 1% more than 10 lakh. Mechanical failure (36.3%) and low discharge (24.6%) were reported as the primary reasons for STWs being temporarily out of use; destrucঞon beyond repair (36.2%) and drying up of wells (30.9%) were cited as the most common reason for STWs being permanently out of use."}]},{"head":"Medium Tubewells (MTWs)","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"MTWs 29.8% between 1 lakh and 10 lakh; 25.8% between 10,000 and 50,000; 4.9% less than 10,000 and 0.9% 5 more than 10 lakh. Low water discharge (55.9%) is reported as the primary reason for MTWs being temporarily out of use; drying up of wells (52.5%) and destrucঞon beyond repair were cited as the most common reasons for MTWs being permanently out of use."}]},{"head":"Deep Tubewells (DTWs)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":307,"text":"DTWs are tubewells that operate at a depth of more than 70 m. The number of DTWs has grown exponenঞally from 0.1 million in 1987 to 0.5 million on 2000-01, 1.4 million in 2006-07 and 2.6 million in 2013-14. Almost all DTWs are located in western and peninsular India, with a high concentraঞon in Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Telangana and other pockets of severe groundwater depleঞon such as Sangli (Maharashtra) Banaskantha (Gujarat) and Chitradurga (Karnataka) ( ). Figure 7 Against an irrigaঞon potenঞal of 15.4 mha, Deep Tubewells irrigate 12.7 mha, up from 8 mha in 2006-07. The depth profile of DTWs has changed substanঞally since the fourth MI census. In 2006-07, 47% of DTWs operated between 70 -90m depth; in 2013-14, the percentage fell to below 40%. Likewise, in 2006-07, only 10% of the DTWs operated deeper than 150m; in 2013-14, the share of DTWs operaঞng at depths greater than 150m has grown to 15.6%. This clearly indicates a secular and declining trend in groundwater tables. As with dug wells, STWs and MTWs, all but 1.1% of DTWs are privately owned. This has changed from 2006-07 when 4% of DTWs were under public ownership. A li le over half (52.3%) of DTWs are owned by marginal and small farmers; while only 4.5% are owned by large farmers. As many as 20% of DTWs are jointly owned by groups of farmers, indicaঞve of their high capital cost. Given the depth at which they operate, it is not surprising that 96.3% DTWs Water Policy Research Highlight-07 inadequate power / fuel is reported as the leading reason (43.5%) for S-Flow schemes being temporarily not in use, followed by low water discharge (20.3%) and mechanical failure (12.1%). Sinking (42.6%), and drying up of water source (30.4%) are the most common reasons for S-Flow schemes being permanently out of use."}]},{"head":"Energy Use in Minor Irrigaঞon","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"Overall, the fi[ h MI census reports 72.16% of MI schemes as electric, 25.47% diesel, 1.58% manual, 0.07% wind-powered, 0.03% solar powered, and 0.69% energised from other sources. The distribuঞon is slightly different between groundwater and surface water schemes. In surface water schemes, there is a higher proporঞon of manual (5.87%) pumps ("},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"). Electric pumps dominate in north-Figure 10 western, western and peninsular India while diesel pumps are mostly concentrated in the Gangeঞc basin in eastern India."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"The report of the fourth MI census highlighted the energy divide in India's minor irrigaঞon economy."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"shows Figure 11 how the divide has evolved and intensified during the period 2006-07 to 2013-14. The yellow areas of the maps represent districts with less than 20% electrified MI schemes while the dark red areas represent districts where more than 80% of the MI schemes are electric."},{"index":5,"size":270,"text":"(47.8%) and public (52.2%). This has changed from 2006-07 when only 39% were privately owned. Two-third (67.2%) of S-Flow schemes are owned and operated by marginal and small farmers; 6.5% are owned by large farmers. An overwhelming majority (71%) of privately owned S-Flow schemes are jointly owned by groups of farmers. Li le over a third (35.2%) S-Flow schemes are financed through farmers' own savings while 44.3% rely on government funds and 13.4% use bank loans. Only 87.6% S-Flow schemes are reported as funcঞonal with 9.5% temporarily and 2.9% permanently not in use. Whereas S-Flow schemes are supposed to operate with gravity, provisional data from the fi[ h MIC data suggests a significant number of them have energy source. Out of roughly 600,000 surface flow schemes, roughly 280,000 schemes report having an energy source. 57.9% of these are powered by electricity; 22.9% by diesel and 19.2% by other energy sources. This probably represents a case of mis-classificaঞon and these schemes should be classified as S-Li[ schemes. 42.5% S-Flow schemes cost less than 10,000; 22.4% between 10,000 and 50,000; 18.9% between 1 lakh and 10 lakh; 12.6% between 50,000 to 1 lakh; and 3.6% more than 10 lakh. Possibly owing to the mis-classificaঞon discussed earlier, The minor irrigaঞon census collects informaঞon on capacity of pumps (in HP) and cropping season-wise hours of use for every minor irrigaঞon structure. This informaঞon can be used to calculate total HP-Hours of operaঞon of energized minor irrigaঞon schemes; electric, diesel or otherwise. Using this informaঞon and assuming different values for average pump efficiency, one can esঞmate total annual energy use by MI schemes (Table 3)."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"The total installed capacity of mechanized MI structures is reported to be in excess of 106 GW. Of these, 102 GW is for groundwater schemes and 4.3 GW is for surface water MI schemes. It appears that, of all the values of esঞmated energy consumpঞon by electric pumps in Table 3, energy esঞmated at 40% pump efficiency is closest to the electricity supplied to agriculture, which was 122 billion units (kWhequivalent) in 2013-14. The total energy consumed in ² agriculture in 2013-14 is esঞmated to be roughly 162 billion units (kWh-equivalent) , up from 133 billion units esঞmated ³ for 2006-07 ("},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"). This implies an average annual Figure 12 energy consumpঞon of 2281 kWh-equivalent units per hectare of irrigaঞon potenঞal uঞlized (IPU)."},{"index":8,"size":81,"text":"As per esঞmates of MI Census 2006-07, four districts consumed more than 2 billion units per year; this number has now gone up to 7 districts. Nalgonda district (Telangana) is esঞmated to consume 3.53 billion units. The other districts ² We assume 20% technical and commercial losses in farm power supply and exclude it from the electricity supplied to agriculture which was 153 billion units in 2013-14 (CSO 2017)). h p://www.mospi.nic.in/sites/default/files/publicaঞon_reports/Energy_Staঞsঞcs_2017r.pdf.pdf ³ For esঞmaঞng energy consumpঞon, we assume 40% pump efficiency."}]},{"head":"Assumed Pump","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Efficiency (%)  "}]},{"head":"Water Distribuঞon and Irrigaঞon Technologies","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"Between 2006-07 and 2013-14, we see significant improvement in minor irrigaঞon schemes equipped with improved water distribuঞon systems. Proporঞon of schemes using unlined open channels has declined (from 55.09% in 2006-07 to 43.09%); while share of MI schemes equipped with buried pipelines (11.72% to 14.78%), surface pipes (14.75% to 24.74%), drip irrigaঞon (0.76% to 1.89%) and sprinklers (1.88% to 3.18%) have all increased significantly ( ). Figure 13 In terms of minor irrigated area using different water distribuঞon systems, numbers are different for groundwater and surface water schemes. In groundwater schemes, lined channels service only 8% of the IPU while buried pipes service 12.3% and surface pipes service 29.2% of the IPU. 1.4% of groundwater irrigated area is drip irrigated while 6.1% is irrigated with sprinklers. In surface water schemes, 22.3% of the IPU is irrigated through lined channels while buried pipes service 11.3% and surface pipes service 19.3%. 0.3% of surface water irrigated area is drip irrigated while 1.8% is irrigated with sprinklers ("},{"index":2,"size":4,"text":"). There has been  "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"Since the 1980's, India's irrigaঞon economy has been dominated by minor irrigaঞon, especially groundwater and pump irrigaঞon. Over the past fi[ y years, India and much of South Asia added more irrigated area through expansion of minor irrigaঞon than over the previous 200 years of major and medium irrigaঞon expansion via investments in large reservoirs and canal networks (Shah 2009). Not surprisingly, these structures have become the backbone of the smallholder agriculture economy. Despite some inconsistencies and shortcomings, data from the minor irrigaঞon census represents the most comprehensive and reliable source of informaঞon about this criঞcal economy."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"the years, the MIC has improved in breadth as well in the depth of its coverage and the fi[ h MIC has not been an"},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"With more than 21 million structures spread across more than 6 0,000 villages, the minor irrigaঞon 5 census is an enormous field and logisঞcal exercise. It has been suggested that the next census will make use of mobile compuঞng and GPS technologies to improve reliability, ease of data gathering and access to MIC data."},{"index":4,"size":126,"text":"Since the last census in 2006-07, India's MI economy has evolved in terms of number of structures, energy source, energy use, delivery technologies etc. Despite some signs of plateauing and decline in the rate of growth, MI structures conঞnue to increase. How long the groundwater juggernaut will conঞnue is difficult to say. While in many parts of western and peninsular India, DWs and STWs are being replaced by DTWs, the density of structures sঞll has tremendous scope for expansion in central and eastern India. As states conঞnue to offer free or highly subsidized electricity for farm use, unsustainable and economically unviable pumping of fossil groundwater is likely to conঞnue. In recent years, new states like Chhaম sgarh and Telangana have also announced free farm power policies."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"The introducঞon of solar irrigaঞon pumpsespecially with high capital subsidies from union and state governmentscoupled with the rapid decline in their unit costs is likely to have a significant impact on the minor irrigaঞon economy. Once installed, solar irrigaঞon pumps offer high quality, zeromarginal cost, day-ঞme energy to farmers without the possibility of raঞoning. Mindless promoঞon of off-grid solar pumping systems will mimic a free farm power regime and the inability of uঞliঞes and government agencies to limit pumping hours will further accentuate the precarious groundwater situaঞon."},{"index":6,"size":42,"text":"The expansion of efficient irrigaঞon technologies in recent year is a posiঞve sign but even with the recent rise, drip and sprinkler technologies cover only about 5% of minor irrigaঞon schemes and cover less than 10% of the area irrigated by them."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Since the first MI census in 1987, MI structures have been classified into 5 categories: [1] Dugwells (DWs); [2] Shallow Tubewells (STWs); [3] Deep Tubewells (DTWs); [4] Surface flow schemes; and [5] Surface li[ schemes. The fi[ h MI census introduced a new category - "},{"text":"U Figure : Irrigaঞon Potenঞal Created (IPC) and Irrigaঞon Potenঞal Uঞlized (IPU) for different structure types, 2013-14 3 "},{"text":"Figure  "},{"text":" Figure : Distribuঞon of Dugwells, 2013-14 4 Figure : Distribuঞon of Shallow Tubewells (STWs), 2013-5 14 "},{"text":"Figure : Figure : Distribuঞon of Medium Tubewells (MTWs), 2013-14 6 Figure : Distribuঞon of Deep Tubewells (DTWs), 2013-14 7 "},{"text":"Figure Figure : Distribuঞon of Surface Flow Schemes , 2013-14 9 (S-Flow) "},{"text":" -wise annual energy use in minor irrigaঞon, 2006-07 (le[ ) and2013-14 (right)     "},{"text":" Figure 14 significant expansion of drip and sprinkler irrigated area between the 4 and 5 MI censuses. Drip irrigated area has £ £ increased from 287,075 Ha in 2006-07 to 849,601 Ha in 2013-14 while sprinkler irrigated area has grown from 2.1 mha in 2006-07 to 3.7 mha in 2013-14. "},{"text":"Figure Figure : Share of Irrigaঞon Potenঞal Uঞlized by Water Distribuঞon 14 Systems, 2013-14 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 Dugwells This Highlight is based on research carried out under the IWMI-Tata Program (ITP) with addiঞonal support from the CGIAR Research Program on Water, Land and Ecosystems (WLE). It is not externally peer-reviewed and the views expressed are of the author/s alone and not of ITP or its funding partners. The category has been created by bifurcaঞng the STW category into STW and MTW based on the depth of the scheme. Till the fourth census, depth of STWs was up to 70 meters. In fi[ h census, depth of STWs has been limited to 35 meters while MTWs have depth in the 35-70 meters range.   conঞnue to dominate the MI landscape (8.8 m; conঞnue to dominate the MI landscape (8.8 m; 40%); followed by STWs (5.9 m; 27%); and MTWs (3.2 m; 40%); followed by STWs (5.9 m; 27%); and MTWs (3.2 m; 15%). However, both DWs and STWs have declined in 15%). However, both DWs and STWs have declined in absolute numbers compared to the fourth MI census. Deep absolute numbers compared to the fourth MI census. Deep tubewells (DTWs) have increased significantly from 1.4 tubewells (DTWs) have increased significantly from 1.4 million (7%) in 2006-07 to 2.6 million (12%) in 2013-14. million (7%) in 2006-07 to 2.6 million (12%) in 2013-14. Surface flow schemes (S -Flow ) have declined marginally from Surface flow schemes (S -Flow ) have declined marginally from 0.60 million to 0.59 million (3%) and surface li[ schemes 0.60 million to 0.59 million (3%) and surface li[ schemes -Li[ (S ) have declined from 0.65 million to 0.60 million (3%) -Li[ (S) have declined from 0.65 million to 0.60 million (3%) ( Figure 1 ). ( Figure 1).  "},{"text":"VOLVING ATURE OF NDIA S RRIGATION CONOMY Insights from the Fi[ h Minor Irrigaࢼon Census* †  Water Policy Research Highlight-07 Water Policy Research Highlight-07 Table : 1 Comparison of provisional and official data for fi[ h MI census Table : 1 Comparison of provisional and official data for fi[ h MI census  "},{"text":"Type of Structure First Census (1987) Second Census (1993-94) Third Census (2000-01) Fourth Census (2006-07) Fi[ h Census (2013-14)  Dugwells (DWs) 7,320,586 4,466,958 9,617,381 9,200,191 8,784,359 Dugwells (DWs)7,320,5864,466,9589,617,3819,200,1918,784,359 Shallow Tubewells (STWs) Medium Tubewells (MTWs) 4,773,071 5,080,725 8,355,693 9,104,665 5,940,656 3,176,684 Shallow Tubewells (STWs) Medium Tubewells (MTWs)4,773,0715,080,7258,355,6939,104,6655,940,656 3,176,684 Deep Tubewells (DTWs) 103,814 104,309 530,194 1,452,964 2,618,606 Deep Tubewells (DTWs)103,814104,309530,1941,452,9642,618,606 Total Groundwater Schemes 12,     Total Groundwater Schemes12,  "},{"text":"197,471 9,651,992 18,503,268 19,757,820 20,520,305  Surface Flow Schemes (S -Flow ) 436,466 418,584 642,013 601,115 592,156 Surface Flow Schemes (S -Flow )436,466418,584642,013601,115592,156 Surface Li[ Schemes (S-Li[ ) 481,045 352,916 606,918 647,738 600,093 Surface Li[ Schemes (S-Li[ )481,045352,916606,918647,738600,093 Total Surface Water Schemes 917     Total Surface Water Schemes917  "},{"text":",511 771,500 1,248,931 1,248,853 1,192,249  ALL MI STRUCTURES (millions) 13.11 10.42 19.75 21.00 21.71 ALL MI STRUCTURES (millions)13.1110.4219.7521.0021.71  "},{"text":"ALL INDIA 21,712,554 21,714,133 +1,579 +0.007%  State / UT Number of MI Structures Provisional Data Final Data Absolute Difference % Difference State / UTNumber of MI Structures Provisional Data Final DataAbsolute Difference% Difference Andaman & Nicobar Islands 2,710 2,710 - - Andaman & Nicobar Islands2,7102,710-- Andhra Pradesh 1,054,356 1,054,356 - - Andhra Pradesh1,054,3561,054,356-- Arunachal Pradesh 4,779 4,779 - - Arunachal Pradesh4,7794,779-- Assam 136,520 136,520 - - Assam136,520136,520-- Bihar 649,992 649,992 - - Bihar649,992649,992-- Chandigarh 52 52 - - Chandigarh5252-- Chhaম sgarh 315,708 315,708 - - Chhaম sgarh315,708315,708-- Delhi 7,506 7,506 - - Delhi7,5067,506-- Goa 7,755 7,755 - - Goa7,7557,755-- Gujarat 1,330,225 1,330,226 +1 +0.000% Gujarat1,330,2251,330,226+1+0.000% Haryana 350,909 350,909 - - Haryana350,909350,909-- Himachal Pradesh 20,774 20,774 - - Himachal Pradesh20,77420,774-- Jammu & Kashmir 11,313 11,313 - - Jammu & Kashmir11,31311,313-- Jharkhand 251,224 251,224 - - Jharkhand251,224251,224-- Karnataka 1,353,880 1,353,889 +9 +0.001% Karnataka1,353,8801,353,889+9+0.001% Kerala 103,657 103,657 - - Kerala103,657103,657-- Madhya Pradesh 2,080,716 2,082,229 +1,513 +0.073% Madhya Pradesh2,080,7162,082,229+1,513+0.073% Maharashtra 2,920,869 2,920,874 +5 +0.000% Maharashtra2,920,8692,920,874+5+0.000% Manipur 866 866 - - Manipur866866-- Meghalaya 9,238 9,238 - - Meghalaya9,2389,238-- Mizoram 4,281 4,281 - - Mizoram4,2814,281-- Nagaland 17,106 17,106 - - Nagaland17,10617,106-- Odisha 491,394 491,394 - - Odisha491,394491,394-- Puducherry 4,498 4,498 - - Puducherry4,4984,498-- Punjab 1,120,963 1,120,963 - - Punjab1,120,9631,120,963-- Rajasthan 1,471,068 1,471,068 - - Rajasthan1,471,0681,471,068-- Sikkim 1,749 1,749 - - Sikkim1,7491,749-- Tamil Nadu 2,072,468 2,072,517 +50 0.002% Tamil Nadu2,072,4682,072,517+500.002% Telangana 1,522,292 1,522,292 - - Telangana1,522,2921,522,292-- Tripura 5,073 5,073 - - Tripura5,0735,073-- U ar Pradesh 3,801,284 3,801,286 - - U ar Pradesh3,801,2843,801,286-- U arakhand 91,518 91,518 - - U arakhand91,51891,518-- West Bengal 495,811 495,811 - - West Bengal495,811495,811-- Table : Type-wise number of minor irrigaঞon structures reported over the years (1987 to 2013-14) 2 Table : Type-wise number of minor irrigaঞon structures reported over the years (1987 to 2013-14) 2     2 2  "},{"text":" is a new category of groundwater schemes introduced in the fi[ h MI census. MTWs are deeper than STWs but shallower than DTWs, so they operate between 35 -70 m depth. The highest concentraঞon of MTWs can be found in Punjab, north Bihar, north Gujarat, Telangana, Andhra Pradesh and southern Karnataka (Figure6). Against an irrigaঞon potenঞal of 14.3 mha, Medium Against an irrigaঞon potenঞal of 14.3 mha, Medium Tubewells irrigate 11.6 mha; thus the irrigated area by STWs Tubewells irrigate 11.6 mha; thus the irrigated area by STWs and MTWs together in 2013-14 is 33.8 mha, up from 31.4 and MTWs together in 2013-14 is 33.8 mha, up from 31.4 mha in 2006-07. Surprisingly, 12.6% of groundwater mha in 2006-07. Surprisingly, 12.6% of groundwater schemes recorded as MTWs operate at depth between 20 - schemes recorded as MTWs operate at depth between 20 - 40 m and should have been classified as STWs. More than 40 m and should have been classified as STWs. More than half the MTWs (53.4%) operate at depths between 40 and half the MTWs (53.4%) operate at depths between 40 and 60 m while a third (33.9%) operate between 60 -70m depth. 60 m while a third (33.9%) operate between 60 -70m depth. Like in the case of dug wells and STWs, all but 0.4% of Like in the case of dug wells and STWs, all but 0.4% of MTWs are privately owned. About 65% of MTWs are owned MTWs are privately owned. About 65% of MTWs are owned by marginal and small farmers; while only 2.4% are owned by by marginal and small farmers; while only 2.4% are owned by large farmers. Only 7% of MTWs are jointly owned by groups large farmers. Only 7% of MTWs are jointly owned by groups of farmers. MTWs are overwhelmingly electrified (88.4%) of farmers. MTWs are overwhelmingly electrified (88.4%) and only a few (10.9%) run on diesel. Like dug wells and and only a few (10.9%) run on diesel. Like dug wells and STWs, MTWs are also predominantly financed through the STWs, MTWs are also predominantly financed through the farmers' own savings (81.4%). 97.9% MTWs are funcঞonal farmers' own savings (81.4%). 97.9% MTWs are funcঞonal with 1.6% temporarily not in use and 0.5% permanently out with 1.6% temporarily not in use and 0.5% permanently out of use. 38.6% MTWs cost between 50,000 and 1 lakh; of use. 38.6% MTWs cost between 50,000 and 1 lakh;  "},{"text":"Esঞmated Energy Consumpঞon (in billion kWh-equivalent)   Electric Diesel Total ElectricDieselTotal 30 171.8 43.6 216.5 30171.843.6216.5 40 128.9 32.7 162.4 40128.932.7162.4 50 103.1 26.2 129.9 50103.126.2129.9 60 85.9 21.8 108.3 6085.921.8108.3 70 73.6 18.7 92.8 7073.618.792.8  "},{"text":"Table 3     Water Policy Research Highlight-07    Water Policy Research Highlight-07    Energy ConsumpƟon    Energy ConsumpƟon Energy ConsumpƟonEnergy ConsumpƟon    Data not Available    Data not Available Data not AvailableData not Available    Less than 50 MU/year    Less than 50 MU/year Less than 50 MU/yearLess than 50 MU/year    50-200 MU/year    50-200 MU/year 50-200 MU/year50-200 MU/year    200-500 MU/yearr    200-500 MU/year 200-500 MU/yearr200-500 MU/year    500-1000 MU/year    500-1000 MU/year 500-1000 MU/year500-1000 MU/year    More than 1000 MU/year    More than 1000 MU/year More than 1000 MU/yearMore than 1000 MU/year 0 500 1,000 2,000 Kilometers 0 500 1,000 2,000 Kilometers 05001,0002,000Kilometers05001,0002,000Kilometers     consuming more than 2 billion units annually are: Medak consuming more than 2 billion units annually are: Medak     (Telangana); Jodhpur and Bikaner (Rajasthan); Sangrur (Telangana); Jodhpur and Bikaner (Rajasthan); Sangrur     (Punjab); Banaskantha (Gujarat); and Pune (Maharashtra). (Punjab); Banaskantha (Gujarat); and Pune (Maharashtra).     These 7 districts have more than 0.85 million electric pumps These 7 districts have more than 0.85 million electric pumps     with an installed capacity of 9.4 million HP and consume with an installed capacity of 9.4 million HP and consume     20.3 billion units to irrigate an area of nearly 2.8 mha. 20.3 billion units to irrigate an area of nearly 2.8 mha.     : Esঞmated Energy Consumpঞon by MI Structures :Esঞmated Energy Consumpঞon by MI Structures  "}],"sieverID":"44eed8af-7a02-4c6d-ace2-1ad08bb6927f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"007db9607adb130e950dc84a888c07e9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H029653.pdf"},"pageCount":36,"title":"Socio-Ecology of Groundwater Irrigation in India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"Groundwater is a significant source of irrigation in India and accounts for more than half of net irrigated area in the country. As per one estimate (Dains and Pawar, 1987), 70-80 percent of the value of irrigated production in India may depend on groundwater irrigation. This means that a large proportion of India's agricultural GDP actually depends on groundwater. According to the World Bank and Ministry of Water Resources, GOI (1998) estimates, the contribution of groundwater to India's GDP is around 9%. The great significance of groundwater in the agrarian economy of India is due to the fact that agricultural yields are generally high in areas irrigated with groundwater than in areas irrigated from other sources (Dhawan, 1995). While at an intuitive plane, most researchers agree that groundwater irrigation is more productive than surface water irrigation and there is a lot of field level evidence to support this hypothesis; there is a little hard macro level evidence for the same. The importance of groundwater as a source of productivity and livelihood gains can hardly be over-emphasized. The pattern of groundwater development in India has however, created a number of sustainability, equity and efficiency concerns. Groundwater exploitation levels are alarming in some of the agriculturally developed states of India such as Punjab, Haryana and Tamil Nadu. The development of groundwater resource has been primarily through private initiative of the farmers. Thus, India's groundwater economy actually comprises of more than 19 million groundwater structures spread through the length and breadth of the country, having developed sporadically, rather than through concerted government policies as in the case of canal irrigation (Narain, 1998)."},{"index":2,"size":151,"text":"In our analysis, we have used data from the sources mentioned above. The number of districts covered using Bhalla (2001) data is 251 (1960's base). Major states that have been covered are: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar (including Jharkhand), Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (including Chattisgarh), Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (excluding hilly districts, now Uttaranchal). Another set of data (from CGWB, MI and ICRISAT) is used to analyze the determinants of groundwater use in India covering 225 districts (1960's base) which encompasses all the states mentioned above, with the exception of Rajasthan for which pump density data are not available from Minor Irrigation census of 1986. The study states cover 81 percent of geographical area of India and are home to some 82 percent of India's population. In a broad sense, we have covered all the major Indian states in our analysis whenever requisite data for the same were available."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":360,"text":"This paper is based on analysis of secondary level district data for all the major Indian states for the period 1970-73 and 1990-93. Methodology used can be divided into two parts. The first involves classification and tabulation of districts into various irrigation categories based on proportion of surface water and groundwater irrigated areas to net-cropped area. Similarly, districts have been classified on the basis of groundwater use (groundwater as percent of net cropped area) and groundwater available for irrigation in net terms. The second involves a series of regression equation models that have been used in section 2 and 3 to test our hypotheses. Our first model (reported in section 2) tries to test the hypothesis that the contribution of groundwater to India's agricultural economy has risen faster than the contribution from any other source of irrigation. This means that groundwater contributed significantly more to total agricultural output in 1990-93, than in 1970-73. In order to test this hypothesis, we ran OLS regression separately for 1970-73 and 1990-93. To further consolidate and strengthen our argument, we pooled together the data for the two decades and using dummy variable for the two periods (1970-73 =0; 1990-93=1), we ran another regression with the same independent variables. The results are presented in section 2. Our second hypothesis tries to establish the fact that demand for groundwater (expressed in terms of population density, past agricultural productivity or agricultural dynamism in a region and agricultural credit off take) is the most important determinant of groundwater use. This is opposed to the popularly held view that groundwater use is governed by supply parameters, both absence of rainfall and surface source of irrigation and presence of abundant groundwater. Here too, we estimated the relative importance of demand and supply variables in two separate equations and then pooled all the variables together to find out the importance of all the variables in determining groundwater use. Due to obvious data constraints, we could only test this hypothesis for a single time period, i.e. for the early 1990s (roughly the period of 1990-95). In addition to regression equations, we have used GIS tools to visually represent our finding wherever possible."}]},{"head":"SECTION 1: Contours of groundwater economy","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"Throughout Asia, the history of protective well irrigation goes back to the millennia. However, intensive groundwater use on the scale we find today is a phenomenon of the past 40 years. In India, the total number of mechanized wells and tubewells rose from less than a million in 1960 to some 19 million in 2000. In direct contrast to the formal organization of public irrigation systems, a dominant characteristic of the Indian groundwater economy is its spontaneous, private informal nature. Private investment in groundwater irrigation can very well be compared with that of public investment in surface water. In India, for example, over the past 50 years, against public sector irrigation investment of US $20 billion, private groundwater investment by farmers may well be of the order of US $ 12 billion (@ of $600 per piece for 19 million structures). However, the financial, economic and equity benefits from the latter are considered to be many times greater. Moreover, for a variety of reasons, groundwater irrigation is also found to be significantly more productive compared to surface irrigation. Groundwater is produced at the point of use, needing little transport, offers individual farmer irrigation \"on demand\" which few surface irrigation systems can offer. Due to all these factors, there has been a tremendous increase in the use of groundwater for irrigation purposes over the past two decades. This is especially true in the areas experiencing Green Revolution. A comparison of groundwater use and its dynamics in 1970's and 1990s will effectively drive home the point of increasing and intensive use of groundwater in irrigation."}]},{"head":"Groundwater as a source of irrigation: 1970s and 1990s","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":318,"text":"The share of groundwater irrigated (GWI) area to India's net cropped area (NCA) has continuously risen from 1970s to 1990s. The district level data of 251 Indian districts covering 12 states of India show that the proportion of GWI area to NCA has gone up from 10.4 percent in the triennium ending (TE) 1970-73 to 21 percent in TE 1990-93. At the same time, the contribution of surface water irrigated (SWI) to NCA has gone up marginally from 13 percent of net cropped area in 1970-73 to 16 percent in 1990-93. In absolute terms, the groundwater-irrigated area has increased from 13 million hectares to 27 million hectares, an increase of 105 percent during the last two decades. On the other hand, area under surface water irrigation increased from 16 million hectares in 1970-73 to 21 million hectares, an increase of 28 percent points during the last two decades. As a result, today, more and more number of districts have larger share of irrigated land under groundwater irrigation than surface water irrigation. Figures 1 and 2 show the relative share of groundwater and surface water irrigated area to net cropped area for the years 1970-73 and 1990-93. The figures above clearly bring out the fact that in the majority of the Indian districts, groundwater irrigated area is much larger than the share of surface water irrigated area. This is the case despite huge investments made in large-scale canal irrigation projects. The fact that groundwater irrigation has spread so rapidly, points to its being a so called \"democratic resource\", its development has been need-based, rather than policy based as in the case of major surface irrigation projects. Table 1 presents the changing share of groundwater irrigation in different regions of the country.  groundwater-irrigated area in India: 1970-73 to 1990-93 Year 1970-73 1990-93 1970-73 1990-93 1970-73 1990-93 1970-73 1990-  ICRISAT (1994) and net cropped area data from Bhalla and Singh (2001)  "}]},{"head":"D istricts","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Source wise irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA)"}]},{"head":"D istricts","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Source wise irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA)"},{"index":2,"size":408,"text":"Figures 1, 2, 3 and table 1 capture adequately the increasing share of groundwater irrigated to total irrigated area in the country. The remarkable increase in the area under groundwater irrigation to net cropped area is seen all across the country and particularly in northern India-the heart of Green Revolution in the country. In many cases however, groundwater and surface water are used in conjunction and in order to see how the relative importance of each source has changed over the decades, we classified our study districts into four categories, based on the share of GWI area and SWI area to NCA. Table 2 presents the classification of districts based on the above criterion.  ICRISAT (1994) and net cropped area data from Bhalla and Singh (2001) From table 2 it is seen that the number of districts in the AB category (more than 20% ground water irrigated districts and less than 20% surface water irrigated districts) has gone up considerably during this time, from mere 27 districts in 1970-73 to 73 in 1990-93. Similarly, the number of districts with both above 20% surface water irrigated area and groundwater-irrigated area (category AA) has gone up from 23 in 1970-73 to 43 in 1990-93. At the same time, the districts with more than 20% of net cropped area under surface water irrigation and less than 20 percent area under groundwater irrigation (category BA) has gone down from 46 in 1970-73 to 35 in 1990-93. This clearly shows the growing importance of groundwater as a source of irrigation in India. Tables 1 and 2 together capture the increasing share of groundwater irrigation in India during the post-Green Revolution period. In fact, it has been suggested by scholars like Dhawan (1982), that the spread of Green Revolution in North India is explained more by the spread of modern pump and tubewell technologies than development of surface irrigation. This further consolidate the hunch that groundwater is much more important today as a source of irrigation than it was 20 years ago and, in many parts of India, this same trend is likely to continue in the future. This means that more and more land will be brought under groundwater irrigation and there will be further proliferation of groundwater structures all across the country. Since groundwater is available on demand and offers its users control over timing and quantum of water application, several hypotheses have gained currency. The most prevalent ones in India are:"},{"index":3,"size":385,"text":"1. Ouput/m 3 of water from groundwater systems is greater than output/ m 3 of water from surface irrigation systems. This is a widely asserted hypothesis, but due to data constraints about actual water use, not much macro level work has been done to test this hypothesis. Recently a study at Andulasia, Spain showed that groundwater is five times more productive than surface water, when measured in terms of euros/ m 3 (Hernandez-Mora et al, forthcoming). 2. Output/hectare of groundwater-irrigated land is greater than output per hectare of surface water irrigated land, ceteris paribus. Several studies support this hypothesis, especially at the field level and few at the macro level. Dhawan (1989) estimated the land productivity per net hectare of net cropped area for canal irrigated and groundwater irrigated areas in Punjab and Tamil Nadu for three points of time and concluded that productivity in groundwater irrigated area was high throughout by almost 1.5-2 times. Similar evidences were documented in a number of early studies in Pakistan (Meinzen-Dick 1996) and in Gujarat and Eastern U.P in India (Shah, 1993). Due to reliability of supply, groundwater irrigation encourages complimentary investments in fertilizers, pesticides and high yielding varieties, leading to higher yield (Kanhert and Levine, 1989). This is primarily due to the fact that groundwater irrigation is available on demand, and is therefore more reliable and timely compared to other sources of irrigation; and because its use entails significant incremental cost of lift, farmers tend to economize on its use and maximize application efficiency. 3. Groundwater's contribution to agricultural production has risen faster than surface irrigation systems because, firstly, groundwater irrigation is inherently more productive and secondly area under groundwater irrigation has expanded faster than any other irrigation source. This hypothesis has not been tested as of yet and it is particularly important in a country like India where groundwater irrigation dominates irrigated farming. There has been no investigation of groundwater's contribution to agricultural production growth at the macro level. We propose to test the hypothesis (using district level data for 1970s and 1990s) that groundwater contributes more to agricultural wealth creation than any other irrigation source and that its contribution has gone up significantly in the last two decades and if trends are anything to go by, this will hold true for the decades to come."},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"This paper presents the first tentative macro-level test ever offered to the hypothesis that groundwater irrigation contributes more to agricultural production and that its contribution has gone up steadily during the last two decades. We have used data compiled by Bhalla et al (2001) for 251 districts (1960s base) of India covering 12 major states of India. These are Andhra Pradesh, Bihar (including Jharkhand), Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (including Chattisgarh), Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh (excluding hilly districts, now Uttaranchal). Bhalla et al have calculated value of production for 35 crops at 1990 base price and we have divided it by net sown area in a district to arrive at district wise productivity (Rs/ha of NCA) values."}]},{"head":"Contribution of groundwater to agricultural production: Result of regression equation for the periods 1970-73 and 1990-93","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":413,"text":"Groundwater has increasingly become an important source of irrigation and majority of the Indian districts have more land under groundwater irrigation than under any other source. This would naturally mean that the contribution of groundwater to India's agricultural output would increase many-fold, keeping pace with the increase in area under groundwater irrigation. In this section, using OLS regression techniques, we try to test the hypothesis that the contribution of groundwater to total agricultural production has increased from the 1970s to 1990s and that in many regions of India, groundwater's contribution to agricultural productivity now exceeds that of even surface water's contribution. The model specification used is as follows:    3 and 4 show the result of regression equation, for all India and regional level. Comparing the 1970-73 and 1990-93 equations makes it quite evident that the relative importance of groundwater as a determinant of agricultural productivity has gone up very significantly during the last two decades. In 1970-73, one unit increase in area under surface water irrigation led to an additional gain of Rs 5.4/ha and this has increased marginally to Rs 6.1/ha in 1990-93. On the other hand, adding one unit of groundwater irrigated area used to add up only Rs 1.7/ha in 1970-73, as compared to Rs 5.1/ha in 1990-93. There are of course, some regional differences, which is to be expected in a vast country like that of India. This denotes a significant incremental contribution of groundwater to average agricultural productivity in the last two decades. However, the relative contribution of groundwater is still lower than that of surface water and this perhaps can be attributed to data anomaly and the way the data is collected. A piece of cultivated land is categorized as either surface water irrigated or groundwater irrigated, depending upon the mode of irrigation in the majority of the land area. For e.g., if a farmer were to irrigate 50% of his holding using surface water sources and 30% using groundwater sources, his entire parcel of land would be deemed to be surface water irrigated. There are obvious limitations to this approach. To continue with the above example, it might very well happen, that the farmer gets 80% of his production from the 30% of the land that he cultivates using groundwater, but the importance of role of groundwater can not be captured due the way data is tabulated. This creates a kind of bias against groundwater-irrigated area statistics in India and it gets under-reported in many instances."},{"index":2,"size":758,"text":"Another way of looking at the results would be to compare the actual contribution of surface water irrigated area and groundwater-irrigated area to total agricultural productivity during the period of 1970-73 and 1990-93. In 1970-73-73, out of average agricultural productivity of Rs 5236/ha, the contribution of surface water irrigated area was Rs 734/ha and that of groundwater irrigated area was 216/ha. In terms of absolute figures, out of total agricultural output value of Rs 517 billion in 1970-73, Rs 77 billion (or 14.9%) was contributed by surface water irrigated area and Rs 21 billion (or 4.1%) from groundwater irrigated area for India as a whole. These figures changed drastically in 1990-93. Out of the average productivity of Rs 9376/ha, the contribution of surface water irrigated areas was Rs 1018/ha and that of groundwater irrigated areas was Rs 1378/ha, a jump of over 84 % from 1970-73. Similarly, out of total agricultural output value of Rs 957 billion, the contribution of groundwater irrigated area was Rs 132 billion (14%) and that of surface water irrigated was Rs 115 billion (12%). The contribution of groundwater irrigated area to total agricultural production (expressed as percentage) went up by almost 9 per cent points from 4.1 percent in 1970-73 to 13.8 percent in 1990-93. At the same time, the relative contribution of surface water irrigated are to total agricultural output declined from almost 15% in 1970-73 to 12% in 1990-93. This phenomenon, i.e. decline in percentage contribution of surface water irrigated area to total agricultural output and the increase in percent contribution of groundwater irrigated area is seen across all the regions in India. Tables 5 to 9 show the relative contribution of groundwater and surface water irrigated area to total agricultural production for the whole of India, as well as for the four regions in the country (North, West, South and East).    In all the regions of India, without a single exception, the percent contribution of groundwater-irrigated area to total agricultural production has gone up by 5.5 percent points to 10.8 percent points, the all India average being 9.7 percent points. Similarly, the percent contribution of surface water irrigated area has gone down in all the regions (except in Western region, where it has gone up marginally by +1 percent), ranging from mere -1.4 percent point in Eastern India to -5.9 percent points in Northern India. This clearly brings out the growing contribution of groundwater to India's agricultural economy. In the Northern and the Western regions of the country, during the period 1990-93, contribution of groundwater to agricultural productivity (Rs/ha) as well as total agricultural output (billion Rs), exceeds that of the contribution of surface water irrigated area (Tables 8 and 9). However, in Southern and Eastern India, the absolute contribution of groundwater to average productivity (Rs/ha) and total output (billion Rs) is slightly lower than that of surface water irrigated area. This might perhaps be attributed to the nature of aquifers in Southern India (a predominantly hard rock area) and to the recent introduction (mid to late 1980s) of modern pump technology in much of Eastern India. On the whole, our analysis shows that the contribution of groundwater to agricultural productivity (Rs/ha) and agricultural output (billion Rs), has increased many fold from 1970-73 and in many regions of the country, groundwater contributed more to agricultural wealth creation than any other source of irrigation. Our model estimates are more or less robust. It diverges substantially on both the extremes, i.e., it cannot predict the very low productivity districts and the very high productivity districts, but predicts the majority of the middle lying districts pretty well. Figures 4 and 5 show the actual and model predicted agricultural productivity for 251 districts in India. Figures 6 and 7 show the percent contribution of groundwater-irrigated area and surface water irrigated area to total agricultural output in the country from the period 1970-73 and 1990-93.   Our foregoing analysis clearly brings out the fact that groundwater's contribution to India's agricultural economy has seen a phenomenal rise during the last two decades (1970s to 1990s) and this trend is likely to continue. In 1970-73, the contribution of groundwater irrigated area and surface irrigated area to total agricultural output was Rs 21 billion and Rs 77 billion respectively and this has gone up to Rs 132 billion and Rs 115 billion in 1990-93. For India as a whole, the contribution of groundwaterirrigated area (both in terms of productivity measured in Rs/ha and production values in billion Rs) is considerably higher than the contribution of surface water irrigated area."}]},{"head":"Contribution of groundwater to agricultural production: Result of regression equation with pooled data for 1970-73 and 1990-93","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"In the above sub section, we saw the growing importance of groundwater as a determinant of agricultural production in India. In order to bring out the change over time and to further strengthen our basic argument, we ran another regression with pooled data of both 1970-73 and 1990-93, using dummy variable for different time periods. The number of observation in case was 502, i.e., 251 districts in each period."},{"index":2,"size":274,"text":"The model specification and the explanation are given below: The above equation further drives home the point about growing importance of groundwater as a contributor towards agricultural output in India. In 1970-73, the coefficient of groundwater irrigated area to net sown area was not significant (γ = 1.742), but the difference in effect of groundwater irrigated area on productivity (γ 1 = 3.831) is significant at 5% level. However, though the coefficient of surface water irrigated area was highly significant in 1970-73 (δ= 5.413), the difference in its effect in the period 1970-73 to 1990-93 is not significant at all (δ 1 = 0.729). This shows, while the contribution of groundwater-irrigated area to total agricultural productivity has increased significantly during this period, the contribution of surface water irrigated area has remained more or less constant. This is a crucial finding and has far reaching policy implications, because groundwater irrigation is inherently less biased against the poor than large-scale surface irrigation projects. In India, while 76 percent of operational holdings are small and marginal farms (of less than 2 hectares), they operate only 29 percent of the area. They constitute 38 percent of net area irrigated by wells, and account for 35 percent of tubewells fitted with electric pump sets (GOI, 1992 as cited in World Bank and Ministry of Water Resources, GOI, 1998). Thus, in relation to the amount of land they cultivate, the poor are better represented in ownership of groundwater related assets. Groundwater irrigation therefore can be an effective vehicle of poverty eradication as is exemplified by the impact of treadle pumps in Gangetic West Bengal and Bangladesh (Shah et al 2001)."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"SECTION 3: Determinants of groundwater use in India: Some evidence Uncomfortable questions in equity in access notwithstanding, groundwater is often called a 'democratic' resource when compared to mega-dams and large-scale irrigation projects. Regrettably despite its growing significance, our understanding of the forces that drive the groundwater economy has remained limited. It is generally thought that groundwater availability is the most important determinant of groundwater use. This availability could be either due to natural recharge or due to recharge resulting from canal seepage. The second type of recharge (viz. recharge due to canal seepage) is considered very important by irrigation specialists in India who contend that groundwater use is intensive in areas of canal irrigation and that it is mostly the surface irrigation return flow and seepage from canals that is extracted by millions of private pumps in India."},{"index":4,"size":163,"text":"However, our analysis suggests the 'supply push' to be just one side of the coin. The other side is the 'demand pull', well exemplified by the relationship between population density, agricultural dynamism (exemplified by past agricultural productivity values) and groundwater extraction in India. Some of the variables that possibly affect the utilization of groundwater in India are population density, general level of agricultural development (denoted by 1980-83 productivity values), institutional support like credit, net availability of groundwater resources and availability of surface water resources. On an a priori basis, it can be conjectured that population density, overall level of agricultural situation, availability of groundwater and credit facilities will have a positive impact on groundwater use, while availability of plentiful surface water actually obviates the need for groundwater extraction. To test this hypothesis, we formulate three models: a supply side model, a demand side model and a combined model for the 1990s (roughly corresponding to the period 1990-95). The model specifications are given below:"},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Model 1: Supply push model Pump density per ha of NCA = f {Net renewable groundwater available for irrigation (m 3 /ha of NCA), surface water irrigated area to NCA (%), annual average rainfall during monsoon months from June to August (mm)} Model 2: Demand-pull model Pump density per ha of NCA = f {Population density (persons/sq km), agricultural productivity (Rs/ha) in 1980-83, agricultural credit (Rs/ha of NCA)} Model 3: Combined Demand and Supply Model Pump density per ha of NCA = f {Net renewable groundwater available for irrigation (m 3 /ha of NCA), surface water irrigated area to NCA (%), annual average rainfall (mm), population density (persons/sq km), agricultural credit (Rs/capita)}"},{"index":6,"size":154,"text":"The results are based on observations across 225 districts of India (1960s base), with the exception of Rajasthan districts, where pump density data is not available. The states covered are: Andhra Pradesh, Bihar (including Jharkhand), Gujarat, Haryana, Karnataka, Madhya Pradesh (including Chattisgarh), Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab and Uttar Pradesh (excluding hilly districts, now Uttaranchal). The results of the above three models are given in tables 10, 11 and 12. 225 Dependent variable is pump density per '000 ha of NCA, @ Pump density data based on Minor Irrigation Census, 1986, # Net renewable groundwater for irrigation (m 3 /ha of NCA) data based on CGWB, 1995, ! Surface water irrigated area ('000 ha) data from ICRISAT-SEPP, 1994 and rainfall during monsoon months from ICRISAT-SEPP, 1994. *, ** & *** denote that the coefficients are significant at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significant for twotailed t-test, the figures in parentheses are the standardized coefficients (beta)"},{"index":7,"size":313,"text":"The equation in table 10 shows that as expected, groundwater availability is a positive and significant function of pump density, while surface water irrigated area and rainfall are negative functions. However, surface water irrigated area to net cropped area is significant only at 10% level in the equation. The R 2 value is quite low, which means that supply side factors only explain some 16 percent of the variation by themselves. The regression equation (table 11) depicts the demand dynamics of groundwater use in India. General level of agricultural dynamism (as denoted by past agricultural productivity) and density of population comes out as one of the most important determinants of groundwater use in the country. The explanatory power of the demand side model is much higher than the supply side model (R 2 = 0.342), thereby indicating that demand side parameters are more important in determining groundwater use than the supply side parameters. Table 12 presented below captures both the supply and the demand side variables and quite predictably, the explanatory power of the model further increases. Combining the demand and the supply parameters of groundwater use as expressed by pump density gives us a better result than only supply side and demand side models (table 12). The most important determinant of groundwater use are the agricultural dynamism in the region, followed by population density. This brings out clearly the role that the demand side variables play in determining groundwater use in India. It can be argued that supply side factors might have influenced resource use to a large extent in the past, but at present, the demand induced growth of groundwater extraction is far more important and at times, far outweighs the groundwater availability factors. The result is what we find in the whole of North Gujarat and majority of the districts in Punjab and Haryana-groundwater extraction exceeds that of normal recharge."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"The following sections look at the relationship of groundwater use and its various determinants and address some very vital concerns-viz. relationship between groundwater and surface water use and that of availability and use of groundwater. "}]},{"head":"Pump versus Population Density","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Globally, intensive groundwater development has tended to get concentrated in highly populous areas. India, Pakistan, North China-three largest groundwater-using regions of the world has high population density. Cities around the world, which typically have high population densities-are intensive groundwater users. This is true for India at the national and sub national level. The figure below (Figure 8) shows the density of groundwater structures fitted with mechanized pumps over population density map of India at the district level. Each dot represents 5000 energized pumps."},{"index":2,"size":224,"text":"The map shows clearly that some of the most intensive groundwater irrigation is to be found in the most densely populated regions of India; it just happens that the upper part of the Ganga basin-with high groundwater draft -also has one of the world's best aquifers. Many parts of southern India are far less endowed but still have high groundwater use due to their high population density. The strong relationship between pump density and population density is not difficult to explain. Much development of the surface water based irrigation development has been driven by water availability, rather than by demand for water. In India, where large proportion of the rural population live in the catchment areas of the river basins rather than the command area of the irrigation projects, depending solely on surface water irrigation systems would have created islands of affluence surrounded by vast areas of agrarian stagnation and rural poverty. With only canal irrigation, less than 20 percent of its farmland would have been irrigated today and Green Revolution would not have achieved wide and even spread and success that it has. In direct contrast to surface water based irrigation systems, groundwater offers scope for need-based water development throughout the river basin in a decentralized format; and therefore its development has closely followed pockets of high water demand in densely populated regions. "}]},{"head":"Groundwater versus Surface Water Use","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"A popular notion, supported by several researchers in India-is that intensive groundwater development generally occurs in predominantly surface water irrigated area, so that the bulk of the pumped irrigation merely uses the seepage from canals and irrigation return flows. This is true for heavily canal irrigated areas, but to say that groundwater irrigation is limited only to areas with high surface water irrigation is stretching the reality too far. The development of surface water has abetted the expansion of groundwater irrigation in many parts of the country (especially the northwestern parts viz. Punjab and Haryana). However, this is not by far the most important factor in groundwater development. The massive proliferation of groundwater structures all across the length and the breadth of the country is a result of demand induced growth, where ever there are people and they demand water for irrigation, groundwater structures have come up, irrespective of canal water to supplement it, or whether there is adequate recharge every year. This is the main reason of unsustainable development of groundwater resources at various places."},{"index":2,"size":295,"text":"The figures 9 and 10 show the distribution of districts according to their share of groundwater-irrigated area and surface water irrigated area in the period 1970-73 for the years 1990-93. If use of groundwater were dependent on surface water availability, then the majority of the districts would have clustered in the quadrants III and I. To some extent, that seems to be the case, nevertheless, there are a number of districts in quadrants II and IV as well, showing that groundwater exploitation is rampant even in districts without much surface water sources (quadrant II). The more dispersed nature of the scatter plot in 1990-93 bears evidence to the fact that groundwater irrigation has spread to regions of both high surface water availability (quadrant I) and low surface water availability (quadrant II). This shows that groundwater irrigation has developed irrespective of expansion in surface water irrigation and in certain cases surface water recharge might be used for additional ground water extraction, but this is certainly not the golden rule. Since, by far the majority of the districts fall in quadrants III and II and not in quadrants IV and I, we can surmise that groundwater development is more led by demand-pull than by supply push. The result of the regression equation (table 12) too gives similar result, where population density is the most important variable. Figure 9 and 10 displays a very interesting result. It is quite clear that in the beginning of the 1970's when Green Revolution was in its initial phases, groundwater extraction was indeed higher in areas with high surface water availability. But, as the phenomenon of Green Revolution spread across the country and affected new regions and crops, groundwater exploitation became quite independent of surface water irrigation sources (also see Table 2)."}]},{"head":"Groundwater Availability and Use","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"One of the important determinants of groundwater use is the availability of groundwater in the region. This is but natural, for one cannot use groundwater if there is none in the region. However, the opposite is not always true. It is not necessary that ground water use be high in regions with high availability-the total amount of ground water used also depends upon the demand for it, which in turn is related to the levels of agricultural development. To maintain some semblance of balance and sustainable use, however, it is necessary that there exist some kind of positive relationship between ground water availability and use. In calculating groundwater availability per hectare of NCA, it was assumed that groundwater recharge has remained the same in 1990s and 1970s and consequently, 1995 groundwater recharge data were used for both the decade of 1970's and 1990's. The number of districts for which this data were available was 257, so these many districts have been included in the study. The average groundwater available for irrigation was 2667 m 3 /ha of NCA in 1970, which fell to 2610 m 3 /ha of NCA in 1995, primarily due to increase in net cropped area in the country. The districts have been divided into four categories based on groundwater availability and groundwater use."},{"index":2,"size":410,"text":"The following table shows the classification of districts into four categories. From the above table it is seen that the number of districts in AA category (both high potential and high use) has gone up from 15.2 percent in 1970 to 33.5 % in 1995, while that in AB category (high potential, low use) has come down from 37.0% to 19.0%. This means that more and more districts are utilizing their groundwater resources more efficiently now than in the past. However, it is the increase in the number of districts in the BA category (low potential, high use) that is a cause for concern. These districts are predominantly in the western and northern India. Here the potential of groundwater is low, but usage is very high giving rise to unsustainable use patterns. This is true of North Gujarat (Mehsena, Sabarkantha and Banaskantha) and a few districts of Haryana and Punjab, viz. Jind, Karnal, Mahendragarh in Haryana and Jalandhar, Kapurthala and Sangrur in Punjab. Figures 11 and 12 reinforce the fact that groundwater is being increasingly used in districts where is it available, and at the same time, an increasing number of districts that are not quite well endowed (quadrant IV) too are exploiting the resource. The more spread out nature of the scatter plot for 1995 shows that groundwater use is becoming more and more important and districts notwithstanding their level of groundwater potential, are extracting it for irrigation purposes. This is an unsustainable development in terms of equity and efficiency. Groundwater is being exploited at a rapid pace because of various intrinsic benefits that it gives over surface water irrigation sources. It is available on demand, at the 'point of use' needing little transportation, is controlled by the individual farmer. Therefore, productivity from groundwater irrigation is many times larger than surface water irrigation and our models in the previous section support this hypothesis. Groundwater exploitation and extraction is a function of predominantly \"demand for irrigation\" and has little to do with availability per se. On the other hand, surface water irrigation development has taken place keeping in mind hydrological factors, with the result that command areas of the projects are well endowed with surface water resources. Groundwater use is therefore a function of both demand side pull (population density) and supply side push (groundwater availability), but the demand side push far outweighs the supply side pull, giving rise to unsustainable levels of exploitation in certain parts of the country."},{"index":3,"size":142,"text":"The two figures in the page above show that use of groundwater has become more rampant during the 1990's as compared to the 1970s. The districts, which have a high potential, are using their potential to the fullest and only a few districts have high potential and low use. The districts in the AB category (high potential and low use) are limited to the agriculturally backward states of Orissa and Madhya Pradesh and parts of South Bihar (present Jharkhand). Many of these are the coastal districts of Orissa, where there is an abundant surface water resource. The number of districts over-exploiting its groundwater resources has gone up drastically during the last two decades. This has resulted in many unsustainable groundwater practices and resultant depletion and pollution of aquifers. The following section discusses the implications of unsustainable use and the pathology of decline."}]},{"head":"SECTION 4: Socio-ecological fall out of unsustainable groundwater development","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":256,"text":"A large part of India's GDP comes from groundwater irrigation. According to the World Bank and Ministry of Water Resources, GOI (1998) estimates, the contribution of ground water to India's GDP is around 9%. The groundwater socio-ecology has been at the heart of India's agrarian boom. However, this booming ground water based agrarian economy in many parts of India is under serious threat of resource depletion and degradation. The rate at which groundwater is drawn is at many places more than the rate of natural recharge-leading to decline in water tables. The numbers of blocks in India that have overexploited their groundwater resources have gone up in the last decade or so. The number of dark and overexploited blocks represents a small fraction of the total area irrigated with groundwater in India. However, if the number of such block continues to grow at the present rate of 5.5 percent per annum, by 2017-18, roughly 36 percent of the blocks in India will face serious problems of over exploitation of groundwater resources. Groundwater depletion has major environmental consequences; but it has important economic consequences too. Throughout India, continued decline of groundwater level has not only destroyed many wells, but also resulted in increasing cost of pumping. Figure 13 shows the proportion of wells and tubewells abandoned by their owners in different regions of India. In Western India, where depletion is the highest, over half of the wells are out of commission; even in other parts of the region, this proportion would steadily rise as water tables decline."},{"index":2,"size":181,"text":"Water quality and health impacts are a major cause of concern in India. Fluoride has emerged as a major problem in two-thirds of India and excess of fluoride in drinking water causes bone deformity. In the eastern part of Ganga basin-mostly in Bangladesh and Indian state of West Bengal-high arsenic content in groundwater has emerged as a major health problem. Salinity, a serious quality problem associated with modern water development has vast livelihood and health consequences. In many coastal aquifers subject to intensive groundwater development, seawater intrusion has emerged as a devastating problem. This has been very well documented in India. For example, the seawater-freshwater interface in Saurashtra region of Gujarat state in India has so far moved 4 to 7 kilometers inland along the coast affecting more than 40,000 well structures (Bhatia, 1992). Similar problems have been recorded in Tamil Nadu's Minjur aquifer. Acquifer contamination is another major threat to groundwater quality. For instance, tannery effluents in North Arcot district of Tamil Nadu state have contaminated even the tender coconut water, with 0.2% residual chromium from tanning activities (Mudrakartha, 1999)."}]},{"head":"The Pathology of Decline","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"In much of South Asia, for example, the rise and fall of local groundwater economies follow a 4-stage progression outlined in Figure 14 below, which is self-explanatory. It underpins the typical progression of a socio-ecology from a stage where unutilized groundwater resource potential becomes the instrument of unleashing an agrarian boom to one in which, unable to apply brakes in time, it goes overboard in exploiting its groundwater."},{"index":2,"size":247,"text":"The 4-stage framework outlined in Figure 14 shows the transition that Indian policymakers and managers need to make from a resource development mindset to a resource management mode. 40 years of Green Revolution and mechanized tubewell technology have nudged most of India into stage 2-4. However, even today, there are substantial pockets those exhibit characteristics of stage 1. The Ganga-Meghna-Brahmaputra basin-encompassing 20 districts of Terai Nepal, all of Eastern India and much of Bangladesh-offers a good example. Endowed with among the best aquifers in the world and concentrated rural poverty, the prime goal of governments in this region is to stimulate agrarian boom through groundwater exploitation (see, e.g., Kahnert and Levine 1989;Shah, 2001). But the areas of Asia that are at stage 1 or 2 are shrinking by the day. Many parts of Western India were in this stage in 1950's or earlier, but have advanced into stage 3 or 4. Examples galore of regions that are in stage 3 or even 4 in South Asia. An oft cited one is North Gujarat where groundwater depletion has set off a long term decline in the booming agrarian economy; here, the foresightful well-off farmers-who foresaw the impending doom-forged a generational response and made a planned transition to a non-farm, urban livelihood. The resource poor have been left behind to pick up the pieces of what was a booming economy a decade ago. This drama is being re-enacted in ecology after groundwater socio-ecology with frightful regularity (Moench 1994;Shah 1993)."},{"index":3,"size":88,"text":"In stage 1 and early times of stage 2, the prime concern is to promote the profitable use of valuable, renewable resource for generating wealth and economic surplus; however, in stage 2 itself, the thinking needs to change towards careful management of the resource. In South Asian countries, vast regions are already in stage 3 or even 4; and yet, the policy regime ideal for stage 1 and 2 have tended to become 'sticky' and to persist long after a region moves into stage 3 or even 4."}]},{"head":"Shifting Gears: From Resource Development to Management Mode","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":535,"text":"In the business-as-usual scenario, problems of groundwater over-exploitation throughout Asia will only become more acute, widespread, serious and visible in the years to come. The frontline challenge is not just supply-side innovations but to put in to operation a range of corrective mechanisms before the problem becomes either insolvable or not worth solving. This involves a transition from resource 'development' to resource 'management' mode (Moench 1994). Throughout Asiawhere symptoms of over-exploitation are all too clear-groundwater administration still operates in the 'development' mode, treating water availability to be unlimited, and directing their energies on enhancing groundwater production. A major barrier that prevents transition from the groundwater development to management mode is lack of information. Many countries with severe groundwater depletion problems do not have any idea of how much groundwater occurs, and who withdraws how much groundwater and where. Indeed, even in European countries where groundwater is important in all uses, there is no systematic monitoring of groundwater occurrence and draft (Hernandez-Mora et al 1999). Moreover, compared to reservoirs and canal systems, the amount and quality of application of science and management to national groundwater sectors has been far less primarily because unlike the former, groundwater is in the private, 'informal' sector, with public agencies playing only an indirect role. Gearing up for resource management entails at least four important steps: 1 Information Systems and Resource Planning: Most developing countries have only a limited or non-existent information base on groundwater availability, quality, withdrawal and other variables in a format useful for resource planning. The first step to managing the resource is to understand it through appropriate systems for groundwater monitoring on a regular basis, and incorporating the monitoring data in planning the use of the resource. The next is to undertake systematic and scientific research on the occurrence, use and ways of augmenting and managing the resource. 2 Demand-side Management: The second step is to put in place an effective system for regulating the withdrawals to sustainable levels; such a system may include interventions often tend to be too 'local' in their approach. Past and up-coming work in IWMI and elsewhere suggests that like surface water, groundwater resource too needs to be planned and managed for maximum basin level efficiency. This last is the most important and yet the least thought about and understood, leave alone experimented with. Indeed, one of the rare examples one can find where a systematic effort seems to be made to understand the hydrology and economics of an entire aquifer are the mountain aquifers underlying the West Bank and Israel which are shared and jointly managed by Israelis and Palestinians (Feitelsom and Haddad 1998). Equally instructive for the developing world will be the impact of the entry of big-time corporate players-such as Azurix and the US Filter in the Western US-in the business of using aquifers as inter-year water storage systems for trading of water. As groundwater becomes scarce and costlier to use in relative terms, many ideas-such as trans-basin movement or surface water systems exclusively for recharge--, which in the yesteryears were discarded as infeasible or unattractive, will now offer new promise, provided, of course, that India learns intelligently from these ideas and adapts them appropriately to its unique situation."}]},{"head":"Conclusion and policy implications","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Groundwater is an increasingly important contributor to rural wealth creation in India."},{"index":2,"size":436,"text":"In 1970-73, the contribution of groundwater irrigation to total agricultural productivity was marginally lower than that of surface water irrigation. However, in 1990-93, the contribution of groundwater is much higher than that of surface water irrigation sources. Groundwater irrigated areas contributed to 4.1 percent or Rs 21 billion to total agricultural output in 1970-73. In 1990-93, its contribution has gone to Rs 132 billion or almost 14 percent of total agricultural output in the country. This trend is likely to continue and contribution of groundwater is likely to have gone up further by the time this book goes for printing. Majority of the Indian districts are bringing in more and more land under ground water irrigation. This in a way reflects the \"democratic\" nature of the resource-groundwater structures proliferate as and when people demand reliable irrigation. Groundwater has therefore contributed more to rural wealth creation, in spite of the very low public investments that have gone into it. The poor and the landless are relatively better represented in terms of their access to groundwater irrigation, as groundwater irrigation is inherently less biased against the poor than the mega surface water irrigation projects are. Decades of huge public investments in surface water irrigation (mostly canals) have not given as much benefits as one and a half decade of private investments in groundwater in terms of incremental yield and higher agricultural production. Groundwater irrigation provides innumerable opportunities in India, but hand in hand comes in the threat associated with over-exploitation of this rather precious resource. Overexploitation leads to problems like salinization and pollution of fresh water aquifers, at times even endangering the basic supply of potable water. In regions of India, which have seen and experienced acute water crisis, people have come up with participatory methods to solve the problem. In countries like the US and Australia, the presence of small number of large users and low population density creates uniquely favorable conditions for some institutional approaches to work; but these break down in India with its high population density and multitude of tiny users. For instance, a stringent groundwater law is enforced in Australia but would come unstuck in India because of prohibitive enforcement costs. Europe has high population density; but it is much more comfortable than India in its overall water balance. Moreover, at its high level of economic evolution, Europe can apply huge technological and financial muscle power to manage its natural resources which South India and North China can not; for instance, what the Netherlands spends per capita on managing its groundwater is 5 times the total per capita income of rural North Gujarat."},{"index":3,"size":220,"text":"All in all, then, we commend a more refined and nuanced understanding of the peculiarities of Asia's groundwater socio-ecology and a resource management approach suited to its genius. In much of Asia, modern groundwater development occurred in a chaotic, unregulated fashion shaped by millions of tiny private users. Now, in many parts of India where groundwater is under worst threat of depletionthere is a growing groundswell of popular action-equally chaotic and unregulatedin rainwater harvesting and local groundwater recharge. At the frontline of this movement are regions like Rajasthan and Gujarat in India where untold havoc and misery are a certain outcome if the groundwater bubble were to burst. Here, rather than waiting for governments and high science to come to their rescue, ordinary people, communities, NGOs and religious movements have made groundwater recharge everybody's business. Many scientists and technocrats feel lukewarm about this groundswell of activity; but chances are that here in lie the seeds of decentralized local management of a natural resource. For long, people in Asia treated water like manna from haven and saw no need to manage it; but now that they have begun to 'produce' water, we find first inkling of community efforts to manage it. These popular recharge movements, and then offer the foundation on which Asia can build new regimes for sustainable groundwater management."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Figure 1. District wise area under surface water irrigation and groundwater irrigation to net-cropped area: 1970-73 "},{"text":" Figure 3 "},{"text":" GWI where, Prod = Agricultural productivity (Rs/ha of net cropped area under 35 crops) Fert = Fertilizer consumption in tones/'000 ha of NCA SWI = Surface water irrigated area per '000 ha of NCA GWI = Groundwater irrigated area per '000 ha of NCA α = Intercept of the equation β, χ, δ = Regression coefficients of Fert, SWI and GWI respectively Regression was run separately for the periods 1970-73 and 1990-93. The results are summarized in tables 3 and 4 respectively for the years 1970-73 and 1990-93. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4. Actual and Predicted Agricultural Productivity based on Regression Equations: All India, 1970-73 "},{"text":" Figure 7. Contribution of groundwater and surface water irrigated area to total agricultural output, All India: 1990-93 "},{"text":" and D} where, Y = average agricultural productivity (Rs/ha) in years 1970-73 and 1990-93 X1= fertilizer use (tones/'000 ha of NCA), X2= surface water irrigated area per 1000 ha of NCA X3 = groundwater irrigated area per 1000 ha of NCA D= Dummy for years, where D=0 for 1970-73 and D=1 for 1990-93 Regression equation with dummy (D) for two different periods become Y = α + aD + βX1 + β 1 (DX1) + δX2 + δ 1 (DX2) + γX3 + γ 1 (DX3) When D=0 (i.e. for values corresponding to years 1970-73), the equation becomes Y = α + βX1 + δX2 + γX3 When D=1 (i.e. for values corresponding to years 1990-93), the equation becomes Y= α + a + βX1 + β 1 X1 + δX2 + δ 1 X2 + γX3 + γ 1 X3 = (α + a) + X1 (β+β 1 ) + X2 (δ+δ 1 ) + X3 (γ+γ 1 ) where, α = Initial productivity (Rs/ha) in 1970-73 α + a = Initial productivity (Rs/ha) in 1990-93 a = Difference in initial productivity (Rs/ha) between 1970-73 to 1990-93 β = Effect of fertilizer consumption on productivity in 1970-73 β+β 1 = Effect of fertilizer consumption on productivity in 1990-93 β 1 = Difference in effect of fertilizer on productivity between 1970-73 to 1990-93 δ = Effect of surface water irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA) on productivity in 1970-73 δ+δ 1 = Effect of surface water irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA) on productivity in 1990-93 δ 1 = Difference in effect of SWI area on productivity between 1970-73 to 1990-93 γ = Effect of groundwater irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA) on productivity in 1970-73 γ+γ 1 = Effect of groundwater irrigated area (per '000 ha of NCA) on productivity in 1990-93 γ 1 = Difference in effect of GWI area on productivity between 1970-73 to 1990-93 The regression equation result is reported below: Y = 2477.226* -150.342 +87.257*X1 -40.615*DX1 + 5.413* X2 + 0.729 DX2 +1.742 X3+ 3.831** DX3; R 2 = 0.775, N= 502 "},{"text":" Figure 8. "},{"text":" Figure 9. Groundwater versus surface water irrigation, 1970-73 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Changing share of  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Classification of districts based on area under surface water and groundwaterirrigation, 1970-73 and 1990-93     Year 1970-73  1990-93 Year1970-731990-93 Irrigation Category (based on No. of districts % to total No. of % to Irrigation Category (based onNo. of districts% to totalNo. of% to area under groundwater and   districts total area under groundwater anddistrictstotal surface water irrigation to NCA)     surface water irrigation to NCA) AA: >20% GWI to NCA and > 23 9.1 43 17.1 AA: >20% GWI to NCA and >239.14317.1 20% SWI to NCA     20% SWI to NCA AB: >20% GWI to NCA and < 27 10.8 73 29.1 AB: >20% GWI to NCA and <2710.87329.1 20% SWI to NCA     20% SWI to NCA BA: <20% GWI to NCA and > 46 18.3 35 13.9 BA: <20% GWI to NCA and >4618.33513.9 20% SWI to NCA     20% SWI to NCA BB: <20% GWI to NCA and < 155 61.8 100 39.1 BB: <20% GWI to NCA and <15561.810039.1 20% SWI to NCA     20% SWI to NCA Total number of districts 251 100 251 100 Total number of districts251100251100 Based on source wise irrigation data obtained from    Based on source wise irrigation data obtained from  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Inter district Variations in Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha), 1970-73: All India and Region wise compiled from Bhalla & Singh, 2001, dependent variable is value of agricultural productivity (Rs/ha of NCA) for 35 crops; figures in parentheses are standardized coefficients or beta *, ** and *** indicate coefficients significant at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively Variables/  Estimates of regression coefficients  Variables/Estimates of regression coefficients Region All-India North West & Central South East RegionAll-IndiaNorthWest & CentralSouthEast Constant 2477.226* 3124.707* 2033.605* 3160.199* 3982.906* Constant 2477.226* 3124.707*2033.605* 3160.199* 3982.906* Fertilizer use 87.257* 73.707* 82.826* 101.710** 68.153** Fertilizer use87.257*73.707*82.826*101.710**68.153** (tones/'000 ha of NCA) (0.614) (0.723) (0.499) (0.607) (0.486) (tones/'000 ha of NCA)(0.614)(0.723)(0.499)(0.607)(0.486) SWI (ha/'000 ha of 5.413* 4.931* 3.669** 2.461 0.942 SWI (ha/'000 ha of5.413*4.931*3.669**2.4610.942 NCA) (0.269) (0.265) (0.206) (0.115) (0.125) NCA)(0.269)(0.265)(0.206)(0.115)(0.125) GWI (ha/'000 ha of 1.742*** 1.905 3.162*** 1.500 6.894*** GWI (ha/'000 ha of1.742***1.9053.162***1.5006.894*** NCA) R 2 (0.084) 0.693 (0.137) 0.743 (0.146) 0.385 (0.025) 0.501 (0.382) 0.750 NCA) R 2(0.084) 0.693(0.137) 0.743(0.146) 0.385(0.025) 0.501(0.382) 0.750 Number of observations 251 66 112 47 26 Number of observations251661124726 Based on data      Based on data  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Inter district Variations in Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha), 1990-93: All India and Region wise compiled from Bhalla & Singh, 2001, dependent variable is value of agricultural productivity (Rs/ha of NCA) for 35 crops, figures in parentheses are standardized coefficients or beta *, ** and *** indicate coefficients significant at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significance respectively Tables Variables/  Estimates of regression coefficients  Variables/Estimates of regression coefficients Region All-India North West & Central South East RegionAll-IndiaNorthWest & CentralSouthEast Constant 2434.782* 3754.707** 2458.718* 4717.842* 4693.797* Constant 2434.782* 3754.707**2458.718* 4717.842*4693.797*    *    * Fertilizer use (tones/'000 46.769* 53.839* 37.770* 22.051*** -33.882*** Fertilizer use (tones/'00046.769*53.839*37.770*22.051***-33.882*** ha of NCA) (0.652) (0.767) (0.584) (0.313) (-0.616) ha of NCA)(0.652)(0.767)(0.584)(0.313)(-0.616) SWI (ha/'000 ha of 6.160* 3.209 5.672* 12.425*** 10.818* SWI (ha/'000 ha of6.160*3.2095.672*12.425***10.818* NCA) (0.170) (0.087) (0.253) (0.402) (0.676) NCA)(0.170)(0.087)(0.253)(0.402)(0.676) GWI (ha/'000 ha of  5.086* 2.637 4.585* 5.367 15.635** GWI (ha/'000 ha of5.086*2.6374.585*5.36715.635** NCA) R 2 (0.206) 0.742 (0.113) 0.684 (0.241) 0.556 (0.112) 0.464 (0.844) 0.580 NCA)R 2(0.206) 0.742(0.113) 0.684(0.241) 0.556(0.112) 0.464(0.844) 0.580 Number of observations 251 66 112 47 26 Number of observations251661124726 Based on data       Based on data  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Contribution of surface water irrigated and groundwater-irrigated area to  total agricultural output, All India: 1970-73 and 1990-93    Based on results of regression equations tabulated in tables3 and 4The figures relate to 251 study districts across 12 major states of India, which account for 81 percent of India's geographical area and 82 percent of India's total population as in 2001. Total agricultural output relates to 35 major crops, based onBhalla & Singh data (2001)      "},{"text":"Table 6 : Contribution of surface water irrigated and groundwater irrigated area to total agricultural output, SouthernIndia: 1970-73 and 1990-93      "},{"text":"Table 7 : Contribution of surface water irrigated and groundwater irrigated area to total agricultural output, EasternIndia: 1970-73 and 1990-93      "},{"text":"Table 8 : Contribution of surface water irrigated and groundwater irrigated area to total agricultural output, WesternIndia: 1970-73 and 1990-93     Year/Indicators (at 1990s INR) 1970-73 1990-93 % Change between Year/Indicators (at 1990s INR)1970-73 1990-93% Change between    1970-73 to 1990-93 1970-73 to 1990-93 Average Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha of NCA) 3226 6056 46.7 Average Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha of NCA)3226605646.7 Contribution of SWI (Rs/ha) 274 591 53.6 Contribution of SWI (Rs/ha)27459153.6 Contribution of GWI (Rs/ha) 117 873 86.6 Contribution of GWI (Rs/ha)11787386.6 Contribution of SW (billion Rs) 14.2 23 38.2 Contribution of SW (billion Rs)14.22338.2 Contribution of GW (billion Rs) 6.9 31 77.7 Contribution of GW (billion Rs)6.93177.7 Contribution of SW as % of agricultural output 9.1 10.1 + 1 percent point Contribution of SW as % of agricultural output9.110.1+ 1 percent point Contribution of GW as % of agricultural output 4.4 13.5 +9.1 percent points Contribution of GW as % of agricultural output4.413.5+9.1 percent points Total Agricultural Output (billion Rs) 155 227 31.7 Total Agricultural Output (billion Rs)15522731.7 Source: As in table 5    Source: As in table 5  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Contribution of surface water irrigated and groundwater irrigated area to total agriculturaloutput, Northern India: 1970-73 and 1990-93     Year/Indicators (at 1990s INR) 1970-73 1990-93 % Change between Year/Indicators (at 1990s INR)1970-73 1990-93% Change between    1970-73 to 1990-93 1970-73 to 1990-93 Average Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha of NCA) 7328 14737 50.3 Average Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha of NCA)73281473750.3 Contribution of SWI (Rs/ha) 1147 1485 22.7 Contribution of SWI (Rs/ha)1147148522.7 Contribution of GWI (Rs/ha) 496 2675 81.5 Contribution of GWI (Rs/ha)496267581.5 Contribution of SW (billion Rs) 26.8 36.0 25.5 Contribution of SW (billion Rs)26.836.025.5 Contribution of GW (billion Rs) 10.3 57.0 81.9 Contribution of GW (billion Rs)10.357.081.9 Contribution of SW as % of agricultural output 17.0 11.1 -5.9 percent points Contribution of SW as % of agricultural output17.011.1-5.9 percent points Contribution of GW as % of agricultural output 6.5 17.2 +10.7 percent points Contribution of GW as % of agricultural output6.517.2+10.7 percent points Total Agricultural Output (billion Rs) 157 330 52.4 Total Agricultural Output (billion Rs)15733052.4 Source: As in table 5    Source: As in table 5  "},{"text":"4. Actual and Predicted Agricultural Productivity based on Regression Equations: All India, 1970-73  Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha)             Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha) 1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241 121416181101121141161181201221241       Districts       Districts Predicted productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops) Actual Productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops) Predicted productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops)Actual Productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops)      Figure 5.       Figure 5.  "},{"text":"Actual and Predicted Agricultural Productivity based on Regression Equations: All India, 1990-93       Figure 6.        Figure 6. Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha)             Agricultural Productivity (Rs/ha) 1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241 121416181101121141161181201221241       Districts       Districts Predicted Productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops) Actual productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops) Predicted Productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops)Actual productivity (Rs/net cropped area under 35 crops)  "},{"text":"Contribution of groundwater and surface water irrigated area to total agricultural output, All India: 1970-73   60            60  50            50 % of Agricultural Output 20 30 40            % of Agricultural Output20 30 40  10            10  0            0  1 21 41 61 81 101 121 141 161 181 201 221 241 121416181101121141161181201221241        Districts     Districts    % contribution of SWI to Agricultural Output % contribution of GWI to Agricultural Output % contribution of SWI to Agricultural Output% contribution of GWI to Agricultural Output  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Inter district variation in pump density @ : Supply side determinant model Variables Net renewable groundwater for irrigation (m 3 /ha of NCA) # Estimates of regression coefficients 0.1211* (0.333) Variables Net renewable groundwater for irrigation (m 3 /ha of NCA) #Estimates of regression coefficients 0.1211* (0.333) Surface water irrigated area ('000 ha) ! Average rainfall during June to August (mm) $ -0.0676*** (-0.107) -0.0420* (-0.255) Surface water irrigated area ('000 ha) ! Average rainfall during June to August (mm) $-0.0676*** (-0.107) -0.0420* (-0.255) Constant 72.462* Constant72.462* R 2 0.161 R 20.161 Number of observations (N)  Number of observations (N)  "},{"text":"Table 11 : Inter district variation in pump density @ : Demand side determinant model Dependent variable is pump density per '000 ha of NCA, @ Pump density data based on Minor Irrigation Census, 1986, # Population density based on 1991 census data, ! Agricultural credit based on CMIE, 2000, $ Agricultural productivity, 1980-83 (Rs/ha) data from Bhalla & Singh, 2001 *, ** & *** denote that the coefficients are significant at 1%, 5% and 10% level of significant for twotailed t-test, the figures in parentheses are the standardized coefficients  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Inter district variation in pump density @ : Combined Demand and Supply side model Variables Variables  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Classification of districts based on area under surface water and groundwater irrigation, 1970-73 and 1990-93  Year Year  "},{"text":"Table 14 . Overexploited and dark blocks in India, 1984-85 and 1992-93     State 1984-85 1992-93 State1984-851992-93 Andhra Pradesh 0 30 Andhra Pradesh030 Bihar 14 1 Bihar141 Gujarat 6 26 Gujarat626 Haryana 31 51 Haryana3151 Karnataka 3 18 Karnataka318 Madhya Pradesh 0 3 Madhya Pradesh03 Punjab 64 70 Punjab6470 Rajasthan 21 56 Rajasthan2156 Tamil Nadu 61 97 Tamil Nadu6197 Uttar Pradesh 53 31 Uttar Pradesh5331 Total 253 383 Total253383 Source: CGWB 1991, 1995   Source: CGWB 1991, 1995  "},{"text":" Groundwater Management in the river basin context: Finally, groundwater : [a] registration of users through a permit or license system; [b] creating appropriate laws and regulatory mechanisms; [c] a system of pricing that aligns the incentives for groundwater use with the goal of sustainability; [d] promoting conjunctive use; [e] promotion of 'precision' irrigation and water-saving crop production technologies and approaches; 3 Supply-side Management: The third aspect of managing groundwater is augmenting groundwater recharge through: [a] mass-based rain-water harvesting and groundwater recharge programs and activities; [b] maximizing surface water use for recharge; [c] improving incentives for water conservation and artificial recharge 4 : [a] registration of users through a permit or license system; [b] creating appropriate laws and regulatory mechanisms; [c] a system of pricing that aligns the incentives for groundwater use with the goal of sustainability; [d] promoting conjunctive use; [e] promotion of 'precision' irrigation and water-saving crop production technologies and approaches; 3 Supply-side Management: The third aspect of managing groundwater is augmenting groundwater recharge through: [a] mass-based rain-water harvesting and groundwater recharge programs and activities; [b] maximizing surface water use for recharge; [c] improving incentives for water conservation and artificial recharge 4  "}],"sieverID":"74f30590-7dfd-41a5-9051-2d73ea5f2db3","abstract":"Introduction ________________________________________________________ Data and coverage ___________________________________________________ Methodology ________________________________________________________ SECTION 1: Contours of groundwater economy___________________________ 1.1 Groundwater as a source of irrigation: 1970s and 1990s ______________ SECTION 2: Groundwater and agricultural productivity____________________ 2.1 Contribution of groundwater to agricultural production: Result of regression equation for the periods 1970-73 and 1990-93 ________________ 2.2 Contribution of groundwater to agricultural production: Result of regression equation with pooled data for 1970-73 and 1990-93 ___________ SECTION 3: Determinants of groundwater use in India: Some evidence ______ 3.1 Pump versus Population Density _________________________________ 3.2 Groundwater versus Surface Water Use __________________________ 3.3 Groundwater Availability and Use _______________________________ SECTION 4: Socio-ecological fall out of unsustainable groundwater development __________________________________________________________________ 4.1 The Pathology of Decline _______________________________________ 4.2 Shifting Gears: From Resource Development to Management Mode ___ Conclusion and policy implications_____________________________________ Reference:_________________________________________________________ Acknowledgement"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00d80290aafb9e2a942d98e0e7e0a9e8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://dataverse.harvard.edu/api/access/datafile/:persistentId/?persistentId=doi:10.7910/DVN/NDALXF/17IHRG"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Protocol for the Agricultural Biodiversity (ABD) Assessment in Malawi","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The biodiversity of plant and animal species both domesticated and wild used for food by humans (referred to here as agricultural biodiversity-ABD) is one of the most important assets for rural households, particularly for the poor in marginal areas such as the drylands of the developing world. A contribution of Bioversity International to the Dryland Systems CGIAR Research Programme (CRP) [http://drylandsystems.cgiar.org/] has been to examine systematically the diversity of these species in CRP target sites in Mali, Ghana, Malawi and India. Bioversity and partners have carried out a set of Agricultural Biodiversity Assessments in these countries. In the case of Malawi, the assessment will take place in the Ntcheu district."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Here we present the protocols used for collecting the data from Malawi."},{"index":3,"size":129,"text":"The objective of the ABD Assessment is to identify and quantify all the useful plant, animal, and aquatic species utilized by rural households and communities in the Dryland Systems CRP sites, as well as information on markets attended and general socioeconomic household characteristics. This information will be used to characterize three dimensions of ABD: (1) diversity in the production system, including on farm and common lands; (2) dietary diversity; and (3) market diversity; in terms of the elements and relationships involved and the exogenous factors that influence their status and dynamics. These data will be the basis for analyzing the roles of ABD in the lives and livelihoods of these rural populations in order to identify entry points for designing and implementing interventions that contribute to improve their well-being."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"The ABD Assessment consists of two parts:"},{"index":5,"size":122,"text":"(1) a series of focus group discussions (FGDs) to elicit the local knowledge about the agricultural and wild biodiversity present in the study areas in order to generate: (a) an inventory (list) of all useful plant, and animal species used by local communities for human food, animal feed, medicine, fuel, housing, farming tools, etc. and their local names; (b) an inventory of all foods consumed; (c) an inventory of species and products bought and sold in markets that people in the village attend. All the FGDs should be held separately for men and women in order to collect gender disaggregated data. Effort should also be made to have different social categories of people in the study areas be represented in the FGDs."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"(2) a household survey with a representative random sample of about 80 households from each of four Extension Planning Areas (EPAs) in the Ntcheu District of Malawi, for a total of 340 households."}]},{"head":"(a)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"One that elicits information on the ABD use by the household;"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"(b) Another that elicits information on foods consumed by specific members of the household."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"The criteria for determined to whom each section should be applied to is presented in the appropriate section."}]},{"head":"Protocol for the Focus Group Discussions (FGD)","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The FGD will elicit information on (a) biological diversity in the production system -on the farm as well as harvested from forest and community land; (b) dietary diversityconsumed in house and also purchased from market; and (c) diversity of species and products sold and bought in markets (markets understood widely as any place where people buy and sell goods and services, not just village markets, and including their own dwelling if commercial activities take place there). There are a few important principles to keep in mind about the FGD:"},{"index":2,"size":114,"text":"• The FGD aims to capture the collective knowledge of the community, not of the specific participants in the group • There is a need to capture as much diversity as possible, i.e. to identify as many species as possible, particularly for those species used by few people or even rarely. Therefore, it is important to probe for additional species; every species is important no matter how insignificant it may appear to be. • Capture gender differences is essential part of the FGD process • There is no right or wrong answer, all answers are valid • It is important to capture, to the extent possible, the discussions that take place during the FGD."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"The FGD will be organized in the following manner:  There will be two groups: one of males and one of females. Think of the role of youths and can include them too.  Each group will deal with the four aspects for discussion:"},{"index":4,"size":137,"text":"o Useful biological diversity in the production system o Market diversity o Dietary diversity  There will be of approximately 15 participants per group (but no more than 20)  Each group should include a cross-section/village of individuals involved in agricultural production or at least collecting useful plants from common lands and the wild, representing different levels of access to land (land owners, local land renters and migrant land renters), different ethnic groups present in the village and different age groups (special emphasis should be in place to include younger farmers).  For each group there will be two or more facilitators to guide the exercise and to document the process (take notes, photographs, etc.)  In the case of male groups, the facilitators should be male and for female groups they should be female if necessary."},{"index":5,"size":100,"text":"At the beginning of the exercise, the facilitator will explain to the group that as they well know, there are many species of plants and animals that are used by people there. However, some are grown by many farmers in the community, while others are grown by just a few and at the same time some of these species are grown in a large areas within the community, while others are usually grown in a small areas within the community. The facilitator then draws the four squares on flip chart or on the floor (Figure 1). The four squares are:"},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"(1) many households and large areas in the community;"},{"index":7,"size":10,"text":"(2) few households and a large areas in the community;"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"(3) many households and a small areas in the community;"},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"(4) few households and a small areas in the community."},{"index":10,"size":2,"text":"Figure 1."},{"index":11,"size":19,"text":"The facilitator will explain that the axes may change depending on the category of species that will be discussed."}]},{"head":"ABD in production systems","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The work will be carried out in the following sequence:"},{"index":2,"size":313,"text":"1. Participants are asked to make a list of all relevant species (e.g. free listing of species). 2. Once the list has been completed, proceed to place each species in the appropriate quadrant according to the indication of the participants. It is important to emphasize that the decision to place a species in a particular quadrant should be a group decision, not just made by one member. If there is controversy discuss until consensus is reached, if no consensus then indicate so in the notes. 3. To identify the lean season/season of scarcity, the facilitator will ask the participants to name the seasons that they recognize and what months each season include. Then they will be asked to describe each season and which one(s) they consider the off/lean season(s) and why. 4. For each species once it has been placed in a quadrant, ask participants the following questions about the species (the answer should be yes or no). One of the facilitators should mark the answers in the appropriate column, as well as any relevant information or observations in the last column: (a) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) used as food for own consumption? (b) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) sold by community members? (c) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) bought by community members? (d) Is the species available during the season of food scarcity? 5. Continue with the next species and repeat the process until all species in the list have been classified. 6. Once all species have been classified, ask what are the general reasons species were placed in a particular quadrant, for each of the four quadrants; the point is not to elicit particular reasons for specific species, but general ones for the set of species place in each of the cells."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"It is very important to draw the group's attention to squares (3) and (4). The facilitator will explain that we are particularly interested in identifying species on those squares because they are usually ignored, but they can be important and particularly have potential in the future."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"A table to record the results of the Focus Group Discussion using the four-square method has been produced (see Appendix 1). One table will be filled for each category of species (e.g. annual species, perennial species, animals, etc.). Two additional columns at the end of the form have been added to capture the information of the four quadrant exercise for sold and purchased species. These columns will be filled when the ABD in Markets section is implemented."},{"index":5,"size":51,"text":"The exercise will start with annual and biannual plant species grown on farm, kitchen/home gardens. The facilitator will probe for different categories of species including cereals, roots, tubers, legumes, vegetables, oil crops, fruits, industrial crops (e.g. cotton, coffee, tea etc). The exercise will be repeated for each of the remaining categories:"},{"index":6,"size":66,"text":"1. Annual and biannual crop species 2. Useful tree and shrub species in individual and common lands (perennial). These include both cultivated (e.g. mango) and agro-forestry species. Many of these species are multi-purpose, e.g. providing fruits, leaves, wood, fodder, etc. 3. Useful wild or semi-wild species used for food harvested from farms, forest areas or communal lands (annual or perennial). 4. Domesticated animals 5. Wild animals."}]},{"head":"Fish and other aquatic resources","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"In the case of useful tree and shrub species in individual lands (perennial) including both cultivated and agro-forestry species, the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"(1) many households with many trees/shrubs within their individual farms;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"(2) many households with a few trees/shrubs within their individual farms;"},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"(3) few households with many trees/shrubs within their individual farms; (4) few households with few trees/shrubs within their individual farms."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"In the case of useful tree and shrub species common lands (perennial) including both cultivated and agro-forestry species, the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":6,"size":14,"text":"(1) many households utilize the species and there is high availability in common lands;"},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"(2) few households utilize the species and there is high availability of the species in common lands; (3) many households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species in common lands; (4) few households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species in common lands."},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"In the case of domesticated animals the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":9,"size":7,"text":"(1) many households own many animals ;"},{"index":10,"size":6,"text":"(2) few households own many animals;"},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"(3) many households own few animals;"},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":"(4) few households own few animals ."},{"index":13,"size":14,"text":"In the case of wild animals the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":14,"size":20,"text":"(1) many households utilize the species and there is high availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas;"},{"index":15,"size":20,"text":"(2) few households utilize the species and there is high availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas;"},{"index":16,"size":40,"text":"(3) many households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas; (4) few households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas."},{"index":17,"size":17,"text":"In the case of fish and other aquatic resources the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":18,"size":20,"text":"(1) many households utilize the species and there is high availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas;"},{"index":19,"size":20,"text":"(2) few households utilize the species and there is high availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas;"},{"index":20,"size":40,"text":"(3) many households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas; (4) few households utilize the species and there is little availability of the species within the community and surrounding areas."},{"index":21,"size":42,"text":"Once all the categories have been discussed, ask for following two additional categories: a) Species that were grown ten years ago and are not grown now. b) Species that farmers would like to grow in future if seed are provided to them."}]},{"head":"ABD in markets","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":222,"text":"The facilitator will explain that the need for the exercise is to understand which and how important are the species that were identified in the previous exercise in terms of their marketing, both for sale and for purchase. The facilitators already have the list of species that are both sold and purchased. First, the facilitator will explain that the group will examine those species that are sold. As in the previous exercise, the facilitator will explain that species can be sold by many farmers or by just a few, and some may be sold frequently and others rarely, thus the facilitator draws a four square diagram (Figure 2). Once the diagram is drawn, the facilitator will read aloud from the list of species that are sold, one species at a time, asking participants to place the species in one of the four cells. Once all species in the pile have been classified, the facilitator should probe for additional species that may have been omitted, particularly for those that are sold by few farmers rarely. Finally, the facilitator will ask participants about the general reasons for placing species in a particular quadrant, for each of the four quadrants; the point is not to elicit particular reasons for specific species, but general ones for the set of species place in each of the cells."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"In the case of species sold the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"(1) many households sell frequently;"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"(2) few households sell frequently;"},{"index":5,"size":5,"text":"(3) many households sell rarely;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"(4) few households sell rarely."},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"In the case of species purchased the four cells will be modified as follows:"},{"index":8,"size":5,"text":"(1) many households purchase frequently;"},{"index":9,"size":5,"text":"(2) few households purchase frequently;"},{"index":10,"size":5,"text":"(3) many households purchase rarely;"},{"index":11,"size":5,"text":"(4) few households purchase rarely."},{"index":12,"size":124,"text":"Figure 2 Once this exercise is completed, the facilitator will repeat the same procedure with the list of species that are purchased, drawing also a four square diagram with species and foods that are purchased by many household, by few, and being purchase frequently or rarely (same as Figure 2). After the diagram is drawn, the facilitator will read aloud from the list of species that are sold, one species at a time, asking participants to place the species in one of the four cells. Once all species in the list have been classified, the facilitator will ask the participants to list other foods and food products (e.g. sugar, salt, bread, juices, canned foods, etc.) that are purchased but are not be produced locally."},{"index":13,"size":104,"text":"After this new list has been compiled, the facilitator will ask participants to place the foods and food products in one of the four cells. Once all species in the list have been classified, the facilitator should probe for additional species that may have been omitted, particularly for those that are sold by few farmers rarely. Finally, the facilitator will ask participants about the general reasons for placing species in a particular quadrant, for each of the four quadrants; the point is not to elicit particular reasons for specific species, but general ones for the set of species place in each of the cells."}]},{"head":"ABD and dietary diversity","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"The facilitator will explain that the aim is to understand more about the diversity of foods consumed by the community, particularly about those species that are consumed as foods directly or as food products. Already there is a list with all the locally-available species that are used as foods (derived from the exercise on ABD in production systems), as well as another list with the foods and food products that are not locally available but are purchased (derived from the exercise on purchased foods and food products) 1 . The facilitator reads one by one, each of the species from the list and asks the group to provide information on:"},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":" What parts of the species are consumed?  What are the cooking methods or methods of transformation used to prepare foods derived from that species?  What products are derived from the species (through processing)?"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"This information is noted by the second facilitator in a table. The information will be the basis for developing the dietary diversity questionnaire. This information is noted by the second facilitator in a table. The information will be the basis for developing the dietary diversity questionnaire."}]},{"head":"Species","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Parts of the species consumed"}]},{"head":"Forms of preparation/ transformation","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Products","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The FGD reports will be compiled by the consultant and forwarded to Bioversity before the HH survey will be undertaken, for their review and any necessary modification in the HH survey and also for printing crop species chart to be used by HH teams."}]},{"head":"Protocol for the Household Survey","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The household questionnaires will be carried among the households in the Ntcheu district in 18 sections belonging to four extension planning areas (EPAs): Nsipe Sharpvale, Tsangano and Manjawira 2 . Table 1 shows the specific sections that where the survey will take place and the number of households to be included. The total sample size will be 340 households. The survey consists of four components: (a) useful biological diversity in the production system (on farm, and those species harvested from forest and community land including water resources); (b) markets; (c) dietary diversity; (d) general socioeconomic information."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"The survey is divided into two questionnaires. One elicits information on biological diversity, markets and general socioeconomic information. The second one elicits information on dietary diversity for a mother and a child in the household. Specific instructions to elicit the dietary diversity are provided in the specific questionnaire."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"For the components on biological diversity, markets and general information, the questionnaire will be applied together to the male head of household, and to the female that will be interviewed for the Dietary Diversity section/village. The selection criterion for that woman is as follows: (1) a mother in the household between 15-49 years old with a child aged between 6-59 months. If more than one member of the household has these characteristics then choose one randomly (see additional instructions for the dietary diversity section/village below). ( 2 The procedure to carry out the women and child dietary diversity and household food security questionnaire is presented in another detailed document."},{"index":4,"size":117,"text":"Any other projects operating or recently completed in these section/villages will be documented to capture all actors involved in conservation and use of agrobiodiversity in the section/villages and sites. Bioversity staff will coordinate and monitor the household survey with a consultant providing any technical assistance required. The survey data collected will be handed over to Bioversity on a regular basis for data documentation, so that data entry can be carried out simultaneously. The table below is a tool to record the results of the Focus Group Discussion using the four-square method. One table will be filled for each category of species (e.g. annual species, perennial species, animals, etc.). The work will be carried in the following sequence:"}]},{"head":"ANNEX1","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":329,"text":"1. Participants are asked to make a list of all relevant species (e.g. free listing of species). 2. Once the list has been completed, proceed to place each species in the appropriate quadrant according to the indication of the participants. It is important to emphasize that the decision to place a species in a particular quadrant should be a group decision, not just made by one member. If there is controversy discuss until consensus is reached, if no consensus then indicate so in the notes. 3. For each species once it has been placed in a quadrant, ask participants the following questions about the species (the answer should be yes or no). One of the facilitators should mark the answers in the appropriate column, as well as any relevant information or observations in the last column: (a) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) used as food for own consumption? (b) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) sold by community members? (c) Is the species (parts of it or products derived from it) bought by community members? (d) Is the species available during the season of food scarcity? 4. Continue with the next species and repeat the process until all species in the list have been classified. In addition, information will be gathered on the following issues: a) Are there other species that may not have been included yet, particularly in quadrants 3 and 4? If so include and repeat the process with the additional ones. b) Ask what are the general reasons species were placed in a particular quadrant, for each of the four quadrants; the point is not to elicit particular reasons for specific species, but general ones for the set of species placed in each of the cells. c) Species that were grown ten years ago and are not grown now. d) Species that farmers would like to grow in future if seed are provided to them."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" ) If no mother in the household has a child of that age, choose a mother within the age group 15-49 years. If none is available, choose the woman who customarily prepares the food in the household irrespective of age. Most of the questions about species refer to a specific season of reference (either the wet season 2013 or the dry season of 2013/14). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 . EPAs and sections sampled with number of households interviewed EPA  no of HH EPAno of HH  Section interviewed Sectioninterviewed  Balaka Market 12 Balaka Market12  Bawi 17 Bawi17 Manjawira Manjawira West 16 ManjawiraManjawira West16  Mtonda 16 Mtonda16  Njeleza 10 Njeleza10  Senzani 24 Senzani24  Chiole 20 Chiole20 Nsipe Dzunje 21 NsipeDzunje21  Makwangwala 19 Makwangwala19  Mpamadzi 20 Mpamadzi20  Chawanje 20 Chawanje20 Sharpevalle Kasinje 23 SharpevalleKasinje23  Sharpevale 17 Sharpevale17  Nthumbo 24 Nthumbo24  Bayani 15 Bayani15  Katsekera 19 Katsekera19 Tsangano Lisungwi 23 TsanganoLisungwi23  Mzama 24 Mzama24 Total  340 Total340  "},{"text":"Table to Capture the Results for the Focus Group Discussion for ABD in Production Systems  Village: _______________  Village: _______________ Date:___/___/_____ Type of group: Men ( ) Women ( ) Date:___/___/_____Type of group: Men ( ) Women ( ) Facilitators:  Facilitators: Number of participants: ____  Number of participants: ____  "}],"sieverID":"fb85f707-dbb5-4b30-9b00-2d7d6fb17dfe","abstract":""}

data/part_2/00f052755b27d1c97bffdad2263859c0.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00f052755b27d1c97bffdad2263859c0","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/08bcc83b-9ab7-4cb2-98a0-9feba5b7dfa1/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3715 Contributing Projects: • P330 -Evidence base on the effectiveness and impacts of food systems interventions","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"3652f638-4281-4cb2-874d-7764e7515bf1","abstract":"Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: No Description of activity / study: Building on research from the CGIAR Research Program on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) flagship on Food Systems for Healthier Diets, the study looked at how evidence from past studies of the impacts of food systems innovations on diet-related outcomes maps to current food system priorities in Viet Nam, one of the program's focus countries. It then explored what the studies can tell us about the impact pathways from innovations to healthier diets and other outcomes. The findings highlight some promising innovations that have potential for further research and scaling. A revised impact pathway is also proposed based on a new understanding of how the concept of the food environment can be integrated into an impact pathway framework. The new impact pathway and associated assumptions-taken together, the theory of change-can support better understanding and analysis of the impacts of food system innovations on diets."}

data/part_2/010e02e31d91c088b92839a7ec4d9453.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"010e02e31d91c088b92839a7ec4d9453","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a9d9f085-66ea-46a2-80ca-1de9e039f9b4/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Learning and Collaboration: DNA for Next-Generation Agricultural Research","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"What was the main challenge/opportunity you were addressing with this CLA approach or activity?"},{"index":2,"size":90,"text":"Rural livelihoods in the Africa RISING project sites are based on smallholder crop-livestock-tree mixed farming systems. Addressing the complex bio-physical and socioeconomic problems in these farming systems calls for multidimensional and integrated systems interventions that also take into account institutional and social arrangements. To be effective, these integrated interventions require that different research and development partners and farmers engage, collaborate, and deliver \"as one.\" This is a non-negotiable precondition for such complex systems research and interventions to work. It requires that we identify and work on different \"DNA\" than before."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Some of the results we want to achieve through this DNA are as follows:"},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":" Minimizing duplication of effort: Africa RISING involves the government, NGOs, universities, research centers, and farmers in the innovation platform processes and activities to enhance iterative learning processes for better collective actions. Through regular contact and interactions, the partners map their activities and manage to reduce duplication of their efforts."},{"index":5,"size":86,"text":" Improving information flow: People act in a timely manner and appropriately when they have the information they need on time. Through a mix of online, offline, and face-to-face approaches, we encourage and motivate project partners and staff to document, share, exchange, and report on their activities and learning insights. Online information is best suited for national and international partners, while face-to-face meetings, farmer field days, training, and regular innovation platform meetings are the main channel for two-way information flows among actors in woredas and kebeles."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":" Stimulating joint action: Through the program, especially for the local innovation platforms, multiple actors who share common goals are coming together with different capacities and resources at strategic, operational, and farmers' research group levels. Beyond our own sites, some of the results and learning are being taken up and scaled to other communities and locations."},{"index":7,"size":38,"text":" Promoting ownership: By engaging different actors in the platforms and other project activities right from the start, we aim to strengthen the sustainability and uptake of the technologies, management practices, and institutional systems the program has introduced."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":" Building trust: Collaboration, engagement, and learning are key inputs to build trust among the many partners, so that the goals are achieved and interventions become sustainable. We actively ensure that different partners are involved in key stages of the design, planning, and implementation of the researchfor-development interventions. We have also formulated clear partnership agreements, and we use participatory events and activities designed for all participants to listen and learn from each other."},{"index":9,"size":73,"text":" Ensuring learning: To avoid the danger that researchers develop and push their specific ideas, we include specific reflection and learning activities at all levels -in the platforms, across, sites, at the country level, with other regions -where individuals are encouraged to critique their results. We experiment with approaches such as \"most significant change,\" designed to explicitly bring to the surface the insights and learning that different participants are obtaining through the program."},{"index":10,"size":7,"text":"Describe the CLA approach or activity employed."},{"index":11,"size":29,"text":"Africa RISING is a research-for-development project; learning and collaboration is in its DNA. To achieve the expected results, the program uses a combination of CLA approaches, including the following:"},{"index":12,"size":169,"text":" Participatory design and implementation of the first phase (\"early wins\") to learn how to best prepare the longer-term research and all the situational analyses (\"learning from before\"), and to build on previous participatory projects  Enhancing learning and collaboration through different communication channels and approaches: a collaborative workspace (wiki), a Yammer social network to share insights and updates, project documentation (stories, photo reports, digital stories, and images), annual learning events, open access knowledge repository, \"instant\" meeting reporting, and a project website  Cross-site learning: farmer field days involving innovation platform members, scientists, and farmers from different sites, exchange visits (e.g., CSISA-Africa RISING), and scientist exchange visits  Monthly partner coordination meetings and monthly program communication meetings, quarterly Program Coordination Team meetings, and semiannual Science Advisory Group meetings, all focused on issues to resolve, learn lessons, and plan to adapt accordingly One of the most important forms of collaboration and learning has been through the innovation platforms, which bring different people and institutions together to identify challenges and solutions."},{"index":13,"size":127,"text":"In Ethiopia, the program has set up innovation platforms at district and community levels. These work together with a number of commodity-based farmers' research groups or innovation clusters. The main objective of establishing these learning platforms is to bring different stakeholders together to assess the collective challenges they face, envision a future, learn from one another, and collaborate on common problems or opportunities. Most importantly for Africa RISING, they help participants deal with a complex development approach -croplivestock-tree systems integration -that requires the collaboration and participation of different actors. Before the innovation platforms were established, key stakeholder meetings and consultation were conducted to identify the ideal members. This innovation platform approach was employed by looking at successes from previous projects, such as the Nile Basin Development Challenge."},{"index":14,"size":93,"text":"Innovation platform members include government, NGOs, universities, farmers, and research centers. The platforms are vehicles to make sure all of our research agendas and on-farm interventions get buy-in from major implementation and development partners, particularly the local government and farmers. Through the platforms, we ensure that government priorities and farmers' problems are well addressed (and jointly addressed) and that interventions complement existing systems and approaches. In this regard, our key partners have important opportunities to build their research capacity and help shape research agendas and priorities based on their local context and needs."},{"index":15,"size":13,"text":"Were there any special considerations during implementation (e.g., necessary resources or enabling factors)?"},{"index":16,"size":11,"text":"Some of the success factors in this work include the following:"},{"index":17,"size":143,"text":" Having experimented with these approaches before, we had a strong set of lessons to build on.  Many of the researchers, and some of our partners, were open to trying these ways of working; they saw the potential of CLA and were willing to actively support and participate.  We had a dedicated communications and knowledge management team with a range of expertise we could draw on.  USAID staff associated with the project were very supportive from the beginning.  The work of the CGIAR centers is being financed through joint research protocols that \"forces\" collaboration and discourages \"lone ranger\" behavior.  Participation is at the heart of the program's design, so there are many entry points for learning and collaboration, and the resources (e.g., for innovation platform facilitation) were built into the program design, rather than added after the fact."}]},{"head":"What have been the outcomes, results, or impacts of the activity or approach to date?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The different CLA approaches and activities are helping make implementation more effective. We have collected case stories in a variety of ways, and we are able to witness a variety of outcomes/results and impacts, including the following:"},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":" Unprecedented collaboration among a group of international, national, and local institutions: jointly developing and implementing research, combining multidisciplinary expertise, and crossing institutional boundaries."},{"index":3,"size":26,"text":" Massive buy-in to the platforms and farmers' research groups at the local level, with farmers competing to contribute and peer-reviewing each others' efforts and contributions."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":" Partners are using the collaboration and engagement platforms to bring their agendas and investments and take up the ideas and insights elsewhere, at scale. By providing the means to collaborate and set agendas, the platforms are becoming springboards for action and development outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":" The combination of communications, collaboration, learning, and engagement are themselves becoming a body of knowledge and practice that different organizations are building on and adapting on other projects and initiatives."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":" Involvement of local partners from the beginning helps speed the adoption of technology. For instance, in Endamehoni, government extension staff members participated in planning and implementation of program activities. As a result, they are now trying to scale up feed-trough technologies to five kebeles administrations (each comprising 800-1,800 households): \"Africa RISING is closely working with partners not only at local level but also at regional level. The Tigray Regional Agricultural Bureau uses the Endamehoni Africa RISING site as a benchmark site … for high crop yield of the project's major crops such as wheat, faba bean and potato.\""},{"index":7,"size":7,"text":"What were the most important lessons learned?"},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":" Collaboration and learning needs to start from the beginning of the program and be part of its \"DNA.\" It is not something to add at the end, nor is it just \"communications\" and awareness."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":" These activities need dedicated people, expertise, and resources, as well as openness to the important benefits from these often process-rich activities."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":" Getting CLA right builds a stronger program, reinforcing the human and institutional relationships and values needed for complex, multi-actor research-for-development projects (which have become the norm). They are part of the \"software\" a project needs; they can directly influence the design, focus, and emphasis of a project."},{"index":11,"size":23,"text":" CLA approaches are not just for the implementers and core partners; they help bring in all sorts of partners and even beneficiaries."},{"index":12,"size":20,"text":" Good CLA builds and extends the capacities of researchers and other program participants with new mindsets, skills and insights."},{"index":13,"size":32,"text":" For research-for-development projects like Africa RISING, CLA approaches help ensure that research findings get buy-in from implementers, because they feel they were part of the process of identifying problems and solutions."},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":" Such approaches promote ownership and will help institutionalize project outcomes and results after Africa RISING project funding ends."},{"index":15,"size":22,"text":" These approaches also help promote the inclusion of neglected groups in society, such as women, youth, and people living with disabilities."},{"index":16,"size":56,"text":" Bringing together different actors led to the identification of new research ideas and agendas; the research was more demand-driven. A good examples is \"Enset research,\" which was not part of the original research agenda; however, research on Enset bacterial wilt emerged as one of the most important researchable issues in one research sites in Ethiopia."},{"index":17,"size":28,"text":"The CLA Case Competition is managed by USAID LEARN, a Bureau for Policy, Planning and Learning (PPL) mechanism implemented by Dexis Consulting Group and its partner, Engility Corporation."}]},{"head":"Any other critical information you'd like to share?","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"Africa RISING implementation strategies can be good lessons for new programs. Using a combination of collaboration, learning, and adaptation approaches is helpful in a complex program such as this one, which needs the involvement of a wide range of partners. Having appropriate human and financial resources also helps facilitate the success of such a program. For instance, having coordinators and assistant coordinators at the site level increased strong partnership among the various implementing partners, which has helped integration of research activities."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Links to Africa RISING online resources:"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":" Africa RISING website: http://africa-rising.net/  Africa RISING wiki: http://africa-rising.wikispaces.com/Home  Africa RISING documents repository: http://hdl.handle.net/10568/16498"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"a79b6503-83fe-4d10-bb62-02d53fabe19e","abstract":"Collaborating, learning, and adapting (CLA) have long been a part of USAID's work. USAID staff and implementing partners have always sought ways to better understand the development process and USAID's contribution to it, to collaborate in order to speed and deepen results, to share the successes and lessons of USAID's initiatives, and to institute improvements to programs and operations. Through this case competition, USAID and its LEARN mechanism seek to capture and share the stories of those efforts. To learn more about the CLA Case Competition, visit the USAID Learning Lab at usaidlearninglab.org/cla-casecompetition"}

data/part_2/01176bfcca92106ff04581ad524f42d3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01176bfcca92106ff04581ad524f42d3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b456fdd8-0df6-491f-b9e1-28d8a31b0e33/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Using the Techfit tool to prioritize feed technologies in Golgolnaele, Atsbi-Wonberta District, Tigray, Ethiopia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":279,"text":"Atsbi woreda is located in the eastern zone of Tigray Region, on the border with Afar Region. Its topography is dominated by mountainous hill sides and soil erosion. Degradation is one of the agricultural problems. It is suitable for livestock production. Sheep are predominant. Golgolnaele is one of the Peasant Associations (PA) of the woreda. This PA is located in Atsbi town, the largest town of the Woreda. Livestock sector is one of the major sources of income to small scale farmers. Despite its livestock potential, the production system is still very traditional. Traditionally, ownership of large herds of livestock was considered as expression of status in the rural farming community. The productivity of these livestock is very low due to multifaceted reasons such as feed shortage both in quality and quantity, poor vet service, poor management and limited awareness of the farmers. An assessment of the farming and livestock production system carried out in the PA using the Feed Assessment Tool (FEAST) identified feed as the number one challenge to livestock production in the PA. Hence, identifying appropriate feed technologies and promotion of the technologies for the area is imperative. Techfit is a tool developed to prioritize and select best fit technologies from a wide range of options potentially available for farmers. The tool is used for scoring and ranking of different feed technologies taking into consideration the existing situation of the farming system of the area. It enables the identification and prioritization of appropriate technologies for a given situation within a short period of time. Therefore, the objective of this work was to rank and prioritize best fit feed technologies from a basket of options for Golgolnaele."}]},{"head":"Study site","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Golgolnaele is located 13 o 52'50.69''N, 39 o 44'07.98''E at an altitude of the 2727m.a.s.l. It has four villages namely Meargat, Sirean, Beatiearo and Tegahnne. These four villages have a population of 8054 (3597 male and 4457 female) and 1621 households. The land use pattern of the PA is classified as 919.1ha of farmland, 3600ha of non-cultivated area, hillsides and mountains, 590ha of gullies, 562ha of grazing land/pasture land, 2800ha of natural forest and 1011ha of protected area (ILRI IPMS, 2004). It is one of the drought prone areas of the region and is characterized by unimodal erratic rainfall which begins at the end of June to mid-August."}]},{"head":"Sampling method","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Golgolnaele was selected based on its short distance from Atsbi Town, the capital city of the woreda. Farmers were selected based on gender (men and women heads of households), wealth or land size (landless, below average, average and above average), and age group (youth, middle age and elders). The participant farmers were representative of all villages within the PA. The participating women made up 40% of the farmers."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Scoring the context attributes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"A checklist was used to collect information about the context attributes of the technologies. Farmers gave values from 1 to 4 for availability of or access to land, labour, credit/cash, input delivery and farmers' knowledge and skills. Highest availability of attribute scored a value of 4 whereas lowest availability scored 1. They were encouraged to discuss and debate on the scores they gave for each attribute. This context scores were also made by experts to assess whether the score conformed to that of the farmers. The different issues that farmers raised during discussions were recorded and used as input for the scoring made by the researchers on context relevance and scope for improvement. Those technologies with high total score for context relevance and impact potential were carried forward to the main filter."}]},{"head":"Pre-filtering of technologies","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Technologies which were not applicable to the PA were pre-filtered. Pre-filtering was done based on the scoes of the context relevance and impact potential of the technologies (product of the two scores). The context relevance refers to the relevance of the technology to the study area. A technology that can address the identified feed issues within the existing production conditions was given a score of 4 while the one with lowest relevance was given a score of 1. The impact potential of the technologies was about the potential of the identified technology in addressing the feed issue in the area. This was developed by a team of feed experts and the scales ranged from 1-4 (1 least impact, 4 highest impact)."}]},{"head":"Main-filter of the technologies","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Technologies that passed the pre-filtering process were further assessed in main filtering based on context attribute and technology attribute scores and score for scope for improvement. The context attribute scores (scores for availability of land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge) were given by the selected farmers from the PA, whereas the technology attribute scores (requirement of each potential feed technology for land, labour, cash/credit, inputs and knowledge) had already been set in the Techfit tool by a group of experts. The context attribute scores were multiplied by the technology attribute scores for each of the five attributes considered. Finally, total scores were determined by adding the scores for the five attributes plus the score for the scope for improvement. The technologies were ranked based on this total score."}]},{"head":"Results","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The farmers in Golgolnaele ranked their first three preferred technologies as feeding of home grown legume residues, rethreshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding and generous feeding of crop residues. Other preferred technologies included the use of weeds, cut grass, tree leaves and hand chopping of residues. Supplementation using \"atella\", the local brewers' waste and vegetable waste were also preferred as shown in the rankings in Table 1.  Thinning (e.g. maize and/or sorghum -cutting green at knee height) 7"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Use of tops, leaf strips (e.g. maize or sorghum) 8"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Use of enset and/or banana leaves and by-products 9"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Crop/forage intercropping (sorghum/cowpea for dry areas and maize/lablab for wetter areas) 10"},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"Root and tubers -dedicated use 11"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Root and tubers -use of byproducts"}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The use of crop residues and the improvement of their nutritive value are most preferred technologies. These technologies need to be given priority to other issues like supplementation as crop residues are the most available feed resources to farmers through most of the year and would be potential to improve their immediate needs. It is interesting that the farmers also prefer machine chopping for crop residues. They may be in a position to acquire credit for simple chopping machine. This option needs to be exploited."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Prioritization of technologies in Golgolnaele using the Techfit tool  Technology options to address quantity, quality, seasonality issues Score Rank Technology options to address quantity, quality, seasonality issuesScoreRank Improvements of crop residues   Improvements of crop residues Machine chopping of residues 41 5 Machine chopping of residues415 Hand chopping of residues 47 3 Hand chopping of residues473 Generous feeding of CRs 47 3 Generous feeding of CRs473 Treatment of crop residues (e.g. urea treatment) 27 16 Treatment of crop residues (e.g. urea treatment)2716 Feeding of home grown legume residues 49 1 Feeding of home grown legume residues491 Feeding of bought in legume residues 0 18 Feeding of bought in legume residues018 Rethreshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding 48 2 Rethreshing and mixing of crop residues before storage and feeding482 Supplementation   Supplementation Supplement with home-produced local brewers waste 46 4 Supplement with home-produced local brewers waste464 Supplement with bought in local brewers waste 38 7 Supplement with bought in local brewers waste387 Supplement with UMMB 35 9 Supplement with UMMB359 Supplement with agro-industrial by-products (wheat bran, wheat middlings, oilseed cakes, pulse crop milling by-products such as lentil bran and hulls, etc.) 39 6 Supplement with agro-industrial by-products (wheat bran, wheat middlings, oilseed cakes, pulse crop milling by-products such as lentil bran and hulls, etc.)396 Use leaves and/or pods of farm trees (e.g. acacias, milletia etc) 0 18 Use leaves and/or pods of farm trees (e.g. acacias, milletia etc)018 Use of oats grain and hulls for supplementary feeding 33 11 Use of oats grain and hulls for supplementary feeding3311 Feed conservation   Feed conservation Feed conservation of private natural pasture (surplus) (HAY) 35 9 Feed conservation of private natural pasture (surplus) (HAY)359 Making hay from cultivated annual fodder with readily available seed (e.g. oats/vetch) 30 14 Making hay from cultivated annual fodder with readily available seed (e.g. oats/vetch)3014 Making hay from cultivated perennial fodder with specialist seed (e.g. alfalfa, rhodes) 19 17 Making hay from cultivated perennial fodder with specialist seed (e.g. alfalfa, rhodes)1917 Fodder tree leaf meal 29 15 Fodder tree leaf meal2915 Improved forages   Improved forages Fodder beet for cooler highlands 30 14 Fodder beet for cooler highlands3014 Improved forage grasses (napier grass, rhodes grass) 31 13 Improved forage grasses (napier grass, rhodes grass)3113 Improved forage legumes (alfalfa, desmodium sp.) 30 14 Improved forage legumes (alfalfa, desmodium sp.)3014 Fodder trees (sesbania, leucaena, tagasaste, gliricidia) 32 12 Fodder trees (sesbania, leucaena, tagasaste, gliricidia)3212 Use of improved annual grass-legume mixture (e.g. oat-vetch forage or hay) 34 10 Use of improved annual grass-legume mixture (e.g. oat-vetch forage or hay)3410 Use of improved perennial grass-legume mixture (e.g. rhodes-alfalfa forage or hay) 29 15 Use of improved perennial grass-legume mixture (e.g. rhodes-alfalfa forage or hay)2915 Feeds from cropping systems   Feeds from cropping systems Use of weeds, cut grass, tree leaves 47 3 Use of weeds, cut grass, tree leaves473 Vegetable waste 46 4 Vegetable waste464 Balancing feeds   Balancing feeds Smart feeding (targeted use of bought-in concentrates to target productive animals) 36 8 Smart feeding (targeted use of bought-in concentrates to target productive animals)368 Complete feed-TMR (mash, block, pellet) 31 13 Complete feed-TMR (mash, block, pellet)3113  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Inapplicable technologies in Golgolnaele for feed improvement interventions   Technologies Technologies 1 Commercial dairy supplements 1Commercial dairy supplements 2 Poultry litter 2Poultry litter 3 Buying baled hay (e.g. oats/vetch, Rhodes grass, meadow etc.) 3Buying baled hay (e.g. oats/vetch, Rhodes grass, meadow etc.) 4 Feed conservation (silage) 4Feed conservation (silage) 5 Fodder trees -dual purpose (Pigeon pea) 5Fodder trees -dual purpose (Pigeon pea) 6  6  "}],"sieverID":"f2db070c-65ec-4e81-ac83-2e5238bf9872","abstract":"International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) April 2014 www.livestockfish.cgiar.org CGIAR is a global partnership that unites organizations engaged in research for a food secure future."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01a71b060e73884566859512b7ee2386","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6801835b-b5ee-40b5-99e2-0d163f30f231/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Updated Tropical Forages Tool (formerly known as SoFT)","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"ea57db77-3706-47cb-8518-dea7eba5dc82","abstract":"P958 -Activity 3.1.3 Global knowledge products and tools to allow focused effort on likely feed intervention winners in key geographies Description of the innovation: The Tropical Forages tool is currently being updated in terms of content and technical features. The content was updated to the status quo of actual research and new technical features include e.g. a mobile app and automatic translation through google translator. New Innovation: No Innovation type: Research and Communication Methodologies and Tools Stage of innovation: Stage 2: successful piloting (PIL -end of piloting phase) Geographic Scope: Global Number of individual improved lines/varieties: <Not Applicable> Description of Stage reached:The tool is currently undergoing the final phase of piloting (e.g. the mobile app) and will be launched to the public by mid-2019."}

data/part_2/01e1aac6ad749fe96b6f31fc13712566.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01e1aac6ad749fe96b6f31fc13712566","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3247082b-3a62-4b4f-ade3-7aa32fcadcf4/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Observations about the distribution of cassava germplasm from an international collection. Observations about the distribution of cassava germplasm from an international collection","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The field gene bank maintained at CIAT was converted into an in vitro gene bank (presently with 5,728 clones designated to FAO). Sterile cultures in artificial media have been established from disease-free mother plants produced by means of thermotherapy and meristem-tip culture and tested for cassava viruses."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"The transfer process comprise the following steps: From 1979 to 2000, CIAT has shipped in vitro plantlets to 57 countries, with a total of 12,116 cassava accessions distributed, out of which 4,315 are different accessions. The principal recipient were CIAT Projects, who received 50.9 % of distributed accessions, while external institutions and partners received 49,1 % (Figure 4a). As compared to the other collections (9.6 times for the bean collection and 4.7 times for the forage collection), CIAT GRU has distributed twice the size of the cassava collection; this lower rate can be explained by the highly specialized type of distribution. In order to make the distribution successful, CIAT GRU has trained 53 Professionals and participated into 16 short courses."},{"index":3,"size":157,"text":"Latin America and the Caribbean which have contributed 89% of the clonal collection have received 73% of the external shipments. The top five recipients (with 57% of total distributed outside) were Brazil, Colombia, Cuba, Peru and USA (Figure 4b). Although external institutions could still make wider use of the cassava collection, these figures indicate a relatively high rate of utilization. Three shipments of cassava towards Peru, Paraguay, and Ecuador were done as part of our efforts to restore germplasm to countries.    CIAT projects have used the cassava collection for breeding (81.8%), basic research (10.3%) (for instance the cassava gene mapping project), applied research (5.9%), and for training and other purposes (e.g. exhibitions) (less than 1% each) (Figure 6). The material distributed was diverse, since the top five clones (three bred lines and two landraces) were distributed less than 140 times each on average. These five clones were released by the national programs as commercial materials (Figure 7)."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The main purposes of external germplasm requests were: i) plant breeding to introduce genes into new hybrids, ii) evaluation of clones in other countries (agronomy), iii) applied research (pathology, entomology, etc), iv) basic research (cryopreservation, embryogenesis, general biochemistry, etc), and v) training (Figure 5b)."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"External users are mainly national institutions of agricultural research (55.2%), universities (35.1%), regional organizations (4.4%), commercial companies (3.3%), NGOs (1.5%), other CGIAR centers and other institutions (e.g. Epcot Center) (0.4%)(Figure 5a).  The cultures for shipment consist of well-rooted plantlets in an agar medium, contained in properly capped 16 x 125-mm test tubes and labeled with the clone's name (Roca et al. 1989). The test tubes are packed in a bag with: a) printed MTA (Material Transfer Agreement), b) phytosanitary certificate, issued by the Colombian authorities, c) a list of the material, d) instructions on how to handle the cultures after arrival, e) passport information, f) morphological and biochemical evaluation, and g) import permit (Figure 3)."}]},{"head":"Receipt and handling of institutional requests.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Multiplication of disease-free clones."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Evaluation, packing and shipment of cultures."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Handling of cultures at the receiving end."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Release of materials ( Figure 2)"}]},{"head":"Results Results","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Roca, W.M., Chavez, R., Marin, M.L.,Arias, D.I., Mafla, G., Reyes, R. 1989. In vitro methods of germplasm conservation. Genome 31 (2): 813-817. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Transfer of cassava germplasm in vitro. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 4a-b. Distribution of germplasm during the period 1979-2000. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 5a-b. Institutions and purposes of distribution of in vitro cassava germplasm. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Flow diagram showing utilization of cassava meristem culture for the exhange of germpalsm in clonal form. "},{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Status of the cassava germplasm collection conserved at GRU-CIAT. "},{"text":" These distribution and related research activities have been supported by grants of CIAT core budget, the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources, the Systemwide Programme on Information for Plant Genetic Resources, and the Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural of Colombia. "},{"text":"Figure Figure 7. Clonal accessions most distributed by CIAT GRU. "},{"text":"aa Figure 6. Distribution of in vitro cassava germplasm in CIAT. "}],"sieverID":"4ab2d606-f43f-4d46-b043-752d535d5b38","abstract":"The distribution of superior germplasm across the tropics is often the most powerful way to improve agricultural productivity. Plant quarantine regulations for cassava made clear in the 1980s that only in vitro plants would be accepted for distribution worldwide, and technical guidelines for the safe movement of cassava germplasm were produced (Frison & Feliu 1991). Over the last years, the in vitro technique has thus been used to distribute selected germplasm from CIAT to national programs, but also to introduce into CIAT large numbers of new germplasm collected in the crop's major centers of variability (Figure 1)."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0248795ed8471dd497767becd98a4fbc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/810a2e13-3da8-488d-a3e1-f2742c912a8c/retrieve"},"pageCount":30,"title":"Efficacy of pruning, waxing and relative humidity storage in extending shelf-life of fresh cassava roots Extending the shelf-life of fresh cassava roots for increased incomes and postharvest losses reduction","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Table of Contents","index":1,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Acronyms and Abbreviations","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"EXECUTIVE SUMMARY","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Postharvest Physiological Deterioration (PPD) is one of the leading causes of postharvest losses on fresh cassava in Uganda. This is expressed as blue black root streaking accompanied by bad odor and unfavorable taste. PPD is caused by the production of scopoletin, scopolin and esculin when roots are harvested and detached from the parent plant. The deterioration reaches a maximum in about four days after harvesting with microbial spoilage of the roots. This gives cassava a shelf life of 24 to 48h after harvest. The damaged roots are unpalatable and losses can be absolute if the roots are not processed quickly into other shelf stable products. This usually means that farmers and traders along the food supply chain face losses in income and reduced food security in addition to other unintended effects such as mounting pressure to sell and hence reduced price for the traders and limited sales into distant markets. However, the potential for fresh cassava utilization for retail and other markets in Uganda is still immense and hence needs to be exploited. There is need to develop effective, user friendly and affordable technologies for reduction of PPD and for enhancing shelf life of cassava."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"In previous research waxing was reported to enhance shelf life. This claim however did not specify the biochemical and other changes in the roots with this treatment and did not explain the acceptability of the waxed roots. Further there was no information on the effect of this method when coupled with pruning. Coupled to this, root storage in high humidity bags was not yet evaluated for cassava roots of Ugandan elite and local varieties. Thus the purpose of this study was to evaluate waxing and high relative humidity treatments for efficacy on PPD reduction. Specifically, it aimed at evaluating effect of waxing and relative humidity storage on PPD, reducing sugars, dry matter content, cyanide content and starch yield as well as acceptability of treated roots."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Results from this study show that pruning alone would only extend shelf life to four to seven days. However, pruning followed by high relative humidity (RH) storage extended the shelf life of fresh cassava roots to 28 days resulting in less than 51% PPD among all the cultivars. Much as reductions in amylose content were not apparent across treatments over time, there were significant differences (P>0.05) in amylose content for the different treatments at day 14 and 21."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Pruning followed by high RH storage also did not have a significant effect of the levels of cyanide in cassava (P>0.05)."},{"index":5,"size":110,"text":"There was reduction in PPD and increased shelf life after waxing for all varieties compared to untreated controls. The deterioration rate for all varieties was lower than 30% after 28 days of storage compared to about 90% and 80% deterioration for the control and pruned respectively. Waxing caused reduction in the cyanogenic potential of cassava varieties with storage time much as in the waxed treatment some increments were observed. After day seven, reduction in the cyanogenic potential was recorded from an average 80ppm for all varieties and all treatments to an average of 4.4ppm by day 28 in the non-waxed roots. Waxed roots cyanogenic levels remained in the safe zone."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"There was an increment in dry matter content of cassava during storage but this was lower for waxed roots. The reducing sugar contents of both waxed and non-waxed roots also increased with storage time. However, the increases observed in waxed root were lower than in the non-waxed roots and was significantly different (P>0.05) from the pruned treatment and the control."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Combined pruning with waxing or with high relative humidity storage results in enhanced shelf life of cassava. Sensory analysis of waxed roots remained acceptable and did not differ from freshly harvested roots up to 14 days of storage. Thus waxing and high relative humidity storage can easily be recommended for adoption for commercial use in shelf life extension of cassava."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"In Uganda cassava is an important staple food. Studies have shown that at least 60% of the populations grow cassava and nearly 90% of the people consume cassava in different forms at least once daily (EAAPP, 2011). Fresh cassava is widely consumed both in urban and rural areas as a snack and main meal. Fresh cassava marketing is currently an important source of income (scoping study). Uganda has a policy of releasing \"sweet varieties\", i.e., varieties with low levels of cyanogens. These varieties are popular, with consumer demand increasing especially in urban areas, thereby providing incomes to both women and men. However, postharvest losses along the fresh cassava value chain remain unacceptably high resulting in loss in income and food security at household and national level."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Postharvest Physiological Deterioration (PPD) is the leading cause of postharvest losses on fresh cassava roots in Uganda. This is expressed as blue black root streaking accompanied by bad odor and unfavorable taste. PPD is caused by the production of scopoletin, scopolin and esculin when roots are harvested and detached from the parent plant. The deterioration reaches a maximum in about four days after harvesting with microbial spoilage of the roots. This gives cassava a shelf life of 24 to 48h after harvest. The damaged roots are unpalatable and losses can be absolute if the roots are not processed quickly into other shelf stable products."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"The short shelf-life limits marketing options of fresh cassava by making it difficult for the value chain actors to trade with sufficient time so as to access more distant markets. As a result, the loss in economic value of the crop due to deterioration means that there are increased marketing costs and limited access to urban markets which are often located far from the production sites (Sanchez et al., 2006)."},{"index":4,"size":128,"text":"Traditional methods to reduce postharvest losses due to PPD include leaving the roots unharvested in the soil after maturity (eight to twelve months). The roots can also be buried in soil after harvest where they are stored up to 3 months (MOF, CLNGMCI, & NARI, 2004). The disadvantage of the latter strategy is that roots become more woody and fibrous, decreasing their palatability. Extensive in-field storage of the roots also increases susceptibility to microbial attack as well as in the reduction of extractable starch (MOF, CLNGMCI, & NARI, 2004). Other methods include coating the roots with a loamy soil paste, piling them into heaps and consequently covering with vegetation or watering daily, but all these practices only extend the shelf life by 2-3 days (Onyenwoke & Simonyan, 2014)."},{"index":5,"size":95,"text":"There is however some technological options for reducing PPD in fresh cassava roots. These options include high relative humidity storage (RH) and waxing. Extending the roots' shelf life would provide farmers and traders with fresh cassava which can be marketed for longer and to distant markets thus increasing the profitability of the fresh cassava value chain. Thus alternative, effective and user-friendly options are needed for cassava shelf life extension. Therefore, the overall purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of root waxing and high relative humidity storage on PPD of selected cassava varieties."},{"index":6,"size":7,"text":"The specific objectives of this study were:"},{"index":7,"size":62,"text":" To evaluate the combined effect of pruning and waxing on the level of PPD and on biochemical attributes of stored roots of selected varieties  To evaluate the effect of pruning and high relative humidity storage on levels on PPD and on biochemical attributes of selected cassava varieties  To investigate the acceptability of the waxed and relative humidity stored roots."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sample collection","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":127,"text":"A total of 16 cassava varieties were collected from three fresh root trading routes of Uganda. Five varieties were collected from Kyenjojo. These include Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Bufumbo, Njule, and Kijita. Four varieties, namely, Kibonange, Bukalasa, Mpagi and Kajahi were collected from Kabarole while Hoima, Nyaraboke (also from Kyenjojo), NASE14, TIM TIM, Nyamigyera, NAROCas1, Bao and TME14 were collected from Kiryandongo. These varieties were selected because preference by farmers due to their sweetness. The varieties were rapidly screened to select nine varieties that were relatively more tolerant or resistant to PPD. These included seven indigenous land races preferred by farmers: Bukalasa, Bufumbo, Hoima, Kirimumpale, Kigita, Nyaraboke and Njule. They also included two improved or elite varieties also popular among Ugandans due to their quality attributes: NASE14 and TME14."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Roots were always harvested 12 months after planting following the method of CIAT et al. (2012). Pruning or detopping (defoliation) was conducted 7 days prior to root harvesting. One set of each cultivar harvested was left unpruned (control) while the other was pruned. Care was taken to avoid injuries to the roots during harvesting (Venturini, Santos, & Oliveira, 2015)."}]},{"head":"Waxing treatment","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":117,"text":"For the waxing treatment, only five (namely Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Bukalasa, NASE14 and TME14) of the nine varieties were considered depending on their availability, market value, preference to farmers and logistical arrangements for their collection from farmers in at least three different times. Cassava roots were treated according to the method described by CIAT et al. (2012). The roots were washed with potable water using a soft bristled brush to remove adhering soil and allowed to drip dry for 10min at room temperature. They were then dipped for one minute in a solution of Ridomil fungicide and a surfactant (Silverwelt). The roots were air dried and subsequently dipped in hot wax pre-heated to temperature of 140-160 0 C."}]},{"head":"Relative humidity treatment","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Harvested roots were left moist and placed in polyethylene bags of 2-5mm gauge. The bags were sealed and roots were kept under ambient conditions in the sealed bags. Four roots were sampled every 7 days for PPD scoring and biochemical analysis."}]},{"head":"Scoring for postharvest physiological deterioration","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The roots were scored for PPD according to the method described by Wheatley, Lozano, & Gómez (1985). Roots of each cultivar with a minimum size of 18 cm length, without mechanical damage or pre-harvest rot were selected. The distal and proximal ends were cut off with a stainless steel knife, so that the remaining root section is about 15 cm long. Crosswise sections 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12 and 14 cm from the proximal end were cut. A total of 7 sections were evaluated. Numerical values were assigned according to a scale of 0-10 on the proximal surface of each cut slice. The scale values correspond to 0-100% PPD. The average of the sum of the numerical values in the 7 sections evaluated was obtained and expressed as \"Percent of deterioration\"."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"The percentage increase in Shelf Life (SL) after waxing was determined as the mean PPD of waxed roots subtracted from the mean PPD of non-waxed roots as shown in the formula below."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"(\uD835\uDC46\uD835\uDC3F \uD835\uDC3C\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC50\uD835\uDC5F\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC60\uD835\uDC52) = (\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51 − \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51)\uD835\uDC65100 \uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC37 \uD835\uDC62\uD835\uDC5B\uD835\uDC64\uD835\uDC4E\uD835\uDC65\uD835\uDC52\uD835\uDC51"}]},{"head":"Dry matter content determination","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The dry matter content was determined using the method by Uarrota et al. (2016). Roots of each cultivar were randomly selected, cut into 2cm slices using a stainless steel knife, mixed thoroughly and triplicates of 100g samples (W1) were dried at 60 C for 48 hours in an oven drier (Leader, Leader Engineering Widnes, United Kingdom). After removal from the oven drier, samples were weighed immediately. It was then taken back to the oven drier for 2 hours until a constant weight (W2) was obtained. Percent dry matter content (DM %) was calculated as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Dry matter content = 100 * (W2/W1)"}]},{"head":"Determination of starch yield","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Cassava starch was extracted by a modified method described by Nuwamanya et al. (2009)."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Roots were peeled and cleaned with distilled water. Then, the roots (500g) were blended with distilled water (500g of tuber in 1000ml of water) using a Waring blender (Waring® Commercial Blender, HBB2WTG4, USA). The pulp was stirred for 2min and filtered using a triple cheese cloth. The filtrate was allowed to stand until the starch sedimented and the top liquid decanted and discarded. The starch sediment was again washed with distilled water, and the top water discarded. The starch produced was oven-dried on aluminum pans at 60 ºC until a constant dry weight was obtained. The starch extract is weighed and then stored at room temperature in dry plastic air tight containers."}]},{"head":"Determination of starch content","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Distilled water (0.1ml; blank), standard corn starch (98%; 0.1g) and cassava starch (100mg), were transferred to a clean test tube and 10% sulphuric acid (5ml; Lobachemie® Reagents and Fine Chemicals, 1830, India) added. The test tube was placed in a water bath (Grant Instruments Ltd, TXF200, UK) at 80 ˚C for 30min. The supernatant (0.5ml) was transferred into a clean dry test tube as well as 5 serial dilutions for the standard solution; distilled water (1ml), phenol (0.5ml, 5%; VWR® Chemicals, France) were added to the contents in the test tube and vortexed (Labonet® International, 50200, United Kingdom) for 5s. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1ml) was added to the contents in the test tube, shaken for 5s, allowed to cool at room temperature for 15min and then absorbance was recorded with a spectrophotometer (WPA Biowave II+, England) at a wavelength of 490nm. The spectrophotometer was zeroed by reading absorbance of the blank then the absorbance of the prepared sample. The standard sample and serial dilutions of known concentrations were also measured. A graph of the data obtained from the readings obtained from the standard sample was plotted with the solution concentration on the x-axis and the absorbance on the y-axis. The equation of the \"best-fit\" straight line was determined using MS Excel© 2013. This equation gave the mathematical relationship between solute concentration and absorbance."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Finally, the equation was used to derive the concentration of digestible starch in the cassava starch sample."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Where, y is the absorbance x is the concentration"}]},{"head":"Determination of amylose content of cassava starch","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Cassava starch (100mg) was transferred into a volumetric flask, wetted with ethanol (95%, 1ml; VWR® Chemicals, UN1170, France) and distilled water (10ml), followed by NaOH solution (10%, 2ml; Lobachemie® Reagents and Fine Chemicals, 0589800500, India). The contents were heated in a water bath (Grant Instruments) at 60 ºC until a clear solution was formed. The flask with its contents was cooled at room temperature and diluted to the mark (100ml) with distilled water. A portion of distilled water (5ml) was added and acidified slightly with HCl (6M, 3 drops; Sigma-Aldrich®, UN1789, Germany). The contents were homogenized by shaking for 5s and Iodine solution (10%, 5ml) was added. Absorbance of the solution was read at 640nm against and amylose content quantified spectrophotometrically."}]},{"head":"Determination of reducing sugar content","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Cassava flour (500mg) was mixed with ethanol (1ml, 95%) and distilled water (2ml) in a centrifuge tube. Hot ethanol at 60 ºC (10ml, 95%) was added to the resultant solution followed by vortexing for 5min. and centrifugation (Labofuge 400R, Thermo Electron Corporation, Germany) for 10min. The supernatant was decanted into a volumetric flask and made up to 100ml with distilled water. This solution (10ml) was used for quantification of reducing sugars. The supernatant, distilled water (blank) and serial dilutions of 99% glucose (standard) (0.5ml each) were pipetted into separate clean dry test tubes. Distilled water (1ml) and 5ml phenol (5%; UNILAB®, 1159, Ajax Finechem, Australia) were added to the contents in each of the test tubes and vortexed for 3-5s. Concentrated sulphuric acid (1ml) was added to the contents in the test tubes, shaken for 3-5s. and allowed to cool for 15min. and then the reducing sugar content was quantified using a spectrophotometer at a wave length of 490nm."}]},{"head":"Determination of total cyanide content","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Linamarase enzyme solution was prepared according to a modified method described by Haque & Bradbury (1999). Sap (1ml), was squeezed from the end of the petiole (stalk) of cassava leaves and mixed with orthophosporic acid (0.1M, 10ml; Unilab® 372-2.5L GL, Ajax Finechem, Australia) to give a solution of enzyme. This solution was stored at room temperature for 1 hour until it was utilized."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"The peeled cassava root (50g) was added to orthophosphoric acid (160ml, 0.1M) and finely ground in a blender. The mixture was centrifuged at 129,000 RCF for 30min. at 4 ˚C. Triplicate samples (0.1ml) of the supernatant were added to separate clean dry test tubes. Standard solutions of Potassium Cyanide (1g/ml) as well as its serial dilutions and 1ml of distilled water (blank) were also added to test tubes. To each of these test tubes, orthophosphoric acid (0.1M, 0.4ml, pH 7.0) and linamarase enzyme solution (0.1ml) were added and incubated at 30 ⁰C for 15min. Sodium hydroxide (0.2M, 0.6ml) was added to the above sample and incubated at room temperature (25±5 ºC) for 5 min. Orthophosphoric acid (2.8ml, pH 6) and of N-chlorotosylamide (Chloramine-T; 0.1ml) were added to the sample, shaken for 5 s. and incubated for 5min. at room temperature. Pyridine-barbituric acid (coloring reagent; 0.6ml) was added to the sample, shaken for 3-5s. and left for 10min. at room temperature after which absorbance was read at 605nm in the spectrophotometer."}]},{"head":"Sensory analysis","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Rating was done on a 9-point hedonic scale with anchors ranging from 1 (dislike extremely) to 9 (like extremely) according to Ubbor & Akobundu (2009). Sensory analysis of all steamed cassava samples involved the participation of 20 untrained panelists who comprised of staff at National Agricultural Research Organization, Kawanda. Panelists consisted of 7 males and 13 females and their age ranged from 24 to 50 years. Availability, willingness and having eaten cassava were some of the factors considered for participating in the session. Each individual evaluated five sensory characteristics (appearance, taste, aroma, texture and mouthfeel) which were consequently averaged as overall acceptability. For waxing analysis, three of the candidate varieties which were accessible for use for this study were evaluated. These included NASE14, NAROCas1, and Nyaraboke."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Upon arrival at the sensory laboratory, each panelist read an explanation of the study and gave their informed consent. Cassava samples were steamed for 30min. and served 15min. later. Steamed cassava samples were placed onto disposable plastic plates and labeled with randomly selected three digit numbers. The coded samples were presented under normal lighting conditions, in a randomized manner across panelists to ensure that the order did not introduce bias into the results. Each individual evaluated the five aforementioned sensory characteristics. Each panelist was presented with the test sample and a bottle of drinking water to rinse out their mouths before and after each taste. The panelists were asked to evaluate the product and record their perception of each sensory characteristic using a nine-point hedonic scale. The ratings on the 9-point hedonic scale used were (9=\"like extremely\"; 8=\"like very much\"; 7=\"like moderately\"; 6=\"like slightly\"; 5=\"neither like nor dislike\"; 4= \"dislike slightly\"; 3=\"dislike moderately\"; 2=\"dislike very much\"; 1=\"dislike extremely\")."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Averages for the sampled varieties were taken to be the representative values of particular varieties in each of the treatments at a particular sampling time. The variations between the averages for the different sampling times and the differences between the test varieties were evaluated using a one way ANOVA. All the specific analyses were carried out using GENSTAT Discovery Edition 2013 analysis software."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of waxing on shelf life and biochemical properties of cassava roots 3.1.1. Variation in levels of PPD of waxed roots compared to pruned roots and the control (unpruned and not waxed)","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"There were differences in levels of PPD among the varieties after waxing with reduction in PPD and increased shelf life for all varieties compared to untreated controls (Figure 1). Much as differences were observed among treatments, it was observed that deterioration increased with time. The rate of deterioration was however different for the two treatments and both treatments slowed down PPD significantly compared to the control. The variations observed in Figure 1 indicated that the varieties responded in different ways to the waxing technology. TME14 and two popular local varieties (Bukalasa and Nyaraboke) responded well to waxing and therefore have major potential for shelf life extension. Conversely, NASE14 had the lowest percentage reduction in PPD rate and the lower response to waxing."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Waxing was also more appropriate for longer storage times (Figure 2) while cheaper options such as high relative humidity storage would be appropriate for shorter storage times. The average PPD increased rapidly in the control and pruned treatment compared to the prunedand-waxed samples. In the case of waxing, the deterioration rate for all varieties was lower than 30% after 28 days of storage compared to about 90% and 80% deterioration for the control and pruned samples, respectively. From the above, it is evident that the shelf life of cassava can slightly be improved by pruning while shelf life can be extended for significantly longer when pruning is combined with waxing. Pruning alone cannot offer extended shelf life over 14 days while combined pruning and waxing can. Given the fact that marketing of cassava can take a long time, extended marketing period can be achieved by combining waxing with pruning."}]},{"head":"Dry matter content","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"The dry matter (DM) content at day zero (Day 0) ranged from 31 to 36%. The lowest dry matter contents were observed in the local varieties Kirimumpale and Nyaraboke (average 31 and 32%, respectively) while the highest DM contents were observed for the elite variety TME14 (average 36%). Changes in DM contents were observed after storage increasing significantly by between five and 10 percentage points in the first seven days in the control (Table 1). Such increments were sustained reaching the highest level at 28 days and ranging between 42-53%. Similar observations were made for the pruned roots with no significant differences observed between the pruned experiment and the control. However in the waxed roots, lower increments in DM content were observed. The DM content, which ranged from 31 to 35% at harvest, increased with storage days and was in the range of 36-43% at 7 days and 40-48% at 28 days. The DM content in waxed roots during storage period was consistently lower than in pruned only and control roots. Nevertheless significant variability (P<0.05) was observed among the different varieties. The increase in DM over time could be as a result of moisture loss that occurs in the roots during storage. Such losses in moisture may contribute to deterioration of the root by execrating the production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), the main predisposing factors of PPD. "}]},{"head":"Starch yield","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":164,"text":"Starch is one of the key ingredients of cassava roots. Loss in starch does not only lead to loss in caloric value of the root but also affects other nutrient related aspects of the root. Therefore changes in starch yield from different varieties undergoing storage after waxing were determined and these results are presented in Table 2. Reduction in starch yield was observed during storage. Reduction in the amount of extractable starch could be linked to hydrolysis and break down processes that occur in roots during storage. Reduction in starch yields over time were more pronounced in pruned and control samples which were significantly different (P <0.05) from waxed root as from day 14 of storage. However, it should be noted that there were no significant differences between the pruned treatment and the control after 7 days. This further indicates that pruning as a technology is crucial for extending the shelf life for only about 7 days after which the cassava should be marketed. "}]},{"head":"Variation in reducing sugar content","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"There were significant differences (P>0.05) in reducing sugar contents of different varieties before storage (day 0), indicating that the amount of sugars in cassava is variety specific (Table 3). The reducing sugar contents of both waxed and non-waxed roots increased with storage time. Indeed for both the pruned and the control samples, rapid increases in sugar contents were observed over the storage days but no significant differences (P>0.05) were observed for specific storage day. However, the increases observed in pruned-and-waxed sample were lower than in the pruned roots and was significantly different (P>0.05) from the control samples (Table 3). In most of the varieties, reducing sugars increased significantly (P>0.05) during storage. Such results indicate progression in the physiological changes occurring as the starch is remobilized in the root. The remobilization coupled to no utilization of sugars in such a system leads to accumulation of a number of non-structural carbohydrates that on analysis constitute the reducing sugars. Note: the reducing sugar contents in this case refer to available sugar as released after hydrolysis of starch rather than glucose."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Note: Sugar 7, 14, 21, 28 denote reducing sugar content at 7,14,21,& 28 days storage."}]},{"head":"Effect of waxing on cyanogenic potential in cassava roots","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":187,"text":"Waxing was carried out on known \"sweet varieties\" and hence of lower cyanogenic potential (CNP). Table 4 shows that the CNP of untreated (control) and treated samples (pruned, and pruned-and-waxed) before storage (Day 0) were lower than the recommended safe levels by FAO of 50 ppm. Significant differences (P>0.05) were observed among the different varieties with the elite clones maintaining higher CNPs. These values reduced with storage time in the pruned and the control samples by more than 90% by day 28 of storage. Apart from Nyaraboke, there were increases in CNP in the waxed samples of all the other varieties up till 14 days of storage. After day seven, reductions in the cyanogenic potential was recorded from an average 80ppm for all varieties and all treatments to an average of 4.4ppm by day 28 in the non-waxed roots. This was a significant reduction compared to losses in the waxed roots which ranged from an average 127.14ppm at day 7 to an average 28.73ppm at day 28. The reductions imply that waxing does increase CNP of cassava although the CNP reduces to safe levels after 21 days."}]},{"head":"Changes in starch content","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"Starch content ranged from 73-84% and varied across the different varieties. Lower starch contents were observed for Nyaraboke (73.14%) while higher starch contents were observed for TME14 (84.4%). During storage, the starch content reduced with time dropping by between 10-40% depending on the variety and the treatment method (Table 5). Reduction in starch content in the pruning samples was comparable to the control samples after 14 days of storage. However, no specific reductions were observed for the pruned-and-waxed samples with starch content increasing with time instead. Note: CNP at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing. Note: starch content 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch content at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing."}]},{"head":"Changes in amylose content","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The amylose contents of samples ranged from 14% to 16% and were not significantly different (P>0.05) among test varieties (Table 6). There were significant differences (P>0.05) in amylose content for the different treatments at day 14 and 21. The differences reflect the losses in starch content earlier observed which was related to hydrolytic reduction and production of nonstructural carbohydrates. However, amylose was not a significant indicator of the level of deterioration since it is a function of available starch rather than total available carbohydrate. Note: Starch content 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch content at 7,14,21& 28 days after waxing."}]},{"head":"Protein content","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"Changes in protein content are presented in Table 7. Significant differences (P>0.05) were observed for protein contents at day zero or among the different cassava varieties. This is an indication that different cassava varieties accumulate different levels of protein. These differences were observed across the storage time although there were no significant differences due to treatment effects. Particularly, the protein contents reduced from an average 0.75% at day zero to an average 0.54% by day 28 of storage. These losses were higher in the control and the pruned samples and this can be attributed to degenerative hydrolysis of the components of the root. ON the other hand, waxing does not significantly affect protein content and hence it is appropriate for maintaining the nutritional quality of the roots. From the observations presented in previous sections, it is possible to conclude that pruning improves the shelf life of cassava by an average 7-14 days after harvest. Thus it is only applicable for short term storage and marketing. On the other hand, waxing can extend shelf life for at least 28 days. Its potential for use in the fresh cassava export market is huge. It is therefore recommended for long term storage that may involve transportation of roots over long distances and for extended marketing period."}]},{"head":"Efficacy of high relative humidity treatments","index":27,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Effect of pruning combined with high relative humidity storage on PPD","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"There was variation in mean PPD of roots with variety and storage time (Table 8). As earlier observed with the waxing treatment, high relative humidity storage (RH), reduced PPD by 30-40% depending on the variety. Such reductions are plausible if the storage technique is used for specific varieties that respond to this method."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Table 9 shows that the dry matter content of cassava roots did not change with storage time under high relative humidity conditions (inside the polyethylene bags) over the storage period. This can be attributed to the control of moisture losses from the storage chamber. Therefore the maintenance of dry matter in this shelf life improving method is important attribute for fresh cassava marketing. According to Van Oirschot et al. (2000) pruning of cassava plants does not affect the dry matter content of cassava roots.  "}]},{"head":"Amylose content","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"The amylose content of fresh cassava roots did not vary significantly among the cultivars (p>0.05). Kirimumpale had amylose content of 14.6% while NASE14 had 16.9% on the upper side of the values. Kigita, Nyaraboke, NASE-14, Hoima and Njule had amylose contents of 14.8, 15.33, 15.8, 15.5 and 15.85%, respectively. Storage of cassava roots under high RH did not reveal statistical differences in amylose content (Figure 4).  The amylose content (14.6-16.9%) of the cassava cultivars were within the range found by Nuwamanya et al. (2009). Van Oirschot et al. (2000) also found that pre-harvest pruning does not affect the content of amylose in cassava starch."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Most of starch functionalities and physical properties of starch such as gelatinization temperature and time are dependent on the amylose content (Charles et al., 2005). All the cassava cultivars used in this study contained amylose but Getzin & Fellman (2012) utilized a cassava cultivar (AM206-5) characterized by amylose-free starch. Amylose-free \"waxy\" starch is more susceptible to gelatinization and glucoamylase digestion and has great advantages when used in food industry (Howeler et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Content of reducing sugars in cassava flour","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Reducing sugar content of flour made from freshly harvested cassava obtained from pruned cassava plants ranged from 7.49 in Hoima to 13.14% in TME14. Unpruned cassava plants yielded roots with reducing sugar content varying between 7.28% in Hoima to 12.78% in TME14."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Pruning did not have a significant effect (p>0.05) on the reducing sugar content of the cassava roots. However, all cassava roots showed an increase in reducing sugar content over storage time regardless of treatment. After 28 days under RH storage, the reducing sugar content in cassava ranged from 13.82% to 29.61% for NASE14 and TME14 cultivars, respectively. There was an average increase in reducing sugar content of cassava roots under high RH storage of 0.34% per day. Increase in reducing sugar content of cassava over time is attributed to breakdown of polysaccharides like starch into glucose during respiration (Zidenga, et al., 2012). Increase in reducing sugars in cassava gives a desired organoleptic quality in terms of sweetness (Nuwamanya et al., 2009). "}]},{"head":"Protein content","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"Protein content ranged between 0.52% in Kigita and 0.96% in NASE14 for cassava roots from pruned cassava plants. Fresh roots obtained from unpruned cassava had a protein content ranging from 0.53 to 0.95% (Figure 5). There was no significant differences in the protein content of pruned and unpruned cassava roots (p>0.05). The protein content in the high RH treated roots (0.52-0.96%) did not change significantly throughout the 28 days of storage (p>0.05). It was observed that improved cassava varieties had higher protein content (0.93% for TME14 and 0.96% for NASE14) than the local cultivars (0.52% in Kigita to 0.82% in Nyaraboke) (p<0.05)."}]},{"head":"Fig. 5: Protein content of cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and stored under high relative humidity","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Cassava cultivars in this study had protein content lower than that documented by USDA (2014) where the protein content ranged between 1 and 2%. This can be attributed to the fact that variation in nutritional composition occurs among different cultivars, locations and environmental conditions (Burns et al., 2012). Inferences by Van Oirschot (2000) also showed that protein content is not affected by pruning or prolonged storage at ambient temperature and humidity."}]},{"head":"Total cyanogenic potential","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":236,"text":"There were significant differences (p<0.05) in cyanogenic potential among the eight cultivars examined. Cyanogen levels in fresh cassava roots from pruned cassava plants varied between 27.8 and 53.2ppm (Figure 6). Roots obtained from pruned cassava plants of NASE14, TME14, Nyaraboke, Kirimumpale, Kigita and Bufumbo cultivars had cyanide contents of 31.12, 32.16, 36.79, 44.86, 47.89 and 50.41 ppm, respectively. Njule had 53.2 ppm before storage while Hoima had 28.42 ppm. Pruning alone did not have a significant effect (p>0.05) on cyanogen content of cassava roots. Pruning followed by high RH storage also did not have a significant effect on the cyanogenic content of cassava (p>0.05). However, overall decrease in level of total cyanogens was observed with time among all the cultivars of pruned and unpruned cassava stored at ambient humidity as well as pruned, high RH stored cassava after seven days. Overall decrease in cyanide levels in cassava seven days after harvest could be attributed to volatility of free cyanide and prolonged interaction between the enzyme linamarase and the cyanogenic glucoside in the cassava root (Padmaja, 1995). The level of cyanide however remained constant after seven days. Further reduction in levels of cyanide could only occur by crushing or pounding the plant material to increase enzyme-substrate interraction (Montagnac, 2009). The cultivars in this study are categorised as sweet cassava and consumption of these varieties, therefore, does not pose a risk of cynide toxicity (Creda & Mattos, 1996)."}]},{"head":"Sensory acceptability of pruned, pruned+high relative humidity, and pruned+waxing cassava roots","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":386,"text":"The overall sensory acceptability of steamed cassava freshly obtained from pruned cassava plants at 0 days ranged from 8 (like very much) for Hoima, Bufumbo and Nyaraboke to 6 (like slightly) for Kigita, Njule, TME14 while NASE14 scored 7 (like moderately). For Hoima, Bufumbo and Nyaraboke, all the sensory attributes of taste, appearance, aroma, texture and mouthfeel were highly rated at 8 (like very much). Njule, TME 14 and NASE 14 were highly rated for taste, appearance and mouth feel (averaged at 8) but were rated lower for aroma (5: Neither like nor dislike). Kigita was scored high for taste (7 like) but with low rating for texture (4: dislike slightly). Kigita was found to be very soft, which was not appealing to most of the panelists. There was no significant difference (p>0.05) between the overall sensory acceptability of steamed roots obtained from pruned and unpruned cassava plants. At seven days of storage under ambient humidity, overall acceptability decreased for pruned and unpruned cassava roots respectively. The overall sensory acceptability of high RH treated roots, on the other hand increased at 7 days and 14 days. Figure 8 shows that the sensory acceptability of cassava roots decreased with storage days. After seven days, the average scores of pruned and unpruned roots were 5 (neither like nor dislike) and 3 (dislike moderately), respectively. This shows that cassava roots are rendered unpalatable shortly after harvest (Ofor, 2011). The least favorite cultivar for freshly harvested cassava (Kigita: 6) was due to its low score for texture (4) (hence its name that means ghee in the local Western Uganda dialect). This is an indicator that very soft cassava is not liked by most consumers. Increase in overall acceptability of high RH treated cassava roots is linked to the increase in content of reducing sugars in the root, which, according to Nuwamanya (2009) is desired by consumers. Reducing sugars are a by-product of respiration of the root so they increase in the roots during storage. The decrease in overall sensory acceptability at 28 days was due to a low average score for the flavor (5) and taste (4) of cassava. The stored samples were also too sweet for the panelists' liking. However, nearly all the varieties were rated above 6.5 average for overall acceptability at day 7 and 14 (Figure 8)"},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"For waxing the three varieties tested included NAROCas1, Nyaraboke and NASE14. Waxing did not negatively affect the acceptability of roots. Waxed roots remained acceptable and did not differ from freshly harvested roots up to 14 days of storage (Figure 9). Thus waxing can easily be adopted for marketing of cassava roots with extended shelf life. "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"Pruning alone can be used to extend shelf life of cassava roots to four to seven days. However, pruning followed by high RH storage could be used to extend the shelf life of fresh cassava roots to 28 days with % PPD less than 51 among all the cultivars. The technology shows promise for commercial exploitation in eastern and southern Africa where consumption of fresh cassava is widespread. Pruning seven days prior to root harvest and storage at high RH does not significantly affect the starch yield, dry matter, starch digestibility, amylose, protein and cyanide content of the cassava roots implying the root quality characteristics are not compromised by the treatments examined in the study."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Similarly, pruning of cassava seven days prior to harvest did not affect the sensory characteristics of fresh cassava roots. In fact, storage of pruned cassava under high RH conditions increases the time over which cassava remains organoleptically acceptable to consumers (up to 21 days) but not up to 28 days of storage due to excessive sweetness and lack of aroma. These results highlight the prospects of employing pruning followed by high RH storage for maintaining the quality attributes of fresh cassava roots in a commercial setting."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Further studies are required to understand the interaction of high RH storage and pruning on enzymatic function of cassava root. Effectiveness of other methods of storage under high RH such as storage in moist wood dust, soaking in water and burying in the soil can be further studied and compared with storage in plastic bags."},{"index":4,"size":109,"text":"Waxing similarly resulted in longer shelf life of cassava across in all the tested varieties. It can thus be a viable PPD management option for end-users such as supermarkets and other up-end markets of fresh cassava. Although the technology requires some investments in terms of facilities for waxing and other tools, the cost can be recouped quickly through the longer shelf stability of roots on the market that will reduce economic losses from PPD. PPD in unpreserved roots triggers postharvest qualitative deterioration which at times results in complete loss of the roots. Thus the benefits of better cassava marketability will outweigh the costs associated with use of the technology."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"Relative humidity on the other hand is cheap and could be recommended for use by traders who often have small or no investment capital. Indeed it can be used concurrently with waxing in a business pack house as designed during this study. But its benefits may be tapped by retailers in road side markers which can easily store roots in polyethylene bags as they wait to sell the roots."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ....................................................................................................... 1. INTRODUCTION ................................................................................................................. 2. MATERIALS AND METHODS .......................................................................................... 2.1. Sample collection ............................................................................................................... 2.2. Waxing treatment ............................................................................................................... 2.3. Relative humidity treatment ............................................................................................... 2.4. Scoring for postharvest physiological deterioration ........................................................... 2.5. Dry matter content determination ...................................................................................... 2.6. Determination of starch yield ............................................................................................ 2.7. Determination of starch content ....................................................................................... 2.8. Determination of amylose content of cassava starch ......................................................... 2.9. Determination of reducing sugar content .......................................................................... 2.10. Determination of total cyanide content ............................................................................ 2.11. Sensory analysis ............................................................................................................... 2.12. Data analysis ..................................................................................................................... 3. RESULTS .............................................................................................................................. 3.1. Effect of waxing on shelf life and biochemical properties of cassava roots ...................... 3.1.1. Variation in levels of PPD of waxed roots compared to pruned roots and the control (unpruned and not waxed) .................................................................................................... 3.1.2. Dry matter content .................................................................................................... 3.1.3. Starch yield ............................................................................................................... 3.1.4. Variation in reducing sugar content .......................................................................... 3.1.5. Effect of waxing on cyanogenic potential in cassava roots ...................................... 3.1.6. Changes in starch content ......................................................................................... 3.1.7. Changes in amylose content ..................................................................................... 3.1.8. Protein content .......................................................................................................... 3.2. Efficacy of high relative humidity treatments .................................................................. 3.2.1. Effect of pruning combined with high relative humidity storage on PPD ................ 3.2.2. Amylose content ....................................................................................................... 3.2.3. Content of reducing sugars in cassava flour ............................................................. 3.2.4. Protein content .......................................................................................................... 3.2.5. Total cyanogenic potential ........................................................................................ "},{"text":"Fig. 1 : Fig. 1: Percentage PPD among the different varieties and treatments "},{"text":"Fig. 2 : Fig. 2: Average percentage PPD during storage of cassava varieties subjected to two treatments "},{"text":"Fig. 4 : Fig. 4: Amylose content of cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and subsequently stored under high relative humidity "},{"text":"Fig. 7 : Fig. 7: Overall sensory acceptability of cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and kept at high relative humidity "},{"text":"Fig. 8 :Fig. 9 : Fig. 8: Variation in acceptability of the roots at 7 days "},{"text":"Table 1 : Specific changes in dry matter content of the cassava across different treatments  Variety Treatment Day 0 Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 VarietyTreatmentDay 0Day 7Day 14Day 21Day 28 Nyaraboke Control 32.73±0.033 36.44±0.827 39.37±1.647 44.21±1.435 42.12±3.111 NyarabokeControl32.73±0.033 36.44±0.827 39.37±1.647 44.21±1.435 42.12±3.111  Pruned 31.77±0.438 38.35±0.572 41.37±1.400 44.82±0.077 45.09±0.198 Pruned31.77±0.438 38.35±0.572 41.37±1.400 44.82±0.077 45.09±0.198  Pruned/ Wax 31.48±0.587 35.73±1.520 38.72±1.725 40.88±0.700 39.69±1.675 Pruned/ Wax31.48±0.587 35.73±1.520 38.72±1.725 40.88±0.700 39.69±1.675 TME 14 Control 36.21±0.728 45.72±2.114 47.09±0.049 51.45±1.103 50.74±0.869 TME 14Control36.21±0.728 45.72±2.114 47.09±0.049 51.45±1.103 50.74±0.869  Pruned 35.62±0.559 44.76±3.966 47.19±0.487 50.27±0.247 53.18±1.492 Pruned35.62±0.559 44.76±3.966 47.19±0.487 50.27±0.247 53.18±1.492  Pruned/ Wax 35.43±0.615 42.27±5.395 45.25±1.492 44.45±0.834 45.66±2.743 Pruned/ Wax35.43±0.615 42.27±5.395 45.25±1.492 44.45±0.834 45.66±2.743 NASE 14 Control 34.48±0.693 42.29±0.975 45.09±0.304 49.15±0.544 53.49±0.268 NASE 14Control34.48±0.693 42.29±0.975 45.09±0.304 49.15±0.544 53.49±0.268  Pruned 34.83±0.262 42.74±0.127 45.98±0.346 49.87±0.113 53.09±0.912 Pruned34.83±0.262 42.74±0.127 45.98±0.346 49.87±0.113 53.09±0.912  Pruned/ Wax 34.07±0.283 39.32±2.093 43.69±1.859 42.59±1.223 47.97±0.466 Pruned/ Wax34.07±0.283 39.32±2.093 43.69±1.859 42.59±1.223 47.97±0.466 Kirimumpale Control 31.41±0.665 41.52±0.735 41.82±1.385 45.72±0.530 46.87±1.371 KirimumpaleControl31.41±0.665 41.52±0.735 41.82±1.385 45.72±0.530 46.87±1.371  Pruned 31.53±0.198 42.01±0.091 42.42±0.855 45.49±1.187 47.26±0.685 Pruned31.53±0.198 42.01±0.091 42.42±0.855 45.49±1.187 47.26±0.685  Pruned/ Wax 31.53±0.693 36.72±1.245 39.07±0.947 42.47±1.576 40.69±2.107 Pruned/ Wax31.53±0.693 36.72±1.245 39.07±0.947 42.47±1.576 40.69±2.107 Bukalasa Control 32.55±0.651 39.12±0.734 41.74±2.453 44.36±1.810 43.42±7.240 BukalasaControl32.55±0.651 39.12±0.734 41.74±2.453 44.36±1.810 43.42±7.240  Pruned 32.68±0.354 42.32±0.742 43.18±0.516 46.86±0.044 48.00±0.028 Pruned32.68±0.354 42.32±0.742 43.18±0.516 46.86±0.044 48.00±0.028  Pruned/ Wax 32.61±0.099 42.95±0.063 41.32±2.517 43.66±1.442 43.40±0.148 Pruned/ Wax32.61±0.099 42.95±0.063 41.32±2.517 43.66±1.442 43.40±0.148  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Variations in starch yield across the test varieties and treatments over the storage days  Variety Treatment Day 0 Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 VarietyTreatmentDay 0Day 7Day 14Day 21Day 28 Nyalaboke Control 22.69±1.51 16.28±0.21 15.17±0.08 14.30±0.16 14.28±0.76 NyalabokeControl22.69±1.5116.28±0.2115.17±0.0814.30±0.1614.28±0.76  Pruned 21.29±2.16 17.45±0.37 15.12±0.09 15.09±0.01 12.77±0.62 Pruned21.29±2.1617.45±0.3715.12±0.0915.09±0.0112.77±0.62  Pruned/ Wax 20.83±1.43 17.32±0.18 16.79±0.22 16.11±0.40 15.10±1.29 Pruned/ Wax20.83±1.4317.32±0.1816.79±0.2216.11±0.4015.10±1.29 TME 14 Control 25.31±1.59 19.49±0.41 15.62±0.60 16.63±1.08 14.14±0.95 TME 14Control25.31±1.5919.49±0.4115.62±0.6016.63±1.0814.14±0.95  Pruned 23.76±1.25 20.26±0.21 17.65±0.09 14.82±0.19 13.77±0.01 Pruned23.76±1.2520.26±0.2117.65±0.0914.82±0.1913.77±0.01  Pruned/ Wax 22.80±1.54 20.04±0.04 18.48±0.61 18.02±0.06 17.32±0.53 Pruned/ Wax22.80±1.5420.04±0.0418.48±0.6118.02±0.0617.32±0.53 NASE 14 Control 22.00±1.03 19.09±0.04 17.28±0.05 16.18±0.13 16.49±0.71 NASE 14Control22.00±1.0319.09±0.0417.28±0.0516.18±0.1316.49±0.71  Pruned 23.73±0.40 20.11±0.05 16.71±0.04 15.68±0.04 14.32±0.00 Pruned23.73±0.4020.11±0.0516.71±0.0415.68±0.0414.32±0.00  Pruned/ Wax 20.76±1.27 19.85±0.93 18.17±0.86 17.72±0.09 17.54±0.01 Pruned/ Wax20.76±1.2719.85±0.9318.17±0.8617.72±0.0917.54±0.01 Kirimumpale Control 20.30±1.09 16.03±1.26 14.45±0.40 13.60±0.40 13.24±0.04 KirimumpaleControl20.30±1.0916.03±1.2614.45±0.4013.60±0.4013.24±0.04  Pruned 21.55±0.46 18.29±1.48 15.77±0.08 14.39±0.31 11.29±0.24 Pruned21.55±0.4618.29±1.4815.77±0.0814.39±0.3111.29±0.24  Pruned/ Wax 21.48±2.52 17.44±1.80 16.66±0.74 16.97±0.59 15.96±0.24 Pruned/ Wax21.48±2.5217.44±1.8016.66±0.7416.97±0.5915.96±0.24 Bukalasa Control 23.81±1.48 15.02±0.00 12.15±0.06 13.24±0.04 11.06±1.15 BukalasaControl23.81±1.4815.02±0.0012.15±0.0613.24±0.0411.06±1.15  Pruned 24.84±0.11 18.02±0.00 13.72±0.06 13.67±0.27 10.41±1.09 Pruned24.84±0.1118.02±0.0013.72±0.0613.67±0.2710.41±1.09  Pruned/ Wax 21.49±0.06 16.41±0.00 13.43±0.05 13.39±0.06 12.87±0.01 Pruned/ Wax21.49±0.0616.41±0.0013.43±0.0513.39±0.0612.87±0.01 Note: Starch yield 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch yield content at 7,14,21 & 28 days storage.  Note: Starch yield 7, 14, 21, 28 denote starch yield content at 7,14,21 & 28 days storage.  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Variation in mean reducing sugar content on dry matter basis of waxed and non-waxed cassava root samples over a 28-days storage period.  Variety Treatment Day 0 Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 VarietyTreatmentDay 0Day 7Day 14Day 21Day 28 Nyaraboke Control 1.79±0.13 6.34±0.76 9.29±0.97 15.66±0.15 18.62±0.31 NyarabokeControl1.79±0.13 6.34±0.769.29±0.97 15.66±0.15 18.62±0.31  Pruned 1.84±0.16 7.13±1.04 10.17±1.73 11.82±0.10 12.09±0.21 Pruned1.84±0.16 7.13±1.04 10.17±1.73 11.82±0.10 12.09±0.21  Pruned/ Wax 1.34±0.21 6.37±1.08 10.22±0.17 10.76±0.09 11.76±0.22 Pruned/ Wax1.34±0.21 6.37±1.08 10.22±0.17 10.76±0.09 11.76±0.22 TME 14 Control 2.46±0.04 9.54±0.93 14.25±2.34 20.49±0.18 23.96±0.63 TME 14Control2.46±0.04 9.54±0.93 14.25±2.34 20.49±0.18 23.96±0.63  Pruned 2.17±0.06 13.75±0.74 15.46±1.74 19.45±0.45 22.95±0.43 Pruned2.17±0.06 13.75±0.74 15.46±1.74 19.45±0.45 22.95±0.43  Pruned/ Wax 2.34±0.21 10.93±2.16 12.24±1.18 13.15±0.04 14.64±0.33 Pruned/ Wax2.34±0.21 10.93±2.16 12.24±1.18 13.15±0.04 14.64±0.33 NASE 14 Control 2.13±0.07 7.20±0.29 9.72±0.59 8.43±0.03 10.03±0.18 NASE 14Control2.13±0.07 7.20±0.299.72±0.598.43±0.03 10.03±0.18  Pruned 2.18±0.05 7.96±0.38 10.63±0.74 11.88±0.02 13.04±0.24 Pruned2.18±0.05 7.96±0.38 10.63±0.74 11.88±0.02 13.04±0.24  Pruned/ Wax 2.06±0.15 7.26±0.21 9.61±1.00 10.57±0.06 9.02±0.16 Pruned/ Wax2.06±0.15 7.26±0.219.61±1.00 10.57±0.06 9.02±0.16 Kirimumpale Control 1.53±0.21 3.62±0.03 5.49±0.41 7.92±0.09 9.42±0.16 KirimumpaleControl1.53±0.21 3.62±0.035.49±0.417.92±0.099.42±0.16  Pruned 1.75±0.11 4.99±0.47 7.21±0.72 8.92±0.05 10.47±0.20 Pruned1.75±0.11 4.99±0.477.21±0.728.92±0.05 10.47±0.20  Pruned/ Wax 1.34±0.50 3.46±0.93 4.78±1.67 5.64±0.06 5.28±1.52 Pruned/ Wax1.34±0.50 3.46±0.934.78±1.675.64±0.065.28±1.52 Bukalasa Control 1.46±0.33 7.71±1.56 12.53±0.32 16.52±0.06 19.86±0.37 BukalasaControl1.46±0.33 7.71±1.56 12.53±0.32 16.52±0.06 19.86±0.37  Pruned 1.92±0.27 7.66±0.37 12.47±2.47 13.61±0.21 15.71±0.31 Pruned1.92±0.27 7.66±0.37 12.47±2.47 13.61±0.21 15.71±0.31  Pruned/ Wax 1.22±0.04 7.26±0.93 10.89±0.83 11.99±0.07 12.97±0.94 Pruned/ Wax1.22±0.04 7.26±0.93 10.89±0.83 11.99±0.07 12.97±0.94  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Variation in cyanogenic potentials (CNP; ppm) of waxed and non-waxed cassava root samples during storage  Variety Treatment Cyanide 1 Cyanide 7 Cyanide 14 Cyanide 21 Cyanide 28 VarietyTreatmentCyanide 1Cyanide 7Cyanide 14Cyanide 21Cyanide 28 Nyaraboke Control 36.50±5.24 33.56±0.13 23.10±1.09 17.12±2.40 4.08±2.63 NyarabokeControl36.50±5.2433.56±0.1323.10±1.0917.12±2.404.08±2.63  Pruned 39.09±3.18 32.92±0.06 26.29±2.23 15.85±2.15 5.40±0.62 Pruned39.09±3.1832.92±0.0626.29±2.2315.85±2.155.40±0.62  Pruned/ 36.58±3.24 37.27±2.18 33.39±0.57 16.41±2.50 7.32±1.28 Pruned/36.58±3.2437.27±2.1833.39±0.5716.41±2.507.32±1.28  Wax      Wax TME 14 Control 32.63±1.44 84.58±0.93 30.84±5.17 15.36±0.54 8.56±7.45 TME 14Control32.63±1.4484.58±0.9330.84±5.1715.36±0.548.56±7.45  Pruned 36.65±1.42 48.81±0.23 33.89±1.32 17.65±0.04 6.72±1.07 Pruned36.65±1.4248.81±0.2333.89±1.3217.65±0.046.72±1.07  Pruned/ 33.37±1.77 153.77±0.38 76.60±2.91 16.01±1.39 12.11±4.33 Pruned/33.37±1.77153.77±0.3876.60±2.9116.01±1.3912.11±4.33  Wax      Wax NASE 14 Control 30.09±13.36 64.80±1.90 55.20±1.46 19.08±0.81 11.30±3.37 NASE 14Control30.09±13.3664.80±1.9055.20±1.4619.08±0.8111.30±3.37  Pruned 35.53±3.27 46.18±1.29 33.29±0.43 16.72±1.26 8.01±0.91 Pruned35.53±3.2746.18±1.2933.29±0.4316.72±1.268.01±0.91  Pruned/ 31.25±6.51 76.07±3.49 67.68±2.54 35.70±12.66 21.36±4.42 Pruned/31.25±6.5176.07±3.4967.68±2.5435.70±12.6621.36±4.42  Wax      Wax Kirimumpale Control 44.89±8.53 91.50±1.66 15.71±7.37 20.52±3.29 7.32±5.81 Kirimumpale Control44.89±8.5391.50±1.6615.71±7.3720.52±3.297.32±5.81  Pruned 46.07±5.9 76.47±0.18 19.54±0.12 21.61±2.78 8.52±3.74 Pruned46.07±5.976.47±0.1819.54±0.1221.61±2.788.52±3.74  Pruned/ 46.09±3.45 122.62±1.69 82.81±2.35 22.14±0.10 11.25±2.79 Pruned/46.09±3.45122.62±1.6982.81±2.3522.14±0.1011.25±2.79  Wax      Wax Bukalasa Control 28.76±1.30 53.65±1.27 44.27±5.09 14.23±0.86 7.03±2.35 BukalasaControl28.76±1.3053.65±1.2744.27±5.0914.23±0.867.03±2.35  Pruned 31.68±4.16 68.60±1.65 31.73±0.79 15.67±1.75 8.11±4.64 Pruned31.68±4.1668.60±1.6531.73±0.7915.67±1.758.11±4.64  Pruned/ 30.08±4.70 114.66±2.37 63.88±3.21 14.47±2.57 9.19±1.28 Pruned/30.08±4.70114.66±2.3763.88±3.2114.47±2.579.19±1.28  Wax      Wax  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Changes in starch content across treatments and for different cassava varieties    Starch Starch Starch Starch Starch StarchStarchStarchStarchStarch   content day content day content day content day content day content daycontent daycontent daycontent daycontent day Variety Treatment 0 7 14 21 28 VarietyTreatment07142128 Nyaraboke Control 73.65±0.57 70.55±0.29 70.27±0.57 69.00±0.21 66.16±0.57 NyarabokeControl73.65±0.5770.55±0.2970.27±0.5769.00±0.2166.16±0.57  Pruned 73.14±1.06 71.19±0.11 70.18±0.24 69.03±0.13 66.11±0.33 Pruned73.14±1.0671.19±0.1170.18±0.2469.03±0.1366.11±0.33  Pruned/ Wax 74.21±0.26 72.68±0.40 73.77±0.17 75.09±0.28 78.90±0.03 Pruned/ Wax74.21±0.2672.68±0.4073.77±0.1775.09±0.2878.90±0.03 TME 14 Control 82.81±0.38 79.31±0.06 74.04±1.99 68.91±0.11 66.56±1.29 TME 14Control82.81±0.3879.31±0.0674.04±1.9968.91±0.1166.56±1.29  Pruned 83.85±0.25 79.31±0.11 72.2±0.62 68.01±0.16 67.31±1.93 Pruned83.85±0.2579.31±0.1172.2±0.6268.01±0.1667.31±1.93  Pruned/ Wax 84.40±0.24 82.51±0.19 83.18±1.44 82.91±1.37 82.36±0.52 Pruned/ Wax84.40±0.2482.51±0.1983.18±1.4482.91±1.3782.36±0.52 NASE 14 Control 77.62±0.39 75.62±0.57 71.23±0.31 68.58±0.62 65.69±1.13 NASE 14Control77.62±0.3975.62±0.5771.23±0.3168.58±0.6265.69±1.13  Pruned 78.14±0.31 74.46±0.33 70.18±0.24 68.67±0.61 65.88±1.43 Pruned78.14±0.3174.46±0.3370.18±0.2468.67±0.6165.88±1.43  Pruned/ Wax 78.48±0.34 79.19±1.51 75.32±0.11 78.18±1.70 81.28±0.58 Pruned/ Wax78.48±0.3479.19±1.5175.32±0.1178.18±1.7081.28±0.58 Kirimumpale Control 79.28±0.09 77.88±0.45 72.99±0.42 71.45±0.28 67.52±1.24 Kirimumpale Control79.28±0.0977.88±0.4572.99±0.4271.45±0.2867.52±1.24  Pruned 80.81±0.76 77.94±0.41 74.42±0.79 70.72±0.72 66.12±0.49 Pruned80.81±0.7677.94±0.4174.42±0.7970.72±0.7266.12±0.49  Pruned/ Wax 80.84±0.11 80.92±1.21 82.23±0.76 82.13±0.96 81.75±0.17 Pruned/ Wax80.84±0.1180.92±1.2182.23±0.7682.13±0.9681.75±0.17 Bukalasa Control 80.49±0.36 78.04±0.25 74.97±0.97 71.89±0.31 66.26±0.39 BukalasaControl80.49±0.3678.04±0.2574.97±0.9771.89±0.3166.26±0.39  Pruned 81.05±0.16 79.19±0.49 75.33±1.33 72.02±0.21 67.86±0.11 Pruned81.05±0.1679.19±0.4975.33±1.3372.02±0.2167.86±0.11  Pruned/ Wax 79.68±0.55 80.03±0.23 82.26±0.07 83.31±1.35 82.80±3.62 Pruned/ Wax79.68±0.5580.03±0.2382.26±0.0783.31±1.3582.80±3.62  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Variations in amylose content across treatments and varieties  Variety Treatment Day 1 Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 VarietyTreatmentDay 1Day 7Day 14Day 21Day 28 Nyaraboke Control 15.90±0.06 16.70±0.17 15.12±0.01 13.94±0.11 14.24±0.12 NyarabokeControl15.90±0.06 16.70±0.17 15.12±0.01 13.94±0.1114.24±0.12  Pruned 15.98±0.00 16.62±0.24 15.25±0.13 14.53±0.19 14.56±0.07 Pruned15.98±0.00 16.62±0.24 15.25±0.13 14.53±0.1914.56±0.07  Pruned/ Wax 15.27±0.08 16.56±0.03 15.86±0.18 15.03±0.27 16.10±0.03 Pruned/ Wax 15.27±0.08 16.56±0.03 15.86±0.18 15.03±0.2716.10±0.03 TME 14 Control 15.61±0.05 16.37±0.15 15.26±0.05 14.63±0.36 14.77±0.16 TME 14Control15.61±0.05 16.37±0.15 15.26±0.05 14.63±0.3614.77±0.16  Pruned 15.71±0.05 16.40±0.03 15.13±0.17 14.37±0.08 14.49±0.52 Pruned15.71±0.05 16.40±0.03 15.13±0.17 14.37±0.0814.49±0.52  Pruned/ Wax 15.39±0.03 16.12±0.08 15.88±0.16 15.80±0.03 15.67±0.13 Pruned/ Wax 15.39±0.03 16.12±0.08 15.88±0.16 15.80±0.0315.67±0.13 NASE 14 Control 15.87±0.16 15.96±0.04 15.20±0.13 14.07±1.30 14.22±0.01 NASE 14Control15.87±0.16 15.96±0.04 15.20±0.13 14.07±1.3014.22±0.01  Pruned 15.79±0.07 15.74±0.17 15.18±0.13 15.09±0.11 13.95±0.11 Pruned15.79±0.07 15.74±0.17 15.18±0.13 15.09±0.1113.95±0.11  Pruned/ Wax 15.46±0.16 15.93±0.09 16.28±0.22 16.80±0.08 16.47±0.05 Pruned/ Wax 15.46±0.16 15.93±0.09 16.28±0.22 16.80±0.0816.47±0.05 Kirimumpale Control 14.88±0.06 15.40±0.47 14.60±0.11 14.61±0.38 13.87±0.01 Kirimumpale Control14.88±0.06 15.40±0.47 14.60±0.11 14.61±0.3813.87±0.01  Pruned 14.91±0.11 15.18±0.02 14.32±0.25 14.93±0.08 13.69±0.13 Pruned14.91±0.11 15.18±0.02 14.32±0.25 14.93±0.0813.69±0.13  Pruned/ Wax 14.65±0.06 15.36±0.08 15.89±0.07 15.57±0.11 15.63±0.51 Pruned/ Wax 14.65±0.06 15.36±0.08 15.89±0.07 15.57±0.1115.63±0.51 Bukalasa Control 15.53±0.13 16.59±0.18 15.11±0.14 14.06±0.42 14.23±0.15 BukalasaControl15.53±0.13 16.59±0.18 15.11±0.14 14.06±0.4214.23±0.15  Pruned 15.55±0.24 16.53±0.06 15.11±0.06 13.82±0.09 13.78±0.16 Pruned15.55±0.24 16.53±0.06 15.11±0.06 13.82±0.0913.78±0.16  Pruned/ Wax 15.59±0.11 16.92±0.04 15.81±0.04 16.26±0.40 15.49±0.05 Pruned/ Wax 15.59±0.11 16.92±0.04 15.81±0.04 16.26±0.4015.49±0.05  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Variation in protein contents of cassava varieties across treatments  Variety Treatment Day 1 Day 7 Day 14 Day 21 Day 28 VarietyTreatmentDay 1Day 7Day 14Day 21Day 28 Nyaraboke Control 0.716±0.09 0.792±0.01 0.717±0.01 0.667±0.05 0.563±0.01 NyarabokeControl0.716±0.09 0.792±0.01 0.717±0.010.667±0.050.563±0.01  Pruned 0.774±0.02 0.776±0.01 0.759±0.01 0.658±0.05 0.570±0.01 Pruned0.774±0.02 0.776±0.01 0.759±0.010.658±0.050.570±0.01  Pruned/ Wax 0.832±0.02 0.856±0.01 0.828±0.01 0.835±0.06 0.811±0.01 Pruned/ Wax0.832±0.02 0.856±0.01 0.828±0.010.835±0.060.811±0.01 TME 14 Control 0.914±0.00 0.846±00 0.848±0.01 0.841±0.06 0.755±0.01 TME 14Control0.914±0.00 0.846±000.848±0.010.841±0.060.755±0.01  Pruned 0.932±0.00 0.855±0.01 0.819±0.01 0.821±0.06 0.745±0.01 Pruned0.932±0.00 0.855±0.01 0.819±0.010.821±0.060.745±0.01  Pruned/ Wax 0.906±0.02 0.976±0.00 0.956±0.00 0.953±0.00 0.951±0.01 Pruned/ Wax0.906±0.02 0.976±0.00 0.956±0.000.953±0.000.951±0.01 NASE 14 Control 0.935±0.00 0.891±0.00 0.871±0.01 0.902±0.06 0.854±0.02 NASE 14Control0.935±0.00 0.891±0.00 0.871±0.010.902±0.060.854±0.02  Pruned 0.922±0.05 0.881±0.02 0.873±0.01 0.892±0.04 0.866±0.02 Pruned0.922±0.05 0.881±0.02 0.873±0.010.892±0.040.866±0.02  Pruned/ Wax 0.927±0.05 0.973±0.00 0.957±0.01 0.952±0.00 1.009±0.02 Pruned/ Wax0.927±0.05 0.973±0.00 0.957±0.010.952±0.001.009±0.02 Kirimumpale Control 0.674±0.00 0.641±0.02 0.556±0.00 0.596±0.05 0.553±0.01 Kirimumpale Control0.674±0.00 0.641±0.02 0.556±0.000.596±0.050.553±0.01  Pruned 0.667±0.00 0.649±0.01 0.557±0.00 0.607±0.05 0.552±0.01 Pruned0.667±0.00 0.649±0.01 0.557±0.000.607±0.050.552±0.01  Pruned/ Wax 0.656±0.00 0.670±00 0.611±0.00 0.623±0.05 0.645±0.02 Pruned/ Wax0.656±0.00 0.670±000.611±0.000.623±0.050.645±0.02 Bukalasa Control 0.615±0.01 0.437±0.00 0.465±0.00 0.480±0.03 0.459±0.01 BukalasaControl0.615±0.01 0.437±0.00 0.465±0.000.480±0.030.459±0.01  Pruned 0.629±0.01 0.541±0.00 0.449±0.01 0.515±0.04 0.450±0.01 Pruned0.629±0.01 0.541±0.00 0.449±0.010.515±0.040.450±0.01  Pruned/ Wax 0.611±0.01 0.565±0.01 0.576±0.00 0.624±0.04 0.574±0.00 Pruned/ Wax0.611±0.01 0.565±0.01 0.576±0.000.624±0.040.574±0.00  "},{"text":"Table 8 : PPD (%) of fresh cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and stored under high relative humidityTable 9 : Dry matter content of cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and stored under high relative humidity conditions The results for starch content are presented in Table10. Significant differences (p<0.05) were observed among the test varieties and the starch content ranged from 71 to 86%. Elite varieties had higher starch contents compared to local varieties. No significant differences were observed for starch content across the storage time and among different varieties over the storage time. The starch content observed in this study was within the range recorded byNuwamanya et al. (2009) which varied from 50 to 90%. Starch digestibility is a major focus for improvement of cassava because it ensures maximum output of total solid utilizable from the solid matter. The inferences above show that potential digestibility of the cassava starch remains unchanged in pruned, unpruned cassava and roots stored under high RH which highlights that RH treated roots retain their potential digestibility.   % dry matter content with time (days)  % dry matter content with time (days) Variety 0 7 14 21 28 Variety07142128 Bufumbo 34.75 1.66 32.64 ± 2.77 33.09 ± 2.32 33.61 ± 2.70 32.33 ± 1.75 Bufumbo34.75 1.6632.64 ± 2.7733.09 ± 2.32 33.61 ± 2.70 32.33 ± 1.75 Hoima 32.87 ± 0.47 34.42 ± 1.15 31.41± 2.05 32.61 ± 1.12 32.61 ± 0.54 Hoima32.87 ± 0.4734.42 ± 1.1531.41± 2.0532.61 ± 1.12 32.61 ± 0.54 Kigita 30.38 ± 2.53 35.91 ± 1.96 32.85 ± 1.60 35.31 ± 2.43 34.12± 2.17 Kigita30.38 ± 2.5335.91 ± 1.9632.85 ± 1.60 35.31 ± 2.4334.12± 2.17 Kirimumpale 30.24 ± 2.33 35.93 ± 1.34 33.94 ± 3.15 31.49 ± 2.13 30.16 ± .44 Kirimumpale30.24 ± 2.3335.93 ± 1.3433.94 ± 3.15 31.49 ± 2.1330.16 ± .44 NASE 14 32.66 ± 1.24 30.03 ± 4.02 32.01 ± 0.74 31.76 ± 2.88 30.71 ± 3.03 NASE 1432.66 ± 1.2430.03 ± 4.0232.01 ± 0.74 31.76 ± 2.88 30.71 ± 3.03 Njule 33.56 ± 2.60 32.71 ± 2.68 34.08 ± 3.47 32.96 ± 3.51 34.72 ± 2.89 Njule33.56 ± 2.6032.71 ± 2.6834.08 ± 3.47 32.96 ± 3.51 34.72 ± 2.89 Nyaraboke 33.85 ± 0.41 30.74 ± 1.90 30.45 ± 1.02 30.71 ± 1.55 30.72 ± 1.81 Nyaraboke33.85 ± 0.4130.74 ± 1.9030.45 ± 1.02 30.71 ± 1.55 30.72 ± 1.81 TME 14 34.06 ± 0.11 35.50 ± 0.24 35.58 ± 0.83 35.16 ± 0.10 35.50 ± 0.35 TME 1434.06 ± 0.1135.50 ± 0.2435.58 ± 0.83 35.16 ± 0.10 35.50 ± 0.35 Mean 32.8 33.5 32.9 32.9 32.6 Mean32.833.532.932.932.6  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Percentage of starch content of crude starch obtained from fresh cassava roots pruned seven days before harvest and subsequently stored under high relative humidity conditions   "},{"text":"Table 11 : Reducing sugar content of cassava roots for selected cultivars pruned seven days prior to harvest and stored under high relative humidity  Variety  % reducing sugar with storage time (days)  Variety% reducing sugar with storage time (days)  0 7 14 21 28 07142128 Pruned      Pruned Bufumbo 7.63±0.08 9.45 ±0.1 11.85±0.13 14.15±0.1 17.84±0.19 Bufumbo7.63±0.089.45 ±0.111.85±0.1314.15±0.117.84±0.19 Hoima 7.49 ±0.08 9.44 ±0.1 11.89±0.13 13.91±0.15 17.94±0.19 Hoima7.49 ±0.089.44 ±0.111.89±0.1313.91±0.1517.94±0.19 Kigita 10.77±0.12 11.84±0.13 13.75 ±0.15 14.70±0.16 16.40±0.18 Kigita10.77±0.1211.84±0.1313.75 ±0.1514.70±0.1616.40±0.18 Kirimumpale 7.90±0.08 9.54±0.1 11.70±0.13 14.15±0.15 17.80±0.19 Kirimumpale7.90±0.089.54±0.111.70±0.1314.15±0.1517.80±0.19 NASE 14 8.18 ±0.09 11.62 ±0.12 15.31±0.16 11.61±0.12 13.82±0.15 NASE 148.18 ±0.0911.62 ±0.1215.31±0.1611.61±0.1213.82±0.15 Njule 7.64 ±0.08 9.53 ±0.1 11.92±0.13 14.22±0.15 17.97±0.19 Njule7.64 ±0.089.53 ±0.111.92±0.1314.22±0.1517.97±0.19 Nyaraboke 10.43±0.11 11.74 ±0.13 13.52±0.14 13.91±0.15 16.69±0.18 Nyaraboke10.43±0.1111.74 ±0.1313.52±0.1413.91±0.1516.69±0.18 TME 14 13.14±0.14 17.09 ±0.18 21.76±0.23 25.74±0.28 29.61±0.32 TME 1413.14±0.1417.09 ±0.1821.76±0.2325.74±0.2829.61±0.32 Mean 9.1 11.28 13.96 15.3 18.5 Mean9.111.2813.9615.318.5  "},{"text":"Total cyanogen content of cassava roots pruned seven days prior to harvest and then stored under high relative humidity All the cultivars in the study are characterized as low cyanide/sweet cassava according toCereda & Mattos (1996) who reported that low cyanide cassava has a cyanide level below 50 ppm. Njule exceeded the aforementioned level by 2.3 ppm and this slight variation, according toBurns et al. (2012), could be attributed to variations in location and environmental conditions.  (%) 1   (%)1  Content 0.8   Content0.8 Fig. 6: Proten 0.6   Fig. 6:Proten0.6   0.4   0.4   0 7 14 21 28 07142128    Storage time (Days) Storage time (Days)   Kirimumpale Bufumbo Hoima Kigita KirimumpaleBufumboHoimaKigita   NASE 14 Njule Nyaraboke TME 14 NASE 14NjuleNyarabokeTME 14  "}],"sieverID":"8a5f08b1-9c92-45a2-a0b0-fbf5bb5d66eb","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"02fe3b149707200c15a95c940cbb58cc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H006910.pdf"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Prospects of Using Social Mobilizers in the Management of Minor Irrigation Systems in Sri Lanka","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"\"HE HYDRAULICS CNILUATION of Sri Lanka which dates back to the fifth century B.C., represents a unique combination of topographical and climatic features of the country and the cultural heritage of the earliest settlers from the Indus and Ganges villages of nonhem India. During the period of early settlement until the twelfth century, the agricultural society of Sri Lanka was characterized by high technology based on invicate irrigation systems geared to rainwater conservation and sound water-management practices."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"A minor irrigation system, also known as village irrigation, has acommand areaup to200 acres (80 hectares [ha]). In Sri Lanka, it is only the minor irrigation schemes that come under the category of fanner-managed imgation systems, since medium and major irrigation schemes are generally agency-managed systems."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The decline of traditional management practices in minor irrigation schemes is the result of 1) the abandonment of the dry-zone Iank culture begun in the twelfth century. 2) the abolition of customary laws (sirirh) of irrigation management during colonial rule, and 3) the increased intervention by government and nongovemment organizations through numerous donor-funded projects since independence. With the different intervention strategies of the latter, water-user dependence on outside assistance has increased to such an extent that established maintenance "}]},{"head":"99","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"The main purpose of this paper is lo consider the prospects of engaging social mobilizers, as those now serving in rural development projects, as catalysts to improve management practices of the minor irrigation schemes in S r i Lanka."}]},{"head":"THE MINOR IRRIGATION SECTOR IN SRI LANKA Distribution and Assistance Strategies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"About a third of the total irrigated area in Sri Lanka is under minor irrigation. The total number of minor irrigation schemcs identified is approximately 23,000 of which 13,000 are village tanks and 10,000 are anicuts or.stream divcrsions according to estimates made by the Ministry of Lands and Land Development. It is also estimated that over 50 percent of these schemes are in working condition. The Department of Agrarian Services which is the authority responsible for minor irrigatioii in Sri Lanka found that there are about 8,500 operational tanks in the dry zone."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"During the past two decades, the Government of Sri Lanka has made great efforts to improve the efficiency of operational schemes and to rehabilitate those abandoned, aiming at increasing the production of rice and other crops. Several bilateral and multilateral funding agencies have assisted the government to achieve this goal through the support of development projects called Village Integrated Rehabilitation Projects and District Integrated Rural Development Programs."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"Apart from these government projects, several govemment-related organizations and nongovemment organizations such as the Freedom from Hunger Campaign, the National Development Foundation, and international organizations including PLAN International and CARE, have funded minor irrigation rehabilitation in most of the dry-zone disnicts."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"As mentioned earlier, farmer management of these minor schemes has deteriorated for historical and project-specific reasons. The different strategies of assistance to improve or rehabilitate minor schemes cannot by themselves bring about the anticipated socioeconomic changes unless farmers are involved in the process of restoration and management. The nongovernment organizations, more than the government, have identified and implemented some programs leading to beneficiary participation to overcome this problem."}]},{"head":"Traditional Water Management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The minor irrigation schemes have been traditionally owned by the water users, and through the long history of operation customary laws were developed with respect to irrigation with necessary modifications to suit local circumstances (Gunasekara,198 1). These customary laws emphasize individual responsibility for the commonly owned resource, and require active and equal participalion in maintainingandrepairingchannelsandthe dam. They specify merhodsto ensure equity in water distribution during periods of normal and of limited water supply and define penalties for those neglecting their duties or infringing on the rights of others."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"These irrigation laws reflect sound water-management practices and were established through experience over centuries. During the colonial period the rulers hied to revive these customary laws for better irrigation management. With increased government intervention toobtain higher farm output under irrigated agriculture, enforcement of some of these laws was transferred to officers or agencies. Water users, as a result, have become more dependent on external assistance for small repairs, maintenance, andmanagement. Although thereis somedegreeof sustainability in small operational tanks, management practices should be gradually reinwuced to \"new farmers\" under the various rehabilitated minor schemes by outside agencies acting as change agents."}]},{"head":"Problems in Minor Irrigation Management","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Because the aforementioned management practices have fallen into disuse the following problems have emerged, particularly in minor irrigation schemes:"},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"1. Most farmers in recently refurbished minor schemes believe that the government owns the irrigation system and is responsible for ensuring its proper operation and maintenance. 1. Thesocialmobilizers areselectedfrom withinthearea(sameGrama-Sevakadivision [villageadministrative division] or adjoining division) to avoid the \"outsider\" feeling and to assure that he would be accepted by the communities concerned. 2. The social mobilizers are selected from voluntary organizations which have experience in rural and community development."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"3. Insofar as it is possible, more women were selected. They made better contacts with beneficiary families, as woman-to-woman communication generally moves far and fast. 4. The social mobilizers were given initial training for one-to-two weeks and periodic on-the-job training in the form of one-day workshops each month at the District Integrated Rural Development Programs' head office."}]},{"head":"5.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Work progress was reviewed every month at the office of the Assistant Government Agent so that social mobilizers were motivated to produce visible results."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"6. Community-development programs identified by social mobilizers and in which the beneficiaries were involved were incorporated into a subproject of the District IntegratedRural Development"},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Program so that funding and project implementation were not delayed."},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"7. Beneficiaries saw the results of the program within a short time resulting in a high degree of participation."},{"index":5,"size":118,"text":"The socialmobilizer program focuses heavily on active paaicipation of beneficiaries throughout the cycle of activities. The main elements of the program are: high confidence in the social mobilizer, self-reliance, active participation of all. a positive group attitude, sharing of experiences. and leadership building. Under the Hambantota District Integrated Rural Development Program, trained social mobilizers were appointed to a few villages (on a Grama-Sevaka-Division basis, to work with 100 to 150 families). They were entrusted with the functions and responsibilities listed below (Hewage and Karunaratne, 1987). The review team was impressed with achievements in the main objective. i.e.. mobiliiationoftargetgroupsfor increasedpanicipation, withspecialattentiontodepnvedpoorer groups. The best performance was found in small farmers' groups, in women's groups, and in groups without income."}]},{"head":"Present Use of Social Mobilizers","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Although social mobilizers are not directly engaged in projects with rice farmers, they have helped in some places to organize small farmers to deal with their problems. For example, in Suriyawewa ( N o h Hambantota) small groups of chena (slash-and-bum)  "}]},{"head":"HOW TO USE SOCIAL MOBILIZERS IN MINOR-IRRIGATION MANAGEMENT","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Thesocial-mobilizerprogram hasfocusedonruraldevelopmentin general andondeprivedsocial groups in particular. In this process some small farmers have also been organized. It would be possible to utilize social mobilizers as catalysts to reorganize farmers into coherent groups on the basis of minor irrigation schemes. The introduction of social mobilizers on a broad scale to deal with refurbished but poorly managed minor imgation schemes would present the best alternative for dealing with the problems in lhis sector, with the following key points:"},{"index":2,"size":47,"text":"1. The social mobilizers should be selected from within fanner groups on a democratic basis in order to achieve a high degree of farmer participation. The selected social mobilizer should be a young farmer, or the son or daughter of a fanner, who is acceptable to all."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"2. The social mobilizers should hold frequent meetings with fanners for awareness-raising, education, and for mobilization, to alter their attitudes of dependence on outside agencies and to increase their self-reliance."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"3. The social mobilizers' mobilization of farmers and increased participation would lead to improved access to the services of government agencies. 4. With the systematic organization of fanner groups the efficiency and effectiveness of the farmer-managed irrigation systems would increase confidence in the social mobilizer and in the group and would lead to greater self-reliance. 5. The minor irrigation schemes in need of repairs or rehabilitation should be selected by farmers on a priority basis in order to exclude nonviable systems and to ensure sufficient water in the remaining tanks in a given catchment area."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"6. The increased levels of participation would lead to timely operation and maintenance and to timely cultivation, resulting in proper water management and improved yields."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"7. Parucipatory farmer organization would be reestablished as a result of the application of this approach resulting both in improved management and in the ability to channel outside assistance effectively without becoming dependent on such assistance."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Owing to the disintegration of farmer organizations, the customary arrangements falling into disuse, and the increased dependence on outside agencies for management, the minor irrigation schemes can now rarely be called farmer-managed irrigation systems. To reverse this negative tendency, a social-mobilizer program such as the one described above which has had good results in the fieldof rural developmentcould proveeffective incatalyzing farmers to becomeorganized."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Using local youths trained as social mobilizers would permit implementation on a broad scale."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"With supplemental training in farmer-managed irrigation social mobilizers could assist farmers to develop sustainable management and to revitaliix the concept of fanner-managed irrigation systems in minor irrigation in Sri Lanka."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" and water-management practices are being neglected. Assistance programs should look into complementary and supplementary programs of operation and maintenance and water management to remedy this situation. Various strategies are now being implemented to restore farmer participation in the management of minor irrigation schemes in Sri Lanka. &Research Associate, International higation Management Institute. S n Lanka. "},{"text":" 2. Villagelevel irrigation leadership deteriorated due to the appoinment of cultivation c o m m i e members on a political basis during the post-1970s. 3. Many minor schemes have been selected for refurbishment without consulting the existing or prospective water users, resulting in reduced efficiency of the system (i.e., more tanks in one catchment area results in less water in all tanks). 4. With the abolition of the V e l -v i h e (Irrigation Headman) position and increased state intervention, farmers' participation in beneficiary meetings,operation andmaintenance work, and timely cultivation has been reduced.ROLE OF SOCIAL MOBILIZERSChange-Agent ProgramIn the late 1970s. the Ministry of Rural Development implemented a development program for the rural poor. using volunteer change agents. The procedure of the Change-Agent F'rogram is as follows: A group of rural development volunteers is selected and intensive training is given to the group in mobilizing rural people for problem identifwtion and seeking solutions requiring only locally available resources. A trained officer is assigned to a village and he lives among the villagers. He starts by organizing small groups of people and mobilizing them to identify their problems along with their causes and possible solutions. In this process, the change agent uses his skis to help the deprived groups to think and act positively, and to obtain the fullest benefits from government and nongovernment assistance.This is, however, a long and slow process. Several years are required for the change agent to win the confidence of the target groups and to change a negative-oriented group into a positive oriented one. Learning from this program, in 1985, the Ministry of Plan Implementation adopted a different strategy for its District Integrated Rural Development Programs under the title of Social Mobilizer. Social-Mobilizer Program Some of the activities of the Ministry of Rural Development were transferred to the Ministry of Plan Implementation in the early 1980s. The latter made use of the Rural Development Training and Research Institute in Colombo, to formulate the concept of a village-level catalyst termed social mobilizer, with the sole objective of channeling the development benefits of the District Integrated Rural Development Program to the rural poor. In transforming the change agents to social mobilizers the Ministry of Plan Implementation eliminated the timeconsuming elements of the earlier Change-Agent Program. The changes made were as follows: "},{"text":" The social-mobilizer program was first introduced to the Hambantota District Integrated Rural Development Program in 1985 and following this, to the Monaragala District Integrated Rural Development Program, under the Norwegian Agency for International Development funding. The purpose of the social-mobilizer program is to improve participation for local-level development, particularly among the poorer households. "},{"text":" 1. Establish close links with existing development-oriented, village-level organizations and 2. Carry out socioeconomic surveys in the selected areas to identify locally available resources. 3. Findwaysandmeansofimprovingtheproductivityoftheavailable resourcesinpmjectas.4. Identify services available from government and nongovemment organizations and improve 5. Pay special attention to deprived poorer groups in the development efforts. 6. Assist the Hambantota District Integrated Rural Development Program to implement its projects and encourage the members of target groups to form organizations to enhance institution-building capacity based on self-reliance. After a review of the performance of the fust socialmobilizer program by the Norwegian Agency for International Development, in 1989, the expansion of the project into all areas of Hambantota district under the Hambantota District Integrated Rural Development Program was recommended. "},{"text":" farmers have been organized to rehabilitate tanks and to adopt improved farming practices. The socialmobilizer program has recently been expanded to include other District Integrated Rural Development Program districts for organizing both lowland and upland small farmers. officials. the delivery system. "}],"sieverID":"6b8c8d1d-0a37-4b87-b34e-550c413b2236","abstract":""}

data/part_2/031510dad8e3be856ad498be40ce11f3.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"031510dad8e3be856ad498be40ce11f3","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1634a026-6e7b-40a7-82c2-b08c34204722/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Name of the project","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Transformational Agroecology across Food, Land, and Water systems"}]},{"head":"Partners","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"OEP","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Purpose of the project","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Co-design innovative agroecological technologies","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Specific objectives of the training course on contemporary approaches to extension","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Objective ot the training was to familiarize dairy farmers with the silage feeding technology"}]},{"head":"Specific outputs i)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"Farmers learn use and advantages of silage ii)"},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"Farmers learn different types of silage iii)"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Farmers learn how to assess good silage"}]},{"head":"TARGETED AUDIENCE(S)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Female dairy farmers"}]},{"head":"ORGANIZING COMMITTEE","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"OEP and ICARDA"}]},{"head":"GENERAL OVERVIEW","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Farmers in Central Tunisia are not well aware of the importance of silage as animal feed. To co-design with dairy farmers a trial on silage use and impact on milk production a short introduction course of advantages and use of silage was given"}]},{"head":"COURSE IMPLEMENTATION","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"The course has a theoretical and practical part. Farmers were introduced to the different types of silage and how they are produced as well as the advantage and characteristics of good silage."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The practical part was through touching and smelling of maize silage which is provided in bags by a nearby company. As a second co-designed part of the training, silage is given to dairy cows for 5 weeks to see their impact on milk production"}]},{"head":"GROUP ASSESSMENT","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Farmers appreciate a lot the silage technology and its potential, mainly as feed gets rare and expensive."}]},{"head":"GENERAL COURSE EVALUATION by TRAINEES","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"There was no written evaluation"}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"This was a simple introduction to silage to initiate the co-designing of a 5-week silage feeding trial. Once the farmers are convinced of the positive economic impact of silage a more detailed training should be organized."}]},{"head":"Consent","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"\"Personal information including Name, Business Title, Email, Phones, Images and GPS points included in this report have been authorized in writing or verbally by the data subject\" "}]},{"head":"Annex I: Trainers","index":16,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"6479d9f4-27d6-4a93-be5a-4c6683d4f776","abstract":""}

data/part_2/033e04bd20ab0477a93a7dac5c652869.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"033e04bd20ab0477a93a7dac5c652869","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4321/c7e21a0493edf3a149a91e8a3d8c41f1.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Compendium of Adapted technologies and practices for Agriculture and Fisheries in Timor-Leste Nearshore Fish Aggregating Devices (FADs)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Description","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"What is a FAD? Fish aggregating devices (FADs) or rumpon, are anchored or drifting objects deployed in the ocean to attract fish. Pelagic fish gather around FADs (either for refuge, or to hunt smaller fish), which makes it easier to find and catch them. In artisanal fisheries, FADs are used to attract oceanic fish nearer to shore to be within reach of fishers in small motor boats or paddle canoes. This can have important benefits to sustainability, as it can relieve fishing pressure on less resilient reef and seagrass communities. We tested the effects of FADs at increasing capture fish production, by deploying eight experimental FADs at four sites around the country (Vemasse, Baucau; Adarai, Viqueque; Beacou, Bobonaro; Adara, Atauro Island) and recording catch and effort data from FAD and non-FAD fishing trips. We assessed the effects of FADs on catch rates and catch assemblage and the rate of 100% return on investment. We estimated the upfront FAD cost to be USD 1250."},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"Results showed that FADs lasted for ~11 months on average across all sites, but as long as 20+ months when well monitored and maintained. FADs increased fish catch and paid for themselves in ∼5 months or less at three out of four sites (Beacou showed no detectable difference in catch rate). Across all sites and fishing types, 63 species were identified, but FAD catches significantly reduced overall assemblage diversity, with three species representing 96% of the catch (Sardinella spp. (Sardina), Decapterus macarellus (kombong), Rastrelliger brachysoma (bainar mutin). Despite the relatively short longevity of FADs deployed in Timor-Leste to date, the fast rate of return seen at most sites indicates that FADs are effective in providing livelihood benefits in certain locations. Catch rates were highest where fishers were specialized, invested in FAD fishing, and formed catch sharing groups with access rights to specific FADs. National level investment into a FAD programme by the government could realistically increase overall fish production in the country, thereby improving availability of micronutrient rich fish to combat malnutrition. A deployment program should be coupled with capacity building around group formation and defining access rights to ensure equitable community benefits. Impacts/benefits Benefits of artisanal nearshore FADs in Timor-Leste "}]},{"head":"Barriers to adoption & solutions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":153,"text":"Governance and social conflict: FADs can cause increased social tensions in communities if they are perceived as owned by individuals or groups that exclude other fishers. Clearly defined boundaries are important in managing common resources [1], and this private governance scenario is one that tends to bring better returns even if these are not necessarily legally recognized boundaries [2] (see [3] for more on governance challenges to FADs). Sustainability: Further to the above, privately owned and managed FADs are also likely to last far longer because they will be checked on regularly and maintained [4]. If no one owns it, everyone will fish on it but no one will maintain it. In the same way, FADs that are provided to 'the fishing community' by the government may have limited sustainability unless combined with a campaign and capacity building on fisheries association or group formation, and defining access rights to ensure equitable community benefits."}]},{"head":"Costs of construction and deployment:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":336,"text":"In experimental trials FAD construction materials were more expensive than would be used in a larger scale deployment program. Assuming equal efficacy at aggregating fish of low and high-cost FADs, this indicates RoI wouldbe achieved even faster by reducing the initial investment cost. However, quality should not be compromised because of cost because a well-made FAD that lasts much longer will support livelihoods over a longer period of time and also reduce marine debris [5]. However, if FADs are used by individual fishing groups in coastal communities (as opposed to a government program), they may lack the resources to purchase higher quality ropes and buoys. Furthermore, in Vemasse and Adarai, fishing on the FADs was only conducted seasonally when conditions were favorable, indicating a year-round FAD may be subject to wear and tear and be accumulating biofouling for a significant amount of time whileit is not being fished. In this instance, low-cost FADs would be more appropriate. Safety at sea: FADs enable access to fishing areas further from the coast than traditional fishing areas, safety at sea becomes an important risk factor for fishers as they face different environmental conditions. Fishers often do not have safety equipment on board, because it is expensive and considered unnecessary [6]. Given that there is currently no specific regulation on safety at sea for small-scale fishers in Timor-Leste, developing a legal framework alongside a FAD program will be important. Environment/ agro-ecological zone FADs can only be deployed in areas of sufficient depth and limited slope and current, so that the anchor can bind to the sea floor and currents do not wash the FAD into deep water or snap the mooring line. To adequately evaluate the location for deployment, a depth sounder is needed to survey the area before the FAD is built and deployed. Furthermore, the amount of fish that gather around the FAD will depend on the ecology of the area. This is something that must be local fisher ecological knowledge in the absence of formal fisheries surveying."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"1 . Nearshore fish aggregating devices  Improved access to more abundant nutritious fish  Tested in Bobonaro, Baucau, Viqueque, Dili (Atauro) since 2016  Improves fisher income and fish production "}],"sieverID":"41c2f2ad-2b83-41f8-8b8e-3274ec424d4e","abstract":"Fisheries and aquaculture Overall approach/Local Context Fisheries in Timor-Leste are very small-scale. Fishing is undertaken on foot (gleaning), and in unpowered canoes and small motorboats, targeting reef and nearshore pelagic fish primarily with gill nets, hand lines, spear guns and long lines. Reef fisheries are nearshore and diverse, but limited in productivity and sustainability due to their restricted distribution and the broader climate impacts affecting corals worldwide such as warming and ocean acidification. Pelagic and semi-pelagic fish represent more abundant stocks of highly mobile, rapidly reproducing fish that are generally higher in natural oils than reef fish. For a country focused on combating chronic malnutrition and micronutrient deficiency, fish provide a valuable potential source of bioavailable micronutrients and animal protein that is lacking in the diet of many Timorese. Since independence, there has been very little focus on fisheries and resource for development of the sector at limited. Nearshore fish aggregating devices were proposed and tested as a way to enable fishers to access an abundant and sustainable source of nutritious fish using their existing boats and fishing methods. Technology and Practice"}

data/part_2/0395c9cea9effa01717d460480a5f341.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0395c9cea9effa01717d460480a5f341","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/66fc179e-e2a5-4f1d-aff5-eb266ef9bd36/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Testing a new seed-dressing fungicide formulation as an alternative to the banned chemicals","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"BACKGROUND","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"Since 2018, the European Union and several other countries banned the sale and use of many pesticides containing thiram and thiamethoxam molecules, which led to preventing seed shipments treated with these chemicals from entering these countries (Gautier, 2004). Accordingly, an alternative fungicide formulation to Celest top (thiamethoxam 262.5 g/l + fludioxonil 25 g/l + difenoconazole 25 g/l) and Vitavax (carboxin 200 g/l + thiram 200 g/l), should be sought."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The common bunt is one of the most widespread seed-borne diseases and causes high losses in grain yield and quality. It is caused by two very closely related fungi, Tilletia tritici (syn. Tilletia caries) and T. laevis (syn. T. foetida) (Wilcoxson et al., 1996). The main objective of this research focuses on comparing the fungicide activity of a new formulation against the common bunt in wheat as well as their impact on crop growth and productivity."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"The research was conducted using both in vivo and in vitro methods, using two bread wheat (Faiza and Najia) and two durum wheat (Faraj and Jabal) Moroccan varieties during 2023 season at the Seed Health Laboratory, ICARDA's platform, Rabat-Morocco. The new formulation (fludioxonil 25g/l + sedaxane 25g/l) proposed by Syngenta was tested in comparison with Celest top (thiamethoxam 262.5 g/l + fludioxonil 25 g/l + difenoconazole 25 g/l)."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Each 50 gr of wheat seeds for each wheat variety was inoculated with 1 g spores of Tilletia spp. (Ezzahiri, 2001). 48 hours after inoculation, the inoculated seeds were treated with fungicides according to the instructions suggested by the producer. Healthy seeds were also treated to evaluate the seed germination and the impact of fungicides used on wheat varieties (Maksimov et al., 2002). The experiment was conducted under greenhouse conditions in three replicates (Figure 1). A centrifuge washing test was performed on all harvested seeds to evaluate fungicides' effectiveness. "}]},{"head":"OUTCOME","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"• The results revealed that the new tested formulation (fludioxonil 25g/l + sedaxane 25g/l) exhibited significant effectiveness against common bunt, achieving a 100% success rate compared to Celest top, which also showed high effectiveness (99.67%) (Figure 2)."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"• The tested new fungicide formulation outperformed Celest top in all evaluated parameters related to growth and production. Preliminary results showed that the germination rate of the 4 wheat varieties used was not significantly affected when treated with fungicides (Figure 3). However, these data must be confirmed using a large quantity of treated wheat seeds and under field condition mainly for the new fungicide formulation (fludioxonil 25g/l + sedaxane 25g/l)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"• The results obtained revealed that Faraj durum wheat variety showed a higher susceptibility, with a greater percentage of decayed seeds (3.79%), whereas Jabal durum variety showed a slightly lower percentage of decayed seeds (2.70%)."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"• No visible infections were observed in the inoculated bread wheat control, confirming the higher susceptibility of durum wheat to common bunt. In addition, the results indicated a greater predominance of Tilletia foetida spores in both durum and bread wheat varieties within the positive control group."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"• Based on the results obtained, it is recommended to test the new fungicide formulation against other seedborne fungal diseases affecting wheat as well as other ICARDA's crops (barley, food legumes).  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Ms Fatima Zahra Bouanba (MSc student) is preparing the greenhouse experiment, ICARDA, Rabat-Morocco, 2023. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Fungicide effectiveness rate against common bunt on bread and durum wheat varieties. The new fungicide formulation is \"fludioxonil 25g/l + sedaxane 25g/l\". "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Germination rate (%) of treated and non-treated seeds of four bread and durum wheat varieties. "}],"sieverID":"2e051893-6971-4277-bdf9-8551f94d8913","abstract":""}

data/part_2/03a3d2dba933f1de492cd71f2171f0bc.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03a3d2dba933f1de492cd71f2171f0bc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/166fe646-606b-4e3a-961b-445845959b75/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"ZAMS666A: A new vitamin A biofortified maize hybrid released in Ghana","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"b5da52a4-a9db-449f-a204-6b062a8caaca","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0403e9d79c1ad1cbbec1643961d47cd4.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0403e9d79c1ad1cbbec1643961d47cd4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/09274850-f1da-4a71-883a-ea8595779c82/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Agrobiodiversity index for supporting public and private sector decision-making on biodiversity in food systems, for healthy diets, sustainable production, and conservation","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7378c849-d2c7-4a91-9062-ed8311b1270f","abstract":""}

data/part_2/043e20f6d1cb39a31c8a394edce41854.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"043e20f6d1cb39a31c8a394edce41854","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/551/4196_2017-40.pdf"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Managing Aquatic Agricultural Systems to Improve Nutrition and Livelihoods in Cambodia Key Facts Project: Managing Aquatic Agricultural Systems to Improve Nutrition and Livelihoods in Cambodia","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The EU and IFAD-funded Managing Aquatic Agricultural Systems to Improve Nutrition and Livelihoods project ( , \"Small Fish for Nutrition\" for short) uses an integrated aquaculture/agriculture nutrition linkages approach to support poor, rural households in wetlands systems in Cambodia to improve production and productivity of small indigenous species of fish in household aquaculture ponds, and increase consumption of micronutrientrich small fish and vegetables."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Over the past decade, Cambodia has enjoyed strong economic growth resulting in improved livelihoods for its population of 16 million (UNDP 2015). Despite significant progress, however, 4.8 million Cambodians remain poor, with 90% living in rural areas. Subsistence farmers, members of poor fishing communities, landless people and rural youth comprise the majority of Cambodia's poor (IFAD 2015). Generally, this demographic does not have enough food to eat for the whole year, dietary diversity is low and malnutrition remains high among children under 5 years of age."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"Fish is an integral part of Cambodia's culture, economy and food security, contributing around 7% to national GDP and supplying 66.3% of households' animal protein intake (FAO 2011). Yet, the diet of many rural Cambodians remains heavily dependent on the staple food, rice, and dietary diversity is low. Increasing fish production and productivity, and in particular of small indigenous fish species, using the integrated aquaculture/agriculture nutrition linkages approach can provide smallholder households with increased income and support food and nutrition security."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"Household aquaculture ponds stocked with both larger, marketable fish and small, nutrient-rich fish species can be managed with limited inputs to generate extra income for households and provide additional nutrient-rich food to households over an extended period of the year. In addition, ponds can be integrated into the smallholder's farming system, providing water for homestead vegetable production on pond embankments. This integrated approach has the potential to help address the constraints faced by many rural Cambodians and improve livelihoods and nutritional outcomes."},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"This project is a component of the global project Managing Aquatic Agricultural Systems to Improve Nutrition and Livelihoods in selected Asian and African Countries: Scaling up Learning from IFAD-WorldFish Collaboration in Bangladesh, which is being implemented in Cambodia, Zambia, Indonesia and Thailand. It builds on the successes and lessons learned from the WorldFish project Linking Fisheries and Nutrition: Promoting Innovative Fish Production Technologies in Ponds and Wetlands with Nutrient-Rich Small Fish Species in Bangladesh (2010Bangladesh ( -2013)), which developed the aquaculture/agriculture nutrition linkages approach."},{"index":6,"size":60,"text":"Small Fish for Nutrition uses a \"family approach, \" engaging both men and women in agricultural production. Using a combination of innovative fish and vegetable production technologies and behavior change communication methods and tools, the project works to increase household income as well as accessibility and consumption of nutrient-rich small fish and vegetables, at the community, household and individual level."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"The project plans to scale up the integrated aquaculture/agriculture nutrition linkages approach targeting 300 households in Pursat, Battambang and Siem Reap provinces within 3 years."},{"index":8,"size":96,"text":"The main components of the project are as follows: Develop integrated aquaculture/agriculture intervention models that best suit the local biophysical and socioeconomic conditions in Cambodia. Cambodian floodplains present a continuum of fish production systems, from homestead ponds to seasonal ponds in rice fields, which are often under-utilized. Participatory research will be conducted to analyze the current land and water management regimes in target areas, identify these under-utilized \"windows of opportunity\" with regards to fish production that can be exploited, and design aquaculture models that make use of these opportunities to maximize the benefits for target households."},{"index":9,"size":119,"text":"Improve productivity and production of integrated household aquaculture/agriculture systems, with polyculture of commercially valuable large fish and micronutrient-rich small fish species in homestead ponds and micronutrient-rich vegetables in homestead gardens and on pond dikes. Sound management practices based on pond ecological principles will be designed and fine-tuned to support grow-out of both large fish and micronutrient-rich small fish and optimized productivity of the pond over the culture period. Through capacity development training and ongoing coaching, stakeholders will be will be equipped with the necessary knowledge and skills to set up integrated household aquaculture/agriculture systems and effectively manage pond and vegetable production. Exchange visits and learning events will be held to facilitate sharing of experiences and adoption of best practices."},{"index":10,"size":106,"text":"Promote increased practice of essential nutrition and hygiene actions, especially in the first 1,000 days of life, as well as in adolescent girls. Through group sessions and tailored individual support, target households will be reached with behavior change communication and education on a range of key topics for improving nutritional health. Poor nutritional health is caused not only by inadequate consumption of nutrients, but also by the abnormal loss of nutrients due to illness and the living environment. Therefore, the project will not only promote the consumption of micronutrientrich fish and vegetables, but also improved sanitation and hygiene practices necessary to achieve positive nutritional health outcomes. "}]},{"head":"Project components","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Partnerships","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"This document was produced with the financial assistance of the European Union. The views expressed herein can in no way be taken to reflect the official opinion of the European Union."}]},{"head":"Goal Contact","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"The goal of the project is to improve nutrition and livelihoods of poor, rural households in aquatic agricultural systems in selected provinces of Cambodia by increasing micronutrient-rich small fish and vegetables intake through households' own production, as well as through increased household income. This will be accomplished by improving production and productivity of household ponds and dikes, increasing total and small fish production and fish species diversity in wetlands, and by supporting initiatives to increase consumption of micronutrient-rich small fish and vegetables. Key project targets:"}]},{"head":"3-fold","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"increase in fish production from household ponds"}]},{"head":"30%","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"increase in consumption of small fish by women & children 50% increase in income for project households from selling fish Dr. Shakuntala Haraksingh Thilsted, Project Lead: S.Thilsted@cgiar.org Dr. Olivier Joffre, Country Project Manager: O.Joffre@cgiar.org Mr. Chantrea Bun, Aquaculture Specialist: B.Chantrea@cgiar.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"0eef6ec9-e9fc-4572-bdf1-5bbc53d50cf1","abstract":""}

data/part_2/04f0926954c42c9d536100c2a967fc77.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04f0926954c42c9d536100c2a967fc77","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9852ed14-451f-4371-b8c1-71153706fefa/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"ANTECEDENTES","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":".\""},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"En 1979 el Programa de Pastos Tropicales del CIAT, en colaboraci6n con varias instituciones nacionales, inicia la evaluaci6n 61stemltica de araminéa!! y leguminosas fO'rrajeras en el tr6pico americano a travb de una red de ensayos multilocacionales (RIEPT: Red Internacional de Evaluac16n de Pastos Tropicales), diseñados con el fin de evaluar la, adaptaci6n al lIIedio 7 la capacidad de producci6n de biomasa de un amplio rango de materiales. Los ensayós de la aIE'PT cubren los principales ecosistemas del tr6pico americano, denominados asbana bien drenada :LsotiErmica, sabana bien drenada isohipertiErmiea, sabana mal drenada, bosque tropical lluvioso y bosque tropical estacional (eoehrane, 1985)."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"Del total de las 103 accesiones del sen ero Andropogon disponibles en el banco de sermoplasma de CIAT (Schultze-Kraft, COIII. pers.). 11 pertenecientes a la especie gayanus varo b:LsQuamulatus, han sido sometidas a evaluaci6n de adaptaci6n '1 4 de ellas han sido estudiadas en términos de su capacidad de producc:L6n de biolll8as en ensayos agron6m:Lcos 'bajo corte de naturaleza multilocacional. El Cuadro 1 presenta el rango de producci6n de uater:La seca de estas accesiones en el tr6pico americano."},{"index":4,"size":88,"text":"El Cuadro 2 auestra evaluaciones de adaptaei6n '1 ranaos de producc16n observados de Andropogon gayanus en Asia, Afriea 1. Ocean!.. z En particular. la acces16n Andropogon aayanue CIAT 621 ha sido la que ha mostrado el mh alto potencial de producc:16n en suelos de baja fertilidad y alta saturaci6n de aluminio. buen comportamiento durante el periodo Beco, facilidad de asociaci6n con leguminosas y resistencia a plagas y enfermedades. Hoy en dta ha sido liberada' comercialmente en \" varios paIses de !mlrica tropical (ver capitulo 2 Ser! y Ferguson)."},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"El Cuadro 3 presenta datos del grado de adaptaci6n al medio. ambiente y de capacidad de producd6n de ma.teria seca de Andropogon Bayanus CUT 621, en varias localidades de !mlrica ~ropical. La informaci6n, ilustra el hecho de que Andropogon Bayanus CIAT 621 muestra un alto grado de adaptac16n a gran diversidad de (el 93% de las localidades de !mlrica tropical. ya que en el 93% de los sitios experimentales se reporta su grado de adaptación como \"excelente\" o \"bueno\". Sin emhargo, ISU capacidad de producci6n de hiomasa es muy varuiable. oscilando entre los 293 Y 21453 ka de materia ISeca/ba/12 ISemanas en perlados de mlx1ma precipitac15n de O a 17006 kg de materia seca/ha/12 semanas en perIodos de mlnima precipitaci6n. En estos ensayos, el comportamiento .gron6m1co del Andropolon layanus se observ6 durante un periodo de establecimiento de 12 semanas, durante el cual se midi6 el porcentaje de suelo cubierto '1 la altura de planta."},{"index":6,"size":142,"text":"U~a vez establecido ae evalu6 su potencial de' producc16n de materia aeca, mediante corte a las edades de 3. 6. 9 '1 12 semanas despuEs del corte de ÚDi.formizac16n en dos estaciones: de Éxima '1 de mnlma   Por otro lado. como descriptores de las' condiciones climlticas del lugar. se emplearon un \"indice de disponibilidad de agua a la planta en el pedodo de mlxime precipitac16n\" y un \"indiee de d1sponibll1dad de agua a la planta en el periodo de m1nima precipitaei6n\". que representan el agua disponible entre el c:orte de uniformizaei5n \"1 la edad de 1Última produec:i6n de materia aeca. Istos indices 8e obtuvieron en funei6n de la preelpitac16n diaria en los doa periodos estacionales, la temperatura mixima \"1 m1nima del aitio. y au localizaci6n en tErminos de altura sobre el nivel del _r y latitud (Ke1g and McAlpine. 1974;Peddy, 1979;Jones, 1986)."}]},{"head":"Identlficaci6n de grupos de ambientes bomogEneoa","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"El anállsis c:onSi8ti6 de dos pasos: a) La identific:ac16n de. arupos de a:mbientes llamoabeos en tErminos del comportamiento agron6mico del Andropogon gayanus. utilizando cuatro parllmenos de COlI'porta1l\\1ento: el porcentaje de suelo cubierto por la p1snta.y la alturs de planta durante el establecimiento. su taaa m §xima de producc16n de mateda seca en Ipoca. de lluvia '1 8U tasa mldma de producc16n de materia seca en ¡poca de menor precipitación. No 8e incluyeron los Indices de tolerancia del Andropogon al Rhinchosporium varianu dentro de ¡rupos es s'grdUcathamente mcnor que su var1anu entre grupos, Para probar' esta hip6teds lIe realizaron an §l1sh de varianza pata cada descriptor ambiental utll1~ando como modelo siendo, \""},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":".."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"valor del descriptor ambiental en la localidad j del grupo i"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• media ¡eneral del descriptor ambiental -efecto del ¡rupo i sobre el descriptor ambiental."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"LOCj(GrUPoi} • efecto de la localidad j perteneciente al ¡rupo i."},{"index":6,"size":4,"text":",sobre el descriptor amblenta~."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Como el Cuadrado Kedio de Grupo (CK ) es un estimador de lB vagrupo ' ."},{"index":8,"size":30,"text":"rian:z:a entré ,rupos y el Cuadrado Kedio de Loc(Grupo). (OL (G » -'LOc rupo ell un estimador de la varianza entre 10&;81id8des pertenecientes a UIl mismo grupo, lB prueba p."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":":r -Cl\\.oc(Gropo) permite probar la biplitesis de que la varianza del descriptor entre ¡ropos es .ayor a su varianza dentro de ¡rupos."}]},{"head":"nsULTADOS y l)'lSCUSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Las eorrelBc1011es observadall entre par_tros d~ auelo (Cuadro S>. textura (% de arena con 1 de l1mo '1 1 de arena con 1 de arcilla que explica un 311 de la varianza total. COIIIO un \"Indice general de fertilidad del 8uelo n • caracterizado por altos pesos positivos para el nivel de bases -ca, Ha. K-Y alto peso negativo para saturaci6n de Al."},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":"Por tanto. valores positivos 4e este indice est~ asociados con suelos de mayor fertilidad relativa y .enor 8aturaci6n de Al. El peso positivo asociado con pU indica la relaci6n natural entre mayor aatura-ci6n de bases y baja saturaci6n de Al con un incremento del nivel del pR. Sin embargo. este parlmetro apare~e con \"yor contribuci6n en el segunelo componente principal. 1'.1 segundo componente principal. que explic:a un 251 de la varianza total de los parlmetros orig1nsles. Be interpreta COIll~ un \"Indice de textura ligera '1 menor acidez del .uelo\", donde la textura tiene un peso alto. positivo para las partlculas mis gruesas (X de arena) y negativo para las partIculas mis finas (X arcilla) y el pR contribuye con un peso positivo alto, indicando que valores positivos de ea te aegundo componente principal estln asociados con ,."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"suelos ligeros y de !Denor acidez relativa. El tercer componente principal, que explica el 15% de la varianza total, se interpreta como un \"índice de contenido de P y desbalance Ca/t\". Valores pl;>sitivos de este índice se asocian con Buelos con mayores niveles de P Dativo y con predominio relativo de Ca aobre 1:. Estos tres descriptores del Buelo, resultantes del anllisis de componentes principales, son combinaciones lineales de las variables originales de suelo previamente estandarizadas y por tanto son tambiEn variables not'lDales estandarizadas con media O y desviaci6n estlndar l."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"El agrupamiento de localidades mediante el anlllsis por conglomerados . (Cluster Ana1ysis), result6 en cinco grupos diferentes. El Cuadro 7 muestra las 10ca11dades 1ncluídas en cada grupo con las respect1vas medias de dos de los perlmetros de comportamiento del A. gayanuB usados para la asrupaci6n: las tasas ,de producci6n de mater1a seca. Las medias por arupo de los otros dos parllDetros (1 de .cobert:ura y altura de planta durante el estab1ecilDiento) se presentan en el Cuadro 8."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"El primer ',rupo de localidades se caracteriza por un buen estableci-lDiento. altos ni\"eles de producción de _teria seca en 'poca de ll.uvias pero bajas producciones en ¡poca de sequía. El• segundo arupo, tambiEn"},{"index":6,"size":1,"text":".'"},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"con buen e.tableci~iento, se caracterl~a por producclone, alta. y sim11ares en ambas Ipocas estacionales. El tercer grupo ~uestra lIIenores altura de planta ., porcentaje de cobertura en el establecimiento, niveles de producci6n mediol en estac:16n de lluvia ., bajos durante el periodo seco. El cuarto ¡rupo muestra producciones menores \" y similares en ambas Ipocas estacionales. Finalmente, el quinto ¡rupo se caracteriza por un establecimiento pobre y produccilin de materia seca ba)a en la estac:16n de lluvias '1 alin 'mis baja en l,a Ipoca de aequis."},{"index":8,"size":70,"text":"El Cuadro 8 resume la infofm8ci6n de establecimiento ., las tasas medias de 'producetlin de _teria seca en perio'dos, de mlxima y de mnima precipitación. Igualmente, las medias de disponibilidad de a&ua a la planta durante ambos pedodos. los promedios de los tres' componentes principales '1 los de los parimetros de suelo originales, para cada uno de loa cinco ¡rupoa de localidades obtenidos por el anflisis de conglomerados (Cuadro 1)."},{"index":9,"size":29,"text":"Las diferencias significativas observadas entre las medias de los ¡rupos para algunos par'metros. indican que la variabilidad del ,parimetro dentro del grupo es menor que su variabilidad entre grupos."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"Esto implica que tales parimetros son buenos explicadores de las cUferenc.ias en el cOIIIportamlento del Andropogon gayanus entre los diferentes ¡rupos."},{"index":11,"size":2,"text":". ."},{"index":12,"size":56,"text":"Como se observa en el Cuadro 8, la disponibilidad de asua a la planta durante el periodo de mln1ma precipitsci6n, muestra diferencias ,61gn1ficativB6 (p • 0.10) entre &rupos. Las 1Denores producciones de materia seca durante el periodo de'menor prec1pitaci6n observada en los grupos 5 '1 l. son expl1cadas por la baja disponibilidad de azua ¡ a1n"},{"index":13,"size":55,"text":"\" embar&o. el bajo nivel de producci6n del &rupo 3 no parece ser expl1cado por ests var1sble. Por otro lado, la disponibilidad de 'a&ua a la planta durante el periodo de .¡xima precipltaci6n. nO,explica el agrupamiento por comportamiento del Andropogon. Esto es de esperarae ya que durante ¡pocas de lluvia el azua no ea lim1tante."},{"index":14,"size":51,"text":"Debe, adeds. tenerse en cuenta que Andrópogon gayanus es una planta muy eficiente en la uti1izaci6u del agua disponible, como se observa en el Cuadro 9. donde Andropogon sayanus muestra ser superior o i&ua1 a gramlneas promisorias del g~nero Brachiaria en cuanto a la eficiencia de utilizaci6n de la lluvia ealda."},{"index":15,"size":43,"text":"Observando los promedios de los Componentes Principales a travlís de grupos y relaclonindolos con los respectivos valores de producci6n de materia seca en la lípoca de mixima precipltac16n, apreciamos una tendencia de dism1nuci6u en las medias para el \"índice de fertilidad\" y ."},{"index":16,"size":56,"text":"' para el \"lndice de contenido de P '1 desbalance Ca-K\", con diferencias altamente ai&nlficatlvas entre srupos (p • 0.006) en el primer caso '1 con una clara tendencia, ,aunqu~ DO estadísticamente significativa, en el aegundo. . El \"lndice 4e textura lisera '1 menor acide,,\" DO parece contribuir a explicar las diferencias entre &rupos de ambientes."},{"index":17,"size":26,"text":"Lo anterior indica la excelente respuesta del Andropogon layanus a lIlejor fertilidad ' Y el efecto negativo del clesbalanc:e entre c:ationea cambiables divalentes ' Y 1Il0novalentes."},{"index":18,"size":64,"text":"Aunque el \"lnclice de textura ligera 'Y menor acidez\" no '\" parece contribuir a explicar las diferenc:ias entre los grupos, dos de las variables originales de suelo de mayor c:ontribuci6n a este componente -% de arena y % de arcilla-al muestran diferencias altamente significativas entre grupos, 10 que sugiere que el Andropogon gayanus . tiene un comportamiento superior en suel06 de textura mIs pesada."},{"index":19,"size":49,"text":"Las diferencias altamente significaUvas óbservadas entre grupos para niveles de Ca, Hg, K '1 saturaci6n de Al en el suelo, son consistentes con la alta significacil'in del primer componente principal, \"lndice de fertilidad del suelo\". Cada una de estas variables, aún independiente-\"nte, son buenos indicadores del comportamiento del Andropogon."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONES l.","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Teniendo en cuenta que las evaluaciones utilizadas para este estudio proceden de EU localizados en suelos 'cidos con bajos . contenidos de p. '1 la excelente adaptacil'in del Andropogon gayanus a estas condiciones, las variables nivel de p~ '1 P resultaron no aer buenos esplieativos del comportamiento del Andropogon."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"2. laslndose en datos de comportamiento agl'onlimico del Andropogon layanus fue posible obtener una clasifieaci6n de ambientes bomogl!neoB para esta éspec:1e. Loa grupos obtenidos astln explicados principalmente por dHerenc:las en nivel de fertilidad del suelo (Ca. Ma. It '1 niveles menores de saturacilin de Al)."},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"textura del luelo yagua disponible a la planta durante el periodo de menor precipitacilin."},{"index":4,"size":2,"text":"• \""}]},{"head":"El!. sayanus es una planta adaptada a condiciones de luelos","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Iddol '1 de baja fertilidad, aunque 'res,ponde posit;1vament'e a condiciones de suelo de ~yor fertilidad."}]},{"head":"4.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"El comportamiento de !. layanus es mejor en suelos con menor contenido de arena '1 mayor contenido de arcilla."}]},{"head":"5.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"El!. gayanus, aunque es una planta efidente en utilizar bajos niveles de disponibilidad de agua, se ve afectada negativamente por la menor disponibilidad de la misma durante el periodo seco •"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• 1)"},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Cuadro 1. Producci6n de biomasa de accesiones de Andropogon gayanus varo b1squamulatus, en el tr6p1co americano."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Produeci6n observada en No. de Acces16n 12 semanas de ~ebrote localidades H!nisa Háx1sa Precipitaci6n Precipitac16n"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"-------------ka KS/h~ ---------~--    "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"\" n:l al insecto Ssl:lvazo debido a los rangos. cons1stentemente bajos de calificaci6n de daño reportados en los distintos ambientes. lCalificac:lón de daño por Rhlchosporium: O a' 0.14 (u • 41 localidades en una escada de O a 4) ¡. cal1f1caci6n de daño por Salivazo: O a 0.16 n -41 local:ldades en una escala de 0-4»). lo Que refleja el alto srado de resistencia del Andropogon gayanus a estos factores bióticos.La tlEcoica empleada para clasif1caci6u de los ambientes fue la del anlil1s1s pOr conglomerados (Cluster Anal)'sis) siguiendo el m!!todo de Wardt<. Que utiliza como criterio de agrupamiento el de lIlinimizar la suma de cuadrados de laa desviaciones entre los puntos que conforman un grupo '1 1IU.1m1zar la distancia entre grupos. Este létodo define la distancia entre dos clusters como la suma de cuadrados de laa desviadontll entre todas las pos1'l:>les parejas de puntos (Pi. Pj) pertenecientes a dos grupos diferentes.ti)Una vez obtenidos los arupos de localidades homoglneos en tErminos del comportamiento del Andropogon 8e procedi6 a identificar cuAles. entre los descriptores ambientales antes descritos. explican llejor las diferencias detectadas entre grupos.Un descriptor ambiental se considera un buen explicador de las diferencias entre grupos. cuando su Vara's ainlmua variance hierarcbicat Cluster Analysis.(Everltt. 1980¡ Bartiaan. 1975). "},{"text":" muestran asoeiaci6n altamente sl¡nificativ8 entre las variables .se i "},{"text":" de Significación estadística de la prueba Tukey para comparaci6n entre las medias de grupos. "},{"text":" Eficiencia de la producci6n de materia seca del Andropogon gayanus 621 en los ecosistemas de bosque tropical y llanos. (MS kg/ha/mm). en comparaci6n con otras gramíneas promisorias. "},{"text":" ). l~ lIIismo que correlaciones nesatf.vas s1sn1f1cativas entre I de arena '1 contenido de Ca y Ha-Por otro 18150, el nivel de p1\\ estl asociado nesativamente con elIde arcilla y elide 88turaci6n de Al '1 positivamente con el contenido de Mg y K en el 8uelo. El contenido de \" \" Ca est¡ positivamente correlacionado con contenido de Mg '1 Ca est¡ positivamente correlacionado con contenido de Mg '1 negativamente correlacionado con la saturaci6n de Al. En la 1I1isma negativamente correlacionado con la saturaci6n de Al. En la 1I1isma fol'llla que Ha est( positivamente correlacionádo con 1 '1 negativamente fol'llla que Ha est( positivamente correlacionádo con 1 '1 negativamente con la saturacilín de Al. Estas aon correlaciones nOl'lllales que 8e con la saturacilín de Al. Estas aon correlaciones nOl'lllales que 8e espera ocurran en suelos leidos y de baja fertilidad como los incluIdos espera ocurran en suelos leidos y de baja fertilidad como los incluIdos en este estudio. en este estudio.  "},{"text":" Cuadro 3. Introducci6n 1 avaluacl60 de Andropolon layanua en el tr6pico a.ericano. . . , • \" . .,•\"   \"  \" A• gayanus' CIAT 621 A. 'gayanue CIAT 6053 A• layanus CIAT 6054 A. layanus CIAT 6200 -, 11 Promedio y desvlacit5n est §ndar de la producc16n observada. 2937 ±. 2881 6211 ±. 1601 2 691 5645 2012 9536 2 1741 6295 5680 '9200 2 2790 ±. 2400 2965 ±. 1702 1 21 Rango observado de producel6n. 'uente: RIEPT -Resultados 1979-1985 • Cuadro 2. Evaluaciones de adaptaci&n y productividad de !. I&18nUS en loca1idadea de Aaia, Africa y 77 4 2 8 Ocean!e. 'ata Australia Cbana India Indonesia N1gerla Senegel Autor Kclvor. J.C. et al •• 1982 --Anning. P., 1982 'iaher, M.J •• 1971 ltalph. W •• 1983 Reid. P.A •• Miller. 1.C •• 1970 ~nnegieter. A., 1966 Tetteh, A •• 1976 91n8. R.D •• Cbatterjee, B.R •• 1968 Sins. R.n. et al •• 1972 Pr .. ed, L.l:-; 'Preaad, N.l.. 1971 Chatterjee. B.R., 1964 Thompaon, J.R •• !venaen, C.L.I., 1985 Raina, A.B., 1959 Foater. W.B., Kundy, E.J •• 1961 Nourriaat, P., 1966 Crado de adaptac15n Buena Re¡ular -----Buena Buena , Produccl5n MS/kg/ba -5000 2146-6356 4480 3270-3490• 7253 1000-15000 18000 2298 5740-6600 3921 13646 6000 I Adapta-1 Cuadro 3. COIItinuaci6n. RaDIo de 2roduec1~n Pds Localidad Fuente de Informaci60 c16D Ita MS/h. 12 s_nal MINDIA tWtntA Argentina Corrientes Clott1 de Harlo, B.M •• 1985 B -Bolivia Valle dsl Saeta Espinosa B., J., 1983 1520 1 1703 1 4962 110S2 Ch1p1r1r1 Saavedra. F., 1983 3992 4167 -Yapacanl Vega. C., Velasco. O •• 1985 B --Brasil Parf Dlas Fllho, M.B., Serrao, B.A.S., 1983 E ----GoUs Garcla. I.B., 1983 B ---Babla 'Moreno, M •• Pereira. J .M., 1983 B 2400 3637 4870 7233 Bahla Pereira, J.M •• Moreno, M •• 1983 1705 41146 5795 11702 Ouro Preto-I.0 Concalvas, C.A •• 1985 I ---Porto Velho-ltO Goncelves. C.A., 1985 I 380 1 100So 1 --Vllhena Concalves, C.A., Rocha, C.K.C. da, 1985 --~ Porto Seguro Moreno, M. !! & .• 1985 B -... ----Porto Seguro Pareira. J.M • .!Sal., 1985 Colombia Florencia Acosta, A •• Cuesta, P.A., 1983 ! ' -Pto. Caitó Franco, L.B., G6mes-Carabaly. A •• '1983 1S6 290 1818 1 3418 Caucasia Ciraldo, L.A. et al •• 1983 3326 2 3413 8888 -Oroculí G6mez-Carabal,.:-A7; CaaUlla. C.E •• 1983 O , 600 2 673 3462 Car:l.ll8gua Gualdr6n. a. ~&., 1983 -562 686 2380 3428 Pto. Ads Orosco, D •• 1983 1192 1 Letida TOledo, J .K. et .!l., 1983 B -----Oroeu' Toledo, J.M. et al., 1983 R 4582 1 -SIDa Toledo, J.M. et'ar., 1983 3021 7413 -Puerto LlSpez --Toledo, J.M. et al., 1983 -O 154 293 716 --Quilichao ToledO, J.M. et al., 1983 964 5892 5031 11184 llorencia Angulo, l.., COTlazos, C., 1985 -3672 .5970 3403 5209 Cuadro 3. Cont1tl.uad6n. Mapta-1 Ranso de 2roducci6n Pala Localidad Fuente de Inforaaci6n c16n ltg MS/ha . 12 semanas MIRIllA Pala Localidad Fuente de lnformaci6n Adapta-1 ci6n Ranlo de Eroducci6n kg Ms/ha Cuadro 3. Coutinuac16n. 12 semanas MINlMA MAXIMA Rango de eroducci6n Adapta-1 Pas:. Localidad Fuente de InformacI6n d6n kg HS/ha 12 semanas KAXIKA ColOllbia _ Florencia Acosta, A •• 1985 B --106;1 Vlllavicenc10 Cuesta, P.A., 1985 ;;1 Cbirigu4nli Barroa, J.A •• 1985 -4.583 --Fuerto L6pez Franco, L.H. et al., 198.5 -283 3053 920 2069 San lloque B4ez. F., 1985-.587.5 1 -21453 -Puerto L6pe1l Franco, L.B • .!l al •• 1985 -250 .5097 1191 2075 Villavicenc10 Franco, L.B. et al., 1985 1420 1 1956 1107 2440 Amalfi -Giraldo, L.A • .!l al., 1985 1063 ----Puerto Gaitlin Grof, B., 1985 B 18¡¡1 72;;1 Mutat' Hila, A., a.atrepo, H •• 1985 -I -Puerto L6pez Pizarro. E.A • .!l & •• 1985 -O 1202 2174 2333 O' \\' Let1cia Pizarro, E.A • .!l al., 1985 1570 5373 3826 3940 • Quiliehao Pizarro, E.A. et al., 1985 1389 268.5 7231 15200 Chinchinli Sulirez. S • .!l &:;-1985 -17006 1 892S 1724.5 Venecia Sulirez, S •• Marln, B., 1985 -80;;;1 3678 Gigante Su'rez, S., Cbavarro, G., 1985 --10813 1 -Buenaviata Su'rez, S., Arias. L.O., 1985 -6432 9799 Supla Sulrez. S •• MJcbado. L.F •• 198.5 ---5429 9613 : Coata Rica Cartago Borel, R., 1985 E 4363 1 --Guanacaete G6mez~ J •• Lucia, G. de. 198.5 ----San Joe' Prado. V •• 1983 2476 .560 4706 Gulpilee Slinchez. B., Guevara. G., 198.5 B -E. Unidos Cuyana HOIIduraa Jamaica KI:dco lawai Mob1ie88 Mobl1e88 La ea iba Kancheater Jalapa Aniaga Pij1jiapan TonaU Iala Loma Ion! ta Huilllanguil10 Sabanas La Huerta 31 Sin fertllbar. Whitney, S., 1983 Wickham, C., Oauji, P., 1985 B Wickham, C., Oeuji, P., 1985 B Valle, C •• 1985 E MeLeod, D.S., 1985 B Amaya, S •• 1985 Cigarroa, A., Palomo, J., 1985 Cigarroa, A., Palomo, J., 1985 Cigarroa. A., Palomo, J •• 1985 EnrIques, J.P •• 1985 Enriques, J.P •• 1985 L6pes N •• J .,1 •• 1985 L6pes N •• J.I •• 1985 Regla. H •• 1985 6529 1 \"tRlMA HAXIHA 1 1631 ---NI~aragua Nueva Guinea Avalos, C., Cstro, A., 1983 --8567 14101 El Recreo castro, A., Cruz M., A., 1983 714** 3110 5895* 16800 ---Puerto Cabezas Miranda, O., 1985 E -Pana_ Veraguas Avila, M.A., 1983 1618** Ciudad Pana_ Quintero, J •• Rodriguez, K., 1983 10400* --5978 1 8033 4294 Veraguas Aranda, H., PInilla, K., 1985 E Veraguas Aros_na, E • .!! al., 1985 10840 255 7121 7557 ---13405: ' 6Ss 1 14447 -829 5211 -Los Santos Duque, O., Vargaa, E., 1985 B Paraguay Banerito Valinotti, P., 1985 2074 2851 . . l' -oJ;\\ 3524~ E. Ayala Valinotti, P. , Molas, O., 1985 E I --1965 12050 4589 --SH3 1540°4 Perú Yurimaguas Ara, K.A., Schaus, R., 1983 1786 4417 2893* --12000~ 11600 Tarapoto L6pez, W. et al •• 1983 1779 1829 4010 Tarapoto L6pez, W.,-SllVa. G\" 1983 834 1416 ---2720 -I Pucallpa Ord6ñez, B., 'Reyes, C., 1983 E Pucallpa 1086 Pinedo, L •• Reyes, e., 1983 Tarapoto Silva. G., L6pez, W •• 1983 1005 2721 8875 Yurimaguas Ara\"K.A., Scbaus, R., 1985 1786 , 4417 2893* 3347 41 Fertilbado. Ungo Mada Cárdenas. E •• 1985 7300 7450 -Cuba Iala Juventud GutiErrez. A.o Delgado,_ D •• 1985 1180 4358 2274 2472 Las Tunae Guti'rrez. A • .!l &.. 198.5 10040 Ecuador Paetaza Freire, M.T., 1983 7640 P. Maldonado Chumbimune. R •• Re¡teguI. K., 1985 12129 3883 575** TIngo Mada lbazeta, R •• Reitegui. K., 1985 3503 8365 Tarapoto L6pez, W • .!!.!l.. 1985 1779 4010 1829 2255 Koyoballlba 2848 Palacios, E., D{az, R., 1985 P. Bermúdez Re6teguI. K.o 1985 2495 , 8718 Rapo Muño •• lt •• 1983 .5098 12691 2940 5386 * kg KS/ba, 9 semanas A• gayanus' CIAT 621 A. 'gayanue CIAT 6053 A• layanus CIAT 6054 A. layanus CIAT 6200 -, 11 Promedio y desvlacit5n est §ndar de la producc16n observada. 2937 ±. 2881 6211 ±. 1601 2 691 5645 2012 9536 2 1741 6295 5680 '9200 2 2790 ±. 2400 2965 ±. 1702 1 21 Rango observado de producel6n. 'uente: RIEPT -Resultados 1979-1985 • Cuadro 2. Evaluaciones de adaptaci&n y productividad de !. I&18nUS en loca1idadea de Aaia, Africa y 77 4 2 8 Ocean!e. 'ata Australia Cbana India Indonesia N1gerla Senegel Autor Kclvor. J.C. et al •• 1982 --Anning. P., 1982 'iaher, M.J •• 1971 ltalph. W •• 1983 Reid. P.A •• Miller. 1.C •• 1970 ~nnegieter. A., 1966 Tetteh, A •• 1976 91n8. R.D •• Cbatterjee, B.R •• 1968 Sins. R.n. et al •• 1972 Pr .. ed, L.l:-; 'Preaad, N.l.. 1971 Chatterjee. B.R., 1964 Thompaon, J.R •• !venaen, C.L.I., 1985 Raina, A.B., 1959 Foater. W.B., Kundy, E.J •• 1961 Nourriaat, P., 1966 Crado de adaptac15n Buena Re¡ular -----Buena Buena , Produccl5n MS/kg/ba -5000 2146-6356 4480 3270-3490• 7253 1000-15000 18000 2298 5740-6600 3921 13646 6000 I Adapta-1 Cuadro 3. COIItinuaci6n. RaDIo de 2roduec1~n Pds Localidad Fuente de Informaci60 c16D Ita MS/h. 12 s_nal MINDIA tWtntA Argentina Corrientes Clott1 de Harlo, B.M •• 1985 B -Bolivia Valle dsl Saeta Espinosa B., J., 1983 1520 1 1703 1 4962 110S2 Ch1p1r1r1 Saavedra. F., 1983 3992 4167 -Yapacanl Vega. C., Velasco. O •• 1985 B --Brasil Parf Dlas Fllho, M.B., Serrao, B.A.S., 1983 E ----GoUs Garcla. I.B., 1983 B ---Babla 'Moreno, M •• Pereira. J .M., 1983 B 2400 3637 4870 7233 Bahla Pereira, J.M •• Moreno, M •• 1983 1705 41146 5795 11702 Ouro Preto-I.0 Concalvas, C.A •• 1985 I ---Porto Velho-ltO Goncelves. C.A., 1985 I 380 1 100So 1 --Vllhena Concalves, C.A., Rocha, C.K.C. da, 1985 --~ Porto Seguro Moreno, M. !! & .• 1985 B -... ----Porto Seguro Pareira. J.M • .!Sal., 1985 Colombia Florencia Acosta, A •• Cuesta, P.A., 1983 ! ' -Pto. Caitó Franco, L.B., G6mes-Carabaly. A •• '1983 1S6 290 1818 1 3418 Caucasia Ciraldo, L.A. et al •• 1983 3326 2 3413 8888 -Oroculí G6mez-Carabal,.:-A7; CaaUlla. C.E •• 1983 O , 600 2 673 3462 Car:l.ll8gua Gualdr6n. a. ~&., 1983 -562 686 2380 3428 Pto. Ads Orosco, D •• 1983 1192 1 Letida TOledo, J .K. et .!l., 1983 B -----Oroeu' Toledo, J.M. et al., 1983 R 4582 1 -SIDa Toledo, J.M. et'ar., 1983 3021 7413 -Puerto LlSpez --Toledo, J.M. et al., 1983 -O 154 293 716 --Quilichao ToledO, J.M. et al., 1983 964 5892 5031 11184 llorencia Angulo, l.., COTlazos, C., 1985 -3672 .5970 3403 5209 Cuadro 3. Cont1tl.uad6n. Mapta-1 Ranso de 2roducci6n Pala Localidad Fuente de Inforaaci6n c16n ltg MS/ha . 12 semanas MIRIllA Pala Localidad Fuente de lnformaci6n Adapta-1 ci6n Ranlo de Eroducci6n kg Ms/ha Cuadro 3. Coutinuac16n. 12 semanas MINlMA MAXIMA Rango de eroducci6n Adapta-1 Pas:. Localidad Fuente de InformacI6n d6n kg HS/ha 12 semanas KAXIKA ColOllbia _ Florencia Acosta, A •• 1985 B --106;1 Vlllavicenc10 Cuesta, P.A., 1985 ;;1 Cbirigu4nli Barroa, J.A •• 1985 -4.583 --Fuerto L6pez Franco, L.H. et al., 198.5 -283 3053 920 2069 San lloque B4ez. F., 1985-.587.5 1 -21453 -Puerto L6pe1l Franco, L.B • .!l al •• 1985 -250 .5097 1191 2075 Villavicenc10 Franco, L.B. et al., 1985 1420 1 1956 1107 2440 Amalfi -Giraldo, L.A • .!l al., 1985 1063 ----Puerto Gaitlin Grof, B., 1985 B 18¡¡1 72;;1 Mutat' Hila, A., a.atrepo, H •• 1985 -I -Puerto L6pez Pizarro. E.A • .!l & •• 1985 -O 1202 2174 2333 O' \\' Let1cia Pizarro, E.A • .!l al., 1985 1570 5373 3826 3940 • Quiliehao Pizarro, E.A. et al., 1985 1389 268.5 7231 15200 Chinchinli Sulirez. S • .!l &:;-1985 -17006 1 892S 1724.5 Venecia Sulirez, S •• Marln, B., 1985 -80;;;1 3678 Gigante Su'rez, S., Cbavarro, G., 1985 --10813 1 -Buenaviata Su'rez, S., Arias. L.O., 1985 -6432 9799 Supla Sulrez. S •• MJcbado. L.F •• 198.5 ---5429 9613 : Coata Rica Cartago Borel, R., 1985 E 4363 1 --Guanacaete G6mez~ J •• Lucia, G. de. 198.5 ----San Joe' Prado. V •• 1983 2476 .560 4706 Gulpilee Slinchez. B., Guevara. G., 198.5 B -E. Unidos Cuyana HOIIduraa Jamaica KI:dco lawai Mob1ie88 Mobl1e88 La ea iba Kancheater Jalapa Aniaga Pij1jiapan TonaU Iala Loma Ion! ta Huilllanguil10 Sabanas La Huerta 31 Sin fertllbar. Whitney, S., 1983 Wickham, C., Oauji, P., 1985 B Wickham, C., Oeuji, P., 1985 B Valle, C •• 1985 E MeLeod, D.S., 1985 B Amaya, S •• 1985 Cigarroa, A., Palomo, J., 1985 Cigarroa, A., Palomo, J., 1985 Cigarroa. A., Palomo, J •• 1985 EnrIques, J.P •• 1985 Enriques, J.P •• 1985 L6pes N •• J .,1 •• 1985 L6pes N •• J.I •• 1985 Regla. H •• 1985 6529 1 \"tRlMA HAXIHA 1 1631 ---NI~aragua Nueva Guinea Avalos, C., Cstro, A., 1983 --8567 14101 El Recreo castro, A., Cruz M., A., 1983 714** 3110 5895* 16800 ---Puerto Cabezas Miranda, O., 1985 E -Pana_ Veraguas Avila, M.A., 1983 1618** Ciudad Pana_ Quintero, J •• Rodriguez, K., 1983 10400* --5978 1 8033 4294 Veraguas Aranda, H., PInilla, K., 1985 E Veraguas Aros_na, E • .!! al., 1985 10840 255 7121 7557 ---13405: ' 6Ss 1 14447 -829 5211 -Los Santos Duque, O., Vargaa, E., 1985 B Paraguay Banerito Valinotti, P., 1985 2074 2851 . . l' -oJ;\\ 3524~ E. Ayala Valinotti, P. , Molas, O., 1985 E I --1965 12050 4589 --SH3 1540°4 Perú Yurimaguas Ara, K.A., Schaus, R., 1983 1786 4417 2893* --12000~ 11600 Tarapoto L6pez, W. et al •• 1983 1779 1829 4010 Tarapoto L6pez, W.,-SllVa. G\" 1983 834 1416 ---2720 -I Pucallpa Ord6ñez, B., 'Reyes, C., 1983 E Pucallpa 1086 Pinedo, L •• Reyes, e., 1983 Tarapoto Silva. G., L6pez, W •• 1983 1005 2721 8875 Yurimaguas Ara\"K.A., Scbaus, R., 1985 1786 , 4417 2893* 3347 41 Fertilbado. Ungo Mada Cárdenas. E •• 1985 7300 7450 -Cuba Iala Juventud GutiErrez. A.o Delgado,_ D •• 1985 1180 4358 2274 2472 Las Tunae Guti'rrez. A • .!l &.. 198.5 10040 Ecuador Paetaza Freire, M.T., 1983 7640 P. Maldonado Chumbimune. R •• Re¡teguI. K., 1985 12129 3883 575** TIngo Mada lbazeta, R •• Reitegui. K., 1985 3503 8365 Tarapoto L6pez, W • .!!.!l.. 1985 1779 4010 1829 2255 Koyoballlba 2848 Palacios, E., D{az, R., 1985 P. Bermúdez Re6teguI. K.o 1985 2495 , 8718 Rapo Muño •• lt •• 1983 .5098 12691 2940 5386 * kg KS/ba, 9 semanas  "},{"text":" Cuadro 4. Ubicacllm. clima 1 suelo de las localidades donde se evalu6 A. salanus.Cuadro S. Coeficientes de corre1aci6n entre par4metros de. suelo.Reducci8n del número de perlmetroa de suelo mediante el an'liai de Componentea PrincipaleB. El cuerpo.del cuadro ~eBtra loa Coeficientea aBociadoa con cada uno de loa primeroa tres componentes principalea. • • . . • • ' . • ..    ., f\" -, . . , • • . . • • ' . • ...,f\"-, .. , . f        . f Cuadro 4. Continuaci6n.        Cuadro 4. Continuaci6n. Cuadro 3. COIlUnuaci6n. ,;'\\;1 :! -, , . . . '! • !U::il¡:l>to Tara¡'uto Tarapoto RepGbliea DOIÚnic:ana Sabana del Mar Dist. Nacional Dist. Nacional Trinidad. Centeno Venezuela Miranda Espino El Tigre Miranda Manteeal Guaeb! * kg MS/ha. 9 a _ l . Localidad (InaUtue16n) Localidad (Inatituci6n) Cuadro 4. Coutinuac16n. Cuadro 6. BOLIVIA Chipiriri (lITA) Valle dal Saeta (UKSS) BRASIL larrolaDdia (CEPLAC) Kacap4 (UEPAT) COLOMBIA Caueaaia (UDEA) Carimagua (CIAT) El Viento (CIAT) El Paralso (CIAT) El Nua (leA) El Guayabal (CIAT) • Gigante (CENlCAFB) La Libertad (ICA) La LaguDa (SEA) Letic1a (CIAT) Mutata (ICA) Puerto Aals (PONGAR.) Paraguaicito (CENlCAFB) QuiHchao (CIAT) Supla (CENlCAFB) COSTA RICA Bojancha (HINAG/CORERA) San Isidro (HINAG) ECtIADOB. Coca (llIIAP) El Napo (IHIAP) B1 Puyo (ESPOCH) HUlCO Destierro (INIFAP) Isla Veracruz (IHIVAP) Jalapa (INIFAP) Jeric6 (INIrAP) LOIII Bonita (INlrAP) TonaU (IRIFAP)' ,ICARAGUA El Racreo (MIDINRA) • Mateare (MIDINRA) Matipls (MIDINRA) Nueva Guinea (MIDINRA) PAliAKA El Chepo,(Univ.da Pana\") PARAGUAY CupucG (P1lONIEGA!MAG) PERU Puerto BeraGdaz (INIPA/ PEPP!IiICSU) P. Kaldonado (IRIPA/CIPA) Tarapoto Coperholta Localidad (InaUtuc16n) Tarapoto Porvenir (INIPA/CIPA X) Yurimaguaa (INIPA/NCSU) PucaUpa llEPUBLlCA DOMINICANA El Valle Seybo (CENIP/SEA) Rara. Nacionales (CENIP/SEA) Pedro Brand (CENIP/SEA) . VENEZUELA Atapirire (FONAIAP) E.pino (FONAIAP) Guachi (LUZ) pari_tro Arena (1) AretIA 1.0 -o.61 u -1\"',-S ~;:-rd. , .. , \" .. \" \" •'~•;:•~~r. \" l. ~,. ~, . lq''!': .., . . ... ~...::...!!.::.. Jo • ;...J Silva. J.G., López, W., 1985 Silva. J.G •• 1985 Gerún. M., 1985 Gerún, M., 1985 Gerún. M., 1985 Peraad. N.I •• 1983 Arias, P.J • .!!.!!. .• 1985 Barreno, L.A •• 1985 Sanabria, D.M •• G0IlZ4lez. S •• 1983 Sanabria. D.M., Gonl'lez. S •• 1983' Torres. G.R •• 1983 Urdaneta. l •• 1983 Ubieac:i6n Clima Latitud asna Temp. Lluvia Arena Arc1-111 Oc _laño % 11a Ubicaci6n Clima Latitud aan. Temp. Lluvia Arena Arci-11 oC .año % 1la .16•S0'S 250 23.7 4668 59 10 5.1 B pH pH 17•12'S 260 25.0 1881 5 52 4.8 16\"23'S -26.5 1440 72 19 5.3 1.0 22.80 0.70 0.15 0.05 Rango de produeei6n 1 ... \"<lIt\". 12 semanas I ¡ \"\", -\"~\" \"!',' '\\ ' \" • fe I . ¡ .' I • . len 27:l1 l{ ',~7') 111,:'0 2000 ZSZS Z813 674 --1643 --6739 1488 2408 7037 S33S* 6008 1 .., ---9223 6560 '1 1967 O 11600 ---750* 760* 2540* 3046 --1590 --1116 , 5716 13494 14979 Suelo P Sat. Ca Hg JI: pplll Suelo P Sato Ca Hg It pplll Al. ---lIeq/100 1 --Al. --meql100 g % % 4.3 74.70 0.41 0.41 0.18 0.6 73.80 0.41 0.21 0.24 OoS'S -. 26.7 1732 70 27 4.8 0.7 18.65 0.09 0.19 0.01 8\"O'N 50 28.0 2500 42 36 4.5 1.0 58.75 1.40 0.41 0.06 I 4°37'H 200, 26.1 2181 12 39 4.1 1.0 88.25 0.27 0.01 0.09 \" 4\"7'N 200 26.0 2281 40 45 4.6 0.9 88.80 0.13 0.02 0.05 tJ 6°20'N 120 26.0 2355 20 54 4.3 1.3 88.25 0.17 0.04 0.15 I 6°29'H 835 23.0 22.0 SO 31 5.0 3.2 11.50 2.17 0.68 0.21 4•20'H 120 26.0 2355 50 25 4.S 2.1 84.70 0.16 0.03 0.08 2°22'H 1500 19.4 1189 43 37 5.2 5.5 25.80 2.10 0.80 0.23 4•4'H 336 25.3 2357 20 49 4.2 2.5 16.95 1.00 0.09 0.12 6•54'H 1500 18.8 2467 20 42 5.0 4.8 85,.25 2.10 0.14 0.12 4°9'S 84 26.0 2820 34 33 4.4 2.2 91.70 0.18 0.13 0.12 7°H 132 26.0 4775 20 63 5.1 5.1 72.30 3.08 0.52 0.14 0\"30'N 384 25.0 3800 --5.0 2.1 67.00 0.83 0.40 0.18 4°24'H USO 21.2 1975 59 13 5.8 45.0 0.00 7.10 1.20 0.82 3•6'!! 990 24.0 1800 18 67 3.9 4.0 84.50 0.48 0.15 0.11 S028\"H 1320 20.6 2253 44 35 5.0 32.00 2.00 1.30 0.23 10•1'N 420 24.2 2098 37 31 6.2 1.5 0.60 22.04 5.41 1.87 • '\"22'H 103 21.5 29.54 34 29 5.2 0'21'S 249 -3113 --0'21'S 266 25.4 3113 23 52 1'31'5 900 21.0 4100 60 18 17'51 'H 30 26.0 2200 71 9 lS'6'H SO 25.7 996 62 9 U\"SO'H 40 26.0 2S00 ,65 19 lS\"3'N 70 26.7 2345 57 10 lS'6'H 25 24.7 1845 70 8 lS'9'H 40 27.0 1600 65 12 12'10,'N 30 25.0 3159 24 37 12°17 'N -28.6 957 44 18 lZ'50'H -24.5 1291 3~ 30 U'41 'N 1.50 24.5 2536 3 58 9'8'N 30 26.6 2089 36 31 26'S 125 21.6 1498 54 19 10'18'S 300 26.0 3312 --12\"35'S 310 26.6 1230 50 30 .% % 4.9 8.5.60 0.63 0.21 0.2.5 4.4 2.5 85.60 0.63 0.21 0.21 4.8 2.0 36.10 1.58 0.27 0.18 4.8 5.7 67.20 O.lS O.OS 0.10 4.8 0.98 0.08 0.11 4.8 46.05 3.72 0.51 0.09 S.S 41.1 -. ---4.0 20.0 0.65 0.08 0.11 I 5.6 7.3 ---4.3 6.0 33.90 4.20 2.60 0.32' 6.9 0.50 6.30 1.92 ' 5.9 4.60 ,~ 1.50 5.76 0.72 4.4 21~00 2.00 1.88 0.42 4.4 1.3 55.70 0.14 0.13 0.13 . 5.4 2.5 42.30 3.25 3.25 0.06 4.2 7.4 78.00 1.05 4.9 2.5 65.35 0.70 0.40 0.10 -0.09 . Ubicaci6D Clima Latitud' .. 'aiiñiii Tup. Lluvia Arena Ard-a •C am/año % lla 6°32'S 460 26.0 1200 73 17 S•S6'S 184 26.0 2376 66 11 8°80'S 175 35 38 19°3'N 20 '25.0 2034 34 31 18°35'.N 12 26.0 1774 19 63 18°40'N 50 25.5 1866 52 46 8•25'N 140 ' 26.2 1975 91 6 S\"48'H 175 26.3 1100 35 28 gOlO'H 50 28.0 2743 S6 20 pR P Sato Ca Kg ppDl Al. ----aeq/l00 , --%. % 4.6 4.4 88.30 0.20 0.05 0.06 4.5 6.8 67.00 0.72 0.35 0.16 4.3 1.5 31.0 1.10 0.90 0.07 I 4.5 1.0 21.50 1.40 0.52 0.17 ~ . . 4.5 0.2 16.70 4.15 8.75 0.10 5.1 4.7 6.9 0.35 0.09 0.13 LilllO Arcilla pH (X) (1) -O. 86 th '! 0.17 tillO 1.0 0.13 0.14 Arcilla 1.0 -0.27-pR 1.0 p Ca Ma lt P Ca (ppm) 0.11 -0.25-0.06 0.22 -o~18 0.22 0.14 0.10 1.0 0.17 1.0 Mg Sat.A1 (aeq/lOO g) -0.24 .0.12 -0.07 0.23 0.33--0.03 0.17 -0.07 0.11 0.35-0.69---0.5-0 N \". -0.22 0.14 -0.14 I 0.56---0.02 -0.56--1.0 0.51-* -0.44• 1.0 -0.31• Variable original AreDa LiIIo Ardlla pI P ca 14& ~ES PRINCIPALES \"Indice de Fertilidad\" \"Indice de Textura \"Contenido de P 1 . . ligere 1 menor acidez\" deaDalance Ca-K\" (% de varianza explicada por cada uno) (31%) (25%) (15%) ----------Coeficientes ----------0.27 0.56 0.06 0.32 . -0.23 -0.14 0.15 -0.56 -0.04 0.36 0.41 -0.18 .-0.02 0.16\" 0.52 0.36 -0.07 0.58 0.48 0.01 -0.01 . Suelo 4.9 1.2 54 .. 30 0.46 0.02 0.03 4.3 1.5 31.00 Sato de Al , 1.0 1 0,40 0.19 Parlmetros Originales de Suelo -0:49 1.10 0.90 0.07 4.6 2.5 53.00 1.60 0.20 0.15 Corre1aci6n si8D1ficatlva (p ! 0.01). Correlacl6n 81aniflcatlva (0.01 < p ! 0.05. Sato de Al -0.39 -0.28 -0.31 -Arena (X) 43.4 b 39.8 b 36.3 b 64.8 8 (p-0~02) 60.4 a -Limo (X) 27.1 b 23.7 28.6 21.0 b 17 .3 b ns .. Arcilla (%) 29.4 a 36.6 a 36.6 8 14.2 23.3 (p-0.05) -pH 4.9 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.6 ns -P (ppm) '3. Cuadro 3. COIlUnuaci6n. ,;'\\;1 :! -, , . . . '! • !U::il¡:l>to Tara¡'uto Tarapoto RepGbliea DOIÚnic:ana Sabana del Mar Dist. Nacional Dist. Nacional Trinidad. Centeno Venezuela Miranda Espino El Tigre Miranda Manteeal Guaeb! * kg MS/ha. 9 a _ l . Localidad (InaUtue16n) Localidad (Inatituci6n) Cuadro 4. Coutinuac16n. Cuadro 6. BOLIVIA Chipiriri (lITA) Valle dal Saeta (UKSS) BRASIL larrolaDdia (CEPLAC) Kacap4 (UEPAT) COLOMBIA Caueaaia (UDEA) Carimagua (CIAT) El Viento (CIAT) El Paralso (CIAT) El Nua (leA) El Guayabal (CIAT) • Gigante (CENlCAFB) La Libertad (ICA) La LaguDa (SEA) Letic1a (CIAT) Mutata (ICA) Puerto Aals (PONGAR.) Paraguaicito (CENlCAFB) QuiHchao (CIAT) Supla (CENlCAFB) COSTA RICA Bojancha (HINAG/CORERA) San Isidro (HINAG) ECtIADOB. Coca (llIIAP) El Napo (IHIAP) B1 Puyo (ESPOCH) HUlCO Destierro (INIFAP) Isla Veracruz (IHIVAP) Jalapa (INIFAP) Jeric6 (INIrAP) LOIII Bonita (INlrAP) TonaU (IRIFAP)' ,ICARAGUA El Racreo (MIDINRA) • Mateare (MIDINRA) Matipls (MIDINRA) Nueva Guinea (MIDINRA) PAliAKA El Chepo,(Univ.da Pana\") PARAGUAY CupucG (P1lONIEGA!MAG) PERU Puerto BeraGdaz (INIPA/ PEPP!IiICSU) P. Kaldonado (IRIPA/CIPA) Tarapoto Coperholta Localidad (InaUtuc16n) Tarapoto Porvenir (INIPA/CIPA X) Yurimaguaa (INIPA/NCSU) PucaUpa llEPUBLlCA DOMINICANA El Valle Seybo (CENIP/SEA) Rara. Nacionales (CENIP/SEA) Pedro Brand (CENIP/SEA) . VENEZUELA Atapirire (FONAIAP) E.pino (FONAIAP) Guachi (LUZ) pari_tro Arena (1) AretIA 1.0 -o.61 u -1\"',-S ~;:-rd. , .. , \" .. \" \" •'~•;:•~~r. \" l. ~,. ~, . lq''!': .., . . ... ~...::...!!.::.. Jo • ;...J Silva. J.G., López, W., 1985 Silva. J.G •• 1985 Gerún. M., 1985 Gerún, M., 1985 Gerún. M., 1985 Peraad. N.I •• 1983 Arias, P.J • .!!.!!. .• 1985 Barreno, L.A •• 1985 Sanabria, D.M •• G0IlZ4lez. S •• 1983 Sanabria. D.M., Gonl'lez. S •• 1983' Torres. G.R •• 1983 Urdaneta. l •• 1983 Ubieac:i6n Clima Latitud asna Temp. Lluvia Arena Arc1-111 Oc _laño % 11a Ubicaci6n Clima Latitud aan. Temp. Lluvia Arena Arci-11 oC .año % 1la .16•S0'S 250 23.7 4668 59 10 5.1 B pH pH 17•12'S 260 25.0 1881 5 52 4.8 16\"23'S -26.5 1440 72 19 5.3 1.0 22.80 0.70 0.15 0.05 Rango de produeei6n 1 ... \"<lIt\". 12 semanas I ¡ \"\", -\"~\" \"!',' '\\ ' \" • fe I . ¡ .' 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Ca Hg JI: pplll Suelo P Sato Ca Hg It pplll Al. ---lIeq/100 1 --Al. --meql100 g % % 4.3 74.70 0.41 0.41 0.18 0.6 73.80 0.41 0.21 0.24 OoS'S -. 26.7 1732 70 27 4.8 0.7 18.65 0.09 0.19 0.01 8\"O'N 50 28.0 2500 42 36 4.5 1.0 58.75 1.40 0.41 0.06 I 4°37'H 200, 26.1 2181 12 39 4.1 1.0 88.25 0.27 0.01 0.09 \" 4\"7'N 200 26.0 2281 40 45 4.6 0.9 88.80 0.13 0.02 0.05 tJ 6°20'N 120 26.0 2355 20 54 4.3 1.3 88.25 0.17 0.04 0.15 I 6°29'H 835 23.0 22.0 SO 31 5.0 3.2 11.50 2.17 0.68 0.21 4•20'H 120 26.0 2355 50 25 4.S 2.1 84.70 0.16 0.03 0.08 2°22'H 1500 19.4 1189 43 37 5.2 5.5 25.80 2.10 0.80 0.23 4•4'H 336 25.3 2357 20 49 4.2 2.5 16.95 1.00 0.09 0.12 6•54'H 1500 18.8 2467 20 42 5.0 4.8 85,.25 2.10 0.14 0.12 4°9'S 84 26.0 2820 34 33 4.4 2.2 91.70 0.18 0.13 0.12 7°H 132 26.0 4775 20 63 5.1 5.1 72.30 3.08 0.52 0.14 0\"30'N 384 25.0 3800 --5.0 2.1 67.00 0.83 0.40 0.18 4°24'H USO 21.2 1975 59 13 5.8 45.0 0.00 7.10 1.20 0.82 3•6'!! 990 24.0 1800 18 67 3.9 4.0 84.50 0.48 0.15 0.11 S028\"H 1320 20.6 2253 44 35 5.0 32.00 2.00 1.30 0.23 10•1'N 420 24.2 2098 37 31 6.2 1.5 0.60 22.04 5.41 1.87 • '\"22'H 103 21.5 29.54 34 29 5.2 0'21'S 249 -3113 --0'21'S 266 25.4 3113 23 52 1'31'5 900 21.0 4100 60 18 17'51 'H 30 26.0 2200 71 9 lS'6'H SO 25.7 996 62 9 U\"SO'H 40 26.0 2S00 ,65 19 lS\"3'N 70 26.7 2345 57 10 lS'6'H 25 24.7 1845 70 8 lS'9'H 40 27.0 1600 65 12 12'10,'N 30 25.0 3159 24 37 12°17 'N -28.6 957 44 18 lZ'50'H -24.5 1291 3~ 30 U'41 'N 1.50 24.5 2536 3 58 9'8'N 30 26.6 2089 36 31 26'S 125 21.6 1498 54 19 10'18'S 300 26.0 3312 --12\"35'S 310 26.6 1230 50 30 .% % 4.9 8.5.60 0.63 0.21 0.2.5 4.4 2.5 85.60 0.63 0.21 0.21 4.8 2.0 36.10 1.58 0.27 0.18 4.8 5.7 67.20 O.lS O.OS 0.10 4.8 0.98 0.08 0.11 4.8 46.05 3.72 0.51 0.09 S.S 41.1 -. ---4.0 20.0 0.65 0.08 0.11 I 5.6 7.3 ---4.3 6.0 33.90 4.20 2.60 0.32' 6.9 0.50 6.30 1.92 ' 5.9 4.60 ,~ 1.50 5.76 0.72 4.4 21~00 2.00 1.88 0.42 4.4 1.3 55.70 0.14 0.13 0.13 . 5.4 2.5 42.30 3.25 3.25 0.06 4.2 7.4 78.00 1.05 4.9 2.5 65.35 0.70 0.40 0.10 -0.09 . 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Lluvia Arena Ard-a •C am/año % lla 6°32'S 460 26.0 1200 73 17 S•S6'S 184 26.0 2376 66 11 8°80'S 175 35 38 19°3'N 20 '25.0 2034 34 31 18°35'.N 12 26.0 1774 19 63 18°40'N 50 25.5 1866 52 46 8•25'N 140 ' 26.2 1975 91 6 S\"48'H 175 26.3 1100 35 28 gOlO'H 50 28.0 2743 S6 20 pR P Sato Ca Kg ppDl Al. ----aeq/l00 , --%. % 4.6 4.4 88.30 0.20 0.05 0.06 4.5 6.8 67.00 0.72 0.35 0.16 4.3 1.5 31.0 1.10 0.90 0.07 I 4.5 1.0 21.50 1.40 0.52 0.17 ~ . . 4.5 0.2 16.70 4.15 8.75 0.10 5.1 4.7 6.9 0.35 0.09 0.13 LilllO Arcilla pH (X) (1) -O. 86 th '! 0.17 tillO 1.0 0.13 0.14 Arcilla 1.0 -0.27-pR 1.0 p Ca Ma lt P Ca (ppm) 0.11 -0.25-0.06 0.22 -o~18 0.22 0.14 0.10 1.0 0.17 1.0 Mg Sat.A1 (aeq/lOO g) -0.24 .0.12 -0.07 0.23 0.33--0.03 0.17 -0.07 0.11 0.35-0.69---0.5-0 N \". -0.22 0.14 -0.14 I 0.56---0.02 -0.56--1.0 0.51-* -0.44• 1.0 -0.31• Variable original AreDa LiIIo Ardlla pI P ca 14& ~ES PRINCIPALES \"Indice de Fertilidad\" \"Indice de Textura \"Contenido de P 1 . . ligere 1 menor acidez\" deaDalance Ca-K\" (% de varianza explicada por cada uno) (31%) (25%) (15%) ----------Coeficientes ----------0.27 0.56 0.06 0.32 . -0.23 -0.14 0.15 -0.56 -0.04 0.36 0.41 -0.18 .-0.02 0.16\" 0.52 0.36 -0.07 0.58 0.48 0.01 -0.01 . Suelo 4.9 1.2 54 .. 30 0.46 0.02 0.03 4.3 1.5 31.00 Sato de Al , 1.0 1 0,40 0.19 Parlmetros Originales de Suelo -0:49 1.10 0.90 0.07 4.6 2.5 53.00 1.60 0.20 0.15 Corre1aci6n si8D1ficatlva (p ! 0.01). Correlacl6n 81aniflcatlva (0.01 < p ! 0.05. Sato de Al -0.39 -0.28 -0.31 -Arena (X) 43.4 b 39.8 b 36.3 b 64.8 8 (p-0~02) 60.4 a -Limo (X) 27.1 b 23.7 28.6 21.0 b 17 .3 b ns .. Arcilla (%) 29.4 a 36.6 a 36.6 8 14.2 23.3 (p-0.05) -pH 4.9 4.7 5.0 4.8 4.6 ns -P (ppm) '3. (tRIPA/CIPA 1) 6°31'S 310 26.6 1230 68 20 4.4 3.2 85.30 0.30 0.05 0.08 (tRIPA/CIPA 1)6°31'S310 26.6 123068204.43.2 85.300.30 0.05 0.08  "}],"sieverID":"eebdab75-f584-46c1-a1fa-d8b3c62c081d","abstract":""}

data/part_2/04f6897f9bd0ef856019bc4c52481226.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04f6897f9bd0ef856019bc4c52481226","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/6a51334b-9ddb-4dce-a364-7b277e822855/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Synergies between the Food System Resilience Program (FSRP) and the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) in West Africa: Implementation domains for cross-fertilization","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Key messages","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• Through action research across six anchored countries in Africa, AICCRA aims at scaling access and use of enhanced climate information services (CIS) and evidence-based climate-smart agriculture (CSA) technologies and innovations for effective climate risk management and sustainable productivity improvement in various agricultural value chains and sub-sectors."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"• FSRP is a major climate-resilient development program that makes effective use of this new generation of climate information services to improve climatic and disaster risk management, and the application of climate-smart agriculture innovations to improve the agricultural productive base in West African food systems."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"• Fostering synergy between FSRP and AICCRA offers a great spillover opportunity to scale up climate services and climate-smart agriculture to benefit all CILSS-ECOWAS member countries and beyond."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"• As two World Bank-funded projects within the same region and built under a long-term programmatic approach, FSRP and AICCRA are two unique programs to strengthen the institutional capacities and make economy of scale while fostering cross-fertilization among IDA funded-projects in West Africa."},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"• From an operational point of view, the active participations, and interactions of both projects' stakeholders to their respective activities, events and statutory meetings bolster effectiveness of these synergies."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"• The synergies between these two sister projects pave the way for fostering not only the uptake but more importantly the effective use of science-evidenced CSA innovations and CIS across West Africa and the Sahel"}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"The Food System Resilience Program (FSRP) and the Accelerating Impacts of CGIAR Climate Research for Africa (AICCRA) are two World Bank's International Development Association (IDA)-funded projects that include West Africa and the Sahel as intervention region. While the first phase of AICCRA is planned for 2021-2023 with a possible 5-years additional financing from 2024 (Zougmoré et al., 2023), the FSRP is a multiphase long-term commitment program required to build sustainable regional mechanisms and institutions with sufficient substance at a regional level. This multi-phase approach will enable a set of countries with varying degrees of readiness to adopt consistent approaches and accede to regional systems at appropriately differential speeds. Phasing the accession of countries according to their readiness will allow regional mechanisms to operate with maximum effectiveness. While FSRP is aligned to the Economic Community of West Africa States Agricultural Policy (ECOWAP) as the main framework for agricultural transformation and regional integration, and implemented through three major regional organizations, i.e. At the same time, FSRP aims to strengthen regional food system risk management, improve the sustainability of the productive base in targeted areas and to develop regional agricultural markets."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"In view of the complementarity between the two projects, i.e., AICCRA being a potential provider of scientifically evidence-based innovations, tools and approaches, while the FSRP is a potential user of these knowledge and information, and at the same time both are working on the common topic of supporting resilient agriculture and food systems, the World Bank has fostered active synergy between the two projects since their design phases, in a way to promote a win-win cross-fertilization. Since the commencement of FSRP implementation, clear Program of Work and Budget has been developed, with strategic areas of collaboration in a formal document that will serve as implementing guide to both projects and inform other WB operations in IDA countries and regions in Africa and beyond. This Info Note synthesizes and analyses collaboration domains for synergy and cross-fertilization between AICCRA and FSRP, with focus on the latter's two regional components led by CILSS/AGRHYMET and CORAF."}]},{"head":"Overview of FSRP objectives and expected achievements.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"The FSRP Program Development Objective is to increase preparedness against food insecurity and improve the resilience of food systems in participating countries. The expected achievements include: (i) increase of the number of beneficiaries including women of the food system who have access to early warning services and hydro & agro-meteorological advisories; (ii) increase of areas under integrated land management practices; (iii) increase number of beneficiaries who adopted climatesmart technologies and agricultural services; (iv) reduction of % of persons, including women, in food crisis situation in targeted zones, and (v) increase of the part of intra-regional trade for certain value chains."}]},{"head":"COMPONENT 1: Digital Advisory Services for Agriculture and Food Crisis Prevention and Management","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The objectives of Component 1 are: (i) to enhance decision support systems with demand-driven information services to increase the effectiveness of agriculture and food crises prevention and management, integrating data and leveraging cutting-edge science, innovation, and technologies, and (ii) to strengthen regional capacity, institutional sustainability as well as adaptive capacity to climate change. The expected outcomes are (i) an upgraded regional food crisis prevention and management systems leveraging stronger regional operational capacity of agro-hydro-meteorological services and impact-based early warning systems, and (ii) food system users accessing and using agro-and hydrometeorological information services in their decision making."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"The Component 1 comprises: Sub-component 1.1, which objective is to upgrade and operationalize Regional Food Crisis Prevention and Monitoring Systems, with the aim of transforming the regional food security and agriculture information system in order to support risk management decision-making. Specific activities include: (a) Improve regional and national capacity to deliver reliable information services for food and nutrition security and vulnerability assessment; (b) Reorganize and improve regional and national pest and disease monitoring and management mechanisms;"},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"(c) Strengthen regional collaboration for food crisis prevention. Subcomponent 1.2, aims to strengthen and operationalize Digital Hydromet and Agro-Advisory Services for Farmers. It focuses on developing new services, improving the quality, and increasing access to and use of impact-based and location-specific weather, climate and hydrological (hydromet) information as well as their application to agriculture (agromet) tailored to the needs of the agriculture sector. A special focus is made on the needs of the most vulnerable groups, for instance women and young farmers and pastoralists. This will be achieved by strengthening operational linkages between CILSS/AGRHYMET and the national meteorological and hydrological services (NMHSs) in collaboration with key stakeholders such as disaster risk management agencies and the private sector. The envisaged activities are to: (a) Improve production of hydromet, climate, agromet and impact-based information by decision-makers, farmers, pastoralists, and other actors in the food system; (b) Support the timely delivery and use of essential agrohydrometeorological information; (c) Strengthen the financial and institutional sustainability of regional and national institutions providing hydromet, climate, agromet information."}]},{"head":"COMPONENT 2: Sustainability and Adaptive","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Capacity of the Food System's Productive Base","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"Component 2 aims to enhance the resilience of the food system's productive base and contribute directly to the Great Green Wall Initiative. It comprises two mutually supporting sub-components: subcomponent 2.1 Consolidate Regional Agricultural Innovation Systems and subcomponent 2.2 Strengthen Regional Food Security through integrated land management (ILM). Technologies and innovation to be upscaled flow from sub-component 2.1 to 2.2, and the land and water management research group set up under Subcomponent 2.1 will provide technical support and coordination between countries implementing landscape interventions. Expected outcomes include: (i) strengthened national and regional agricultural research systems; (ii) a strengthened policy environment for landscape governance (multisectoral inclusive policies and regulations to avoid, reduce, and reverse land degradation); and (iii) landscape units (LUs) under integrated management that can achieve multiple objectives sustainably (food production, provision of ecosystem services, protection of biodiversity, and improvement of local livelihoods)."},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"Activities under subcomponent 2.1 include: (a) "}]},{"head":"Overview of AICCRA objectives and expected achievements.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"AICCRA development objective is to strengthen the technical, institutional, and human capacity needed by targeted regional and national partners and stakeholders, to enhance transfer and access of climate-relevant information, decision-making tools, and validated climatesmart agriculture (CSA) technologies in support of scaling efforts in IDA-eligible countries in Africa. The project focuses on filling the \"missing middle\" by bridging the gap between the organizations that generate and make available climate information services (CIS) and CSA technologies and the organizations and individuals that take up, re-transmit, or otherwise make use of the climate knowledge and CSA technologies, for the purpose of enhancing the resilience of Africa's agriculture and food systems in the face of climate change. AICCRA expected outcomes are threefold: ( 1 "}]},{"head":"Synergies between the two programs","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"FSRP and AICCRA are two WB-funded programs that intervene within the same sub-region, involving the same key implementing institutions, and focusing on the transformation of food systems in the context of climate change. Therefore, the contractual agreements between the CGIAR lead institution for AICCRA (Alliance of Bioversity International and CIAT) and regional organizations namely AGRHYMET and CORAF, built on some potential areas of synergistic collaborations between the two programs. In the sections below, we expand on strategic areas of AICCRA-FSRP collaborations."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Katie Kennedy Freeman speaking during an AICCRA event"}]},{"head":"Strategic areas of AICCRA-FSRP collaboration on agromet/hydromet","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Climate Information Services (CIS): while AICCRA is feeding FSRP with start-of-art science and technology inputs to be used along the FSRP value chain of climate information services, AICCRA benefits from FSRP investment opportunities in regional organisations and countries to scale-up its evidenced-based tools, approaches and products on climate services."}]},{"head":"Sid","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Side event on communicating climate information during the 2023 PRESASS"},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"For example, through AICCRA, AGRHYMET Regional Climate Center has strengthened its technical capacity to produce new generation of climate services that are used to upgrade the outputs from the Regional Climate Outlook Forum (PRESASS and PRESAGG) in West Africa and the Sahel (Halidou et al., 2022). FSRP will build on these new generation of climate services to support farmers and other stakeholders to build resilience. These new products of seasonal forecasts will also enable the FSRP thematic expert group on CIS to assess and guide implementation of actions. AICCRA will benefit from the FSRP investment in hydromet and agromet data collection, automatization and sharing for further innovations in climate services."},{"index":3,"size":148,"text":"Capacity building of regional and national institutions for effective climate service systems: Both AICCRA and FSRP aim at strengthening the AGRHYMET institutional capacities. Indeed, AICCRA aims at supporting the mandates and ambition of AGRHYMET as the West-African regional leader in capacity building of national met and hydro services through training of trainers approach and in providing start-of-the art CIS to contribute to its accreditation by WMO as the West African and Sahel Regional Climate Centre (Houngnibo et al., 2022;Ali et al., 2022a;Minoungou et al., 2022;Segnon et al., 2022a;Segnon et al., 2023a). On the other hand, FSRP plans to contribute developing a business model for AGRHYMET that can guarantee the sustainability of its services. Therefore, the two efforts are complementary as they will position AGRHYMET as the regional place-to-go in West Africa and the Sahel for climate information services.  (Minoungou et al., 2022;Segnon et al., 2022a;Hansen et al., 2022)."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"Channelling CIS to the last mile: AICCRA and FSRP consider communication as a strategic mean to support large-scale dissemination of knowledge products and to provide agroadvisory services through cascading to various levels of users (regional -national -subnational entities -last mile). AICCRA focuses on developing knowledge products to bridge the gap between science and policy, and to provide science-based evidence in response to various issues and needs. Through story stelling on the best experiences, AICCRA ensures upscaling of CIS to foster their use. Also, AICCRA strengthens the capacities of media and communication actors for their better understanding of the climate jargon used by scientists to translate and format climate information messages and for their contribution to codevelop communication products using the appropriate language (Mainassara et al., 2023). FSRP supports particularly the development of operational communication channels based on digital-led platforms to foster timely agromet and hydromet information delivery to beneficiaries. These digital platforms constitute a tool for FSRP to track and assess the impact of these services."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"Both FSRP and AICCRA make use of regional concertation frameworks such as the Regional Climate Outlook Forum (PRESASS, PRESAGG), PREGEC, RPCA to strengthen dialogue between national and regional stakeholders (Halidou et al., 2023)."}]},{"head":"Strategic areas of AICCRA-FSRP collaboration on the food systems productive base","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"One of the key intervention areas of the FSRP is sustaining the productive base of the food system by investing in CSA at the farm and landscape levels. To enhance the resilience of food systems in priority landscapes, the FSRP has envisaged the delivery of farm/community-level packages of CSA technologies (including droughtresistant crops and specific soil management techniques to reduce water evaporation and enhance resilience). CORAF, as the regional lead of these areas, has defined 3 main strategic intervention domains to collaborate with AICCRA including capacity building, CSA innovation and e-extension."},{"index":2,"size":149,"text":"Capacity building: AICCRA trains FSRP countries' stakeholders to better understand concepts, approaches, tools and methods for sound prioritisation, implementation and use of climate-smart agriculture (Kpadonou et al., 2023a). In addition, AICCRA supports the setting up and training of a West and Central Africa community of practice on foresight analysis (Segnon et al., 2023b;Chesterman et al., 2022;Neely et al., 2022) which is a strategic objective defined in CORAF's strategy 2030 and endorsed 9 in FSRP plans/objectives. This was followed by foresight application to various thematic areas of interest (e.g., pest and disease outbreaks) (Chesterman et al., 2022;Segnon et al., 2023c). AICCRA provides technical backstopping to CORAF in conceptualizing and in better framing of the scaling approach in order to support FSRP implementation across West and Central Africa (Kpadonou et al., 2022;Segnon et al., 2022b). In this way, AICCRA leverages FSRP as a springboard to deploy innovative research outputs and outcomes."}]},{"head":"Participants at the CSA training workshop in Central Africa","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Participant at the CSA training workshop in West Africa","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"Climate-smart agriculture innovations: In line with CORAF goal of promoting access and exchanges of innovations, including CSA technologies, among FSRP countries, AICCRA through generation and mainstreaming of evidenced-based CSA technologies from its intervention countries, is contributing to various scaling mechanisms set up by CORAF such as: (i) the physical and virtual market of agricultural innovations and technologies (MITA), (ii) the virtual platform for West Africa Fertilizer and Seed Recommendations (FeSeRWAM) and (iii) the network of Agricultural Parks of Technologies (APT) for physical and live showcasing (Segnon et al., 2022b;Ganyo et al., 2022;Kpadonou et al., 2022). Also, AICCRA brings integrated approaches and tools such as the climate-smart village, the CSA prioritization methods to support sound selections of CSA technologies that are tailored to the specific contexts and needs of various FSRP value chains and beneficiaries (Segnon et al., 2022c). Given AICCRA is providing transformative CIS under FSRP component 1, this will be leveraged to promote the bundling of CSA and CIS. Indeed, this will improve access by farmers and other value chain actors to climateinformed agricultural advisory services to inform decision-making about choice of technology and enterprise management for better climatic risk management and improved productivity."}]},{"head":"E-extension:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The FSRP is supporting the modernization of countries' extension services, which is also an area of focus for AICCRA. Among the actions undertaken, CORAF is mapping in collaboration with AGRYHMET, the digital-led modern tools and approaches being piloted through AICCRA to promote the use by countries of the most evidenced as successful (Agali et al., 2022). Experiences from West Africa Agricultural Productivity Program (WAAPP) and the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture, and Food security (CCAFS) in Ghana, Senegal, and Côte d'Ivoire will provide relevant inputs to these e-extension initiatives (Partey et al., 2019)."}]},{"head":"Cross cutting issues","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Both AICCRA and FSRP prioritise Gender and social inclusion as a cross cutting topic across all activities and promote synergies and the principle of subsidiarity through public-private engagement (PPE) mechanisms."}]},{"head":"• Gender and social inclusion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"There is cross-fertilisation between FSRP and AICCRA through various initiatives such as (1) joint capacity building on specific skills to benefit actors of both projects (Ganyo et al., 2023a), (2) identifying and sharing best practices, experiences and strategies for gender and social inclusion in generation and scaling of CSA and CIS innovations addressing priorities and needs of different groups, in particular women, youth and under-represented groups in both project activities (Ali et al., 2022b, Ganyo et al., 2023b,c;Segnon et al 2023d), (3) developing a national gender and climate action plan in agriculture to identify and support concrete actions for gender empowerment at local level, (4) the inventory of gender-responsive CSA innovations in West and Central Africa for MITA platform (Ganyo et al., 2023b;Segnon et al., 2023d), ( 5) Identifying CSA business models through scaling of the Gender Smart Accelerator model developed in AICCRA to benefit ECOWAS member-countries."}]},{"head":"Presentation of gender and nutrition sensitive CSA and CIS innovations during the MITA event","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"• Public-Private Engagement Through public-private engagement, FSRP plans to (1) support the development of business models for the sustainability of regional and national institutions in charge of climate services and climate-smart agriculture, (2) develops regional platforms for exchange between public and private actors (e.g., capitalize on MITA experience to build a platform for a better contribution of private sector to climate services). On the other hand, AICCRA has been testing various PPP business models on the bundling of CSA and CIS that could inform the above objectives of FSRP. Similarly, the sustainable finance schemes piloted through AICCRA to support investments by small and medium enterprises are relevant to supporting FSRP initiatives on public-private engagement and business models development. • Bio-risks management CORAF is supporting the establishment of new national centre of specialisation for mechanization, bio-risk management in Togo. AGRHYMET with its long experience in pest and disease monitoring and management mechanisms can work synergistically with CORAF to backstop this new centre. In terms of capacity building, AICCRA has supported CORAF to set up a community of practice in foresight analysis and a regional action plan for preparedness and rapid response has been produced to guide implementation actions against foreseen or emerged crop pest and disease outbreaks in the region (Segnon et al., 2023b;Chesterman et al., 2022)."}]},{"head":"Training on Biorisks management in Togo","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"• Modern agricultural advisory tools One of the major expected achievements through FSRP component 2 is the modernization of national extension services. Indeed, FSRP will promote modern approaches to extension, including by supporting the adoption of digital agriculture and e-extension services. Under the component 1 led by AGRHYMET, it is also expected the development of decision support tools and methods for improved, user-targeted agro-advisory services. Therefore, CORAF, AGRHYMET and AICCRA have jointly developed a concept note to map the modern advisory tools and approaches being promoted to identify bestpractice countries as examples for spillover across West Africa."}]},{"head":"• Formal institutional partnerships and supports","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"In a bid to strengthen the collaboration with CORAF and AGRHYMET, AICCRA has signed partnership performance agreements with these two organizations to include them as major regional implementing partners and therefore, allocated dedicated funds to support both organizations for their spillover activity implementations. AICCRA has been actively"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"contributing to the MITA and other CORAF-led events (Segnon et al., 2022b;Segnon et al, 2023d;Kpadonou et al., 2023b) through organizing specific sessions to share AICCRA success cases and experiences. Similarly, AICCRA has been contributing to the annual Regional Climate"},{"index":3,"size":29,"text":"Outlook Forums (PRESASS and PRESAG) and the biannual scientific conference on climate in the Sahel organized by AGRHYMET (Zougmoré, 2022;Segnon et al., 2022a;Halidou et al., 2023;Mainassara et al., 2023)."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"• Strengthen the active participation and contribution of AICCRA to key FSRP meetings including the steering committees and vice versa, such as the example of AICCRA chairing the FSRP component 1 Scientific & Technical Committee."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"• Promote join communication of the results of the two projects and their complementarities (Example of co-organization of a side event at COPs)"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"• Further align AICCRA Additional Financing activities with FSRP."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Co-supervise academic trainings (master, PhD) on thematic areas of interest to both FSRP and AICCRA"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• Develop a long-term vision paper for both programs that shape their synergies and complementarities towards transforming food system and resilience in West Africa"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Participants at the MITA event in Ougadougou • Bundling of CIS with climate-smart agriculture innovations Using climate information to decide about the most appropriate climate-smart technology is crucial in the context of the important climate variability in West Africa and the Sahel. Therefore, potential climate-smart agricultural innovations and technologies promoted by CORAF (Ganyo et al., 2022) can be more efficiently used if packaged based on climate information. This is where the component of FRSP led by AGRHYMET comes in through the timely delivery and use of essential agrohydrometeorological information to key users, including farmers and pastoralists, by building their capacity, developing multimodal communication channels, and supporting the codevelopment of services by engaging users. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"cab6d03f-6ccc-42a4-967b-12426b2aafc2","abstract":"Titles in this series aim to disseminate interim research on the scaling of climate services and climatesmart agriculture in Africa, in order to stimulate feedback from the scientific community."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"057d3d3ae55ec412d3b0022c8dcc0388","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f8306271-be4d-4acb-bb82-587bd6448f5e/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"TRADITIONAL CROPS FOR HOUSEHOLD FOOD SECURITY AND FACTORS ASSOCIATED WITH ON-FARM DIVERSITY IN THE MOUNTAINS OF NEPAL","keywords":["Crop biodiversity","food security","traditional crops","mountain agroecosystem"],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":415,"text":"The high mountain region of Nepal harbours globally important crop biodiversity of traditional crops such as buckwheat, naked barley, and different species of millet (finger, proso and foxtail), amaranth, bean and highland rice that have unique traits of cold and drought tolerance adapted to harsh risk prone marginal environments (UNEP GEF, 2013). These crops are cultivated over millennia by farmers and hence have helped to meet food security of marginalized communities even in the face of changing climate (Gauchan and Khanal, 2011;UNEP GEF, 2013). The intra-specific diversity of these crops is very high as most of these crops are either evolved or located at the center of diversity in Nepal Himalayas. Cold-tolerant rice is grown in Nepal (e.g. Chhumchaur, Jumla) at altitude 3030 masl, the highest in the world, with its very high cold tolerance ability. Buckwheat and naked barley are also grown at high altitudes near the snow line providing food and livelihood security to marginalized people living in harsh mountainous environments, where poverty incidence is the highest in Nepal (CBS, 2012;NPC, 2016). These traditional underutilized crops are intensively used by local mountain communities in many of the remote hills and mountainous regions, and contribute considerably to their site-specific food security, nutrition and adaptation (Joshi and Shrestha, 2018). They are nutrient dense and climate resilient crops, and provide food, fodder, nutrition, livelihood and ecologicalsecurities to smallholder farmers with potential for value chain development and income generation (Gauchanet al., 2019). Many of these crops (amaranth, finger millet, proso millet and foxtail millet) are gluten free; rich in micronutrients (calcium, iron), dietary fibers, rare amino acids, antioxidants and vitamins, and contain higher protein as compared to major food staples such as rice and wheat (DFTQC, 2012). Hence, they are considered Himalayan Superfoods 1  and also crops for the future. Furthermore, most of these crops (amaranth, finger millet, proso millet and foxtail millet) are C4 crops, thus resilient and fit on climate change adaptation as they are hardy and can be grown in harsh marginal lands with low inputs and water (Gauchanet al., 2019). These crops tolerate biotic and abiotic stresses; for example, escape drought and cold temperatureand ensure food availability in shorter period in lean seasons due to their short duration (e.g. buckwheat grown in 2-3 months) of production period. Considering their great value for nutrition, climate resilience and risk diversification, these traditional crops are considered \"future smart foods\" in the changing climate for site-specific food supply and adaptation (Li and Siddique, 2018;Joshi et al., 2019)."},{"index":2,"size":282,"text":"Even though the traditional mountain crops are considered minor crops at the national level, they happen to be the principal crops of high Mountain Himalayan districts of western and mid-western regions of Nepal and play important role in food and nutritional security of poor farmers and marginalized communities. For instance, present official statistics of Nepal (MoAD, 2016) show that millet is number one important crop in Humla and Mugu districts, while barley and millet are second important crops in Jumla. Buckwheat is number one crop in Mustang and Manang and second most important one in Dolpa district (MoAD, 2016).Therefore, despite the minor crops shared small proportion (6%) of area nationally (CBS, 2013), they are important for food security of farmers in high elevation areas of mid and higher mountain regions of Nepal. However, very little research, development and investment have been done globally and nationally focusing on these crops from the perspective of breeding, processing, promotion and policies. Therefore, cropped area and varietal diversity of these crops are declining rapidly recently with climate change, migration, cultural change and commercialization. Previous studies in rice in middle mountainsof Nepal have shown various socioeconomic, market and agro-ecological determinants of farm maintenance of rice diversity (Gauchan et al., 2005). However, we have limited information about the factors influencing on-farm maintenance and management of the traditional crop diversities and their role in local and national food and nutrition security. The main objectives of this study were (i) to document the status of traditional crop biodiversities and their relations with household food security and (ii) to analyse farm-household agro-ecological, socioeconomic and institutional factors influencing the crops' cultivationand diversity maintenance for food security and agrobiodiversity conservation in the mountains."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"The study used sample household survey combined with participatory rural appraisals and field trials to generate information on mountain agroecosystems of Jumla, Humla (western Nepal), Lamjung (central Nepal) and Dolakha (eastern Nepal) districts. A total of 328 farm households were surveyed in 2014-15 covering one village development committee (VDC) in each of the districts. The survey using proportionate random sampling covered 72 to 90 farm households from Chhippra, Hanku, Ghanpokhara and Jugu VDCs respectively in Humla, Jumla, Lamjung and Dolakha districts. The survey was supplemented with focus group discussions, field monitoring visits and consultation meetings with local communities and other stakeholders. The study focused on collection of farm household information regarding agricultural systems that mainly included household food sufficiency, and production, agronomy and market related features and diversity of traditional mountain crops. Data compilation, analysis and reporting were focused on important traditional crops grown by large number of farmers in the study sites. Food security is assessed from both secondary time series and survey data collected on household production and sufficiency level. Both qualitative and quantitative data were analyzed primarily with the use of descriptive statistics, such as mean, frequency and standard error of mean. Relationships among variables are tested using correlation analysis. Regression model (e.g. Tobit) is used to identify factors influencing farm choices and decisions maintaining intra-specific diversity of economically important traditional crops mainly cold tolerant rice, finger millet and bean. The data were analyzed using Microsoft Excel, Statistical Package for the Social Sciences (SPSS) 16 for descriptive analysis and STATA (10.0) for econometric analysis."}]},{"head":"ANALYTICAL MODEL","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"There are various regression tools and techniques to analyse factors influencing farm maintenance of crop varieties. The Tobit (censored regression) model is used here to study the household specific socioeconomic and institutional factors influencing on-farm maintenance of traditional crop diversity as the data sets for on-farm diversity indicator (proportion of area allocation to specific crops) are continuous and censored at zero. Censored Tobit model is suitable when data are continuous and censored at zero (Maddala, 1983). Moreover, Tobit regression model is suitable here as it measures the extent of crop area allocation by specific households as a measure of on-farm diversity. It uses all observations, both growers and nongrowers, that are at the limit, usually zero (e.g. non growers), and those above the limit (e.g. growers) to estimate a regression line (McDonald and Moffitt, 1980;Gauchanet al., 2005). Proportion of area allocated to specific crop is used as dependent variable. The general formulation for Tobit specification is usually given in terms of index function (Greene, 2000),"},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"where, * i D is a censored variable of the dependent variable, which is expressed as the share of traditional crop area (cold tolerant rice, finger millet, beans) under different varieties depending on the type of analysis. '  is a vector of parameters to be estimated and X, is a vector of explanatory variables which includes household variables (age, gender, family size, farm size, female involved in agriculture, agriculture income, working outside), farm agro-ecological variables (mountain agroecosystems western vs eastern) and institutional variables (market distance, access to training and tenancy) and is the disturbance term."}]},{"head":"RESULT AND DISCUSSION","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"HOUSEHOLD SOCIO-DEMOGRAPHY","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"The socio-demographic information of the sample households is presented in Table 1. Sample households are dominated by middle age farmers (44 years) with average family size of 6 persons and average farm size of 10 ropani (0.5 ha). This indicates predominance of smallholder farmers with smaller farm size as compared to national average of 0.68 ha. Over half of the sample households have nuclear families and about one-fifth of them are female decision makers. About 50% of the sample households fall under disadvantaged groups (Dalit and Janajati), which is the highest in the study site of Lamjung (96%). "}]},{"head":"ON-FARM DIVERSITY OF TRADITIONAL CROPS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"On-farm diversity of traditional mountain crops is measured in terms of (i) proportion of farm households cultivating these crops, (ii) farm area allocation to these crops and (iii) number of varieties (varietal richness) grown by farmers at the households and community levels in the mountain agro-ecosystems. These are briefly discussed focusing on high altitude cold tolerant rice, fingermillet and common bean in following outlines."}]},{"head":"Proportion of households growing crops","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":226,"text":"Finger millet, cold tolerant rice and bean are grown by large proportion (>50%)of the households in mountain agro-ecosystems of Jumla (2300-2700 msl), Humla (2200-2900 msl), Lamjung (1500-1800 msl) and Dolakha (1700-2000 msl) (Figure 1). Proso millet, foxtail millet, amaranth, naked barley and buckwheat are not common to Lamjung and Dolakha, but they are grown by larger proportion of the households in Humla. In Jumla, foxtail millet, proso millet, buckwheat and amaranth are grown by smaller proportion of the households, but barley in larger area by many households. Farm area allocation to traditional mountain crops Since, farm households in mountain areas have small farm sizes (< 0.5 ha), they grow traditional crops in relatively smaller area. High altitude cold tolerant rice is grown in the largest area (33%) followed by finger millet (17%) in all the mountain study sites (Table 2). The area share of different traditional crops to total cultivated farm area in the study sites ranges from less than 1% to 33% with the highest share for rice (33%) and the lowest share for foxtail millet (0.30%). Some of them are location specific such as proso millet, foxtail millet, buckwheat and amaranth in Humla and Jumla. Barley is grown mainly in Jumla and naked barley mainly in Humla. Buckwheat in Dolakha and foxtail millet in Lamjung are also grown in small area by few households."}]},{"head":"Diversity of traditional crop varieties at community level","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"A high intra-specific diversity of traditional crops (rice, finger millet and bean) was found maintained at all four mountain agro-ecosystems. The varietal richness or number of varieties grown by farm households, an indicator of crop diversity, was found highest for rice in Dolakha, finger millet in Lamjung and bean in Dolakha and Jumla (Figure 2). Community level richness (number of crop varieties grown at the community level) is relatively high for rice, bean and finger millet. The level of varietal richness at the community level varied by specific crops in specific sites. For instance, the varietal richness (number of varieties) is relatively high for bean in Jumla and Dolakha, and finger and foxtail millet in Lamjung. "}]},{"head":"FOOD SECURITY STATUS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"Food sufficiency in terms of cereals, pulses and vegetables production at farm level in aggregate was low and inadequate, which is not even adequate forabout six months (Figure 3). Farmers' annual production of food staples meet 7 months in Lamjung and Dolakha and only for 4-5 months in Humla and Jumla. The pulse sufficiency was relatively higher in Jumla for about 6 months, 5 months in Lamjung and only 4 months in Humla and Dolakha. The level of vegetable sufficiency was 5 months in Lamjung and Dolakha but less than 4 months in Humla and Jumla. The finding shows that study sites in far western high mountain (Jumla and Humla) have very low food sufficiency level, though this was also not adequate (not more than six months) in central mountain (Lamjung) and eastern mountain (Dolakha). "}]},{"head":"No of Varieties Jumla Humla","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":262,"text":"Relationship between food security and crop diversity Analysis on average period of food sufficiency (number of months) from farm production and its relationship with on-farm crop diversity (as measured by varietal richness or number of varieties grown by the households) is essential to get an idea about whether crop diversity had positive contribution on food security and livelihood of smallholder mountain farmers. The analysis was carried out for rice, finger millet and bean that are predominantly grown in all the high-altitude study sites (Table 3). Correlation analysis was carried out for key household socioeconomic variables with proportion of area allocated with traditional mountain crops and varietal richness. There is a positive and significant relationship between rice richness (rice varietal diversity of the households) and household food sufficiency in Humla, Jumla, Lamjung, and Dolakha and at the aggregate level. Similarly, there is positive relationship between finger millet richness and food sufficiency indicating finger millet is critical food staple in this high mountain district. Secondary data also indicate that finger millet is number one crop in term of its area coverage in Humla district (MoAD, 2016) contributing important role in food sufficiency. However, this relationship was not significant in bean in Humla, Jumla and Dolakha, probably due to production of this crop in small area in all the sites. The finding clearly indicates that on-farm diversity of high-altitude rice cultivars has positive role in food security of the households in all the mountain agro-ecosystems, while that of finger millet diversity has only in Humla contributing positive role in food security of the mountain households. "}]},{"head":"Factors influencing on-farm crop diversity","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Tobit (censored) regression model was carried out to analyse household specific socioeconomic, agroecological and institutional factors influencing on-farm diversity of rice, finger millet and bean. The results of the model for the selected crops with their significance level are presented in Table 4. Dependent variable used in this analysis was proportion of area allocation to each crop. The independent variables were household specific socioeconomic, agro-ecological and institutional factors. The household socioeconomic factors included are age and gender of decision makers, female involved in agriculture, family type, family size, farm size, agriculture as main source of income and family members working outside. Mountain agro-ecosystem whether located in the eastern mountains (Lamjung and Dolakha) or western mountains (Jumla and Humla) was considered as a farm-specific agroecological factor. Institutional factors mainly include access to training, type of tenancy situation and market factors. The significant variables in explaining area allocation to rice include age of farmers, female members involved in agriculture, farm size, family size, market factors such as market distance in kilometer and agro-ecology (mountain agro-ecosystem). For finger millet, household specific factors such as family size, farm size, age and agroecological location were significant whilst market factor was not significant."},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"For bean, family size, family members working outside village, tenancy, agroecological location, and market access are significant. Agro-ecological factors were significant in all the three crops due to important roles that agroecology (climatic and natural conditions) play in the study mountain locations. The factors such as access to training to production of these crops and gender of the decision makers did not have significant effect on the maintenance of on-farm diversity of all the important crops."}]},{"head":"RESULT AND DISCUSSION","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"The findings showed that various socioeconomic status of the households such as farm size (proxy for wealth status), age (proxy for experience and knowledge), family size (proxy for farm labour availability), market distance (proxy for market access and demand) and agro-ecology (mountain locations and its environment) are the key factors that influence the farmers' decision and shapes the diversity of a crop. Age of the farmers and farm size are influencing factors for rice and finger millet but they are not important for bean. Age was found significantindiversified cultivation of rice and finger millet that requires specific knowledge on seedbed preparation, cultivation and crop management. Family size was important for all of these crops as these are labour intensive crops grown under traditional family farming system. Larger farm size provides spaces for growing different varieties of the crops in larger area resulting in more on-farm diversity of these crops. For bean, only family size was important but not the farm size and farmers' age as this crop is labor intensive for cultivation, threshing and handling where larger family size provides more labour sources for this. Since bean is grown in small area by all the farm households older or younger in similar proportion of the area, farm size and age were not important. Farmers' sources of agricultural income and female members working in agriculture are important factors for area allocation to rice but not for finger millet and bean, because rice tends to be preferred crop and area allocation to this crop increases with more income sources of the farmers. Female members in the households are important in rice production, post-harvest handling, processing and food preparation as their engagement and knowledge is higher in rice farming in Nepal."},{"index":2,"size":405,"text":"Agroecological conditions and locations of mid-western mountain environments are positively driving allocation of area for bean but negatively on rice and finger millet production. This may be due to less suitability of lands for rice and finger millet cultivation under high altitude cold and harsh extreme environment of Karnali Mountains as compared to relatively mid altitude and better environment of central and eastern mountain agroecosystem such as Lamjung and Dolakha. In contrast, Karnali Mountain shows positive and significant effect on diversified cultivation of bean, because the crop is well adapted and suited to the high altitude environments, and Karnali high altitude bean fetches high demand in urban markets of Nepal. Market access (distance) factor was significant with negative sign for rice and bean but non-significant for finger millet. This indicates farm households located farther away from market are less likely to maintain rice and bean diversity, because recently rice and bean are cultivated nearby market are becoming more cash crops requiring inputs from markets and products to be sold in nearby market for generating cash income. Farmers working outside the village seasonally for non-farm works showed negative effect for bean, but not for rice and finger millet. This is because family labour used in non-farm outside the village does not affect much for rice and finger millet cultivation prebaby because, they work seasonally outside during off-season and tend to come to village during peak cultivation and harvesting season of rice and fingermillet.Focus group discussion and field observations in the study sites also support this finding. However, for beans, this has some negative effect as its main planting and harvesting period contradicts with outside non-farm work and this crop is not much important for many of the farm households as compared to rice and finger millet.Tenancy situation (share cropping) variable is only significant for bean regression but with negative sign indicating that share croppers are less likely to maintain bean diversity than owner cultivators since bean is becoming more cash crops and owner cultivators tend to grow bean in their own area including in kitchen gardens than that of share cropping and those cultivators renting the land. For traditional mountain crops, factors such as access to training and gender of the decision makers in the households did not have significant effect on the maintenance of on-farm diversity, probably due to both men and women farmers' pre-existing good experiences and traditional knowledge on cultivation of these crops."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":323,"text":"On-farm diversity maintenance of traditional crops namely finger millet, high altitude cold tolerant rice and bean is fair in the study sites, while that of barley, naked barley, prosomillet, foxtail millet and amaranth are specific to some mountain regions (mainly Humla and Jumla districts). Among the traditional crops, the diversity particularly of cold tolerant rice in all the mountain sites and that of finger millet in Humla play important role in farm production and food security of the mountain households despite current food sufficiency level of these crops is low in these marginal mountain environments. Factors influencing on-farm diversity of the three economically important crops namely finger millet, cold tolerant rice and bean varied by agro-ecological, farming system and socioeconomic conditions of the mountain locations. Agro-ecology of the mountain farming system has been a critical factor in influencing area allocation and diversity maintenance of rice, finger millet and bean in all the mountain agro-ecosystems. Farmers' socioeconomic factors such as farmers' age, family size and farm size play important role in on-farm maintenance of rice and finger millet diversity. Similarly, family size, tenancy and family members working outside are important for on-farm diversity of bean. Market factors play important role for rice and bean, since market demand for nutritious high altitude local organic marshi rice and bean is increasing in urban markets of Nepal. Therefore, market development in the mountain regions needs to consider promoting on-farm diversity of high-altitude rice and bean.While other interventions on household-specific socioeconomic characteristics promoting on-farm crop diversities and farm household food security are essential for all the major traditional crops. Furthermore, crop-specific agro-ecological factors and the crops diversities should also be considered in such promotions. Future research and development interventions need to focus on diversity rich solutions and technologies tailored to specific crops and farm socioeconomic, agro-ecological conditions and institutional settings of the mountain households to enhance household food security and management of crop biodiversity of the mountain agro-ecosystems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Percent households growing traditional mountain crops in study sites "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Crop varietal richness of traditional crops at community level "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Status of household food and vegetable self-sufficiency (months) in study sites "},{"text":"Table 1 : Household socio-demographic information in study sites in2014-15  (n=328)     Socio-Demography Humla (n=72) Jumla (n=83) Lamjung (n=83) Dolakha (n=90) All(n 328) Socio-DemographyHumla (n=72)Jumla (n=83)Lamjung (n=83)Dolakha (n=90)All(n 328) Age of the respondents (years) 37.9 39.5 51.9 47.0 44.0 Age of the respondents (years)37.939.551.947.044.0 Farm size (Ropani)* 4.4 8.00 18.2 10.4 10.4 Farm size (Ropani)*4.48.0018.210.410.4 Family size (No) 5.3 6.0 6.4 5.8 5.9 Family size (No)5.36.06.45.85.9 Nuclear households (%) 68 61 42 60 58 Nuclear households (%)6861426058 Female members in the households (%) 28 46 37 59 46 Female members in the households (%)2846375946 Female decision makers (%) 6 24 28 38 23 Female decision makers (%)624283823 Disadvantaged groups (Dalit &Janjati) (%) 15 45 96 31 48 Disadvantaged groups (Dalit &Janjati) (%)1545963148 Note: One Ropani =500 sq meter      Note: One Ropani =500 sq meter  "},{"text":"Table 2  : Average area allocations (Ropani) to different mountain crops in 2014-15 : Average area allocations (Ropani) to different mountain crops in 2014-15 Crop Jumla Humla Lamjung Dolakha Overall Area share CropJumla Humla Lamjung Dolakha OverallArea share      Average (%)* Average(%)* Amaranth 0.027 0.12 - - 0.06 0.57 Amaranth0.0270.12--0.060.57 Barley 2.20 0.39 - 1.1 0.80 7.70 Barley2.200.39-1.10.807.70 Bean 1.88 0.48 0.38 0.026 0.35 3.4 Bean1.880.480.380.0260.353.4 Buckwheat 0.69 0.88 -  1.10 10.5 Buckwheat0.690.88-1.1010.5 Finger 1.03 1.17 2.52 3.5 1.77 16.9 Finger1.031.172.523.51.7716.9 millet       millet Foxtail 0.07 0.49 1.27 - 0.03 0.30 Foxtail0.070.491.27-0.030.30 millet       millet Naked - 0.88 - 0.7 0.80 7.65 Naked-0.88-0.70.807.65 barley       barley Proso millet 0.95 0.79 - - 0.85 8.12 Proso millet0.950.79--0.858.12 Rice 2.57 0.86 11.12 4.9 3.43 32.7 Rice2.570.8611.124.93.4332.7 Farm size 8.06 4.29 18.22 10.44 10.46 100 Farm size8.064.2918.2210.4410.46100 Note       Note  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Relationship between food security and on-farm traditional crop diversity Crop Diversity Jumla Humla Lamjung Dolakha All Sites Crop DiversityJumlaHumlaLamjungDolakha All Sites Rice richness 1.49 * 0.61** 0.572** 0.311** 0.4** Rice richness1.49 *0.61**0.572**0.311**0.4** Finger millet richness 0.91ns 0.237* -.017 0.161 0.066 Finger millet richness0.91ns0.237*-.0170.1610.066 Bean richness 1.78ns 0.85ns -0.230* 0.029 -0.027 Bean richness1.78ns0.85ns-0.230*0.029-0.027 Note. ** Significance at P<0.01, and *significance at P<0.05 level.   Note. ** Significance at P<0.01, and *significance at P<0.05 level.  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Factors influencing on-farm diversity of selected traditional mountain crops Socioeconomic groups Rice Finger Bean Socioeconomic groupsRiceFingerBean  Coefficient millet Coefficient CoefficientmilletCoefficient   Coefficient  Coefficient Age (number of years) 0.0025** 0.003** -0.003 Age (number of years)0.0025**0.003**-0.003 Gender of decision makers (Female=1;    Gender of decision makers (Female=1; Otherwise=2) -0.0067 -0.007  Otherwise=2)-0.0067-0.007  "}],"sieverID":"2fd22dc1-6e52-4d54-8620-a24f15372739","abstract":"Traditional crops play an important role in household food security and livelihood needs of mountain communities, while at the same time safeguarding crop biodiversity for future generations. This study aims to analyse socioeconomic, farmspecificagro-ecological and market factors influencing cultivation and maintenance of crop diversity in Nepal. It used sample surveys of 328 households from mountains of Humla, Jumla, Lamjung and Dolakha districts in 2015. The sample survey was supplemented with participatory rural appraisals, field monitoring visits and local stakeholder consultations. Tobit regression model was used to assess factors driving household decisions to allocate area for production and maintenance ofon-farm diversity. Farm maintenance of crop diversity was related to household food sufficiency level of traditional crops. Factors influencing on-farm crop diversity and household food security varied with the crops, and mainly related with farmers' age, family size, farm size, agro-ecosystemand market factor. Future research and development interventions need to focus on diversity rich solutions and technologies tailored to specific crops, socioeconomic, market and farm-agroecology of the households enhancing household food security and management of mountain crop biodiversity."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"058b67b55b0c86f97483d2fec76aa571","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ae925f07-5472-4730-82ab-b570053b536c/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Red meat production in the Tanzanian livestock master plan","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Salim Nandonde, Getachew Gebru and James Stapleton A series of targeted interventions would increase the contribution of the red meat sector in Tanzania to gross national product by 26% over the 2017-2022 period, to more than USD 940 million annually. The required investment of just over USD 153 million-46% and 54% coming from the private and public sectors-in the areas of health, genetics, feed, value addition and complementary policy changes would result a 50% increase in red meat production by 2022 to 742,524 tonnes."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Goat and sheep meat production are expected to rise over the five-year period by 60% to 103,681 tonnes, while the cattle red meat production from the ranching and the feedlot fattening, and dairy subsector would grow from by 73% to 3,029 tonnes and by 521% to 531,275 tonnes respectively. Even with the implementation of these proposed investments, livestock consumption is expected to grow from 2017-2022 by 71% (to 867,302 tonnes), leaving a 17% deficit (124,778 tonnes) in the red meat production consumption balance."}]},{"head":"Background","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Almost everyone in Tanzania consumes red meat, a large number of Tanzanian families own cattle, goats or sheep and approximately one third of the population are engaged to some degree in the production, processing and sale of red meat. The red meat value chain can found in one or more of the four major production typology zones of Tanzania: central; coastal and lake; highlands; and commercial specialized dairy. It comprises live animals as well as meat-processed meat products and by-products from cattle, sheep and goats sold locally and internationally."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Primary processed meat and meat products, obtained post-slaughter, include: carcasses, red offal, hides, skins and other by-products, such as blood, bones, horns, hooves, hair, wool etc. The value chain actors include primary producers, live animal traders, meat and by-product processors, butchers and consumers. Red meat production in Tanzania comes from two major production systems: the traditional red meat-smallholder mixed crop-livestock, grazing and pastoral-production system and specialized cattle feedlots. "}]},{"head":"Red meat challenges and strategies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Feed: The supply of animal feed, including concentrates and feed supplements, is erratic, both in terms of quality and quantity. Much of the feed in Tanzania is mineral deficient, in part due to a lack of quality control and standards, and enforcement mechanisms. These challenges are coupled with the limited access to good quality land to meet animal feed demand in the country, particularly demand by commercial feedlots. Moreover, smallholder farmers generally do not have a good understanding of the use of crop residues and by-products as animal feed. The strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the: • introduction of policy to make land available for investors in forage seed and production;"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"• promotion and enforcement of land contracts to produce forage for commercial feedlots;"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"• promotion of the establishment of agro-industries designed to increase the supply of by-products for feed supplements and of flour mills making more concentrates available;"},{"index":4,"size":23,"text":"• improvement of the quality, and increased use, of agro-industrial by-products, from the processing of cereal/grains/oil seeds/sugar cane as concentrates for animal feed;"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• strengthening of the feed quality control authority to expand its operations;"},{"index":6,"size":5,"text":"• rehabilitation of rangeland/grazing land;"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• acquisition of substantial additional amounts of land for grazing, and pasture and fodder production; "}]},{"head":"Policy:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The red meat subsector is hampered by a lack of appropriate policies or implementation of policy, such as in the areas of breeding and land policies related to feed production and land acquisition for feedlot investment."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"There are shortages of appropriate land in the country and a lack protectionism in trade policy. For instance, the establishment of feedlots requires access to appropriate locations conducive to feed production, linkages with export markets, and infrastructure-road access, power and water supply-whereas the domestic production of oil seed requires financial incentives and trade barriers. The strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the:"},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"• development and implementation of standards on meat and feed quality control, and of grading and pricing policies;"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"• introduction of trade policy to reduce the importation of cooking oil and grain flour;"},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"• development and implementation of policies protecting and enhancing animal welfare;"},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• development of clearly defined guidelines on the right to access and use land and the implementation of appropriate land policies; and"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"• refraining from uncritically gazetting grazing land, heretofore accessible for pastoral production, for conservation purposes."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"• reduce young and adult stock mortality through enhanced access to vaccines and antiparasitic drugs;"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• introduce integrated fodder crops with food crops;"},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• harvest grass in a timely manner, and store and conserve hay from communal grazing lands."},{"index":11,"size":18,"text":"• increase the efficiency of crop residue use (proper storage, supplementation, treatment including physical treatment-chopping, and urea); and"},{"index":12,"size":7,"text":"• introduce oversowing and rotational grazing practices."}]},{"head":"Complementary interventions","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"To facilitate the success of the interventions with improved traditional red meat producers, the authorities should:"},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"• ensure producers are provided with the knowledge and skills to enable their access to land, water, finance, etc.;"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• improve the policy environment, ensuring adequate forage is made available;"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• ensure the production of vaccines meet demands; and"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• ensure adequate feed supplements are made available."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"To facilitate the success of the interventions with specialised cattle feedlot and culled dairy cattle fattening producers, the authorities should:"},{"index":7,"size":5,"text":"• develop an industry strategy;"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• enable access to sufficient land, water and finance, etc.;"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"• introduce a conducive policy and investment environment required to attract and facilitate private sector investment in feedlots and slaughterhouse operations; and"},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"• strategically use feed sources from new and existing sugar plantations and other types of large-scale crop production investments in Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Value chain modernization interventions","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The interventions-seeking to achieve reductions in livestock mortality and increases in parturition and dressing rates, and live weights, herd sizes, ranch numbers, the availability of grazing/ pasture land, and feedlot operations-are designed to increase red meat output and productivity. It is expected that most red meat production interventions will focus on improving traditional red meat production-in the central, coastal and lake, and highlands production zones-and specialized cattle feedlot operations. The number of cattle (local and those culled from dairy operations) to feedlots is expected to reach 1.2 million by 2022, a 268% increase. Sheep and goat are also key contributors to projected red meat production, showing increases of 19% to 6 million and 36% to 24 million respectively by 2022."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"The priority technological interventions in the central, coastal and lake production zones seek to:"},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• improve feed practices through better rangeland management by oversowing with grass and legumes and controlling invasive species, shrub clearing, and the application of the thinning technique to stem shrub encroachment;"},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"• reduce young and adult stock mortality by improving access to veterinary services, antiparasitic control/ treatment, and vaccinations;"},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"• improve breeds through better selection and management of male animals; and"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"• introduce a better herd/flock recording scheme for breed improvement."},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"In highland zone, the following interventions seek to:"},{"index":8,"size":14,"text":"• improve breeds through the application of artificial insemination with semen of exotic breeds;"},{"index":9,"size":12,"text":"• improve breed management through the implementation of a herd/flock recording scheme;"},{"index":10,"size":33,"text":"• enhance the capacity of farmers in the selection and management of male breeding animals through the  ILRI thanks all donors that globally support its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" This publication is copyrighted by the International Livestock Research Institute and the Tanzania Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development. It is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. October 2017 "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" The red meat subsector in Tanzania is characterized by an absence of quality-based pricing systems, a lack of availability of market information and poor market infrastructure, hindering its development. Linkages between producers, processors and exporters are poor, and value chain actors, particularly processing technicians, lack the necessary technical knowledge to meet quality standards, for instance in the fields of meatcutting and grading. In addition, there are severe shortages in the availability of holding areas and storage spaces.   The The  strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include  the: the:  • development of the capacity of meat technology •development of the capacity of meat technology   training staff, and the provision of training to meat training staff, and the provision of training to meat   processing staff; processing staff;  • promotion of forward contracting by feedlots and •promotion of forward contracting by feedlots and   abattoirs; abattoirs;  • investment in export infrastructure for animal •investment in export infrastructure for animal   holding and quarantine centres, as well as in holding and quarantine centres, as well as in   programs for disease surveillance, monitoring of programs for disease surveillance, monitoring of   abattoirs, animal identification and traceability, abattoirs, animal identification and traceability,   etc.; etc.;  • development of strategic capacities spearheaded by •development of strategic capacities spearheaded by   staff working in Agricultural Sector Development staff working in Agricultural Sector Development   Program II; and Program II; and  • building of key infrastructure to support the •building of key infrastructure to support the   marketing and processing of livestock and livestock marketing and processing of livestock and livestock   products. products. • provision of training, and capacity and skills development •provision of training, and capacity and skills development  support, to smallholder farmers, in the use of crop support, to smallholder farmers, in the use of crop  residues and by-products as animal feed; and residues and by-products as animal feed; and • encouragement of the appropriate storage and •encouragement of the appropriate storage and  marketing of concentrates and feed supplements. marketing of concentrates and feed supplements. Genetics: Indigenous cattle in Tanzania are characterized Genetics: Indigenous cattle in Tanzania are characterized by low genetic potential; this constraint is aggravated by by low genetic potential; this constraint is aggravated by the lack of an adequate national recording scheme. The the lack of an adequate national recording scheme. The strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the: strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the: • improvement of selection within indigenous breeds; •improvement of selection within indigenous breeds; • establishment of community-based breeding •establishment of community-based breeding  programs, including the development of a national programs, including the development of a national  recording scheme; and recording scheme; and • promotion of a national animal identification and •promotion of a national animal identification and  traceability scheme. traceability scheme. Animal health: High levels of calf mortality and morbidity Animal health: High levels of calf mortality and morbidity in Tanzania are aggravated by inefficient veterinary and in Tanzania are aggravated by inefficient veterinary and animal health extension services, shortages of medicines, animal health extension services, shortages of medicines, poor quality control of medicines and other supplies, and poor quality control of medicines and other supplies, and of biosafety in abattoirs, poor disease surveillance, and a of biosafety in abattoirs, poor disease surveillance, and a lack of a national traceability and identification scheme. The lack of a national traceability and identification scheme. The strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the: strategies proposed to mitigate these challenges include the:  "},{"text":" Tanzania livestock master plan was developed by a joint team from the Tanzanian Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries (MALF) and the International Livestock Research Institute (ILRI). Its development was overseen by a highlevel technical advisory committee (TAC) convened under the auspices of the MALF Livestock Permanent Secretary, Maria Mashingo, and chaired by Catherine Dangat, the director for Policy and Planning. The TAC comprised the directors of key MALF livestock-related departments and other government agencies, and representatives from the private sector, civil society organizations and development partner agencies.Data collection and quantitative diagnostics were supported by the ongoing involvement of key national livestock experts and consultation with a wide range of key stakeholders. The quantitative sector analysis was undertaken using the Livestock Sector Investment and Policy Toolkit developed by the World Bank, the Agricultural Research Centre for International Development (CIRAD) and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations working under the auspices of the African Union Interafrican Bureau for Animal Resources.James Stapleton works for the International Livestock Research Institute, Getachew Gebru as an independent consultant, and Salim Nandonde for the Tanzania Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries. Email ilri-kenya@cgiar.org ilri.org Ministry of Livestock and Fisheries Development Veterinary Complex, 131 Nelson Mandela Rd Box 9152, Dar es Salaam Phone +255 22 286 1910 Fax +255 22 2861908 mifugouvuvi.go.tz Background to the LMP Background to the LMP Photo credits: Photo credits: Page 1: ILRI/Paul Karaimu Page 1: ILRI/Paul Karaimu Page 1: ILRI/Peter Ballantyne Page 1: ILRI/Peter Ballantyne Page 3: CLEANED VC Page 3: CLEANED VC  Contact Contact  Barry Shapiro Barry Shapiro  b.shapiro@cgiar.org b.shapiro@cgiar.org  ILRI, Ethiopia ILRI, Ethiopia provision of training/extension support; provision of training/extension support; International Livestock Research Institute International Livestock Research Institute Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Box 30709, Nairobi 00100 Kenya Phone +254 20 422 3000 Phone +254 20 422 3000 Fax +254 20 422 3001 Fax+254 20 422 3001  "}],"sieverID":"4f2bbec6-25a0-48b1-9bee-aec122ca365f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05b6942ebe165a351bc45bfcc43ba4cf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/a86bb590-b581-49be-99e9-d14214b8b259/retrieve"},"pageCount":29,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Fuentes de N Especies","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Bloque 3 • Medición de la temperatura y la humedad del suelo"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Medición de N2O (~8 minutos (cada 20 s))"},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"• 1 cámara por tratamiento (= 12)"},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"• Se midieron 36 cámaras todos los días"}]},{"head":"Producción y UEN","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"8"}]},{"head":"Análisis estadístico","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Resultados O.E.1"}]},{"head":"Caracterización UEN Altura Producción de MS","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Si bien el efecto de la fuente nitrogenada se manifiesta en el aumento de la altura en las gramíneas, es claro que es una característica propia de cada genotipo."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"Existe una reacción positiva a la aplicación de N por parte de las especies forrajeras evaluadas, presentando mayor producción de materia seca Si se tiene en cuenta el control como punto de referencia, los genotipos forrajeros no presentan afinidad por una sola fuente nitrogenada, cada uno se comporta mejor con una fuente distinta."}]},{"head":"Fuentes y dosis óptimas Producción de MS Altura","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Existe una curva de aprovechamiento entre las dosis y la productividad de todas las especies forrajeras. Para lograr un aumento considerable en la producción de MS en Mombasa, fue necesario 30 kg N ha -1 , debido probablemente a que es una especie exigente en este nutriente."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Aumento de la altura de la planta al aumentar la dosis de nitrógeno"}]},{"head":"PC Absorción de N","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"La absorción de N en el forraje aumenta gradualmente conforme al aumento en la dosis. Estrella a 10 kg N ha -1 y Cobra a 30 kg N ha -1 no siguen el mismo patrón."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Las dosis inciden en el contenido de proteína en los forrajes, además que no siempre hay un incremento proporcional de este parámetro nutricional frente al aumento en la dosis de nitrógeno aplicada en los genotipos."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"*"}]},{"head":"UEN","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Se aprecia una curva de eficiencia en el uso de N, con la que es posible determinar la dosis optima de aplicación en Cayman, Cobra y Estrella"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Resultados O.E.3"},{"index":3,"size":3,"text":"Flujo de N"}]},{"head":"Cayman Estrella Mombasa","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Emisiones diarias de N 2 O"},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"✓ A 0 kg de N ha -1 las emisiones de N 2 O en todos los tratamientos fue cercana a 0, las mayores valores se dieron con la aplicación de 30 kg de N ha -1 . ✓ Las emisiones disminuyeron y encontraron estabilidad después del día 7 de medición. ✓ Los mayores flujos se dieron posterior a las precipitaciones. "}]},{"head":"Capacidad IBN","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Fuente nitrogenada Ruta de transformación mas rápida, ya que la disponibilidad de nitrato es inmediata."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Para urea el camino es mucho mas largo, primero se hidroliza pasando a amonio luego se pasa a nitritos y nitratos.  "}]},{"head":"Intensidad de emisiones por kg de MS","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"✓ Cayman con 20 kg de N ha -1 mayor producción de MS que con 30 kg N ha -1 (22% mas) y un 40% menos emisiones. La intensidad de emisiones fue de 1.65 µg N-N 2 O kg MS -1 ."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"✓ En Estrella la dosis 20 kg de N ha -1 permitió un aumento en la productividad y disminución en la emisión de gases con respecto a las demás dosis."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"✓ Mombasa con 30 kg de N ha -1 presento un aumento aproximado del 60% en la productividad de materia seca, a un costo en emisiones muy bajo (1.43 µg N-N 2 O kg MS -1 ). "}]},{"head":"Comparación de ingresos","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"• Entre los forrajes tropicales existe suficiente variación genética para mejorar el UEN, y que puede ser complementada con el manejo agronómico como la utilización de fuentes y dosis óptimas de N."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"• Nitrato de amonio calcáreo y Urea permiten obtener una mayor productividad de forraje y absorción de N por hectárea. Permitiendo aumentar hasta en un 43% estos parámetros."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"• La fuente nitrogenada Nitrato de amonio calcáreo indujo a un mayor UEN por parte de los forrajes. Estrella, Cayman fertilizados con Nitrato de amonio calcáreo y Mombasa con Urea presentaron la mayor eficiencia con 92, 88 y 90 % respectivamente."},{"index":4,"size":26,"text":"�� La aplicación de nitrógeno mejora la calidad nutricional de los forrajes, aumentando el contenido de proteína, disminuyendo la fibra y como consecuencia mejorando la digestibilidad."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• La dosis que permite obtener el mayor UEN es 20 kg de N ha -1 , con un 93% de eficiencia."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"• En los forrajes tropicales existe una curva de asimilación de N, teniendo en cuenta el UEN se puede decir que la dosis optima para Cayman, Cobra y Estrella es 20 kg N ha -1 ."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"• Las emisiones de N 2 O incrementaron proporcionalmente con la dosis de N aplicado por fertilización. El pasto Estrella es la especie que generó mayores emisiones de N 2 O y Mombasa la que menores valores presentó."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"• Los tratamientos fertilizados que presentaron menor intensidad de emisiones fueron Cayman a 20 kg N ha -1 , Estrella a 20 kg N ha -1 y Mombasa a 30 kg N ha -1 ."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"• Los ganaderos pueden contribuir a optimizar el UEN de los sistemas, produciendo carne con especies y cultivares con una alto UEN, a través de fuentes y dosis óptimas de fertilizantes."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Metodología• Hacienda La Campiña (Santander de Quilichao, Cauca) • 1005 msnm • 28°C Textura: Franco arcilloso -pH: 4.93 MO (g/Kg): 74.6 P (mg/Kg): 7.82 -Ca (cmol/Kg): 2.93 -Mg (cmol/Kg): 1.4 -K (cmol/Kg): 0.52 -Al (cmol/Kg): 0.98 -CICe (cmol/kg):5.83 -Sat. Al (%): 17 NO 3-: Nitrato, NH 4+ : Amonio, NH 2 : grupo amino (grupo funcional derivado del amoníaco o alguno de sus derivados), CaO: Oxido de calcio, Mg: magnesio, S: azufre, SO3: Óxido de azufre, N. T.: Nitrógeno total. "},{"text":" Fuentes y dosis óptimas "},{"text":" Fuente UEN groups Nitrato de amonio calcáreo 54 a Urea 50 a Urea/sulfato de amonio 39 b Control 0 c "},{"text":"✓ y espacio poroso lleno de agua en el suelo \uD835\uDC4A\uD835\uDC39\uD835\uDC43\uD835\uDC46 = Contenido de agua en el suelo × densidad aparente 1 En Cayman y Estrella se encontró el pico de productividad en las tres dosis, siendo 20 kg de N ha -1 punto optimo de fertilización, dosis en la cual las emisiones fueron menores. ✓ En Mombasa el pico no fue visible, la mayor productividad se dio cuando se aplicaron 30 kg de N ha -1 . ✓ En Estrella no se observaron diferencias en la producción, pero si en las emisiones, indicando que es una especie con un bajo UEN. "},{"text":" entre los tratamientos con mayor UEN y su control Mombasa con y sin fertilización presentaron rentabilidad para el productor, Cayman con y sin fertilización por lo contrario implicaron perdidasEventos científicosXXIV Congreso del IGC y el XI del IRC (The Joint International Grassland & International Rangeland Congress).Nairobi, Kenia, del 23 al 29 de octubre de 2021. "},{"text":" Resultados O.E.3 Resultados O.E.3 Resultados O.E.3 Flujo de N Flujo de N Flujo de N Flujo de N Emisiones acumuladas de N 2 O Emisiones acumuladas de N 2 O ✓ Existe un relación proporcional entre ✓ Existe un relación proporcional entre el aumento en las dosis y el aumento el aumento en las dosis y el aumento en las emisiones de N 2 O. en las emisiones de N 2 O. ✓ Las especies fertilizadas con nitrato ✓ Las especies fertilizadas con nitrato de amonio calcáreo (Estrella y de amonio calcáreo (Estrella y Cayman) presentaron mayores Cayman) presentaron mayores emisiones que Mombasa. emisiones que Mombasa. ✓ En Mombasa no se aprecian ✓ En Mombasa no se aprecian diferencias significativas en las diferencias significativas en las emisiones para las diferentes dosis. emisiones para las diferentes dosis.  "},{"text":" Relación entre producción, emisiones acumuladas y UEN   Resultados O.E.3 Resultados O.E.3    Flujo de N Flujo de N Tratamiento Dosis (kg N ha - Producción (kg MS ha -1 Emisiones N2O acumuladas Intensidad de emisiones (µg TratamientoDosis (kg N ha -Producción (kg MS ha -1Emisiones N2O acumuladasIntensidad de emisiones (µg  1 ) pastoreo-1) (µg N-N2O m -2 ) N-N2O kg MS -1 ) 1 )pastoreo-1)(µg N-N2O m -2 )N-N2O kg MS -1 ) Cayman 0 1359 1312.5 0.97 Cayman013591312.50.97 Cayman 10 2280 7306.3 3.2 Cayman1022807306.33.2 Cayman 20 3855.9 6350.1 1.65 Cayman203855.96350.11.65 Cayman 30 3014 10537.1 3.5 Cayman30301410537.13.5 Estrella 0 1906 848.2 0.45 Estrella01906848.20.45 Estrella 10 1933.3 7210.7 3.73 Estrella101933.37210.73.73 Estrella 20 2393.4 11007.5 4.6 Estrella202393.411007.54.6 Estrella 30 2186.7 14920.5 6.82 Estrella302186.714920.56.82 Mombasa 0 1906.7 376.2 0.2 Mombasa01906.7376.20.2 Mombasa 10 2093.3 4890.1 2.34 Mombasa102093.34890.12.34 Mombasa 20 2013.3 4243.2 2.11 Mombasa202013.34243.22.11 Mombasa 30 3680.2 5245.5 1.43 Mombasa303680.25245.51.43  "}],"sieverID":"d0c4c8c6-d2f1-4f54-a392-b452248c2e01","abstract":""}

data/part_2/05b873dc4bb8aff2a70e00c2b2e00b52.json

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+{"metadata":{"id":"05b873dc4bb8aff2a70e00c2b2e00b52","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9c7cc06b-dc0f-40b7-b12d-2bd53c7ea04d/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Study #2272 Contributing Projects: • P259 -Scaling-up Strategies for Climate Risk Management in South Asian Agriculture","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"This Climate-Smart Village (CSV) program aims to scale-out climate-smart agriculture technologies, practices and services across the agro-ecological zones. The CSV program primarily involves creating evidence by testing and evaluating Climate Smart Agriculture technologies in CSVs, socio-economic impact assessment and synthesis of evidence to develop scaling out plans to reach the scale. CCAFS South Asia team has extensively engaged with the partners and provided technical guidance and knowledge for designing, implementation and Monitoring and Evaluation (M&E) of climate-smart village projects. CCAFS has also been involved in field visits, capacity building training, exposure of partner organizations to international knowledge forums, and M&E of the project activities in the Climate Smart Village-Agriculture Research for Development (CSV AR4D) sites (Reference 1, 2)."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"In the earlier phase of the CSV program, several pieces of evidence and success stories were generated (Reference 3). Several climate-smart interventions including investment and institutional mechanism were tested and evaluated in the farmers' fields across different agro-ecological zones. This evidence and success of the earlier CSV program provided the impetus for the expansion of CSVs in South Asia. In Nepal, two state governments have so far made an allocation of 700+ million NPR investments and have the plan to reach 196 (earlier 148) villages in 2020. ITC Limited is working on 500+ villages to scales climate-smart interventions, Sonalika foundation in India has been expanding its corporate-social-responsibility activities to support 75 no-burn villages in Haryana and Reliance Foundation has started implementing CSV approach in across 32 districts and 12 states of India (Reference 4,5). In total, 2019 saw the CSV program expanded to an additional 453 villages (380 additional villages by ITC, 25 villages by Sonalika, and 48 additional villages in Nepal)."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"Continuous communication and engagement with the stakeholders played a major role in scaling up/out of CGIAR-CCAFS's Climate-Smart Village approach in South Asia. In the last 7 years (during the CSV AR4D pilots) several workshops were organized and many stakeholders from South Asia actively participated in them. The interest of the stakeholders was evident from the brainstorming sessions, workshops/meetings organized by them on CSVs. The major users of this Climate-Smart Village approach are government agriculture extension officers, private sector agriculture input suppliers, and agribusiness companies, Information and Communications Technology (ICT) service providers, agriculture insurance companies and development organizations (national and international)."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome: <Not Defined>","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting Gender relevance: 1 -Significant Main achievements with specific Gender relevance: We identified gender-friendly CSA agricultural technologies, practices and services through participatory prioritization. These CSA options were promoted among policymakers for scaling out. In India, several gender-friendly CSA options are being scaled out through women groups in a USAID funded project as well as in other CSV sites. Business models for women groups leading seed distributions have also been documented and published. Youth relevance: N/A -Not applicable CapDev relevance: 1 -Significant Main achievements with specific CapDev relevance: Several meetings, workshops and field visits have been conducted including regional science partners' annual meet in Bali, Indonesia, traveling seminars in Nepal for policymakers, regular meeting with local government officials for convergence of government funds for CSVs and capacity building of farmers as well as local level scientists and government staff in India."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"In terms of capacity building, more than 56,000 stakeholders have been covered through training and workshops including farmers, farmer groups, government officials, extension staff, and private sector players. "}]},{"head":"Climate","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Contact person:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Pramod K Aggarwal, RPL-CCAFS, p.k.aggarwal@cgiar.org Paresh Shirsath, Science Officer, CCAFS, p.bhaskar@cgiar.org M L Jat, Principal Scientist, CIMMYT , M.Jat@cgiar.org"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Change relevance: 2 -Principal Describe main achievements with specific Climate Change relevance: The interventions and policies design for the CSV program has been done with the objective of building resilience to climate change. New methodologies, tools and frameworks were developed to integrate climate change dimensions in the CSV program. Other cross-cutting dimensions: NA Other cross-cutting dimensions description: <Not Defined> Outcome Impact Case Report link: Study #2272 "},{"text":"Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : Yes Stakeholders Prioritization Framework of Climate-Smart Agriculture Interventions (https://tinyurl.com/2qza5kuy) • 1109 -Re-designing irrigated intensive cereal systems through bundling precision agronomic innovations for transitioning towards agricultural sustainability in North-West India (https://tinyurl.com/2fre73xc) • 1084 -Integrating Rice Crop Manager with ICT based tool for scaling out climate-smart agriculture interventions (https://tinyurl.com/2oksqgxs) Innovations: Innovations: • 330 - • 330 - Policies contribution: Policies contribution: • 601 -Nepal's Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Pledged to Establish 200 • 601 -Nepal's Second Nationally Determined Contribution (NDC) Pledged to Establish 200 Climate-Smart Villages (https://tinyurl.com/2r34rx2f) Climate-Smart Villages (https://tinyurl.com/2r34rx2f) • 73 -Two state governments in Nepal (State 5 and Gandaki) have so far made an allocation of • 73 -Two state governments in Nepal (State 5 and Gandaki) have so far made an allocation of 700+ million NPR investments for scaling climate-smart villages (https://tinyurl.com/2o63te6s) 700+ million NPR investments for scaling climate-smart villages (https://tinyurl.com/2o63te6s)  "},{"text":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement: This Climate-Smart Village (CSV) program aims to scale-out Climate Smart Agriculture technologies, practices and services across the agro-ecological zones. The CSV program primarily involves creating pieces of evidence by testing and evaluating Climate Smart Agriculture technologies in CSVs, socio-economic impact assessment and synthesis of evidence to develop scaling out plans to reach the scale. CCAFS South Asia team has extensively engaged with the partners and provided technical guidance and knowledge for designing, implementation and M&E of climate-smart village projects. CCAFS has also involved in field visits, capacity building training, exposure of partner organizations to international knowledge forums, and M&E of the project activities in the Climate Smart Village-Agriculture Research for Development (CSV AR4D) sites. In the earlier phase of CSV program, several evidences and success stories were generated (References 2, 3). Several climate-smart interventions including investment and institutional mechanism were tested and evaluated in the farmers' fields across different agro-ecological zones. These evidences and success of earlier CSV program provided impetus for expansion of CSVs in South Asia. In Nepal, two state governments have so far made allocation of 700+ million NPR investments and have plan to reach to 196 (earlier 148) villages in 2020. ITC Limited is working on 500+ villages to scales climate-smart interventions, Sonalika foundation in India has been expanding its corporate-social-responsibility activities to support 75 no-burn villages in Haryana and Reliance Foundation has started implementing CSV approach in across 32 districts and 12 states of India. Communicating Climate Smart Agriculture to the Stakeholders: Impact of LI-BIRD/CCAFS Travelling Seminars in Climate-Smart Villages of Nepal: An Impact Assessment Report 3.CCAFS South Asia. 2017. Progressing towards climate-resilient agriculture: top ten success stories from CCAFS in South Asia. New Delhi, India: CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). 4.Emails from state governments of Nepal and private sector companies of India 5. A draft report from the private sector on Climate-smart Agriculture initiatives References cited: References cited: 1.Strengthening Climate-Resilient Agricultural Systems in South Asia: CCAFS South Asia Regional 1.Strengthening Climate-Resilient Agricultural Systems in South Asia: CCAFS South Asia Regional Meeting Report (D19326) Meeting Report (D19326) 2. 2.  "},{"text":"Quantification: <Not Defined> Gender, Youth, Capacity Development and Climate Change:   "}],"sieverID":"7fe36317-2440-4b7e-a9e1-56d365f2711c","abstract":"State governments in India/Nepal and private sector corporates in India are increasingly giving emphasis on scaling of Climate Smart Villages (CSVs) for building climate-resilient agriculture. The scaling activities through government efforts build on existing CSVs and the new initiatives are either focusing on increased investments and expanding it to new villages. The private sector initiatives in India focus on working with ITC limited, Reliance Foundation and Sonalika Foundation. The impact assessment of CSV projects is also being done."}

data/part_2/0691d8372ec173c5f8502fd9485b7384.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0691d8372ec173c5f8502fd9485b7384","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/350fb9cf-3391-42ac-932a-b6866f97e150/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Study #4457 Contributing Projects: • P984 -Implementing Market/Value Chain portfolio in MAIZE AFS, including syntheses/learning, new studies/methods, resource mobilization and inter-CRP collaboration • P2139 -Implementing foresight & targeting portfolio for MAIZE AFS, including synthesis/learning, new studies/tools, resource mobilization and inter-CRP collaboration • P962 -Synthesis of previous foresight studies as input in conducting priority setting for MAIZE AFS","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"• Adoption of CGIAR materials with enhanced genetic gains "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Maize is cultivated on 197 Million ha, of which 32% is produced in Low and Lower-Middle Income Countries (L/LM-IC's). Compared to the HICs in 2020, LICs have more than four-fold the number of farms, double the rural population on half the agricultural area, and a tenth of HICs average farm size. Based on projected crop areas, maize will overtake wheat as the most widely grown crop in the world in the coming decade. Researchers estimate that a third and a fifth of global farms cultivated maize and wheat respectively in 2020, increasing with 5% to 227 million maize farms globally and decreasing 4% to 130 million wheat farms globally by 2030. Farms will remain the foundation of rural development. The farm number estimates and associated indicators merit more attention in global sustainable development efforts and the quest to understand and support economic and rural transformation. This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:13 (GMT+0) • Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices • Closed yield gaps through improved agronomic and animal husbandry practices • More efficient use of inputs • More efficient use of inputs Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: SRF 2022/2030 targets: • Increased rate of yield for major food staples from current 1%/year • Increased rate of yield for major food staples from current 1%/year Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Global • Global Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"a421622f-3dfe-4cec-b9ed-83f02978ac86","abstract":""}

data/part_2/069577a9075cf8561c7b4713d8f0340c.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"069577a9075cf8561c7b4713d8f0340c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/aaa30ed7-0c66-4e58-915f-4dde7b507239/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Crop biotic stresses (DPG session) -Posters Pest Status and Farmers' Pest Management Practices in Sweetpotato Cropping Systems of Uganda","keywords":["Acraea acerata","Cylas spp","farmers´perception","IPM","Ipomoea batatus","sweetpotato butterfly","sweetpotato weevil"],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"2840919b-9749-40f7-b547-838906cff9e5","abstract":"Sweetpotato (Ipomoea batatus (L.) Lam.) is the third most important food crop in Uganda. Although it is considered a food security crop, its productivity is far below its potential. This study assessed the pest status and farmers' perception and management practices of the most economically important insect pests of sweetpotato, i.e. the sweetpotato weevils Cylas puncticollis Boheman and C. brunneus F. and the sweetpotato butterfly Acraea acerata Hew. A total of 192 rural farm households of the districts Kabale, Kasese, Gulu, Masindi, Soroti and Wakiso were interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Additionally, the abundance, infestation rate and intensity of infestation of all three pests was assessed and the root yield loss caused by Cylas spp. quantified over two growing seasons in the districts of Kabale and Masindi. Over 80 % of farmers grow sweetpotato for home consumption, emphasising its importance as a food security crop. Cylas spp. and A. acerata were ranked as the first (57 % of the households) and second (37 % of the households) most damaging insects to sweetpotato. The prevalence of A. acerata larvae was generally low (8-25 %) and its larvae caused very little defoliation (1-25 %). For Cylas spp., the abundance was relatively high (40-97 %), with a consequential high yield loss (37-51 %) of marketable root weight. Farmer management practices of A. acerata included use of chemical insecticides (24 % of households), ash application (3 %) and hand picking (2 %). However, 65 % and 87 % of the households did not apply any control measure for A. acerata and Cylas spp., respectively. All pests are a big constraint to sweetpotato production in Uganda. Thus, appropriate integrated pest management (IPM) strategies must be designed, particularly for Cylas spp., if the food security and livelihoods of farmers who depend on this crop is to be improved."}

data/part_2/074fb91601b82de234530159aa03238b.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"074fb91601b82de234530159aa03238b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c9b5c3b1-5db7-4c8f-8ec0-0b11183dfb26/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #3666 Contributing Projects: • P1589 -Policy Support for Climate Resilient, Biodiversity-rich Seed Systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"2432ae55-cc76-45a5-b53d-d08ebb378355","abstract":""}

data/part_2/078bca0eb178743777916899733d03e2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"078bca0eb178743777916899733d03e2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/19fbc4e3-2aa5-4b9f-bdde-e20ebd18fe91/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Policy research enhances dairy opportunities in Kenyan highlands","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"Dairy and land use in the Kenyan highlands Studies by ILRI, its collaborators and others show clearly that smallholder dairy production is a key to sustainable land use in many parts of the Kenyan highlands where land holding sizes are shrinking. Contrary to expectation by some, as land holdings shrink the incentives for and advantages of keeping a dairy cow increase. This is because on small land holdings, farmers may be compelled to crop the same land bi-annually, year after year, to provide subsistence food for their families. The nutrients and organic matter that cattle manure provides is a key ingredient to sustaining this intensive cultivation. Studies have shown that farms with dairy cattle have positive balances of such important nutrients as nitrogen. Further, because feed can be purchased or gathered from public land, small land holdings are not necessarily a constraint to keeping cattle. Surveys across Central and Western Kenya show that land holding size is not significantly related to the probability of having dairy cattle and that use of off-farm feeds from increases the channelling of nutrients onto the farm through manure. Collaborative studies by ILRI and partners have also demonstrated that milk, meat and manure are not the only important benefits to small farmers, but that the value of cattle as assets, insurance and bank accounts is also high, particularly because formal credit sources are scarce in rural areas."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"While livestock-based nutrient cycling contributes to sustainable land use management, increasing dairy milk production and marketing provides a sustainable economic enterprise and asset base, yielding a win-win situation in terms of economic and resource sustainability."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"However, there remain constraints to uptake of dairying, and consequently to the sustainable land use possibilities that it offers. Poor road infrastructure reduces milk prices dairy farmers obtain and the likelihood of farmers keeping dairy cattle. The negative effects of poor feeder roads are particularly significant. Poor commercial feed quality also hurts dairy producers. The reduction of public services such as artificial insemination and veterinary care have lowered the productivity of dairy animals and increased the risks entailed in dairying. These constraints may be particularly severe for the smallest farmers."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"However, studies also show that economies of scale are insignificant in dairy production in Kenya, so small farmers can indeed compete. The extent to which they can do so over the longer term may depend on policies that reduce the constraints mentioned above. This is particularly important in light of the rising demand for milk and meat in developing countries such as Kenya due to growing populations and incomes. If policies can reduce constraints to smallholder farmers, those farmers can benefit economically from this growing demand for livestock products, at the same time capturing the sustained asset accumulation and resource base that dairying offers. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" I N TE R N A TIO N AL L I V E STO C K R E SEA R CH I N S TI T U T EResearch in animal agriculture to reduce hunger, poverty and environmental degradation in developing countries. Box 30709, Nairobi, Kenya Phone (254-2) 630-743 Fax (254-2) 631-499 Email ILRI-Kenya@cgiar.org Web www.ilri.org "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"beacdff2-d044-48a3-aaf1-f5d58feab33f","abstract":"Dairy is an important enterprise throughout the densely populated highlands of central Kenya.Demand is extremely high because milk is an important part of the diet of both rural and urban Kenyans, with per capita milk consumption at 111 kg per year. Substantial quantities of milk from smallholders in central Kenya are marketed in Nairobi. ILRI estimates dairy demand will increase 57% in the next 12 years, from 3,288 million litres in 1998 to 5,185 million litres in 2010.This is part of an on-going dramatic rise in demand for livestock products in developing countries that is being called a 'Livestock Revolution'.The Kenyan dairy market suffered a setback in the mid-1990s, when the parastatal marketing system collapsed.But private firms and the informal sector are increasing their reach and purchases of milk, restoring and expanding markets for small farmers. Kenya's 625,000 smallholder dairy farmers provide about two-thirds of the country's milk supply. 73% of households in central Kenya and 38% in western Kenya own dairy cattle.Most of these households practice some stall feeding, with 37% 'zero-grazed' in the intensive agricultural systems in the highlands. Herds average 4 cattle, farm sizes, 1 hectare. Lack of high-quality feed is the main constraint limiting milk production. Animal performance is relatively poor, with average daily milk yields of 7.21 litres and an average calving interval of 591 days."}

data/part_2/07d68cf974530667fa6519819fbbaacf.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07d68cf974530667fa6519819fbbaacf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/42f6bba2-79d1-452d-996f-f055fbae3248/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":318,"text":"L es variétés améliorées de haricot peuvent avoir un impact significatif sur les conditions de vie des petits exploitants agricoles. D'après les études sur le taux d'adoption réalisées dans cinq pays africains, les familles adoptant les variétés améliorées de haricot voient leur rendement augmenter de 30 à 50%. Les progrès accomplis par les Systèmes nationaux de recherche agricole (NARS) d'Afrique centrale et australe en matière de recherche sur le haricot ne se traduisent par un meilleur rendement que si les nouvelles semences parviennent aux ménages agricoles. La difficulté est de trouver le moyen de faire parvenir les semences de nouvelles variétés de haricot aux familles pauvres, ainsi que dans les zones marginales. Les travaux de recherche montrent que la diffusion des semences de nouvelles variétés est souvent lente et inégale lorsqu'elle est uniquement effectuée par des agriculteurs individuels (à savoir que les pauvres risquent d'être exclus). D'un autre côté, les agriculteurs des dix-sept pays de l'Alliance panafricaine de recherche sur le haricot (PABRA) se sont montrés intéressés par les expérimentations portant sur les nouvelles variétés de haricot et par l'adoption de ces dernières, même si cela impliquait de les acheter (à condition que les échantillons de semences soient vendus en lots de petite taille et à un prix raisonnable). Au cours des huit dernières années, les Systèmes nationaux de recherche agricole ont introduit un nombre considérable de variétés. Néanmoins, peu de variétés ont été multipliées par les réseaux officiels et le volume de semences diffusées s'est avéré dérisoire par rapport aux besoins réels des agriculteurs. Le cas de l'Ethiopie illustre parfaitement cette situation : le Système national de recherche agricole a introduit pas moins de vingt-trois variétés entre 1996 et 2004; mais le secteur officiel n'a fourni que 1% des semences utilisées par les agriculteurs. Pratiquement toutes les semences ont été obtenues par le biais des réseaux locaux (produites à la ferme ou achetées sur les marchés locaux). "}]},{"head":"Le programme d'impact élargi","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Les accomplissements du programme","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"En l'espace de quelques années seulement, le programme d'impact élargi a accompli des progrès considérables dans la réalisation de l'objectif que nous nous sommes fixés, celui de permettre l'accès de millions de familles aux semences de nouvelles variétés de haricot.  Quels éléments peuvent conduire les partenaires clés vers les entreprises rentables du secteur semencier? Le but que notre programme d'impact élargi doit atteindre va bien au-delà de la production et de la distribution semencière. Nous voulons identifier et mettre en application des méthodes créatives, durables, rentables et équitables facilitant l'accès des petits exploitants agricoles aux semences de variétés améliorées de haricot -quelque soit l'endroit où ils vivent ou leur situation financière."}]},{"head":"L'établissement de partenariats","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Les prochaines étapes","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Pour nous, le plus difficile a été d'établir une liaison entre les principaux fournisseurs de semences (systèmes locaux d'agriculteurs, commerçants et prestataires de services) et la diffusion permanente des produits issus de la recherche. Les organisations non gouvernementales, les organisations communautaires, les organisations paysannes, les associations religieuses et les commerçants sont tous en étroit contact avec les agriculteurs. En 2003, la PABRA a lancé une stratégie intitulée « Programme d'impact élargi » visant à catalyser et coordonner les efforts fournis par ces divers groupes d'acteurs du secteur semencier et à atteindre 10 millions de personnes (ou deux millions de ménages) d'ici à 2008. Cette nouvelle stratégie ne fait pas reposer la production et la distribution uniquement sur les systèmes nationaux de recherche agricoles centralisés (et leur système de vulgarisation). Elle décentralise une grande partie du travail aux zones de production et tire profit des avantages comparatifs des divers acteurs. Ainsi, la production de semences Sélectionneur et de semences Fondation a été placée sous la responsabilité des NARS et de certaines compagnies semencières commerciales et semi-publiques. En conséquence, la production décentralisée dans les zones cibles est passée aux mains de groupements ayant un champ d'intervention plus local (organisations non gouvernementales, organisations communautaires et organisations paysannes). Les réseaux sur le haricot (l'ECABREN en Afrique de l'Est et du Centre, et la SABRN en Afrique australe) se sont vus chargés de l'appui technique et d'une grande partie de la formation des partenaires. Cet arrangement a porté ses fruits, non seulement car les multiples et diverses organisations impliquées voient de nombreux avantages à travailler ensemble, des Etats-Unis pour le développement international pour leur appui financier, à travers le soutien de la PABRA. Les vues exprimées dans le présent document ne représentent pas nécessairement celles de ces institutions. mais aussi parce qu'il contribue à une utilisation efficace des compétences et des ressources financières de chaque partenaire, leur permettant de se concentrer sur ce qu'ils font le mieux. Les membres des réseaux sur le haricot ont forgé d'importants partenariats avec toute une série d'organisations. Certains partenaires sont des réseaux officiels (Entreprise semencière d'Ethiopie) ou des entreprises commerciales (Agrotech Kenya). D'autres sont des organisations non gouvernementales, dotées de ressource financières considérables et dont le champ d'action géographique est très large. Enfin, certains partenaires, souvent considérés comme n'appartenant pas au secteur semencier (tels que les compagnies de tabac) se sont engagées dans des transactions semencières sachant que leurs clients et leur personnel bénéficieront d'un meilleur accès aux variétés améliorées. Ces partenariats ont permis aux réseaux d'accroître leur impact grâce à l'expansion : • De la production de semences Fondation • De la production de semences de nature plus locales • Du nombre de partenaires impliqués dans les activités de diffusion (y compris celles qui sont difficiles à atteindre). "},{"text":" Fin 2006, le programme avait catalysé 436 partenariats complémentaires (Figure1). En Ethiopie, par exemple, le Système national de recherche agricole a participé en 2006 aux activités de 26 organisations en partenariat direct et à celles de 130 organisations en partenariat indirect, lui permettant de produire des semences à hauteur de 60% des besoins nationaux (9 446 tonnes) -le volume produit ne représentant que 0,8% de ces besoins deux ans auparavant. Bien que les progrès accomplis au niveau de l'expansion des partenariats aient été substantiels et de grande ampleur dans la plupart des pays de la PABRA depuis 2004, l'Alliance surveille avec attention l'évolution des activités de ses partenaires et en tire les leçons (tout particulièrement s'agissant des organisations spécialisées dans l'aide d'urgence à court terme).L'expansion de la diffusion des semencesL'Alliance a récemment développé ses activités de production et de diffusion des semences. En 2005, le suivi réalisé a montré que des progrès considérables avaient été accomplis dans huit pays, lesquels avaient augmenté de façon significative le volume de semences diffusées auprès des agriculteurs. Notre objectif au niveau du réseau était d'atteindre deux millions de ménages en cinq ans. Les études de suivi réalisées à la fin 2007 montrent que nous avons atteint 3,8 millions de ménages (19 millions de personnes environ) en trois ans au sein des six pays membres de la PABRA qui ont fait l'objet du suivi le plus étroit. "}],"sieverID":"851db3e9-baee-4252-843d-b37a9c470f10","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07f8c2a8031a98aa26b33b96d7be4721","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e8b7cd7e-0c9c-4c45-abab-38c4e32f3b13/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"Small-scale Coffee Producers using a Value Chain Approach","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"1. A strategy to increase competitiveness is a set of activities planned and carried out with the active participation of a chain's diverse actors to achieve common objectives, around which one or more business organizations and/ or interest groups are linked. This strategy is carried out through short-, medium-and long-term research and development activities, based on the analysis of the critical points which limit the chain's competitiveness (Lundy et al., 2007. Participatory Market Chain Analysis for Smallholder Producers. Good Practice Guide 4)."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"Competitiveness 1 prepared by representatives of the different actors of the chain."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"The present document systematizes the collaborative work of the Coffee Technical Committee and reports the activities carried out to strengthen the coffee value chain in target areas of the project through innovative work with small-and mediumscale women and men coffee producers."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"A total of 2375 small-scale coffee producers (564 women and 1811 men), organized in 45 grassroots cooperatives, participated in this initiative of the ACORDAR Project."}]},{"head":"Where it all began","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"AnBefore the launching of the ACORDAR Project, coffee producers were facing a situation that threatened the well-being of their families. Coffee production-the main source of income to cover everyday expenses-was affected by low crop yields, which also had an adverse impact on the other links of the coffee chain because the insufficient volume on offer and the low quality of the coffee beans make it difficult to fulfill the demands of clients, generating a problem of competitiveness."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Most coffee growers linked to the cooperatives were small-and medium-scale producers facing a series of problems that caused their production areas to perform poorly such as lack of economic resources to invest in coffee plots and limited access to credit, technology and technical assistance. With great effort, these producers, who later formed part of the ACORDAR Project, were obtaining yields of 9 quintals/manzana (qq/mz) 2 in 2007, which were low compared with the national average (12 qq/mz)."},{"index":3,"size":80,"text":"Organic coffee producers were, however, the most affected because certifiers only allowed the use of a few fertilizers that were usually difficult to purchase. The absence of these inputs make it difficult to provide the nutrients the coffee plantations needed and, as a result, these producers obtained yields of maximum 6 qq/mz, an alarming figure when compared with the national average and the yields obtained by organized smallscale coffee producers. As a result, many organic coffee producers abandoned their crops."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Other factors affecting coffee crop yields included"},{"index":5,"size":24,"text":"• Pest and disease incidence. Although producers fumigated and applied other management practices as soon as threats were detected, no preventive measures were taken."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"• High production costs (labor, inputs, equipment) and deficient technical assistance. Government training programs had minimum coverage, and the existing policies and the resources available were insufficient to address the needs of the coffee sector. As a result, private organizations, NGOs and cooperation agencies began to intervene to mitigate the problems faced by coffee producers."},{"index":7,"size":71,"text":"• Exhausted soils. Coffee was being produced on land that had been cultivated for more than 25 years, using traditional cultivation practices and with only a few coffee plants per manzana. Coffee producers were not knowledgeable in aspects of soil nutrition and applied the products available in the local market because they were of easy access. Producers did not take into account the particular conditions of their land or coffee crops."},{"index":8,"size":38,"text":"• Little pruning of coffee plants and shade trees. Due to traditional cultivation practices, many coffee plantations presented excess shade or coffee plants were surrounded by trees not recommended for coffee plantations, causing plants to present low yields."},{"index":9,"size":36,"text":"Furthermore, most small-scale coffee producers (plantations of less than 3 mz) had insufficient infrastructure for wet processing of coffee (floaters, fermenters, washers, treatment tanks) and therefore had to sell their unprocessed coffee at a low price."},{"index":10,"size":31,"text":"Until the launching of the ACORDAR Project, producers only had access to a depulper and wooden boxes to process their coffee berries, which led to environmental contamination (soil, air, water sources)."},{"index":11,"size":62,"text":"In addition, approximately 88% of Nicaragua's coffee production is exported as green coffee 3 . However, market price fluctuation, which was linked to the amount of product on offer in the international market, had seriously affected the economies of coffee-producing families, especially those of small-and mediumscale producers. Production costs rose with the increasing prices of products such as oil and other inputs."},{"index":12,"size":36,"text":"3. Green coffee is the term used to refer to coffee beans that have been submitted to agroindustrial processing (wet processing, depulping, washing, drying), with the resulting removal of the exterior part of the coffee berry."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"Coffee was being produced on land that had been cultivated for more than 25 years, using traditional cultivation practices and with only a few coffee plants per manzana."},{"index":14,"size":93,"text":"Several producer organizations, beneficiaries of the ACORDAR Project, such as SOPPEXCCA, CECOCAFEN, and GV, already had marketing channels in place in differentiated markets when the project began. Therefore, because quality is an indispensable requisite for specialty markets, the challenge was to produce sufficient quality coffee. This would only be possible through good plantation management, wet processing, collection hubs, and dry processing. Investments had to be made in the plantations, infrastructure and technology transfer, and technical assistance should be offered. The limited access of cooperatives to resources made traceability 4 and quality control difficult."},{"index":15,"size":26,"text":"Furthermore, the interest of producers to join cooperatives was mainly related to their search for potential markets and funding, which explains why cooperativeentrepreneurial development was neglected."},{"index":16,"size":95,"text":"The cooperatives participating in the ACORDAR Project had limited availability of financial resources, collection infrastructure, technology and transportation means (due to the poor conditions of roads) in comparison with their direct competitors-transnational companies purchasing coffee in the country. Coffee producers could not grant cooperatives facilities to pay for their produce, and cooperatives did not have sufficient capital to pay for harvested produce immediately. As a result, producers looked elsewhere in nontraditional markets and ended up selling their produce to the transnational companies, which in turn triggered a breach of contract of cooperatives with their clients."},{"index":17,"size":40,"text":"Gender-related aspects of the coffee value chain were not addressed as a cross-cutting theme across organizations, but rather as isolated issues, which explains why some of the organizations belonging to the Coffee Technical Committee had no gender policies in place."},{"index":18,"size":55,"text":"4. According to the Food Safety Commission of the Spanish Association of Commercial Coding (AECOC, its Spanish acronym), traceability is understood as \"the self-containing, pre-established procedures that allow verification of the history, location, and trajectory of a product or set of products along the supply chain at any given moment, by way of certain tools\"."}]},{"head":"5.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"A logical path is an exercise that helps us identify the objectives that can take us from a general limitation that we have today (point A) to a general objective desired for the future (point B). The specific objectives identified between points A and B and the activities and products derived from each of these objectives form the logical path (Lundy et al., 2007. Participatory Market Chain Analysis for Smallholder Producers. Good Practice Guide 4). The interaction between Technical Committee members was very sporadic, although members knew each other. The same occurred with financial and nonfinancial service providers (commercial firms, dry processing plants, micro-financing entities, private banking), public institutions and municipal city halls, whose relationship basically consisted of the sale and purchase of services and the marketing of coffee, explaining why the initial participation and incidence of producer organizations in citizen participation spaces were minimal."}]},{"head":"Getting started","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"In April 2008, ACORDAR Project member organizations had the opportunity to participate in an international event held in Anaheim, Indiana, and hosted by the Specialty Coffee Association of America (SCAA). Coffee producers from all over the world participated in the event, allowing organizations to make market contacts and promote their coffee. Participants also learned about future prospects and market trends, and had the opportunity to meet with buyers and roasters to negotiate prices in situ-an important achievement because the lack of economic resources had limited the possibility of different actors of the chain having face-to-face meetings. Until then, many organizations had only contacted other members of the value chain by e-mail."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"A premier event, Cup of Excellence, was held in the department of Jinotega and brought together producer organizations, representatives of coffee transformation companies, buyers and renowned coffee cuppers of the United States and Europe, helping promote the quality of Nicaraguan coffee worldwide. CAFENICA and SOPPEXCCA, members of the Coffee Technical Committee, formed part of the organizing committee of this important nationwide competition that helps promote the coffee produced by small-and mediumscale producers as quality coffee. The event served as marketing channel for cooperatives. Furthermore, the awardwinning coffee reaped a market price of US$700/qq green coffee. All finalists got good prices for their coffee so coffee producers were motivated to improve the quality of their products to continue participating in the event."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Later, in June 2008, Technical Committee members held a work meeting with coffee producers to share information on the problems identified during the mapping exercise of the value chain and receive feedback. This meeting was part of the preparatory process of the strategy to increase the competitiveness of the coffee value chain."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"The aforementioned strategy was subsequently consolidated through events in which actors of the value chain participated and helped update information on production costs and transformation, certification and marketing processes to be"},{"index":5,"size":29,"text":"The premier event, Cup of Excellence, was held in the department of Jinotega motivated coffee producers to improve the quality of their products to continue participating in the event."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"able to analyze crop profitability. Constraints along the entire value chain were identified and assessed, and served as basis to create an action plan that reoriented technical assistance toward specific processes to generate greater impact."},{"index":7,"size":58,"text":"Starting September of that same year, the Technical Committee focused on giving continuity to technical assistance activities initiated by the ACORDAR Project. Activities were carried out together with the cooperatives forming part of ACORDAR. The Project monitored each one of these field activities, which included construction and investment in infrastructure as well as soil surveys and water studies."},{"index":8,"size":97,"text":"The impact of the ACORDAR Project was already evident in May 2009 with the establishment of 100 eco-friendly wet processing facilities on the farms of women and male coffee producers who were beginning to use new coffee depulping technologies and therefore produce a betterquality product. The soils of 846 coffee plantations were also analyzed, and the physical conditions of plantations and yields (qq coffee) per unit area served to identify low-yielding plots and plantations in poor conditions. Analyses were performed with the support of the ACORDAR technical team and coffee producers, the latter also performing field work."},{"index":9,"size":79,"text":"The technical team was responsible for handling the logistics with soil labs of the National Agrarian University (UNA, its Spanish acronym) and the Faculty of Agroecology of the National Autonomous University in León (UNAN-León, its Spanish acronym). Once analysis results were available, producers were provided feedback on how to best apply fertilizers and organic amendments to their plantations. These same work teams conducted 256 water analyses to detect the level of contamination generated during the wet processing of coffee."},{"index":10,"size":56,"text":"In June 2009, CIAT and CRS provided advisory services to prepare a more consolidated version of the Strategy to Increase the Competitiveness of the Coffee Value Chain. The Strategy's approach was analyzed in detail, and new relevant information was included. The final document served as support when seeking feedback of other actors about the value chain."},{"index":11,"size":48,"text":"By 2009 the impact of the ACORDAR Project was already evident with the establishment of 100 ecofriendly wet processing facilities. Also, various analyses were performed (the soils of 846 coffee plantations were also analyzed and 256 water analyses were conducted) and the results were shared with the farmers."},{"index":12,"size":68,"text":"In July of that same year, organizations executing the project jointly prepared the ACORDAR Project Gender Policy, which not only was an important step toward equity, but also opened opportunities for women to begin to participate in decision-making processes of the value chain, occupy positions within organizations and benefit from the jobs generated by different activities carried out by their cooperatives with the support of ACORDAR Project partners."},{"index":13,"size":75,"text":"A meeting was held to present the Strategy to Increase Competitiveness to national organizations and cooperation agencies such as the Tropical Agricultural Research and Higher Education Center (CATIE, its Spanish acronym), the Spanish Agency for International Cooperation for the Development (AECID, its Spanish acronym) and the Coffee Central of Jinotega. The meeting served to receive feedback about the strategy document and identify actions that could be carried out together with the organizations attending the meeting."},{"index":14,"size":113,"text":"In September, cooperative members participated in the International Coffee Conference (Ramacafé 2009) held in Managua. The conference not only provides national and international producers the opportunity to interact with a large number of professionals of the coffee industry, buyers, roasters and retailers, but stimulates the coffee market because most of the production is exported. The event helps strengthen and expand commercial relationships with European countries and the United States and serves to enter new markets in Asian countries. Thanks to the ACORDAR Project, this was the first time that many of the small coffee producers attended an event of this type, allowing them to increase their volumes of sale and negotiate their products."},{"index":15,"size":89,"text":"Furthermore, to promote the coffee produced by ACORDAR producers, each year consortium organizations and cooperative representatives participated in EXPOAPEN held in Managua. In addition to coffee cupping and sale of samples, this fair hosted by the Association of Producers and Exporters of Nicaragua (APEN, its Spanish acronym) was an opportunity to expand the national market and allow Nicaraguan coffee producers to make international market contacts. Subsequently, as part of the 2-year extension of the ACORDAR Project, a scheme was designed so participating cooperatives could \"graduate\" as they achieved self-sufficiency."},{"index":16,"size":66,"text":"The starting point was the self-evaluation and diagnosis of the organization carried out with the support of CATIE within the framework of the 2008-2010 Learning Cycle of the Nicaraguan Learning Alliance (AdA, its Spanish acronym) 6 . A total of 11 coffee cooperatives linked to the ACORDAR Project participated in this graduation process: two of CECOCAFEN, two of CECOSEMAC, one of FEM, and six of GV."},{"index":17,"size":169,"text":"The goal of this graduation or transition toward self-sufficiency was to ensure that, upon project termination, organizations would be empowered to provide their members with access to credit facilities, inputs, training, technical assistance and marketing services, or that they would have in place a plan to do so in the short or medium term. Six indicators were accordingly devised to gradually decrease the assistance offered 6. The Learning Alliance (AdA) [http://www.alianzasdeaprendizaje.org/la-alianza-hoy] is a consortium formed by organizations that work for inclusive and sustainable rural development in the Central American region, promoting learning processes shared between diverse actors. Its 2008-2010 learning cycle gathered 17 organizations from both within and outside ACORDAR to strengthen their socio-organizational and entrepreneurial capacities based on an initial self-evaluation and diagnosis of their organizations that allowed each organization to identify needs and/or weaknesses, which would serve as basis to prepare a participatory strategic plan. 7. For more information about the ACORDAR experience in preparing rural enterprises for self-sufficiency, please see the report on Cross-cutting Entrepreneurial Development."},{"index":18,"size":46,"text":"by the ACORDAR Project: establishment of market contacts and signing of contracts, organizations with access to credit, governance with demonstrated gender equity in management and attention of cooperative members, updated and auditable financial statements, profitable production and marketing operations, as well as ongoing updated strategic plans."},{"index":19,"size":53,"text":"The organizations should fulfill at least 70% of these six indicators by the end of the ACORDAR Project, in addition to having prepared a medium-term (3-year) plan aiming to achieve self-sufficiency that should address the organization's status at the time of project termination as well as future actions to achieve self-sustainability 7 ."},{"index":20,"size":10,"text":"The installation of latrines, eco-friendly wet processing facilities and biodigestors."},{"index":21,"size":49,"text":"Phases I and II of the ACORDAR Project included the construction of soil and water conservation infrastructure, which involved 132 containment dams and the establishment of live and dead barriers on 302 hectares (1,281.5 mz). Assistance was also provided for the protection and management of 1159 mz of forest."},{"index":22,"size":38,"text":"To improve the on-farm drying process and the quality of the coffee, 139 predryers were handed over to producers through cooperative organizations as well as 171 biodigester kits, latrines and kitchens to prevent the contamination of water sources."},{"index":23,"size":31,"text":"Five organic fertilizer production plants and 197 vermicompost facilities were also constructed as an alternative to produce nitrogen to boost organic production and improve the availability of organic fertilizers for producers."},{"index":24,"size":125,"text":"Alliances were established with governmental institutions such as the Ministry of Agriculture and Forestry (MAGFOR, its Spanish acronym), which facilitated events on pesticide management and adequate use, seed certification, endorsement for exports and workshops on Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs); the Ministry of Health (MINSA, its Spanish acronym), which carried out educational campaigns on environmental conservation and protection related to public health issues and arranged medical consultations in communities as part of campaigns for the early detection of cervical cancer; the Ministry of the Environment and Natural Resources (MARENA, its Spanish acronym), which provided advisory services on the preparation of forest management plans; and the Ministry of Education (MINED, its Spanish acronym), which carried out campaigns for parents and children on the adequate use of wastes."},{"index":25,"size":53,"text":"Technology transfer was also an important component of the ACORDAR Project, and coffee producers received training in crop management practices such as productive tissue management on coffee plantations, introduction and management of adequate shade, appropriate use of chemicals and organic inputs, application of GAPs, traceability, wet processing and proper management of coffee by-products."},{"index":26,"size":35,"text":"Technical assistance included the monitoring of coffee plots, but monitoring continues to be a major constraint for those organizations unable to pay for technicians. As a result, NGOs and cooperation agencies still subsidize this activity."},{"index":27,"size":79,"text":"The Innovation Fund was officially launched in early 2011 to strengthen innovation initiatives within the value chains supported by the ACORDAR Project. USAID contributed US$400,000 to the Innovation Fund for use by the Consortium; of this sum, $43,400 was allocated to two projects approved by the Coffee Technical Committee ($35,900 to CECOCAFEN and $7500 to CECOSEMAC). This investment was made as non-reimbursable funds and aimed to strengthen value-added processes as well as the marketing of finished products 8 ."},{"index":28,"size":81,"text":"Over the 5 years of the project, ACORDAR invested US$1,821,459 in the coffee value chain; of this sum, 35% was invested in the production link and 65% to the processing and postharvest links as the latter two presented the greatest lack of resources as well as a need to improve relationships with actors of other links. These investments benefited 2490 producers, accounting for a total of 3330 hectares of coffee, of which 15% (more than 518 ha) was cultivated by women."},{"index":29,"size":65,"text":"The activities carried out in the production, processing and postharvest links not only strengthened the infrastructure of coffeeproducing farms and organic fertilizer 8. For more information about ACORDAR's experience with the Innovation Fund, please see the report on Cross-cutting Entrepreneurial Development. 9. A revolving fund is a fund or account that has funds available to finance its continuous operations without any type of tax-related constraint."},{"index":30,"size":15,"text":"Over the 5 years of the project, ACORDAR invested US$1,821,459 in the coffee value chain."},{"index":31,"size":25,"text":"These investments benefited 2490 producers, accounting for a total of 3330 hectares of coffee, of which 15% (more than 518 ha) was cultivated by women."},{"index":32,"size":42,"text":"processing plants, but focused on the renewal, repopulation and maintenance of coffee plantations. These investments in coffee renewal, repopulation and wet processing were made in the modality of revolving funds 9 totaling an amount of US$927,612 and aiming to capitalize producer organizations."},{"index":33,"size":86,"text":"However, it is necessary to clarify that the most relevant investments in the processing and postharvest link were in the construction of facilities to house dry processing of coffee, solar predryers and wet processing. The coffee value chain was also favored by the existence of organizations such as the National Coffee Council (CONACAFE, its Spanish acronym) and CAFENICA, which represent the coffee sector before the National Government in aspects related to wage control policies, cooperation agencies regarding project management and private banking regarding requests for credit."},{"index":34,"size":44,"text":"In addition, the existence of distribution channels in the national and international markets, for example those of Europe and the United States, allowed women and men coffee producers to improve their relationships with these markets and facilitated the exportation of larger volumes of coffee."},{"index":35,"size":119,"text":"However, there were other factors that adversely affected project development such as the absence of legislation to efficiently regulate the informal market in Nicaragua and promote coffee production through incentives and long-term credits to renew and repopulate coffee plantations. Although advances have been made in terms of legislation, the Coffee Law is not being enforced as the coffee sector expected it would be. Climate changes also affected the coffee yields of the 2008-2009 production cycle with irregular maturation of coffee berries, floral abortions, harvest losses and natural resource degradation, which in turn decreased family income. Furthermore, international coffee prices fell in 2010 from US$212 qq in January to $184 in March and April, generating instability in the family economy."},{"index":36,"size":26,"text":"Although coffee prices fell, with the resulting decrease in income, production costs (inputs and labor) did not, demanding a greater effort to carry out agricultural tasks."},{"index":37,"size":58,"text":"To address the aforementioned problems, the organizations of the ACORDAR Coffee Technical Committee aimed to establish marketing channels in differentiated markets through negotiations formalized in previously mentioned spaces such as SCAA, Ramacafe and EXPOAPEN, where the ground coffee brands Flor de Jinotega and Sabor Nica and others, produced by coffee cooperatives supported by SOPPEXCCA and CECOCAFEN, were promoted."}]},{"head":"The results","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Most of the coffee plantations were old and exhausted. Therefore the project repopulated 801 ha of coffee (1138 mz) and renewed 249 ha (354 mz). These investments were very important because the 1012 beneficiary coffee producers were in no position to assume these costs."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Production costs also decreased because appropriate application rates of inputs were defined for both soil and crop based on the results of the 846 soil analyses and 129 leaf analyses conducted. Now coffee producers do not apply traditionally used products but recommended products instead, which not only lowered costs but also helped improve the productivity of plantations, which began to produce an average of 12 qq/ha."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"In the case of organic coffee, the investments made in infrastructure (vermicompost bins and fertilizer processing plants) have been highly beneficial."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The production of organic fertilizer (vermicompost) reached a level of 9029 qq, which were applied to areas under organic coffee cultivation. However, the volume of organic fertilizer produced is still low because coffee producers usually need to purchase other organic products to complement crop management. This situation continues to be a constraint because many times organic matter is not available on the farms and certifiers are very demanding about the type of organic products allowed, thus hindering the expansion and sustainability of this type of coffee."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Of the 2490 coffee-producing families participating in the ACORDAR Project, 425 have wet processing facilities for processing coffee. This not only improves the quality of their product, but also reduces air pollution and contamination of water sources caused by the dumping of coffee wastewater and coffee pulp on the soil."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Furthermore, the performance of 256 water analyses had great impact because it validated the effectiveness of the wet processing established by ACORDAR, which was part of the commitment ACORDAR assumed with the environment."}]},{"head":"ACORDAR project repopulated 801 ha of coffee (1138 mz) and renewed 249 ha (354 mz).","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"After the analyses were conducted, corrective measures were applied to manage wastewaters, such as the application of microorganisms for their treatment. Three cooperatives that previously presented major contamination problems now have wastewater treatment systems in place. Communities close to these cooperatives can now breathe less contaminated air, their water sources no longer receive wastewaters and surrounding soils have lower bacteria counts."},{"index":2,"size":69,"text":"ACORDAR has accordingly made an important contribution to environmental conservation by not only investing in infrastructure (wet processing facilities, latrines, containment dams, live and dead barriers, vermicomposting facilities and organic manure production plants), but has also raised awareness and provided assistance to coffee producers involved in these processes, enabling them to take better care of soils, water sources and forests as well as become involved in organic coffee production."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Part of the project's success can be attributed to the alliances forged with the Nicaraguan public sector, described above in the section Getting Started. MAGFOR, MINSA, MARENA and MINED offered coffee producers training in certification processes, crop management and GAPs, national legislation, human and environmental health, among other topics. Through these alliances, crops and soils were also improved, community welfare enhanced through health campaigns benefiting women, and parents and children were educated in waste management. Short-term credits with input suppliers were also obtained to purchase product lots, and commercial firms offered training events on appropriate pesticide management and use in addition to promoting recycling campaigns of pesticide containers."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Another important achievement was the participation of 11 coffee cooperatives in the ACORDAR Project's strategy to help enterprises transition into self-sufficiency. Although only 9 cooperatives culminated the process, all of the cooperatives learned about the importance of planning. Those cooperatives that followed the process to the end were able to carry forward their own initiatives and advance along the path to self-sustainability."}]},{"head":"ACORDAR has accordingly made an important contribution to environmental conservation by not only investing in infrastructure, but has also raised awareness and provided assistance to coffee producers involved in these processes","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Another significant outcome derived from the Innovation Fund's investment in CECOCAFEN and CECOSEMAC projects could be summarized as improved value-added processes that benefited 226 individuals. CECOCAFEN reported sales for US$48,752 and CECOSEMAC, $10,027."},{"index":2,"size":82,"text":"Improved market access was achieved with the participation of coffee producers in national and international events such as Cup of Excellence, EXPOAPEN, Ramacafe and SCAA, which gave them the opportunity to better understand how the international coffee market works, make business contacts and hold face-to-face meetings, and learn about exporting and promoting Nicaraguan coffee. International fairs also served to promote Nicaraguan coffee, raise the annual sales goal and trigger the interest of producers to maintain and improve the quality of their coffee."},{"index":3,"size":89,"text":"There was also a better understanding about how to establish effective alliances because the key actors of each link of the value chain had been identified. The relationship with municipal governments was strengthened, and producer organizations now take advantage of the different spaces for citizen participation, indigenous councils and council meetings, while knowing how to prepare budgets. Municipal city halls were forced to take into account the needs of the coffee sector, and address the demands of coffee producers in Municipal Investment Plans and Annual Investment Plans 10 ."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"The Government's road improvement plan had a favorable impact on the coffee value chain, especially in the coffee-producing regions of the departments of Jinotega and Matagalpa, where the plan included fixing the main roads communicating the departmental seats with municipalities."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"Trails and secondary roads to several communities were also improved, which favored coffee marketing because the system of transporting the product from rural areas to the dry processing plant improved."},{"index":6,"size":48,"text":"The municipalities of San Ramón, Terrabona, Yalí, El Cuá and Pantasma had access to US$7,079,501 of government leverage funds to invest in the repair and 10.For more information on ACORDAR's experience in closing the gap between producer organizations and municipal governments, please see the cross-cutting reports on municipalism."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"Participation of coffee producers in national and international events gave them the opportunity to better understand how the international coffee market works, make business contacts and hold face-to-face meetings, and learn about exporting and promoting Nicaraguan coffee."},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"maintenance of roads and bridges, procurement of construction modules and building of schools and mini-aqueducts."},{"index":9,"size":15,"text":"The better integration of organizations belonging to the Technical Committee helped further value chain development."},{"index":10,"size":121,"text":"Prior to the ACORDAR Project, no joint activities were carried out but now the seven organizations (CECOSEMAC, CECOCAFEN, SOPPEXCCA, GV, FEM, CAFENICA and LWR) share their experiences, and member cooperatives have embraced the Strategy to Increase the Competitiveness of the Coffee Value Chain. This interaction between member organizations reaped several benefits. For example, CECOCEMAC and GV received logistical support to implement a loans portfolio and accounting system, which in turn benefited 16 grassroots cooperatives. In the case of CAFENICA, the project endorsed the \"Flores del Café\" Women's Movement (MMFC, its Spanish acronym) in the preparation of its strategy for economic, organizational, political and social capacity building. This movement gathers 1800 women of cooperatives associated with CAFENICA, including SOPPEXCCA, CECOCAFEN and GV."},{"index":11,"size":53,"text":"MMFC's strategy sought to improve the conditions and status of not only women coffee producers but also women occupying technical, managerial and administrative positions in partner organizations and empowered to exert influence in local, national and international political, economic and social scenarios so gender perspective can be incorporated into plans, programs and projects."},{"index":12,"size":78,"text":"In 2009, CAFENICA and the Specialty Coffee Association of Nicaragua (ACEN, its Spanish acronym) lobbied before the SCAA for Nicaragua to be named portrait country for that year's event, which was a wonderful opportunity to promote the country's specialty coffee worldwide. One of the The better integration of organizations belonging to the Technical Committee helped further value chain development. Prior to the ACORDAR Project, no joint activities were carried out but now the seven organizations share their experiences."},{"index":13,"size":65,"text":"greatest achievements that resulted from this endeavor was that SCAA signed the proceedings of acceptance of the Nicaragua chapter as member of the International Women's Coffee Alliance, which had been one of CAFENICA's goals under the ACORDAR Project to strengthen gendersensitive actions. This also proved to be an excellent opportunity to promote the coffee produced by Nicaraguan women and foster its insertion in differentiated markets."},{"index":14,"size":54,"text":"Despite the fact that initially only one organization member of the Coffee Technical Committee had a gender policy (SOPPEXCCA), the ACORDAR Project now has an overarching gender policy and strategy and three Committee member organizations (CECOCEMAC, CECOCAFEN and GV) also have in place their gender policies and have begun participatory processes for their implementation."},{"index":15,"size":44,"text":"On the other hand, the coffee value chain reported cumulative sales of US$36,412,606 over the 5 years of the project, of which $4,532,341 (12%) corresponded to sales made by women. The project also reported 221,759 qq parchment coffee sold, with women accounting for 12%."},{"index":16,"size":102,"text":"Finally, organizations were strengthened in organizational and entrepreneurial aspects at all levels-boards of directors, credit committees, education committees, gender committees, surveillance groups, sons and daughters of producers. These advances can be mostly attributed to the training offered in loans portfolio systems, accounting systems adapted to producer cooperatives and preparation of business plans, which is evident in the cooperatives' business plans and annual operational plans, which have been instrumental in business management and concretization. It should be mentioned, however, that, although the number of producers currently diverted from the conventional market and selling their product to transnational companies has decreased, the situation continues."}]},{"head":"Lessons learned","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"• The strengthening of national and international marketing channels, the continuous improvement of product quality, the increase in export volumes, and the active participation in national and international coffee marketing events will not only ensure the sale of produce but will also lead to the economic sustainability of cooperatives."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"• It is also important to have the technological tools to access information on stock movements, be familiar with commercial risk management policies such as market positioning and physical and financial coverage, and use the advisory services of experts in these fields to minimize commercial risks."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"• Because coffee is Nicaragua's main export product and one of the most important bases of the economy of small Nicaraguan families, the Technical Committee, accompanied by specialized advisory services in topics such as climate change, varieties and nutrition, plays an important role in facilitating managerial processes, technical updating and innovations to ensure the production of quality coffee as well as the necessary volumes of production to increase the competitiveness of Nicaragua."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"• An instrument like a gender policy provides guidelines for potential actions; however, its mere existence does not guarantee equity-oriented actions or easier access of women to the different gender-equity activities promoted along the value chain. It is therefore vital that those organizations belonging to the Technical Committee that already have gender policies do enforce them."},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"Organizations that do not have a gender policy should prepare one, allocating resources and defining actions that really improve women's living conditions."},{"index":6,"size":13,"text":"• Little progress has been made in legislation pertinent to the coffee sector."}]},{"head":"Organizations of the Technical","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Committee need to prepare their tax reports and advocate more strongly in decision-making spaces to influence public policies that will favor the coffee sector. Lobbying at the municipal level in consensus-building and negotiation spaces is also important to be able to directly participate in territorial development."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"• Public and private alliances are fundamental for the synergy of the value chain; however, attention must be paid to the commitments of each actor to balance benefits and particular interests."},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"• In 2008, SOPPEXCCA and CAFENICA were part of the organizing committee of the Cup of Excellence in Nicaragua, an event that promotes the high-quality coffee produced in the country. However, the team of coffee cuppers must be trained so they can identify quality coffee. The number of samples of coffee produced in the areas of Matagalpa and Jinotega sent to the event should also be increased because this type of event effectively promotes marketing, and coffee producers are also motivated to improve the quality of their products, which enhances the image of Nicaraguan coffee."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"• Member organizations do not have all the information about the different investments and activities carried out within the framework of the ACORDAR Project, a situation that has always been a limitation and, upon project termination, has an impact on the potential arrangements that organizations could make in the future with other entities."},{"index":5,"size":34,"text":"Organizations and cooperatives should be equipped with to have resources available to negotiate outside Nicaragua (tours to investigate new markets) and have advisory services and direct support in marketing issues (a broker 11 )."},{"index":6,"size":28,"text":"• A market intelligence system (MIS) should be implemented from the onset of the project because it allows coffee producers to make better decisions when marketing their products."},{"index":7,"size":80,"text":"• When proposing a project, it should be taken into account that resources are needed to meet project goals. Therefore all areas should have an allocated budget and understand the role they play and how they relate to other areas. Likewise, all stakeholders should fully participate in the different stages of the project (planning, execution, monitoring, evaluation), with a realistic approach to development. As a result, it is important to strengthen the links between technical areas, human development and monitoring."},{"index":8,"size":47,"text":"specialized software (Access, SPSS, SQL Server) to manage the information generated by the project as well as a platform capable of recording all project data. Personnel should be trained to enter data and make consultations when needed. All project information should be readily accessible for timely decisionmaking."},{"index":9,"size":24,"text":"• The value chain development approach has proved useful to analyze the activities, conditions and weaknesses of each link of the coffee value chain."},{"index":10,"size":67,"text":"In this regard, this approach should be maintained regarding investments or support to project beneficiaries. More global investments should be made, directed to all links of the value chain. For example, although higher investments were made in the production link, many times the levels of poverty of coffee producers did not let them access shared funding. In the case of marketing, it is very important for organizations"}]},{"head":"Stories of change","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Living proof"}]},{"head":"\" \"","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"A better life for my family and a cleaner environment"}]},{"head":"Story shared by Julio Sánchez","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Institute for Development and Democracy (IPADE)"},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Whoever can be trusted with very little can also be trusted with much."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The life of don Julio Sánchez confirms this simple truth. This small-scale coffee producer and father of four sons, who lives in the community of Siares, municipality of San Ramón, department of Matagalpa, Nicaragua, does not try to hide his humble beginnings as a day laborer working on coffee plantations. At that time, when a canvas tent was \"home\", he worked for others, looking after their interests."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"However, in 1999 don Julio decided to start a coffee plantation of his own. He knew he would encounter many difficulties, but it was a dream that he, his brothers and sisters, and his children had had for a very long time. With his wife's help, he bought a 6-hectare plot of desolate, bramble-filled pastures. Displaying a strength that now seems unimaginable to him, he began growing coffee. He also set up a coffee nursery on one manzana (0.7 hectare) and started a reforestation process."},{"index":5,"size":74,"text":"\"For five years I financed production with my own resources, but there came a time when I wasn't making enough money although the coffee was beginning to bear fruit, so I had to take up day work on other plantations to earn enough to cover my family's needs. In addition, because I didn't have a depulper, I had to sell the coffee cherries at a very low price and no profit,\" recalls the farmer."},{"index":6,"size":101,"text":"For five years he persevered --1,825 days of facing doubts and questions, good and bad moments, good and bad thoughts. But bad times don't last forever and don Julio's fate began to change when, in 2005, a CECOSEMAC 12 technician asked him to join the El Progreso de Siares Cooperative. It was there that he got his first credit, which he used to give his farm a much-needed maintenance; he used his second credit to buy a depulper and then began to process his own coffee. However, the depulper was located next to the local stream and contaminated their water source."},{"index":7,"size":65,"text":"Like a domino effect, three years later this small-scale coffee producer joined the ACORDAR Project. His bad times were now behind him. Don Julio was granted financing to set up a wet processing plant, which later allowed him to obtain organic and fair trade certification. He now had a fermenter, a washer, a filter, ditches for treating hydromel, and water harvesting equipment on his farm."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"It was a fact: the venture don Julio embarked on in 1999 on very poor land was becoming what his heart had desired for many years."},{"index":9,"size":114,"text":"Don Julio continued to reap the fruits of persevering and working his own farm. Through the ACORDAR Project he was given enough plants to renew one hectare of coffee, as well as some organic Thanks to all this, don Julio now has the means to pay for health care for his wife and family, and he has a house, equipped with fridge, TV, and a DVD player. However, there are other things that he finds hard to put into words, for example how happy he is that his children are getting an education. \"My dream that my son would one day have a technical degree has come true,\" says the small-scale farmer with pride."}]},{"head":"Lynn Menéndez Alma McNab","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Translation:"},{"index":2,"size":52,"text":"This publication compiling the work of the ACORDAR Project is made possible by the generous support of the American People through the United States Agency for International Development (USAID). The contents are the responsibility of the ACORDAR Project and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Water Component of the ACORDAR Project was launched in 2009. Investments were made to improve the quality of both drinking water and water used to irrigate crops. This new component made it easier to improve existing infrastructure with the By the end of the ACORDAR Project, the organizations should fulfill at least 70% of the six indicators devised during the graduation or transition toward selfsufficiency plan. "},{"text":" 12. The \"Aroma del Café\" Union of Multiple Service Cooperatives (CECOSEMAC, its Spanish acronym) serves seven grassroots cooperatives.It was established with the support of Catholic Relief Services (CRS) and USAID. production materials. He also took training courses on managing water for domestic use, pesticide use, reforestation, water source protection, water laws, certified organic production, farmer cooperative management, and gender equity, among other topics. \"I feel qualified and capable of running my wet processing plant. Today I use less water, I look after our water source and have a better income due to the quality of the coffee I produce,\" he says. \"I've also lowered my labor costs. Before, it took three people to process six quintals of coffee, but now I do everything myself and save money.\" Don Julio's neighbors hold him up as an example to other farmers in the community, especially those who are just setting out on the path that he once took. He does not hesitate to point out what he thinks is the most significant change that has taken place as a result of this process. \"A better life for my family and a cleaner environment,\" he states with great conviction. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"f76c04f2-d25e-4728-88a4-9a1880ca4870","abstract":"The project \"Alliance to Create Opportunities for Rural Development through Agro-enterprise Relationships\" (ACORDAR) aimed to help increase the income, ensure permanent employment and strengthen the business capacities of 7000 poor rural households in 50 municipalities of Nicaragua, in alliance with municipal governments and the private sector.ACORDAR was financed by the United States Agency for International Development (USAID) and implemented by an important consortium headed by Catholic Relief Services (CRS), together with other partners such as Lutheran World Relief (LWR), TechnoServe (TNS), Global Village (GV), Latin American Financial Services (LAFISE), International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) and other local partners in the area of influence of the project. This project was initially established in 2007 for a 3-year period; however, given its significant impact, it was extended for another 2 years until the end of 2012 to further disseminate its results and empower more farmer families and producer organizations.A total of 2375 small-scale coffee producers (564 women and 1811 men) participated in this initiative of the ACORDAR Project. Participating producers were organized in 45 grassroots cooperatives, which in turn formed six second-and third-level cooperatives such as the Society of Small Coffee Producers, Exporters and Buyers (SOPPEXCCA, its Spanish acronym), the Central of Coffee Cooperatives of Northern Nicaragua (CECOCAFEN, its Spanish acronym), the Foundation Between Women (FEM, its Spanish acronym), GV, the \"Aroma del Café\" Union of Multiple Service Cooperatives (CECOSEMAC, its Spanish acronym) and the Association of Small Coffee Producer Cooperatives of Nicaragua (CAFENICA, its Spanish acronym). These cooperatives were located in the departments of Matagalpa, Jinotega, Estelí, Nueva Segovia, Madriz and the Northern Atlantic Autonomous Region, known as RAAN. Together with LWR, they formed the Coffee Technical Committee that aimed to strengthen the coffee value chain through actions set forth in a Strategy to Increase 2. 1 quintal (qq) = 100 lb or 46 kg; 1 manzana (mz) = 1.72 acres or 7,026 m 2 ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0848456f66649db99ab33e265956851f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://www.iwmi.cgiar.org/iwmi-tata/PDFs/2012_Highlight-20.pdf"},"pageCount":10,"title":"Potential and Challenges in Up-scaling Micro-irrigation in India Experiences from Nine States 20","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"What little research is available in India on Micro-Irrigation (MI) focuses on its economics and its suitability for different crops at different time periods. Little evidence is available on its adoption pattern and its economic impacts on farm households of different landholding size categories. Key questions we explored in this research are: who has access to MI and what is the economics of MI for farmers under different land-holding size groups (viz., marginal, small and large farmers). We also explored the kind of interventions that are needed to upscale MI adoption."}]},{"head":"METHODOLOGY","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":267,"text":"The study was undertaken during 2010. All the states were covered for the estimation of the potential MI area and the actual spread of the technology. For the farm level analysis of costs and returns among different farm groups, nine states were covered viz., Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala, Maharashtra, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu. Both secondary and primary data were collected in these nine states. The secondary data were collected covering the state level MI sources, cropping pattern, existing area under MI and some details on government subsidy for MI adoption. The primary data was collected from a sample of 150 adopter farm households from each selected state using semi-structured questionnaire which canvassed information on farm size, irrigated area, sources of irrigation water in use, area under MI, crops grown, subsidy availed, crop income and expenditure under crops with and without MI. Farm level constraints for adoption of MI and suggestions for better adoption were also solicited during the field surveys. The sample was post stratified into marginal, small and large farmers. Secondary data was used to estimate the potential 3 These reports are available on request from p.reghu@cgiar.org for MI in each state based on existing areas grown with crops suitable for drip or sprinkler irrigation. Thereafter, primary data was used to understand the access to and economics of MI under different farm categories as well as to document the suggestions of the farmers for better adoption of MI in the state. Using the farm level data, the following regression equation was fitted to study the influence of various factors on area under MI."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"Where, Yi = Area under MI by ith farmer (ha), X = Farm size of ith farmer (ha), D1i and D2i = Dummy variables for ith farmer representing marginal and small farmer category respectively, åi = error term Analysis of variance without replication was used to test the significance of additional income earned by different categories of farmers under MI across the nine states."}]},{"head":"ANALYSIS OF THE ADOPTION LEVEL AND ECONOMICS OF MI","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MI adoption rates versus their potential","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"The MI potential in each state was estimated using secondary data considering state-wise and source-wise irrigated area, cropped area, and the crop-wise suitability for different micro-irrigation systems (except paddy in canal systems). Further, plantation crops like coffee, tea, rubber, oil palm, etc. which are not covered under National Micro Irrigation Mission (earlier Centrally Sponsored Scheme on Micro Irrigation) subsidy are not considered for potential estimation. Based on these calculations and assuming long term stability in cropping patterns, there is an ultimate potential for bringing around 42 million ha under drip and sprinkler in the country (Raman, 2010). Of these, about 30 million ha are suitable for sprinkler irrigation for crops like cereals, pulses and oilseeds in addition to fodder crops. Drip irrigation, which is appropriate for cotton, sugarcane, fruits and vegetables, spices and condiments, and some pulse crops such as red gram, offers an ultimate MI potential of around 12 million ha."},{"index":2,"size":226,"text":"Actual drip irrigated area as percent of the potential in different states varies between zero in Nagaland to a high 49.7 percent in Andhra Pradesh, followed by Maharashtra with 43.2 percent and Tamil Nadu with 24.1 percent. In case of sprinkler irrigation, the actual area equipped as percent of the potential estimated varies from a low 0.01 percent in Bihar to a high 52 percent in Andhra Pradesh. For the country as a whole, the area equipped with MI at 3.9 million ha (1.42 million ha under drip and 2.44 million ha under sprinkler) is only about 9 percent of the potential estimated at 42.2 million ha (Table 1). Even before then, states like Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka had MI subsidy schemes of their own. However, the subsidy offered varied from 50 to 100 percent of the capital investment depending upon factors such as the land-holding size class of the applicant farmer. By 2011, it was estimated that an area of around 5.5 million ha was brought under MI in the country. Out of this 2.2 million ha were under drip and 3.3 million ha under sprinkler (NCPAH 2011). Major MI crops covered include field crops such as cotton, maize, groundnut, sugarcane as well as orchard, vegetables and fruit, as well as plantation crops such as tomato, banana, papaya, mango, grapes, lemon, tea, coffee and rubber."},{"index":3,"size":144,"text":"A major problem faced by MI companies as well as farmers is the long time lag between the decision taken on the level of MI subsidy and its actual implementation. For example, the subsidy level for banana crop drip systems in 2010 was fixed at Rs. 65000 per ha; but this was based on cost calculations done in 2008 when material costs were lower. The effective subsidy on offer therefore is less than intended. The problem for MI companies gets aggravated further by the long gap between the delivery of MI systems to farmers and the release of subsidy payments. Such factors play a key role in determining MI adoption rates.  The experiences of the Gujarat Green Revolution Company (GGRC) in Gujarat indicate that during recent years, an increasing number of small and marginal farmers is adopting the MI (personal communication from Raman, 2010)."}]},{"head":"MI adoption by various farm categories","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Farm size and area under MI","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Relationship between MI area and farmer categories","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"The regression results (Table 3) to determine factors affecting MI adoption show that the coefficients of farm size are significant at 1 percent level. This suggests that farm size positively influences the MI adoption rate. The coefficient of dummy variable for small farmers is significant at 10 percent level whereas dummy variable for medium farmers is not significant at all. The average farm size in the 9 states was 0.91 ha, 2.41 ha and 8.51 ha for marginal, small and large farmers respectively. On the average, each farmer could allot about 0.32 ha of every additional ha of land to MI irrespective of the farm size categories."}]},{"head":"Farming Costs and returns under micro-irrigation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"MI system cost and the farmers' share after subsidy varied across the farm sizes. It is comparatively lower in the larger farms due to economies of scale (Table 4). In Kerala, due to intercropping of the wide spaced perennial crops like rubber, coconut and areca nut, the unit cost of the system is significantly lower than in other states. In all the states, the quantum of actual subsidy as perceived and affirmed by farmers is more than 30 percent of the total cost of the MI system, lower than the subsidy percent announced under government schemes. This may well be one of the reasons for the slower than expected rate of spread of MI technology in different states."},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"Even  "}]},{"head":"Farmers' Suggestions for more effective promotion MI systems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Even with proven benefits and applicability of MI systems under different farm categories, adoption rates leave much scope for improvement. This might be due to a variety of constraints identified earlier. This paper further examines the suggestions from farmers and also the policy recommendations at different levels."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Major suggestions include provision of technical support for MI operation after installation, relaxation of farm size limitation in providing subsidies, promotion and supply of liquid fertilizers, improved marketing facilities and access to more credit to expand the area under MI."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Our survey results also indicate that small farmers from Andhra Pradesh and Punjab and large farmers from Tamil Nadu are in need of more intensive technical support for the adoption and management of MI. Liquid fertilizers are in great demand from farmers in Karnataka. Improving the marketing channels for MI systems and better credit facilities for MI investment are considered important for improving the adoption by farmers in Tamil Nadu and Punjab."}]},{"head":"Success of MI in selected states","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Among different states, the MI promotion and subsidy scheme is more successfully implemented in states like Andhra Pradesh and Gujarat. One of the major reasons for this is that these two states created SPVs with sole responsibility of promoting and implementing microirrigation schemes of state and central governments. In Andhra Pradesh, the SPV is APMIP (Andhra Pradesh Micro Irrigation Project) and in Gujarat, this is GGRC (Gujarat Green Revolution Company Ltd). In other states, MI promotion role is still vested with the departments like agriculture/ horticulture/ soil conservation, for whom implementation of micro irrigation scheme is one of their several responsibilities and therefore does not receive the attention that it requires and deserves."},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"APMIP GGRC was provided a captive budget and full autonomy to pursue its objectives. Transparent implementation of each stage of the scheme -with real-time online monitoring of each farmer's case being followed at GGRC -contributes to a great extent to its success in Gujarat. In addition some of the restrictions in the centrally sponsored scheme in the selection of beneficiaries, area restriction and such other are done away in Gujarat without losing the spirit of the restrictions. As against the restriction on land holding size of under 5 ha per beneficiary in the central scheme, in Gujarat any beneficiary can avail of the MI subsidy for any number of hectares and the subsidy amount over and above the central scheme limit is borne by the state government. Any beneficiary can choose any of the suppliers approved by GGRC based on the their track record of after sales services since the system components costs are fixed and are same for all the companies. A periodical assessment is made of the costs of system components based on petroleum prices. The company also gives priority for awareness and technology training to different stake holders. To top it all, the project monitoring is done at the highest level frequently through a cabinet sub-committee."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"In Maharashtra, the MI suppliers are playing a vital and proactive role in the implementation of the scheme. In a nutshell, in each state, an SPV for MI promotion on the lines of APMIP and GGRC needs to be established as the single nodal agency with full autonomy, flexibility and appropriate funding. The whole system needs to be operated with transparent, online monitoring of implementation with a strong focus on continuous training and capacity building for all the stakeholders for better maintenance."}]},{"head":"Electricity saving under drip irrigation in Gujarat state","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"After the inception of the GGRC which is the nodal agency for implementation of all the schemes on micro irrigation in Gujarat, there has been a phenomenal increase in the adoption of micro irrigation in the state. Between 2005-06 and 2010-11, some 1.7 lakh ha have been brought under drip method of irrigation in Gujarat (Table 5). In Gujarat, MI is being used for irrigating more than 40 different crops, some of the major crops being cotton, banana, sugarcane, potato and mango.  Water Policy Research Highlight-20"}]},{"head":"RECOMMENDATIONS","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"In sum, then, our surveys that reducing capital investment in MI systems and improving the technical knowhow of farmers about the operation and maintenance of the technology will help accelerate the adoption of MI. In this context, the following specific points are of interest."}]},{"head":"i.","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"Field Level: There is scope of reducing the capital cost of MI systems by making minor modifications in farming to suit small and medium farms. Adoption of paired row planting, for example, can be one such modification. Manufacturers, dealers and farmers need to be trained in laying micro-irrigation systems following an efficient crop-specific design. Fixing the emitter spacing keeping in view the soil texture can reduce the system cost significantly; in business-as-usual mode, the dripper spacing adopted is 60 cm and below regardless of the soil type. There is need to design low-cost drip and MI systems to suit the needs of the small and marginal farmers."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"ii. State level: Reducing the time lag between the announcement of a MI subsidy policy, its actual implementation and subsidy disbursement can accelerate the speed with which suppliers can meet farmers' needs. Suppliers need to be compensated for increase in raw material prices during this time lag to maintain the real subsidy at levels promised in the policy. Periodical review and revision of the unit cost is important as done in Gujarat."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"Discussions with the MI companies and officials also indicated that differential subsidy pattern for different crops being followed in different regions is only confusing farmers and implementing agencies. Currently different government agencies follow different subsidy norms and this adds to the confusion. It is important to introduce a uniform subsidy across each state."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"Lack of technical support emerged as a key concern at the level of farmers. Capacity building of the implementing team, which in turn can help farmers acquire the minimum technical skills needed to manage the technology effectively, is important. Fertigation, which is the major economic benefit of MI, was not done in most of the sample farms we studied. To enhance crop productivity and income, fertigation should be aggressively promoted among MI adopters. In Tamil Nadu, the introduction of the TNDRIP capacity building program in 2009 covering 100 villages and 1000 farmers resulted in 17 percent yield increase and 23 percent water saving under different crops on fields of farmers covered by the training program compared to untrained drip adopter farmers (ITP, 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":49,"text":"Training to unemployed village youth and input suppliers to reduce the time lag in MI installation and for improving regular maintenance of the systems is also beneficial. A SPV in each state should be created to manage the implementation of MI program on the lines of GGRC in Gujarat."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 Potential and actual area under MI in different states (in '000 ha as on 2009) State Drip Sprinkler Total Potential area Actual area covered Actual as percentage of potential Potential area Actual area covered Actual as percentage of potential Potential Area Actual area covered Actual as percentage of potential Since the introduction of MI in India, government agencies have been conscious of high capital investments as a major impediment to adoption of MI technologies especially for marginal and small farmers to adopt. As a result, central and state governments have not only announced a range of MI subsidy schemes but also work with MI manufacturers to keep the unit costs under control. Central government also has launched an ambitious Centrally Sponsored Scheme (CSS) on MI which came into effect during financial year 2005-06. Andhra Pradesh 730 363 49.7 387 200.9 51.9 1117 564.0 50.5 Andhra Pradesh73036349.7387200.951.91117564.050.5 Bihar 142 0.2 0.1 1708 0.2 0.0 1850 0.4 0.0 Bihar1420.20.117080.20.018500.40.0 Chhattisgarh 22 3.7 16.6 189 59.3 31.4 211 62.9 29.8 Chhattisgarh223.716.618959.331.421162.929.8 Goa 10 0.8 7.6 1 0.3 33.2 11 1.1 9.9 Goa100.87.610.333.2111.19.9 Gujarat 1599 169.7 10.6 1679 136.3 8.1 3278 305.9 9.3 Gujarat1599169.710.61679136.38.13278305.99.3 Haryana 398 7.1 1.8 1992 518.4 26.2 2390 525.5 22.0 Haryana3987.11.81992518.426.22390525.522.0 Himachal Pradesh 14 0.1 0.8 101 0.6 0.6 115 0.7 0.6 Himachal Pradesh140.10.81010.60.61150.70.6 Jharkhand 43 0.1 0.3 114 0.4 0.3 157 0.5 0.3 Jharkhand430.10.31140.40.31570.50.3 Karnataka 745 177.3 23.8 697 228.6 32.8 1442 405.9 28.2 Karnataka745177.323.8697228.632.81442405.928.2 Kerala 179 14.1 7.9 35 2.5 7.2 214 16.6 7.8 Kerala17914.17.9352.57.221416.67.8 Madhya Pradesh 1376 20.4 1.5 5015 117.7 2.3 6391 138.1 2.2 Madhya Pradesh137620.41.55015117.72.36391138.12.2 Maharashtra 1116 482.3 43.2 1598 214.7 13.4 2714 697.0 25.7 Maharashtra1116482.343.21598214.713.42714697.025.7 Nagaland 11 0.00 0.0 42 4.0 9.4 53 3.9 7.5 Nagaland110.000.0424.09.4533.97.5 Orissa 157 3.6 2.3 62 23.5 37.8 219 27.1 12.4 Orissa1573.62.36223.537.821927.112.4 Punjab 559 11.7 2.1 2819 10.5 0.4 3378 22.2 0.7 Punjab55911.72.1281910.50.4337822.20.7 Rajasthan 727 17.0 2.3 4931 706.8 14.3 5658 723.8 12.8 Rajasthan72717.02.34931706.814.35658723.812.8 Tamil Nadu 544 131.3 24.1 158 27.2 17.2 702 158.5 22.6 Tamil Nadu544131.324.115827.217.2702158.522.6 Uttar Pradesh 2207 10.7 0.5 8582 10.6 0.1 10789 21.3 0.2 Uttar Pradesh220710.70.5858210.60.11078921.30.2 West Bengal 952 0.2 0.0 280 150.0 53.6 1232 150.2 12.2 West Bengal9520.20.0280150.053.61232150.212.2 Others 128 15.0 11.7 188 30.0 15.9 316 45.00 14.2 Others12815.011.718830.015.931645.0014.2 Total 11659 1428.5 12.3 30578 2442.4 8.0 42237 3870.8 9.2 Total116591428.512.3305782442.48.042237 3870.89.2  "},{"text":"Table 2  reveals that a majority of our sample farmers reveals that a majority of our sample farmers adopting MI in the case of Kerala state (52 percent) adopting MI in the case of Kerala state (52 percent) operate marginal farm-holdings, whereas a majority of MI operate marginal farm-holdings, whereas a majority of MI adopters in Andhra Pradesh (71 percent), Karnataka (66 adopters in Andhra Pradesh (71 percent), Karnataka (66 percent), Orissa (63 percent) and Punjab (55 percent) are percent), Orissa (63 percent) and Punjab (55 percent) are small farmers. In Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, majority small farmers. In Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, majority (63 and 65 percent respectively) of the MI adopter farmers (63 and 65 percent respectively) of the MI adopter farmers we sampled turned out to be large farmers. Even after we sampled turned out to be large farmers. Even after providing the much needed support for promotion of MI, providing the much needed support for promotion of MI,  "},{"text":"Table 2 Farm size and area irrigated by MI systems  State State  "},{"text":"Farmer category Percentage of sample farmers in holding size categories Average farm size (ha) Average area under MI (ha) Percentage of area under MI   Marginal 23.3 0.51 0.07 13.72 Marginal23.30.510.0713.72 Orissa  62.7 1.74 1.23 70.44 Orissa62.71.741.2370.44  Large 14.0 15.52 9.56 61.60 Large14.015.529.5661.60  Marginal 5.3 0.8 0.40 50.00 Marginal5.30.80.4050.00 Punjab Small 55.3 2.7 1.30 48.15 PunjabSmall55.32.71.3048.15  Large 39.3 8.2 4.30 52.44 Large39.38.24.3052.44  Marginal 14.0 0.43 0.4 93.02 Marginal14.00.430.493.02 Rajasthan Small 35.3 1.16 0.95 81.90 RajasthanSmall35.31.160.9581.90  Large 50.7 3.41 2.54 74.49 Large50.73.412.5474.49  Marginal 02.0 0.8 0.58 72.50 Marginal02.00.80.5872.50 Gujarat Small 20.67 1.75 1.13 64.57 GujaratSmall20.671.751.1364.57  Large 77.33 3.65 3.0 82.19 Large77.333.653.082.19 Source: Survey data      Source: Survey data  Marginal 6.00 0.82 0.76 92.68 Marginal6.000.820.7692.68 Andhra Small 70.7 1.7 0.90 52.94 AndhraSmall70.71.70.9052.94 Pradesh      Pradesh  Large 23.3 14.1 2.96 21.02 Large23.314.12.9621.02  Marginal 13.3 0.62 0.48 77.42 Marginal13.30.620.4877.42 Tamil Nadu Small 22.0 1.72 1.31 76.16 Tamil NaduSmall22.01.721.3176.16  Large 64.7 4.67 2.41 51.61 Large64.74.672.4151.61  Marginal 52.0 0.54 0.15 94.44 Marginal52.00.540.1594.44 Kerala Small 28.0 1.44 1.25 86.80 KeralaSmall28.01.441.2586.80  Large 20.0 2.38 2.22 93.27 Large20.02.382.2293.27  Marginal 6.0 1.89 1.33 70.37 Marginal6.01.891.3370.37 Karnataka Small 66.0 5.71 1.82 31.87 KarnatakaSmall66.05.711.8231.87  Large 58.0 18.12 6.59 36.37 Large58.018.126.5936.37  Marginal 20.0 1.80 0.90 50.00 Marginal20.01.800.9050.00 Maharashtra Small 16.7 3.75 2.25 60.00 MaharashtraSmall16.73.752.2560.00  Large 63.3 6.60 3.40 51.52 Large63.36.603.4051.52  "},{"text":" though MI benefits can in principle pay for the MI investment, farmers still expect a subsidy for MI because of following reasons: (1) MI technology is capital intensive, with investment varying from Rs. 70000 to Rs. 5 1.3 lakh per ha depending upon the crops and type of MI 5 1.3 lakh per ha depending upon the crops and type of MI systems (drip or sprinkler); and farmers are noticeably systems (drip or sprinkler); and farmers are noticeably reluctant to make this scale of investment readily; (2) reluctant to make this scale of investment readily; (2) farmers' knowledge about the operation and maintenance farmers' knowledge about the operation and maintenance of the MI systems is limited. MI systems need of the MI systems is limited. MI systems need management as these face various maintenance problems management as these face various maintenance problems such as clogging of filters and drippers, specific level of such as clogging of filters and drippers, specific level of water level pressure required for best performance; this water level pressure required for best performance; this lack of familiarity and knowledge about the best way of lack of familiarity and knowledge about the best way of using the technology makes them risk averse and reluctant using the technology makes them risk averse and reluctant to invest; (3) except for widely spaced and commercial to invest; (3) except for widely spaced and commercial crops, MI is not suitable; thus investment decision in MI crops, MI is not suitable; thus investment decision in MI is often coupled with decisions about changing the entire is often coupled with decisions about changing the entire farming system. Except in groundwater overexploited farming system. Except in groundwater overexploited regions, farmers in other regions do not perceive MI as an regions, farmers in other regions do not perceive MI as an immediate need of high priority. Hence, providing immediate need of high priority. Hence, providing incentives in terms of subsidy helps farmers overcome incentives in terms of subsidy helps farmers overcome their resistance to adopt MI technology. their resistance to adopt MI technology.  "},{"text":"Table 3 Relationship between area under MI, farm size and category of farms  Variables Coefficients Std. Error t-stat p-value VariablesCoefficientsStd. Errort-statp-value Intercept 1.4249 0.5686 2.5058 0.0197 Intercept1.42490.56862.50580.0197 Farm size (ha) 0.3152 0.0553 5.6963 0.0000 Farm size (ha)0.31520.05535.69630.0000 Dummy variable for marginal farmers (D1) -1.1491 0.6161 -1.8650 0.0750 Dummy variable for marginal farmers (D1)-1.14910.6161-1.86500.0750 Dummy variable for small farmers (D2) -0.8350 0.5629 -1.4834 0.1515 Dummy variable for small farmers (D2)-0.83500.5629-1.48340.1515 2 Note: Dependent Variable = Area under MI (ha); R = 0.814, Adj. R = 0.7902 2    2 Note: Dependent Variable = Area under MI (ha); R = 0.814, Adj. R = 0.7902 2  "},{"text":"Table 4 MI cost and returns states and farm categories State Farmer category Average total cost of the system (Rs./ha)  Net income (Rs./ha) IRR (percentage) Net income (Rs./ha)IRR (percentage)  "},{"text":" was launched in November 2003. Right from the beginning, the project is under the Department of Horticulture, Government of Andhra Pradesh. In each district a separate Project cell is created with Project Director, APD, MI Engineers, MIDCs and other staff. For mandal level support, Micro Irrigation Agriculture Officers (MIAOs) who are diploma holders in Agriculture or horticulture are appointed to work with farmers on MI. GGRC in Gujarat was established in 2005 jointly by Gujarat State Fertilizers and Chemicals (GSFC), Gujarat Narmada Fertilizers Company Ltd (GNFC) and Gujarat Agro Industries Corporation (GAIC) to implement a uniform scheme for promoting Micro Irrigation Systems in the state under the Department of Narmada and Water Resources, Ministry of Irrigation, Government of Gujarat.  "},{"text":" These five crops together contribute 77 percent of the area under micro irrigation in the state as of March, 2011. It is estimated that between 2005-06 and 2010-11 about 706 lakh kWh of electricity might have been saved, thanks to MI adoption (Raman and Tikadar 2011). Castor 306 193 210 845 621 994 3169 Castor3061932108456219943169 All other crops 47 18 249 46 94 130 584 All other crops47182494694130584 Sub total 7844 10825 12972 21990 22186 29161 104977 Sub total78441082512972219902218629161104977 Total 13139 18307 26334 37607 36278 40280 171945 Total131391830726334376073627840280171945  "},{"text":"Table 6 Estimated year-wise and crop-wise electricity savings  Crops Estimated Savings kWh/ha 2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-10 2010-11 Total savings (lakh kWh) CropsEstimated Savings kWh/ha2005-06 2006-07 2007-08 2008-09 2009-102010-11Total savings (lakh kWh) Potato 200 0.6 2.5 9.8 4.4 7.7 10.8 35.7 Potato2000.62.59.84.47.710.835.7 Banana 1660 19.6 30.8 41.7 39.1 34.2 23.2 188.6 Banana166019.630.841.739.134.223.2188.6 Mango 371 5.1 5.7 7.6 5.9 5.4 3.2 33.0 Mango3715.15.77.65.95.43.233.0 Papaya 200 0.7 0.9 1.4 2.9 1.4 1.0 8.4 Papaya2000.70.91.42.91.41.08.4 Vegetable 200 1.1 1.1 0.1 0.0 0.0 0.1 2.5 Vegetable2001.11.10.10.00.00.12.5 Lemon 313 1.0 0.7 1.2 3.4 1.8 0.7 8.8 Lemon3131.00.71.23.41.80.78.8 Sapota 313 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.3 0.2 2.7 Sapota3130.50.60.70.40.30.22.7 Groundnut 100 0.0 0.0 0.3 2.8 2.7 1.5 7.4 Groundnut1000.00.00.32.82.71.57.4 Cotton 258 15.5 19.1 27.1 44.2 44.6 63.5 214.1 Cotton25815.519.127.144.244.663.5214.1 Sugarcane 1250 18.0 39.5 21.1 14.3 18.5 23.8 135.1 Sugarcane125018.039.521.114.318.523.8135.1 Castor 200 0.6 0.4 0.4 1.7 1.2 2.0 6.3 Castor2000.60.40.41.71.22.06.3 Other         Other Horticulture 313 3.3 4.5 7.9 21.1 16.6 8.3 61.8 Horticulture3133.34.57.921.116.68.361.8 crops         crops Other crops 200 0.1 0.0 0.5 0.1 0.2 0.3 1.2 Other crops2000.10.00.50.10.20.31.2 Total  66.1 105.9 119.9 140.5 134.8 138.5 705.6 Total66.1105.9119.9140.5134.8138.5705.6  "}],"sieverID":"b46cf8e9-bffd-4e4d-9c11-60e027cde339","abstract":"Our studies from nine states indicate that adoption of micro-irrigation (MI) technologiesdrip and sprinkler systems -has a positive impact in terms of water saving, yield and income enhancement at farm level. However, the overall impression among the farmers is that MI is capital intensive and suited only to large farmers who have access to capital and technical knowhow. As such, only 12.2 percent of potential drip irrigation area and 7.8 percent of potential sprinkler area is covered in the country with large variations across states. Majority of the MI adopters we sampled in Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka, Orissa and Punjab were small farmers. In contrast, in Maharashtra and Tamil Nadu, majority of MI adopters we found were large farmers. Analysis of the rate of return on MI investment indicated no significant difference in incremental net income attributed to MI across farm categories; however, there were significant differences in incremental net income of MI adopters across States. For accelerating MI adoption in the country, our recommendations include reduction in capital cost of the system, provision of technical support for regular MI operation and maintenance, relaxation of farm size limitation in providing MI subsidies and creation of a single state level agency or a Special Purpose Vehicle (SPV) for speedy implementation of the MI program."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0864af785cb8afd00e01cabe7484c686","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/1ec51f95-c172-4312-8d83-180582e4658f/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"Unpacking Intra-Household Decision-Making on Smallholder Farms in Colombia and Nicaragua to Foster Climate Change Adaptation","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Climate change is perhaps the most pressing challenge facing the global community and particularly developing countries. Already we are seeing the effects of climate change on agricultural production systems and food security. According to the FAO (2017), 26% of all climate-related losses reported in developing countries between 2005 and 2015 occurred in the agricultural sector (p. 8). Climate change resilience, defined as the degree of preparedness of countries to manage climate change, varies with the world poorest nations among the least prepared (ND-GAIN 2018). These nations are expected to experience much higher incidences of climate change vulnerability, 1 which further disproportionately affect individuals according to their social status, gender, economic level, and their ability to access and control resources (UNDP 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"Women in developing countries are in a particularly vulnerable situation. Climate change is not gender neutral (UNDP 2013). Women in the rural sector comprise a significant proportion of the agricultural workforce (43%) because of the deepening feminization of agriculture, and as a result of prevailing gender norms, they continue to face significant gender inequality with respect to access to productive resources and credit, knowledge, education, time poverty, and equitable pay (FAO 2011). These conditions will likely be exacerbated by climate change (Habtezion 2012), which is argued to have the potential to reinforce and reproduce unequal power relations (Gonda 2014). If gender equality and equity between the sexes does not increase, women will face a disproportionate burden when it comes to adapting to climate change, inevitably impacting their livelihoods and those of their children and families."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Building on the existing work on gender relations and climate change, this paper argues that we need gender-transformative approaches that seek to progress more concretely towards changing gendered power relations to foster gender equality to confront the dual challenges of climate change adaptation and gender inequalityboth of which, as described above, are not mutually exclusive. Up until now, the dominant approaches to addressing gender in the context of climate change have been focused on gender-sensitive and gender-responsive approaches; however, while these approaches have helped to visibilize women and the unique needs of men and women in confronting climate change, they have dealt less with changing dominant patterns of gender relations, while they be between men and women or the masculine-feminine binary."},{"index":4,"size":193,"text":"In this paper, we examine agricultural decision-making practices used by households to explore gender relations, further arguing that these can help us unpack the factors that influence and shape gender relations at the micro-level in local contexts. By focusing on agriculture, we can see how decisions regarding climate change adaptation may be handled by rural households and begin to understand what kinds of spaces currently exist for gender transformative approaches to decisionmaking and the potential for creating new spaces for debate and the adoption of practices to adapt to climate change. We begin with perceptions of decision-making as a starting point for analyzing household decision-making and gender relations. We then complement this was an analysis of agricultural decision-making in practice, emphasizing joint decision-making between spouses. There are two main questions that we seek to address: First, what do men and women's perceptions of decision-making and process of making agricultural decisions tell us about gender relations in households with male/female spouses? Second, what opportunities and obstacles exist for promoting gender transformative decision-making at the household level that could in turn create new spaces for debate and adoption of practices to adapt to climate change?"},{"index":5,"size":154,"text":"To answer these questions, we draw on qualitative empirical data collected from two sites in Latin America where Climate Smart Villages have been implemented by the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS). 2 Latin America is an important region for studying gender and climate change issues for several reasons. First, while broad efforts have been made throughout the region to strengthen gender equality, machismo and male and patriarchal gender norms are still very much socially entrenched. While the feminization of agriculture has been slower to take hold in the region than, for example, in Africa (FAO 2011), women face disproportionate access to agricultural resources (e.g., credit and land) and social barriers to their participation in the agricultural sector (Nobre and Hora 2017). These conditions are expected to deepen with climate change, which is already affecting the region and its impacts are expected to grow stronger in years to come."},{"index":6,"size":192,"text":"While some countries in the region are ranked as having relatively high climate resiliency ratings, which indicate how prepared they are to manage climate change, the poorest nations in the region are among the least prepared (ND-GAIN 2018). Given that vulnerability to climate change disproportionately affects individuals according to their social status, gender, economic level, and their ability to access and control resources (UNDP 2013), we can expect the rural poor and especially rural women to be particularly susceptible to climate change effects in countries with lower climate resiliency ratings. This underscores the importance of climate change adaptation for these communities and households. A gender-transformative approach to decision-making about the adoption of climate-friendly practices has the potential of reducing vulnerability of women as a subordinate group by opening up spaces for considering both masculine and feminine visions of climate change impacts and adaptation practices when engaging in the decision-making process. However, to effectively promote such approaches, it is first necessary to understand current gender relations in the household and how these are reflected in decision-making processes and practices, as well as assess the potential for gender-transformative approaches by identifying opportunities and challenges."}]},{"head":"Gender, Climate Change, and Decision-Making as a Locus of Transformation","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":188,"text":"Gender, largely focused on women's inequality vis-à-vis their male counterparts, made its way on to the global climate change agenda in 2001 at the 7 th Conference of the Parties (COP) in Marrakech where parties agreed to improve the participation of women in decision-making related to climate change (UNFCCC 2018). In 2010, nearly 10 years later at the 16 th COP in Cancun, for the first time the parties recognized the need to design gendered approaches to climate change adaptation (WEDO and GGCA 2013). In the years that followed, efforts were made to continue to enhance the representation and participation of women in climate change decision-making in United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC) negotiations, as well as introduce gender-responsible climate change policy in and language that suggested that parties take gender equality and women's empowerment into account when designing and implementing actions to address climate change (UNFCCC 2018). Additionally, international organizations have published a number of documents and reports advocating gender-sensitive and gender-responsive approaches to climate change adaptation (see, for example, (Huyer, et al. 2015, Nelson and Huyer 2016, UNDP 2012, UNDP 2013, United Nations 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"While such advances towards visibilizing women in climate change and investigating the unique needs of men and women have been significant though gender-sensitive and gender-responsive climate change research and action, scholarship has been more limited on the bigger issue of the disparate power relations between men and women that serve to continue to reinforce and reproduce gender inequality. Gonda (2014) specifically argues that:"},{"index":3,"size":470,"text":"There is insufficient understanding of how climate change and climate variability affect gender relations as well as how to address gender differences effectively with adaptation and mitigation measures. Furthermore, analysis of how gender inequalities influence different factors that could potentially increase climate vulnerability of certain groups in the population. (p. 6) She further states that there are three reasons for this: 1) confusion between the words \"woman\" and \"gender\"; 2) NGOs working on climate change have been more interested in the material effects of climate change while NGOs and movements working on gender have paid little attention to integrating climate change into their work; and 3) climate change is often associated with masculine topics, terms, and discourses (like security, modernization, and technical solutions), thus overlooking a feminine vision of climate change. Moreover, Gonda (2014) observes that not considering gender relations, and rather focusing specifically on women, runs the risk of making women appear to be victims and a homogenous group (p. 7), rather than agents in the process of adapting to climate change. Gonda's (2014) contributions are significant in several ways. First, she highlights how the climate change adaptation discourse up to this point has been largely dominated by men and masculine visions of climate change adaptation, that has not sufficiently taken women's views and knowledge into account. Such conditions can be attributed to the lack of space open to women in these discourses both in terms of numbers of women and their equitable participation in spaces of climate change decision-making and debate (Gonda, 2014). This has been an on-going concern since gender was introduced to climate change arena, as mentioned above. However, it has been mostly couched in the numerous calls for increasing women's participation and by extension empowerment in climate change decision-making and debate, rather than for fostering conditions that would lead to gender equality. This underscores the need for a gender transformative approach to climate change adaptation that seeks to foster more equitable gender relations, which would open up a larger space for women to engage and for their voices to be heard and seriously considered. This would thereby transform their characterization as vulnerable victims to that of powerful agents of change and potentially reduce their vulnerability to the effects of climate change by creating spaces for feminine discourses on climate change and adaptation to be heard and both engage and challenge the existing dominant masculine discourses on the subject. The exclusion of women and feminine discourses runs the grave risk of denying these perspectives entrance to the broader table where debates are held and decisions are made about climate change. The inclusion of feminine views and voices holds the promise of reorienting the climate change discourse and interventions to be more responsive to the unique concerns of women and limit the exacerbation of existing gender inequality."},{"index":4,"size":173,"text":"As mentioned above, decision-making has been a prominent issue in broader conversations around gender, climate change, and women's empowerment. Women's participation in decision-making is included as one of the central elements in indicators and indexes for women's empowerment (Alkire et al. 2012;Bishop and Bowman 2014;Hanmer and Klugman 2016;Phan 2015). 3  Furthermore, it was cited as a key factor to measure when gauging gender transformative change (Hillenbrand et al. 2015). Kabeer (1999) describes decision-making as the \"observable\" element of empowerment. While there are many different sites of decision-making and debate at micro and macro social levels, household decision-making processes are important because this is where gender relations are put to the test. With regard to climate-friendly practices, patterns in household decision-making can help us to understand relationships of power that might affect decisions to adopt such practices. They can reveal perceptions about decision-making, preferences, influence, and interactions among and between different household members. Finally, household decisionmaking processes are an important site for assessing changes in gender relations brought about by climate change and variability."},{"index":5,"size":265,"text":"Scholarship on household decision-making by farm families has grown considerably in recent years parallel to a broader interest in understanding different factors that enhance women's empowerment. In particular, the research on perceptions of joint decision-making has become a prominent thread of inquiry. A number of studies have compared the perceptions of spouses about who makes decisions and have reached the common conclusion that there is a lack of agreement between them, with the most common pattern being that men reported making sole decisions about some activities for which women reported joint decision-making with her spouse (Alwang et al. 2016;Ambler et al. 2017;Jacobs and Kes 2015;Twyman et al. 2015a). Understanding men and women's perceptions of decision-making is one way to unpack the reasons for spousal discord about decision-making. However, while evidence from studies on household decision-making suggest that men and women do not have the same perceptions of decision-making (Abdulsalam-Saghir et al. 2015;Anderson et al. 2017;Dekkers 2009;Jacobs and Kes 2015;Patel et al. 2007;Weeratunge et al. 2016), there is limited existing knowledge about the kinds of perceptions that men and women do have, their roles in making decisions, and how this relates to bargaining power (Ambler et al. 2017). Taking this a step further, Anderson et al. (2016) suggested exploring not only perceptions, but also the relationship between perceptions and actual decision-making authority in order to understand the adoption of agricultural practices in development programs and projects, specifically those targeting women. In line with this, Dekkers (2009) discussed how there is a difference between perceived power and the actual power that a person has in the household."},{"index":6,"size":191,"text":"While considerable research on spousal discord in joint household decision-making has been conducted, few studies have considered the relationship between joint decision-making and women's empowerment, and more specifically the question of whether joint decision-making can be used to measure gender equality. However, Acosta (2017) recently conducted a mixed-methods study to explore this issue. Based on her findings, Acosta (2017) identified four categories that express the different ways in which joint decision-making is understood by women and men in an agricultural setting in Nwoya, Northern Uganda (see Table 1 below). Based on the categories, she found that spouses did not participate as equals in the process of making a decision, especially in joint decisions. Her study raised questions about whether joint decision-making should be promoted as part of gender transformative approaches, whether it is a sign of women's empowerment, and whether it should be promoted by NGOs as part of their gender strategy (and if not, what type of joint decision-making should be promoted in order to enhance women's empowerment). 4 Furthermore, her research underscores the utility of studying men and women's perceptions of joint decision-making for measuring decision-making and women's empowerment."}]},{"head":"Table 1. Acosta's Patterns of Joint Decision-Making Discussion about Decision Decision Decision-Making Process","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"No conversation between the couple Man \"informs\" about the decision to the woman, after the fact Man \"informs\" about the decision to the woman, before the fact"}]},{"head":"Conversation between the Couple","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"Man \"informs\" about the decision to the woman, before the fact. Woman's ideas not considered Woman´s ideas are considered, but man has the final say Much of the literature on household decision-making and gender has emerged from studies carried out in Africa. While Demographic Health Surveys (Covre-Sussai, 2014; Ministerio de Salud y Protección Social y Profamilia, 2016) suggest that joint decision-making is very important in Latin America, the scholarship on men and women's perceptions and practice of household decisionmaking is quite limited (Covre-Sussai, 2014). The existing literature has mainly focused on the variables that affect women's decision-making, such as ownership of assets (Brauw et al., 2014;Chant, 2002;Wiig, 2013), gender norms (Bradshaw, 2013;Farah-Quijano, 2013;Ramirez et al., 2005;Tepichin, 2009), and characteristics of the couples and the communities (Carter, 2004). These diverse scenarios have led multiple authors to advocate the importance of doing contextualized analysis when addressing the process of household bargaining (Carter, 2004;Farah-Quijano, 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"In terms of women and men's perceptions of household decision-making and the degrees to which they converge or diverge, there is not much research for the Latin American region. The few existing studies suggest that the region generally follows the same patterns as have been noted elsewherethere is a lack of spousal accord concerning household decisions with men typically reporting making decisions alone, while women report a higher level of joint decision-making and sometimes more individual female decisions (Casique, 2000;Covre-Sussai et al., 2014;Deere and Twyman 2014;Twyman et al. 2015aTwyman et al. , 2015b;;Twyman et al. 2016aTwyman et al. , 2016b)). However, one study did indicate that when women's spouses were present during interviews, women were more likely to report that decisions are made jointly as opposed to made by women (Brauw et al. 2014)."}]},{"head":"Unpacking Household Agricultural Decision-Making in Climate Vulnerable Sites in Colombia and Nicaragua: Study Description and Methodology","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":169,"text":"As stated above, this paper draws on household decision-making data collected from families living in two CCAFS Climate Smart Villagesone in Cauca, Colombia, and the other in Tuma-La Dalia, Nicaragua. Both countries are critical sites of climate change and have been experiencing climate change variability, particularly Nicaragua. According to the Climate Risk Index, Nicaragua is ranked fourth of the ten countries most affected by extreme weather events in the 1996-2016 period (Eckstein, Künzel, and Schäfer 2018). The Notre Dame Global Adaptation Initiative Index (ND-GAIN), which measures climate vulnerability and resilience, ranks Colombia 77th and Nicaragua 115th (of 181 countries) in their most recent index that includes scores from 2016 (ND-GAIN 2018). As such, inquiry and investigation into climate change adaptation and resilience measures are important for both countries. Bearing this in mind, CCAFS designed the Climate Smart Village (CSV) initiative to be implemented in sites with high climate risk using participatory research methods with local communities to full extent possible to experiment with climate change adaptation practices (CCAFS n/d)."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"In 2014-2015, CCAFS conducted a Gender Survey in communities located in the CSV sites in Colombia and Nicaragua mentioned above. Among other topics, the gender survey collected data on household decision-making. Results from these surveys suggested that men report most agricultural decisions are primarily taken by men, while women report a higher level of women's participation through both joint decisions and individual female decisions (see Twyman et al. 2016aTwyman et al. , 2016b). However, it was unclear what joint decision-making meant to men and women. Thus, an additional mixed-methods study was conceived with the idea of conducting follow up research and including a strong qualitative component to explore how agricultural decisions are made within households and, in particular, inquire about men and women's perceptions of decision-making and about the norms that influence decision-making processes."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The qualitative component of the mixed-methods study on household decision-making was particularly important given that most studies on household decision-making and spousal accord have relied on quantitative data collected from surveys, and surveys have been found to provide limited insights into subjective perceptions of men and women about decision-making, the microprocesses that comprise the decision-making process, and how factors like legitimacy and gender norms influence decision-making practices. 5 In response to the limitations of surveys for studying household decision-making, scholars have called for alternative means of studying such processes, including qualitative methods to capture subjective data (Alwang et al. 2017;Hillenbrand et al. 2015) and gender-inclusive approaches that overcome gender biases (Alwang et al. 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":189,"text":"This paper uses qualitative data collected from the mixed-methods study to address the questions concerning what we can learn about household gender relations from the perceptions of decisionmaking held by male-female spouses and what spaces for gender transformative decision-making exist. Data was collected via semi-structured interviews with male-female spouses (both married and unmarried), which were carried out as part of a broader mixed-methods study of household agricultural decision-making practices (see Garcia, Godek and Twyman 2017). In Colombia malefemale spouses were interviewed for 18 households, and in Nicaragua, male-female spouses were interviewed for 10 households. An effort was made in both cases to recruit households that had participated in a CCAFS Gender Survey conducted in both research sites in 2015. Local nongovernment organizations (NGOs) participated in data collection, and interviews were carried out by a research team consisting of one male and one female interviewer, with male interviewees interviewed by the male interviewer and female interviewees interviewed by the female interviewer. Informed consent was obtained from all study participants prior to their participation in the study and further permission was requested and obtained by all households to digitally record interviews."},{"index":5,"size":192,"text":"Owing to the different relationships of CGIAR research institutions with the local communities, the data collection methodology different slightly in each of the sites. In Colombia, researchers from the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) partnered with the local NGO, EcoHabitats, which reviewed and made recommendations about the research methodology. Once local community approval was obtained from the community research council to carry out the study, data collection proceeded in one community located in Cauca. Households participating in the interviews were selected and recruited by a local community member contracted by CIAT to facilitate the research. Male-female couples from a total of 18 households were interviewed, 7 of which had participated in the CCAFS Gender Survey. 6 In the case of Nicaragua, CIAT partnered with the Institute for Research and Development Nitlapan (henceforth, Nitlapan), which was already a CCAFS partner in the Tuma-La Dalia Climate Smart Village and provided additional research support. Nitlapan identified and recruited household participants from three communities in Tuma-La Dalia where the CCAFS Gender Survey had been implemented. Male-female couples from a total of 10 households were interviewed, 3 of which had participated in the CCAFS Gender Survey."},{"index":6,"size":223,"text":"The interview protocol used to the conduct the semi-structured interviews varied slightly between the research sites, and this was in response to the stipulation by the local community research council in Cauca, Colombia, that the interviews last no more than one hour. As a result, the initial instrument developed by CIAT researchers had to be modified. In both cases, couples were asked about their perceptions of individual and joint decisions and asked about who makes decisions about a list of common decisions regarding agriculture, food security, and income (individually by the male or female, jointly, or by/with another party). 7 They were also asked to give an example 6 The sample size was increased from the original target sample of 10 households because minor changes were made to the interview protocol following the first seven interviews in an effort to capture data specifically about a joint decision made about agriculture, rather than any joint decision. 7 For Nicaragua, this list consisted of 16 different kinds of household decisions, including 3 regarding food choices and preparation, 12 concerning farm and agricultural activities, and 3 regarding income and spending. For Colombia we asked 9 decisions that included 1 regarding food household consumption, 3 about potential implementation of agricultural practices (improve beans variety, water harvesting, and home gardens), 1 income control, and 4 on farmrelated decisions."},{"index":7,"size":22,"text":"of an agricultural decision made jointly and describe how the process of making that decision played out between them and their spouse."},{"index":8,"size":233,"text":"For this paper, in order to understand more about what agricultural decision-making could tell us about gender relations in the household, we analyzed data collected from the semi-structured interviews in several ways. First, discourse analysis was conducted for respondents' perceptions of individual and joint decisions in an effort to identify any emerging patterns. Second, data on decision-making was compiled and analyzed for spousal accord and discord in order to: a) identify any patterns and ascertain the household gendered division of labor and b) determine if the previous trend noted in the CCAFS Gender Survey, namely that men report that they make most agricultural decisions individually, while women report that they participate more than their spouses give them credit for via both joint decisions and individual female decisions. This data was further juxtaposed against the data on decision-making perceptions in an effort to theorize reasons behind decision-making patterns. Finally, using Acosta's (2017) typology of decisionmaking patterns as a base, the description of making joint decisions given by interview participants was examined and was either categorized according to Acosta's framework if it fit the typology or a new typology was created. Data on group membership, gender training, and perceptions of machismo were also included as potential variables that influenced decision-making perceptions and practices, and examined accordingly. The following sections present the findings for both research sites according to these three dimensions of the data analysis."}]},{"head":"Household Decision-Making Perceptions and Practices in Cauca, Colombia","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Theoretical Perceptions of Decision-Making","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Results from the interviews conducted with couples in Cauca revealed that individual decisionmaking is understood as a conversation with no agreement and/or when the spouse acts without informing the other spouse. The participants usually consider both situations to be negative since they reflect a misunderstanding between the couple and a conflict in the relationship. For one woman, an individual decision was perceived as \"no agreement.\" She further explained that an individual decision for her is when she talks with her husband about something, and they do not arrive to the same opinion and instead have different ideas. Also, another woman explained that an individual decision means to act alone: \"Suddenly, well, one doesn't understand right away. One says, I'll do this and he'll do this. And each one does what they want.\" Nonetheless, when women and men make decisions independently in their \"domains\" of expertise, individual decisions are seen as positive. In other words, when individual decisions follow traditional gender roleswomen in charge of the domestic responsibilities and men in charge of farm management decisions made individually are acceptable. In such cases, the individual has a tacit \"authorization\" from his/her spouse to make decisions by themselves. This perception is more evident with men than women. One woman who at first expressed a negative perception of individual decision-making later gave an example of an individual decision that she viewed as positive: \"On the farm, he [the husband] decides mostly. For example, what is needed for the crops. This is decided by him. Only he makes the decision. For all other decision, if he is going to plant something, he asks me, or if he wants to do something, he asks me.\""},{"index":2,"size":203,"text":"When it comes to making joint decisions, interviewed men and women shared their perceptions of the joint decision-making process as a long or short conversation, an agreement, and a way to show support for each other. One woman described making a joint decision with her husband as reaching an agreement: \"when we talk, when we agree.\" Another man stated that for him, a joint decision-making is \"when we understand each other.\" In general, joint decisions are seen as essential for a couple, family, and household. They are synonymous with harmony, the absence of serious conflicts, and demonstrate that things can be done. For some, joint decisions are a sign of a more gender equitable household not characterized as machista, with machista implying some degree of mental and physical control of one spouse over the other (i.e., not letting their spouse state her/his opinion). Some participants see more instrumental benefits from joint decision-making. They believe that when a decision is made by the couple, the positive and negative consequences of the decision are assumed by both spouses or they think they can avoid making mistakes by making decisions about topics not in their domain of his/her expertise by making the decision with their spouse."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Perceptions of joint and individual decision-making did not vary between men and women; however, gendered norms were reflected in their responses. For example, people understand machismo as control, to not permit women and even men to participate in decision-making. One man stated: \"Machismo is when you want to do things alone and do not consider the woman.\" Echoing these sentiments, one woman explained that \"machismo is when only the men is the one who makes decisions.\" Another finding was that individual decisions were considered positive as long as they were based on the traditional gender division of labor. Lastly, for some households, the man can have the last say in joint decisions because he is the head of the household. One man explained:"},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"You might understand that in a household someone has to take charge. Thus, here I have always taken initiative in such circumstances -but not in a machista way. Rather I have always been responsible for the household, and I don't know if things will change now. But, yes, the decisions I have made have always been made in this way."}]},{"head":"Decision-Making in Practice","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Gender division of labor and decision-making. The interviews show a traditional pattern of the gendered division of labor, and decision-making followed suit. Men are generally in charge of households and make decisions regarding the management of the farm, and women are generally responsible for domestic work. Some on-farm joint decisions can reinforce and perpetuate traditional gender norms. This is the case for decisions on hiring labor. The woman participates because she has to prepare food for the laborers, so her husband talks with her about these decisions to coordinate the logistics. There are some advances because women participate in decisions related to income from the farm and on the implementation on new practices, such as water harvesting, new bean varieties, and home garden. But, even though women participate in such agricultural activities, in general the farm is seen as the male's domain, and the men do not participate in domestic work or in related aspects, like the maintenance of the home garden."},{"index":2,"size":162,"text":"The explanation given by the participants for the way joint and individual decisions are made related to gender norms, and particularly who has the knowledge and who is in charge. For example, decisions about hired labor are made jointly because men are in charge of seeking hired workers and women have to cook for the laborers. In this case, since women's labor is need to make food for workers, they participate in making hiring decisions. The management of agricultural inputs (e.g., fertilizers, agrochemicals) is usually seen as a decision made only by men because he knows more about that, and decisions about home gardens are made by women because she stays at home more compared to men. One woman explained that she makes more decisions about household food consumption\"[b]ecause I am the person in the kitchen.\" Her husband said that she makes decisions about the home garden \"because I see that she has more ideas about that, and I don't have many.\""},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"The participation of some women in making farm-related decisions, individually or jointly, seems to be related to land ownership. In Colombia, women tend to inherit land from their parents, even while they are alive. Usually, the husband helps the women to manage the land, but he talks and makes joint decisions with her because she is the landowner. In the context of study, data showed that on the same farm, women and men can maintain and work separate plots. As well, the Colombian Law says that when a man and woman are married, they share ownership of acquired assets and some recognize this. One man explained:"},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"For example, I sold this cow, and she had not given me permission. I cannot sell it. The cow is her property… She also owns land and her name is listed in the property documents. The state, the law requires that you do that. Thus, 50% is hershalf is hers."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"This aligns with the fact that several women and men have received training and information regarding women's rights and family relationships from NGOs, television programs, and religious groups. Additionally, agricultural organizations working in the research site have focused some of their activities on women and there are various groups of women that produce coffee."},{"index":6,"size":102,"text":"Spousal accord and discord in commonly made decisions. In some cases, there is both spousal accord and discord in the answers concerning who makes what decisions on the farm and in the household. In general, as mentioned above, spouses usually agree that women and men make joint decisions regarding the implementation of new agricultural practices, hired labor, and farm income. Nonetheless, regarding the implementation of new agricultural practices, the data revealed that in some cases the woman or the man responded that they make this decision individually because they were the ones who attended the workshop where the new practice was presented."},{"index":7,"size":350,"text":"Discord was cited in some cases for farm-related and non-farm related decisions. Regarding the use of bean and coffee varieties, half of the couples reported that this is a joint decision, but the other half disagreed, with the women more likely to report it as a joint decision and the men as a sole decision made by them. On the other hand, regarding sugar cane and inputs (e.g. fertilizers and pesticides) for the farm, some agreed that only men make this decision, and in some households there is disagreement about who makes this decision with women responding that the man makes this decision and men reporting it as a joint decision. A tendency noted in the data was that men report joint decisions for those decisions that are considered male domain, while women reported joint decision for those considered the women's domain (i.e., household food consumption and management of the home garden). The discord between the couple can be explained by differences in gender perceptions and in the recognition of the couple's contributions, as a worker or landowner, and the knowledge each have of farm-related activities. For example, in one household, the woman sees the management of farm inputs, like fertilizers and pesticides, as being a decision made by the man, while for the man it was a joint decision. The reason for the discord is reflected in the following two interview excerpts, the first from the wife and the second from the husband: He is the one who knows more [about inputs and varieties]. As he said, he always worked with his father, so he knows more. He has more knowledge about everything, while I don't because I was not raised like him. (Woman) Regarding coffee, she has less knowledge [about inputs]. But we agree. I talked with her because she is the landowner. (Man) Joint decision-making process. In the study when we asked to the participants give a concrete description of an agriculture-related joint decision and explain how it was made. Analysis of the responses revealed four different typologies, all of which implied a short or long conversation:"},{"index":8,"size":17,"text":"• The man and woman each give their opinion, and with that information they make a decision"},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• The man and the woman exchange opinion with other family members (women or men), and make a decision together"},{"index":10,"size":12,"text":"• The man considers the woman's opinion, but makes the final decision"},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• The man informs the woman before the fact, but he do not consider the woman's opinion"},{"index":12,"size":98,"text":"The first type of decision can be understood as the most equal in terms of gender, and it is the most frequent type of joint decision among the interviewers. Several interviewees described this type of decision in which a woman and man have a conversation and can have different opinions, but the product of the dialogue is an accord. Throughout the conversation, they state they respect and support each other. In some cases, this conversation can be very rational, since it implies planning and thought towards a desired outcome. Several participants described such a process in the following:"},{"index":13,"size":145,"text":"For example, when the harvest comes, like the beginning of the coffee harvest, this is the time when you make decisions with your spouse. For instance, right now we are starting the harvest, so we are thinking. The second type of decision observed in the data collected from the households occurred less frequently. In this case, the decision was made with other family members that either live or do not live in the household. Usually, these family members include sons and daughters and/or the parents (typically the father) of the woman or the man. Children are seen by the couple as innovative and contributors to home and farm work, while parents are people with more experience with farm activities, or still are the landowners. One man described the process of making a decision about hiring labor with his wife and children as \"reaching an agreement.\""},{"index":14,"size":60,"text":"The third joint decision typology occurred when a man informs or talks to his wife before making a decision, but makes the final decision. During the conversation, the woman may share her opinion and the man considers it when making the final decision. For example, this typology was illustrated in an example one woman gave about buying fertilizer for coffee:"},{"index":15,"size":62,"text":"Before going to buy the fertilizer, he told me that we have to buy this one kind. Then we would put it on the coffee… He asked me if we should buy a different fertilizer or we should buy the fertilizer that we had planned to buy… this [decision about] the fertilizer is his because he's the one who knows about it."},{"index":16,"size":69,"text":"Even though the woman did not participate very much in this decision, she perceived it as a joint decision because her and her husband spoke about it before the final decision was made, and during this conversation, the woman could give her opinion. Men have the final say because of cultural reasons, like one man explained: \"If you are the head of household, you have to make the decision.\""},{"index":17,"size":119,"text":"The last type of joint decision identified is when the men informs the women before making a decision, but he does not consider the women's opinion. This can be a joint decision in which women play a very limited role. In this case, the man talks with the woman before making the decision, but sometimes the conversation is more about sharing information than sharing opinions. Thus, the ideas or reason given by women are null or are not taken into consideration in the final say. One man explained: \"If I say: I will do this today or tomorrow, and [my wife] says: 'sure'.\" Another man explained: \"I will consult to her about everything, but the decision is already made.\""},{"index":18,"size":126,"text":"Joint decision-making: perceptions vs. practice. In comparing the responses of men and women participants on perceptions of joint decision-making and the process in practice, the data shows similarities, meaning that the men and women report a decision-making practices that are consistent with their perceptions of joint decisions. Two tendencies in the data were identified. For some women and men, they had different theoretical perceptions of joint decisions, and the examples they gave of decision-making echoed these perceptions. For example, one woman explained that a joint decision is synonymous with a peaceful household and described a decisionmaking process in which all the household members, including her sons and daughter, participate. They prefer not to move forward with a particular action until there is a consensus between them."},{"index":19,"size":103,"text":"According to her, they do not make individual decisions. Her husband perceives joint decisionmaking as an agreement involving conversation. In his description of an example of a farm-related joint decision, he describes talking with his wife, but not taking her opinion into consideration. He has the final say. A second tendency is that women and men share a similar perception of joint decisions and both report a similar process of making them. This happens especially for those that report the process of making a joint decision as a conversation in which women and men give their opinions, debate, and finally reach an agreement."},{"index":20,"size":73,"text":"But not all households evidenced consistency between their perceptions of joint decisions and the process of making on in practice. Some households evidence differences between their perceptions and their decision-making processes. Some defined a joint decision as an equal conversation in terms of gender, but their description of a joint decision demonstrated that men have the final say in the conversation, and in some cases men did not even consider the women's opinion."}]},{"head":"Household Decision-Making Perceptions and Practices in Tuma-La Dalia, Nicaragua","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Theoretical Perceptions of Decision-Making Data on individual decision-making collected from the couples interviewed in Tuma-La Dalia revealed several differences between the responses of women and men. Women gave clearly defined responses describing what it means to them to make an individual decision. This generally consisted of making a decision alone without consulting their spouse. Only one woman expressed a somewhat different opinion, linking individual decision-making with economic power: \"I say it is a decision I make on my own because I pay.\" Women's responses overall tended to express a sense of empowerment and initiative to do something for themselves. Examples cited by the women included buying a pair of shoes or preparing food of their choice."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"As for the men's perceptions of individual decisions, these varied more than those of the women respondents. Some of the men echoed the perceptions of the women, explaining that for them an individual decision was one they make on their own without consulting their spouse. One man stated that he believed making decisions without consulting one's spouse would generate problems between them. Several of the men had difficulty articulating their perception of an individual decision, which was curious being that every man interviewed cited at least one decision that he made individually."},{"index":3,"size":96,"text":"While there was some variation in the women's and men's perceptions of joint decision-making, a major thread that ran through the vast majority of responses was that joint decision-making implied a conversation or dialogue between the couple and reaching an agreement (ponerse de acuerdo) between them on the subject of the decision. One woman explained: \"Making decisions means both reach an agreement. One doesn't say no and the other yes. They reach an agreement.\" Another man echoed these sentiments, stating joint decision-making meant \"reaching an agreement, both analyzing, and that there is no contradiction between them.\""},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"The main difference between the women and men's perceptions was that the men's responses emphasized the benefits of reaching agreement in joint decision-making, namely avoiding potential conflict that could affect the couple's success in achieving goals. Making decisions individually was thus seen as being a source of problems for the couple. Several examples of men's responses that highlight this perspective are as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"What I know up until now is that when you make a decision together in a group, it means talking, recognizing the value of the other person. If you make a decision alone, it is lost decision. If you make a decision together with another person, it will be advantageous."},{"index":6,"size":26,"text":"It is good to make decisions together with your spouse because like this one works well. You don't feel in disagreement. Everything works better in agreement."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"[Joint decisions are when] both people think the same and enjoy success. So, the individual who make decisions alone -a man or woman, will have problems."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"Another man also highlighted an additional benefit of making joint decisions, which is that one person does not shoulder responsibility for the outcome of the decision:"},{"index":9,"size":40,"text":"For me understanding things in the same way is important because things could get worse if one makes a decision alone. Afterwards they say you were the one who made the decision. When decisions are made together things go well."},{"index":10,"size":149,"text":"Several comments by interview participants about joint decision-making were useful for understanding gender norms and relationships of power in the household. For example, one woman reported that making a joint decision usually implied that her husband would initiate the decisionmaking process and they would then \"talk about the decision,\" which, according to her explanation, consisted of her conforming to his wishes. When asked what would happen if she did not conform to his opinion, she stated his reaction would be \"bad,\" thus underscoring her perception of having significantly less bargaining power in the decision-making process and inability to assert her opinion without negative consequences. In another case, a man who had difficulty describing his perception of a joint decision explained that he believed it was better when only one person made decisions, thereby again calling attention to the issue of power and influence in the making of joint decisions."}]},{"head":"Decision-Making in Practice","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Gender division of labor and decision-making. Among the couples interviewed in the Tuma-La Dalia research site, decision-making about food, agricultural activities, and household financial resources generally followed traditional gender norms: men are typically responsible for agriculture and farm decisions, while women are mainly responsible for decisions related to food. Financial decisions about income or spending varied with some couples reporting that couples make these decisions jointly, while others reported that the male spouse mostly makes these decisions. In no case were financial decisions made solely by women. Regarding agriculture, few women were involved in making decisions about agricultural production. The only activity for which women made decisions on their own was raising chickens and pigs. Apart from this activity, when women participated in agricultural decision-making, it was in the form of joint decisions made with their spouse."},{"index":2,"size":143,"text":"Spouses were asked individually in the interviews about the reason behind the division of labor and decision-making. While the answers varied, the responses they gave generally supported the traditional gender division of labor and decision-making. Table 2 below provides a summary of the different responses from the interviews. The data suggests that how decisions are made is influenced first and foremost by the traditional gender division of labor, which generally extends to decision-making. A second, related factor is technical knowledge. Both men and women report that women do not make agricultural decisions because they lack knowledge about agriculture (and in turn make decisions about agriculture when they do have knowledge). Likewise, the collected data also revealed that men generally do not make decisions about food because they lack this knowledge. A final factor, also influenced by the gender division of labor, is time."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"Responses indicate that women do not participate in farm activities because they lack time on account of their domestic and care work, whereas men spend most of their time in the fields and thus are not at home."},{"index":4,"size":99,"text":"Spousal accord and discord in commonly made decisions. Like in the case of Cauca discussed above, there is accord and discord in the responses of men and women living in communities in Tuma-La Dalia about different decisions they make in the household about food, agriculture, and income. The decisions for which there was the greatest degree of spousal accord (results showing 8 or more households in reporting accord) in the responses of the couples included those regarding food preparation (women made decision), fertilizers and agrochemicals (men made decision), and income distribution across expenses (mostly joint or made by men)."},{"index":5,"size":408,"text":"For other decisions, there was more spousal discord. Echoing the tendency cited in the Cauca case, it was found that for decisions in the man's domain of agriculture, men generally reported the decision as being joint, while women reported the decision as being made by the man. For decisions pertaining to the woman's domain (namely related to food), women generally reported these as joint decisions and men reported them as being made by the women. Table 3 below shows a breakdown of decisions for which both spousal accord and discord was reported. What is interesting is that discord was more frequent in several of the decisions that were normally associated with the women's domain, namely the size of food portions at meal times and what foods to eat. Furthermore, the results of the study suggest that deciding what foods to eat is not necessarily a decision made by women, as in some cases spouses agreed that this decision was made by solely men, solely women, or jointly depending on the household. Because that is the way things are done There were several other decisions for which there was a significant amount of spousal discord in the responses of couples but no obvious pattern of spousal discord (i.e., the combinations of responses variety). These included decisions related to small livestock (reported as mostly made by women), large livestock (mixed with women reporting it as women's decision and men reporting as men's decision), the home garden (mostly reported as men's decision), and how much of the harvest to sell and how much to keep for family consumption (reported as either a joint decision or decision made by men). Joint decision-making process. Men and women perceive the joint decision-making process in different ways. As mentioned above, as part of the interview, we asked couples to give us an example of an agricultural decision that they made jointly with their spouse. Like in the case of Cauca, all but one response reflected either a short or long conversation between the spouses. There were very few instances in which the example given by the male and female spouse from the same household coincided. Furthermore, some men and women cited more than one example of joint decisions they made with their spouses in the interviews, and these were often different processes depending on the type of decision. In general, the examples that men and women gave fell into one of the following seven categories:"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• The man makes the decision (no discussion)"},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"• The man informs the woman before making the decision, and the woman conforms to what he says • The man considers the woman's opinion, but makes the decision himself • The woman considers the man's opinion, but makes the decision herself • The man and woman exchange opinions and make a decision together • The man and woman exchange their opinions with other family members and make the decision as a family"},{"index":8,"size":63,"text":"Regarding the first of these, this was the only instance in which a woman reported that her husband made decisions without consulting her. In this case, the woman reported that she does not know much about agriculture, so her husband makes those decisions. She also reported that they made joint decisions about how to spend income, and she participated more in these decisions."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"For the second typology listed above, three women and two men gave examples of joint decisions made with their spouses in which the husband informed her of the decision and she conformed. What is meant here by conformed is that the woman reported simply saying \"Sure\" (\"está bien\")"},{"index":10,"size":53,"text":"and not further engaging in the conversation about the decision or giving an opinion. This response was more common for women who reported making very few decisions by themselves and/or for which few or even no joint decisions were reportedly made in their households. An example described by one woman is as follows:"},{"index":11,"size":149,"text":"At least when he sells a cow, he tells me and we talk… [He says,] 'I'm going to sell it or maybe I'll buy a calf. What they sell are calves. It's going to cost money. At least, as you know, to fix the wire fence or something else.' So I tell him, 'yes, it's fine.' She further reported that she does not think he would be open to her expressing an opinion that was different from his and she has never tried to do so. In another example, one man explained that he made the decision to plant coffee close to the house. When asked if he had discussed this with his spouse, he said that he had and she had said that it was fine. In his mind, they had reached an agreement, though there was little indication of just how much she participated in the decision."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"The third typology listed above, which occurs when men consider the opinions of their spouses but ultimately made the decision themselves, was illustrated by examples provided by three men."},{"index":13,"size":187,"text":"In one case, the man's spouse had studied agronomy in the past and he expressed that while he has more practical experience, she has a lot of knowledge. He reported making joint decisions with her deciding which varieties of beans, corn, and coffee to grow (though she only reported making a joint decision about the bean varietyshe reported that he made the decisions about the corn and coffee varieties). In another case, one in which the woman reported making no decisions on her own and having little autonomyand indeed no joint decisions were reported for the household by either spouse, an interesting development surfaced in the examples of joint decision-making. Her husband explained how they came to produce rice on the farm: She asked me when I was going to plant rice. I asked myself, 'How am I going to plant rice?' So, she too makes decisions about work. We are going to see how this goes because I didn't want to plant rice… [But] yes, this is the first year that I planted rice. So I spoke with her and we planted itand there it is."},{"index":14,"size":22,"text":"Ultimately he made the decision, but the example suggests that he perceives some decision-making space for her to participate in agricultural decisions."},{"index":15,"size":144,"text":"In two cases, men reported that women made agricultural decisions after taking their husbands' opinions into consideration, which is the fourth typology. Noteworthy here is that in both cases, one or both spouses attended some sort of training on gender equality and human rights, and in one case both the man and woman own land. In the first case, the woman sold some livestock to a buyer when her husband was away from the farm, but had coached her on how to do so prior to leaving. In the second example, the husband describes how his wife initiated a decision to contract some farmworkers and made the decision about which ones to hire. In both cases, the men report making a fair number of agricultural decisions jointly with their wives, though their wives generally perceive these decisions as being made solely by their husbands."},{"index":16,"size":115,"text":"Regarding the fifth typology, which is when the man and woman both exchange opinions and make a decisions together, was the most frequently cited joint decision-making typology (five women gave examples and three men). This decision-making style was more common among households in which one or both spouses had been exposed to information about gender equality and human rights on television or via training workshops in their communities. It is important to note that in these decisions, even though participants report a dialogue between themselves and their spouse, it is often the man who initiates the decision. An example of a joint decision made by one woman and her spouse is described in the following:"},{"index":17,"size":109,"text":"When he made the decision to plant coffee, he say to me, 'Well, we have these animals, these pigs. If I plant coffee, they are going to damage it. What do you say -should I or should I not pant coffee?' So I said, 'The pigs can be tied up so that they don't damage the coffee.' He told me no because they would get stressed out. So I told him that they wouldn't get stressed out if they were well cared for and when the coffee was a bit bigger, we could let them loose again and they wouldn't damage the coffee. Like this we made the decision."},{"index":18,"size":97,"text":"In both of the cases of the men who gave examples illustrating this typology, their wives' examples of joint decisions also followed this same typology and there is also spousal accord with respect to reported decisions they make jointly. The data suggests these two couples as being the most egalitarian of the group. In one example of a joint decision, the man describes how his wife came to his several years ago with an idea to change the type of bean variety they were using to one that was more climate-friendly. He describes this in the following:"},{"index":19,"size":76,"text":"Two years ago, it was rumored that climate change was going to make it a dry year. So she said to me, 'The say that this year is going to be dry. Why don't we plant a few of these beans?' We planted them. I went and when I saw the beans, I told her and I changed varieties. We planted them, and this time we planted half a manzana and it's been good for us."},{"index":20,"size":79,"text":"One final typology that was reflected in the descriptions of joint decision-making was of a decision made in the context of a family. This type of decision was only evidenced in the example of one woman of a joint decision, and it is unclear if she was a part of it. According to the woman's example, the family made the decision not to grow beans after the previous harvest had been rather small. She further explains in the following:"},{"index":21,"size":49,"text":"The boys said not to plant right now because it was so much work and they didn't get out of it what they put into it. So they reached an agreement [with their father] that it was better to buy beans and like this we have been buying beans."},{"index":22,"size":305,"text":"Joint decision-making: perceptions vs. practice. For the most part in the Tuma-La Dalia case, the examples that the men and women gave of joint decisions were consistent with their individual perceptions; however, the perceptions that each person had of joint decision-making was usually different from their spouse's perception. Only in three cases did spouses share more or less the same perception of what joint decision-making means. Furthermore, while for the most part joint decision-making is perceived by men and women as a process of conversing and reaching an agreement, there are different ideas about how this plays out and what it implies for the participation of each person. Reaching an agreement, as illustrated in a number of examples given by men and women, does not mean equal participation in the agreement. Several cases suggested that, for some men and women, reaching an agreement might mean simply conforming to the wishes of your spouse. Furthermore, given that men largely dominate agriculture owing to traditional gender norms and the gender division of labor, some men end up making agricultural decisions themselves, even though they acknowledge the role and the value of their partner in their stated perception of joint decision-making. Finally, related to this last point is a final and important observation: for the two couples that describe engaging in the practice of making decisions by sharing their opinions and making a decision together, in both cases the man clearly articulated the meaning of joint decision-making when discussing his perceptions, noting it was a process and also underscoring the importance of \"recognizing the value of the other person\" and \"reaching agreement [and] analyzing together.\" This should be seen in contrast to two other men who had difficulty both articulating the meaning of a joint decision and identifying an example of making a joint decision with their spouses."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":217,"text":"One of the aims of this paper was to explore men and women's perceptions of decision-making and the process of making agricultural decisions as a means of understanding gender relations in households in each of the study sites. To refresh, the rationale behind exploring this issue in the context of gender transformative climate change adaptation is that decision-making power is considered a key indicator of women's empowerment and measuring gender transformative change (Hillenbrand, et al., 2015). This paper argues that gender transformative approaches to climate change are necessary in order to reduce the negative impact of climate change on already existing gender inequality and the consequential likelihood of reducing the ability of women to adapt to climate change, which could result in enhancing their vulnerability and negatively impacting their livelihoods and those of their families. One of the challenges up to this point has been that the climate change discourse is largely dominated by men and masculine interpretations of climate change adaptation that has reduced the visibility of women and feminine concerns, knowledge, and perspectives. This limits the possibility of creating the kinds of fundamental changes that are necessary for reducing the burden of climate change on women, especially in rural areas where both poverty is high and, depending on the region, climate vulnerability can be high."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Considering the findings of each of the case studies presented above can help shed light on this question."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"This paper argues the importance of household decision-making as a site where decisions are and will be made to adopt climate-friendly practices that help families to adapt to climate change and existing gender relations can shape the adoption of such practices. Gender transformative approaches to household decision-making have the goal of deepening gender equality so that the voices of men and women are heard. Sharing the decision-making space and process means that outcomes are more likely to reflect the interests and goals of all partiesmen and women. This could in turn reduce the likely negative effects of climate change on gender relations and ensure that measures are taken that do not disproportionately affect women. So the issue of gender relations within the household becomes paramount for assessing the potential of gender transformative approaches and also identifying factors that would hinder the progression of such approaches."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"Turning back to the characterization of gender relations in the households included in these studies, there are several important observations to make. First, men and women's roles in the household and in decision-making highly correspond to traditional gender norms and gender division of labor. Women, for the most part, are in charge of domestic tasks, like food preparation and care work, while men are in charge of agriculture, and decision-making generally follows this pattern as well."},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"Households that reported one or more spouse attending a training or workshop on gender equality and human rights or those for which both spouses possessed productive resources (e.g., land ownership) demonstrated patterns of decision-making that more significantly departed from traditional norms."},{"index":6,"size":236,"text":"Another observation that we made was that men and women appear to have relatively similar ideas of what decision-making means, both individually made decisions and jointly made decisions, but had very different perceptions of how decisions were made. Regarding the first of these, men and women generally defined individual and joint decisions similarly, though this differed somewhat by research site. In Colombia, individual decision-making was largely seen in a negative light, and only seen as positive when positive when men and women make decisions based on their gender roles (women = domestic, men = farm). In Nicaragua, the negative connotation of individual decision-making was expressed more in the responses of men who saw individual decisions as a potential source of conflict in the household. Women, in some ways, expressed a certain amount of empowerment when speaking about individual decisions. In terms of joint decisions, men and women in both sites had similar perceptions that joint decision-making entailed a conversation and agreement, and such decisions were seen as beneficial to the household and couple. In Colombia, perceptions of joint decision-making were linked to gender norms such as the perception of machismo, like a form of men's control over women, and at the same time the acceptance of gender traditions of labor and the figure of men as the head of the household. While these observations could be argued for Nicaragua as well, they were not as pronounced."},{"index":7,"size":192,"text":"As for perceptions of how decisions were made, while the majority of individuals interviewed agreed that one of the defining features of a joint decision is agreement between the couples, agreement neither necessitates nor implies equitable participation in decision-making, thus echoing Acosta's (2017) findings. On the contrary, we found that there was a substantial amount of inequality in decision-making, even beginning with who initiates the joint decision (typically men). It was clear that men and women had different perceptions about the extent to which they participated in making agricultural decisions. This was evident both in the patterns of agricultural decision-making reported by the couples in their household as well as in the examples of joint decisions they described. Regarding the first of these, based on the data on how men and women reported who made agricultural decisions, these decisions were generally made by the men or they were made jointly. There were very few instances where there was spousal accord concerning an agricultural decision made by a woman on her own. When this did happen, there was a clear reason for itperhaps she owned land or had technical knowledge about the decision."},{"index":8,"size":254,"text":"There was a notable amount of spousal discord concerning agricultural decisions in both case studies. Women generally reported that men made most agricultural decisions and the reasons they gave were that he had more agricultural knowledge and experience or to traditional gender norms (the farm is the man's domain). On the contrary, men reported agricultural decisions as being made jointly, thus perceiving that his spouse had a greater role in the process than she herself perceived. This is particularly notable and departs from previous studies that found that men typically report themselves as the sole decision-maker for agricultural decisions, while women more often report these decisions as being made jointly or by herself (Twyman et al. 2016a(Twyman et al. , 2016b)). It raised the question as to why men perceived women as participating more in these decisions, while the women did not. Previously, the belief has been that gender norms impede the participation of women in agricultural decision making; however, the results of this study question this assumption and rather raise the question of whether women are stepping into spaces where they can exercise more agency. In other words, the space for participating more equally might already exist in some households, but the question is whether women are exercising their agency to step into these spaces and participate. It would be logical to think that, given existing gender norms, that women's perception of the decision-making structure and traditional gender division of labor might discourage them from occupying these spaces and exercising more decision-making agency."},{"index":9,"size":247,"text":"As in the case of spousal accord and discord described above, the examples of joint decisions also illustrated that men and women have different perceptions of how much they participate in agricultural decision-making. The data suggests that conversing and reaching an agreementhallmark features of joint decisions according to the men and womencan imply very different degrees of women's participation. In some cases, as stated above, it appeared that the woman merely conformed to the wishes of her spouse and in some cases was fearful of the consequences of expressing herself fully. In such cases, the male normally had significantly more bargaining power, which was attributed to his knowledge, assets, or status as the head of household. In other cases, it was clear that the man and woman engaged in a thoughtful dialogue and it was important to listen and analyze together. In such cases, both men and women initiated decisions with their spouse and bargaining power seems to be more equitably distributed. It was here again that the factors like whether the couple had received gender equality or human rights training appeared significant. The examples of both caseswhere bargaining power is more concentrated and where it is more evenly distributedoffer us insights into what kinds of measures can promote gender transformative decision-making. They also point to the fact that joint decision-making is not necessarily a sign of women's empowermentrather it is the conditions and manner in which joint decision-making is exercised that can indicate degrees of empowerment."}]},{"head":"Fostering Gender Transformative Decision-Making with Rural Households for Climate Change Adaptation","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"What does gender transformative decision-making look like when applied to making household decisions about agriculture? What criteria need to be met in order for gender transformative decision-making to occur? These are key questions for consideration and provide an entry point for thinking through the kinds of interventions and activities that can serve to promote the transformation of household gender relations decision-making about agriculture and, by extension, climate-friendly agricultural practices."},{"index":2,"size":187,"text":"Based on what was learned in this study, several important obstacles exist for deepening gender transformative decision-making. By and large, the most important of these is related to traditional gender norms and the perception that agriculture is the domain of the male. This factor alone has broad implications. It can serve to discourage women from developing an interest in agriculture, gaining technical knowledge, or engaging in other activities related to this domain, as gender norms also dictate what men and women should like and what they should know. Furthermore, the same gender division of labor assigns women to the domestic sphere, where her responsibilities can prohibit her from working in agriculture (or any other vocation) unless necessary. The other obstacle observed in this study the continued challenge of educating families about gender equality, human rights, and how to put these principles into practice in the home. In Nicaragua, one or both spouses had been exposed to information about gender equality and rights, but there were cases in other families where spouses had never heard of machismo or had never spoken with someone or learned about these topics."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"While both of these obstacles are significant, there are also important opportunities for expanding existing spaces for the promotion of gender transformative decision-making. First, there are examples of progress on gender norms that help to lay the groundwork for gender transformative approaches. The perception of machismo mentioned above in Colombia illustrates such progress, as well as the recognition of women as landowners in some households. Another example is of men in Nicaragua who expressed perceptions of decision-making in theory and practice that included women in the agricultural decision-making process. Such examples illustrate that attitudes about gender norms are flexible and can change."},{"index":4,"size":188,"text":"Another opportunity for gender transformative decision-making lie in gender-sensitive and gender-responsive programming that has been underway for some years now. This study both illustrates how important and influential this programming has been, and it also shows the need to reach those who have not yet been reached. There are two kinds of programming, in particular, that would be most useful. The first is gender-sensitive and gender-responsive technical training to grow men and women's knowledge about agriculture, not only in response to their own needs, but also to integrate masculine and feminine discourses about agriculture into programming that is not contingent on one's sex. In other words, instead of limiting discussion of feminine discourses of agriculture to women, introduce them to men and vice versa. The second kind of programming is more training and workshops on gender equality, and particularly in putting principles into practice with couples. Men have indicated that they want their wives to take part in decisions, but maybe it is a question of learning and practicing how to do this. Gender transformative practices, like others, will in many cases need to be learned and appropriated."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"In closing, earlier in the findings of this paper, an example of gender transformative decisionmaking for climate change adaptation was referenced. It occurred when a woman in Nicaragua approached her husband about trying out a new bean variety that would be more suitable to climate vulnerability. The couple made the decision together through discussion to experiment with the variety, and it was successful. This example demonstrates that such equitable decision-making about agriculture and climate change, and as we go forward, it is a matter of creating the conditions with regard to norms, attitudes, knowledge, and willingnessto increase the possibilities for more gender equitable approaches."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Table 2 . Reasons for Gendered Decision-Making Patterns Type of Decision and Reason Women's Responses Men's Responses  Why she makes decisions Women's domain is the home and Women's domain is the domestic sphere Why she makes decisionsWomen's domain is the home andWomen's domain is the domestic sphere about food. domestic sphere  about food.domestic sphere Why he makes decisions Because he wants to cook something he Because wife is away or sick Why he makes decisionsBecause he wants to cook something heBecause wife is away or sick about food/home cooks well and likes  about food/homecooks well and likes Why he does not make He doesn't know about cooking and food He is mostly in the fields and not at home Why he does not makeHe doesn't know about cooking and foodHe is mostly in the fields and not at home decisions about food He is mostly in the fields and not at home Doesn't like to cook decisions about foodHe is mostly in the fields and not at homeDoesn't like to cook Why he makes decisions Man's domain is agriculture/farm Man's domain is agriculture/farm Why he makes decisionsMan's domain is agriculture/farmMan's domain is agriculture/farm about agriculture He knows more about agriculture and/or He knows more about agriculture and/or about agricultureHe knows more about agriculture and/orHe knows more about agriculture and/or  has more experience has more experience has more experiencehas more experience Why does she make She makes decisions about pigs because She makes a decision about an Why does she makeShe makes decisions about pigs becauseShe makes a decision about an decisions about they are hers agriculture practice because she knows decisions aboutthey are hersagriculture practice because she knows agriculture  about it agricultureabout it   She participates in agricultural decisions She participates in agricultural decisions Why she does not make She doesn't have time to work on the She doesn't know about agriculture Why she does not makeShe doesn't have time to work on theShe doesn't know about agriculture decisions about farm because of her domestic/care Agricultural work (e.g., working with decisions aboutfarm because of her domestic/careAgricultural work (e.g., working with agriculture responsibilities chemicals) is too dangerous for women agricultureresponsibilitieschemicals) is too dangerous for women  She doesn't know about agriculture  She doesn't know about agriculture Why joint decisions are Joint decisions are made when he Joint decisions are made at his initiative Why joint decisions areJoint decisions are made when heJoint decisions are made at his initiative made initiates them  madeinitiates them  Joint decisions are made because he  Joint decisions are made because he  doesn't want her to make decisions on  doesn't want her to make decisions on  her own  her own  Joint decisions are made to keep things  Joint decisions are made to keep things  moving  moving Other   Other comments/explanations:   comments/explanations:  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Household Decisions and Patterns of Accord and Discord  Decision Accord Pattern No. Households Discord Pattern DecisionAccord PatternNo. HouseholdsDiscord Pattern   Reporting Discord  Reporting Discord Farm Labor Joint decision or made by men 2  Farm LaborJoint decision or made by men2 Farm production Mostly men 3  Farm productionMostly men3 Bean variety/seed Mostly men or otherwise joint 3 Women report as Bean variety/seedMostly men or otherwise joint3Women report as    men's decision and men's decision and Use of income from Mixed joint and men 3 men report as joint Use of income fromMixed joint and men3men report as joint sale of crops   decision sale of cropsdecision Corn variety/seed Men 4  Corn variety/seedMen4 Coffee variety Men 4  Coffee varietyMen4 Food portions at meal Women 4 Women report as Food portions at mealWomen4Women report as times   joint decision and timesjoint decision and    men report as men report as What food to eat Mixed 5 women's decision What food to eatMixed5women's decision  "}],"sieverID":"98267d0f-ec3a-43f7-aa3a-853010ec5837","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"089e711ea628e16fcfad5928f28a93cd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/912905d4-6432-4933-9954-81f36cafed7e/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"IMPROVING WATER PRODUCTIVITY IN CROP-LIVESTOCK SYSTEMS OF DROUGHT-PRONE REGIONS EDITORIAL COMMENT","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":210,"text":"By TILAHUN AMEDE, SHIRLEY TARAWALI and DON PEDEN Crop-livestock systems in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are mostly rainfall-dependent and based on fragmented marginal lands that are vulnerable to soil erosion, drought and variable weather conditions. The threat of water scarcity in these systems is real, due to expanding demand for food and feed, climate variability and inappropriate land use (Amede et al., 2009). According to recent estimates, farming, industrial and urban needs in developing countries will increase water demand by 40% by 2030 (FAO, 2009). Water shortage is expected to be severe in areas where the amount of rainfall will decrease due to climate change. The lack of capacity of communities living in drought-prone regions to respond to market opportunities, climatic variability and associated water scarcity also results from very low water storage facilities, poverty and limited institutional capacities to efficiently manage the available water resources at local, national and basin scales. The spiral of watershed degradation causes decline in water budgets (Awlachew and Ayana, 2011), decreases soil fertility and reduces farm incomes in SSA (Amede and Taboge, 2007) and reduces crop and livestock water productivity (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). In areas where irrigated agriculture is feasible, there is an increasing demand for water and competition among different users and uses."},{"index":2,"size":319,"text":"Strategies and policies to reduce rural poverty should not only target increasing food production but should also emphasize improving water productivity (WP) at farm, landscape, sub-basin and higher levels. In drought-prone rural areas, an increase of 1% in crop water productivity makes available at least an extra 24 litres of water a day per person (FAO, 2003). Moreover, farming systems with efficient use of water resources are commonly responsive to external and internal drivers of change. This special issue of Experimental Agriculture presents evidence from Ethiopia, Zimbabwe and India, and captures current understanding of strategies to improve water productivity in drought-prone crop-livestock systems. Molden et al. (1997) defined water productivity as the ratio of beneficial outputs and services to water depleted in producing them, which could be expressed in terms of amount (e.g. kg grain per m 3 of water) or value (e.g. USD per m 3 of water). Definitions of WP could vary based on the purpose, scale and domain of analysis. Water productivity enables assessment of interactions between different system elements (e.g. livestock and crop) and creates an enabling environment for a better understanding of system efficiency (Peden et al., 2009;Haileslassie et al., 2011). The volume of water depleted to produce a similar type of animal product also varies among systems (Haileslassie et al., 2011) and is affected by the type of inputs and management practices used. For instance, WP of livestock is strongly linked to that of feeds (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). In the crop-livestock systems of India, Haileslassie et al. (2011) noted that the largest component of total water consumption in livestock systems was the production of irrigated fodder while the smallest component was use of crop residues. In fact, the WP of livestock positively correlates with the percentage share of crop residues in the diet (Haileslassie et al., 2011). Water productivity was also higher for intensive systems than extensive systems (Clement et al., 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":272,"text":"There are proven interventions that would improve water productivity in these systems. Interventions focused on improving feed management, water management and livestock management had a positive effect on improving water productivity (Peden et al., 2009) ranging from a potential 4 to 94% improvement (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). Improved livestock health, leading to lower mortality rates, led to greater animal outputs from the same feed and water consumption. Reducing animal numbers also led to reductions in depleted water, land used and feed produced, but resulted in higher milk and meat production, due to savings in energy for non-productive activities and maintenance (Descheemaeker et al., 2011). Descheemaeker et al. showed that combining several different interventions using integrated approaches across spatial and temporal scales led to greater improvement in water productivity as compared to any single intervention: the whole was greater than the sum of the parts. Creating fertile spots around houses is a common practice in SSA where farmers grow crops for food security and cash (Amede et al., 2011). The homestead plots, which are favoured for application of household refuse, manure and night soil, are also enriched by nutrients coming from the outfields in the form of feed and mulch (Amede and Taboge, 2007) and tend to have higher WP than the less fertile outfields. Introducing zai pits, which are small water harvesting holes dug during the dry season and then filled with handfuls of biomass, as an example of water conserving structures in these less fertile and sometimes degraded outfields increased potato yields five-fold and bean yields three-fold compared to the local practices, and WP was 300-700% higher (Amede et al., 2011)."},{"index":4,"size":415,"text":"Irrigation is another important intervention to minimize drought effects and improve rural livelihoods of drought-prone regions. However, the return per irrigation investment in the region has been low to date. In an assessment of irrigation schemes in Ethiopia, Awlachew and Ayana (2011) reported that 87% of all schemes are operating, 74% of the command areas is cultivated but only 47% of the planned beneficiaries benefited from irrigation. Large-scale schemes using pumps show higher water use efficiency than simple gravity diversion types. Understanding the water budgets of the irrigation schemes and water distribution across the different uses is also a prerequisite to minimize water loss and encourage productive use of water. In an attempt to quantify water losses in small-scale irrigation schemes in Ethiopia (Demeku et al., 2011) found that about 35% of the applied irrigation was lost as unproductive water with the water loss from the main, secondary and field canals being 26, 4.5 and 4%, respectively. These authors also found that incentives for farmers are critical to improve water management at farm and landscape scales. In situations where farmers were required to rent irrigation pumps, they have minimized unproductive water loss, increased productive water and got higher farm returns. However, financial capacity of farmers, which commonly enables them to gain access and control over water, is highly variable, location specific and dynamic even under a relatively homogenous biophysical and social context (Clement et al., 2011). For instance, in India the better-off farmers who have their own water source and who only need to pay diesel costs to access irrigation water might be more willing to accept changes in water management or cropping practices. The inequities in water access are also commonly deep rooted in land ownership (physical accessibility to water harvesting structure or location relative to the irrigation canal), and are difficult to challenge. Interventions aimed at increasing water productivity do not always necessarily benefit the poorest members of rural communities or the women -rather these might favour the better-off farmers who have access to a wide range of resources and connections (Clement et al., 2011). By excluding women from water users' and livestock producers' associations (e.g. in Zimbabwe), the community commonly loses out on a significant opportunity to increase water productivity and potentially higher returns from crop and livestock investments (Senda et al., 2011). These systems could be more efficient and equitable through capacitating local institutions and improving governance of collectively managed irrigation schemes, grazing lands and hillside exclosures (Deneke et al., 2011)."},{"index":5,"size":189,"text":"One of the major drivers in SSA affecting water management has been land use and land cover change as a result of human actions and enterprise choices that, in turn, alter the availability of water resources for various uses. In a detailed study in the Ethiopian highlands, Ali et al. (2011) reported that land use change was much faster in relatively water-rich regions compared to dry crop-livestock systems. For instance in Fogera, in the Northern Ethiopian wetlands, land which used to be allocated for livestock rearing up to the mid 1980s has been converted to an intensive rice-based system with the introduction of paddy rice. The consequence was an increased water depletion and intensification of crop-livestock systems, but also increased water productivity through producing food and cash crops three times in a year. On the other hand a drier landscape, Lenche Dima, had undergone minimal change in the same period except for a shift of the livestock population towards small ruminants. Crop-livestock systems that are affected by rapid land use changes, and associated decline in water budgets and nutrient depletion, could be best managed through integrated rainwater management systems."},{"index":6,"size":119,"text":"Rainwater management is an integrated strategy that enables crop-livestock systems to systematically capture, store and efficiently use water and nutrient resources on farms and watersheds in a sustainable way for both agricultural and domestic purposes. It focuses more on the institutions and policies than on the technologies and advocates increased water storage and WP at various scales; in the soils, farms, landscapes, reservoirs and basins. Rainwater management is an effective strategy to manage the consequences of climate change (e.g. floods and drought) by combining water management with land and vegetation management. This is particularly critical for Eastern and Southern Africa where the rate of land degradation is rapid and about 70% of the land falls within drought-prone regions (http://www.un.org/esa/sustdev/csd/csd16/rim/eca_bg3.pdf)."},{"index":7,"size":142,"text":"In general, several opportunities exist for increasing agricultural WP in SSA. Integrated research and development focused on improving WP across enterprises, scales and systems can enable communities to improve their capacity to adapt to and enhance their resilience to challenges such as climate change and food insecurity. An interdisciplinary and multi-institutional approach, which recognizes the complexity of water use and management and water governance, would provide strategies to produce more food, feed and income. An inclusive research for development approach, which places poor farmers and women at the centre of water research, is needed. Three strategies that came out of this project are the following:  Amede, T., Menza, M. and Awlachew, S. B. (2010). Zai improves nutrient and water productivity in the Ethiopian highlands. Experimental Agriculture 47 (Suppl. 1): 7-20. Amede, T., Katrien Descheemaeker, K., Peden, D. and van Rooyen, A. (2009) "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" 1. The most important strategy to improve water productivity is increasing productive water use (transpiration) over unproductive water depletion (evaporation and seepage) through adoption of soil and water conservation practices, appropriate choice of crop varieties, improved irrigation efficiency and integrated crop-livestock systems. 2. Adoption of interventions for improving water productivity is mostly governed by socio-economic situations of rural households. Understanding wealth and gender dynamics is a critical tool to target clients. Identifying incentive mechanisms for communities to invest in land and water management and empowering communities to make appropriate decisions in managing land, water and livestock resources would enhance the likelihood of adoption of interventions by farming communities. 3. Interventions for improving water productivity are diverse, ranging from selecting water efficient crop and forage varieties to watershed management, which involves various disciplines and institutions. Achieving water productivity at farm and watershed scales demands closer interaction and linkages among various actors, which could be achieved through skilful facilitation and better communication. Ali, H., Descheemaeker, K., Steenhuis, T. S. and Pandy, S. (2010). Comparison of landuse and landcover changes, drivers and impacts for moisture-sufficient and drought-prone regions in the Ethiopian Highlands. Experimental Agriculture 47 (Suppl. 1): 71-83.  "},{"text":" . Harnessing benefits from improved livestock water productivity in crop-livestock systems of sub-Saharan Africa: synthesis. The Rangeland Journal 31: 169-178. Amede, T. and Endale Taboge (2007). Optimizing soil fertility gradients in the Enset (Enset ventricosum) systems of the Ethiopian highlands: Trade-offs and local innovations. In Advances in Integrated Soil Fertility management in Sub-Saharan Africa: Challenges and Opportunities, 289-297. (Ed. A. Bationo). Dordrecht: Springer Verlag.  "}],"sieverID":"c443fc4e-bb6c-40a4-b9d4-cd1609d08a94","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"08aaf2d4628ae1cdc2990d09a535d38a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/74dd5a1c-281d-4f85-add8-a40142b47eb5/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"Practical methods for exploring gender relations in maize seed systems for Sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"7e6e85a7-6dd1-4f8d-815b-cddd5bb131d9","abstract":"P968 -Implementing Adoption/Impact and Learning portfolio in MAIZE AFS, including syntheses, new studies/methods, resource mobilization and inter-CRP collaboration Description of the innovation: A major challenge for gender work in maize seed systems has been the lack of effective methods for dealing with the complex issues at play. In Kenya, we used vignettes and storyboards to capture decision-making dynamics around plot managment. The use of vignettes eliminates invasive survey questions and reduces the likelihood of tension arising from research participation. We expect to apply this method across other types of seed systems in S Asia and E Africa."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"092c204c7c9171647a32c7217a23ded9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/61d99f3d-82db-42b0-9f72-2eac98b54593/retrieve"},"pageCount":75,"title":"Ci trus spp","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"PREFACIO","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"La lista de Descriptores para los cítricos (Citrus spp.) es una revisión de la publicación original del IBPGR, Descriptors for Citrus (1988). Los números de los descriptores de la lista original figuran, en esta lista revisada, entre paréntesis al lado del descriptor para los fines de referencia. Esta lista de descriptores pretende abarcar los componentes del grupo Citreae de la familia Rutaceae y la subfamilia Aurantioideae, todos los cuales tienen un tipo de vesícula fructífera llena de jugo llamada hesperidio. De los 13 géneros considerados, los más importantes son Citrus (16 especies, de las cuales 10 cultivadas según la clasificación de Swingle), Fortunella y Poncirus y sus híbridos. Esta lista revisada de descriptores se basa en el trabajo de un equipo de expertos de SRA INRA-CIRAD en Córcega, Francia, y de expertos participantes en la Red EGID 1 -Citrus coordinada por Roland Cottin. Abarca también la diversidad de cultivos asiáticos a través de contribuciones aportadas por UTFANET 1 (coordinadas por Nazmul Haq). Las Directrices Técnicas de la UPOV 1 para los cítricos se han analizado durante la preparación de esta lista, y se ha adoptado, en lo posible, un método normalizado. Posteriormente, se envió un borrador en el formato del IPGRI aceptado internacionalmente, a expertos internacionales para que comentaran y/o mejoraran esta lista. Los nombres y direcciones de los expertos que intervinieron en esta revisión figuran en la sección \"Colaboradores\"."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"El IPGRI promueve la recolección de datos sobre los cinco tipos de descriptores (véase, Definiciones y uso de los descriptores), por lo cual los datos sobre las primeras cuatro categorías de esta lista -Pasaporte, Manejo, Sitio y medio ambiente, Caracterización -deberían estar disponibles para cualquier accesión. Sin embargo, el número de descriptores escogidos de cada una de las categorías dependerá del cultivo y de la importancia que tenga para la descripción del cultivo. Los descriptores que se encuentran en la categoría de Evaluación permiten una descripción más detallada de los caracteres de la accesión, pero generalmente requieren repetidos ensayos durante un período de tiempo."},{"index":3,"size":30,"text":"Si bien este sistema de codificación no debe considerarse definitivo, este formato representa un importante instrumento para un sistema de caracterización normalizado y el IPGRI lo promueve a nivel mundial."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Esta lista de descriptores se presenta en un formato internacional, y por ello proporciona un \"lenguaje\" comprensible universalmente para los datos sobre los recursos fitogenéticos. La adopción de este sistema para la codificación de los datos, o por lo menos la producción de un método de transformación para convertir otros sistemas al formato del IPGRI, permitirá disponer de un medio rápido, fidedigno y eficaz para almacenar, recuperar y comunicar la información, y ayudará en la utilización del germoplasma. Por lo tanto, se recomienda el uso de los descriptores especificados al registrar la información, tomando en cuenta: el orden y número de los descriptores, y utilizando los especificados, así como los estados recomendados."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Esta lista de descriptores tiene la finalidad de ser general para los descriptores que contiene. Este enfoque ayuda a la normalización de las definiciones de los descriptores. No obstante, el IPGRI no pretende que cada encargado realice la caracterización de las accesiones de su colección utilizando todos los descriptores dados. Estos se deben utilizar cuando son útiles para el encargado en el manejo y la conservación de la colección y/o para los usuarios de los recursos fitogenéticos. Los descriptores esenciales que son altamente discriminantes se resaltan en el texto para facilitar la selección de los descriptores."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"Los descriptores de pasaporte para cultivos múltiples (véase Anexo I), han sido preparados conjuntamente por el IPGRI y la FAO, a fin de suministrar sistemas coherentes de codificación para los descriptores de pasaporte comunes de los distintos cultivos. Ellos se indican en el texto como [DPCM}. Nótese que, debido a la naturaleza genérica de los descriptores de pasaporte para cultivos múltiples, no todos los estados de expresión de los descriptores para un descriptor en particular, serán relevantes para un cultivo específico. En el Anexo II, el lector encontrará una ficha de la recolección para los cítricos que ayudará durante la colección de datos."},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Cualquier sugerencia o modificación sobre los Descriptores para los cítricos será bien recibida por el IPGRI."}]},{"head":"Prefacio v","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DEFINICIONES Y USO DE LOS DESCRIPTORES","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"El IPGRI utiliza las siguientes definiciones en la documentación de recursos fitogenéticos: Descriptores de pasaporte: proporcionan la información básica que se utiliza para el manejo general de la accesión (incluido el registro en el banco de germoplasma y cualquier otra información de identificación) y describen los parámetros que se deberían observar cuando se recolecta originalmente la accesión."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"Descriptores de manejo: proporcionan las bases para el manejo de las accesiones en el banco de germoplasma y ayudan durante su multiplicación y regeneración."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Descriptores del sitio y el medio ambiente: describen los parámetros específicos del sitio y del medio ambiente que son importantes cuando se realizan pruebas de caracterización y evaluación. Pueden ser importantes para la interpretación de los resultados de esos procesos. Se incluyen también en esta categoría los descriptores del sitio de recolección del germoplasma."},{"index":4,"size":122,"text":"Descriptores de caracterización: permiten una discriminación fácil y rápida entre fenotipos. Generalmente son caracteres altamente heredables, pueden ser fácilmente detectados a simple vista y se expresan igualmente en todos los ambientes. Además, pueden incluir un número limitado de caracteres adicionales considerados deseables por consenso de los usuarios de un cultivo en particular. Descriptores de evaluación: la expresión de muchos de los descriptores de esta categoría dependen del medio ambiente y, en consecuencia, se necesitan métodos experimentales especiales para evaluarlos. Su evaluación puede también involucrar métodos complejos de caracterización molecular o bioquímica. Este tipo de descriptores incluye caracteres tales como rendimiento, productividad agronómica, susceptibilidad al estrés y caracteres bioquímicos y citológicos. Generalmente, éstas son las características más interesantes en la mejora de cultivos."},{"index":5,"size":46,"text":"La caracterización es generalmente responsabilidad de los encargados de las colecciones, mientras que la evaluación debería ser efectuada en otra parte (posiblemente por un equipo multidisciplinario de científicos). Los datos de evaluación se deben enviar al banco de germoplasma donde se mantendrá un archivo de datos."},{"index":6,"size":9,"text":"Los descriptores altamente discriminantes se evidencian en el texto."},{"index":7,"size":231,"text":"Las normas aceptadas internacionalmente para la recolección de datos, codificación y registro de los estados de los descriptores son las siguientes: a) se utiliza el sistema internacional de unidades (Système International d'Unités, SI); 9 Muy alto 5 Intermedio es la expresión de un carácter. Los autores de esta lista a veces han descrito sólo una selección de los estados, por ejemplo 3, 5 y 7, para dichos descriptores. Cuando ha ocurrido esto, la gama completa de códigos está disponible para su uso, utilizando la ampliación de los códigos dados o mediante la interpolación entre ellos, por ejemplo, en la Sección 10 (Susceptibilidad al estrés biológico), 1 = susceptibilidad muy baja y 9 = susceptibilidad muy alta; f) cuando se registra un descriptor utilizando una escala del 1 al 9, como en e), se registrará \"0\" cuando: i) el carácter no esté expresado; ii) no sea aplicable un descriptor. En el ejemplo siguiente, se registrará \"0\" si una accesión no tiene el lóbulo central de la hoja: 2.4 País de recolección (2.4) [DPCM] Nombre del país donde se recolectó la muestra. Utilizar las abreviaturas de tres letras del Código para los nombres de países, nº 3166, 4 a edición, de la Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO). Se pueden solicitar copias de esta lista a DIN: Deutsches Institut für Normung e.V., D-10772 Berlín, Alemania;Tel. 30-2601-369;Fax 30-2601-1231, Télex. 184 273-din-d; Web site URL: <http://www.din.de/set/de/DIN>."}]},{"head":"2.5","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Provincia/estado (2.5) Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa primaria del país en el que se recolectó la muestra"}]},{"head":"2.6","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Departamento/distrito Nombre de la subdivisión administrativa secundaria (dentro de una provincia/estado) del país en el que se recolectó la muestra"}]},{"head":"2.7","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"Ubicación del lugar de recolección (2.6) [DPCM] Distancia en kilómetros y dirección desde la ciudad, la aldea o el punto de referencia cartográfica más cercano (por ejemplo, CURITIBA 7S, significa 7 km al sur de Curitiba)"}]},{"head":"2.8","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Latitud del lugar de recolección (2.7) [DPCM] Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S)."}]},{"head":"2.9","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"Longitud del lugar de recolección (2.8) [DPCM] Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W)."}]},{"head":"Elevación del lugar de recolección [m]","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"(2.9) [DPCM] Metros sobre el nivel del mar"}]},{"head":"Fuente de recolección","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"(2.10) [DPCM] El sistema de codificación propuesto se puede utilizar a dos niveles distintos de detalle: mediante códigos globales, como 1, 2, 3, 4, o bien con una codificación más detallada, como 1.1, 1. Registrar el número de minutos para cada estado del descriptor 2.16.9, según se disponga  "}]},{"head":"5.2","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Sitio (instituto de investigación) (3.2)"}]},{"head":"Latitud","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 10-S)."}]},{"head":"Longitud","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este) (por ejemplo, 07625W). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo 076-W)."}]},{"head":"Elevación [m]","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"(Sobre el nivel del mar) "}]},{"head":"5.7","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Establecimiento en el campo [%] Porcentaje de plantas establecido"}]},{"head":"Método de propagación","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Utilice los descriptores como para 3.7"}]},{"head":"5.7.2","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Días hasta el establecimiento [d] Indicar el número de días desde la plantación hasta el registro del establecimiento"}]},{"head":"5.8","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Sitio de plantación en el campo Indicar el número de bloque, franja y/o parcela/hilera correspondiente, plantas/parcela, duplicaciones"}]},{"head":"5.9","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Características ambientales del sitio Utilice los descriptores de la sección 6 desde el 6.1.1 al 6.1.22"}]},{"head":"Fertilizantes","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Especificar el tipo, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de aplicación"}]},{"head":"Protección de plantas","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Indicar el tipo de plaguicida y herbicida utilizados, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de aplicación"}]},{"head":"Notas","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Indicar aquí cualquier otra información específica del sitio 6. Descriptores ambientales del sitio de recolección y/o caracterización/ evaluación 6.1 Ambiente del sitio"}]},{"head":"Topografía","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Se refiere al perfil de la elevación de la superficie del terreno a escala aproximada. La referencia es FAO (1990) 1 Llano 0 -0,5% Pendiente estimada del sitio"}]},{"head":"Aspecto de la pendiente","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"Dirección en la que está orientada la pendiente donde se recolectó la muestra. Describa la dirección con los símbolos N, S, E, W (por ejemplo, una pendiente orientada en la dirección sudoeste tiene un aspecto SW) (Adaptado de FAO 1990) A continuación se presentan dos listas de ejemplos de material y rocas de procedencia. La fiabilidad de la información geológica y el conocimiento de la litología local determinarán si se puede dar una definición general o específica del material de procedencia. Se utiliza saprolita si el material meteorizado in situ está completamente descompuesto, rico en arcilla pero aún mostrando estructura de roca. Los depósitos aluviales y coluviales derivados de un mismo tipo de roca se pueden especificar según el tipo de roca (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Si es posible, se debe indicar tanto la profundidad en el momento de la descripción como la fluctuación media anual aproximada en profundidad de la capa freática. El máximo ascenso se puede deducir aproximadamente de los cambios de color del perfil en muchos suelos, pero naturalmente no en todos. 1 0 -25 cm 2 25,1 -50 cm 3 50,1 -100 cm 4 100,1 -150 cm 5 >150 cm  1 No (como en zonas áridas) 2 Bajo (como en un cultivo prolongado en un ambiente tropical) 3 Medio (como en zonas recientemente cultivadas pero aún no muy agotadas) 4 Alto (como en zonas nunca cultivadas, o en tierras de bosques recién talados) 5 Turboso"}]},{"head":"Clasificación taxonómica del suelo","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Se debe dar una clasificación lo más detallada posible. Se puede tomar de un mapa de estudio de suelos. Indique la clase de suelo (por ejemplo, Alfisoles, Spodosoles, Vertisoles, etc.) Especificar la media estacional y la temperatura mínima a la que ha sobrevivido Longitud del peciolo con relaci��n a la longitud de la lámina foliar. Véase la Fig. 4 1 Sésil (ausencia de peciolo) 2 Brevipeciolada (peciolo más corto que la lámina foliar) 3 Longipeciolada (peciolo más largo que la lámina foliar) Medida desde la base del peciolo hasta la punta de la lámina. Promedio de 10 hojas plenamente desarrolladas tomadas de tres árboles adultos diferentes (no de retoños). Hojuela apical en caso de hoja compuesta."}]},{"head":"7.2.6","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Anchura de la lámina foliar [mm] (4.2.9)"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"Medida en su parte más ancha. Promedio de 10 hojas plenamente desarrolladas tomadas de tres árboles adultos diferentes. Hojuela apical en caso de hoja compuesta."}]},{"head":"Relación longitud/anchura de la lámina foliar","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Calculada como promedio de 10 hojas plenamente desarrolladas tomadas de tres árboles adultos"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Caracterización 31 1 2 3"}]},{"head":"7.2.8","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Grosor de la hoja [mm] Medida en su parte más gruesa. Promedio de 10 hojas plenamente desarrolladas tomadas de tres árboles adultos diferentes. Hojuela apical en caso de hoja compuesta."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"7.2.9 Forma de la lámina foliar (4.   7.4 Fruto Todas las observaciones sobre el fruto deben hacerse en la fase de madurez óptima (relación entre total de sólidos solubles y contenido de ácido del jugo). Datos observados en diez frutos típicos por árbol con tres replicaciones."}]},{"head":"7.4.1","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Estación de fructificación (6.4.2)"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Relativa a las variedades de referencia de cada grupo de frutos (naranjas, mandarinas, limones, etc.) 1 Temprana 2 A media estación 3 Tardía   "}]},{"head":"Anexo I. Descriptores de Pasaporte de Cultivos Múltiples","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"La FAO y el IPGRI han elaborado conjuntamente esta lista de descriptores de pasaporte de cultivos múltiples con objeto de proporcionar sistemas de codificación uniformes para descriptores de pasaporte comunes de los diversos cultivos. Se trata de que estos descriptores sean compatibles con las futuras listas de descriptores de cultivos del IPGRI y con los descriptores que se utilizan en el Sistema de información y alerta mundial sobre los recursos fitogenéticos (SIAM) de la FAO."},{"index":2,"size":109,"text":"La lista NO debe considerarse como una lista mínima de descriptores, puesto que para la descripción de los cultivos es fundamental la utilización de otros muchos descriptores de pasaporte, que hay que registrar. En el presente documento se enumera una serie inicial de descriptores de pasaporte comunes para cultivos múltiples. Más adelante se podría ampliar la lista con descriptores adicionales. Por ejemplo, ahora no se han incluido los descriptores relacionados con el uso del germoplasma, pero se investigará su idoneidad con vistas a incluirlos para los cultivos múltiples. Incluso se podría producir una futura ampliación mediante la preparación de listas más especializadas de descriptores comunes para grupos de cultivos."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"A continuación figura la última versión de la lista (1997), que contiene dos secciones. En la segunda (DESCRIPTORES DEL SIAM DE LA FAO) se enumeran varios descriptores opcionales utilizados en el SIAM de la FAO. La lista contiene descripciones del contenido y los sistemas de codificación, pero propone también (entre paréntesis) nombres de campos que pueden ayudar en el intercambio informatizado de este tipo de datos."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"Por favor, envíe su información sobre el uso de esta lista a: Documentación de germoplasma Instituto Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos (IPGRI) Via delle Sette Chiese 142 00145 Roma, Italia Correo electrónico: IPGRI@CGIAR.ORG Fax: (+39) 065750309"},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"Anexo I 63"}]},{"head":"DESCRIPTORES DE PASAPORTE DE CULTIVOS MULTIPLES 1. Código del instituto (INSTCODE)","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"Código del instituto donde se mantiene la accesión. Los códigos están formados por el código de tres letras de la ISO 3166 del país en el que está situado el instituto, más un número o una sigla especificados en la base de datos del instituto, que proporcionará la FAO. Los códigos preliminares (es decir, los códigos que todavía no se han incorporado a la base de datos de institutos en la FAO) comienzan con un asterisco, seguido del código del país de tres letras de la ISO 3166 y una sigla."}]},{"head":"Número de la accesión","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"(ACCENUMB) Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando dicha accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense)."}]},{"head":"Número de recolección","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"(COLLNUMB) Número original asignado por el recolector o los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por el nombre o iniciales del recolector seguido de un número. El número del recolector es esencial para identificar los duplicados mantenidos en colecciones diferentes, deberá ser único y siempre debe acompañar las submuestras, dondequiera que se envíen."}]},{"head":"Género","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"(GENUS) Nombre del género con fines taxonómicos. Hay que escribirlo con mayúscula inicial."}]},{"head":"Especie","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":245,"text":"(SPECIES) La parte específica del nombre científico escrita con minúsculas, seguida de la indicación del autor del nombre 1 . Se permite la siguiente abreviatura: \"sp.\" 6. Subtaxones (SUBTAXA) Se pueden utilizar subtaxones para conservar cualquier identificador taxonómico adicional, más la indicación del nombre del autor 1 . Se permiten las siguientes abreviaturas: \"ssp.\" (para subespecie); \"var.\" (para variedad); \"convar.\" (para convariedad); \"f.\" (para forma). 7. Nombre de la accesión (ACCNAME) Cualquier otra designación (oficial o registrada) que se da a la accesión. Se escribe con mayúscula inicial. Los nombres múltiples se separan con un punto y coma. 8. País de origen (ORIGCTY) Nombre del país donde se recolectó u obtuvo originalmente la muestra. Utilizar los códigos ampliados de la ISO 3166 (es decir, los códigos actuales y antiguos de tres letras del país de la ISO 3166) 9. Ubicación del lugar de recolección (COLLSITE) Información sobre la ubicación, en un nivel inferior al del país, en la que se describe dónde se recogió la accesión, comenzando con la información más detallada. Puede incluir la distancia en kilómetros y la dirección desde la ciudad, la aldea o el punto de referencia cartográfica más cercano (por ejemplo, CURITIBA 7S, PARANA, significa a 7 km al sur de Curitiba, en el estado de Paraná) 10. Latitud del lugar de recolección (LATITUDE) Grados y minutos seguidos de N (Norte) o S (Sur) (por ejemplo, 1030S). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo, 10-S)."},{"index":2,"size":322,"text":"Anexo I 65 11. Longitud del lugar de recolección (LONGITUDE) Grados y minutos seguidos de W (Oeste) o E (Este). Los datos que falten (minutos) deben indicarse con un guión (por ejemplo, 076-W). 12. Elevación del lugar de recolección [m] (ELEVATION) Elevación del lugar de la recolección expresado en metros sobre el nivel del mar. Se permiten valores negativos. 13. Fecha de recolección de la muestra original [AAAAMMDD] (COLLDATE) Fecha de recolección de la muestra original, en la que AAAA es el año, MM el mes y DD el día. (DONORCODE) Código del instituto donante. Los códigos están formados por el código de tres letras de la ISO 3166 del país en el que está situado el instituto, más un número o una sigla especificados en la base de datos de institutos, que proporcionará la FAO. Los códigos preliminares (es decir, los códigos que todavía no se han incorporado a la base de datos de institutos de la FAO) comienzan con un asterisco, seguido del código del país de tres letras de la ISO 3166 y una sigla. 17. Número del donante (DONORNUMB) Número asignado a una accesión por el donante. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense). 18. Otros números asociados con la accesión (OTHERNUMB) Cualquier otro número de identificación cuya existencia se conozca en otras colecciones para esta accesión. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense). Pueden añadirse varios números, que deberán separarse con un punto y coma."}]},{"head":"Observaciones","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"(REMARKS) El campo de observaciones se utiliza para añadir notas o completar datos de los descriptores, con el valor \"99\" (=Otro). Se indica el prefijo de las observaciones con el nombre del campo al que se refieren y dos puntos (por ejemplo, COLLSRC: borde de la carretera). Las observaciones relativas a campos diferentes se separan con un punto y coma. Color de la pulpa (carne) (7.6.1): SEMILLA Promedio de semillas por fruto (7.7.1): 0=Ninguna 1=1 -4 2=5 -9 3=10 -19 4=20 -50 5= >50"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Fig. 1. Elementos del suelo y posición "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Inserción de la lámina foliar "},{"text":" Fig. 5. Forma de la lámina foliar "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 8. Sección vertical de una flor "},{"text":" Fig. 9. Forma del fruto "},{"text":"Fig Fig. 12. Sección transversal del fruto cítrico "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Definiciones y uso de los descriptores 1  b) las unidades que han de aplicarse aparecen entre corchetes al lado del nombre del b) las unidades que han de aplicarse aparecen entre corchetes al lado del nombre del descriptor;  descriptor; c) se recomienda enfáticamente el uso de escalas normalizadas de colores para todos los c) se recomienda enfáticamente el uso de escalas normalizadas de colores para todos los caracteres de color, como la Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart, el Methuen caracteres de color, como la Royal Horticultural Society Colour Chart, el Methuen Handbook of Colour o las Munsell Color Charts for Plant Tissues, (la escala que se utilice Handbook of Colour o las Munsell Color Charts for Plant Tissues, (la escala que se utilice deberá especificarse en la sección donde se usa); deberá especificarse en la sección donde se usa); d) utilizar las abreviaturas de tres letras del Código para los nombres de países, de la d) utilizar las abreviaturas de tres letras del Código para los nombres de países, de la Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO); Organización Internacional de Normalización (ISO); e) muchos caracteres cuantitativos que son continuamente variables se registran en una escala e) muchos caracteres cuantitativos que son continuamente variables se registran en una escala del 1 al 9, donde:  del 1 al 9, donde: 1 Muy bajo 6 Intermedio a alto 1 Muy bajo6 Intermedio a alto 2 Muy bajo a bajo 7 Alto 2 Muy bajo a bajo7 Alto 3 Bajo 8 Alto a muy alto 3 Bajo8 Alto a muy alto 4 Bajo a intermedio  4 Bajo a intermedio  "},{"text":"Definiciones y uso de los descriptores 3 PASAPORTE 1. Descriptores de la accesión ) en las accesiones que no son generalmente uniformes para un descriptor (por ej. colección mezclada, segregación genética) se registrará la media y la desviación estándar cuando la variación sea continua, o varios códigos en orden de frecuencia si el descriptor es de variación discontinua. Se pueden utilizar otros métodos publicados, tales como el de Rana et al. (1991) o el de van Hintum (1993), que establecen claramente un método para registrar 1.1 Número de accesión (1.1) [DPCM] et al. (1991) o el de van Hintum (1993), que establecen claramente un método para registrar 1.1 Número de accesión (1.1) [DPCM] las accesiones heterogéneas; Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando la las accesiones heterogéneas; Este número sirve como identificador único para cada accesión y se asigna cuando la accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a accesión se incorpora a la colección. Una vez asignado este número, nunca se reasignará a j) las fechas se deben expresar numéricamente, usando el formato AAAAMMDD, donde: otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el j) las fechas se deben expresar numéricamente, usando el formato AAAAMMDD, donde: otra accesión en la colección. Aun cuando se pierda una accesión, no es posible asignar el AAAA -mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar 4 dígitos que representan el año AAAA -mismo número a otra. Antes del número de la accesión se utilizarán letras para identificar 4 dígitos que representan el año MM el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del -2 dígitos que representan el mes MM el banco de germoplasma o sistema nacional (por ejemplo, IDG indica una accesión del -2 dígitos que representan el mes DD banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, -2 dígitos que representan el día. DD banco de germoplasma de Bari, Italia; CGN indica una accesión del banco de Wageningen, -2 dígitos que representan el día. Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense).  Países Bajos; PI indica una accesión del sistema estadounidense). 1.2 Nombre del donante (1.2) [DPCM] 1.2Nombre del donante(1.2) [DPCM] Nombre de la institución o la persona responsable de la donación del germoplasma Nombre de la institución o la persona responsable de la donación del germoplasma 1.3 Número del donante (1.3) [DPCM] 1.3Número del donante(1.3) [DPCM] Número asignado por el donante a una accesión  Número asignado por el donante a una accesión 1.4 Otros números relacionados con la accesión (1.4) [DPCM] 1.4Otros números relacionados con la accesión(1.4) [DPCM] Cualquier otro número de identificación utilizado en otras colecciones para identificar la Cualquier otro número de identificación utilizado en otras colecciones para identificar la accesión en cuestión, por ejemplo el número del Inventario de Plantas del USDA (no es el accesión en cuestión, por ejemplo el número del Inventario de Plantas del USDA (no es el número de recolección, véase el descriptor 2.2). Se pueden añadir otros números, como número de recolección, véase el descriptor 2.2). Se pueden añadir otros números, como 1.4.3, etc.  1.4.3, etc. Forma del lóbulo central de la hoja  Forma del lóbulo central de la hoja 1 Dentado  1 Dentado 2 Elíptico  2 Elíptico 3 Lineal  3 Lineal g) la presencia o ausencia de caracteres se registra de la siguiente forma:  g) la presencia o ausencia de caracteres se registra de la siguiente forma: La hojuela terminal  La hojuela terminal 0 Ausente  0 Ausente 1 Presente  1 Presente  "},{"text":"1.4.1 Otro número 1 (1.4.1) 1.4.2 Otro número  4 Cítricos  4 Cítricos 1.6 Pedigree (Genealogía) (1.6) 1.6Pedigree (Genealogía)(1.6) Parentesco o nomenclatura y designaciones asignadas al material del fitomejorador Parentesco o nomenclatura y designaciones asignadas al material del fitomejorador  1.6.1 Origen de la variedad 1.6.1Origen de la variedad   1 Fusión somática 1 Fusión somática   2 Mutación artificial 2 Mutación artificial   3 Mutación natural 3 Mutación natural   4 Variación somaclonal 4 Variación somaclonal   5 Hibridización 5 Hibridización   6 Selección nucelar 6 Selección nucelar   7 Plántula de polinización libre 7 Plántula de polinización libre   8 Línea antigua 8 Línea antigua   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1.11 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1.11 Notas)  1.6.2 Pariente femenino (1.6.1) 1.6.2Pariente femenino(1.6.1)  1.6.3 Pariente masculino (1.6.2) 1.6.3Pariente masculino(1.6.2)  1.6.4 Pariente masculino (si es retrocruzado) (1.6.3) 1.6.4Pariente masculino (si es retrocruzado)(1.6.3)  1.6  1.6   2 (1.4.2) 2(1.4.2) 1.5 Nombre científico (1.5) 1.5Nombre científico(1.5)  1.5.1 Género 2 (1.5.1) [DPCM] 1.5.1Género 2(1.5.1) [DPCM]  1.5.2 Especie (1.5.2) [DPCM] 1.5.2Especie(1.5.2) [DPCM]  1.5.3 Subespecie (1.5.3) [DPCM] 1.5.3Subespecie(1.5.3) [DPCM]  1.5.4 Grupo del cultivar (1.5.4) 1.5.4Grupo del cultivar(1.5.4)  "},{"text":".5 Nombre del cultivar original si es de mutación por yema  (1.6.4) (1.6.4) 1.6 1.6  "},{"text":".6 Nombre del cultivar original si es de selección nucelar  (1.6.5) (1.6.5)  "},{"text":"1.6.7 Nombre del cultivar original si es de fusión de protoplastos o callos embriogénicos 1.6.8 Selección clonal 1.7 Accesión 1.7.1 Nombre de la accesión     Pasaporte 5 Pasaporte 5 1.9 Tamaño de la accesión (1.9) 1.9Tamaño de la accesión(1.9) Número o peso aproximado de semillas o plantas de una accesión en el banco de Número o peso aproximado de semillas o plantas de una accesión en el banco de germoplasma germoplasma 1.10 Tipo de material recibido 1.10 Tipo de material recibido  1 Polen 1Polen  2 Semilla 2Semilla  3 Retoño/brote/gajo/esqueje 3Retoño/brote/gajo/esqueje  4 Cultivo in vitro 4Cultivo in vitro  5 Planta 5Planta  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 1    [DPCM] [DPCM]   Designación registrada u otra designación oficial que se da a la accesión Designación registrada u otra designación oficial que se da a la accesión   1.7.2 Sinónimos 1.7.2Sinónimos   Incluya aquí cualquier identificación previa distinta del nombre actual. Se utilizan Incluya aquí cualquier identificación previa distinta del nombre actual. Se utilizan   frecuentemente como identificadores el número de recolección o el nombre de la frecuentemente como identificadores el número de recolección o el nombre de la   estación recientemente asignado estación recientemente asignado 1.8  Fecha de adquisición [AAAAMMDD] (1.7) 1.8Fecha de adquisición [AAAAMMDD](1.7) La fecha en la que se incorporó la accesión a la colección La fecha en la que se incorporó la accesión a la colección  "},{"text":".11 Notas) 1.11 Notas Especifique aquí cualquier información adicional 2. Descriptores de recolección 2.1 Instituto(s) recolector(es)    (2.2) [DPCM] (2.2) [DPCM] Nombre y dirección del Instituto(s) y/o personas que efectuaron la recolección de la Nombre y dirección del Instituto(s) y/o personas que efectuaron la recolección de la muestra original o la patrocinaron  muestra original o la patrocinaron 2.2 Número de recolección (2.1) [DPCM] 2.2Número de recolección(2.1) [DPCM] Número original asignado por los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por Número original asignado por los recolectores de la muestra, normalmente compuesto por el nombre o  el nombre o  "},{"text":"iniciales del recolector seguido de un número. El número del recolector es esencial para identificar los duplicados mantenidos en colecciones diferentes, deberá ser único y siempre debe acompañar las submuestras, a cualquier parte que se envíen. 2.3 Fecha de recolección de la muestra original [  AAAAMMDD] (2.3) [DPCM] AAAAMMDD](2.3) [DPCM]  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.12 Medio ambiente de la fuente de recolección  2, 1.3, etc. 2, 1.3, etc. 0 Desconocido 0Desconocido 1 Hábitat silvestre 1Hábitat silvestre  1.1 Bosque/arboleda 1.1Bosque/arboleda  1.2 Matorral 1.2Matorral  1.3 Pastizal 1.3Pastizal  1.4 Desierto/tundra 1.4Desierto/tundra 2 Finca 2Finca  2.1 Campo 2.1Campo  2.2 Huerto 2.2Huerto  2.3 Jardín 2.3Jardín  2.4 Barbecho 2.4Barbecho  2.5 Pasto 2.5Pasto  2.6 Almacén 2.6Almacén 3 Mercado 3Mercado  3.1 Ciudad 3.1Ciudad  3.2 Aldea 3.2Aldea  3.3 Zona urbana 3.3Zona urbana  3.4 Otro sistema de intercambio 3.4Otro sistema de intercambio 4 Instituto/organización de investigación 4Instituto/organización de investigación 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":"1.22 Pasaporte 7 2.13 Estado de la muestra   (2.11) [DPCM] (2.11) [DPCM] 0 Desconocido 0Desconocido 1 Silvestre 1Silvestre 2 Mala hierba 2Mala hierba 3 Cultivar tradicional/variedad local 3Cultivar tradicional/variedad local 4 Línea de fitomejorador 4Línea de fitomejorador 5 Cultivar mejorado 5Cultivar mejorado 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.14 Tipo de muestra (2.15) Tipo de material vegetal recolectado. Si se recolectaron diferentes tipos de material de la misma fuente, se debe asignar a cada muestra (tipo) un único número de recolección y el correspondiente número único de accesión correspondiente número único de accesión 1 Semilla 1Semilla 2 Plántula 2Plántula 3 Retoño 3Retoño 4 Injerto 4Injerto 5 Gajo con raíz 5Gajo con raíz 6 Esqueje 6Esqueje 7 Vitroplanta 7Vitroplanta 8 Fruto 8Fruto 99 Otro (indicar la parte de la planta utilizada en el descriptor 2 99 Otro (indicar la parte de la planta utilizada en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.15 Número de plantas muestreadas   "},{"text":"16 Datos etnobotánicos 2.16.1 Grupo étnico   No  No  Sí  Sí 2.16.5 Historia del uso de la planta  2.16.5Historia del uso de la planta  Ancestral/indígena (asociado siempre con el lugar y la comunidad) Ancestral/indígena (asociado siempre con el lugar y la comunidad)  Introducida (en un tiempo pasado desconocido)  Introducida (en un tiempo pasado desconocido)  Introducida (tiempo e introducción conocidos)  Introducida (tiempo e introducción conocidos) 2.16.6 Partes de la planta utilizadas  2.16.6Partes de la planta utilizadas  Semilla  Semilla  Raíz  Raíz  Tronco  Tronco  Hoja  Hoja  Flor/inflorescencia  Flor/inflorescencia  Fruto  Fruto  Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2 2.16.2 Nombre local o vernáculo (2.12) 2.16.2Nombre local o vernáculo(2.12) Nombre asignado por el agricultor al cultivar/variedad local/clon/forma Nombre asignado por el agricultor al cultivar/variedad local/clon/forma silvestre. Indicar el idioma y/o el dialecto si no se proporciona el grupo étnico silvestre. Indicar el idioma y/o el dialecto si no se proporciona el grupo étnico 2.16.3 Traducción  2.16.3Traducción  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.16.7 Usos de la planta  Consumo del fruto fresco Consumo del fruto fresco Zumo Zumo Uso culinario Uso culinario Portainjerto Portainjerto Destilación/fermentación Destilación/fermentación Aceite esencial Aceite esencial Ornamental Ornamental Medicinal Medicinal Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.16.8 Frecuencia del uso de la planta  Diaria Diaria Semanal Semanal Ocasional Ocasional Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del recolector) Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del recolector)  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 2.16.12.1 Evaluación del gusto del jugo  2.16.10 Usos especiales  2.16.10Usos especiales  1 Niños  1 Niños  2 Personas ancianas  2 Personas ancianas  3 Fiestas  3 Fiestas  4 Finalidades religiosas  4 Finalidades religiosas  5 Jefes  5 Jefes  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del recolector)  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del recolector)  0 No  0 No  1 Sí  1 Sí 2.16.12 Sabor del jugo (4.8.3) 2.16.12Sabor del jugo(4.8.3) Según la preferencia local  Según la preferencia local  1 Insípido  1 Insípido  2 Acido  2 Acido  3 Dulce  3 Dulce  4 Amargo  4 Amargo  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2Según el evaluador  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2Según el evaluador  1 Desagradable  1 Desagradable  2 Aceptable  2 Aceptable  3 Agradable  3 Agradable  4 Muy bueno  4 Muy bueno 2.16.13 Consistencia de la pulpa  2.16.13Consistencia de la pulpa  1 Pegajosa  1 Pegajosa  2 Firme  2 Firme  3 Blanda  3 Blanda  4 Harinosa  4 Harinosa  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":".18 Notas del recolector) 10 Cítricos 2.16.14 Aroma del fruto   1 Ligero  1 Ligero  2 Normal  2 Normal  3 Fuerte  3 Fuerte 2.16.15 Aroma del jugo (4.8.4) 2.16.15Aroma del jugo(4.8.4)  1 Ligero  1 Ligero  2 Normal  2 Normal  3 Fuerte  3 Fuerte  4 Resinoso  4 Resinoso  99 Otro (p. ej., cebolla, rancio, especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas 99 Otro (p. ej., cebolla, rancio, especificar en el descriptor 2.18 Notas  del recolector)  del recolector) 2.16.16 Aroma de la hoja (6.2.3) 2.16.16Aroma de la hoja(6.2.3)  1 Ligero  1 Ligero  2 Normal  2 Normal  3 Fuerte  3 Fuerte 2.16.17 Aroma de la flor  2.16.17Aroma de la flor  1 Ligero  1 Ligero  2 Normal  2 Normal  3 Fuerte  3 Fuerte  "},{"text":"18 Notas del recolector     Pasaporte 11 Pasaporte 11 2.16.21 MANEJO Prácticas de cultivo 2.16.21 MANEJOPrácticas de cultivo 2.16.21.1 Fecha de la plantación [AAAAMMDD] 3. Descriptores de manejo 2.16.21.1 Fecha de la plantación [AAAAMMDD] 3. Descriptores de manejo 3.1  2.16.21.2 Fecha de la primera cosecha [AAAAMMDD] Número de accesión (Pasaporte 1.1) 3.12.16.21.2 Fecha de la primera cosecha [AAAAMMDD] Número de accesión(Pasaporte 1.1) 3.2  2.16.21.3 Fecha de la última cosecha [AAAAMMDD] Identificación de la población (Pasaporte 2.2) 3.22.16.21.3 Fecha de la última cosecha [AAAAMMDD] Identificación de la población(Pasaporte 2.2) Número de recolección, pedigrí, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de Número de recolección, pedigrí, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de 2.16.22 población Sistema de cultivo 2.16.22 poblaciónSistema de cultivo    1 Monocultivo 1 Monocultivo 3.3  2 Intercalado (indicar el cultivo en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del Dirección del almacenamiento 3.32 Intercalado (indicar el cultivo en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del Dirección del almacenamiento recolector) (Ubicación de los depósitos y ubicación del edificio, habitación, número de los estantes en recolector) (Ubicación de los depósitos y ubicación del edificio, habitación, número de los estantes en almacenamiento a mediano y/o largo plazo) almacenamiento a mediano y/o largo plazo)  2.16.23 Flora asociada 2.16.23Flora asociada 3.4 Otras especies de plantas/cultivos dominantes, incluso otras especies de Citrus, Tipo de mantenimiento 3.4Otras especies de plantas/cultivos dominantes, incluso otras especies de Citrus, Tipo de mantenimiento  encontradas en el lugar de recolección y/o en sus cercanías 1 Colección en el campo (plantas vivas) encontradas en el lugar de recolección y/o en sus cercanías 1 Colección en el campo (plantas vivas)   2 Recinto de malla (centro de selección) 2Recinto de malla (centro de selección)  2.16.24 3 Invernadero Estacionalidad 2.16.24 3 Invernadero Estacionalidad   4 1 Disponible sólo en estación/período especial Semilla 41 Disponible sólo en estación/período especial Semilla   5 2 Disponible durante todo el año Cultivo de tejido 52 Disponible durante todo el año Cultivo de tejido   6 Almacenamiento criogénico 6Almacenamiento criogénico  2.16.25 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) Informaciones de mercado 2.16.25 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) Informaciones de mercado  Especificar si el tipo de cítrico ha recibido algún premio en dinero Especificar si el tipo de cítrico ha recibido algún premio en dinero 3.5  0 No Cantidad de material vegetal en el almacenamiento [g o número] 3.50 No Cantidad de material vegetal en el almacenamiento [g o número]    1 Sí (Pasaporte 1.9) 1 Sí(Pasaporte 1.9) 3.6 2.16.26 0 No Tipo de mercado 3.62.16.260 No Tipo de mercado    1 Sí 1 Local 1 Sí 1 Local    2 Nacional 2 Nacional   2.16.19 Condiciones de crecimiento preferidas 3 Internacional 2.16.19Condiciones de crecimiento preferidas 3 Internacional   Si existen, describir la opinión del agricultor sobre la resistencia de la variedad con Si existen, describir la opinión del agricultor sobre la resistencia de la variedad con relación a las susceptibilidades dominantes en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del 2.17 Fotografía (2.14) relación a las susceptibilidades dominantes en el descriptor 2.18 Notas del 2.17 Fotografía (2.14) recolector ¿Se tomaron fotografías de la accesión o del hábitat en el momento de la recolección? Si se recolector ¿Se tomaron fotografías de la accesión o del hábitat en el momento de la recolección? Si se 0 No ha tomado alguna fotografía, indicar los números de identificación en 2.18 Notas del 0 No ha tomado alguna fotografía, indicar los números de identificación en 2.18 Notas del recolector. 1 Sí recolector.1 Sí  0  No 0No  1 2.16.20 Sí Estrés dominante 12.16.20 SíEstrés dominante   Información sobre los tipos dominantes de estrés biológico (plagas y enfermedades) Información sobre los tipos dominantes de estrés biológico (plagas y enfermedades)   y abiótico (sequía) y abiótico (sequía)  "},{"text":"Ubicación de los duplicados en otro(s) sitio(s)    (Pasaporte 1.4) (Pasaporte 1.4)  0 No 0No  1 Sí 1Sí 3.7 Método de propagación 3.7Método de propagación  1 Semilla 1Semilla  2 Injerto 2Injerto  3 Gajo 3Gajo  4 Esqueje 4Esqueje  5 Injerto apical 5Injerto apical  6 Cultivo de tejido 6Cultivo de tejido  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3  "},{"text":".10 Notas) Manejo 13 3.8 Conservación in vitro  3.8.1 Tipo de explante 3.8.1Tipo de explante  1 Semilla 1 Semilla  2 Embrión cigótico 2 Embrión cigótico  3 Meristema apical o axilar 3 Meristema apical o axilar  4 Vástago apical o axilar 4 Vástago apical o axilar  5 Embrión somático 5 Embrión somático  6 Callo 6 Callo  7 Suspensión celular 7 Suspensión celular  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 3.8.2 Fecha de introducción in vitro [AAAAMMDD] 3.8.2Fecha de introducción in vitro [AAAAMMDD] 3.8.3 Tipo de material subcultivado 3.8.3Tipo de material subcultivado  1 Semilla 1 Semilla  2 Embrión cigótico 2 Embrión cigótico  3 Meristema apical o axilar 3 Meristema apical o axilar  4 Vástago apical o axilar 4 Vástago apical o axilar  5 Embrión somático 5 Embrión somático  6 Callo 6 Callo  7 Suspensión celular 7 Suspensión celular  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 3.8.4 Proceso de regeneración 3.8.4Proceso de regeneración  1 Organogénesis 1 Organogénesis  2 Embriogénesis somática 2 Embriogénesis somática  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 3.8.5 Número de genotipos introducidos in vitro 3.8.5Número de genotipos introducidos in vitro 3.8.6 Número de replicaciones por genotipo 3.8.6Número de replicaciones por genotipo 3.8.7 Fecha del último subcultivo [AAAAMMDD] 3.8.7Fecha del último subcultivo [AAAAMMDD] 3.8.8 Medio utilizado en el último subcultivo 3.8.8Medio utilizado en el último subcultivo 3.8.9 Número de plantas en el último subcultivo 3.8.9Número de plantas en el último subcultivo 3.8.10 Ubicación después del último subcultivo 3.8.10Ubicación después del último subcultivo 3.8.11 Fecha del próximo subcultivo [AAAAMMDD] 3.8.11Fecha del próximo subcultivo [AAAAMMDD]  "},{"text":"Plantación en el campo 4.7.1.1 Distancia entre las plantas [cm] 4.7.1.2 Distancia entre hileras [cm] 4.7.1.3 Aplicación de fertilizantes  16 Cítricos  Manejo 15 16 CítricosManejo 15 3.9 3.10 Notas Crioconservación 4.10 Multiplicación y/o regeneración anterior 3.9 3.10 Notas Crioconservación 4.10 Multiplicación y/o regeneración anterior Se puede especificar aquí cualquier información adicional Se puede especificar aquí cualquier información adicional   3.9.1 4.10.1 Tipo de material utilizado para la crioconservación Ubicación 3.9.1 4.10.1Tipo de material utilizado para la crioconservación Ubicación    1 Semilla 1 Semilla 2 Embrión cigótico 4. Descriptores de multiplicación/regeneración 4.10.2 Fecha de siembra/plantación [AAAAMMDD] 2 Embrión cigótico 4. Descriptores de multiplicación/regeneración 4.10.2 Fecha de siembra/plantación [AAAAMMDD]    3 Meristema apical or axilar 3 Meristema apical or axilar 4.1 4 Vástago apical o axilar Número de accesión 4.10.3 Número de parcela (Pasaporte 1.1) 4.14 Vástago apical o axilar Número de accesión 4.10.3 Número de parcela(Pasaporte 1.1)    5 Embrión somático 5 Embrión somático 6 Callo Identificación de la población 4.11 Número de regeneraciones 4.2 (Pasaporte 2.2) (1.11) 6 Callo Identificación de la población 4.11 Número de regeneraciones 4.2(Pasaporte 2.2) (1.11) 7 Suspensión celular Número de recolección, pedigrí, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de Desde la fecha de adquisición 7 Suspensión celular Número de recolección, pedigrí, nombre del cultivar, etc., dependiendo del tipo de Desde la fecha de adquisición población 8 Ovulo población8 Ovulo 4.12 Notas 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 4.12 Notas99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 4.3 Indicar aquí cualquier información adicional Número de la parcela en el campo 4.3 Indicar aquí cualquier información adicional Número de la parcela en el campo   3.9.2 Fecha de introducción en nitrógeno líquido [AAAAMMDD] 3.9.2Fecha de introducción en nitrógeno líquido [AAAAMMDD] 4.4 Ubicación del sitio de multiplicación/regeneración 4.4Ubicación del sitio de multiplicación/regeneración   3.9.3 Número de muestras introducidas en nitrógeno líquido 3.9.3Número de muestras introducidas en nitrógeno líquido 4.5 Colaborador 4.5Colaborador   3.9.4 Final del período de almacenamiento [AAAAMMDD] 3.9.4Final del período de almacenamiento [AAAAMMDD] 4.6 Fecha de la plantación [AAAAMMDD] 4.6Fecha de la plantación [AAAAMMDD]   3.9.5 Número de muestras sacadas del nitrógeno líquido 3.9.5Número de muestras sacadas del nitrógeno líquido 4.7 Prácticas de cultivo 4.7Prácticas de cultivo   3.9.6 Tipo de material subcultivado para recuperación 3.9.6Tipo de material subcultivado para recuperación  (Después del nitrógeno líquido) 4.7.1 (Después del nitrógeno líquido) 4.7.1    1 Semilla 1 Semilla    2 Embrión cigótico 2 Embrión cigótico    3 Meristema apical or axilar 3 Meristema apical or axilar    4 Vástago apical o axilar 4 Vástago apical o axilar    5 Embrión somático 5 Embrión somático    6 Callo 6 Callo   7 Suspensión celular Especificar el tipo, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de 7 Suspensión celular Especificar el tipo, dosis, frecuencia de cada uno y el método de   8 Ovulo aplicación 8 Ovulo aplicación    99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 4.8 Vigor de la plántula 4.8Vigor de la plántula  3 3.9.7 Bajo Proceso de regeneración 33.9.7 BajoProceso de regeneración  5 1 Organogénesis Intermedio 51 Organogénesis Intermedio  7 Alto 2 Embriogénesis somática 7Alto2 Embriogénesis somática    99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 3.10 Notas) 4.9 Número de plantas establecidas 4.9Número de plantas establecidas   3.9.8 Número de muestras recuperadas 3.9.8Número de muestras recuperadas   3.9.9 Ubicación después del último subcultivo 3.9.9Ubicación después del último subcultivo  "},{"text":"Manejo 17 SITIO Y MEDIO AMBIENTE 5. Descriptores del sitio de caracterización y/o evaluación  5.1 País donde se hizo la caracterización y/o evaluación (3.1) 5.1País donde se hizo la caracterización y/o evaluación(3.1) (Véanse las instrucciones en el descriptor 2  (Véanse las instrucciones en el descriptor 2  "},{"text":".4 País de recolección)   "},{"text":"Forma del terreno de mayor nivel (características fisiográficas generales) La forma del terreno se refiere a la forma de la superficie de la tierra en la zona en la cual se encuentra el sitio. (Adaptadode FAO 1990)      Sitio y medio ambiente 19 Sitio y medio ambiente 19 6.1.2  6.1.2  1 Planicie 5 Tierra alta 1 Planicie5 Tierra alta  2 Cuenca 6 Colina 2 Cuenca6 Colina  3 Valle 7 Montaña 3 Valle7 Montaña  4 Meseta 4 Meseta 6.1.3 Elementos del suelo y posición 6.1.3Elementos del suelo y posición Descripción de la geomorfología de los alrededores inmediatos del sitio (Adaptado Descripción de la geomorfología de los alrededores inmediatos del sitio (Adaptado de FAO 1990) (Véase la Fig. 1) de FAO 1990) (Véase la Fig. 1)  1 Llanura nivelada 17 Depresión entre dunas 1 Llanura nivelada17 Depresión entre dunas  2 Escarpa 18 Manglar 2 Escarpa18 Manglar  3 Interfluvial 19 Pendiente alta 3 Interfluvial19 Pendiente alta  4 Valle 20 Pendiente mediana 4 Valle20 Pendiente mediana  5 Fondo de valle 21 Pendiente baja 5 Fondo de valle21 Pendiente baja  6 Canal 22 Serranía 6 Canal22 Serranía  7 Malecón 23 Playa 7 Malecón23 Playa  8 Terraza 24 Serranía costanera 8 Terraza24 Serranía costanera  9 Vega 25 Cumbre redondeada 9 Vega25 Cumbre redondeada  10 Laguna 26 Cumbre 10 Laguna26 Cumbre  11 Hondonada 27 Atolón coralino 11 Hondonada27 Atolón coralino  12 Caldera 28 Línea de drenaje (posición inferior en 12 Caldera28 Línea de drenaje (posición inferior en  13 Depresión abierta un terreno llano o casi llano) 13 Depresión abiertaun terreno llano o casi llano)  14 Depresión cerrada 29 Arrecife coralino 14 Depresión cerrada29 Arrecife coralino  15 Duna 99 Otro (especificar en la sección Notas 15 Duna99 Otro (especificar en la sección Notas  16 Duna longitudinal correspondiente) 16 Duna longitudinalcorrespondiente) 6.1.4 Pendiente [°] 6.1.4Pendiente [°]  2 Casi llano 0,6 -2,9% 2 Casi llano0,6 -2,9%  3 Poco ondulado 3 -5,9% 3 Poco ondulado3 -5,9%  4 Ondulado 6 -10,9% 4 Ondulado6 -10,9%  5 Quebrado 11 -15,9% 5 Quebrado11 -15,9%  6 Montuoso 16 -30% 6 Montuoso16 -30%  7 Fuertemente escarpado >30%, variación moderada de la elevación 7 Fuertemente escarpado >30%, variación moderada de la elevación  8 Montañoso >30%, variación grande de la elevación (>300 m) 8 Montañoso>30%, variación grande de la elevación (>300 m)  99 Otro (especificar en la sección Notas 99 Otro(especificar en la sección Notas   correspondiente) correspondiente)  "},{"text":". Clases de textura del suelo 6.1.17.1 Clases según el tamaño de las partículas del suelo     Sitio y medio ambiente 23 Sitio y medio ambiente 23 precisas. Dar la profundidad a la que se hizo la medición (cm). Si no se dispone 1 Arcilla 12 Suelo franco arenoso grueso precisas. Dar la profundidad a la que se hizo la medición (cm). Si no se dispone 1 Arcilla 12 Suelo franco arenoso grueso de escala de colores, se pueden utilizar los siguientes estados: 2 Suelo franco 13 Arena franca de escala de colores, se pueden utilizar los siguientes estados: 2 Suelo franco 13 Arena franca  1 Blanco 3 Suelo franco arcilloso 7 Pardo rojizo 14 Arena franca muy fina Grisáceo 1 Blanco 3 Suelo franco arcilloso 7 Pardo rojizo 14 Arena franca muy fina Grisáceo  2 Rojo 4 Limo  8 Pardo amarillento 15 Arena franca fina Azul 2 Rojo 4 Limo8 Pardo amarillento 15 Arena franca fina Azul  3 Rojizo 5 Arcilla limosa 9 Amarillo 16 Arena franca gruesa Negro azulado 3 Rojizo 5 Arcilla limosa9 Amarillo 16 Arena franca gruesa Negro azulado  4 Rojo amarillento 10 Amarillo rojizo 6 Suelo franco limoarcilloso 17 Arena muy fina Negro 4 Rojo amarillento 10 Amarillo rojizo 6 Suelo franco limoarcilloso 17 Arena muy fina Negro  5 Pardo 7 Suelo franco limoso 11 Verdoso, verde 18 Arena fina 5 Pardo 7 Suelo franco limoso 11 Verdoso, verde 18 Arena fina  6 Parduzco 8 Arcilla arenosa 12 Gris 19 Arena mediana 6 Parduzco 8 Arcilla arenosa12 Gris19 Arena mediana  9 Suelo franco arenoarcilloso 20 Arena gruesa 9 Suelo franco arenoarcilloso 20 Arena gruesa 6.1.14 pH del suelo 10 Suelo franco arenoso 21 Arena (sin clasificar) 6.1.14pH del suelo 10 Suelo franco arenoso21 Arena (sin clasificar) Valor real del suelo dentro del intervalo de las siguientes profundidades de las 11 Suelo franco arenoso fino 22 Arena (sin especificar) Valor real del suelo dentro del intervalo de las siguientes profundidades de las 11 Suelo franco arenoso fino 22 Arena (sin especificar) raíces alrededor de la accesión raíces alrededor de la accesión  6.1.14.1 pH a 0-15 cm 6.1.14.1 pH a 0-15 cm  6.1.14.2 pH a 16-60 cm 6.1.14.2 pH a 16-60 cm  6.1.14.3 pH a 61-90 cm 6.1.14.3 pH a 61-90 cm  6.1.14.4 pH a 91-120 cm 6.1.14.4 pH a 91-120 cm 6.1.15 Erosión del suelo 6.1.15Erosión del suelo  3 Baja  3 Baja  5 Intermedia 5 Intermedia  7 Alta  7 Alta 6.1.16 Fragmentos de roca 6.1.16Fragmentos de roca (Adaptado de FAO 1990) (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Las rocas y los fragmentos minerales grandes (>2 mm) se describen de acuerdo con Las rocas y los fragmentos minerales grandes (>2 mm) se describen de acuerdo con su abundancia  su abundancia  1 0 -2%  1 0 -2% 6.1.13 (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Color de la matriz del suelo El color del material de la matriz del suelo en la zona radicular alrededor de la 2 2,1 -5% 3 5,1 -15% 4 15,1 -40% 5 40,1 -80% Fig. 2(Adaptado de FAO 1990) 6.1.13 (Adaptado de FAO 1990) Color de la matriz del suelo El color del material de la matriz del suelo en la zona radicular alrededor de la 2 2,1 -5% 3 5,1 -15% 4 15,1 -40% 5 40,1 -80% Fig. 2(Adaptado de FAO 1990) accesión se registra en condiciones húmedas (o en condiciones secas y húmedas, 6 >80% 1 Arcilla < 2 µm accesión se registra en condiciones húmedas (o en condiciones secas y húmedas, 6 >80% 1 Arcilla < 2 µm si es posible) utilizando la notación para el matiz, pureza e intensidad tal como 2 Limo fino 2 -20 µm si es posible) utilizando la notación para el matiz, pureza e intensidad tal como 2 Limo fino 2 -20 µm 6.1.17 Clases de textura del suelo 3 Limo grueso 21 -63 µm 6.1.17Clases de textura del suelo 3 Limo grueso21 -63 µm   4 Arena muy fina 64 -125 µm 4 Arena muy fina64 -125 µm   5 Arena fina 126 -200 µm 5 Arena fina126 -200 µm   6 Arena mediana 201 -630 µm 6 Arena mediana201 -630 µm (Véase la Fig. 2) 7 Arena gruesa 631 -1250 µm (Véase la Fig. 2)7 Arena gruesa631 -1250 µm   8 Arena muy gruesa 1251 -2000 µm 8 Arena muy gruesa1251 -2000 µm  "},{"text":"28 Cítricos Fig. 3. Forma del árbol 7.1.5 Hábito de crecimiento del árbol (postura     Sitio y medio ambiente 27 Sitio y medio ambiente 27 CARACTERIZACION  CARACTERIZACION 7. Descriptores de la planta  7. Descriptores de la planta Todas las observaciones deben hacerse en plantas de la misma edad no menores de tres años Todas las observaciones deben hacerse en plantas de la misma edad no menores de tres años 7.1.1 Rizoma 3  (4.1.2) 7.1.1Rizoma 3(4.1.2) Si procede,   Si procede,  0 Ninguno  0 Ninguno  1 Naranjo amargo 1 Naranjo amargo  2 Naranjo trifoliado 2 Naranjo trifoliado  3 Híbridos trifoliados 3 Híbridos trifoliados  4 Limonero rugoso 4 Limonero rugoso  5 Limero Rangpur 5 Limero Rangpur  6.1.22.5.3 6 Mandarinero Cleopatra Duración de las temperaturas bajo cero [d] 6.1.22.5.3 6 Mandarinero Cleopatra Duración de las temperaturas bajo cero [d]  7 Citrus volkameriana 7 Citrus volkameriana  6.1.22.6 Humedad relativa 8 Naranjo dulce 6.1.22.6 Humedad relativa 8 Naranjo dulce  6.1.22.6.1 9 Limero dulce Gama de humedad relativa diurna [%] 6.1.22.6.1 9 Limero dulceGama de humedad relativa diurna [%]  6.1.22.6.2 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas) Gama de humedad relativa estacional [%] 6.1.22.6.2 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas) Gama de humedad relativa estacional [%] 7.1.2 6.1.22.7 Luz Relación entre diámetros del tronco y el rizoma 7.1.26.1.22.7 Luz Relación entre diámetros del tronco y el rizoma 1 Sombreado Registrado a 20 cm arriba y abajo de la línea de injerto 1 Sombreado Registrado a 20 cm arriba y abajo de la línea de injerto 7.1.6 2 Soleado 1 Menor (<1) Ramificación (4.1.7) 7.1.62 Soleado 1 Menor (<1) Ramificación(4.1.7)  2 Igual 3 Escasa (1) 2 Igual 3 Escasa(1) 7.1.3 6.1.22.8 Duración del día [h] 3 Mayor (>1) 5 Media Indicar la mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, Superficie del tronco del injerto (4.1.8) máxima, mínima) 7 Densa 7.1.36.1.22.8 Duración del día [h] 3 Mayor (>1) 5 Media Indicar la mensual (media, máxima, mínima) o la estacional (media, Superficie del tronco del injerto (4.1.8) máxima, mínima) 7 Densa 7.1 1 Lisa  7.11 Lisa  2 Estriada y rugosa 2 Estriada y rugosa 7.1.4 Forma del árbol (4.1.4) 7.1.4Forma del árbol(4.1.4) Observada en estado natural. Véase la Fig. 3 Observada en estado natural. Véase la Fig. 3  1 Elipsoide  1 Elipsoide  2 Esferoide  2 Esferoide  3 Obloide  3 Obloide  99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas)  "},{"text":".7 Angulo de inserción de las ramas      Caracterización 29 Caracterización 29  7.1.9 Longitud de las espinas en el árbol adulto (no en retoños) 7.2.3.1 Policromía de las hojas (4.2.11) 7.1.9Longitud de las espinas en el árbol adulto (no en retoños) 7.2.3.1 Policromía de las hojas(4.2.11)  Promedio de 10 espinas en la axila de la hoja 0 Ausente Promedio de 10 espinas en la axila de la hoja 0 Ausente   1 ≤5 mm 1 Presente 1 ≤5 mm1 Presente   2 6 -15 mm 2 6 -15 mm  7.2.4 3 16 -40 mm Inserción de la lámina foliar (4.2.4) 7.2.43 16 -40 mm Inserción de la lámina foliar(4.2.4)   4 >40 mm 4 >40 mm  7.1.10 Forma de la espina (4.2.12) 7.1.10Forma de la espina(4.2.12)   1 Curva  1 Curva   2 Derecha 2 Derecha  1 7.1.11 2 Color de la punta del vástago 3 (4.1.10) 1 7.1.112 Color de la punta del vástago3(4.1.10)   1 Verde  1 Verde   2 Púrpura 2 Púrpura   99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas) 99 Otro (especificar en el descriptor 7.8 Notas)  7.1.12 Superficie de la punta del vástago (4.1.11) 7.1.12Superficie de la punta del vástago(4.1.11)   1 Glabra  1 Glabra   2 Media  2 Media   3 Pubescente 3 Pubescente 7.2 Hoja   7.2Hoja Utilizar 30 hojas maduras por árbol adulto con tres replicaciones a menos que se indique Utilizar 30 hojas maduras por árbol adulto con tres replicaciones a menos que se indique otra cosa   otra cosa  7.2.1 Ciclo de vida vegetativa (4.2.1) 7.2.1Ciclo de vida vegetativa(4.2.1)   1 Perennifolia 1 Perennifolia  Unión con el tronco principal 2 Caducifolia Unión con el tronco principal 2 Caducifolia   3 Agudo 3 Semipersistente 3 Agudo 3 Semipersistente   5 Medio 5 Medio  7.2.2 7 Abierto División de la hoja (4.2.2) 7.2.27 Abierto División de la hoja(4.2.2)   1 Simple  1 Simple  7.1.8 Densidad de espinas en el árbol adulto (no en retoños) 2 Bifoliada 7.1.8Densidad de espinas en el árbol adulto (no en retoños) 2 Bifoliada   0 Ausente 3 Trifoliada 0 Ausente 3 Trifoliada   3 Baja 4 Pentafoliada 3 Baja 4 Pentafoliada   5 Media 99 Otro (p. ej. mezcla de simple, bifoliada y trifoliada, especificar en 5 Media 99 Otro (p. ej. mezcla de simple, bifoliada y trifoliada, especificar en   7 Alta el descriptor Notas 7.8) 7 Alta el descriptor Notas 7.8)  7.2.3 Intensidad del color verde de la lámina de la hoja (4.2.3) 7.2.3Intensidad del color verde de la lámina de la hoja(4.2.3)  Observada en hojas plenamente desarrolladas Observada en hojas plenamente desarrolladas   1 Clara  1 Clara   2 Media (verde) 2 Media (verde)   3 Oscura  3 Oscura  "},{"text":" En cada caso, es importante especificar el origen de la infestación o infección, es decir, natural, inoculación en el campo, laboratorio. Registre dicha información en el descriptor 10.18 Notas. 40 Cítricos 52 Cítricos   Evaluación 51 Evaluación 53 40 Cítricos 52 CítricosEvaluación 51 Evaluación 53 8.6 9.9 10.3 Afidos Semillas Notas  8.6 9.9 10.3 Afidos Semillas Notas Promedio de 20 semillas Especificar aquí cualquier información adicional 10.3.1 Aphis citricola Afido verde Promedio de 20 semillas Especificar aquí cualquier información adicional 10.3.1 Aphis citricolaAfido verde 10.3.2 8.6.1 10.3.3 epicarpio 10. Susceptibilidad al estrés biológico Aphis gossypi Longitud de la semilla [mm] Myzus persicae 10.3.4 Toxoptera aurantii Afido del algodón (4.9.2) Afido del duraznero vesículas de jugo Afido negro de los cítricos 10.3.2 8.6.1 10.3.3 epicarpio 10. Susceptibilidad al estrés biológico Aphis gossypi Longitud de la semilla [mm] Myzus persicae 10.3.4 Toxoptera aurantiiAfido del algodón (4.9.2) Afido del duraznero vesículas de jugo Afido negro de los cítricos   8.6.2 10.3.5 Anchura de la semilla [mm] Toxoptera citricidus mesocarpio Afido pardo de los cítricos (4.9.3) 8.6.2 10.3.5Anchura de la semilla [mm] Toxoptera citricidusmesocarpio Afido pardo de los cítricos (4.9.3) 8.6.3 Ellas están codificadas en una escala numérica de susceptibilidad del 1 al 9: Peso de la semilla [g] 10.4 Moscas blancas (4.9.4) 8.6.3 Ellas están codificadas en una escala numérica de susceptibilidad del 1 al 9: Peso de la semilla [g] 10.4 Moscas blancas(4.9.4) 1 Muy baja o sin signos visibles de susceptibilidad 10.4.1 Aleurocanthus woglumi eje Mosca negra 1 Muy baja o sin signos visibles de susceptibilidad 10.4.1 Aleurocanthus woglumiejeMosca negra 8.7 3 Baja Notas 10.4.2 Aleurothrixus floccosus Mosca blanca lanuda 8.7 3 BajaNotas 10.4.2Aleurothrixus floccosusMosca blanca lanuda Especificar aquí cualquier otra información adicional 5 Intermedia 10.4.3 Dialeurodes citri Mosca blanca de los cítricos Especificar aquí cualquier otra información adicional 5 Intermedia 10.4.3 Dialeurodes citriMosca blanca de los cítricos 9 Muy alta endocarpio 7 Alta 10.4.4 Dialeurodes citrifolii semilla Mosca blanca de ala nubosa 9 Muy alta endocarpio 7 Alta 10.4.4Dialeurodes citrifoliisemilla Mosca blanca de ala nubosa 9. Susceptibilidad al estrés abiótico 10.5 Saltahojas 9. Susceptibilidad al estrés abiótico 10.5 Saltahojas Indicar el número de plantas observadas (con raíces propias). Registrada en condiciones 10.1 Plagas 10.5.1 Empoasca smithi Saltahojas australiano Indicar el número de plantas observadas (con raíces propias). Registrada en condiciones 10.1 Plagas 10.5.1 Empoasca smithi Saltahojas australiano artificiales y/o naturales, que se deben especificar claramente. Están codificadas en una escala Agente causal Nombre común 10.5.2 Neoaliturus haematoceps Saltahojas, Lorito artificiales y/o naturales, que se deben especificar claramente. Están codificadas en una escala Agente causal Nombre común 10.5.2 Neoaliturus haematoceps Saltahojas, Lorito numérica de susceptibilidad del 1 al 9: 10.1.1 Aonidiella aurantii 10.5.3 Neoaliturus tenellus Escama roja de California Saltahojas de la remolacha numérica de susceptibilidad del 1 al 9: 10.1.1 Aonidiella aurantii 10.5.3 Neoaliturus tenellusEscama roja de California Saltahojas de la remolacha 1 Muy baja o sin signos visibles de susceptibilidad 10.1.2 Aonidiella citrina Escama amarilla 1 Muy baja o sin signos visibles de susceptibilidad 10.1.2 Aonidiella citrinaEscama amarilla 3 Baja 10.1.3 10.6 Moscas de la fruta Ceroplastes sinensis Escama china 3 Baja 10.1.3 10.6 Moscas de la fruta Ceroplastes sinensisEscama china 5 Intermedia 10.1.4 10.6.1 Ceroplastes destructor Ceratitis capitata Escama cerosa Mosca mediterránea de las frutas 5 Intermedia 10.1.4 10.6.1Ceroplastes destructor Ceratitis capitataEscama cerosa Mosca mediterránea de las frutas 7 Alta 10.1.5 10.6.2 Coccus hesperidum Anastrepha fraterculus Cochinilla Mosca suramericana de las frutas 7 Alta 10.1.5 10.6.2Coccus hesperidum Anastrepha fraterculusCochinilla Mosca suramericana de las frutas 9 Muy alta 10.1.6 10.6.3 Saissetia oleae Dacus dorsalis Escama negra del olivo Mosca oriental de las frutas 9 Muy alta 10.1.6 10.6.3Saissetia oleae Dacus dorsalisEscama negra del olivo Mosca oriental de las frutas  10.1.7 Aspidiotus nerii Escama blanca 10.1.7Aspidiotus neriiEscama blanca 9.1 10.7 Lepidópteros Reacción a bajas temperaturas 10.1.8 Chrysomphalus aonidum (7.1) Escama negra de los cítricos 9.1 10.7 Lepidópteros Reacción a bajas temperaturas 10.1.8 Chrysomphalus aonidum(7.1) Escama negra de los cítricos Registrada en condiciones naturales durante la estación fría 10.1.9 Chrysomphalus dictyospermi 10.7.1 Phyllocnistis citrella (Spanish red scale) Minador de los cítricos Registrada en condiciones naturales durante la estación fría 10.1.9 Chrysomphalus dictyospermi 10.7.1 Phyllocnistis citrella(Spanish red scale) Minador de los cítricos  10.1.10 10.7.2 Lepidosaphes beckii Prays citri Escama púrpura Polilla de las flores de los cítricos 10.1.10 10.7.2Lepidosaphes beckii Prays citriEscama púrpura Polilla de las flores de los cítricos 9.2 Reacción a altas temperaturas 10.1.11 Lepidosaphes gloveri (7.2) Escama Glover 9.2Reacción a altas temperaturas 10.1.11 Lepidosaphes gloveri(7.2) Escama Glover Registrada en condiciones naturales durante la estación caliente 10.1.12 Parlatoria pergandei 10.8 Trips Escama paja Registrada en condiciones naturales durante la estación caliente 10.1.12 Parlatoria pergandei 10.8 TripsEscama paja  10.1.13 10.8.1 Parlatoria ziziphi Scirtothrips citri Escama negra Trips de los cítricos 10.1.13 10.8.1Parlatoria ziziphi Scirtothrips citriEscama negra Trips de los cítricos 9.3 Reacción a la sequía 10.1.14 Selenaspidus articulatus 10.8.2 Scirtothrips aurantiii (7.4) Escama articulada Trips surafricano de los cítricos 9.3Reacción a la sequía 10.1.14 Selenaspidus articulatus 10.8.2 Scirtothrips aurantiii(7.4) Escama articulada Trips surafricano de los cítricos Registrada en condiciones naturales durante el período diurno durante cuatro semanas 10.1.15 Unaspis citri Escama nevosa 10.8.3 Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Trips del invernadero Registrada en condiciones naturales durante el período diurno durante cuatro semanas 10.1.15 Unaspis citri Escama nevosa 10.8.3 Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis Trips del invernadero por lo menos 10.1.16 Unaspis yanonensis Escama aflechada, Escama japonesa por lo menos 10.1.16Unaspis yanonensisEscama aflechada, Escama japonesa 10.1.17 10.9 Psílidos 3 Débil Icerya purchasi Escama algodonosa 10.1.17 10.9 Psílidos3 Débil Icerya purchasiEscama algodonosa 9.4  5 Media Reacción a la alta humedad del suelo 10.9.1 Diaphorina citri (7.5) Psílido de los cítricos 9.45 Media Reacción a la alta humedad del suelo 10.9.1 Diaphorina citri(7.5) Psílido de los cítricos 7 Fuerte 10.2 Cochinillas 10.9.2 Trioza erytrea Psílido de los cítricos 7 Fuerte 10.2 Cochinillas 10.9.2 Trioza erytreaPsílido de los cítricos 9.5 Reacción a la alcalinidad del suelo 10.2.1 Planococcus citri (7.3) Cochinilla harinosa de los cítricos 9.5Reacción a la alcalinidad del suelo 10.2.1 Planococcus citri(7.3) Cochinilla harinosa de los cítricos 7.4.14 10.2.2 10.10 Acaros Naturaleza (perceptibilidad) de las glándulas oleaginosas Pseudococcus longispinus Cochinilla de cola larga (4.5.8) 7.4.14 10.2.2 10.10 AcarosNaturaleza (perceptibilidad) de las glándulas oleaginosas Pseudococcus longispinus Cochinilla de cola larga (4.5.8) 9.6  1 Imperceptibles o muy débilmente perceptibles Reacción a la salinidad 10.10.1 Phyllocoptrupta oleivora Acaro tostador 9.61 Imperceptibles o muy débilmente perceptibles Reacción a la salinidad 10.10.1 Phyllocoptrupta oleivoraAcaro tostador   10.10.2 2 Perceptibles Panonychus citri Arañita roja de los cítricos 10.10.22 Perceptibles Panonychus citriArañita roja de los cítricos 9.7  3 Muy perceptibles Reacción a heladas 10.10.3 Aceria sheldoni Acaro de las yemas 9.73 Muy perceptibles Reacción a heladas 10.10.3 Aceria sheldoniAcaro de las yemas   10.10.4 Brevipalpus lewisi Acaro aplanado 10.10.4Brevipalpus lewisiAcaro aplanado 9.8  Reacción a vientos constantes 10.10.5 Brevipalpus californicus Acaro de California 9.8Reacción a vientos constantes 10.10.5 Brevipalpus californicusAcaro de California   10.10.6 Eutetranychus orientalis Acaro café 10.10.6Eutetranychus orientalisAcaro café   10.10.7 Polyphagotarsonemus latus Acaro tropical 10.10.7Polyphagotarsonemus latusAcaro tropical  "},{"text":"Código del instituto donante El sistema de codificación propuesto se puede utilizar a dos niveles distintos de detalle: Mediante códigos globales, como 1, 2, 3, 4, o bien con una codificación más detallada, como 1.1, 1.2, 1.3, etc.    14. Estado de la muestra     (SAMPSTAT) 14. Estado de la muestra(SAMPSTAT) 0 Desconocido   4 Línea de fitomejorador 0Desconocido4Línea de fitomejorador 1 Silvestre   5 Cultivar mejorado 1Silvestre5Cultivar mejorado 2 Mala hierba   99 Otro (especificar en el campo REMARKS) 2Mala hierba99 Otro (especificar en el campo REMARKS) 3 Cultivar tradicional/variedad local    3Cultivar tradicional/variedad local 15. Fuente de recolección     (COLLSRC) 15. Fuente de recolección(COLLSRC) 1 Hábitat silvestre 2 Finca 3 Mercado 4 Instituto/ 1 Hábitat silvestre2Finca3Mercado4Instituto/ 1.1 Bosque/arboleda 2.1 Campo 3.1 Ciudad  organización 1.1 Bosque/arboleda2.1 Campo3.1 Ciudadorganización 1.2 Matorral 2.2 Huerto 3.2 Aldea  de investigación 1.2 Matorral2.2 Huerto3.2 Aldeade investigación 1.3 Pastizal 2.3 Jardín 3.3 Zona urbana 0 Desconocida 1.3 Pastizal2.3 Jardín3.3 Zona urbana0Desconocida 1.4 Desierto/tundra 2.4 Barbecho 3.4 Otro sistema de 99 Otro (Especificar 1.4 Desierto/tundra2.4 Barbecho 3.4 Otro sistema de 99Otro (Especificar   2.5 Pasto  intercambio  en el campo 2.5 Pastointercambioen el campo   2.6 Almacén    REMARKS) 2.6 AlmacénREMARKS) 16.       16.  "}],"sieverID":"18e0ebd2-654f-45de-9239-989f2fcf8203","abstract":"El Instituto Internacional de Recursos Fitogenéticos (IPGRI) es una organización científica autónoma de carácter internacional que funciona bajo los auspicios del Grupo Consultivo sobre Investigación Agrícola Internacional (GCIAI). La misión del IPGRI es realizar avances en la conservación y utilización de los recursos fitogenéticos para beneficiar a las generaciones presentes y futuras. La sede central del IPGRI se encuentra en Roma, Italia, y cuenta con 15 oficinas en el mundo. El IPGRI funciona mediante tres programas: 1) el Programa de Recursos Fitogenéticos, 2) el Programa de Apoyo de Recursos Genéticos del GCIAI, y 3) la Red Internacional para el Mejoramiento del Banano y el Plátano (INIBAP). La condición de internacional se confirió al IPGRI mediante un acuerdo de establecimiento el cual, para Enero de 1998, había sido firmado y ratificado por los Gobiernos de: Argelia,"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"096a0419d60bc32f91c877f6bd9a62be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/27cf18a9-5d49-4e5e-aeb1-d87c27ef102f/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Risks Posed by Intercrops and Weeds as Alternative Hosts to Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum in Banana Fields","keywords":["alternative host","banana","Canna spp.","maize","millet","sorghum","Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum","Xanthomonas wilt"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":301,"text":"Alternative host plants are important in the survival and perpetuation of several crop pathogens and have been suspected to play a role in the survival of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) and perpetuation of Xanthomonas wilt (XW) disease of banana and enset. This study determined the potential risk posed by two weeds (Canna spp. and wild sorghum) and common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, taro, and sugarcane) as alternative hosts to Xcm. The study employed screenhouse experiments, laboratory procedures and diagnosis of banana fields in XW-affected landscapes. Typical XW symptoms were only observed in artificially inoculated Canna sp., with an incidence of 96%. Leaf lesions characteristic of xanthomonads occurred on millet (50%) and sorghum (35%), though the plants recovered. No symptoms occurred in maize, sugarcane, taro or wild sorghum. However, Xcm was recovered from all these plant species, with higher recoveries in Canna sp. (47%), millet (27%), sugarcane (27%), and wild sorghum (25%). Only isolates recovered from Canna sp., millet, sorghum and wild sorghum caused disease in banana plantlets. The presence and incidence of XW on-farm was positively associated with the presence of susceptible ABB Musa genotypes and negatively with number of banana cultivars on farm and household access to training on XW management. Only 0.02% of field sampled Canna spp. plants had Xcm. Risk posed by Canna spp. on-farm could be limited to tool transmission as it has persistent floral bracts that prevent insect-mediated infections. Given the high susceptibility, perennial nature and propagation through rhizomes of Canna sp., it could pose a moderate-high risk, thus warranting some attention in the management of XW disease. Sugarcane could offer a low-moderate risk due to its perennial nature and propagation through rhizomes while risk from maize, millet, and sorghum was deemed zero-low due to their annual nature, wind-mediated mode of pollination and propagation"}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":342,"text":"Xanthomonas wilt (XW) disease of banana (Musa spp.) and enset (Ensete ventricosum) caused by the bacteria Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) has severely affected the production of banana and plantain in the east and central African (ECA) region. Host range studies have shown all the edible Musa spp. and enset cultivars in this region to be susceptible, though the level of susceptibility has been observed to vary with genotypes (Michael et al., 2006;Ssekiwoko et al., 2006b;Kebede and Gemmeda, 2017). Only Musa balbisiana, a wild Musa sp., has been reported to be resistant (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006b). The potential inoculum sources of Xcm have been reported to include infected plants, infected planting materials, infected plant residues, traded banana products (fruits and leaves) and contaminated soils and water (Eden-Green, 2004;Karamura et al., 2008;Nakato et al., 2014). Efforts to manage XW disease in ECA have mainly focused on the banana crop, yet banana grows in association with other crop and weed species. Weed fallows and some food and/or fodder crops such as common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris), cassava (Manhot esculent), maize (Zea mays), taro (Colocasse spp.), sweet potato (Ipomea batatas), sorghum (Sorghum bicolor), tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum), and Napier grass (Pennisetum purpureum) have also been recommended for breaking the cycle of XW (Mwangi et al., 2006). Some of the weeds and crops in association with banana could potentially influence the XW dynamics either through inhibiting spread and survival of the pathogen or supporting pathogen survival and perpetuation of the disease. Understanding the nature of interactions of plants in the survival of pathogens and disease dynamics are thus important. Field level crop diversification of agroecosystems has been reported as a promising strategy for suppressing pests and diseases (Letourneau et al., 2011;Boudreau, 2013;Poeydebat et al., 2017). Intercrops affect disease dynamics by altering wind, rain, and vector dispersal; modifying the microclimate (mainly temperature and moisture); altering host morphology and physiology; and directly inhibiting the pathogen (Boudreau, 2013). In contrast, other plants in an agroecosystem could exacerbate and perpetuate the diseases of certain crops, especially when acting as alternative host plants."},{"index":2,"size":198,"text":"Alternative hosts have been reported to play a crucial role in the perpetuation of several diseases in different crop species. For example, the Indian tomato leaf curl virus was identified in 13 common weed species through symptoms and TAS-ELISA and was effectively transmitted by Bemisia tabaci from these weeds to tomato (Ramappa et al., 1998). Similarly, Ocimati et al. (2017) reported sorghum to be affected by Pythium spp. causing root rots in beans, thus exacerbating the bean root rot problem in southwestern Uganda. In banana, R. syzygii subsp. celebesensis strains that cause banana blood disease, a wilt of banana, is associated with some Heliconia species (Elphinstone, 2005;Blomme et al., 2017a). Ralstonia solanacearum that causes Moko/Bugtok wilt in banana has a wide host range (Belalcazar et al., 2004) and was also isolated from Heliconia species in the Coto valley virgin forests of southwest Costa Rica, leading to the suggestion that Moko could have originally been endemic in these rainforests (Sequeira and Averre, 1961). R. solanacearum strains causing Moko/Bugtok disease are associated with Solanaceous hosts thus compromising the efficiency of fallow periods in disease management. Therefore, the removal of weeds that are alternative hosts is recommended (Romo et al., 2012)."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"Pathogenic Xanthomonas species have also been reported in some crops such as maize (De Cleene, 2008), sugarcane (Saccharum spp.) (Destefano et al., 2003), sorghum (Reddy, 2012), common beans (Mkandawire et al., 2004;Todorović et al., 2008) and sweet potato (Hernandez and Trujillo, 1990), all of which are commonly grown in the banana-based systems of ECA. Xcm has also been shown to be phylogenetically similar to Xanthomonas vasicola pv. vasculorum (Xvv) that is pathogenic to sorghum, maize and sugarcane (Aritua et al., 2008;Lang et al., 2017)."},{"index":4,"size":283,"text":"A number of studies have been conducted to understand how other plant species (weeds and cultivated crops) in the environment of banana and enset interact with Xcm (e.g., Yirgou and Bradbury, 1974;Ashagari, 1985;Ssekiwoko et al., 2006a;Aritua et al., 2008;Karamura et al., 2015;Chala et al., 2016). Whereas studies consistently report Canna spp., a common weed, to develop XW characteristic symptoms similar to those in banana after inoculation with Xcm (Ssekiwoko et al., 2006a;Chala et al., 2016), they give a mixed and less clear picture regarding the interaction of Xcm with the cereals, especially with maize. Yirgou and Bradbury (1974), Ashagari (1985), and Ssekiwoko et al. (2006a) observed no symptoms in cereals after inoculation with Xcm isolates from enset and banana. In contrast, Aritua et al. (2008) reported a hypersensitive response (pathogenic reaction) at the inoculation points of maize while Karamura et al. (2015) reported characteristic XW symptoms in sugarcane but not in maize. These two studies were able to isolate Xcm from the maize plants 5 weeks after the inoculations. Rutikanga et al. (2016) reported the isolation of Xcm from maize, beans and sweet potato plant parts and soils around these crops, and mixed weed fallow. The most common weed species in the Rutikanga et al. (2016) weed fallow sites included Bidens pilosa L., Tithonia diversifolia (Hemsl.) A Gray, Bothriocline ugandensis (S. Moore) M.G. Gilbert, Leonotis nepetifolia (L.) R Br, Coleus/Plectranthus kilimandschari Gurke ex Engl, Ricinus communis (L.), Crassocephalum vitellium Benth, Canna indica (L.), Galinsoga ciliate (Raf.) Blake, Commelina diffusa Burm. F., and Crassocephalum montuosum (S. Moore) Milne-Redh. Though the Rutikanga et al. (2016) isolates were confirmed to be Xcm with PCR, they did not cause disease when inoculated into tissue cultured banana plantlets."},{"index":5,"size":155,"text":"A more recent study by Chala et al. (2016) using three Xcm isolates obtained from cultivated enset, wild enset and banana reported typical disease symptoms 2-3 weeks after the inoculations with incidences of 40-67% in maize, 25-50% in sorghum, 13% in wild sorghum and 1-17% in millet (Eleusine coracana). However, some of the above studies did not report re-isolation of Xcm from these alternative host plants while Koch's postulates were not reported in all the studies. Yet some plant species can act as symptomless carriers or non-hosts of pathogens (Katan, 1971;Schaad and Dianese, 1981;Gitaitis et al., 1998;Fassihiani, 2000). For example, naturally occurring weeds including Amaranthus sp., Chenopodium album, and aubergines were colonized to various degrees and determined as symptomless carriers of Fusarium oxysporum f. sp. Lycopersici that is pathogenic to tomato (Fassihiani, 2000). In addition to clarifying the above observations, the risk posed by these crop species under on-farm situations also needs to be examined."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"The current study built on to the above studies by (i) determining the potential risk of selected weeds (Canna spp. and wild sorghum) and common banana intercrops [maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro (Colocasia esculenta)] to harbor and/or succumb to Xcm in controlled experiments; (ii) the potential of Xcm isolates from these putative alternative hosts to re-infect banana plants; and (iii) the potential importance of the putative alternative hosts in the perpetuation of XW in banana in farmers' fields. Synthesis of these findings will be helpful in informing the management of XW disease on farms in the ECA region."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"This study was conducted through laboratory, screenhouse and field studies. Screenhouse and laboratory studies were conducted at the National Agricultural Research Laboratories (NARL) located at Kawanda in central Uganda in 2015/2016. The screen house and laboratory studies were complemented through farm diagnostic studies in central Uganda, a hot spot for XW disease."}]},{"head":"Screenhouse Studies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"A total of eight plant species that included five common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro) and two weeds [Canna sp. and wild sorghum (Sorghum versicolor)] previously reported or suspected to harbor or succumb to Xcm infection under controlled screenhouse conditions were used in this experiment. Two months old east African highland (EAHB) banana cv. 'Musakala' (AAA genome) plantlets were used as the positive control. The choice of the banana cultivar to use was based on availability of tissue culture plantlets, as all banana cultivars in the region are susceptible to XW disease following infection by the Xcm pathogen. For each species, 60 plants were raised from either seed (maize, millet, and sorghum); rhizome/corm bits (taro), cuttings (sugarcane), rhizome (Canna spp.), small plantlets (wild sorghum), or tissue culture plantlets (banana). To rule out any latent Xcm-infection in vegetatively propagated plants, cross sections from the stems and or leaves were sampled, total DNA extracted as described by Mahuku (2004) and checked with PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012). The plants were then grown in small pots (3 L in size) filled 3/4 full with pre-sterilized forest top soil mixed with sand in a ratio of 2:1 over a period of 1-2 months (depending on the crop species) before treatment application. Sand was added to improve drainage and aeration while the plants were regularly watered to provide adequate moisture for growth."}]},{"head":"Inoculum Preparation","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":178,"text":"Xcm for the screenhouse study was isolated from a fresh sample of a banana pseudostem obtained from a plant that had only recently developed XW symptoms (not older than 2 days) in an infested field at NARL, Kawanda. One gram of the sample was aseptically cut off from the middle and inner portion of the pseudostem tissue and macerated with a mortar and pestle in 3 mL of sterile distilled water, serially diluted fourfold and 10 µL of each dilution plated on Yeast Peptone Glucose Agar (YPGA, Mwangi et al., 2007) media in Petri plates. Plates were sealed and incubated at 28 • C for a period of 72 h. Single colonies with Xcm-characteristics (yellow, mucoid, and dome shaped) were carefully picked, streaked on fresh media and incubated as above. Resultant colonies were confirmed using Xcm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012) using PCR, and a suspension of the bacteria adjusted to 0.5 OD 600 (∼1 × 10 8 colony forming units) using a NanoDrop spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, United States) for the inoculation of plants."}]},{"head":"Inoculation of Plants","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":192,"text":"Thirty maize, sorghum, millet, bean, Canna spp., and wild sorghum plants were inoculated after 1 month from emergence or potting while sugarcane, taro and banana were inoculated at 2 months after establishment An equal number of plants served as un-inoculated controls. Inoculations were done by injecting 100 µL of fresh Xcm inoculum using a sub-dermal syringe into the stem tissues at 15-20 cm height. Twelve inoculated plants per species were routinely observed for symptoms typical of XW whereas the remaining 18 plants were routinely sampled for laboratory analysis. An equal number of un-inoculated plants were, respectively, kept for observation and sampling. The screenhouse plants were observed for a 60 days period corresponding to the life span of the annual crops and covering adequately the time period in which XW symptoms in banana plantlets are manifested. Data collected included symptom characteristics, time from inoculation to symptom expression (i.e., incubation period) and symptom incidence. Mean incubation was computed as sum of XW incubation period for the individual symptomatic plants divided by the total number of symptomatic plants, while incidence was determined as the percentage of plants that showed XW symptoms over the study period."}]},{"head":"Replications","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"The experiment was repeated thrice over the period of the study. Isolates for inoculation of plants in the three screenhouse experiments were obtained from the same field and thus assumed to be homogenous. The Xcm isolates for the first screenhouse experiment could not be used in subsequent experiments due to a possible change in their virulence associated with repeated culturing and long storage in the laboratory (Tripathi Leena, 2017, personal communication)."}]},{"head":"Sampling of Plants","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"Three inoculated plants per species in the screenhouse were sampled at an interval of 7 days starting at 14 days and ending at 49 days post inoculation for Xcm isolation in the laboratory. Samples were destructively collected in an aseptic manner by sterilizing knives and gloves with a solution of 15% (v/v) sodium hypochloride (NaOCl) between samples to prevent cross contamination. Further precaution was taken to sample the un-inoculated controls first, followed by the potential alternative host species and lastly the already known/susceptible Xcm host (i.e., banana). For each plant species, samples were obtained from the stems/leaves and below ground parts. Samples were stored separately in labeled plastic bags and transferred to the laboratory where they were processed immediately or stored at 4 • C for later isolation."}]},{"head":"Laboratory Studies","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Isolation of Xcm","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":148,"text":"Samples from the field were separately washed in running water, surface sterilized using 15% v/v NaOCl to eliminate any epiphytes and external Xcm contamination, rinsed with distilled water to remove excess NaOCl and blotted dry using paper towels. Approximately 3 g of each plant part/sample were cut and homogenized with a sterile mortar and pestle in 3 mL of sterile distilled water. 1 mL of this homogenate was serially diluted to 10 −3 , from which a 20 µL aliquot was spread plated on triplicate Petri plates of YPGA-containing antibiotics 5-fluorouracil and cephalexin (Mwangi et al., 2007). Plates were sealed, incubated at 28 • C for 3 days and scored for presence or absence of colonies with Xcm characteristics. All Xcm-like colonies were streaked on fresh YPGA media and incubated as above to obtain pure cultures and confirmed through PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Adriko et al., 2012)."}]},{"head":"Genomic DNA Extraction From Xcm and Polymerase Chain Reaction (PCR)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":274,"text":"Genomic DNA was extracted from Xcm-like colonies as described by Mahuku (2004). The integrity (concentration and purity) of DNA samples was determined using the NanoDrop 2000C spectrophotometer (Thermo Fisher Scientific Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, United States) and adjusted to 50 ng/µL, for PCR. The gDNA extracted from Xcm-like colonies was used as template in a PCR reaction using 265 bp GspDm-specific Xcm primers (Adriko et al., 2012). Amplification reactions were carried out in a 20 µL reaction volume with a final concentration of 0.3 µM of each of the forward and reverse primers, 1.5 mM MgCl 2 , 0.2 µM of each dNTPs (Promega, Madison WI, United States), 1× PCR green buffer, 1 unit of HotStarTaq Plus DNA Polymerase (Qiagen, Canada) and 2 µL of genomic DNA (50 ng/µL). The PCR amplification reactions were performed in the Eppendorf Mastercycler (Eppendorf AG, Hamburg, Germany) using the following program: an initial denaturation at 95 • C for 3 min; 35 cycles consisting of 92 • C for 20 s, annealing at 64 • C for 15 s, extension at 72 • C for 15 s; and a single final extension at 72 • C for 3 min before cooling and holding at 4 • C. Amplified PCR products were separated by electrophoresis in 1.5% w/v agarose gel in 1× TAE buffer at 150 V for 45 min. The gel was stained with ethidium bromide (0.5 µg mL −1 ) and the image captured using the GBOX Syngene gel documentation system (SYNGENE, UK). Samples with a 265-bp amplicon were selected and preserved on 2 mm glass beads in 80% v/v glycerol at −80 • C for further studies."}]},{"head":"Koch Postulate Trials","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"Koch's postulate trials were conducted to determine if the Xcm-like bacterial isolates recovered from the potential alternative host plants inoculated with Xcm could cause disease in the original host (banana plantlets). Koch's postulates are a stringent criterion that provides a framework for thinking about the proof of microbial disease causation and are widely used in plant pathology (Liu et al., 2016). The key elements include a specific association of the microbe with the disease state, scientific consistence of microbiological and pathological evidence, isolation of the microbe on culture media, and reproduction of disease following inoculation of the cultured organism into a host. To fulfill Koch's postulate, Xcm-characteristic colonies re-isolated from the alternative host plants in the study that were confirmed positive for Xcm with PCR were sub-cultured and inoculated into 2 months old EAHB banana (cv. 'Musakala') plantlets using the procedures described above. Five banana plantlets of the same age, each having a total of four leaves were inoculated per Xcm inoculum source/isolate. Five banana plantlets inoculated with Xcm isolated from banana plantlets served as controls. All inoculated banana plantlets were regularly monitored for disease symptoms, time to symptom expression and symptom incidence as in the section above. XW severity at a scale of 0-1, 0 being no disease symptom and 1 being the highest severity score, was also assessed for some of the Xcm isolates used for the Koch postulate trials. The severity S for a given isolate was assessed as below."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"Where: S = severity score for a given Xcm isolate inoculated into a total of \"Np\" plants; sP = XW severity score for a single plant, with the number of plants inoculated with a single isolate varying from \"1\" to \"n\" plants; Np = total number of plants inoculated with a given Xcm isolate; Li = number of symptomatic leaves at the time of data recording; and LN = the total number of leaves per plant at inoculation."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Assessment of the Field Risk/Relative Importance of the Potential Alternative Host Plants of Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum on Farm"},{"index":4,"size":412,"text":"The potential risk and relative importance of crops or weeds that either showed XW symptoms in the controlled experiments or from which active Xcm could be isolated were assessed on-farm through diagnosis of 63 randomly selected banana farms in XW endemic districts (Mukono, Wakiso, Kayunga, and Luwero) in central Uganda and expert knowledge. On farms, data was collected on: XW presence and incidence; presence of Canna spp. and wild sorghum in banana fields; and presence of common banana intercrops (maize, millet, sorghum, sugarcane, and taro) in banana fields and or farm. XW incidence on each farm was scored on mat (i.e., an underground banana rhizome from which one or more shoots emerge) basis at a scale of 0 to 100%. Data was also collected on other potential factors that could influence XW presence and incidence, and these included: presence of banana cultivars with ABB genome, the diversity of banana cultivars and presence of agroforestry trees. Banana cultivars with ABB genome are highily susceptible to insect-mediated XW infections (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2009;Blomme et al., 2017a) whereas, a high diversity of banana cultivars and presence of agroforestry trees were anticipated to cause a dilution effect and reduce insect vector access to the susceptible ABB banana types. XW management practices also play a crucial role in influencing disease presence and incidence on farm. Thus information on management of banana fields (e.g., weeding, removal of male buds, and removal of excess suckers), the history of XW, household access to training on XW management, and key XW cultural control practices applied on farm were also collected using farmer interview schedules. The on-farm studies sought to determine if a cause-effect relationship existed between the presence of the potential alternative host plant(s) of interest as an independent variable and (i) the presence/absence of XW and (ii) the incidence of XW on banana farms as response variables. Other possible explanatory variables to the above two response variables assessed on-farm included the time of exposure to XW, key XW management practices [male bud removal, single diseased stem removal (SDSR), and complete banana mat removal (CMU)], number of banana cultivars on farm/field, presence/absence of ABB banana types, presence of agroforestry trees, banana intercropping, access to information on XW and farmer/household access to training on XW management. During field diagnosis, Canna spp. plants were aseptically sampled for laboratory isolation and identification of Xcm as described in sections above. Priority was given to sample Canna spp. plants that exhibited suspicious Xanthomonas characteristic wilting symptoms."},{"index":5,"size":171,"text":"Expert knowledge from five scientists with at least 7 years experience on XW epidemiology and management was used to develop XW risk scores varying between 0 (no risk) to 5 (high risk) for the different potential alternative host crops. In addition to the results of the experiments in this study, key plant species characteristics used for assessing the risk from the alternative host plants included their mode of pollination, persistence or non-persistence of floral bracts and male neuter flowers, potential for tool mediated Xcm spread, mode of reproduction and life span (annual vs. perennial). XW is also spread by insects that visit for pollen and nectar, thus plant species pollinated by insects were deemed a risk to XW spread while banana plants with persistent neuter flower and floral bracts have been found to escape the disease. Plants that reproduce through rhizomes can potentially pass the bacteria or disease to subsequent generations while susceptible perennial plant species are likely to offer a higher risk to the banana crop than the annual crops."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Data were compiled in MS Excel. The GenStat v. 12 statistical software (VSN International Ltd., 2009) was then used to obtain the analysis of variance ANOVA and to separate means [at 5% Least Significant Difference (LSD)] of the laboratory and screenhouse data. The R-Statistical package (R Core Team, 2013) was used to separately conduct a regression analysis between the response variables and the explanatory variables. A general logistic regression model was used to explore the relationship between the presence/absence of XW onfarm with the above explanatory variables, except the XW management practices and exposure time. XW management practices (SDSR and CMU) were not used as explanatory variables because they can either be introduced on-farm in response to XW presence or influence XW presence. A linear model was used to explore the relationship between XW incidences with the explanatory variables. The explanatory variables for each response variable were reduced to a few that significantly influenced the observed response through a backward stepwise regression process, each step dropping explanatory variables that contributed least to the observed response."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Screenhouse and Laboratory Studies","index":15,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Occurrence of Xanthomonas Wilt Symptoms","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Characteristic symptoms similar to those of XW disease in banana (Figure 1B), i.e., progressive yellowing and wilting of leaves were only visible in Canna sp. plants (Figures 2B,C). In most of the cases, leaf necrosis and yellowing in Canna sp. started either in the middle part or edge of a leaf, subsequently progressing to the whole leaf and plant. Severely affected Canna sp. plants also had their leaf margins turning black, progressing rapidly to the entire leaf and plant (Figure 2D). The affected Canna sp. plants collapsed and rotted. Cut symptomatic Canna sp. pseudostems released a yellow bacterial ooze (Figure 2E)  similar to cut XW infected banana stems (Figure 1C). Infections were also observed in some of the attached suckers following the inoculation of the parent Canna sp. plants (see Figure 2D) whereas other suckers from inoculated Canna sp. mats did not show symptoms. None of these symptoms occurred in the uninoculated banana (Figure 1A) and Canna sp. (Figure 2A) control plants."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Leaf necrosis (whitish to light green lesions) along the parallel veins were observed on leaves of inoculated sorghum (Figures 3B,C) and millet (Figures 3E,F) plants, 7 days after inoculation. No symptoms occurred in the control plants (Figures 3A,D). However, these symptoms were observed to disappear over time and new emerging millet and sorghum leaves presented no leaf symptoms, suggesting that the plants recovered from the Xcm infection. No Xanthomonas-characteristic symptoms were observed in the controls or inoculated plants of maize, sugarcane, wild sorghum, beans or taro."}]},{"head":"XW Incubation Period, Incidence, and Occurrence of Xcm in Plant Tissues","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"The mean incubation period (number of days from time of inoculation to first symptom observation) was greatest for Canna sp. and did not differ significantly between banana, millet and sorghum (Figure 4). The XW symptom incidence in Canna sp. was 96%, while banana had 100% of potted plants showing symptoms. Millet had symptom incidence of 50% and sorghum 35%."},{"index":2,"size":207,"text":"Xcm-like colonies (Figure 5) were re-isolated from both symptomatic and symptomless Canna sp., sorghum and millet plants and confirmed to be positive with a PCR using Xcm GspDm-specific primers (Figure 6; Adriko et al., 2012). Despite the absence of symptoms Xcm was also recovered from wild sorghum, sugarcane, maize and taro and similarly confirmed with the GspDm-specific primers (Figures 5, 6). Adriko et al. (2012) reported the GspDm-specific primers to be specific to Xcm based on a 265 bp amplicon. To our knowledge there are no other published primers other than GspDm reported to be specific for molecular diagnosis of Xcm. However, when we performed an in silico analysis with Primer-BLAST 1 , GspDm primers generated a specific amplicon of 265 bp with Xvv and non-specific amplicons (>3000 bp) with other Xanthomands (non-pathogens of banana). This suggests that the GspDm primers may also amplify Xvv that causes bacterial leaf streak in maize, sugarcane and sorghum. The fact that a 265 bp amplicon was not observed in the genomic DNA of tissues from maize, sugarcane and other plant species used in this study prior to inoculation gives us confidence that the plants used for the screenhouse experiments were Xvv free and amplicons obtained with Gspdm primers were Xcm."},{"index":3,"size":101,"text":"The frequency of Xcm presence in the plant parts significantly (P < 0.001) varied between the crop species (Figure 4B). Xcm was recovered in 83% of the banana plant samples compared with 47% in Canna sp. plants. Xcm incidence in plant parts of the other crops was significantly lower than that in Canna sp. and varied between 6.5% in sorghum to 27% in millet (Figure 4B). For the period of Xcm isolation (13-39 days after inoculation), no consistent relationship was observed between the proportion of plants from which Xcm was recovered and the age of plants or time of Xcm re-isolation."}]},{"head":"Koch's Postulates Using Pathogens Re-isolated From Non-host Plants","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Koch's postulates were performed using the isolates recovered from the different artificially inoculated crop species. Isolates recovered from banana, Canna sp., millet, wild sorghum and sugarcane caused XW symptoms in banana plantlets with incidences of 100% for those from banana, 60% for those from Canna sp., 80% for those from millet, 40-100% for those from wild sorghum and 40% for those from sugarcane. Isolates from maize and taro did not cause disease in banana while isolates from sorghum were not introduced into the banana plants. Finger-prints were obtained for some of the isolates from banana, sugarcane, Canna sp. and taro."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Similar finger-print patterns were observed for the banana and Canna sp. isolates that caused disease in banana plantlets, while a different pattern was observed for the taro and sugarcane isolates that did not cause disease in banana plantlets (Figure 7)."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"Four of the Xcm isolates recovered from the potential alternative hosts were compared for their virulence on banana plantlets (Figures 8A,B). One isolate from wild sorghum was highly virulent causing up to 100% incidence with a correspondingly high severity score of 1 (1 being the highest score and 0 being no disease). A second isolate from wild sorghum and the isolate from sugarcane were the least virulent while the isolate from millet was moderately virulent."}]},{"head":"Xanthomonas Wilt Field Risk Drivers","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":269,"text":"Xanthomonas wilt was present in 92% of the surveyed farms with a mean mat disease incidence and time of exposure to XW of 21% and 4.7 years, respectively. The number of Musa cultivars on farm varied between 1 and 11, while the ABB types were present on 95% of the banana farms (Table 1). Agroforestry trees and intercropping were practiced on all the surveyed farms. Between 32 and 84% of the farmers practiced different XW control measures while between 5 and 76% of the farmers reported to have accessed information and or training from different sources. Farmers were the main source of information (75%) on XW disease (Table 1). Canna spp. was observed on 59.5% of the farms surveyed in central Uganda (Table 1). The abundance of Canna spp. on farms could not always be easily ascertained as most farmers had cleaned their fields using mainly hand hoes and/or herbicides in a few cases. In some farms (see example of Figure 9B),  ;2,3,and 8,banana;4,5,10,and 11,sugarcane;6 and 7,taro;9,maize;12,positive control;and 13,negative control. On gel B,1,2,[7][8][9]and 13,wild sorghum;3,4,5,and 16,maize;6,10,12,[17][18][19][20][21]Canna sp.;11 and 14,sorghum;15,sugarcane;22,taro;23,negative control;24,positive control. Gel C,1 and 2,sugarcane;3,[5][6][7]18,and 21,wild sorghum;4,16,and 20,taro;[8][9][10]12,13,15,17,and 19,banana;11,Canna sp.;14,sorghum;22,negative control;and 23, positive control. On gel D, 1-18, millet. \"M\" on all the gels denotes the DNA ladder. The experiments were conducted at the Kawanda laboratory in central Uganda. Canna spp. are very abundant. Out of 46 Canna spp. samples analyzed in the laboratory, only one plant (∼0.02%) had colonies characteristic of Xcm that were also confirmed positive using Xcm specific primers. The other samples either had no Xcm-like colonies or were negative on PCR with the specific primers."},{"index":2,"size":235,"text":"A logistic regression model of XW presence/absence on farm only selected farmers access to training and the presence of ABB banana cultivar types as explanatory factors that significantly influenced disease presence/absence on farm. Access to training had a negative and significant (P = 0.009) influence on XW presence on farm, suggesting that the 8% of the farms without XW were also those that had received training on XW management. In contrast, 92% of the farms with XW had a high likelihood of having the susceptible ABB banana cultivar types (P = 0.029) (Table 2). A linear regression model for XW plant incidence on-farm selected the number of banana cultivars, as the key factor influencing XW incidence on a farm (Table 2). The number of cultivars on farm and the application of SDSR, one of the recommended control practices led to a decline in XW incidence, while incidence was increased on farm by the presence of the susceptible ABB banana types. However, only the number of cultivars had a significant effect at P = 0.05. The logistic regression and the linear regression models, respectively, explained 29.3% (null deviance: 2.7569 on 36 degrees of freedom (d.f.) and residual deviance: 1.9503 on 34 d.f.) and 18.1% (model p-value of 0.083) of the variation in XW presence/absence and incidence on farm, suggesting likely landscape effects not explored in this study played an important role in XW incidence on farm. "}]},{"head":"Synthesis of the Risk Posed by Potential Alternative Host Plants","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":93,"text":"Table 3 summarizes the different risk criteria and how they ranked across the crops in this study based on laboratory, screenhouse and field observations; and expert knowledge. In the screenhouse pot trials only Canna sp. was found to be highly susceptible whereas other crops were resistant (Table 3). The risk to/from Canna sp. and sugarcane could be increased by their perennial nature and propagation through the rhizome. Overall, the risk from Canna spp. could be ranked as moderate-high while low-moderate for sugarcane and none-very low for the other crop species in this study."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Alternative host plants play an important role in the spread and perpetuation of several plant pests and diseases. Several crop and weed species have been suspected to potentially play a role in the spread or survival of the XW disease-causing pathogen, Xcm."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"In the current study, Xcm caused symptoms similar to those in banana in 96% of Canna sp. plants. This confirms the findings of Ssekiwoko et al. (2006a) and Chala et al. (2016), who observed  Commercially oriented farms (%) 13.5"},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"In parenthesis are minimum and maximum values of the variables. A total of 63 farms were surveyed."},{"index":4,"size":203,"text":"symptoms in Canna spp. after inoculation with Xcm. The longer incubation period in Canna sp. plants could be attributed to the fact that fully grown Canna sp. plants were used in contrast to the other plants species. In the current study, Xcm was successfully re-isolated from 47% of the Canna sp. plants in the screenhouse study and confirmed with Xcm specific primers, a component not present in previous studies. Given the high symptom incidence in Canna sp. (96%), the observed level of Xcm recovery/re-isolation (47%) in Canna sp. was relatively low, a fact that could be attributed to the growth of saprophytes in the severely affected and decomposing plants which were assessed at later stages of sampling. Isolation of Xcm from banana plants with advanced disease symptoms has also been reported to be low due to the onset of decomposition and competition from saprophytes (Mwebaze et al., 2006;Were et al., 2015). Koch's postulates showed, however, that the isolates from Canna sp. could induce disease in banana plantlets. These lab and screenhouse findings coupled with the high prevalence of this weed on banana farms in east and central Africa suggests that Canna spp. could pose a risk to the management of the XW disease."},{"index":5,"size":255,"text":"Yet, in the field assessment only 0.02% of the field-grown Canna plants had Xcm. Moreover, presence/absence and incidence of XW on the studied farms was not influenced by the presence of Canna spp. on farm. A close examination of the Canna spp. plants in the field revealed that they have persistent floral bracts. In banana, cultivars with semi or persistent male/neuter flowers have been reported to escape insect-mediated infections (Tripathi and Tripathi, 2009; Blomme   et al., 2014). Thus, the risk of Canna spp. on farm is likely to be limited to tool transmission mostly during weeding. The use of farm tools has been reported to potentially spread the Xcm bacteria from an infected banana plant to disease-free plants within or across fields (Ocimati et al., 2013). The weeding/land preparation periods (including banana leaf and sucker trimming) have been reported to be often followed by higher incidences of XW disease (Mgenzi Byabachwezi, 2016, personal communication). Canna spp. can propagate through the underground rhizome and as such Xcm infections can spread from one plant to other attached plants leading to disease persistence on a farm. In the current study, the attached suckers and sprouts in some of the symptomatic or dead Canna sp. plants, for example, were observed to succumb to the inoculation of the parent plants whereas in other pots the attached lateral shoots did not show disease symptoms even after death of parent plants. Based on the above findings we therefore rate the risk of Canna spp. to perpetuate XW on-farm as moderate to high."},{"index":6,"size":348,"text":"Among the cereals inoculated with Xcm, symptoms were only observed in millet and sorghum plants, though the plants eventually recovered. The recovery suggests that the resistance mechanisms of these species could overcome the pathogen. Pathogen virulence is often directly correlated with pathogen replication, with higher levels of replication resulting in increased damage to the host (Ebert and Bull, 2008). However, virulence and pathogen replication can be decoupled (Margolis and Levin, 2008), especially if the host mounts an appropriate immune response against novel pathogens (Graham et al., 2005). Chala et al. (2016) also reported typical XW symptoms after Xcm inoculations into sorghum and millet. The appearance of symptoms in cereals and the taxonomic similarity of Xcm to X. vasicola, a pathogen of sorghum, maize and sugarcane should be a source of concern as this suggests a potential risk of a jump from one host to another. We, however, rate the risk of Xcm to these crops and from these crops to banana to be low mainly due to (i) the short annual cycle of these crops and the inability of Xcm to survive in absence of the host, (ii) the lack of infection arising from insects, and (iii) their dispersal through seeds and other criteria in Table 3. These cereals, unlike banana that is exposed to XW spread through insects foraging for nectar and pollen (a key mode of XW spread) are wind and/or self-pollinated. No symptoms were observed in maize and sugarcane. The absence of symptoms in maize and sugarcane is in agreement with earlier findings by Yirgou and Bradbury (1974) or Ashagari (1985) but contrasts findings from Karamura et al. (2015) and Chala et al. (2016) who reported typical Xanthomonas symptoms in sugarcane and maize, respectively, following inoculation with Xcm. No symptoms were also observed in wild sorghum contrary to reports by Chala et al. (2016). Taro a common banana intercrop reported to suffer from wilts by farmers in XW landscapes did not succumb to Xcm inoculation, suggesting that it is resistant.  For the different criteria, rank 0 denotes no risk while 5 denotes a high risk."},{"index":7,"size":273,"text":"Differences in results between the above studies could potentially arise from the differences in the varieties used and differences in virulence of Xcm isolates. Karamura et al. (2015) used six different isolates from different sites in the ECA region, while Chala et al. (2016) used three isolates arising from banana, wild enset and domesticated enset. Chala et al. (2016) reports different levels of susceptibility of banana, enset and the potential alternative hosts to these three isolates. This is strengthened by the fact that four isolates recovered from millet, wild sorghum (2 isolates) and sugarcane in this study had different levels of virulence, with a higher virulence observed in one of the isolates from wild sorghum, followed by that in millet and the least in the second wild sorghum isolate (cf. Figure 8). Evaluating a wide range of isolates from different geographical setups would therefore be vital. We rate the risk of wild sorghum and maize to be very low due to their short annual cycle and mode of pollination (i.e., wind pollinated) that prevents insect-mediated infections (Table 3). Sugarcane like other cereals are wind pollinated but are perennial and reproduce through cuttings and the underground rhizomes. Thus, in case Xcm gets adapted to it, it could be of importance in perpetuation of the problem of XW disease in banana. With tool-mediated XW spread and the observed increase in cases of banana-sugarcane intercrops (e.g., Figure 9A), sugarcane could potentially gain importance as an alternative host to Xcm. Based on the screenhouse and laboratory results, the characteristics of the sugarcane plant and its management, would propose a low -moderate risk score from/for sugarcane (Table 3)."},{"index":8,"size":401,"text":"Xcm was isolated from all the plant species after artificial inoculation with an Xcm isolate from banana in this study, irrespective of presence or absence of symptoms. Xcm re-isolation has also been reported for maize (Aritua et al., 2008;Karamura et al., 2015) and sugarcane (Karamura et al., 2015). In this study, isolates from maize and taro did not cause disease in banana plantlets. Rutikanga et al. (2016) also reported the isolation of Xcm from maize, beans and sweet potato plant parts and soils around the stems of these plants. The isolates though confirmed to be Xcm with PCR did not cause disease in banana plantlets (Rutikanga et al., 2016). The multiplication of bacterial pathogens in planta irrespective of the plant being a non-host or a host has been reported (Canteros et al., 1991;Hodson et al., 1995;Vidhyasekaran, 2002). The bacteria in non-hosts have been reported to, however, remain static or to decline after some time (Canteros et al., 1991;Vidhyasekaran, 2002). Novel host-pathogen interactions have not been under direct selection (Antonovics et al., 2013), and hence the degree of pathogen virulence is likely to be maladaptive for both the novel host and the pathogen. Host phylogeny has been considered a key factor in determining the susceptibility of novel hosts (Gilbert and Webb, 2007;de Vienne et al., 2009) because species closely related to the natural host of a pathogen tend to be more susceptible since the pathogen develops specialized adaptations to its natural host such as binding to host receptors, avoiding immune responses or utilizing host resources, and these break down if the environment provided by the novel host is too different (Longdon et al., 2014). We postulate that the failure of Xcm isolates from non-host plants to cause XW symptoms in banana may be due to loss or modification of key genes involved in virulence in the pathogenicity island of the Xcm genome. The loss of such loci could be attributed to the variation in fingerprint patterns compared to the original isolate (control). The ability of Xcm re-isolations from sugarcane and wild sorghum to cause disease in banana even though they did not show any symptoms in sugarcane or wild sorghum raises a big concern for the management of the disease as several plant species have been reported to act as symptomless hosts to pathogens. Age of plants (time of re-isolation) did not affect the recovery of the bacteria from the inoculated plants."},{"index":9,"size":196,"text":"The observation of symptoms in some of the non-host plants in this study and earlier studies could be a cause for concern as several plant pathogens have been reported to evolve by host jumps followed by specialization (Grünwald and Flier, 2005;Raffaele et al., 2010). Species in the Phytophthora clade 1c are reported to have evolved through host jumps and subsequent adaptive specialization on plants from four dissimilar botanical families (Grünwald and Flier, 2005). In the group of xanthomonads, Coutinho et al. (2015) reported a significant host jump of Xanthomonas vasicola from sugarcane to eucalyptus. It is also not known for how long such pathogens need to survive in the non-host plants to warrant concern for management, especially given the reported closeness of Xcm to pathogens such as X. vasicola that are pathogens to some of these non-host cereal plants. For example, Peixoto et al. (2007) isolated Xanthomonas campestris pv. viticola from non-host plants such as Alternanthera tenella, Amaranthus sp., and Glycine max. These plants and grapevine (host) developed typical symptoms of bacterial canker when they were inoculated with the recovered isolates. However, the plant/crop spp. in this study were not reinoculated with isolates recovered from them."},{"index":10,"size":379,"text":"Xanthomonas wilt presence and incidence on farm increased with the ABB banana types on farm. The ABB types, in addition to attracting many insect vectors, have floral bracts and neuter flowers that readily fall off leaving open fresh wounds on the rachis/flower stalk that are easily colonized by bacteria accidentally deposited by foraging insects (Blomme et al., 2014(Blomme et al., , 2017a)). XW incidence also declined with increasing number of banana cultivars on farm. Crop or cultivar mixtures have been reported to impede disease and pest spread and damage (Poeydebat et al., 2016;Vidal et al., 2017;Li et al., 2018). High diversity of banana cultivars has been reported to suppress banana weevils, nematodes and black sigatoka in Uganda (Mulumba et al., 2012). The effect of mixtures on diseases can be through a dilution effect/decrease in the susceptible host, change in microclimate, pathogen dispersal rate and vector population and behavior, host alteration, and pathogen inhibition (Boudreau, 2013;Vidal et al., 2017). This study for the first time suggests a possible role of cultivar mixtures in reducing or slowing XW spread on farm. This effect of banana cultivars can be attributed to the effect of dilution on the susceptible ABB types and a reduced insect vector access to susceptible cultivars. XW incidence on farm was also influenced by singly removing diseased stems/plants on farm, i.e., SDSR application. SDSR is one of the recommended practices for managing XW disease on farms. SDSR has been reported to drastically reduce XW incidence and lead to recovery of infected banana fields if regularly and consistently applied (Blomme et al., 2017b). No associations were observed between XW presence/incidence with crop mixtures and agroforestry practices, possibly due to the homogeneity of the farms in the study region. The models only explained between 18 and 29% of the observed variation on-farm. This could be attributed to the fact that other factors responsible for disease spread on farm such as use of contaminated tools and un-certified seed were homogenous across farms. Landscape level factors could have also possibly dominated the studied factors within the individual farms. At landscape level, XW spread, incidence and severity has been reported to be influenced by altitude, temperature, precipitation, trade in diseased fresh products and the level of collective application of disease control measures among others."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSION","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":317,"text":"In the current study, despite a low recovery (0.02%) of Xcm from field-based Canna spp. plants, the high susceptibility of Canna sp. to Xcm in the screenhouse coupled to the pathogenicity of the Xcm isolates recovered from these plants to banana makes them suitable alternative hosts to Xcm. More still, given the perennial nature of Canna spp. and its propagation through the rhizome, even at low incidences, Canna spp. could act as a reservoir of Xcm and perpetuate XW disease, leading to a moderatehigh risk from this weed. Isolates recovered from sugarcane and wild sorghum (another important weed species) also caused disease in banana though these plants were resistant following inoculation with Xcm. Given sugarcane and some species of wild sorghum, e.g., Johnson grass [Sorghum halepense (L.) Pers] are perennial and reproduce through the rhizome, they could potentially become important alternative hosts if the bacteria gets adapted to them. Efforts for managing XW will thus need to be broadened to management of some of the alternative host plants, especially Canna spp. In contrast, the risk from the grain cereals is deemed as none to very low, given the grain cereals were resistant, are annual in nature and propagate through seed. More still, XW cannot survive in decomposing or dry host tissues. Efforts to diversify agroecosystems therefore need to consider the interaction of pathogens of given crops with other plants in the system. On farmers' fields, XW presence and incidence had no association with the potential alternative hosts, especially Canna spp. but rather with the presence of susceptible ABB Musa genotypes, number of cultivars on farm and access to training on XW management. The models accounted for only between 18-29% of the variation in XW presence on farm, suggesting a possible role of other factors on farm. There is also need for in-depth study of the genomes of the Xcm isolates retrieved from the potential alternative host plants."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | (A) A disease-free banana plant, (B) a banana plant showing Xanthomonas wilt symptoms after inoculation with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum, and (C) a cut pseudostem of a XW infected banana plant showing yellow Xcm ooze. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Photos of Canna sp. showing: (A) an un-inoculated control plant, (B) an inoculated symptomatic plant, (C) a symptomatic leaf, (D) a severely affected mat showing the dead parent plant (middle) and symptomatic shoots (foreground and behind), and (E) yellow bacterial ooze on a cut stem surface. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 | FIGURE 3 | (A) The leaf of an un-inoculated control sorghum plant, (B,C) inoculated sorghum leaves with whitish lesions, (D) leaf of an un-inoculated millet plant, and (E,F) leaves of inoculated millet plants with white lesions. Photos depict plants/leaves at about 12 days after trial initiation/inoculation. "},{"text":"FIGURE 5 | FIGURE 5 | Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) like colonies (on Yeast Peptone Glucose Agar) recovered from different crop species artificially inoculated with Xcm. (A), banana; (B), Canna sp.; (C), wild sorghum; (D), sorghum; (E), sugarcane; and (F), taro. "},{"text":"FIGURE 6 | FIGURE 6 | DNA bands on agarose gel for different Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm) like isolates from different plant species after being inoculated with Xcm isolated from banana. On gel A, 1, Canna sp.; 2, 3, and 8, banana; 4, 5, 10, and 11, sugarcane; 6 and 7, taro; 9, maize; 12, positive control; and 13, negative control. On gel B, 1, 2, 7-9, and 13, wild sorghum; 3, 4, 5, and 16, maize; 6, 10, 12, and 17-21, Canna sp.; 11 and 14, sorghum; 15, sugarcane; 22, taro; 23, negative control; 24, positive control. Gel C, 1 and 2, sugarcane; 3,[5][6][7] 18, and 21, wild sorghum; 4, 16, and 20, taro;[8][9][10] 12, 13, 15, 17, and 19, banana;  11, Canna sp.; 14, sorghum; 22, negative control; and 23, positive control. On gel D, 1-18, millet. \"M\" on all the gels denotes the DNA ladder. The experiments were conducted at the Kawanda laboratory in central Uganda. "},{"text":"FIGURE 7 | FIGURE 7 | DNA finger prints on agarose gel for different Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum (Xcm)-like isolates from: 1, Canna sp.; 3 and 8, banana; 4, sugarcane; 6, Taro; and 12, Xcm positive control. The initial Xcm isolate was obtained from a symptomatic banana plant at Kawanda research station, central Uganda. Isolates 1, 3, and 8 caused disease in banana plantlets while 4 and 6 did not. "},{"text":"FIGURE 8 | FIGURE 8 | Xanthomonas wilt incidence [(A) %] and (B) severity scores over time in banana plantlets inoculated with Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum re-isolated from different Xcm non-host plant species. A total of five banana plantlets were inoculated per isolate. Severity was scored at a scale of 0 to 1, 0 being no disease and 1 being the highest severity scores. "},{"text":"FIGURE 9 | FIGURE 9 | (A) Banana being intercropped with sugarcane, (B) a banana field with a high density of Canna sp. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 | Distribution of response and explanatory variables explored on Xanthomonas wilt (XW) infected farms in central Uganda.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 | Model outcomes of regressions of Xanthomonas wilt (XW) presence (as binary scores) and Xanthomonas wilt incidence on farm as response variables with different explanatory variables.  Parameter estimate Standard error t-value Pr (>| t| ) Parameter estimateStandard errort-valuePr (>| t| ) Xanthomonas presence on farm     Xanthomonas presence on farm Intercept 0.62 0.17 3.53 0.0012  *  * Intercept0.620.173.530.0012  *  * Presence of ABB banana types 0.40 0.17 2.29 0.0286  * Presence of ABB banana types0.400.172.290.0286  * Household access to training −0.23 0.08 −2.76 0.0094  *  * Household access to training−0.230.08−2.760.0094  *  * Xanthomonas wilt incidence on farm     Xanthomonas wilt incidence on farm Intercept 21.17 17.81 1.19 0.2431 Intercept21.1717.811.190.2431 Number of banana cultivars on-farm −4.62 2.25 −2.06 0.0478  * Number of banana cultivars on-farm−4.622.25−2.060.0478  * Presence of ABB banana types 26.01 16.83 1.55 0.1318 Presence of ABB banana types26.0116.831.550.1318 Application of SDSR −13.48 8.12 −1.66 0.1064 Application of SDSR−13.488.12−1.660.1064 SDSR denotes 'single diseased stem removal.' Significance codes: 0.001 '    SDSR denotes 'single diseased stem removal.' Significance codes: 0.001 '  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 | Ranking of the risk of the different crops/weeds to perpetuate Xanthomonas wilt disease on banana plants on farms. Criteria  "}],"sieverID":"1d2cb55d-8b9d-4e80-b792-99b870586571","abstract":"Alternative Hosts to Xanthomonas campestris pv. musacearum through seed. Understanding the interactions of a crop pathogen with other plants is thus important when diversifying agroecosystems. The study findings also suggest other factors such as cultivar composition and management of the disease at farm and landscape level to be important in the perpetuation of XW disease."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"099713de544639ab5509eeec169529d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/af55d73c-6fd6-422e-9376-ad52eedfe5aa/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Participatory Plant Breeding in Maize for the Chhotanagpur Plateau of Eastern India","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"objectives ofthe breeding program currently underway in Samoa ami how clones are selected from a seedling populatíon. Farmers had the opportuníty to observe firsthand the preliminary selections made by USP researchers. These preliminary selections totaled almost 200 clones. Duplicates (suckers) ofthese selectíons have been given to three farmers for evaluation on their own farms. The farmers as a group have also helped in narrowing the preliminary clones from 200 to the final 25 selections by participating in taste and quality tests during TlP monthly meetings. These 25 clones (table 2) are being multiplied for on-farm evaluation by TIP farmers later this year. University Taro-Breeders' C1uh"},{"index":2,"size":223,"text":"A university taro-breeding club was initíated al USP in 1999, The fírst university breeding club in the world was started in 1995 in Mexico, We believe that the club at USP is the fírst to be inaugurated outside ofLatin America. The club represents an innovative approach to teachíng and learning at USP. It is a cheap and easy approach to breedíng. It ensures that there are many hands to do breeding work and has resulted in increased taro breeding activity. Robinson (1996Robinson ( , 1997) ) has proposed university breedíng clubs as a \"hands-on\" approach for students to lcarn about breeding for horizontal resistance and a way of\"scalíng-up\" fanner participation in plant breedíng (see box 1), Robinson (1997) envisaged student-members ofbreeding clubs retuming to theír famíly fanns wilh potential new cultívars for evaluatíon. After a few decades, there could be hundreds, or even ¡housands, of former club members testing new lines as they emerge from clubs. Addítional breeding clubs would inerease lhe oulput even more, providing the widest e;x:tent and the híghest possible quality ollarmer participation in plant breeding. e Hundreds al plan! breeding clubs worldwlde could significantly improve craps by a huge increase in breeding activity. o Clubs would re-establish link. belween researchers and larmers. High levels 01 farmer participation in plan! breeding would resull when farmers' children jOln unlversity breeding clubs."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"SoUTC': Robinson (! 997)."},{"index":4,"size":136,"text":"The overall aim of Ihe USP taro breeding club is to produce high-yielding, good-quality taro cultivars lhat have high levels of horizontal resistance to TLB and other locally important taro pesís, and that are adapted to a range of diverse environments, At the same time, lhe club allows students to leam abou! lhe breeding process in a practical way. The club is seen as an integral componen! ofTIP, using selected furmers for evaluation of clones and multiplieation ofpotential new cultivars. The club has a formal structure wilh elected officers, including a president, vice-president, treasurer, and secretary. A club constitution was drawn up and it is run along lhe lines of a student organization. Most members are students but sorne are professionals, such as lecturers, crop researchers, technicians, and university adrninistrators, while a small percentage are fanmers."},{"index":5,"size":144,"text":"The club meets regularly at lhe University's Alafua Campus. This campus is lhe location for the club's breeding blocks and it is on-campus that most crossing takes place and where taro seedlings are raised. Screening and evaluation of seedling populations take place a! locations with suitable disease pressure. To date, duplicate breeding blocks have been initiated on-campus. Qne block is for lhe use of researchers and lhe other for the use of students. The student breeding block is made available solely for lhe use of students, and lhey are encouraged to maintain lheir own subplot, make crosses within lhis, harvest seed, and raise seedlings for fíeld evaluatíon. The committee decides on a program of topícs and field visíts to facilitate leamíng about plant breeding with assistance from university technical staff, The club is self-fínaneed largely throllgh Ihe payrnent of membcr fces and fund-raisíllg evcllts."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"Although TIP ís a young organization, it is already showing Ihat farmcrs can evaJuate many different taro cultivars and selee! those they prefer. The membership ofthe program has expanded rapidly in its fírst yeaL The program has improved dialogue between researchers, extension staff, and farmers. Evaluation of cultívars is stíll underway and a considerable amount of quantitative and qualitative data have been compiled, This will be analyzed shortly, There are early indíeations that growers are selecting a range of cultivars. Taro Fifí has been included as Ihe preferred resistant cultivar lo date. It is interestíng to note thal sorne growers are showing preferences for cultivars (Toantal, Pwetepwet, Pastora) that were evaluated by MAFFM at the same time as taro Fili but which were not recommended or wídely promoted. Both Pwetepwet and Pastora were previously believed to be of poor quality, although they both have good levels of resistance to TLB and they are both high yielding. One farmer has observed that the quality improves ifharvest ís delayed for a few months. The same farmer has also reported that he likes Pastora despite its tendency to be susu (meaningwet, a quality not liked by Samoans). He removes the top (wet) halfand uses the bottom part ofthis high-yielding cultivar."},{"index":2,"size":156,"text":"There has been considerable confusjon in Samoa about Palau cultivars. This has arisen as a result of unauthorized imports ofbatches of rnixed cultivars from nearby American Samoa. There are 12 dífferent cultivars from Palau in Samoa. Sorne are good quality and sorne are considered wet. TIP has been working to address this confusion, and gradually those cultivars of good quality are being identífied. Early indícations are that growers prefer Palau 20 and 10. Reports from American Samoa show that both Palau 20 and lOare most preferred by growers there. Many of the growers have experimented with the harvest date of the Palau cultivars and report that this can sígnificantly influence the corm quaJity. These findings are important. Sorne Palau cultivars are found to be wet ífharvested early (five to six months), but this can be overcome, in some cases, by delaying harvest untíl seven to eight months. Research station evaluations oftaro usually occur after six months."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"As a result of the impact of TIP on Upulo, MAFFM have initiated a similar TIP program on the other main island of Savai' i. In May 2000, nine extension officers from Savaii spent time on Upulo visiting farmers involved with TIP and took part in the May monthly meeting to observe how the club operated. This should ensure lhat farmers on that island get quicker access to a range of resistant taros."},{"index":4,"size":249,"text":"There are sorne aspects of the USP taro•breeders' club that make it different from other clubs like the one at the Universidad Autonoma de Chapingo in Mexico. The University of fue South Pacific ís a regional university, whereas the Universidad is a national universíty. USP draws a student body from over 12 individual counlrÍes dispersed in the Pacific Ocean. This poses one problem for a university breeders' club but it abo has an advantage. Robinson (1997) highlights the positive interaction that may arise between a breeding club and farmer participation schemes. In fue Universidad situation, students come from sUITounding villages. Students can return lO fuese villages with the progeny offue crosses fuey have made and carry out participatory selection with farmers on family farms. Certain selections may become potential cultivars but can also be fed back into the breeding club system to become future parents. Unfortunately, fue majority of student members of the taro-breeding club come from countries other than Samoa and quarantine and unresolved owner-ship íssues preclude taro germplasm leaving Samoa for evaluation on many family farms, The soluhon to this problem is to pool al! crosses together and evaluate seedlings as one population through the TIP programo The advantage of having members from many differen! countries is the high potentíal for similar breeding clubs lo be initíated elsewhere when students retum to their home countTÍes at the completion of studies, The club also plans a regular newsletter to maintaín contact with members who have finíshed their studíes,"},{"index":5,"size":41,"text":"The breeders' club has been successful as an innovative \"hands-on\" approach to teaching and learning, but club activities place considerable demands on student time. A three-year degree means that students have a packed timetable tha! allows little time for \"extracurricular\" activitíes."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"One possible solutíon to this problem is a cross-credit system to the conventional degree-Ievel breedíng courses thal are taught at USP. Thís would allow students lo obtaín cross-credits for the breeding activities that they carry out as par! ofthe breeders' club. Likewise, lecturers would also accrue teaching credits fOf their involvement in the breeders' club."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"After rice, maize is the most important cereal crop in the rainy season for the largely tribal farmers of the Chhotanagpur plateau region of eastem India. However, maíze ís in decline and yields vary greatly from year to year. The Birsa Agricultural University (BAU), Ranchi has released severa! varieties, but tribal farmers have not adopted them because of theír late maturity, which results in the common end-of-season droughts severely limiting yields. Therefore, a participatory maíze breeding program was initiated ín a collaborative project between Birsa Agricultural University, Ranchi, and the KlBHCO Indo-British Rainfed Farming Project (KRlBP) managed by KRlBHCO (K.rishak Bharati Co-operative)."},{"index":2,"size":64,"text":"The major objective was to breed and test early-maturing and high-yielding open-pol!inated varieties and intervarietal hybrids of maize in participation with farmers. An analysís of farmers' constraints showed that farm holdings are very smal! in the area and that shallow, infertile soils on sloping lands give poor yields. The crop is large1y rainfed, and iITÍgation to mitigate the effects of drought is rarely available."},{"index":3,"size":16,"text":"Participatory rural appraísals were used lo solidt farmers' preferences in maize varieties. Farmers wanted the following:"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"• early maturity • long cobs with high placement on the stem"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"• prolificacy (two to tmee ears per plant)"},{"index":6,"size":8,"text":"• resistance to lodging, disease, and insect pests"},{"index":7,"size":13,"text":"• nonhybrid varieties because ofthe cost and difficulties ofpurchasing hybrid seed every year"}]},{"head":"Breeding strategies","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"To develop new varieties of malze, two strategies were adopted:"},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"• breeding open-pollinated composite varicties"}]},{"head":"• breeding intervarietal hybrids","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Composite breeding","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"To breed new open-pollinated composite varieties a base population was initiated in the main season of 1997 by making nine crosses between three yellow-endospermed flint varieties (BM 1, Suwan, and Chandan 3) and three white-endospermed flint varieties (GDRM 187 from Gujarat AgriculturaJ University and KRlBP west, Gujarat [see Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volume]; Shweta, from Uttar Pradesh; and Rudarpur local, from Uttar Pradesh). The parental varieties were either farmer-preferred varieties or had complementary traits. The three yellow varieties are medium-to late-rnaturing and have a higher yield potential when water 1S not limiting than the three earlier-maturing white varieties. By 1999, the population had been randomly rnated for five cycles by using a pseudo-random hill planting plan. In each cycle, 50% ofthe plants were detasseled, and paJe yellow grains were harvested from lhe detasseled plants (Goyal, Joshi, and Witcombe, this volurne). At lhe C 3 and C 4 cyc1es, two open-pollinated (C3/98-99 and C4/99) varieties were extracted frorn the base population."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"The yellow-grained variety C3/98-99 was formed from deep yellow seed harvested from about 200 early-maturing, detasseled plants of lhe C 3 cycle of lhe base population in the post-rainy season of 1998-99. In the rainy season of 1999, lhe random-mating population was grown frorn these seeds."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"In the post-rainy season of I 999--{)0, farmers were invited lo visit the research station at Ranchi lo select desirable plants. Farmers graded them inlo three categories and the third preferences were rejected. In the rainy season of2000, lhe seIection will be repeated and the population will be tested in research station triaIs."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Similar procedures were followed for variety C4/99."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"A white-endospermed population was also developed by bulking white grains frorn three sources: frorn selected p1ants ofthe C 4 cycle ofthe base population, frorn the C3/98-99 population grown in the rainy season of 1999, and from plants selected for rnaking the C4/99 population. The first random rnating will be carried out in the rainy season of2000, and farmers will be involved in selection before and after flowering."}]},{"head":"Intervarietal hybrid and composite breeding","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"Intervarietal hybrids offer a faster approach to creating new varieties for farmers than generating new cornposites, but they require more complex seed rnultiplication than open-pollinated varieties. However, the seed of intervarietal hybrids is cheaper and sornewhat easier to produce than that of "}]},{"head":"Evaluation","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The new open-pollínated varieties developed have not yet been tested for yield on farmers' fields. However, intervarietal hybrids were tested in farmer-managed participatory-research (F AMP AR) trials in !he rainy season of 1998 as well as in research-station trials in tbe pre-rainy season of 1998-99 and the rainy season of 1999."},{"index":2,"size":45,"text":"Ofthe three hybrids tested, BM 1 x Suwan yielded tbe mos! in trials conducted in !he pre-rainy season of 1998-99 (rabIe 1). The advantage of!he intervarietal-hybrid approach is clear: the hybrid yields more !han either parent and is earlier tban tbe later, highest-yielding parent (Suwan)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"F AMP AR trials in tbe rainy season of 1998 showed tbe following: • Farmers preferred BMI x Suwan and Chandan x Suwan because oftbeir yellow flint grains, higher yield, medium maturity, and higher fodder yield ."},{"index":4,"size":17,"text":"• Hybrid Megha x Suwan was rejected because of a high proportion ofpoorly developed and diseased plants."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Bíhar, a typical eastem Indian state, has 5,4 million ha planted to rice, with yields of, on average, onIy 1.2 t ha-1 of grain. More than half ofthe rice area is rainfed, inc1uding the drought-prone, upland ecosystem. In tbis ecosystem, most farmers grow traditional varieties and productivity is very low. Most farmers prefer to grow traditional varieties. Many of the varieties bred and released by the formal system, both nationalIy and at the state level, have no! been adopted by farmers because they lack traits important to farmers (Virk and Bhasker Raj 1996). However, variety Kalinga I1I, which was promoted by the project in its target area covering mne districts ofBihar, West Bengal, and Orissa, has severa! advantages-excellent grain quality and extreme earliness, which allows it to escape end-of-season droughts. However, because it has weak straw, a major objective of the participatory plant-breeding (PPB) program was to breed varieties to replace Kalinga I1I that díd not have this wealrness."}]},{"head":"Breeding strategies","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"The breeding strategy was to cross a popular, locally adapted cultivar (in this case, Kalínga ill) with exotic, high-yielding cultivars from a centralized breeding program (Witcombe et al. 1996). Varieties IR64 and IR36 were chosen as the high-yielding cultivars since both are grown in large areas in eastem India. A strategy of a few crosses with large populations was used (Witcombe and Virk, in press)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• yellow-endospermed flint grains and high yíeld Anm Kumar and D.K. Gangulí .re with fue Department of Plant Breeding and Genetics. Birs. Agricultural Universíty (BAU), Kanke, Ranchi, Bihar, India. S.C. Prasad and 1.S. Gangwar are wilb Ibe KRlBHCO lndo-British R.infed Farming Project, Ranchi, Bihar, India. D.S. Virk and J.R, Witcombe are wíth the Centre ror Arid Zone Srudies, University ofWales, Bangor, UK. Participatory Plant Breeding in Maize ｉ ｩ ＾ ｲ ｴ ｬ ｴ ｾ ＠ . . C::hhotanagpur Platea\" of Eastern India "},{"text":" single-cross hybrids based on inbred lines. If intervarietal hybrids were greatly preferred, then KRIBP would attempt to produce seed within project villages, In singIe-cross hybrids, advanced generations from farrner-saved seed are considerably lower yielding tban tbe original F I generation. However, tbe advanced generations of intervarietal hybrids may still yield welL How much hybrid vigor is los! if farmers retain the seed ofhybrids is being evaluated in tbe rainy season of 2000 by using advanced open-pollinated generations from tbe F I intervarietal hybrid, Sorne farrners have preferred tbe open-pollinated varieties Suwan, BM 1, and Chandan 3 to their local varieties. These varieties, along witb Megha, a drought-tolerant and early-maturing variety from Punjab, were used as parents to produce three intervarietal hybrids in the rainy season of 1997: BM I x Suwan, BM I x Chandan 3, and Megha x Suwan. "},{"text":"Table 2 . Average LearNumber, Montbs to Harvest, Yield, and Taste of tbe Top 25 Taro Clones Selected from a Cycle-2 Population in Samoa  Months lo Yleld Average Leaf  Months loYleldAverage Leaf Clone Number Harvesl (kg)' Number TaSle' Clone NumberHarvesl(kg)'NumberTaSle' C2-30 5 1.0 6 3.5 C2-3051.063.5 C2-40     C2-40  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Performance of Three Intervarietal Hybrids of Maize on the BAU-KRIBP Research Farm, Rancbi, Bihar, during the Post-Raiuy Season of 1997-98(Summer 1998)     Hybrid 50% silking (d) 50% tasseling (d) Maturity (d) Plant height Earlength (cm) (cm) Yieldl plant(g) Hybrid50% silking (d)50% tasseling (d)Maturity (d)Plant height Earlength (cm) (cm)Yieldl plant(g) Suwsn x Megha 102 110 148 151 17 125 Suwsn x Megha10211014815117125 8M 1 x Suwan 99 108 147 136 17 145 8M 1 x Suwan9910814713617145 BM 1 x Chandan 3 94 98 139 135 16 115 BM 1 x Chandan 3949813913516115 Suwan 104 111 159 146 16 105 Suwan10411115914616105 8M 1 95 99 139 127 14 100 8M 1959913912714100 Megha 93 96 135 137 13 93 Megha93961351371393 Chandan 3 96 101 144 129 17 125 Chandan 39610114412917125 GDRM 187 86 93 132 116 13 88 GDRM 18786931321161388  "}],"sieverID":"3d2ad773-df2f-46a1-ab10-8def0017e453","abstract":"This paper describes a partícip.tol)' maize breeding program that is a coll.boratíve project between BiTS, Agricultural Universíty and the KRlBHCO Indo-British Rainfed Farming Project (Enst). At the beginning ofthe project, a base population was produced in Ihe rainy season of 1997 by making nine crosses between tbree yellow-endospermed flinl varieties (Suwan, Birsa Makka 1, and Chandan 3) and three white-endospermed flint varieties (GDRM 187, Shweta, .nd Rudarpur local). The parental varielies were selected either because farmers in the project area had accepted Ihem or because they contributed complemental)' trails to the.population. The population has becn randomly m.ted for tive cycles by hiJI-planting seed derived from the original nino erosses .nd det.sseling 50% ofthe plants. After the initial random mating, eaeh eyele was planted from pale yellQw grains that sbould be heterozygous at the locos controlling endosperm color. Three composite varieties have been extracted from cyeles !bree and fOUT by nmdom mating of early-maturing plants (75 to 80 days) with eitheryellow or white grains. Preliminal)' resolts show !hat these populations are superior to local checks for multiple traits. lnterv.rietal hybrids were also made from farmer-preferred vaneties. Farmer-managed partí.ipatol)' researeh (FAMPAR) trials conducted in the rainy season.of 1998 showed that farmers preferred the BM 1 x Suwan intervarietal hybrid lO the local varieties. Further evaluations ofhybrids in on-farro and station trials are being condocted."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0aab61d9ba75235b56c8408884d5bc22","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/bde8fa47-d5fc-4c60-88e4-d8d193200ce2/retrieve"},"pageCount":37,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RESUMEN","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Como fruto del convenio colaborativo ICA-CIAT para la investigación sobre fríjol, este año se entregará la variedad voluble ICA-Llanogrande con resistencia de campo a la antracnosis y con amplio rango de adaptación (1450-271Q m. s. n .m.) con un óptimo entre 1700 a 2200 m. s. n.m. donde ha prQ. ducido a nivel experimental 4742 kg/ha en monocultivo, 2000 kg!ha en relevo con maíz y 1200 kg en asociación con maíz. Este material se llamó durante la etapa de investigación como E 1056. Su tamaño es mediano y color crema! morado. Fue introducido desde el Ecuador y se seleccionó en relevo con maíz en lCA-La Selva en 1978B. A continuación se presenta el resúmen de los resul tados de los ensayos durante 1981."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":",En la evaluación de germoplasma sorios por su adaptación y sanidad. y la Zona Andina (Cuadro 1)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"se identificaron 112 materiales promi-De ellos 67 son de interés para Colombia Del ensayo preliminar de selecciones del banco de germoplasma se seleccionaron dos materiales rojos medianos corno superiores (Cuadro 3). Adem~s. para usar corno padres t En los cruzamientos realizados este año fueron considerados los materia les ICA-Viboral, Calabozo, Radical, Liborino Voluble, Línea 32980-M-8 con el fín de introducirles resistencias a las enfermedades más limitantes ; Antracnosis, Mancha Angular y Ascochyta."}]},{"head":"I !","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"De los viveros de selecciones entre F 2 a F6 se seleccionaron 1167 mate-t riales de interés para Colombia y la Zona Andina, los cuales tienen como padres r I A. Investigación sobre fríjol voluble Evaluación de germoplasma de fríjol voluble  Se evaluaron 772 materiales de colecciones de diversos paises é1tre ellos Perú, t1éxico, Malawi y Zambia como los más importantes. Se usé el sistema de relevo con maíz lCA V-402."}]},{"head":"f•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Cada colección de fríjol ocupó un sitio, sin 'replicación, sembrando. jll. 5 semillas por sitio. El maíz se había sembrado en marzo, dejando 3 ~lan-• tas por sitio a 0.92 x 0.92 m. y el fríjol se sembr6 el l~ de septie~~re de 1981."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":",f k Se fertilizó con 200 kg/ha de 10-30-10 + 2 ton/ha. de gallinza al momento de la siembra."},{"index":3,"size":136,"text":"Se seleccionaron 112 materiales para ser sembrados en 1982A en ~n ensayo preliminar de rendimiento en CIAT (Popayán) y en 1982B en lCA-La Selva. De ellos, 67 son de interés potencial para Colombia por su sar,idad, color y tamaño del grano (Cuadro 1). Los otros 45 no son comerciales en Colombia pero se seleccionan para otros países que poseen climas similares (Cuadro 2). ¡ ¡ ¡ ! Se hicieron evaluaciones de campo pa;'a las tres enfermedades r.:2S limitantes en la zona: ANT = Antracnosis (CoUetotJúc.hwn Undemu:tlú.:,:wn) , ' ASC = Ascochyta (Al,c.oc.hy:át spp) y ANG = Mancha Angular (16afÚOphÚ g:i:,ed.:a I Sacc). Se usó la escala de 1-5 donde 1 es resistencia de campo y 5 es muerte. La primera lectura es la correspondiente a las hojas y la segunda a la lectura en las vainas."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":", r ! l--6 -El vigor se define en escala 1 a 5, donde 1 = Muy vigoroso 2 = Vigoroso 3 = Normal (Testigo) 4 = Menos vigoroso que lo normal 5 = ~luy débi 1 Y pequeño La evaluación se hace durante 1 a f10raci ón."},{"index":5,"size":45,"text":"La eficiencia repr'oductiva se define también en escala 1 a 5, donde El objetivo de este ensayo era evaluar adaptaci6n y rendimiento de variedades del banco de germoplasma del CIAT y otras colecciones\" seleccionadas en 1980 de las evaluaciones de germoplasma en LaSelva y Obonuco."},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"Se us6 el diseño experimental jerárquico (5 grupos de variedades segun' su color de grano y la calidad de selección) con dos repeticiones y 74 trata mientas lncluyendo el ICA-Viboral como testigo."},{"index":7,"size":27,"text":"El fríjol fue sembrado el 28 de agosto en relevo con maíz ICA V-402 (sembrado en marzo en sitios con 3 plantas a 0.92 x 0.92 m)."},{"index":8,"size":68,"text":"La parcela de siembra fue 1 x 8 sitios para cosechar una parcela útil de 1 x 6 sitios = 5.08 m 2 • Se fertilizó con 200 kg/ha de 10-30-10 + 2 ton/ha. de gallinaza. Durante todo el ciclo del cultivo no se aplicaron fungicidas. los rendimientos por grupos 'se encuentran en el Cuadro 3 donde se observa que el grupo Negr.os-La Selva supera a los demás."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"Las variedades con rendimiento significativamente mayor que el testigo se encuentran en el Cuadro 4, destacándose los rajas medianos procedentes de Guatemala."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"En el Cuadro 5 se encuentran las variedades que no rindieron más que el testigo pero que por sus resistencias a enfermedades, color y tamaño de grano se seleccionaron como padres para los próximos bloques de cruzamiento.  "}]},{"head":"Negro Guatemala Aguacatán","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"\"\">\"~..,,,,,\",\"., ... \"\"\"\"-\"\".\".,.. .... .,,\", •.  -15-Viveros de Mejoramiento 1. Selección Individua'l F 2 (MFV-81l0)"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"El objetivo era realizar selección individual de plantas por adaptación, tipo de grano y sanidad sobre 57 poblaciones en las cuales el cruzamiento se habfa hecho con, el fín de buscar resistencia a antra~ nosis. De los cruzamientos entre la Línea 32980 M-8 (G 11821) con dif s rentes fuentes de resistencia se realizaron 69 selecciones. De los cr!! zamientos entre Cargamanto (p 590) Y diferentes fuentes de resistencia se realizaron 1980 selecciones, En el Cuadro 7 se encuentran todos los cruzamientos en los cuales se realizaron selecciones y sus respectivas tendencias del color."}]},{"head":"Ensayo de Familias F3 (MFV-8108)","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"El vivero tenía tres grupos de colores : Rojo, Negro y Diversos colo res. Cada surco correspondía a una selección. Se cosecharon 8 sitios, o sea 6,77 m 2 • Con Cargamanto (p 590) se efectuaron 54 selecciones. Con Línea 32980 M-8 (G 11821) se reali'zaron 6 selecciones. En el Cuadro 8 se encuentra la información de los cruzamientos y el número de selecciones totales."}]},{"head":"Selección Individual F 4 (MFV-8103 y 8110)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"El objetivo era realizar selección individual de plantas por adaptación, sanidad y tipo de grano, sobre un conjunt~ de poblaciones provenie~ tes de ensayos ,en La Selva y Popayán el año anterior. Se destacan los cr~ zamientos con Cargamanto (p 590) con 359 selecciones; con Antioquia 48 (G 11817) con 100 selecciones; con Liborino Voluble (G 11819) con 56 selec L:6LIOTECA ciones y con la línea 32980 M-IJ, (G 11820) con 88 selecciones. En el Cuadro 9 se encuentran los padres de las selecciones realizadas y la tendencia del color."}]},{"head":"Ensalo de Familias F s (MFV-8108 y 8110)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"El vivero 8108 comprendía tres grupos de colores : Rojo, Negro y Diversos colores. Cada surco correspondía a una selección. Se cosecharon 8 sitios, o sea 6.77 m 2 • En el 8110 había algunas selecciones individuales. De los cruzamientos con Cargamanto (p 590) se hicieron 83 selecciones; con Antioquia 48 (G 11817) ~e eféctuaron 96 selecciones; con liborino Voluble (G 11819) se realizaron 36 selecciones y con la línea 32980 M-4 (G 11820) se hicieron 30 selecciones. En el Cuadro 10 se encuentran todos los cruzamientos en los CUales se efectuaron selecciones y la respectiva cantidad de éstas."}]},{"head":"VEF (MFV-8109)","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Este Vivero del Equipo de Fríjol de CIAT contenía 1110 materiales diferentes entre arbustivos y volubles y con colores desde negro hasta blanco. El objetivo era observar el comportamiento de dichos materiales en las condiciones de lCA-la Selva para compararlos con los resultados en CIAT-Paln.1ra y CIAT-Popayán. 17 materiales arbustivos mostraron vigor y eficiencia intermedios; 25 volubles se comportaron bien. Oe éstos, 23 son de color rojo y son promisorios para sembrar en el próximo ciclo. En el Cuadro 11 se encuentran las calificaciones completas de los mejores materiales.   "}]},{"head":"Mortiño","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"x 88-1 3."},{"index":2,"size":5,"text":"Ecuador 51 x 88-1 4."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Ecuador 61 x 46-1 €orrespondientes a cuatro cruza-Estos cruzamientos son :"},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"~~-~ los cruzamientos con P. eoeeineUó buscan obtener una resistencia r.últiple para P. vulg~ respecto a Antracnosi~. Ascochyta y Mancha Angular."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"B. Ensayos de Agronomía l. Ensayo de genotipos de frfjol voluble en asociación bajo distintos sistemas de siembra y poblaciones (~lFV-8102)"},{"index":6,"size":201,"text":"El objetivo de \"este ensayo fue estudiar el efecto del sistema de siembra, comparando la siembra tradicional a golpes con' la siembra en hileras a chorro continuo sobre diversos genotipos de fríjol en asociación con el maíz ICA V~453. Siembra en hileras 4. 1 maíz a 0.92xO.30 m x 1 fríjOl a 0.23 m hilera simple'\" -47 mil p1¡ 5. 1 maíz a 0.92xO.30 m x 1 frijol a 0.23 m hilera doble ... -71 !'Jil pl¡ 6. 1 maíz a 0.92)(0.30 m x 1 fríjol a 0.23 m hilera doble ... -95 mi 1 pl¡ 7. 1 maíz a 0.92xO.30 m x 1 fríjol a 0.18 m hilera doble ... -118 mi 1 pl¡ El diseño experimental fue parcelas divididas con tres replicaciones, variedades de fríjol formando las parcelas principales y los tratamientos foro mando las subparcelas. la subparcela tenia el area equivalente a 4 surcos x J sitios para cosechar tanto en sitios como en hileras el equivalente en arEo a 2 x 9 sitios = 15.23 m 2 • la fertilización se hizo con 200 kg/ha de 10-30-10 + 2 ton/ha. de 9='1;• naza. Se hizo un control mínimo de enfermedades y plagas durante el cicle qe' cultivo."},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"El efecto de los tratamientos sobre los rendimientos de maíz y fríj~l s. aprecia en la Figura 1."},{"index":8,"size":119,"text":"El maíz produjo igual en sitios como en hileras pero el fríjol prod~~e Significativamente más en hileras que en sitios. El mejor tratamiento para fríjol fue la siembra en hileras dobles a 0.23 m. con maíz en hilera a 0.92 x 0.30 m. dando una densidad de 95 mil plantas de fríjol/ha. correspondientE al tratamiento No.5. En las variedades de fríjol no hubo diferencia significativa para d~1Si quiere decir ésto que cualquiera de las variedades tiene la misma respues:a c do se aumenta o disminuye la densidad de siembra. A medida, que aumenta la densidad de siembra tambien aumenta el acame total, presentándose un ligero incremento en las siembras en hilera respecto a la siembra en cuadro (Cuadro 13)."},{"index":9,"size":69,"text":"FIGURA 1. M. F V 8102 Efectos dé sistema de siembra xdensidad de frijol sobre rendimiento de fríjol trepador ( promedio de 5 variedades) y de maíz I CA V-453 en asociacion. Los objetivos de este,ensayo fueron estudiar el efecto de sistema y población sobre los diversos genotipos de fríjol en relevo y las interacciones entre los sistemas de siembra y poblaciones y entre genotipos por sistemas por poblaciones."},{"index":10,"size":21,"text":"Se sembraron cinco variedades de fríjol ,con las siguientes características Variedad de \" 95 11 7. I maíz cada 0.23 m."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"x 1 fríjol cada 0.18 m."},{"index":12,"size":2,"text":"118 \""},{"index":13,"size":37,"text":"en hileras a los dos lados del maíz El diseño experimental fue parcelas divididas con tres repeticiones. Las variedades de fríjol formaron las cinco pa¡'celas principales y las subparcelas corresponden a los sistemas de siembra por poblaciones."},{"index":14,"size":15,"text":"La subparcela de siembra era de un área equivalente a 4 surcos a 0.92 m."},{"index":15,"size":46,"text":"x'11 sitios para cosechar en cada subparcela un área de 15.23 m 2 (2 x 9 sitios Se fertilizó el cultivo con 200 kg/ha. de 13-26-6 + 2 ton/ha. de gallina, incorporados al momento de la siembra. Para plagas y enfermedades se hizo un control mínimo."},{"index":16,"size":35,"text":"Para maíz hubo efecto de los sistemas de siembra de maíz y fríjol sobre E rendimiento. El sistema 2 maíces x 3 fríjoles en sit'ios a 0.46 x 0.92 m; fue el mejor (Cuadro 14)."},{"index":17,"size":39,"text":"Respecto al fríjol no hubo interacción de la variedad por la distancia dE siembra. Los resultados para vari edades se encuentran en el Cuadro 15 en com¡ ración con los resultados de otro ensayo similar del año anterior (MFV-8007)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" materiales con buenas características en el programa de mejoramiento (Cuadro 5). "},{"text":" ~, ~,..-, .. \"'~_.~~,'~,, ,,,\"o \"~',.''''~' \\ ..... \" ... __ -Cuadro 5. ~lFV-a107 . ENSAYO PRELIMnlAR DE GERMOPLASMA Variedades seleccionadas como padres para cruzamientos. No. CIAT No. "},{"text":" MFV-8109. Materiales promi'orios para clima 'frlo selec~ionados del VEF Parc.l.Identificaci6n'   srnve ROYAe SACrC Peso 100 MANGP ASCP ANTP VIGlS EFLS ASClS eo 10r "},{"text":" frijol para cada variedad asociada con malz ICA V-453 en el mejor tratamiento se presenta a agresivas (hábito IV B) provocan un mayor acame de tallo como también mayor acame total comparadas con variedades menos agresivas' (hábito !II Bl. Las variedades de hábito IV A ocupan un lugar intennedio. (Cuadro 12). "},{"text":" MFV-8102.. Efectos de variedades de fríjol voluble (promedio de 7 tratamientos) sobre acame de maíz ICA VMucho vigor. ramificaci6n en la, parte superior de la planta.\",,,,.\"'~\"\" _ -c , __ ~,\"'~~'~'_ \",., u _ p_\" •.•. \"'_'\" ____ ._~_ ,\".~._, N ....Cuadro 13. MFV-8102. Efectos de sistemas de siembra y densidades de fríjol voluble (promedio de 5 variedades) asociado sobre acame de maíz ICA V-453.SistemaA golpes, en cuadro a 0.92 x O. 92m. de genotipos de fríjol voluble en relevo bajo distintos sistemas de siembra y poblaciones (MFV-8105) "},{"text":" Cuadro 3. MFV-8107. Rendimientos. por grupos en el ensayo preliminar ~e germoplasma.    Cuadro 4. ' MFV-8l07. ENSAYO PRELIMINAR DE GERMOPLASMA     Cuadro 4. ' MFV-8l07. ENSAYO PRELIMINAR DE GERMOPLASMA  Variedades con rendimiento significativamente mayor que el testigo.   Variedades con rendimiento significativamente mayor que el testigo. Grupo No. CIAT Identificaci6n Rendim. DAF HC ANT ASC ANG Peso 100 Semillas Vigor Efic. Color Descripción Número de variedades Rendim. (kg/ha) Duncan (kg/ha) Sem./Gr. x vaina grano País orígen Grupo No. CIAT Identificaci6n Rendim. DAF HC ANT ASC ANG Peso 100 Semillas Vigor Efic. Color Descripción Número de variedades Rendim. (kg/ha) Duncan (kg/ha) Sem./Gr. x vaina granoPaís orígen G 10813 Guate 1240  2467 76 IVB 2, 2 2  39 7.2 3. 2 Rojo GuatemalÍl G 10813Guate 1240246776 IVB 2, 22397.23.2Rojo GuatemalÍl G 8525 G 10800 G 10588 Guate 457 Guate 1227 Guate 1008 1 2 Negros -La Selva Rojos -La Selva 2445 76 IVB 1 2002 75 IVB 2 2099 69 IVB 1 2 2 2 2 2 1 11 15 38 37 35 1510 955 7.37 7.35 6.4 3 2 3 A B 2 3 3 .-Rojo Guatemala Negro Guatemala o Negro Guatemala 1-' 1-' G 8525 G 10800 G 10588Guate 457 Guate 1227 Guate 10081 2Negros -La Selva Rojos -La Selva 2445 76 IVB 1 2002 75 IVB 2 2099 69 IVB 12 2 22 2 111 1538 37 351510 955 7.37 7.35 6.43 2 3A B2 3 3.-Rojo Guatemala Negro Guatemala o Negro Guatemala1-' 1-' G 13933 Criollo 7I<m. 3 Diversos .Colores -La Selva 1977 64 IVB 2 2 2 14 34 895 6.07 2 B 3  G 13933Criollo 7I<m.3Diversos .Colores -La Selva 1977 64 IVB 2 221434895 6.072B3   4 Rojos -Obonuco   20  824  B   4Rojos -Obonuco20824B   5 Diversos Colores -Obonuco  13  1047  B   5Diversos Colores -Obonuco131047B  Testigo (ICA-Víboral)     1102     Testigo (ICA-Víboral)1102      OMS 5% = 864     OMS 5%=864  "},{"text":" Trata-Identifi cación Rendim. DAr HC AIIT ASe ANG Peso 100 Semi llas V!gor Hlo. Color grano Con el fín de introducir resistencia a la Antracnosis en las variedades de tipo comercial y a las mejores de años anteriores, se sembraron 26 materiales para usarlos como progenitores. Se realizaron 49 cruzas con un total de 226 cruzamientos. En el Cuadro 6 se encuentran las características de los materiales sembrados.Los materiales G 8156 Y V 8045 resultaron altamente susceptibles a Antracnosis en La Selva, por 10 tanto no se considerarán en pr6ximas siembras. Cuadro 6. MFV-B133. Caracterlsticas de los materiales sembrados en la parcela de cruzamientos ICA•la Selva.    -13--14 -      -13--14 -  miento Parcelas de cruzamiento La Selva' (MFV-8133) (kg/ha)    Sem./Gr. :x vaina Pals Orfgen miento Parcelas de cruzamiento La Selva' (MFV-8133) (kg/ha)Sem./Gr. :x vainaPals Orfgen - G 12031 12048 12114 12128 Parcela 12158 10907 10774 10494 4483 -VARIEDADES DE TIPO COMERCIAL 1 Ancash 113 2 Ayacucho 37 4 Ayacucho 165 6 eajamarca 159 Identificación No. CIAT 8 Junin 204 14 Guatemala 1416 16. Guatemala 1201 17 Guatemala 910 19 IAN 5091 13931 20 Bolonill0 Alargado 1182 532 778 371 843 Color 576 1021 . 1485 1637 1058 .13930 21 Bolonillo Redondo 151B 13932 22 Labor Ovalle 1477 12032 2a Apurímac 2 948 12047 30 Apurimac 95 919 10S08 37 Guatemala 925 929 10820 38 Gu.temal. 147 1765 . 10835 39 Guatemal. 1377 1169 12696 42 Sabanero 605 43 Sangre toro Potos! 758 7336 45 Huila 4 Saogretoro 887 12700 47 Sañudo 35 733 1l7~6C 53 Chusho 887 !l803 56 604 11806 59 1150 12669 61 Palomo 97B 12631 63 Ancash 143 960 12667 64 Blanco Sabanero 1319 12677 65 Perú 214 1068 11732 66 Yunya 1256 11768 67 Slanco 1492 11778 69 CanarIo 1455 11788-41 71 Poroto 8:)3 11796 73 Poroto 1332 -RESISTENCIA A ANTRACNOSlS 6 E 1056 G 12488 Crema/morado 7 r, 4727 Blanco/morado 8 G 1908 Rojo 9 G 2025 Rojo 10 G 2302 Rojo 11 G 8156 Crema/morado Il G 8171 Crema/morado 13 E 804 G 12380 Crema/morado 14 E 808 G 12384 Crema/moNdo 15 E 884-1 G 12417 Crema/morado 16 PG 48 G 12540 Crema/r.'.orado 11 Guarzo Nariño G 12692 Rojo 18 Narifio 20 G 12666 Crema/roja Nota : -MEJORES VARIEDADES DE MOS ANTERIORES 1 ICA-Víbora1 G 12722 Crema/rojo 2 Calabozo G 12720 Crema/rojo 3 Radical G 12670 Rojo 4 Liboríno Voluble a Jl819 ~mari11o/café S 76 3 4 3 72 ¡VA 1 2 2 60 ¡VA 2 3 3 63 ¡VA 2 3 3 79 ¡Va 2 2 2 SCMi DAF ~.NT ASe ANG ROYA He 40 46 51 39 73 IVB 2 3 3 42 70 ¡VA 1 2 2 24 74 TVe 1 2 I 28 64 lva 1 2 1 32 • 62 ¡VA 2 2 1 28 70 ¡VA 2 2 1 42 72 IVa 1 3 1 34 62 IVA 1 2 1 34 66 IVA 3 4 1 n 67 ¡va 4 3 3 60 67 ¡VA 1 2 2 28 .78 ¡Va 2 2 2 34 76 lVA 1 2 1 33 83 ¡Va 2 2 3 07 80 ¡Ve 2 2 3 31 .78 lve 4 3 4 31 80 lV8 1 3 3 42 80 ¡Ve 2 2 3 27 69 ¡Va 3 2 3 47 82 ¡Va 1 2 3 73 80 ¡Va 1 2 3 28 73 ¡VO 4 2 2 41 . 3.46 3.88 3.21 3.22 3.77 Vígor 4.89 6.51 6.60 5.80 6.62 6.68 6.15 6.22 3.10 3.66 7.44 6.66 7.31 4.32 4.91 4.86 4.43 5.36 3.82 4.01 5.28 78 ¡ve 1 2 3 30 3.92 78 ¡VB 2 2 3 38 3.95 68 ¡Va 3 3 3 41 4.65 80 ¡va 2 2 2 45 3.84 80 ¡VB 3 2 3 40 5.82 80 ¡VS 3 2 3 . 41 4.03 75 IVS 3 2 2 43 4.07 S 70 2 3 2 ¡VA 62 1 3 4 S 58 2 3 1 S 50 3 4 2 60 2 4 2 S 62 5 3 2 S 60 .3. 4 2 S 66 2 3 2 66 2 3 2 S 66 1 2 S 58 1 3 2 S 60 2 2 2 S 66 2 4 4 ¡VA IVA lVA 2 ¡va ¡VA IVA IVS Iva IVA IIlS lIIB Ill8 S 76 4 4 2 IVS S 76 2 3 4 lva S 76 2 4 2 5 Linea 32980 H-B G 11821 Rojo S 71 2 4 2. Iva lV8 IVS 3. 3. J J 4 3. 3 3. 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 2 3 2 2 2 2 3. 2 3. 2 •2 3. 2 • 2 3 . Rosado/bl anco Perú 3 Rojo/crema Perú 4 Rojo/blanco Perú 3 Rojo Perú 3 Rojo/crema Perú 2 Arnaril10 Guatemal a 3 N\"grc Gua temala 3 Negro Gua tema la 3 . Negro 3 . Negro Guatemala 3 Negro Guatemala 3 Negro Guatemala 4 Amarillo Perú 4 eterna Perú 3 Blanco. 3 Blanco 3 alanco buatemal a 4 Morado/negro Colombia 3 Morado 3 Rojo. Colombia 3 ~lorado/rosado Col Or.1bia 3 ROjo Perú 4 Rojo/crema Perú 3 CrellJa/rojo Perú 3 Blanco Colombia 3 Amarillo Perú 3 Blanco Colombia 3 61anco Colombia 3 Canario Perú 3 BlancO Perú l CanarIo 3 CanarIo 3 Amar! 110 Perú Perú Perú Guatemill. Guatemal. '\" .... -G 12031 12048 12114 12128 Parcela 12158 10907 10774 10494 4483 -VARIEDADES DE TIPO COMERCIAL 1 Ancash 113 2 Ayacucho 37 4 Ayacucho 165 6 eajamarca 159 Identificación No. CIAT 8 Junin 204 14 Guatemala 1416 16. Guatemala 1201 17 Guatemala 910 19 IAN 5091 13931 20 Bolonill0 Alargado 1182 532 778 371 843 Color 576 1021 . 1485 1637 1058 .13930 21 Bolonillo Redondo 151B 13932 22 Labor Ovalle 1477 12032 2a Apurímac 2 948 12047 30 Apurimac 95 919 10S08 37 Guatemala 925 929 10820 38 Gu.temal. 147 1765 . 10835 39 Guatemal. 1377 1169 12696 42 Sabanero 605 43 Sangre toro Potos! 758 7336 45 Huila 4 Saogretoro 887 12700 47 Sañudo 35 733 1l7~6C 53 Chusho 887 !l803 56 604 11806 59 1150 12669 61 Palomo 97B 12631 63 Ancash 143 960 12667 64 Blanco Sabanero 1319 12677 65 Perú 214 1068 11732 66 Yunya 1256 11768 67 Slanco 1492 11778 69 CanarIo 1455 11788-41 71 Poroto 8:)3 11796 73 Poroto 1332 -RESISTENCIA A ANTRACNOSlS 6 E 1056 G 12488 Crema/morado 7 r, 4727 Blanco/morado 8 G 1908 Rojo 9 G 2025 Rojo 10 G 2302 Rojo 11 G 8156 Crema/morado Il G 8171 Crema/morado 13 E 804 G 12380 Crema/morado 14 E 808 G 12384 Crema/moNdo 15 E 884-1 G 12417 Crema/morado 16 PG 48 G 12540 Crema/r.'.orado 11 Guarzo Nariño G 12692 Rojo 18 Narifio 20 G 12666 Crema/roja Nota : -MEJORES VARIEDADES DE MOS ANTERIORES 1 ICA-Víbora1 G 12722 Crema/rojo 2 Calabozo G 12720 Crema/rojo 3 Radical G 12670 Rojo 4 Liboríno Voluble a Jl819 ~mari11o/café S 76 3 4 3 72 ¡VA 1 2 2 60 ¡VA 2 3 3 63 ¡VA 2 3 3 79 ¡Va 2 2 2 SCMi DAF ~.NT ASe ANG ROYA He 40 46 51 39 73 IVB 2 3 3 42 70 ¡VA 1 2 2 24 74 TVe 1 2 I 28 64 lva 1 2 1 32 • 62 ¡VA 2 2 1 28 70 ¡VA 2 2 1 42 72 IVa 1 3 1 34 62 IVA 1 2 1 34 66 IVA 3 4 1 n 67 ¡va 4 3 3 60 67 ¡VA 1 2 2 28 .78 ¡Va 2 2 2 34 76 lVA 1 2 1 33 83 ¡Va 2 2 3 07 80 ¡Ve 2 2 3 31 .78 lve 4 3 4 31 80 lV8 1 3 3 42 80 ¡Ve 2 2 3 27 69 ¡Va 3 2 3 47 82 ¡Va 1 2 3 73 80 ¡Va 1 2 3 28 73 ¡VO 4 2 2 41 . 3.46 3.88 3.21 3.22 3.77 Vígor 4.89 6.51 6.60 5.80 6.62 6.68 6.15 6.22 3.10 3.66 7.44 6.66 7.31 4.32 4.91 4.86 4.43 5.36 3.82 4.01 5.28 78 ¡ve 1 2 3 30 3.92 78 ¡VB 2 2 3 38 3.95 68 ¡Va 3 3 3 41 4.65 80 ¡va 2 2 2 45 3.84 80 ¡VB 3 2 3 40 5.82 80 ¡VS 3 2 3 . 41 4.03 75 IVS 3 2 2 43 4.07 S 70 2 3 2 ¡VA 62 1 3 4 S 58 2 3 1 S 50 3 4 2 60 2 4 2 S 62 5 3 2 S 60 .3. 4 2 S 66 2 3 2 66 2 3 2 S 66 1 2 S 58 1 3 2 S 60 2 2 2 S 66 2 4 4 ¡VA IVA lVA 2 ¡va ¡VA IVA IVS Iva IVA IIlS lIIB Ill8 S 76 4 4 2 IVS S 76 2 3 4 lva S 76 2 4 2 5 Linea 32980 H-B G 11821 Rojo S 71 2 4 2. Iva lV8 IVS 3. 3.J J 4 3. 3 3. 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 3. 2 3 2 2 2 2 3. 2 3. 2 •2 3. 2 • 23 . Rosado/bl anco Perú 3 Rojo/crema Perú 4 Rojo/blanco Perú 3 Rojo Perú 3 Rojo/crema Perú 2 Arnaril10 Guatemal a 3 N\"grc Gua temala 3 Negro Gua tema la 3 . Negro 3 . Negro Guatemala 3 Negro Guatemala 3 Negro Guatemala 4 Amarillo Perú 4 eterna Perú 3 Blanco. 3 Blanco 3 alanco buatemal a 4 Morado/negro Colombia 3 Morado 3 Rojo. Colombia 3 ~lorado/rosado Col Or.1bia 3 ROjo Perú 4 Rojo/crema Perú 3 CrellJa/rojo Perú 3 Blanco Colombia 3 Amarillo Perú 3 Blanco Colombia 3 61anco Colombia 3 Canario Perú 3 BlancO Perú l CanarIo 3 CanarIo 3 Amar! 110 Perú Perú Perú Guatemill. Guatemal.'\" ....  19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 V 7911 V 7918 V 792G V 8045 V 79119 AB 136 E 299 Café Café Crema Morado Rojo G 12727 Rojo G 5653 Rojo G 2333 Rojo S S S S S S S S 58 58 60 62 66 58 60 60 1 1 1 5 3 1 1 2 4 4 2 2 3 4 4 4 3 2 3 3 2 3 4 4 IVA I lIS llIB IVA ¡lIS ¡VA ¡VA ¡VA 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26V 7911 V 7918 V 792G V 8045 V 79119 AB 136 E 299Café Café Crema Morado Rojo G 12727 Rojo G 5653 Rojo G 2333 RojoS S S S S S S S58 58 60 62 66 58 60 601 1 1 5 3 1 1 24 4 2 2 3 4 4 43 2 3 3 2 3 4 4IVA I lIS llIB IVA ¡lIS ¡VA ¡VA ¡VA   •       •  "}],"sieverID":"71dda3cb-314a-4bdb-af5c-74c763d5e8c9","abstract":"En este informe están contenidos los resultados de los ensayos planeados para 1981 en el Convenio lCA-CIAT para la investigaci6n en fríjol según oficio de febrero 11 de 1981. los ensayos fueron llevados a cabo por el Ing. Alberto Román Vélez en el Centro Regional de Investigación ICA-la Selva (Municipio de Rionegro; Antioquia) con asesoría técnica de científicos del CIAT y apoyo administrativo y.científico I de los Drs. Jaime Isaza, Emile Girard, Gilberto Bastidas, Ramiro de la Cruz, Ja.i me Lotero y Antonio Rivera .. Los ensayos se dividen en cuatro grupos :A. Investigación sobre fríjol voluble en relevo con maíz B. Ensayos sobre agronomía de maíz x fríjol C. Investigación sobre herbicidas D. Investigación sobre fríjol arbustivo en monocultivo Los viveros de mejoramiento genético de fríjol fueron cultivados sin protección contra enfermedades y con un control mínimo para plagas con el fín de seleccionar plantas resistentes a las enfermedades más limitantes en la zona Antracnosis, Ascochyta y Mancha Angular.Los cruzamientos se,hacen con el objetivo dejntroducir'resistencias a las enfermedades limitantes y al virus del mosaico común.Los ensayos sobre agronomía de maíz x fríjol buscan obtener informació sobre las mejores distancias y densidades de población para maíz y fríjol ta asociados como en relevo.En la zona de ICA-La Selva el ataque por malezas es muy alto por lo cu se trata de seleccionar productos con buen porcentaje de control .Y suficie~t residualidad durante el ciclo del cultivo.Cuadro l. MfV-8106. EVAlUACION DE GER."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b6eaf6ce1657ff93e9fbdd9e3738412","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2b461236-5896-47fb-8547-191156a8ea61/retrieve"},"pageCount":13,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Como protagonista central de los proyectos llevados a cabo por las Fundaciones Rockefeller, Ford y Kellogg, a partir de 1948 Colombia contribuyó de manera muy importante a los esfuerzos que, con el tiempo, condujeron a la creación del Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR, de su sigla en inglés). Con miras a ampliar dicho trabajo y darle continuidad, el gobierno colombiano aceptó ser anfitrión del Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical (CIAT). Desde que se estableció este Centro en el 1967, se ha comprometido con una agenda de investigación sumamente variada, la cual refleja la extraordinaria diversidad de la agricultura y del acervo de recursos naturales de Colombia."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"El país ocupa un nicho geográfico estratégico (enlazando a América Central y del Sur así como el Caribe) y abarca una amplia gama de agroecologías, sistemas agrícolas y recursos fitogenéticos. Por esas razones, Colombia ha servido extremadamente bien como sede para la investigación eco-regional que hace el CIAT y también ha facilitado las transferencias de nuevas tecnologías desde América tropical hasta África al sur del Sahara y el sudeste asiático. Además, la sede del CIAT en Cali ha servido de punto lógico para las operaciones regionales de otros Centros patrocinados por el CGIAR -en particular Bioversity International y el Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT)."},{"index":3,"size":98,"text":"Las instituciones colombianas también han desempeñado un papel activo en el trabajo de otros Centros e iniciativas del CGIAR, incluyendo el Centro para la Investigación Forestal Internacional (CIFOR), el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), el Consorcio para el Desarrollo Sostenible de la Ecorregión Andina (CONDESAN), el Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Cultivos para el Trópico Semiárido (ICRISAT), el Instituto Internacional de Investigación sobre Políticas Alimentarias (IFPRI), el Instituto Internacional de Investigación Pecuaria (ILRI), el Instituto Internacional para el Manejo del Agua (IWMI) , el Programa de Reto de Agua y Alimentos y el Centro Mundial de Agroforestería."},{"index":4,"size":85,"text":"Este trabajo colaborativo ha entregado considerables beneficios a Colombia, América Latina y el Caribe como un todo, y para muchos otros países del mundo en desarrollo. En Colombia, muchos de los beneficios han provenido de la investigación sobre alimentos básicos, especialmente fríjol, yuca, maíz, papa y arroz, así como forrajes tropicales para el mejoramiento sostenible de la producción pecuaria. El país también se ha beneficiado de la investigación encaminada a mejorar el manejo de los recursos naturales mediante intervenciones, tanto de tecnología como de políticas."},{"index":5,"size":87,"text":"Al tiempo que los investigadores colombianos continúan comprometidos con el mejoramiento de los cultivos arriba mencionados, también han buscado el desarrollo de productos agrícolas de mayor valor, especialmente frutas tropicales, como parte de nuevos esfuerzos para combatir la pobreza rural. El CIAT y otros Centros están encontrando maneras de apoyar ese trabajo de manera eficaz, por ejemplo, mediante la caracterización de la diversidad genética de especies frutales y la investigación en biotecnología enfocada hacia el desarrollo de métodos para la multiplicación rápida de materiales de siembra sanos."},{"index":6,"size":85,"text":"Aprovechando su larga trayectoria de colaboración con los Centros, Colombia se convirtió en miembro del CGIAR en 1993, justamente en un tiempo en que muchos de los donantes tradicionales empezaron a reducir su apoyo a la agricultura. Durante más de una década, la contribución financiera de Colombia fue la más alta entre los miembros del CGIAR que son países en desarrollo. Por cada millón de dólares estadounidenses que el país invirtió en la investigación del CGIAR, obtuvo un estimado de US$74 millones en beneficios económicos."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Otras ventajas que ofrece Colombia y que han favorecido enormemente la investigación apoyada por el CGIAR en el país son sus recursos humanos de gran calidad y su capital institucional. Los profesionales colombianos han sido fundamentales para la eficacia del CIAT y de los otros Centros, formando parte de sus juntas directivas, como administradores, como científicos y en otras actividades."},{"index":8,"size":16,"text":"papel MultiFaCÉtiCo De ColoMBia en la investiGaCión aGríCola internaCional la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar 4."},{"index":9,"size":148,"text":"Forrajes más productivos para las sabanas tropicales: Una meta inicial y persistente del CIAT y su gobierno anfitrión fue encontrar maneras de mejorar el potencial agrícola de los Llanos Orientales del país -un objetivo que ahora parece ser más pertinente que nunca, considerando la reciente crisis en los precios de los alimentos. Esta región, que ocupa alrededor de 17 millones de hectáreas, forma parte de las vastas sabanas tropicales de América del Sur -la última gran frontera agrícola del mundo. La opción más prometedora para los Llanos Orientales es reemplazar los pastizales nativos improductivos con gramíneas y leguminosas forrajeras mejoradas (preferentemente en combinación con cultivos alimenticios), un proceso que se encuentra bien adelantado. Los nuevos forrajes son altamente productivos y tolerantes a los suelos ácidos infértiles de la región, y aumentan la ganancia de peso del ganado bovino de 20 kilogramos por hectárea por año a 200 kilogramos."},{"index":10,"size":89,"text":"Arroz y fríjol -Una inseparable dupla de alimentos de primera necesidad se fortalece: Para millones de consumidores en Colombia y otras El apoyo que brinda Colombia al CGIAR está a cargo de su Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural. En el marco de esa relación, el CIAT y otros Centros trabajan en estrecha colaboración con la Corporación Colombiana de Investigación Agropecuaria (CORPOICA) junto con otros institutos nacionales de investigación, las universidades del país, sus numerosas organizaciones de la sociedad civil que están socialmente comprometidas y su dinámico sector privado."},{"index":11,"size":52,"text":"Los Centros han contribuido de manera importante al fortalecimiento de la capacidad investigativa de sus socios colombianos. Sólo el CIAT ha capacitado más de 4,000 profesionales agrícolas del país, muchos de los cuales han continuado sus estudios en universidades prestigiosas y han ocupado puestos importantes en CORPOICA y otras organizaciones de investigación."},{"index":12,"size":74,"text":"Una parte significativa de la inversión de los Centros en el fortalecimiento de capacidades ha constado de apoyo a estudiantes colombianos a nivel de posgrado. Por ejemplo, Bioversity International y CIAT, en colaboración con la Universidad Nacional, han ayudado a desarrollar un programa de maestría sobre recursos fitogenéticos, que se encuentra entre los pocos programas de posgrado que se han sostenido sobre este tema en América Latina. la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar. 5"},{"index":13,"size":103,"text":"Nacional de Arroceros (Fedearroz) de Colombia. Las nuevas variedades están generando beneficios económicos calculados en cientos de millones de dólares estadounidenses, principalmente debido al incremento de los rendimientos y a la reducción de gastos en productos químicos para controlar enfermedades y plagas. El mejoramiento del arroz en Colombia y otros países sudamericanos ha recibido un significativo impulso durante la última década por parte de una innovadora alianza publico-privada: el Fondo Latinoamericano para Arroz de Riego (FLAR). Con apoyo y orientación de Fedearroz y otros miembros, el FLAR ha acelerado el flujo de los resultados de investigación para satisfacer las exigencias del sector arrocero."},{"index":14,"size":89,"text":"En cuanto al fríjol, 17 variedades relacionadas con el CIAT, liberadas en Colombia desde la década de los 80, también muestran rendimientos más altos y mayor resistencia a enfermedades y plagas. Generaciones nuevas de variedades de fríjol ofrecen la ventaja adicional de un mayor contenido de micronutrientes, específicamente hierro y cinc. Recientemente, el CIAT firmó acuerdos con socios locales en Colombia para la multiplicación y ensayo en gran escala de estas variedades \"biofortificadas\", con la intención de fortalecer la seguridad alimentaria para algunos sectores de la población más vulnerable."},{"index":15,"size":94,"text":"Mejores perspectivas de mercado para la yuca: La investigación colaborativa sobre la yuca en Colombia está reforzando firmemente la doble función del cultivo en este país al igual que en otros países latinoamericanos. Además de consumirse fresca, como alimento básico tradicional, esta raíz, rica en almidón, también proporciona materia prima para procesar alimentos para animales, almidón y, cada vez más, bioetanol. La yuca, aun cultivada principalmente por pequeños agricultores en ambientes marginales, les representa a ellos una oportunidad importante para mejorar sus ingresos, ya que se transforma en un producto orientado hacia el mercado."},{"index":16,"size":97,"text":"Hasta el momento, Colombia ha liberado 17 variedades relacionadas con el CIAT, que muestran rendimientos más altos y mayor contenido de almidón, así como resistencia a enfermedades. Las variedades de yuca del futuro tendrán cualidades de almidón especiales así como otros rasgos que mejoran aún más el potencial de mercado. Se está adelantando este trabajo y otros relacionados en colaboración con una alianza publico-privada estructurada como el FLAR -el Consorcio Latinoamericano y del Caribe de Apoyo a la Investigación y al Desarrollo de la Yuca (CLAYUCA)-en el cual participan activamente cerca de una docena de socios colombianos."},{"index":17,"size":42,"text":"Desplazamiento del maíz a nuevos nichos importantes: Durante los años 90, cuando se desplomaron los precios de café, causando una grave crisis en la zona cafetera de Colombia, dicho sector optó por la diversificación, con la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar 6."},{"index":18,"size":143,"text":"el apoyo del gobierno nacional, como el mejor camino para lograr nuevamente la prosperidad. Una opción que ha surgido como evidente ganadora es la siembra de maíz entre las hileras de arbustos podados de café. Para ayudar a los caficultores a llenar este nuevo nicho, el CIMMYT ha trabajado con socios nacionales para desarrollar cuatro variedades de alto rendimiento, resistentes a enfermedades, incluyendo dos híbridos, que ahora están siendo promovidos. Como resultado, el área sembrada de maíz en la zona cafetera ha pasado de cerca de 3,000 hectáreas en el 2002 a más de 50,000 en el 2007, generando empleo para los trabajadores del campo sin tierra, al igual que utilidades de casi US$1,000 por hectárea para los caficultores. El maíz también está progresando en los Llanos Orientales, donde las nuevas variedades de maíz tolerantes a suelos ácidos han permitido expandir la producción."},{"index":19,"size":191,"text":"Aprovechamiento del potencial de las frutas tropicales de alto valor: Colombia alberga una rica variedad de frutas tropicales y asigna alta prioridad a hacer realidad su potencial de desarrollo. Entre otros beneficios, las frutas tropicales proporcionan un poderoso medio para aumentar los ingresos de los pequeños agricultores mediante la producción y el procesamiento de cultivos de alto valor. Desde mediados de la década de los 90, Bioversity International ha trabajado estrechamente con CORPOICA y con diversas universidades colombianas en investigaciones encaminadas a caracterizar la diversidad genética de especies frutales, como la papaya y las diferentes especies de Passiflora, que tienen un importante valor comercial. El nuevo conocimiento generado por esta investigación es esencial para mejorar las variedades actualmente en producción, para identificar nuevas opciones de frutas que pueden llamar la atención de los consumidores, y para planificar esfuerzos de conservación a nivel de país. Un producto reciente de la investigación colaborativa que incluye a Bioversity, CIAT y el Centro de Cooperación Internacional en Investigación Agrícola para el Desarrollo (CIRAD) es la Base de Datos de Especies Frutales del Nuevo Mundo, que cubre 1,256 especies. la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar. 7"},{"index":20,"size":140,"text":"Una agricultura más competitiva y una mejor administración ambiental: Desde principios de la década de los 90, el CIAT ha desarrollado una ambiciosa agenda de investigación sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales, que complementa el trabajo que se hace sobre cultivos clave. Esta investigación cubre las principales agroecologías en Colombia -laderas, sabanas y bosques marginales-y ha generado una rica colección de conocimientos, métodos y opciones tecnológicas que están siendo aplicados por la población rural y numerosas organizaciones de investigación y desarrollo en todo el país. Son especialmente dignos de mención los sistemas de producción mejorados para los Llanos Orientales; los métodos de investigación participativa con los agricultores respecto a cultivos locales, el manejo comunitario de cuencas hidrográficas y el desarrollo agroempresarial; y las herramientas de información para orientar los esfuerzos para combatir la pobreza y proteger los recursos naturales."},{"index":21,"size":121,"text":"Un producto reciente de esta investigación es un nuevo recurso de información que busca apoyar los esfuerzos de las alianzas estratégicas que se están formando en Colombia y en otras partes, para hacer que la agricultura sea más competitiva y equitativa ante la turbulencia económica y el cambio climático. Creado en colaboración con una variada gama de socios nacionales e internacionales, este recurso suministra información detallada que cubre unas 30 millones de hectáreas de tierras cultivadas en Colombia. Estudios de casos recientes han demostrado la utilidad de dicha información en tareas como seleccionar áreas para la introducción de cultivos de alto valor, esquemas para compensar a la población rural por servicios ambientales y proyectos para reducir la sedimentación de vías fluviales."},{"index":22,"size":88,"text":"Compensación de la población rural por servicios ambientales: Mientras que el CIAT emprendió nueva investigación sobre el manejo de los recursos naturales en las diversas agroecologías a comienzos de la década de los 90, CONDESAN emprendió esfuerzos complementarios en la región alta de los Andes. Una innovación que ha surgido de este trabajo es un mecanismo para compensar a la población rural por la prestación de servicios ambientales en las cuencas andinas consideradas vitales, que apoyan medios de vida agrícolas y albergan diversidad biológica, además de proveer agua."},{"index":23,"size":153,"text":"En una de estas cuencas, cerca de la Laguna de Fúquene en Colombia, se identificó la eutrofización (o contaminación por nutrientes), causada por el uso excesivo de agroquímicos en la producción de papa, como importante problema ambiental. Un análisis de los posibles usos de la tierra indicó que la agricultura de conservación (es decir, reducir la labranza y dejar residuos de cultivos para cubrir el suelo) era la opción más beneficiosa en términos generales, especialmente porque controlaba la erosión y reducía la filtración de nitratos y fosfatos provenientes de los fertilizantes y de los desechos animales en el lago. Para brindar a los pequeños agricultores los incentivos y medios para adoptar esta alternativa, se creó un fondo rotatorio que les ofrece crédito a través de asociaciones. Para el éxito de esta iniciativa fue clave la asistencia técnica que los agricultores recibieron del gobierno local y el apoyo de investigación proporcionado por el CIAT."},{"index":24,"size":7,"text":"la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar 8."}]},{"head":"cgi ar por QuÉ es iMportante la investiGaCión aGríCola","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Los altos e inestables precios de los alimentos, el desarrollo intensivo de biocombustibles, la preocupación sobre el cambio climático global y una crisis financiera mundial han anunciado una nueva era de reto y oportunidad para la agricultura y el manejo de los recursos naturales."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Estas tendencias mundiales, si bien afectan a personas en todo el mundo, generan más riesgos y consecuencias para los aproximadamente 2.1 mil millones de personas que subsisten con menos de US$2 al día. Cerca de tres cuartos de estas personas viven en zonas rurales y dependen directa o indirectamente de la agricultura para subsistir."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Los altos precios de los alimentos ya están forzando a los consumidores de escasos recursos a cambiar drásticamente sus gastos, reduciendo de manera alarmante las posibilidades de una mejor nutrición y bienestar."},{"index":4,"size":77,"text":"El cambio climático, al empeorar las condiciones de crecimiento de los cultivos, ejercerá mucha más presión en la capacidad de las tierras agrícolas y minará el crecimiento de la productividad, que es vital para reducir la pobreza. Los científicos calculan que las temperaturas ascendentes y los patrones cambiantes de precipitación podrían hacer que la producción agrícola disminuya hasta en un 50 por ciento en muchos países africanos y en 30 por ciento en Asia central y meridional."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Es esencial una mayor inversión en la ciencia agrícola a nivel nacional e internacional para afrontar estos nuevos y multifacéticos retos mediante innovaciones que beneficien a la población de escasos recursos al aumentar la productividad agrícola, mientras se conserva los recursos naturales, como el agua, los bosques y la pesca."},{"index":6,"size":97,"text":"Según el Informe sobre el Desarrollo Mundial 2008, las inversiones en la investigación agrícola \"han rendido cuantiosos frutos\", con una tasa de rentabilidad interna del 43 por ciento en 700 proyectos de desarrollo evaluados en los países en desarrollo. Sin duda, los programas fuertes de investigación pertinente y eficaz deben convertirse en el eje de la agenda de desarrollo internacional, si se quiere alcanzar los Objetivos de Desarrollo del Milenio de reducir a la mitad el hambre y la pobreza para el 2015 y si se quiere que estas ganancias se expandan en las décadas por venir."}]},{"head":"UNA ALIANZA ESTRATÉGICA QUE EVOLUCIONA","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"El Grupo Consultivo para la Investigación Agrícola Internacional (CGIAR), fundado en 1971, es una alianza estratégica de tipo colaborativo, cuyos miembros, 64 en total, sostienen 15 centros internacionales de investigación y trabajan en cooperación con cientos de gobiernos y organizaciones de la sociedad civil y de la empresa privada, en todo el mundo. Los miembros del CGIAR representan a 21 países en desarrollo y a 26 países industrializados, a 4 copatrocinadores y a otras 13 organizaciones internacionales. Actualmente, más de 8,000 integrantes del CGIAR, entre científicos y personal administrativo, trabajan en más de 100 países en todo el mundo."},{"index":2,"size":189,"text":"Aplicando los últimos adelantos científicos, el CGIAR impulsa el desarrollo agrícola sostenible en beneficio de la población pobre del mundo, que recibe de éste mayor seguridad alimentaria, mejor nutrición y más salud, ingresos más altos y un manejo más racional de los recursos naturales. Las nuevas variedades de las especies cultivadas, los conocimientos y otros productos que derivan de la investigación conjunta hecha en el CGIAR están plenamente disponibles para los individuos y las organizaciones que trabajen en pro del desarrollo agrícola sostenible en todo el mundo. Asimismo, el CGIAR está ejecutando varios \"Programas de Desafío\", diseñados para afrontar problemas mundiales o regionales de importancia vital. Mediante el trabajo realizado en amplias alianzas estratégicas de investigación, los Programas de Desafío ponen en movimiento conocimientos, tecnologías y recursos para resolver problemas como las deficiencias de micronutrientes, que aquejan a más de 3 mil millones de personas; la escasez de agua, que ya afecta a un tercio de la población mundial (2 mil millones de personas); y el cambio climático, que encierra una amenaza nefasta para las diversas formas de ganarse la vida en las zonas rurales del mundo en desarrollo."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"Para afrontar esos desafíos con más eficacia, el CGIAR está adoptando reformas institucionales importantes, que fueron diseñadas en 2008 después de un profundo análisis, una evaluación independiente y consultas constantes a personas y grupos que tienen intereses directos en este campo. Cuando estas reformas se hayan implantado en el 2010, tal como se espera, darán como resultado un enfoque colectivo más fuerte de la investigación agrícola internacional, cuyas características sean un control administrativo simplificado, un financiamiento más adecuado y un fortalecimiento de sus alianzas estratégicas."},{"index":4,"size":94,"text":"El CGIAR está abierto a todos los países y organizaciones que comparten el compromiso de lograr el desarrollo agrícola sostenible y estén dispuestos a invertir recursos financieros, humanos y técnicos para alcanzar ese fin. La afiliación al CGIAR se ha ampliado y diversificado con el transcurso de los años, y el Grupo está en una posición que le permite aceptar un crecimiento adicional. El gasto presupuestal de CGIAR estimado en 530 milliones de dólares en 2008, respresenta la mayor inversión para utilizar los avances científicos en beneficio de la población rural pobre del mundo."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar 10. "}]},{"head":"Distribución de la inversión en el 2008 en regiones en desarrollo","index":4,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" La investigación del CGIAR tiene las siguientes prioridades:Reducir el hambre y la desnutrición ■ mediante la producción de más alimentos, que sean de mejor calidad gracias al mejoramiento genético Conservar la biodiversidad de la ■ De los centros del CGIAR, 11 mantienen bancos internacionales de genes, los cuales preservan y hacen fácilmente disponibles los recursos filogenéticos, que son la base de la seguridad alimentaria del mundo. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"un CGiar en evolución y en crecimiento Financiación en $ millones Miembros (est) (proj) R. E. Evenson and D. Gollin (eds), Crop Variety Improvement and its Effect on Productivity -The Impact of Agricultural Research, CABI Publishing, UK.  La investigación agrícola internacional ha ■ Más de 50 de las variedades de maíz Sahara, esta tecnología y un método La investigación agrícola internacional ha■Más de 50 de las variedades de maízSahara, esta tecnología y un método  mantenido una sólida tradición: producir  tolerantes a la sequía que fueron nuevo de control biológico, que ha mantenido una sólida tradición: producirtolerantes a la sequía que fueronnuevo de control biológico, que ha  resultados que contribuyan a enfrentar  desarrolladas recientemente están demostrado su capacidad de reducir resultados que contribuyan a enfrentardesarrolladas recientemente estándemostrado su capacidad de reducir  los desafíos cruciales que presentan el  creciendo en cerca de 1 millón de la aflatoxina en casi el 100%, están los desafíos cruciales que presentan elcreciendo en cerca de 1 millón dela aflatoxina en casi el 100%, están  desarrollo y el medio ambiente en  Si no se invirtieran dineros públicos en la investigación hectáreas en muchos sitios de África ayudando a frenar esta seria amenaza desarrollo y el medio ambiente enSi no se invirtieran dineros públicos en la investigación hectáreas en muchos sitios de África ayudando a frenar esta seria amenaza  nuestro tiempo.  agrícola internacional por intermedio del CGIAR, oriental y de África meridional. de la salud humana -especialmente nuestro tiempo.agrícola internacional por intermedio del CGIAR, oriental y de África meridional. de la salud humana -especialmente    ■ ocurriría lo siguiente: Una versión de una variedad de arroz la de los niños-y a salvar millones ■ocurriría lo siguiente: Una versión de una variedad de arroz la de los niños-y a salvar millones  La investigación que han hecho, tanto  La producción agrícola mundial sería de 4% a 5% que tolera la inundación y se cultiva n de dólares por la exportación de La investigación que han hecho, tantoLa producción agrícola mundial sería de 4% a 5% que tolera la inundación y se cultiva n de dólares por la exportación de  los centros apoyados por el CGIAR como  inferior a la actual. en 6 millones de hectáreas en granos que, de otro modo, se los centros apoyados por el CGIAR comoinferior a la actual. en 6 millones de hectáreas en granos que, de otro modo, se US$ million sus colaboradores asociados, ha contribuido significativamente a reducir el hambre, en general, y a elevar el ingreso de los pequeños agricultores en todo el mundo en desarrollo. Aunque buena parte de la investigación del CGIAR está dirigida a impulsar la productividad de los cultivos y de las  n Bangladesh. La nueva variedad les Los países en desarrollo producirían de 7% a 8% hubieran perdido. permite a los agricultores obtener Una metodología sencilla que integra ■ menos en alimentos. Los precios de los alimentos y de los granos n para alimentación animal serían de 18% a 21% más altos. Habría de 13 a 15 millones más de niños n rendimientos de 2 a 3 veces más que los obtenidos con la versión no tolerante, cuando se prolonga el sumergimiento del cultivo de arroz; esta situación será cada vez más la agricultura y la acuicultura y permite elevar el ingreso y la provisión de alimentos en ciertas áreas de África austral, donde la fuerza laboral agrícola ha sido diezmada por la Número de Miembros desnutridos en el mundo. común a causa del cambio climático. infección del VIH/SIDA. Cuando se US$ millionsus colaboradores asociados, ha contribuido significativamente a reducir el hambre, en general, y a elevar el ingreso de los pequeños agricultores en todo el mundo en desarrollo. Aunque buena parte de la investigación del CGIAR está dirigida a impulsar la productividad de los cultivos y de lasn Bangladesh. La nueva variedad les Los países en desarrollo producirían de 7% a 8% hubieran perdido. permite a los agricultores obtener Una metodología sencilla que integra ■ menos en alimentos. Los precios de los alimentos y de los granos n para alimentación animal serían de 18% a 21% más altos. Habría de 13 a 15 millones más de niños n rendimientos de 2 a 3 veces más que los obtenidos con la versión no tolerante, cuando se prolonga el sumergimiento del cultivo de arroz; esta situación será cada vez más la agricultura y la acuicultura y permite elevar el ingreso y la provisión de alimentos en ciertas áreas de África austral, donde la fuerza laboral agrícola ha sido diezmada por la Número de Miembros desnutridos en el mundo. común a causa del cambio climático. infección del VIH/SIDA. Cuando se  explotaciones pecuarias, otra parte de ■ La adopción generalizada de la ensayó en gran escala en Malawi, el explotaciones pecuarias, otra parte de■La adopción generalizada de laensayó en gran escala en Malawi, el  ella comprende una gran diversidad de  Por cada dólar (US$1) que se invierte en la tecnología de 'labranza cero', que método duplicó los ingresos de 1,200 ella comprende una gran diversidad dePor cada dólar (US$1) que se invierte en la tecnología de 'labranza cero', que método duplicó los ingresos de 1,200  iniciativas encaminadas a mejorar el  investigación desarrollada por el CGIAR se produce un conserva los recursos en los sistemas hogares y aumentó de manera iniciativas encaminadas a mejorar elinvestigación desarrollada por el CGIAR se produce un conserva los recursos en los sistemas hogares y aumentó de manera  manejo y el uso de los suelos, del agua,  valor equivalente a US$9 en más alimentos para los vitales de arroz-trigo en Asia espectacular el consumo de pescado. manejo y el uso de los suelos, del agua,valor equivalente a US$9 en más alimentos para los vitales de arroz-trigo en Asia espectacular el consumo de pescado.  de la diversidad biológica, de los bosques y de la pesca. Decisiones políticas más acertadas y mejores prácticas de manejo han servido para  meridional. Esta tecnología es países en desarrollo, que es donde más se necesitan. Un nuevo enfoque que permite ■ aplicada por cerca de medio millón predecir el impacto probable del Es evidente, considerando estos datos, que el de agricultores en más de 3.2 cambio climático en los parientes crecimiento agrícola mitiga la pobreza y el hambre. millones de hectáreas, y ha silvestres de las principales especies de la diversidad biológica, de los bosques y de la pesca. Decisiones políticas más acertadas y mejores prácticas de manejo han servido parameridional. Esta tecnología es países en desarrollo, que es donde más se necesitan. Un nuevo enfoque que permite ■ aplicada por cerca de medio millón predecir el impacto probable del Es evidente, considerando estos datos, que el de agricultores en más de 3.2 cambio climático en los parientes crecimiento agrícola mitiga la pobreza y el hambre. millones de hectáreas, y ha silvestres de las principales especies  proteger millones de hectáreas de  generado beneficios que se calculan cultivadas; estas especies silvestres o proteger millones de hectáreas degenerado beneficios que se calculancultivadas; estas especies silvestres o  bosques y de praderas, amparando así la  en US$147 millones gracias al mayor nativas son cruciales como fuente de bosques y de praderas, amparando así laen US$147 millones gracias al mayornativas son cruciales como fuente de  diversidad biológica y evitando la  rendimiento de los cultivos, al los genes necesarios para mejorar la diversidad biológica y evitando larendimiento de los cultivos, allos genes necesarios para mejorar la  degradación de la tierra cultivable.  menor costo que requiere su capacidad de recuperación de las degradación de la tierra cultivable.menor costo que requiere sucapacidad de recuperación de las     producción, y al ahorro logrado en plantas frente al clima, y son valiosas producción, y al ahorro logrado enplantas frente al clima, y son valiosas  Entre los resultados y productos de esa  agua y en energía. como hallazgos relacionados con las Entre los resultados y productos de esaagua y en energía.como hallazgos relacionados con las  investigación están los siguientes: ■ Un sistema agroforestal denominado probables consecuencias que tendrá el investigación están los siguientes:■Un sistema agroforestal denominadoprobables consecuencias que tendrá el  ■ El control biológico exitoso del piojo  'barbechos de árboles como desarrollo de los biocombustibles en ■El control biológico exitoso del piojo'barbechos de árboles comodesarrollo de los biocombustibles en   harinoso de la yuca y del ácaro verde  fertilizante', que renueva la fertilidad China e India en cuanto a la provisión harinoso de la yuca y del ácaro verdefertilizante', que renueva la fertilidadChina e India en cuanto a la provisión   de la yuca, dos plagas que devastaban  del suelo en África meridional, de agua, que es cada vez más escasa. de la yuca, dos plagas que devastabandel suelo en África meridional,de agua, que es cada vez más escasa.   un cultivo cuya raíz alimenticia es vital  empleando recursos propios del ■ La mayor producción lechera en las un cultivo cuya raíz alimenticia es vitalempleando recursos propios del■La mayor producción lechera en las   para la seguridad alimentaria de África  Asia central y occidental predio agrícola. Más de 66,000 granjas de los pequeños agricultores para la seguridad alimentaria de ÁfricaAsia central y occidental predio agrícola. Más de 66,000granjas de los pequeños agricultores   al sur del Sahara. Los beneficios  y África del norte agricultores han adoptado esta de Kenia y el fortalecimiento, en ese al sur del Sahara. Los beneficiosy África del norte agricultores han adoptado estade Kenia y el fortalecimiento, en ese   económicos de sólo este trabajo,  tecnología en Zambia, donde ha país, de la capacidad local para económicos de sólo este trabajo,tecnología en Zambia, donde hapaís, de la capacidad local para   calculados en más de US$4 mil  fortalecido la seguridad alimentaria y comercializar productos lácteos, dos calculados en más de US$4 milfortalecido la seguridad alimentaria ycomercializar productos lácteos, dos   millones, bastarían para costear casi América Latina toda la investigación hecha hasta hoy y el Caribe por el CGIAR en África.  ha reducido el daño causado al ambiente; el sistema se está difundiendo a cuatro países vecinos. logros que mejoraron la nutrición infantil y, al mismo tiempo, crearon más empleos. millones, bastarían para costear casi América Latina toda la investigación hecha hasta hoy y el Caribe por el CGIAR en África.ha reducido el daño causado al ambiente; el sistema se está difundiendo a cuatro países vecinos.logros que mejoraron la nutrición infantil y, al mismo tiempo, crearon más empleos.  ■ Las nuevas variedades de arroz para ■ Uso de la información y las ■Las nuevas variedades de arroz para■Uso de la información y las   África (conocidas como las NERICA en inglés), que combinan el alto rendimiento del arroz asiático con la  herramientas de los conservacionistas África al sur para hacerle seguimiento a unos 37 del Sahara millones de hectáreas de bosque, lo África (conocidas como las NERICA en inglés), que combinan el alto rendimiento del arroz asiático con laherramientas de los conservacionistas África al sur para hacerle seguimiento a unos 37 del Sahara millones de hectáreas de bosque, lo   resistencia del arroz africano a los  que ha resultado en un mejor manejo resistencia del arroz africano a losque ha resultado en un mejor manejo   insectos plaga y a las enfermedades  de este recurso que declina, y ha insectos plaga y a las enfermedadesde este recurso que declina, y ha   de las localidades de cultivo. Las  contribuido a que el modo de ganarse de las localidades de cultivo. Lascontribuido a que el modo de ganarse   NERICA, que se siembran Asia la vida de los pobladores del bosque NERICA, que se siembranAsiala vida de los pobladores del bosque   actualmente en 200,000 hectáreas  sea más sostenible. actualmente en 200,000 hectáreassea más sostenible.   en zonas de secano, contribuyen a ■ Un nuevo método para detectar la en zonas de secano, contribuyen a■Un nuevo método para detectar la   reducir las cuentas de importación  aflatoxina, un veneno letal que infecta reducir las cuentas de importaciónaflatoxina, un veneno letal que infecta   de arroz de los países africanos y a  los cultivos y los hace inadecuados de arroz de los países africanos y alos cultivos y los hace inadecuados   generar mayores ingresos en las  para el consumo local o para la generar mayores ingresos en laspara el consumo local o para la   comunidades rurales.  exportación. En África al sur del comunidades rurales.exportación. En África al sur del     la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar. 11 la asociación colaborativa colombia y cgiar. 11  "},{"text":"Beneficios para los poBres y para el planeta  Alemania Consejo de los Estados Árabes AlemaniaConsejo de los Estados Árabes Australia para la Cooperación en el Australiapara la Cooperación en el Austria Golfo AustriaGolfo Banco Africano de Desarrollo Costa de Marfil Banco Africano de DesarrolloCosta de Marfil Banco Asiático para el Dinamarca Banco Asiático para elDinamarca Desarrollo España DesarrolloEspaña Banco Interamericano de Estados Unidos de América Banco Interamericano deEstados Unidos de América Desarrollo Federación Rusa DesarrolloFederación Rusa Bangladesh Filipinas BangladeshFilipinas Banco Mundial Finlandia Banco MundialFinlandia Bélgica Fondo Árabe para el Desarrollo BélgicaFondo Árabe para el Desarrollo Brasil Económico y Social BrasilEconómico y Social Canadá Fondo Internacional para el CanadáFondo Internacional para el Centro Internacional de Desarrollo Agrícola Centro Internacional deDesarrollo Agrícola Investigaciones para el Fondo de la OPEP para el Investigaciones para elFondo de la OPEP para el Desarrollo Desarrollo Internacional DesarrolloDesarrollo Internacional China Francia ChinaFrancia Colombia Fundación Ford ColombiaFundación Ford Comité Delegado de las Fundación Kellogg Comité Delegado de lasFundación Kellogg Comunidades Europeas Fundación Rockefeller Comunidades EuropeasFundación Rockefeller  "}],"sieverID":"cde41fb8-cdfe-47bc-b21c-8d742963fe52","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b9bec3a56b747d74c1e43318683fb62","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/85c50a4f-0c69-44fc-8c08-b10d9f6df27e/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Women power! Gender-related inequality in agriculture and labour: empirical evidence from seven sub-Saharan countries","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Productivity Labour","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The disproportionately negative effect extreme weather events on women calls for local advocacy initiatives in support of agricultural and labor market policies for climate adaptation. Sustainable, climate-resilient policies and interventions remain a key priority alongside vulnerable group protection in planning and promoting agriculture-and job-related programmes."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"• Women's labour time and labour allocations is significantly higher than men's in the case of heavy precipitation and drought • Exposure to high temperature days is not associated with differences between women and men in terms of total hours worked, but is associated with a relative reduction in on farm labour • Male-managed cereal plots achieve average yields that are up to 481 kilogrammes per hectare higher than those of femalemanaged plots. • Women's work is often more irregular and part-time then men's"},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"• An additional day of high temperature is associated with a 2.5% reduction in the total value of crops produced on women's plots compared to men's, no difference in terms of sensitivity to floods or droughts • An additional day of high precipitation leads to an increase by 1.6% in the value of harvest per hectare on women's plots "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"• Gendered differences in climate vulnerability are due to in social and cultural norms that shape gendered patterns in resource access, time use, income and access to services in rural areas.  2. Methodology 2. Methodology  bioclimatic variables on bioclimatic variables on • How do climate shocks and stressors influence agriculture-related outcomes across differing levels of gender equality in agricultural decision making? • Do climate stressors influence labor decisions differently for men and women? rainfall and temperature, identifying •Heavy rain: Days in which precipitation > the 95 th percentile of the historic distribution •Hot day: Maximum daily temperature > 99 th percentile of the historic distribution •Dry spell: Longest spell of consecutive days with < 1mm rainfall • How do climate shocks and stressors influence agriculture-related outcomes across differing levels of gender equality in agricultural decision making? • Do climate stressors influence labor decisions differently for men and women?rainfall and temperature, identifying •Heavy rain: Days in which precipitation > the 95 th percentile of the historic distribution •Hot day: Maximum daily temperature > 99 th percentile of the historic distribution •Dry spell: Longest spell of consecutive days with < 1mm rainfall 3. Descriptive -Household level summary 3. Descriptive -Household level summary 4. Results  4. Results  "}],"sieverID":"179ba148-8eae-4d92-b1b1-7e53ec6240df","abstract":""}

data/part_2/0b9ddc4f36a8e90b7a742e8049461863.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0b9ddc4f36a8e90b7a742e8049461863","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3f0aba34-58b8-4089-80db-ef7966d5c856/retrieve"},"pageCount":12,"title":"for Europe for Europe for Europe for Europe for Europe","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Seasons Greetings from the Regional Office for Europe (Continued on page 11) interim MTA was endorsed by the Commission and will be forwarded to Centres for consideration, approval and eventual use. It incorporates a voluntary benefitsharing provision and continues to employ the \"software\" approach, meaning that if the material is accepted, so are the terms of the MTA."},{"index":2,"size":126,"text":"In preparation for future negotiations on the MTA text to be used by parties to the Treaty, the Commission approved the creation of a Panel of Experts to examine the issues and make recommendations to the Governing Body of the Treaty. Panel members will be chosen mainly by governments, with each geographic region allotted a seat quota. Experts from the CGIAR, World Intellectual Property Organization (WIPO) and the International Union for the Protection of New Varieties of Plants (UPOV) will also be represented. This panel is expected to meet in the first half of 2003. The Governing Body itself will not hold its first meeting until the Treaty comes into force, i.e., St Peter's Dome under snow, Rome, 1985 (www.meteo-net.it) Dr C. Fowler NORAGRIC Aas, Norway"},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"The ninth regular session of the Commission on Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (CGRFA) was held 14-18 October 2002, at FAO in Rome, Italy, following the first meeting of the Interim Committee for the International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture (Treaty)."},{"index":4,"size":102,"text":"The Commission expressed concern over the erosion of animal genetic resources worldwide and recommended urgent action. The first Report on the State of the World's Animal Genetic Resources is underway by FAO, and this large, countrydriven process needs to be completed by 2006. It has not yet been decided if this process will culminate in an international technical conference, similar to the Leipzig Conference in 1996 and the Global Plan of Action (GPA) for Plant Genetic Resources. Plenary sessions addressed a number of other issues, such as the implementation of the GPA and the status of the Code of Conduct on Biotechnology."},{"index":5,"size":106,"text":"With the adoption of the new Treaty in November 2001, a resolution was passed by FAO calling for consultations with the CGIAR to produce a new Material Transfer Agreement (MTA). This will be used in conjunction with the FAO-CGIAR Agreements, under which Centres hold over half a million accessions \"in trust\" for the international community. Once in force, the Treaty Governing Body will have to decide upon a new standard MTA to be used by parties to the Treaty and the CGIAR, containing language designed to implement the benefitsharing provisions of the Treaty. For use in the period prior to the Treaty coming into force, an"},{"index":6,"size":110,"text":"The newly established Working Group on Medicinal and Aromatic Plants (MAPs) met for the first time in Gozd Martuljek, Slovenia, 12-14 September 2002, bringing together 31 participants from 21 European countries. Observers included representatives of the World Wide Fund for Nature (WWF) UK and WWF/TRAFFIC-Germany, a private consultant, and local officials and scientists. An overview of MAP-related activities was given by representatives of the participating countries, highlighting the broad range of topics to be addressed by the Group. The agenda included MAP conservation and evaluation databases, a demonstration of the MEDPLANT database and methodological approaches in MAP conservation and evaluation (molecular tools for the study of genetic variability in MAPs)."},{"index":7,"size":86,"text":"The scope of the MAP Working Group differs from most other ECP/GR Working Groups in that MAPs include hundreds of species, distributed in a great number of taxonomic units, and an exhaustive inventory of European MAPs is yet to be made. Also, many species are not cultivated but harvested from the wild, making them more vulnerable to the threat of genetic erosion or extinction. The linkage of conservation issues and the status of environmental protection of species/habitats, particularly regarding legal aspects, were highlighted by many participants."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The Working Group faced the challenging task of identifying priority activities to be undertaken in the broad and complex field of European MAP genetic resources conservation. To coordinate and follow up on the Working Group activities, Dea Barièeviè, from the Agronomy Department of the Biotechnical Faculty, University of Ljubljana, was elected Chairperson of the Working Group and Jeno Bernáth, from the Department of Medicinal and Aromatic Plants, SZI University, Budapest was elected Vice-Chairperson."},{"index":9,"size":46,"text":"Long-term tasks identified by the Group include the inventory and conservation of MAP genetic resources in Europe; the characterization/evaluation of MAPs (development of descriptors at genus level); and the development of a European central MAP database, following the data format used by the European catalogue EURISCO."},{"index":10,"size":74,"text":"In the short-term, the Group agreed to focus on a small number of species/genera, to be identified based on importance and need for urgent attention. The methodology developed for these priority species/genera (e.g. inventory of existing material in situ and ex situ, definition of characterization descriptors, establishment of a database, etc.) will serve as a model for other species and will encourage appropriate activities to be carried out on MAPs at the national level."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"To address the need for standardized characterization descriptors, the Group will develop a list of descriptors based on lists already available for species with some degree of similarity to MAPs (e.g. IPGRI's descriptors for Allium spp., Piper nigrum, Elettaria cardamomum). These will be adapted in order to fit MAP specificities, primarily focusing on the priority species/ genera identified."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"All members will strive to ensure that an exhaustive survey of natural populations of the selected priority MAPs is undertaken in their country to provide information for a European MAP genetic resources inventory."},{"index":13,"size":51,"text":"The Group encouraged collaboration between national programmes working on the same plants and also recognized the need for the development of harmonized methodologies/ protocols (sampling and conservation techniques, etc.) by the national and international research programmes. A special recommendation was also made encouraging collectors to provide specimens to national herbarium collections."},{"index":14,"size":67,"text":"The Group parted expressing the wish to seek funding to allow the implementation of the agreed activities and to meet again within two years in order to report on and assess the progress made in the implementation of the workplan. A full report of this meeting will be available from the ECP/GR Secretariat at IPGRI and will also be made available on the website at www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/ publications/publications.htm."}]},{"head":"Basil","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Osimum basilicum, or sweet basil, is well known for invigorating the body and spirit, promoting concentration when tired."}]},{"head":"Thyme","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Thymus vulgaris originates from a plant called \"tham\" used by the ancient Egyptions to embalm bodies. In Greek history, it means \"to exude a smell\"."}]},{"head":"Equisetum","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Otherwise known as \"horsetails\", this is a very useful genus, with stems of some species being used as scourers, some are eaten and others used to weave baskets."}]},{"head":"Oregano","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"The name Origanum is derived from two Greek words, \"oros\" (mountain) and \"ganos\" (joy)signifying their preferred habitat."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Puree peppers with balsamic vinegar. Saute garlic in oil, add rosemary, oregano and pepper flakes. Add the pepper puree to the sautéed herbs and heat thoroughly. Add parsley just before serving. Serve over warm fettucine. (Serves two) Medicinal and Aromatics..."}]},{"head":"Arnica","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Arnica montana oil is used in massage to ease muscular aches. Warning: Do not drink oil. "}]},{"head":"Recipe: Pepper Sauce","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Atropa","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"All plant parts of Atropa belladonna (deadly nightshade) are poisonous, and the plant was historically used by women to dilate their pupils."}]},{"head":"Deutscher Alpenverein München","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Genetic Resources Networks Genetic Resources Networks Genetic Resources Networks Genetic Resources Networks Genetic Resources Networks","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"Second Beta Working Group and World Beta Network meeting Sea beet populations growing along the northern part of the Adriatic Sea shore have been an important source of resistance to Cercospora leaf spot and Rhizomania for centuries. Located a short distance from the natural habitat of these critically important genetic resources, is the Istituto Sperimentale per le Colture Industriali, Bologna, Italy, a most suitable location for the second joint meeting of the ECP/GR Working Group on Beta and the World Beta Network (WBN)."},{"index":2,"size":175,"text":"Attended by 28 participants, including nine Beta Working Group members and other experts from the beet growing regions around the world, the meeting took place 23-25 October 2002. A main highlight was the presentation of the new version of the International DataBase for Beta (IDBB). This has been completely redesigned to allow duplicate accessions to be identified, and to facilitate the definition of decentralized responsibilities for the conservation of most original samples. The next step will be to harmonize passport data to fulfill the standards agreed for the EURISCO catalogue (see article page 5). Characterization and evaluation data obtained as a result of the EU-funded project Gen Res 42 are already included in the database, which is ready to receive additional evaluation data in the original form produced, following simple guidelines indicated by the database manager. Discussion on quality management guidelines for seed regeneration concluded with the agreement that publishing individual genebank protocols would enhance transparency and mutual trust and also be useful for curators to cross check, critically revise and improve their own procedures."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"A \"Taxonomic guide for wild and cultivated Beta\" by Lothar Frese is now available online at www.fal.de/bgrc/eu9542/ default.htm. The guide contains distribution information for wild beets and a key to the taxa, and should be considered a working document that can be reviewed and improved. The guide also contains a preliminary assessment of the genetic erosion risk for some species, aimed at encouraging local authorities responsible for nature preservation in the distribution area of wild Beta species."},{"index":4,"size":55,"text":"Significant results were also presented on the evaluation of approximately 600 Beta accessions from the German Genebank for resistance to eight diseases of major economic importance in the European sugarbeet crop. Results obtained from 11 collaborating institutes showed that highly resistant accessions occurred at a frequency of between 0.2 and 5.0% depending on the disease."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"For the future operation of the Working Group and the WBN, areas of activity will be defined and initiatives delegated to \"thematic moderators\", as the new driving forces. Proposed areas include: evaluation and pre-breeding; in situ and on-farm conservation; international core collection and molecular techniques. A joint Beta Working Group/WBN Coordinating Committee was also established to organize meetings and identify funds for the activities."},{"index":6,"size":445,"text":"The Working Group also recommended that in the near future, funds be allocated by the ECP/GR Steering Committee to hold one meeting of the Group, and additional funds be managed as a \"Beta fund\" for small technical meetings and ad hoc actions. A report of the meeting is under preparation by the ECP/GR Secretariat at IPGRI. The Network Coordinating Group (NCG) of the ECP/GR Industrial Crops and Potato Network met for the second time, 22 October 2002 in Bologna, Italy, hosted by the Istituto Sperimentale per le Colture Industriali (ISCI). Representatives of the Beta and Potato Working Groups and of the flax ad hoc initiatives, exchanged information and ideas and identified priority activities to be undertaken during the next phase of ECP/GR (2004)(2005)(2006)(2007)(2008). Considering the good progress of the Beta and Potato databases achieved with the inclusion of characterization and evaluation data, the NCG suggested the continuation of the Working Groups and the organization of a third meeting of each Group. The future meeting of the Potato Group will be used to formalize responsibilities for the maintenance of unique potato germplasm clones and to closely monitor their phytosanitary status. An accurate analysis of the duplication status of material in the European collections by the central database managers would serve as a basis for the definition of shared responsibilities. The ECP/GR Beta Working Group will continue to facilitate the formalization of responsibilities on a decentralized basis, and address specific issues such as the complementary conservation strategy for Beta genetic resources in Europe, with special attention to the conservation of the wild populations. The proposal to establish a Working Group on fibre crops (flax and hemp) was made in response to the reduced breeding activity of these crops in Europe, which is putting these genetic resources at risk. These crops are becoming increasingly important in the car, textile and pharmaceutical industries. An offer made by ISCI to host a European database on hemp was welcomed and supported by the FAO/ESCORENA Network on flax and other bast plants. NCG also agreed that ECP/GR could offer technical advice on the development of a European sunflower database as well as the appropriate framework to facilitate data flow. A full report of this meeting is available from the ECP/GR Secretariat at IPGRI and will also be made available on the website www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/ publications/publications.htm. Presentations and discussions provided a good overview of the measures necessary to conserve genetic resources for agriculture, forestry and food. The concept of national programmes for genetic resources of agricultural and horticultural plants, animals, forest trees, aquatic and microbial organisms was introduced. These play a central role in defining federal policy and in planning and coordinating conservation measures."}]},{"head":"Industrial Crops and Potato Network Coordinating Group","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"A better understanding of the different approaches taken by national programmes was one of the main outcomes of this symposium, and that closer cooperation between these programmes creates synergy and adds value to the efforts made in each individual country. It was also highlighted that to date, animal genetic resources, and aquatic and microbial organisms have received very little attention in most countries. The research and information work initiated by the Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection has made a significant contribution in this field. IBV/ZADI was recently established as a coordination unit and information provider to serve the different stakeholders at the national level and as a reference point for international information exchange."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"There is a need for farmers and consumers to be more integrated in future activities on the conservation and sustainable use of genetic resources in Germany. As emphasized by Minister Künast \"…the interest of consumers is on the regional, special character of agricultural products. The conservation and enhancement of biological diversity is part of our national strategy for sustainability in agriculture.\""},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"The Symposium convinced participants that the conservation and use of biological diversity is not only associated with hard work and theory, but has real, tasty results as the food samples demonstrated."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"For more information, contact the Information Centre for Biological Diversity (IBV/ZADI): www.zadi.de/ibv."}]},{"head":"Dr R. Hoekstra Centre for Genetic Resources The Netherlands (CGN) Wageningen, The Netherlands","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"The This material is mainly maintained in the form of true seed. The database can be downloaded from www.genebank.nl/eupotato/ and will soon be updated, following the identification of previously unknown duplicates of cultivated species (within and between genebanks). After an extensive discussion the Group agreed to establish a European core potato variety collection, enabling priorities to be set for virus cleaning, characterization, safety duplication etc. Representatives from each participating country will select national varieties to be included in the core collection. The selection criteria will include cultural value, valuable traits, (past) area of cultivation and genetic diversity. It was proposed that the ECP/ GR Working Group on Potato should meet again with the 16th triennial EAPR meeting in Spain 2005. A full report of this meeting will be available from IPGRI Regional Office for Europe and will also be made available on the ECP/GR website: www.ecpgr.cgiar.org/ publications/publications.htm."}]},{"head":"Second meeting of ECP/GR Potato Working Group","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"Symposium participants enjoying samples of regional varieties and breeds (Photo: IBV/ZADI, Germany) Before the end of 2003, the first version of EURISCO is expected to be launched online and to contain a combination of data available from the existing National Inventories and CCDBs. At this point, EURISCO will become a very useful source of data for the CCDBs. EURISCO is expected to gradually develop and become the most complete and reliable source of passport data in Europe -this process may take few years. In the meantime, the EPGRIS project partners suggest the CCDB managers take the following action:"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• CCDBs to harmonize their structure with EURISCO. This is vital to enable the CCDBs to build upon the passport data taken or available from EURISCO."}]},{"head":"•","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"Existing and new CCDBs should not refrain from gathering data in the traditional way before EURISCO becomes operational or until it has collected enough data to objectively become the preferred source of passport data."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Once EURISCO becomes operational (anticipated in September 2003), CCDB managers should consider retrieving data from EURISCO."},{"index":3,"size":166,"text":"EURISCO is eventually expected to replace the process of collecting passport data for the CCDBs. The validity of data in EURISCO will be guaranteed by the respective National Inventory Focal Persons of each country. While EURISCO will initially reflect the limited and inhomogeneous development of National Inventories in Europe, the gradual improvement of national information systems will result in increasing completeness of EURISCO, which will be as up-todate as every contributing National Inventory. Although initially it may not be convenient, especially for well developed databases to retrieve data from EURISCO, the situation is expected to rapidly improve within two to three years. Once EURISCO becomes the preferred and most reliable source of passport data, the CCDBs and their managers should eventually be able to fully assume the function that has recurrently been attributed to them. That isgathering characterization and evaluation data, analyzing information in the databases, and promoting the coordination of activities, such as helping in defining European collections, core collections, safety duplication and collecting needs."}]},{"head":"EURISCO and Central Crop Databases","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":165,"text":"The central infrastructure of EURISCO has been developed with open source softwaresoftware that can be freely distributed, allows modifications, includes source codes, does not depend on the program being part of a particular software distribution, and does not place restrictions on other software distributed along with the licensed software. This strategic choice allows national partners to benefit from the development of EURISCO in their national implementation. The uploading mechanism is designed to allow an easy data check of the information provided in National Inventories, including both essential descriptors and a line by line check. For the time being, the files should be provided as tab delimited text files sent to IPGRI via email or via ftp or http through the EURISCO Intranet. The emphasis is on ensuring participation from national partners through intense feedback and helpdesk support. The checking and validation procedures will assist the national partners in their efforts to improve the accuracy of their information with their data providers at the national level."}]},{"head":"How does EURISCO work?","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"European The importance of producing a publication after every meeting was highlighted. It was agreed that the scope and style of these reports be changed to focus on a specific theme of the meeting associated with the location or country in which the meeting takes place."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Part of the meeting was hosted at the Kostrzyca Forest Genebank (see Issue 23 page 6). The Genebank is located in one of the most damaged areas of Polish forest, caused by industrial air pollution -a significant problem in central Europe -and the evacuation initiatives undertaken were also the main theme of several seminars given by local scientists, forest managers and Network members. In the framework of the new \"meeting output\" a publication will be developed on this subject. The Network members also recognized the need to strengthen its focus on Mediterranean Conifer species. Gene conservation of these species will be addressed specifically at a future Network meeting. The next Network meeting will be held in the UK in September 2003."},{"index":3,"size":83,"text":"A full report of this meeting is available from IPGRI Regional Office for Europe www.ipgri.cgiar.org/publications/ indexpub.htm. Delegates reaffirmed the importance of the Vienna Declaration as a strong political signal to be given by the European ministers responsible for forests. The Declaration should address global challenges, the role of forests and the tasks of MCPFE in this context. Furthermore, cross-sectoral issues, such as promoting the use of wood as well as forest research were highlighted as important issues to be addressed in the Declaration."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Other special items for the \"Living Forest Summit\", including forest biological diversity, economically viable forest management, climate change as well as the cultural dimension of sustainable forest management in Europe, were also discussed in detail. Participants adopted the MCPFE Approach to National Forest Programmes and underlined the relevance of national forest programmes and inter-sectoral cooperation for the Ministerial Conference."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"Two other chapters of the MCPFE work were also completed with the adoption of the MCPFE assessment guidelines for protected and protective forest, as well as the improved pan-European indicators for sustainable forest management. These two important policy instruments now await endorsement at the forthcoming Conference in April."},{"index":6,"size":180,"text":"The adopted set of pan-European indicators includes one indicator specifically referring to genetic diversity in forests: Indicator 4.6 \"Genetic resources: area managed for conservation and utilization of forest tree genetic resources (in situ and ex situ gene conservation) and area managed for seed production\". In contrast to previous versions of pan-European indicators, this new definition recognizes the specific role of in situ and ex situ gene conservation units within the sustainable forest management framework. Adopted at the First Ministerial Conference in 1990, Strasbourg Resolution S2 called for the promotion and coordination of the conservation of the genetic diversity in European forests. Building upon the international follow up in this area, a document was introduced during the MCPFE Expert Level Meeting to highlight genetically sustainable forest management practices as part of the challenges to be addressed by the Living Forest Summit. This document was submitted to MCPFE by the EUFORGEN Steering Committee (see Issue 24) and defines the new role of European collaboration on forest genetic resources \"to tie the island of gene conservation to the continent of sustainable forest management\"."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"The status of the documents and their dynamics will be clarified in the further preparatory process leading up to the Conference. For more information visit www.mcpfe.org.  • Drain chesnuts, cut into halves and mash into another saucepan."},{"index":8,"size":20,"text":"• Once mashed, weigh the purée and calculate the sugar required accordingly (1 Kg chestnut purée = 800 g sugar)."},{"index":9,"size":19,"text":"• Mix the sugar with a small amount of water in a separate pot, heat up until it melts."},{"index":10,"size":16,"text":"• Add sugar mixture to the purée, cooking over a low temperature, stirring continuously for half-anhour."},{"index":11,"size":4,"text":"• Cool before serving."}]},{"head":"Recipe: Chestnut Jam","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"Photo: Michele Bozzano With nine venues, a reported 60 000 delegates and hundreds of side events all clamouring for attention during the WSSD, there was concern that the announcement of plans for the Global Conservation Trust might not receive much attention. Fortunately that was not the case. Indeed, the event-held at the IUCN Environment Centre-was very well attended. Former CGIAR Chair Ismail Serageldin, World Food Prize Laureate M.S. Swaminathan, Geoffrey Hawtin, Director-General of IPGRI and Chris Higgins, of Imperial College described the new findings and announced the intention to establish the Trust early next year."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Important statements of commitment and support followed from Mamdouh Riad Tadros, Egyptian Minister of the Environment; Ambassador Walter Fust, Director-General of the Swiss Agency for Development and Cooperation, Andrew Natsios, Administrator of the US Agency for International Development, and Senator Tim Wirth, President of the United Nations Foundation."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Media coverage of the 29 August event included stories in The Economist, Time magazine, International Herald Tribune, The Guardian, Science, Nature, and La Stampa. Wire and news agencies from around the world carried the story, including the Associated Press, Reuters, Agence France Presse, AFX, Bernama (Malaysia), Inter Press Service, the Panafrican News Agency, the South African Press Association, and the Environment News Service. Online coverage included original articles on FinancialTimes.com, BBC News, and both Science and New Scientist magazines' online news services. Additional stories have been tracked across six continents-Africa, Asia, Australia, Europe, North America, and South America, -and in nine languages so far-Afrikaans, Chinese, Dutch, English, French, German, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"Please visit the website of the Global Conservation Trust at www.startwithaseed.org for a discussion paper describing a number of outstanding issues regarding the future governance of the Trust (www.startwithaseed.org/pages/ governance.htm)."},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"For more information contact the Trust directly at info@startwithaseed.org."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" red pepper flakes 1/2 cup chopped parsley 200 g fettucine Text Credits: Dictionnaire étymologique de botanique. 2000. Couplan, F. & The Plant Book, Mabberley, D.J. 1987. "},{"text":" NB: The fruit is weighed after cooking/mashing • Put the chestnuts in boiling water and leave for 20 minutes. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Symposium on biological diversity in Germany  4 4 4  4 4 4 \"What would our from local plant varieties and \"What would ourfrom local plant varieties and lives be like animal breeds. These provided lives be likeanimal breeds. These provided without plant and real examples of the actual uses without plant andreal examples of the actual uses animal diversity? of genetic diversity of plants and animal diversity?of genetic diversity of plants and Both their natural animals. Both their naturalanimals. diversity and the  diversity and the diversity created  diversity created by human  by human activities  activities contribute to the  contribute to the basic needs of  basic needs of people. It is of interest for all  people. It is of interest for all countries in the world to conserve  countries in the world to conserve and use biological diversity\" said  and use biological diversity\" said Renate Künast, Federal Minister of  Renate Künast, Federal Minister of Consumer Protection, in her  Consumer Protection, in her opening speech at the Symposium  opening speech at the Symposium on Biological Diversity in Berlin,  on Biological Diversity in Berlin, Germany. Held 19 September  Germany. Held 19 September 2002, the Symposium was  2002, the Symposium was organized by the German Federal  organized by the German Federal Ministry of Consumer Protection  Ministry of Consumer Protection and the Information Centre for  and the Information Centre for Biological Diversity (IBV/ZADI). It  Biological Diversity (IBV/ZADI). It brought together more than 100  brought together more than 100 people, mainly NGOs and private  people, mainly NGOs and private breeders, to discuss the present  breeders, to discuss the present situation and perspectives of  situation and perspectives of genetic resources for agriculture,  genetic resources for agriculture, forestry and food. Participants  forestry and food. Participants brought brochures, posters and  brought brochures, posters and other information materials on the  other information materials on the vast range of current activities in  vast range of current activities in this field -as well as tasty  this field -as well as tasty samples of food products made  samples of food products made  "},{"text":"Third Conifers Network meeting Forest Genetic Resources Programme European Forest Genetic Resources Programme European Forest Genetic Resources Programme European Forest Genetic Resources Programme 6 6 6 6 6 European Forest Genetic Resources Programme 6 6 6 6 6European Forest Genetic Resources Programme  Involving participants from 25 conservation strategies but is of Involving participants from 25conservation strategies but is of  countries, the third meeting of the little value in understanding countries, the third meeting of thelittle value in understanding  EUFORGEN Conifers Network adaptability patterns. New types EUFORGEN Conifers Networkadaptability patterns. New types  took place 17-19 October 2002 in of molecular markers are being took place 17-19 October 2002 inof molecular markers are being  Kostrzyca, Poland. developed for Norway spruce, as Kostrzyca, Poland.developed for Norway spruce, as  The participation and well as Pinus pinaster and Pinus The participation andwell as Pinus pinaster and Pinus  involvement of all European halepensis, which have great involvement of all Europeanhalepensis, which have great  countries in the EUFORGEN potential in the study of adaptive countries in the EUFORGENpotential in the study of adaptive  Network meetings was stressed: traits. It was argued that both Network meetings was stressed:traits. It was argued that both  this is particularly important as the neutral and adaptive approaches this is particularly important as theneutral and adaptive approaches  Network moves towards are necessary, since in response Network moves towardsare necessary, since in response  developing common systems for to environmental changes, developing common systems forto environmental changes,  sharing information and making it populations will either migrate sharing information and making itpopulations will either migrate  available for researchers, and/or adapt, and knowledge of available for researchers,and/or adapt, and knowledge of  scientists and policymakers. both mechanisms is needed for scientists and policymakers.both mechanisms is needed for  The need to inform those gene The need to inform thosegene  involved in the forestry and conservation involved in the forestry andconservation  environmental policy process, strategies. environmental policy process,strategies.  including the Ministerial A case including the MinisterialA case  Conference on the protection of study on Conference on the protection ofstudy on  Forest in Europe (MCPFE) and the Picea abies, Forest in Europe (MCPFE) and thePicea abies,  Pan-European Biological and as the Pan-European Biological andas the  Landscape Diversity Strategy selected Landscape Diversity Strategyselected  (PEBLDS), about the importance of pilot (PEBLDS), about the importance ofpilot  genetic diversity in sustainable species, genetic diversity in sustainablespecies,  forest management in Europe, was was forest management in Europe, waswas  also emphasized. Network presented, also emphasized. Networkpresented,  members were encouraged to including a members were encouraged toincluding a  establish contact with their country distribution establish contact with their countrydistribution  representatives involved in these map representatives involved in thesemap  processes and to ensure regular compiled processes and to ensure regularcompiled  information exchange. with the first information exchange.with the first  The first set of Technical geo- The first set of Technicalgeo-  Guidelines was presented on referenced Guidelines was presented onreferenced  Picea abies, Pinus pinaster, Pinus in situ gene Picea abies, Pinus pinaster, Pinusin situ gene  brutia/halepensis, and Taxus conservation brutia/halepensis, and Taxusconservation  baccata. These are a useful tool units for this baccata. These are a useful toolunits for this  for those involved in conserving species. for those involved in conservingspecies.  valuable seed sources or using The imple- valuable seed sources or usingThe imple-  the species in practical forestry. mentation the species in practical forestry.mentation  The focus is on conserving and The focus is on conservingand  genetic diversity of the species at development genetic diversity of the species atdevelopment  the European level. Similar of this the European level. Similarof this  guidelines on Abies alba will soon work will be guidelines on Abies alba will soonwork will be  be completed and added to this finalized in be completed and added to thisfinalized in  module, and during the next year, five new species modules will be the next few months. Conifer woodland, Southern Italy (Photo: Michele Bozzano) module, and during the next year, five new species modules will bethe next few months.Conifer woodland, Southern Italy (Photo: Michele Bozzano)  developed (Pinus sylvestris, Pinus Discussions highlighted the developed (Pinus sylvestris, PinusDiscussions highlighted the  nigra, Pinus cembra, Larix importance of this work for nigra, Pinus cembra, Lariximportance of this work for  decidua, Juniperus communis). coordinating, harmonizing and decidua, Juniperus communis).coordinating, harmonizing and  Network members from the sharing conservation Network members from thesharing conservation  countries concerned took the responsibilities in Europe. countries concerned took theresponsibilities in Europe.  responsibility for developing  responsibility for developing  additional modules for other  additional modules for other  species, such as Pinus pinea and  species, such as Pinus pinea and  Pinus leucodermis/heildreichii.  Pinus leucodermis/heildreichii.  Updates on research were  Updates on research were  presented, including a review of  presented, including a review of  recent studies on the use of  recent studies on the use of  neutral molecular markers to  neutral molecular markers to  assess genetic variability. This is a  assess genetic variability. This is a  relevant approach in designing  relevant approach in designing  "},{"text":"Run up to the \"Living Forest Summit\" http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/networks/euforgen/euf_home.htm http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/networks/euforgen/euf_home.htm http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/networks/euforgen/euf_home.htm http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/networks/euforgen/euf_home.htm http://www.ipgri.cgiar.org/networks/euforgen/euf_home.htm EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGEN IPGRI Newsletter for Europe 7 7 7 7 7 EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGEN EUFORGENIPGRI Newsletter for Europe 7 7 7 7 7 Participants of the Ministerial  Participants of the Ministerial Conferences on the Protection of  Conferences on the Protection of Forests in Europe (MCPFE)  Forests in Europe (MCPFE) recently gathered at the Expert  recently gathered at the Expert Level Meeting, 7-8 October 2002,  Level Meeting, 7-8 October 2002, in Vienna, Austria. Discussions  in Vienna, Austria. Discussions centred on the development of  centred on the development of draft documents for the Fourth  draft documents for the Fourth Conference -the \"Living Forest  Conference -the \"Living Forest Summit\" to be convened 28 -30  Summit\" to be convened 28 -30 April 2003, also in Vienna, to be  April 2003, also in Vienna, to be chaired jointly by Austria and  chaired jointly by Austria and Poland. As one of the last MCPFE  Poland. As one of the last MCPFE Expert Level Meetings to take  Expert Level Meetings to take place before the Conference,  place before the Conference, delegates from 34 European  delegates from 34 European countries, the European  countries, the European Commission and 15 MCPFE  Commission and 15 MCPFE observer organizations focused  observer organizations focused  "},{"text":" GFIS), developed by the IUFRO Secretariat to enhance access to and provision of quality forest-related information, was presented. The system is now available on the web at: www.iufro-gfis.net. The International Union of Forest Mariabrunn, in Vienna. Entitled The International Union of ForestMariabrunn, in Vienna. Entitled Research Organizations \"Forest Research -Challenges Research Organizations\"Forest Research -Challenges (IUFRO) is a non-profit, non- and Concepts in a Changing (IUFRO) is a non-profit, non-and Concepts in a Changing governmental international World\", the Symposium aimed at governmental internationalWorld\", the Symposium aimed at network of forest research developing concepts that network of forest researchdeveloping concepts that organizations. Its objectives are contribute to solving pending organizations. Its objectives arecontribute to solving pending to promote international issues in forestry and related to promote internationalissues in forestry and related cooperation in forestry and fields. The interface between cooperation in forestry andfields. The interface between forest product research. research and policy, economy forest product research.research and policy, economy IUFRO's activities are organized and legislation was addressed in IUFRO's activities are organizedand legislation was addressed in primarily through its 274 a number of presentations. primarily through its 274a number of presentations. specialized The specializedThe working parties Symposium working partiesSymposium and other units was and other unitswas within eight successful in within eightsuccessful in thematic identifying the thematicidentifying the divisions. challenges divisions.challenges IUFRO was and IUFRO wasand established in increasing established inincreasing 1892 as a demands on 1892 as ademands on coordinating forest coordinatingforest and promoting research and promotingresearch body for applied forest research work in response to global body for applied forest researchwork in response to global in Central Europe. The initial climate and socioeconomic in Central Europe. The initialclimate and socioeconomic targets and work programmes changes. The event was targets and work programmeschanges. The event was arose from the need to attended by a number of IUFRO arose from the need toattended by a number of IUFRO standardize research, its scientific officers involved in the standardize research, itsscientific officers involved in the conditions and experiments in thematic divisions from all over conditions and experiments inthematic divisions from all over order to make methods and the world. order to make methods andthe world. results comparable. The Global Forest Information results comparable.The Global Forest Information To mark the occasion of the Union's 110 th anniversary, a one System ( To mark the occasion of the Union's 110 th anniversary, a oneSystem ( day symposium took place 9  day symposium took place 9 October 2002, at the new  October 2002, at the new IUFRO offices based at the  IUFRO offices based at the Austrian Federal Office and  Austrian Federal Office and Research Centre for Forests  Research Centre for Forests  "},{"text":"Launch of the Global Conservation Trust Policy frameworks for biodiversity conservation in Moldova Diversity at Risk: The Case for Sustaining Crop Collections\", by Imperial College, London. The report drew largely on information gathered by FAO in 2000 from around 100 countries. Its findings were alarming: not only is crop diversity disappearing from the fields, a large proportion of the crop resources 'safeguarded' in genebanks around the world could soon be lost due to lack of funding. The report found that while the number of samples held in crop collections has increased in 66% of countries since 1996 (the last time FAO gathered such data), genebank budgets have been reduced in 25% of countries and have remained static in another 35%. The Imperial College report recommended the establishment of a global endowment fund for ex situ conservation as the best way to ensure humanity's ability to meet the long-term nature of its conservation needs. IPGRI Newsletter for Europe 8 8 8 8 8   IPGRI Newsletter for Europe 8 8 8 8 8  On 29 August 2002, midway  On 29 August 2002, midway  through the World Summit on  through the World Summit on  Sustainable Development (WSSD),  Sustainable Development (WSSD),  the CGIAR and FAO announced  the CGIAR and FAO announced  plans to establish the Global  plans to establish the Global  Conservation Trust. The  Conservation Trust. The  announcement followed on the  announcement followed on the  heels of the release of a report,  heels of the release of a report,  \"Crop  \"Crop Mr B. Fusilli use of natural resources, such achieve the goals of this Mr B. Fusilliuse of natural resources, suchachieve the goals of this PGR Policy Intern, IPGRI as the Law on Natural Strategy, an Action Plan has PGR Policy Intern, IPGRIas the Law on NaturalStrategy, an Action Plan has  Resources, No. 1102-XIII -6 been developed for Resources, No. 1102-XIII -6been developed for Located near the Carpathian February 1997 and the Law on implementation over the next ten Located near the CarpathianFebruary 1997 and the Law onimplementation over the next ten Mountains, the Black Sea and the Protection of Plant Varieties, years. This includes the creation Mountains, the Black Sea andthe Protection of Plant Varieties,years. This includes the creation East European Plain, Moldova No. 85 -October 1999. These of an Ecological Network, East European Plain, MoldovaNo. 85 -October 1999. Theseof an Ecological Network, boasts optimal conditions for a are helping to provide a new legal focusing on the protection of boasts optimal conditions for aare helping to provide a new legalfocusing on the protection of high level of biodiversity. framework to safeguard the forest ecosystems, structured high level of biodiversity.framework to safeguard theforest ecosystems, structured Distributed between five natural environment. into four areas: legislative and Distributed between five naturalenvironment.into four areas: legislative and landscapes, this diversity As yet, a national management institutional framework; territorial landscapes, this diversityAs yet, a national managementinstitutional framework; territorial ranges from the forest steppe in and sustainable development planning and biodiversity ranges from the forest steppe inand sustainable developmentplanning and biodiversity the Northeast with extensive plan for agriculture and forestry conservation and restoration; the Northeast with extensiveplan for agriculture and forestryconservation and restoration; oak forests, willow valleys, and to enable adequate transition to research and monitoring; and oak forests, willow valleys, andto enable adequate transition toresearch and monitoring; and poplar meadows, to the the market economy, has not information and education. poplar meadows, to thethe market economy, has notinformation and education. Mediterranean grasslands been adopted. The current The total estimated cost of the Mediterranean grasslandsbeen adopted. The currentThe total estimated cost of the covering extensive plains in the actions and programmes in the ten year Action Plan is US$18.7 covering extensive plains in theactions and programmes in theten year Action Plan is US$18.7 South. national economy sectors often million, including about US$3.5 South.national economy sectors oftenmillion, including about US$3.5 Sadly, this extensive diversity is do not comply with strategic million to support urgent Sadly, this extensive diversity isdo not comply with strategicmillion to support urgent being negatively affected by principles and criteria of activities. Possible sources of being negatively affected byprinciples and criteria ofactivities. Possible sources of ecosystem pollution and other biodiversity conservation and financing include the state ecosystem pollution and otherbiodiversity conservation andfinancing include the state human activities. The sustainable development. budget, subventions of different human activities. Thesustainable development.budget, subventions of different unsustainable use of the land Investigative research on institutions and organizations, unsustainable use of the landInvestigative research oninstitutions and organizations, and its natural resources, biodiversity is being undertaken national and local environmental and its natural resources,biodiversity is being undertakennational and local environmental including soil erosion, intensive around the country by scientific funds etc. Assistance from including soil erosion, intensivearound the country by scientificfunds etc. Assistance from agriculture and irrigation, has institutions of the Academy of international donors and other agriculture and irrigation, hasinstitutions of the Academy ofinternational donors and other had an adverse impact, Sciences, universities, other organizations is also anticipated had an adverse impact,Sciences, universities, otherorganizations is also anticipated particularly affecting the steppe institutions and scientific centres for specific activities. The particularly affecting the steppeinstitutions and scientific centresfor specific activities. The zone in the southern part of the of the different Ministries. Central State Environmental zone in the southern part of theof the different Ministries.Central State Environmental country. The Ministry of Monitoring activities are also Authority has overall country. The Ministry ofMonitoring activities are alsoAuthority has overall Ecology, Construction and underway in independent fields responsibility for implementing Ecology, Construction andunderway in independent fieldsresponsibility for implementing Territorial Development is such as botany, zoology, the Plan and will specify annual Territorial Development issuch as botany, zoology,the Plan and will specify annual primarily responsible for policy microbiology and it is hoped that activities and financial needs. primarily responsible for policymicrobiology and it is hoped thatactivities and financial needs. and action on the conservation these will be integrated in the A major focus of the Action Plan and action on the conservationthese will be integrated in theA major focus of the Action Plan of biodiversity in Moldova. The future. is the further development of the of biodiversity in Moldova. Thefuture.is the further development of the State Forestry Service and the In recent years, a National legal basis for regulating State Forestry Service and theIn recent years, a Nationallegal basis for regulating Ministry of Agriculture and Food Strategy has been developed by activities in all sectors of the Ministry of Agriculture and FoodStrategy has been developed byactivities in all sectors of the Industry are responsible for inputs from the formal and national economy. It is especially Industry are responsible forinputs from the formal andnational economy. It is especially nature protection and informal sectors to save important at this stage in nature protection andinformal sectors to saveimportant at this stage in conservation in the respective ecosystems and species of transition to a market economy, conservation in the respectiveecosystems and species oftransition to a market economy, areas. Cooperation between major importance for future that the new laws incorporate the areas. Cooperation betweenmajor importance for futurethat the new laws incorporate the these and other State generations through management needs of environmental these and other Stategenerations through managementneeds of environmental Organizations have enabled the of natural resources and protection and biodiversity Organizations have enabled theof natural resources andprotection and biodiversity development of laws ensuring sustainable development of social conservation in all the sectors of development of laws ensuringsustainable development of socialconservation in all the sectors of the conservation and rational and economic systems. To social and economic system. the conservation and rationaland economic systems. Tosocial and economic system.  "}],"sieverID":"740f569c-389d-4e50-990f-ee02875a37e3","abstract":"Funding opportunities 11Forthcoming meetings 12FAO Commission recommends interim MTA The International Plant Genetic Resources Institute (IPGRI) is one of the 16 Centres of the Consultative Group on International Agricultural Research (CGIAR). IPGRI's goal is to advance the conservation and use of genetic diversity for the well-being of present and future generations. From its headquarters in Rome and its regional offices, IPGRI promotes and coordinates the action needed for the conservation of these genetic resources. IPGRI's Regional Office for Europe provides the Coordination Secretariats for the European Cooperative Programme for Crop Genetic Resources Networks (ECP/GR) and for the European Forest Genetic Resources Programme (EUFORGEN).IPGRI publishes three issues of the Regional Newsletter for Europe a year. This Newsletter is intended to serve as an informal forum for the exchange of news and views, and to create closer ties within the genetic resources community in Europe.Previous issues are available from the IPGRI website."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0bb3e00077b903fbda62181c0859bf73","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b4b797ed-78ba-44cd-a265-51f0d287cf45/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"RURANET: providing access to information in Niger","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"60702f24-58a0-4403-8dad-710691e606cf","abstract":"Djilali Benamrane describes how community radio stations in Niger are becoming information centres for rural development.In Bankilare, in southwestern Niger, many of the 2000 inhabitants and about 10,000 nomads in the vicinity do not have access to electricity, telephone or clean water. Radio is the primary source of news and information, but few can afford a radio or, more significantly, the batteries it consumes. The villagers often have great difficulty receiving the signal from the national radio station ORTN, which also does not broadcast in the local languages.Yet the situation is improving. In 1999 the residents of Bankilare built their own radio station, which runs on solar energy, and broadcasts programmes in three local languages. A growing number of villagers have access to solarpowered or wind-up radio receivers that require no batteries. What's more, through the station, local farmers can obtain a variety of useful information, including weather forecasts, drought and pest alerts, and market information, downloaded from a satellite."}