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+{"metadata":{"id":"0015cce99b9e782de1b4bc0c5f560640","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5dd011c9-a271-4cfe-9117-bc56594203cb/retrieve"},"pageCount":50,"title":"","keywords":["Aïcha L. Coulibaly","Commodities and Trade Division","FAO Pascal Liu","Commodities and Trade Division","FAO Cora Dankers","Commodities and Trade Division","FAO Antoine Fayossewo","Techno 3M Services & Farms Ltd"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"i Why this manual? any producers may feel that the market for certified agricultural products is very complex and that the opportunities and requirements associated with the certification programmes are not always clear. In addition, producers do not always know if the requirements are compulsory (created as an official law or regulation in the importing country) or voluntary. It is in this framework that this manual has been created. After having read its content, the reader should be able to understand the main voluntary certification schemes, their importance, the differences between them as well as their advantages and limitations. In order to be able to export his/her products any producer or exporter must also conform with the regulations of importing countries. Therefore, the reader will be able to find in this manual information concerning the main import regulations in the United States (US), the European Union (EU) and Japan. However, topics such as farming practices and post-harvest activities are beyond the scope of this manual. This manual comprises two parts:"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"-standards and Import Regulations -main voluntary Certification Schemes"},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"It is difficult to provide comprehensive information on import regulations and certification programmes for many reasons such as the changing nature of regulations in import countries and the diversity of products and their characteristics. Therefore, numerous Internet addresses have been provided where additional information can be obtained when necessary. You will find at the end of the manual a blank page that will enable you to update or add the Internet links gathered during your search."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"We hope this manual responds to your needs. CTA's tasks are to develop and provide services that improve access to information for agricultural and rural development, and to strengthen the capacity of ACP countries to produce, acquire, exchange and utilize information in this area. CTA's programmes are designed to: provide a wide range of information products and services and enhance awareness of relevant information sources; promote the integrated use of appropriate communication channels and intensify contacts and information exchange (particularly intra-ACP); and develop ACP capacity to generate and manage agricultural information and to formulate ICM "}]},{"head":"GLOSSARY Bioterrorism","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Bioterrorism is a new form of terrorism based on pathogen use. This practice comprises the use of bacteria, virus or other toxins against persons, animals or plants."}]},{"head":"Biological contamination","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"It is the contamination of any material or living matter by pathogens or genetically modified organisms."}]},{"head":"Fumigation","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"It is a treatment based on the disinfection of products by chemical agents. This type of treatment is also sometimes required to disinfect material used for commodity packaging meant for export."}]},{"head":"Quarantining","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Quarantining is the confinement of products that do not comply with the phytosanitary requirements of import countries. This confinement of products aims at avoiding the introduction and the spreading of diseases. Confined products are kept under observation and research or for further inspection, testing and/or treatments."}]},{"head":"HACCP principles","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The HACCP system maintains food safety along the food supply chain from farm to consumer table. It consists of analysing possible contamination hazards in order to identify critical control points in the production line of the product and therefore avoiding possible contamination and ensuring food safety. The steps leading to HACCP system implantation are: To export their products into the international market, producers and exporters must comply with norms and regulations in order to ensure product quality, environmental protection and consumer health. These norms and regulations are different depending on the product and the country of export and import. Some regulations are based on international food standards, while others are developed by individual countries."},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"Non-compliance with these requirements may lead to quarantining or product rejection by import countries. "}]},{"head":"European Union","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Japan","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The European Union requires that imported fresh fruits and vegetables meet the European Community marketing standards for quality and labelling. The control is done by an inspection body at the point of import or in the case of some approved \"third countries\", at the point of export. For more information on the marketing standards "}]},{"head":"FOOD SAFETY REGULATIONS","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Producers need to ensure the quality and safety of the produce and avoid all potential hazards such as risks from contaminated water."}]},{"head":"Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"egulations on the maximum residue limits (MRLs) of pesticides (herbicides, insecticides, fungicides etc.) are effective both at national and international levels. Producers and exporters must comply with the regulations of their country (when the latter has a regulation on maximum residue limits of pesticides) and the regulations of import countries. They may only use chemicals that are registered for use on a particular crop and must strictly follow the directions indicated in the instructions leaflet or on their containers (boxes and bottles)."}]},{"head":"R","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"The following links contain comprehensive information on The European Union continues to lower the maximum limits of pesticide residues permitted in products. For many pesticides there are now common limits that apply to the entire European Union. However, for some pesticides the residue limits vary from country to country. Each country verifies that regulations are met (usually through the ministry of agriculture) at its point of entry. When European Union countries have not set up maximum limits, exporters are required to obtain an import tolerance. For more information about pesticide residue limits in the European"},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"In Japan, the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare and the Environmental Department are responsible for establishing and testing residue limits. These limits are based on the Food Sanitation Law. Information on pesticide residue levels can be found at:"},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"http://www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/foodsafety/positivelist060228/index.html"}]},{"head":"Biological Contamination and Product Traceability","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":91,"text":"n response to recent problems about food safety (e.g. mad cow disease) and global terrorism, many governments are increasing control over all stages of food production, processing and distribution to protect consumers against the biological contamination of food. Traceability systems are used to identify products, their origin and their location within the supply chain. They also enable efficient recall in case of products' contamination. Furthermore, they help determine the origin of a food safety problem, comply with legal requirements and meet consumer's expectations for the safety and quality of purchased products."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"To limit contamination risks, it is necessary to monitor each stage of the supply chain."}]},{"head":"I","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"A growing number of governments and retailers are now requiring that the HACCP principles together with the application of Good Hygienic Practices (GHPs) and Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) be used in crop production. http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/food_fruits_en.stm http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/quality_haccp_en.stm Japan"}]},{"head":"ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY AND PHYTOSANITARY REGULATIONS","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"roducers must comply with phytosanitary regulations to prevent the entry and spread of plant diseases and pests into new areas. The major importing countries around the world implement pest risk analysis systems in order to determine the risk level of an imported product and inspect products on arrival to ensure that the level of risk is not exceeded."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"It is necessary to apply for phytosanitary certificates for regulated products such as plants, seeds, fruits and vegetables, and cut flowers."},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"For detailed information on phytosanitary certificate content: https://www.ippc.int/IPP/En/default.jsp (under phytosanitary regulations' section) P"}]},{"head":"CUSTOMS CLEARANCE","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"inal authorization for product entry depends on the customs officials in the country of import. To clear customs, the exporter must fill out the necessary forms (commercial, shipping) and pay all fees (duties, taxes). Since processing these forms can be time-consuming, some countries now offer pre-clearance programmes to save time. This means that products can be cleared for customs in the country of origin by officials who can guarantee that product regulations were followed."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Non compliance with one of these norms or regulations of import countries may cause product rejection. Various organizations may help you find the right information  PART 2"}]},{"head":"At International Level","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"The first part of this manual described important technical norms and import regulations of the United States, the European Union and Japan."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"They are compulsory for exporters or producers who want to sell their products into these markets."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"he second part of the manual deals with voluntary private certification. The objective of this part is to provide producers and exporters with general information on some of the major voluntary private agricultural certification programmes, available in Western Africa, including contacts where more information can be found."}]},{"head":"T 1. QUESTIONS ABOUT CERTIFICATION","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"What is voluntary certification?"},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"certificate is a written guarantee by an independent certification agency that the production process or the product complies with certain standards established by different private organizations or countries."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"These standards can focus on environmental issues (such as soil conservation, water protection, pesticide use, or waste management), or social issues (such as producer income, worker rights, occupational health and safety) or on other aspects of production like food safety."},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"Why do these programmes exist?"},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"ertification brings opportunities to producers such as market access, protection of local resources, improvement of workers' health and living conditions of rural communities. It may also ensure consumer health. Consumers are increasingly aware of the social and environmental problems associated with the production and trade of the food they consume."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"In response to these concerns, different types of certification programmes have been developed by private organizations or governments in order to solve these problems."}]},{"head":"A C","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Why certify?"},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"ertification is used to demonstrate that a product has been produced in a certain way or has certain characteristics. It can help differentiate the product from other products, which can be helpful to promote the product in the market. Certification can also help improve market access, and in some cases, result in higher producer prices. Certification is mainly used when the producer and the consumer are not in direct contact, in the international market where for instance the consumer cannot easily verify that the product was produced in the manner described by the producer."},{"index":3,"size":1,"text":"Cost?"},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"he cost of meeting a standard and getting certified depends on the kind of changes the producer will have to make on his/her farm and on the type of certification program chosen. In general, the cost of certification depends on the time spent doing the farm inspection (farm audit) and on the travel expenses of the inspector (s). T 2. ENVIRONMENTAL CERTIFICATIONS rganic agriculture is based on the rejection of synthetic chemicals or genetically modified inputs. It promotes sustainable traditional farming practices that maintain soil fertility such as fallow. In organic farming, soil fertilisation requires organic substance (animal or vegetable origin) and small quantities of minerals."}]},{"head":"Main requirements?","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"here are specific requirements for most organically certified crops as well as livestock, fish farming, bee keeping, forestry and the harvesting of wild products. Organic standards require that there is a conversion period (or time that a farm has to use organic production methods before it can be certified, usually 2-3 years)."}]},{"head":"O","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"In West Africa, organic farming is expanding notably for crops such as cotton, bananas, mangoes, pineapples, shea butter, papayas, cashew nuts and avocadoes."}]},{"head":"T ORGANIC AGRICULTURE","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Some organic farming criteria Crop production requirements apply to:"},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"selection of seeds and plant materials maintenance of soil fertility and the recycling of organic materials prohibition of genetically modified inputs diversity of crops on farm processing, packaging and traceability of products use of organic fertilizers and compounds for the control of pests, diseases and weeds"},{"index":3,"size":5,"text":"Animal production requirements apply to:"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"animal health feeding and breeding transport and slaughter procedures"},{"index":5,"size":4,"text":"How to get certified?"},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"tandards for organic farming have mainly been developed by private certification bodies but a number of countries also have national organic standards and regulations. In West African countries there are no national regulations. However, there are private initiatives (Agrinat, Agrecol-Afrique) that promote organic farming. The European Union, the United States and Japan all have national regulations on the labelling of organic products and if producers want to export their products to these countries, they must meet these regulations."},{"index":7,"size":52,"text":"The choice of a certification agency is very important. The certification agency chosen by the producer must be officially recognized in the country where the product is to be sold. National certification agencies are often less expensive than international agencies but they may not be as well known in some foreign markets."},{"index":8,"size":40,"text":"The conversion period of 2-3 years is often costly for the producer because the produce must be sold at conventional prices even though organic methods are used which may result in higher production costs and lower yields, at least initially."}]},{"head":"S","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"To reduce costs, a group of producers can join together and create their own internal control system in order to improve production and fulfil organic standard requirements. To do this, it is important that the producers trust and work well together, as they will largely depend on each other."}]},{"head":"Opportunities and constraints?","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"rganic agriculture may represent an interesting opportunity for many producers in West Africa especially for those who presently do not use a lot of agrochemical products. Once the farm is certified, selling organic products might improve the quality of life and income of producers. Producers shift to organic agriculture for a variety of reasons. Some feel that the use of agrochemicals is bad for their health and the environment, while other producers are attracted by the generally higher prices and the rapidly growing market for many organic products in recent years. Converting to organic agriculture may be easier or more profitable for producers depending on whether:"},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"They use organic fertilizers and other permitted inputs or whether they use agrochemical products intensively."},{"index":3,"size":4,"text":"They own the land."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"They have access to labour (as organic production often demands more labour)."},{"index":5,"size":198,"text":"In West Africa, organic products are usually sold in farmers' markets. The local demand for these products is low but it is growing. Europe, especially France and Switzerland, remains the main market for organic products from West Africa. Organic agriculture is mostly practised by small producers but the price premium and the importance of the European market may encourage large producers to use this type of practice. Competition coming mostly from countries from Latin America and the risk that the organic market becomes oversupplied may both decrease the price premium. However, this decrease might lead more and more consumers to prefer organic products to conventional products. SO 14001 is designed to help the implementation of environmental management systems for organizations in both the private and public sectors. It was created by the International Organization for Standardization (ISO) which is an international network of national standard institutes working along with governments, industry and consumer representatives. While there are a number of other ISO standards that can be used as environmental management tools, only ISO 14001 can be used for certification. The group of ISO standards, which contains various international harmonized voluntary standards, is widely applied across all industrial sectors."}]},{"head":"Main requirements?","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"he ISO 14001 standard requires that the enterprise develops an environmental management system that includes: environmental objectives and goals, policies and procedures for reaching these goals, definition of responsibilities, staff training activities, documentation and a system to review any changes made. The ISO 14001 standard describes the management process that the company must follow and requires that the company respect the national environmental regulations. However, it does not set specific performance levels or require that particular performance targets be met."}]},{"head":"How to get certified?","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"he ISO 14001 certification is granted by either governmental or private certification agencies under their own responsibility. In some parts of the world, national authorities accredit certification agencies to do the ISO certification. In most cases, the producer must pay a consultant to help with the preparation process and to make the environmental management plan."}]},{"head":"I T T ISO 14001 CERTIFICATION Opportunities and constraints?","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":146,"text":"he ISO 14001 is well known in the industrial sector. The certification aims to reduce the impact on the environment with a management system that can also create internal benefits by improving environmental performance (for example by reducing the use of raw materials and energy or by improving waste management). A main limitation of ISO 14001 is that there are no performance requirements. This means that an enterprise with very high environmental targets and one with low targets may both be certified. Therefore, the effect largely depends on the commitment of the individual company. Also the ISO logo cannot be used on products. However it is possible either to use your organization's own logo and adapt it by including that your company is certified ISO 14001, to develop a new logo that embeds information about your ISO 14001 certification or to use your certification body's logo."}]},{"head":"More information on ISO 14001 International","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"International Organization for Standardization : www.iso.org tz Kapeh is a certification programme that enables coffee producers to grow coffee in a sustainable way. This program was founded in 1997 by Guatemalan coffee producers and the Dutch coffee roaster, Ahold Coffee Company. The code of conduct is benchmarked against the EurepGap code. Criteria from ILO (International Labour Organization) conventions have also been added."}]},{"head":"In West Africa","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Main requirements?","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"he main objectives of Utz Kapeh are to enable consumers and buyers to answer two questions, namely: Where does the coffee come from? and How was it produced? To reach these goals, a web-based traceability system has been created and producers must meet the Chain of Custody requirements such as separating Utz Kapeh certified coffee from non-Utz Kapeh coffee and keeping records of direct suppliers and buyers. A code of conduct has also been developed and comprises Good Agricultural & Business Practices, environmental and social criteria some of which are summarized in the following "}]},{"head":"How to get certified?","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"tz Kapeh certification can be applied by any coffee producer or group of coffee producers. Interested farmers have to go through a self-assessment process to compare their current situation to the Utz Kapeh Code of Conduct. Once they are ready to get certified, they must be inspected by the certification bodies approved by Utz Kapeh in order to see how they comply with Utz Kapeh requirements. If they successfully pass the inspection they will be able to get the Utz Kapeh certificate. The certified producers or groups of producers must be inspected on an annual basis."}]},{"head":"Opportunities and constraints?","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"tz Kapeh certification enables coffee farmers to produce a value added coffee as products are differentiated and bear the Utz Kapeh logo. They can therefore benefit from a price premium. Another advantage is that they don't have to pay any fees as the Utz Kapeh administration fee is covered by buyers. The main constraint is that Utz Kapeh certification requires the necessary administration and financial capacity to be able to comply with criteria such as traceability. Another constraint is that there is only one product that can be certified namely coffee. However, Utz Kapeh is working on the possibility to include more products."}]},{"head":"U U 3. SOCIAL CERTIFICATIONS","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"air-trade is based on the fair remuneration of producers. Buyers that commit to fair-trade must pay a minimum price to producers as well as a premium called fair-trade premium. This premium should enable producers to support themselves and to invest in community development."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"In return, producers that commit to fair-trade must comply with labour rights, environmental and social requirements. Standard setting and certification are under the control of the Fairtrade Labelling Organizations International (FLO). This organization is the worldwide umbrella organization of 20 national non-governmental organizations in Europe, America, Asia and Oceania."}]},{"head":"F","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"In West Africa, fair-trade certified products are mostly cocoa, mango and other tropical fruits."}]},{"head":"FAIR-TRADE","index":35,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Main requirements?","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"o obtain certification, producer associations must function in a democratic manner. There are also rules on how the fair-trade premium has to be spent and requirements for the protection of the environment."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"For plantations, there are a number of requirements related to labour rights: workers' treatment, freedom of association and collective bargaining, workers' housing and sanitation; workers' health and safety; and no child or forced labour. In addition, the producer must comply with the environmental and social laws in the producing country and demonstrate continual improvement in annual inspections (audits)."}]},{"head":"How to get certified?","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"air-trade certification can be applied for by a group of producers in a cooperative, a farmer association or by large farms with an organized labour force. Local auditors inspect the farm and the certification agency Flo-Cert Ltd decides whether or not to certify the producer association. Once certified, there is a regular inspection once a year to check that the producers are meeting the fair-trade requirements and to examine how the producers used the fair-trade premium. Traders who use the FLO certification mark on their packages currently pay a license fee. Producers have to pay fees which are based on the costs of the inspection."}]},{"head":"T F Opportunities and constraints?","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"producer association or a plantation can benefit from fair-trade certification since certified products normally receive higher and more stable prices. The price paid to producers is determined by production costs."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"It takes into consideration any additional costs that might arise from meeting the fair-trade requirements, such as providing living wages for workers. In general, the fair-trade premium is meant to provide some resources to the community to improve the living conditions of its members."},{"index":3,"size":85,"text":"A key constraint in the fair-trade system is that a group of producers can only get certified if FLO finds that there is a market for their fair-trade labelled products. In order to enter the fair-trade system, a necessary first step is to ask FLO and fair-trade importers for information regarding market opportunities for their products. Another constraint is that when a producer association or a plantation has been certified there is no guarantee that the whole production will be sold and marketed as ''fair-trade''."}]},{"head":"More information on fair-trade","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"-FLO International, Bonn, Germany; Tel.: (49) 228 24930; Email : info@fairtrade.net; web: www.fairtrade.net -FLO Branch office in France webmaster@maxhavelaarfrance.org; web: www.maxhavelaarfrance.org (FR) -FLO Certification Unit, Bonn/Germany; Email: info@flo-cert.net A A8000 is a voluntary private workplace certification that has been developed by the non governmental organization Social Accountability International (SAI) with the aim to create better working conditions. The SA8000 standard is based on international workplace norms including those related to social justice, worker rights and working conditions."}]},{"head":"Main requirements?","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"he SA8000 certification sets minimum standards for working conditions to ensure: a safe and healthy working environment, freedom of association and collective bargaining and an enterprise strategy for managing social workplace issues. Also there are rules for working hours, wages, prevention of discrimination and the use of children or forced labour."}]},{"head":"How to get certified?","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"enterprises that operate production facilities can apply for SA8000 certification by one of the certification agencies approved by SAI. After the initial inspection and once the workplace is certified, the company is monitored to ensure continued compliance with the standards. The producing company usually pays the certification fee which includes the audit and corrective or preventative action costs. The SA8000 certification mark is not used on product labels but the company may use it in promotional activities. There is no specific price premium or market for SA8000 certified products. Some of the very large firms exporting banana, pineapple, tobacco, wine, canned fruits and processed coffee are SA8000 certified."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"S T E SA 8000 CERTIFICATION Opportunities and constraints?"},{"index":3,"size":270,"text":"he SA8000 certification is one of the most detailed workplace standards for international labour rights. It primarily benefits larger agro-industrial enterprises that can use it in their corporate public relations. The SA8000 standard can help to improve productivity and quality and can also help to recruit and retain workers. Although more common in other industries, the SA8000 standard has been taken up slowly by the agricultural industry because it is difficult to implement in seasonal production. EUREPGAP aims to increase consumers' confidence in food safety by developing \"good agricultural practices\" (GAP) which must be adopted by producers. It also aims to harmonize buyers' requirements for food hygiene and for maximum residue limits for pesticides. Unlike the other certification programmes, the focus of EUREPGAP is not on environmental or social issues but rather on food safety and traceability. However, the EUREPGAP standard also includes some requirements on the use of pesticides, workers safety and compliance with national labour regulations. Among all the EUREPGAP standards, the one on fruits and vegetables is the most advanced 2 . It should be borne in mind that EUREPGAP has not been established by the European Union. he EUREPGAP standard requires that producers establish a complete control and monitoring system. Products can then be registered and traced back to the specific farm unit where they were grown. EUREP rules are relatively flexible about field practices such as soil fumigation and fertilizer usage. There are strict regulations about pesticide storage and pesticide residue limits. In addition, it is important to document and justify how the product was produced, so detailed records must be kept about farm practices."}]},{"head":"More information on SA8000","index":42,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"How to get certified?","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"rivate certification agencies approved by the EUREP Secretariat (FoodPLUS) can certify against EUREPGAP. Both individual producers and groups of producers can apply for certification, the cost of which depends on the certification agency chosen and the time spent on the inspection. In addition to the certification fee, the producer must also pay an annual fee to FoodPLUS to maintain the certification."}]},{"head":"Opportunities and constraints?","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"o get the EUREPGAP certification, the producer needs a complete administrative system to keep track of all farm activities. For a company largely involved in exports, this system could make it easier to fulfil and meet other regulations and certifications."},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"The EUREPGAP certified producer may also have an advantage when selling products to one of the EUREP members. In the future, some of these supermarkets will probably require that their suppliers have the EUREPGAP certification. Most of the 31 retail-members operate in the United Kingdom, the Netherlands and in Germany. In France, Norway, Finland there is one member but there are no Eurep members in countries like Spain, Italy and Denmark. T P T Some EUREP members he BRC standard is a private voluntary standard developed by the British Retail Consortium (BRC). The standard has been set up in order to protect consumers' health and to enable British retailers to comply with the United Kingdom Food Safety Act. Therefore, BRC standard can be considered as a tool that provides retailers with a common basis for the audit of their suppliers of food products. The use of this standard requires the adoption and implementation of HACCP principles, the setting up of a documented and effective quality management system as well as the control of working environment, products, processes and personnel. It can be applied by any food supplier company."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"The application of the BRC Standard requires certification by a third party. Certified products are differentiated in the market as they carry the BRC logo. For many producers, the market for certified agricultural products is very complex and the advantages and requirements associated with the certification programme are not always clear. In addition, producers do not always know the difference between the compulsory or voluntary nature of standards applied to export products. Therefore, this manual has been designed in order to clarify voluntary certification."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"After having read its content, the reader should be able to understand the main voluntary certification schemes, the importance of these schemes, the difference between these programmes as well as their advantages and constraints. The manual also provides information on the main import regulations in the United States, the European Union and Japan. This information is hoped to facilitate the export of certified products into these markets."},{"index":5,"size":1,"text":"TC/D/A0587E/1/7.06/1200"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" An important part of the mandate of the Commodities and Trade Division (ESC) of FAO is to identify the problems affecting commodity trade and propose solutions to address them, preferably through international action. ESCR (the Raw Materials, Tropical and Horticultural Products Service) became involved in issues regarding social and environmental certification as these continued to arise in the analytical work on trade and economic problems related to bananas and other commodities for which it is responsible. FAO-ESCR has produced several technical studies and information publications on social and environmental certification. These include: a small brochure targeted at wholesale and retail buyers of bananas, explaining the differences between various certification schemes; an extension manual aimed at producer associations and exporters in Central America on voluntary certification programmes and describing the import regulations of main export markets; cost-benefit analyses on certified citrus in Spain and in Costa Rica; and recently, a technical paper on environmental and social standards, certification and labelling for cash crops. FAO has established an Internet portal where relevant studies and links to organizations working to improve social and environmental conditions in agricultural production and trade can be found. http://www.fao.org/es/ESC/en/20953/22218/highlight_44152en.html The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA) was established in 1983 under the Lomé Convention between the ACP (African, Caribbean and Pacific Group of States) and the European Union Member States. Since 2000, it has operated within the framework of the ACP-EC Cotonou Agreement. "},{"text":" onsumers are increasingly concerned about their health, the country of origin and the quality of the products they consume.Most popular regulations focus on grade, size, weight, and package labelling. Regarding labelling, required information includes: country of origin, product name, variety and quantity. Requirements relating to commercial quality are about variety, colour, expiration date, external damage and shape. "},{"text":"Food safety regulations at international level (e.g. Codex Standards) and/or national level : http://www.ipfsaph.org/En/default.jsp http://www.fao.org/ag/agn/food/food_fruits_en.stm For treatments, it is important to meet recommended doses "},{"text":" clearance in the European Union vary according to countries. However, many of these countries have electronic customs systems and other programmes that speed up clearance time. For specific information about customs procedures and tariff rates (by country): Taxation and Customs Union http://europa.eu.int/comm/taxation_customs/common/about/welcome/index_en.htm Centre for the Promotion of Imports from Developing Countries (CBI): www.cbi.nl Prior to arrival of the products, exporters must notify the quarantine station at the point of entry through an electronic system operated by the Ministry of Health and Welfare. To further reduce the time spent at customs, a sample of the product can be brought to an official lab in Japan or in the exporting country and the results submitted for pre-clearance. Consumption tax and duties are paid before final clearance is given. For further information about import procedures: www.mhlw.go.jp/english/topics/importedfoods/index.html Customs officials can only authorize the entrance of products into the United States after inspections by APHIS and the FDA at the point of entry. Exporters must also pay the necessary duties there, as determined by quantity, value, description and country of origin. To speed up the processing time at the border, exporters can complete certain customs procedures before departure. For example, through APHIS International Services it is now possible for some countries to get pre-clearance on import documents like phytosanitary certificates. For more details about the available pre-clearance arrangements in the United States: www.aphis.usda.gov/ppq/preclearance/ Exporters can also use an Automated Commercial System developed by the US Customs to process documents electronically. For more information: www.cbp.gov/xp/cgov/import/operations_support/automated_systems/ams/ 5. ORGANIZATIONS SUPPORTING EXPORT FROM WEST AFRICA roducers and exporters need to familiarize themselves with a large variety of technical norms and import regulations which can at first seem complicated. However, there are a number of international and national organizations located in each of the West African countries that work to help producers comply with these regulations. "},{"text":"P--- Don't hesitate to contact international or local organizations! They can provide you with additional information or relevant training. National Organizations -Association de développement des produits d'exportations (ADEX); Tel.: (229) 31 78 21, Email: adex@intnet.bj -Centre béninois du commerce extérieur, Tel.: (229) 301320/301397; Email: cbce@bow.intnet.bj, www.cbce.africa-web.org/ (FR) -Fédération des groupements d'intérêts économiques de l'atlantique, Tel.: (229) 315726, Email: sylvieamoussou@yahoo.fr -Association professionnelle des exportateurs de fruits et légumes du Burkina (APEFEL), Tel.: (226) 300210/311338 -Ministère du commerce, de l'artisanat et de la promotion de l'entreprise; Tel.: (226) 324828; Email: mcia@cenatrin.bf -Union nationale de groupements et sociétés coopératives de production fruitière et maraîchère du Burkina Faso, Tel.: (226) 20975234; Email: ufmb@fasonet.bf -Association pour la promotion des produits d'exportation de Côte d'Ivoire (APEXCI), Tel.: (225) 20315700; Email: apexci@aviso.ci -Association pour la promotion des produits d'exportation agricoles non-traditionnelles de Côte d'Ivoire (PROMEXA), Tel.: (225) 20210561/62; Email: info@promexa.ci -Organisation centrale des producteurs/exportateurs d'ananas & bananes de CI, Tel.: (225) 20/25251872; Email: ocab.a@aviso.ci (exportation: mangue, ananas) -Société d'étude et de développement de la culture bananière, Tel.: (225) 20209300; Email: scb@scb.ci Federation of Associations of Ghanaian Exporters (FAGE); Tel.: (233) 21232554; Email: fage@ighmail.com; web: www.ghana-exporter.org -Ghana Association of Vegetable Exporters (GAVEX), Email: tacks@africaonline.com -Ghana Export Promotion Council (GEPC); Tel: (233)-21228813/228830, Email: gepc@ghana.com; web: www.exportghana.org -Horticulturist Association of Ghana (HAG), Email: hag@africaonline.com -Ministry of Trade and Industry; Tel.: (233-21) 663188, Email: mismoti@africaonline.com.gh; web: www.moti-ghana.com -Papaya and Mango Producers and Exporters Association of Ghana (PAMPEAG), Email: pampeag@yahoo.co.uk -Plant Protection and Regulatory Services Directorate, Tel.: (233) 21302638; Email: spsghana@africaonline.com.gh or uqadams@hotmail.com -Vegetable Growers and Exporters Association of Ghana (VEPEAG), Email: vepeag@yahoo.com, Web: www.ghana-exporter.org/vepeag/DEFAULT2.HTM -Projet cadre de promotion des exportations agricoles (PCPEA); Tel.: (224) 411461; Email: pcpea@mirinet.net.gn -Ministry of Commerce and Industry, Tel.: (231) 226283 -Ministère de l'industrie et du commerce; Tel.: (223) 2214928; Email: dnae@datatech.toolnet.org -Trade Mali, Tel.: (223) 2291750; Email: info@trademali.com -Department of State of Trade, Industry and Employment Tel.: (220) 228868, Email: dostie@qanet.gm Web: www.gambia.gm/Introduction/introduction.html Centre nigérien du commerce extérieur, Tel.: (227) 732288 -Ministère du commerce de l'industrie et de la promotion du secteur privé Tel.: (227) 735867, Email: nicom@intnet.ne. -Chamber of Commerce, Industry, Mines and Agriculture of Port Harcourt, Tel.: (234-84) 330394 -International Trade Center of Lagos, Tel.: (234-1) 2635276, Email: wtcn@linkserve.com -Nigeria Export Promotion Council (NEPC), Tel.: (234-9) 5230932; web: www.nepc.gov.ng -Centre international du commerce extérieur du Sénégal (CICES), Tel: (221) 8275266; Email: cices@cices.sn -Chambre de commerce, d'industrie et d'agriculture de Dakar (CCIA); Tel.: (221) 8237189; Email: cciad@Telecomplus.sn -Fondation trade point Sénégal, Tel.: (221) 8397373, Email: tpdakar@tpsnet.org; web: www.tpsnet.org (FR) -Organisation nationale des producteurs/exportateurs de fruits et légumes du Sénégal (ONAPES), Tel.: (221) 8227853/7854; Email: onapes@infocom.sn Togo -Chambre de commerce, d'agriculture et de l'industrie du Togo, Tel: (228) 212 068/217 065, Fax : (228) 214 730 -Ministère du commerce, de l'industrie et de l'artisanat, Tel.: (228) 2212971/2212025, Fax: (228Ministry of Trade and Industry Tel.: (232-22) 222706/ 222640 -Sierra Leone Export Development and Investment Corporation (SLEDIC), Tel.: (232-22)229216/227604 "},{"text":"C Producers can choose among many different types of certification. Decisions to obtain certification as well as the type of certification chosen are important decisions that influence farm management, investments and marketing strategies. "},{"text":"O More information on Organic Agriculture International sites -FAO: http://www.fao.org/organicag/default.htm -GTZ; Tel.: (49) 6196 79 1466 ; Email: Marion.Buley@gtz.de -International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements -IFOAM; Tel.: (49) 228 926 0-10; Web: www.ifoam.org NGOs in West Africa -Organisation béninoise pour la promotion de l'agriculture biologique (OBEPAB); web: www.obepab.bj (FR); Email: obepab@intnet.bj -Réseau de développement d'Agriculture Durable (REDAD); Tel.: (229) 362491; Email: rtokannou@yahoo.fr Benin Burkina Faso -Agri Bio Conseil; address: BP 2545. Bobo Dioulasso, Burkina Faso -Association pour la recherche et la formation en agro écologie (ARFA); Tel.: (226) 770670 or 770275; Email: arfa@fasonet.bf -Centre écologique Albert Schweitzer du Burkina Faso (CAES); Tel.: (226) 50343008; web: http://www.ceas-ong.net/burkina1.html (FR) -Ghana Organic Agriculture Network (GOAN); Tel.: (233) 5120954; Email: goan@wwwplus.com -Ideal Providence Farms; Email: ginakoomson@yahoo.co.uk -Kumasi Institute of Tropical Agricultura (KITA); Tel.: (233) 2081 7 64; Web: www.kita-ghana.org; Email: director@kita-ghana.org -Groupe de recherches et d'applications techniques (GRAT) Groupe Tel.: (223) 2224341 -Helvetas Mali, Tel.: (223)2217998/2210964/2210965, Web: www.helvetas-mali.org/index.html (FR), Email: helvetas@afribone.net.ml -AGRECOL; Tel.: (221) 9514206; web: www.agrecol-afrique.sn (FR); Email: agrecol@sentoo.sn; -Agriculteurs Naturalistes (AGRINAT), Tel.: (221) 9514202; Email: agrinat@enda.sn -Association Sénégalaise pour la promotion de l'agriculture biologique (ASPAB); Tel. : (221) 9512026 -Protection naturelle des cultures-environnement développement (PRONAT); Tel.: (221) 8225565; web: www.enda.sn/pronat/(FR); Email: pronat@enda.sn; -ANCE/Togo; Tel.: (228) 9080742 ou 9483549; web: www.ancetogo.globalink.org(FR); Email: ebeh@globolink.org -Association pour la protection de l'environnement et le bien-être social (APEBES); Tel.: (228) 4410280 -Centre de recherche action pour l'environnement et le développement intégré (CREDI); Tel.: (228) 2253760 -CREDA (Consultation-recherche-éducation en environnement pour un développement durable en Afrique); Tel: (228 "},{"text":"-- Centre béninois de normalisation et de gestion de la qualité (CEBENOR); Tel.: (229) 309359; Email: cebenor@intnet.bj -SGS ; Tel. : (229) 21300709; www.sgs.com -Direction de la normalisation et de la promotion de la qualité (FASONORM), Tel.: (226) 50311300; fasonorm@onac.bf -SGS; Tel.: (226) 50315042/43 ou (226) 20971471 Email: sgs.burkina.faso.lo@sgs.com; www.sgs.comThe products from an ISO14001 certified farm cannot be ISO labelled and there is no price premium. Since a growing number of companies are becoming ISO certified, the standard may no longer be a determining factor for market advantage but could lead to other internal benefits within the companyT Côte d'Ivoire Normalisation (CODINORM); Tel.: (225) 20215512; Email: codinorm@africaonline.co.ci -SGS, Tel.: (225) 21752200; www.sgs.com -Ghana Standards Board (GSB); Tel.: (233) 21501495; Email: gsbnep@ghanastandards.org -SGS; Tel.: (233) 21764708/709/773997/773994, web: www.gh.sgs.com; Email: sgs.ghana@sgs.com -Institut National de la normalisation et de la métrologie (INM) Tel.: (224) 412816; Email: inm@soTelgui.net.gn -SGS; Tel.: (224) 454790/454791; conakrySA.GN@sgs.com -Direction nationale des industries (MLIDNI) Tel.: (223) 2220663; Email: dni@afribone.net.ml -Direction de la normalisation de la qualité et de la métrologie (DNQM); Tel.: (227) 736950; Email: dnqm2002@yahoo.fr -Standards Organisation of Nigeria (SON);Tel.: (234) 1 2708247; info@sononline-ng.org; web: www.sononline-ng.org -SGS; Tel.: (234) 1 2625347 -50, 2620735-37; web: www.ng.sgs.com; Email: sgs.nigeria@sgs.com -Association sénégalaise de normalisation Tel: (221) 8276401; Email : asnor@sentoo.sn -SGS; Email: sgs.senegal@sgs.com Niger Côte d'Ivoire Togo -Conseil supérieur de normalisation (CSN) Tel.: (228) 2200750; Email: togonormes@yahoo.fr "},{"text":"T SCHEMES "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" strategies, including those relevant to science and technology. CTA's work incorporates new developments in methodologies and cross-cutting issues such as gender and social capital.  iii iii ESCR CONTENTS  ESCR CONTENTS WHY THIS MANUAL? i WHY THIS MANUAL?i GLOSSARY iv GLOSSARYiv PART1: TECHNICAL REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS FOR  PART1: TECHNICAL REGULATIONS AND CONTROLS FOR IMPORTING  IMPORTING 1. -Commercial Quality and Labelling Regulations  1. -Commercial Quality and Labelling Regulations 2. -Food Safety Regulations  2. -Food Safety Regulations Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides  Maximum Residue Limits of Pesticides Biological Contamination and Product Traceability  Biological Contamination and Product Traceability 3. -Environmental Safety and Phytosanitary Regulations  3. -Environmental Safety and Phytosanitary Regulations 4. -Customs Clearance  4. -Customs Clearance 5. -Organizations supporting export from West Africa  5. -Organizations supporting export from West Africa PART2: VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION  PART2: VOLUNTARY CERTIFICATION 1. -Questions about certification  1. -Questions about certification 2. -Environmental Certifications  2. -Environmental Certifications Organic agriculture  Organic agriculture ISO 14001 Certification  ISO 14001 Certification Utz Kapeh  Utz Kapeh 3. -Social Certifications  3. -Social Certifications Fair-Trade  Fair-Trade SA 8000 Certification  SA 8000 Certification 4. -Food Safety and Quality Certifications  4. -Food Safety and Quality Certifications EUREPGAP Certification 37 EUREPGAP Certification37 ISO 22 000 4 ISO 22 0004 BRC Global Standard 41 BRC Global Standard41 5. -Goals of the six certification schemes  5. -Goals of the six certification schemes 6. -Opportunities and constraints of the six certification schemes  6. -Opportunities and constraints of the six certification schemes CTA, Postbus 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -Netherlands -Website: www.cta.int  CTA, Postbus 380 -6700 AJ Wageningen -Netherlands -Website: www.cta.int  "},{"text":"htm Japan requires that imported products comply with regulations in the Food Sanitation Law, the Japan Agricultural Standards (JAS) Law and the Measurement Law. For more information on standards and import procedures for specific products:  United States The United States requires that agricultural imports be United StatesThe United States requires that agricultural imports be  graded according to the standards of the American Marketing graded according to the standards of the American Marketing  Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). Service of the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA).  For more information on product grading and quality requirements For more information on product grading and quality requirements established by the USDA: established by the USDA:  USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/standards/stanfrfv.htm USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/standards/stanfrfv.htm  USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/fv/moab-8e.html USDA: www.ams.usda.gov/fv/moab-8e.html  FDA: www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/lab-ind.html FDA: www.cfsan.fda.gov/~dms/lab-ind.html One of the components of the 2002 Farm Bill (the Farm Security and Rural One of the components of the 2002 Farm Bill (the Farm Security and Rural Investment Act of 2002) is the implementation of mandatory country of origin Investment Act of 2002) is the implementation of mandatory country of origin labelling (COOL). For more information on this programme: labelling (COOL). For more information on this programme:  USDA: http://www.ams.usda.gov/cool/ USDA: http://www.ams.usda.gov/cool/  Japan External Trade Organization: Japan External Trade Organization:  http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/ http://www.jetro.go.jp/en/market/regulations/  Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: Ministry of Agriculture, Forestry and Fisheries: http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm http://www.maff.go.jp/soshiki/syokuhin/hinshitu/e_label/index.htm  "},{"text":"table .  Some criteria of Utz Kapeh Certification Some criteria of Utz Kapeh Certification Good Agricultural and   Good Agricultural and Business Practices' Environmental Criteria Social Criteria Business Practices'Environmental CriteriaSocial Criteria Criteria   Criteria workers trained properly reduce and prevent soil workers are protected by workers trained properlyreduce and prevent soilworkers are protected by implementation of accident erosion national laws and ILO implementation of accidenterosionnational laws and ILO and emergency procedures implementation of hygiene comply with maximum UTZ KAPEH residue limits conventions regarding age, working hours, pensions, and emergency procedures implementation of hygienecomply with maximum UTZ KAPEH residue limitsconventions regarding age, working hours, pensions, rules and practices minimize water and working conditions, rules and practicesminimize water andworking conditions, traceability system environmental pollution collective bargaining and traceability systemenvironmental pollutioncollective bargaining and annual internal inspections optimize use of safety annual internal inspectionsoptimize use ofsafety  sustainable energy workers receive sustainable energyworkers receive  sources protective clothing for the sourcesprotective clothing for the  protect water sources use of chemicals protect water sourcesuse of chemicals  avoid deforestation of access to health care for avoid deforestation ofaccess to health care for  primary forests the workers and their primary foreststhe workers and their   families families   access to education for access to education for   children children  "},{"text":" SAI, Tel.: (1) 212 6841414; Email: info@sa-intl.org; web: www.sa-intl.org,  4. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY 4. FOOD SAFETY AND QUALITY T CERTIFICATIONS TCERTIFICATIONS UREPGAP is a voluntary UREPGAP is a voluntary private certification privatecertification system created by the system created by the Euro-Retailer Produce Working Euro-Retailer Produce Working Group (EUREP). The group is Group (EUREP). The group is made up of 31 members 1 that made up of 31 members 1 that operate in Western Europe. operate in Western Europe.  United States United States  "}],"sieverID":"341f8706-119e-4f82-ab1e-cdb8dfa33b8c","abstract":"This manual has been produced with the financial support of The Technical Centre for Agricultural and Rural Cooperation (CTA), the Government of Germany and the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO). The manual is partly based on the FAO/RUTA (Unidad Regional de Asistencia Técnica in Spanish) manual ''¿Es la certificación algo para mí? -Una guía práctica sobre por qué, cómo y con quién certificar productos para la exportación'' by M."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0028c23f6045a1ab0d8af500dd57a9ef","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/4796/8b2946e8b6203ff070b010d98bfadf00.pdf"},"pageCount":4,"title":"The Chinbridge Institute conducted a stacked value chain analysis of smoked rohu from Kale Township, Sagaing Region of Myanmar 1 under a consultancy contract from March to June 2020, for the inland component of the Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme (MYSAP), which was funded by the European Union and the German Federal Ministry for Economic Cooperation and Development (BMZ)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The key findings of the SVCA were:"},{"index":2,"size":135,"text":"• Seven rohu smokers in Kale Township, that were operated by either ethnic Chin or Mizo, processed an estimated 1,605 viss (2,616 kg) of fresh rohu (MMK 3,200 per viss 2 ) into 401 viss (654 kg) of finished smoked rohu daily. • 90% of the smoked rohu was exported to Mizoram State, India because of a price premium, with the smoked rohu industry of Kale Township worth MMK 1.75 billion per year (€ 1.24 million per year). • The current locally developed fish smokers were inefficient in their use of fuel (wood and sawdust), poorly designed from a health and safety point of view of the staff operating them and there were concerns about the consistent quality of the products produced, its shelf life and basic food safety and hygiene practices that required improvement."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"To address the above issues, MYSAP conducted field activities to pilot improvements of the existing traditional fish smoking technology. Bandara Rotawewa, an international consultant from Sri Lanka, was engaged to introduce the FAO-Thiaroye Processing Technique (FTT) improved smokers 3 by modifying the design to fit the local availability of construction materials and to virtually oversee the construction of 2 improved smokers."}]},{"head":"Success Story","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Improved fish smoker delivers a superior product","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"Myanmar Sustainable Aquaculture Programme"},{"index":2,"size":201,"text":"The supported 2 fish processors were Daw from Pyin Khone Lay Village and U Lala from Nat Gyi Kone Village, Kale Township, in the Sagaing Region of Myanmar, near the border with India. Daw Vuli and U Lala were 2 of the first smokers in Kale Township and were selected for MYSAP support by their peers as they were both seen as innovative and motivated to share what they learned with others. Daw Vuli, was particularly interested in differentiating her smoked rohu product from that of others and wanted to add value to her smoking process. Despite weak internet services at the time, Yu Maung, the MYSAP Inland Field Coordinator for the Sagaing Region who operated from the office of the NGO Ar Yone Oo, in Kale Township used his mobile phone at the smoking facility to invite Bandara, in Sri Lanka, into a free Viber Messenger international video call, together with Khaing Kyaw, the MYSAP Inland's Field Manager who translated from English to Myanmar language as Bandara mentored Daw Vuli and U Lala through the process of operating the FTT improved smokers, giving tips and specific instructions on how to take fish samples at different stages of the smoking process."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Test operation of the smokers was conducted under the virtual supervision of the international consultant in Pyin Khone Lay Village with Daw Vuli and in Nay Gyi Kong Village, with U Lala, and the rohu Indian carp (Labeo rohita) used in the testing of the smokers was funded by MYSAP, because it was uncertain whether the final product could be sold."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"For sensory tests, fish were prepared and smoked on the same day for both the traditional and the FTT improved smokers to allow direct comparison. The rohu were hand graded into 3 different size categories, i.e. small, medium and large. For each size category of fish, 6 fish were individually marked with a piece of aluminium foil and numbered 1 to 6 using a permanent marker pen to allow individual fish identification. The 6 sampled fish for each size category were then weighed at different stages during the smoking process i.e. i) fresh on arrival, ii) after gutting, iii) after smoking, and later iv) after oven drying at 100 Celsius for 7 hours."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Blind taste sensory evaluation testing was conducted in late April 2021 by randomly selecting 20 people (10 ♀ and 10 ♂) to assess seven different product properties being i) colour, ii) smell/odour, iii) appearance, iv) saltiness, v) texture, vi) taste/flavour and vii) general acceptability and scoring each on a scale of 1 to 5, with 1 being the lowest score and 5 being the highest possible score."},{"index":6,"size":12,"text":"The key findings from this MYSAP funded pilot activity were extremely promising."},{"index":7,"size":37,"text":"• The processing capacity of the pilot FTT's was 49.0-61.3 viss (80-100 kg) per batch and the capacity could be further increased by making and stacking additional wooden framed smoker racks on top of the smoking kilns;"},{"index":8,"size":23,"text":"• The smoking time was reduced from 12 -14 hours for the traditional smoking method to 7 hours using the improved FTT smoker;"},{"index":9,"size":26,"text":"• The FTT smoker used only one-third the amount of fuelwood and sawdust per weight of smoked fish produced and therefore produces less greenhouse gas emissions;"},{"index":10,"size":23,"text":"• Operators and family members working with the FTT smoker were less exposed to smoke, which may reduce the likelihood of respiratory infections;"},{"index":11,"size":33,"text":"• The FTT smoker required less handling and turning of the smoking fish and was more ergonomic and easier to operate than the current traditional smoker that required a lot of back-bending work;"},{"index":12,"size":32,"text":"• The moisture content for the FTT smoker was more consistent across all 3 size grades of smoked fish and it produced a more consistent quality of product than the traditional smoker;"},{"index":13,"size":26,"text":"• The moisture content from the FTT smoker ranged between 5.5% -14%, 15% -21% and 21% -24% for small, medium and large size grades of rohu;"},{"index":14,"size":23,"text":"• Buyers preferred the FTT smoked fish because it had an attractive golden colour and looked better than the darker traditionally smoked fish;"},{"index":15,"size":171,"text":"• The overall mean taste panel score across the six sensory parameters (excluding saltiness) for the traditionally smoked rohu was 20.6, compared to 25.5 per test person for smoked rohu from the improved FTT, indicating that the smoked product from the improved FTT smoker was preferable to the traditionally smoked rohu marketed in Kale Township, Sagaing Region, Myanmar. The sensory parameters with the biggest difference were taste/flavour for which the traditionally smoked fish recieved an average score of 3.25 compared to 4.45 for the FTT smoked fish, and overall acceptability for which the traditionally smoked fish received an average score of 3.7 compared to 4.8 for the FTT smoked fish. Most taste panel members found the level of salt adequate and suitable. Texture was rated lowest for both the traditional and FTT smoked fish indicating the a softer texture was preferred. However a softer product would have greater moisture content and would likely spoil under the current transport and storage system, which is at ambient tropical temperatures without any temperature control;"},{"index":16,"size":40,"text":"• The weight loss for both the traditionally and FTT smoked fish on gutting, and on smoking and drying, and the yield of the smoked product ranged between 5.5% -8.5%, 66% -71% and 23% -29% respectively, which was normal; and,"},{"index":17,"size":31,"text":"• Daw Vuli, on her own initiative, diversified her smoking product output and now uses the MYSAP supported FTT improved smoker at the weekends to produce and profitably sell smoked pork."},{"index":18,"size":81,"text":"The cost of the construction materials for building the FTT improved smoker in Myanmar was MMK 1,093,750 (US$ 703 4 ). Despite the improved product quality and consistency from the FTT smoker, this has not as yet resulted in higher sales price for the smoked rohu. However the savings in fuel wood and sawdust costs alone will repay the investment cost for the FTT improved smoker construction materials in 3 years for Daw Vuli and in 4 years for U Lala."},{"index":19,"size":62,"text":"In addition to fuel wood and sawdust cost savings, savings may be made on labour because the processing time is nearly halved and while someone has to oversee the traditional smoker continuously in case of fire outbreaks, with the FTT smoker this is not necessary and workers have more free time and can engage in other activities, like cleaning and packing, etc."},{"index":20,"size":45,"text":"The conditions under which the pilot smoker activity and the consultancy were conducted did not allow a full scale scientific direct comparison between the FTT smokers and the traditional smokers. Further study is therefore required to assess the impact of the FTT improved smoker on:"},{"index":21,"size":8,"text":"1) The shelf life of the smoked fish;"},{"index":22,"size":78,"text":"2) Food safety of the smoked product, including reduced levels of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAH's); 3) Nutritional quality of the smoked product; 4) Production capacity of the FTT smoker with different numbers of smoking racks above the kilns; 5) Improvements to meet local consumer's preferences and opportunities to diversify product types and add product value; 6) The operating profits of the smoker unit; and, 7) Capacity support for the fish smokers on marketing techniques and building product brands."},{"index":23,"size":95,"text":"Outputs from this MYSAP funded consultancy input and pilot activity in addition to the construction of the 2 FTT improved smokers, were Myanmar and English language guide documents entitled: 1) Guide for the operation and testing of an FTT improved smoker (links 56 ); 2) Guide for the construction an FTT improved smoker in Myanmar (links 78 ); and, Additionally the MYSAP supported FTT improved smoker activity has proven that when travel and face-toface visits are not possible, virtual mentoring and guidance can be provided, even when internet connectivity is weak, using platforms like Viber."},{"index":24,"size":46,"text":"5 Guide for the construction of an FTT smoker in Myanmar (worldfishcenter.org) 6 Guide for the construction of an FTT smoker in Myanmar (Burmese version) (worldfishcenter.org) 7 FTT smoker operation and testing protocol guidelines (worldfishcenter.org) 8 FTT smoker operation and testing protocol guidelines (Burmese version) (worldfishcenter.org)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"00581a55-2168-4946-b8d4-71d6b048e73b","abstract":"The stacked value chain analysis (SVCA) approach used qualitative and quantitative methodologies, and questionnaires adapted from the Dakshin Foundation, the Dried Fish Matters programme and the Royal Tropical Institute (KIT), the Netherlands."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00370b93caa6c92362c84637fd6b62f1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4bbf6e58-242e-42e2-983d-020908895ad5/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Applications in Plant Sciences 2013 1 ( 6 ): 1300024; http://www.bioone.org/loi/apps © 2013 Simon and Spooner . Published by the Botanical Society of America."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"This article is a U.S. Government work and is in the public domain in the USA."}]},{"head":"Ap Applications ons in in Pl Plant t Scien Sciences ces","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"A tedious part of preparing a taxonomic monograph is collating specimen data for (1) specimen citations and (2) indices to associate collectors and collector numbers to taxonomic identifi cations ( exsiccatae ). While preparing a taxonomic monograph of wild potatoes for northern South America, we designed tools to effi ciently and accurately convert specimen data into the formats specifi ed by Systematic Botany Monographs . One of the tools is a conversion tool to reformat tabulated records into specimen citations and the other for exsiccatae. It is a specifi c implementation of the reproducible research approach ( Gentleman and Temple Lang, 2004 ). A version of our software tool is freely available for R ( R Core Team, 2012 ) at http://cran.r-project.org/ web/packages/exsic/."}]},{"head":"METHODS AND RESULTS","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Overall design of the package -The package was designed to facilitate very specifi c steps in the processing of tabular specimen data: the conversion from table-oriented to index-based or list-based formats. Other necessary steps, such as data cleansing or data conversions, are not part of the main functions as there are other tools available for that purpose. That is, date conversions or geographical coordinate transformations into the fi nal desired format must be done separately by the user and before using the exsic function. The main function assumes, therefore, correct structure and content, but has been designed to be robust and to gracefully handle missing columns or content. In the case of essential columns (for sorting or fi ltering, e.g., \"species\", \"country\", \"collcite\", \"number\", \"majorarea\", \"minorarea\"), these will be added and fi lled with meaningful values for missing content (e.g., \"Anonymous\" for missing collector information). However, a few convenience functions have been added to handle specifi c transformations, and these are explained in more detail below."},{"index":2,"size":300,"text":"Tabular data format -As a starting point for preparing the specimen data, we used a format based on conventions defi ned by the BRAHMS (Botanical Research and Herbarium Management Software) package ( Filer, 2001 ), as detailed in an online manual ( Filer, 2010 ). The column names used by exsic are mostly the same as those used by BRAHMS, with a few modifi cations and additions to facilitate both the concurrent use of the BRAHMS conventions and this package ( Table 1 ) . One is the addition of the \"colldate\" fi eld for the \"date of collection\". The content of this fi eld should usually have the format \"1 Jan 2013\"; the corresponding BRAHMS fi eld names are: \"colldd\", \"collmm\", and \"collyy\" for day, month, and year, respectively. Functions in the package \"date\" can be used to convert from these three columns to the desired format and stored in the column \"colldate\". The other addition is the column or fi eld \"collcite\". The information on citing collectors is stored in two BRAHMS fi elds: \"collector\" and \"addcoll\". A custom function (\"coll.cite\") is provided that helps address most formatting issues, including whether or not to use initials, whether or not to use periods after initials, and whether to cite both names for collector pairs or cite only the fi rst and add \"et al.\" when there are more than two. The variations can be set using \"coll.cite\" function parameters. Another convenience function is called \"strip.last.dot\"; this is meant to process the column \"locnotes\" for location notes because they are separated by a comma in most specimen citations. A last variation is the use of a separate column for \"phenology\", with expected content to be \"fl \" for fl owering stage, \"fr\" for fruiting stage, or empty for neither stage."},{"index":3,"size":291,"text":"Target formats for specimen citations of numbered collections -We researched format variations using a Google search and found three additional formats to that used in Systematic Botany Monographs . The four formats ( Systematic Botany Monographs [format.SBMG], American Society of Plant Taxonomists [format.ASPT], New York Botanical Garden [format.NYBG], and PhytoKeys [format.PK]) are summarized in Table 2 . The main differences between these specimen citation formats relate to the formatting of species and country information as well as to differences in formatting the collector information. New York Botanical Garden journals include phenology information after the date of observation. Numbered collections formats differed with respect to using index numbers to point to the species or directly using a species. Another difference is whether consecutive numbers of the same species for a 1 Manuscript received 28 March 2013; revision accepted 22 May 2013. This research was supported by the National Science Foundation (DEB 0316614). The authors thank two anonymous reviewers for their feedback on earlier versions, which greatly helped to improve the scope and usability of the tool. 4 Author for correspondence: r. • Premise of the study: Taxonomists manage large amounts of specimen data. This is usually initiated in spreadsheets and then converted for publication into locality lists and indices to associate collectors and collector numbers from herbarium sheets to identifi cations ( exsiccatae ). This conversion process is mostly done by hand and is time-consuming, cumbersome, and errorprone. • Methods and Results: We constructed a tool, 'exsic,' based on the statistical software R. The exsic function is part of the R package 'exsic' and produces specimen citations and exsiccatae conforming to four related formats. • Conclusions: The tool increases speed, effi ciency, and accuracy to convert raw spreadsheet tables to publication-ready content."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"Key words: exsic; exsiccatae; R; reproducible research; software."}]},{"head":"Usage -","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":263,"text":"The package can be downloaded from the central R repository CRAN using standard procedures in R and activated using the command \"library(exsic)\". A user would typically start using the main exsic function and either provide an inmemory table or a fi le path. For example: a table may be read using the custom function \"data <-read.exsic(fi lepath)\". This function ensures that all obligatory fi elds (see Table 1 ) are present; if not, they will be created and prefi lled with placeholder text (e.g., missing collector citation in \"collcite\" will be replaced with \"Anonymous\"; missing collection numbers with \"s.n.\"; missing dates with \"s.d.\"; and missing minor area or major area information with \"Unknown major/minor area\"). An example table with 1000 records of wild potato specimens is included in the package and can be accessed using \"system.fi le(\"samples/exsic.csv\", packages=\"exsic\")\". This may take a minute to process. For quicker testing, a subset can be constructed using \"pt = potato[1:10,]\" which will use only the fi rst 10 records. A complete minimal example using the provided sample table is given here: afi le <-system.fi le(\"samples/exsic.csv\", package=\"exsic\") potato <-read.exsic(afi le) pt = potato[1:10,] exsic(pt) # or shorthand for the whole table: exsic(fi le=\"afi le\") collector citation are grouped or not. The report created by the command example (exsic) creates a Web page as shown in Fig. 1 . The HTML page can then be further edited and formatted using a word processor. A user's guide showing the principal usage along with a precise description of the input format can be found in the package documentation (http://cran.r-project.org/web/packages/ exsic/exsic.pdf)."}]},{"head":"Sorting and Filtering -","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":348,"text":"The specimen citation records are, by default, not fi ltered from the given table, and species and countries are sorted alphabetically. However, a taxonomist may want to order species by taxonomic relationships, and countries may be ordered from north to south and west to east. Also, the same table may be used for checking subsets. Therefore, to allow both fi ltering and custom sorting \"on-the-fl y,\" an additional table (an R data. frame) can be defi ned. It has two columns, \"country\" and \"species\", where the desired countries and species may be listed separated by semicolons without spaces. To list all countries or all species, the word \"all\" may be used. The table may be added to the exsic function as a parameter \"sortfi lter\". If this parameter is omitted, default options apply. A helper function to check format compliance is available (is.sortfi lter). A sample \"sortfi lter\" table is also available (sort.specs).  c The \"phenology\" fi eld is only used in one format. http://www.bioone.org/loi/apps or species must be written exactly as in the primary table and must be separated by semicolons without spaces. Only those countries or species recognized will be used in the fi nal indices and will be sorted according to the provided sequence. C. Advanced users may defi ne their own format conventions using one of the \"format.XXXX\" (where XXXX is either SBMG, ASPT, NTBG, or PK) examples as a starting point. The formats are defi ned in simple tables so that they can be edited using spreadsheet software. The available formats for text include: bold, italic, underline or underscore (no difference), capitals, uppercase, parentheses, or square brackets. These formats can be combined and are applied from left to right; several options must be separated by a semicolon without a space. Unrecognized formatting words are ignored. For example, the formatting \"();italics\" will result in italicized parentheses whereas \"italics;()\" will not. More details can be found in Table 3 . D. The parameter \"header\" can be used to set other section titles; the parameter \"out.fi le\" is used to set the output fi le name."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"The resulting Web page will be in the same directory called \"exsic.html\" (this name can be changed via a parameter)."},{"index":3,"size":106,"text":"By default, the whole table passed to exsic will be used, sorted alphabetically by species and country, and formatted according to the conventions of Systematic Botany Monographs . To see an example, one may also type \"example(exsic)\" in the R console. The user may modify the defaults by combinations of the following fi ve options: (a) choose of one of four formats, (b) select a subset of species and countries, and order nonalphabetically by species or country, (c) defi ne additional formats, (d) set section titles and the output fi le name, and (e) selectively execute only some of the subroutines. These options are explained below."},{"index":4,"size":192,"text":"A. Choice of formats: The main exsic function has an additional parameter, \"formats\", that accepts tabulated parameters. The table must have only four columns named exactly as \"fi eld\", \"style\", \"sept\", \"comments\" (for example contents see Table 2 ). The four formats are listed in Table 2 . The default format is \"format.SBMG\". B. The \"sortfi lter\" is a parameter in the form of a table that must have only two columns, named \"country\" and \"species\". Within each fi eld, countries  a The \"rec\" variable is the fi rst record from the table. It can be created using: rec = read.exsic(system.fi le(\"samples/exsic.csv\", package=\"exsic\"))[1,] http://www.bioone.org/loi/apps E. The building blocks of the main exsic function are also available individually along with some helper functions. Each index function can be executed separately. Output format is in an intermediate format called \"markdown\" format and needs to be converted. This can be achieved using the function \"write.exsic\". Headers can be provided by using \"exsic.header\" and a combination of string concatenating commands such as \"paste\". For example, a custom index could be achieved using: hdr = exsic.header(\"A header\") idx = index.collections(pt) txt = paste(hdr, idx, sep=\"\") write.exsic(txt, \"idx.html\")"},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"For more details, see the package documentation."},{"index":6,"size":132,"text":"Implementation and speed -We used R and two libraries: (1) stringr ( Wickham, 2012 ) and (2) markdown package ( Gruber and Swartz, 2004 ;Allaire et al., 2012 ) as a basis to implement the exsic package. The exsic package shows one application of R and reproducible research tools for taxonomists and botanists. The package is freely available under the open source GNU Public License (GPL) and for all platforms supported by R (currently Windows, Linux, and Mac OS). On a Dell T7400 precision PC with 4 GB of RAM, a 2.66-GHz Intel Xeon CPU E5430 processor, and running R 2.15.2 on top of Ubuntu 12.10, the sample table with 1000 records was processed in about 30 s. The function has also been tested on Windows XP and Mac OS Snow Leopard."},{"index":7,"size":60,"text":"Important note-When working across operating systems with tables created in Excel, it is indispensable to make sure that data are saved not only in .csv format but also using the encoding standard UTF-8. This allows the use of accents or other alphabets in the indices. Excel does not use UTF-8 as a default, and this will result in formatting errors."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The tool primarily increases the speed of preparing specimen citations, numbered collections, and supporting indices."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"It also minimizes human errors in manual transcription from table to list formats as well as formatting errors. The possibility to quickly create indices in familiar formats also provides an opportunity to double check the consistency and completeness of the table before fi nal publication, thereby increasing the fi nal quality of the table and interpretation. We are not aware of a similar freely available tool except for the report module in the BRAHMS software version 7 that also facilitates the generation of these indices. While the BRAHMS software is Windows only, the exsic package works on Windows, Linux, and Mac OS."}]},{"head":"LITERATURE CITED","index":7,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. An example result for the exsic function using fi ve records from a sample table. "},{"text":" Integrated IT and Computational Research Unit, International Potato Center, Avenida La Molina 1895, La Molina, Lima, Peru; and 3 USDA-Agricultural Research Service, Vegetable Crops Research Unit, University of Wisconsin, 1575 Linden Drive, Madison, Wisconsin 53706-1590 USA CREATING INDICES 1 CREATING INDICES 1 REINHARD SIMON 2,4 AND DAVID M. SPOONER 3 REINHARD SIMON 2,4 AND DAVID M. SPOONER 3  "},{"text":"TABLE 1 . The data dictionary for the primary table of specimens. Field or column names correspond largely to BRAHMS standard; sample content data are invented. Exsic column name BRAHMS fi eld name Exsic required Description Type Sample content Exsic column nameBRAHMS fi eld nameExsic requiredDescriptionTypeSample content id NA Obligatory Continuous number from 1 to n Integer 1 idNAObligatoryContinuous number from 1 to nInteger1 genus genus Obligatory Genus Text Solanum genusgenusObligatoryGenusTextSolanum species sp1 Obligatory Species Text tuberosum speciessp1ObligatorySpeciesTexttuberosum collector collector Obligatory Collector name Text Linne, C collectorcollectorObligatoryCollector nameTextLinne, C number number Obligatory Collector number identifying the specimen Integer 1111 numbernumberObligatoryCollector number identifying the specimenInteger1111 addcoll addcoll Recommended Additional collector names Text Author, A addcolladdcollRecommendedAdditional collector namesTextAuthor, A collcite NA Obligatory Final citation of collector(s) Text Author collciteNAObligatoryFinal citation of collector(s)TextAuthor dups dups Recommended Duplicated herbaria Text PAR dupsdupsRecommendedDuplicated herbariaTextPAR majorarea majorarea Recommended Major subnational level Text Puno majorareamajorareaRecommendedMajor subnational levelTextPuno minorarea minorarea Recommended Second subnational level Text Puno minorareaminorareaRecommendedSecond subnational levelTextPuno locnotes locnotes Recommended Location Text at the shore of lake Titicaca locnoteslocnotesRecommendedLocationTextat the shore of lake Titicaca altitude alt Optional Elevation in meters Text 4000 m altitudealtOptionalElevation in metersText4000 m latitude lat Optional Latitude Text 12 ° 1 ′ 23 ″ N latitudelatOptionalLatitudeText12 ° 1 ′ 23 ″ N longitude long Optional Longitude Text 12 ° 1 ′ 23 ″ E longitudelongOptionalLongitudeText12 ° 1 ′ 23 ″ E colldate NA Recommended Collection date Text 1 Jan 2013 colldateNARecommendedCollection dateText1 Jan 2013 country country Obligatory Country of origin Text Peru countrycountryObligatoryCountry of originTextPeru Note : NA = not applicable.     Note : NA = not applicable.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 . A comparison of the four index formats detailing the fi elds used in the tables format.SBMG, format.ASPT, format.NYBG, and format.PK.  Systematic Botany   New York Botanical Garden    Systematic BotanyNew York Botanical Garden  Monographs Systematic Botany publications  PhytoKeys   MonographsSystematic BotanypublicationsPhytoKeys Field Style Sept a Style Sept a Style Sept a Style Sept a Required b FieldStyleSept aStyleSept aStyleSept aStyleSept aRequired b species bold  capitals  bold  bold  obligatory speciesboldcapitalsboldboldobligatory country bold . none . bold;uppercase . uppercase . obligatory countrybold.none.bold;uppercase.uppercase.obligatory majorarea capitals : none : bold : none : obligatory majorareacapitals:none:bold:none:obligatory minorarea none , none , none , none , obligatory minorareanone,none,none,none,obligatory locnotes none , none , none , none , optional locnotesnone,none,none,none,optional latitude none , none , none , none , optional latitudenone,none,none,none,optional longitude none , none , none , none , optional longitudenone,none,none,none,optional altitude none , none , none , none , optional altitudenone,none,none,none,optional colldate none , none , none  none , optional colldatenone,none,nonenone,optional phenology c     () ,   optional phenology c(),optional collcite italics  italics  underline  none  obligatory collciteitalicsitalicsunderlinenoneobligatory number italics  italics  underline  none  obligatory numberitalicsitalicsunderlinenoneobligatory dups () ; () ; () ; () ; optional dups();();();();optional group.majorarea yes - no - no - no - obligatory group.majorareayes-no-no-no-obligatory species.referral ();number , ();number , ();number ; ();name ; obligatory species.referral();number,();number,();number;();name;obligatory group.specimens yes - yes - yes - yes - obligatory group.specimensyes-yes-yes-yes-obligatory  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 . A comparison of the four index formats showing examples of how to create the format using the exsic function .    New York Botanical Garden  New York Botanical Garden Field in exsic data table Systematic Botany Monographs Systematic Botany publications PhytoKeys Field in exsic data tableSystematic Botany MonographsSystematic BotanypublicationsPhytoKeys Example exsic command a exsic(rec, format = exsic(rec, format = exsic(rec, format = exsic(rec, format = Example exsic command a exsic(rec, format =exsic(rec, format =exsic(rec, format =exsic(rec, format =  format.SBMG) format.ASPT) format.NYBG) format.PK) format.SBMG)format.ASPT)format.NYBG)format.PK) Exsic formatted record Argentina. CATAMARCA : Ambato, Argentina. Catamarca:   Exsic formatted recordArgentina. CATAMARCA : Ambato,Argentina. Catamarca:  Sierra de Ambato, 27 ° 42 ′ S, Ambato, Sierra de Ambato,   Sierra de Ambato, 27 ° 42 ′ S,Ambato, Sierra de Ambato,  65 ° 55 ′ 60 ″ W, 3500 m, 22 Feb 27 ° 42 ′ S, 65 ° 55 ′ 60 ″ W,   65 ° 55 ′ 60 ″ W, 3500 m, 22 Feb27 ° 42 ′ S, 65 ° 55 ′ 60 ″ W,  1971, Hunziker 20938 (CORD). 3500 m, 22 Feb 1971,   1971, Hunziker 20938 (CORD).3500 m, 22 Feb 1971,   Hunziker 20938 (CORD).   Hunziker 20938 (CORD).  "}],"sieverID":"736ce53d-43a7-49c0-88cb-4a03eae5324f","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"00cf0379765ec75a4e2e0498492c8cb4","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/666/Islam_et_al-2018-Singapore_Journal_of_Tropical_Geography.pdf"},"pageCount":22,"title":"Drivers of mangrove ecosystem service change in the Sundarbans of Bangladesh","keywords":["Ecosystem services","the Sundarbans mangrove","Bangladesh"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":251,"text":"The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MEA) (2005) highlighted the crucial role that ecosystem services contribute to mankind, and the current state of degradation of many of these ecosystem services around the world. According to the MEA (2005), around 60 per cent of the world's ecosystem services are being degraded or used in an unsustainable manner. Mangroves are widely recognized as highly productive (sub-) tropical tidal wetland ecosystems that offer a variety of ecosystem services including provisioning, e.g., timber production (Palacios & Cantera, 2017), regulating, e.g., wave attenuation (Bao, 2011), carbon sequestration and storage (Donato et al., 2011) and spiritual functions, e.g., sacred forest (Mukherjee et al., 2014). Though the importance of mangrove ecosystem services is now well known, mangroves continue to be lost across the tropics (Hamilton & Casey, 2016) and are increasingly threatened by conversion to aquaculture and agriculture, infrastructure development, pollution, overharvesting and anthropogenic climate change (UNEP, 2014;Lovelock et al., 2015;Richards & Friess, 2016;Islam & Hossain, 2017;Thomas et al., 2017). These combined and interlinked threats to mangroves are rising, while at the same time, the dependence on mangrove goods and services will increase. At the beginning of this century, an estimated 100 million people were living within 10 km of a mangrove, and this number was predicted to increase to 120 million by 2015 (UNEP, 2014). The majority of the mangrove-dependent communities live in the developing countries of Asia and Africa, where millions of people rely directly on mangrove ecosystem services for food, income and overall well-being (MEA, 2005;UNEP, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":197,"text":"The increased demand for, and exploitation of, mangrove products raises the issue of the sustainability of mangroves and the need for effective management. The role of ecosystem services is often ignored in management decisions which may cause continued degradation and destruction of mangroves (Barbier, 2006). In many parts of the world, mangroves have historically been viewed negatively as muddy wastelands spreading diseases (Horowitz et al., 2012;Friess, 2016). Many stakeholders are not aware of the true value of mangroves, and even when they are, evaluating goods and services provided by mangroves is a difficult exercise (Vo et al., 2015). The assessment of ecosystem services involves multiple dimensions (ecological, social, cultural and economic), and many of the services are not marketable, thus cannot be quantified in strictly monetary terms (Mukherjee et al., 2014). To overcome these challenges, evaluating ecosystem goods and services might help decision makers to comprehend the actual value to society and to anticipate the potential costs of mangrove loss (Clavel et al., 2011;Ruckelshaus et al., 2013). There is a significant need for a better understanding of the value of mangroves and their associated ecosystem services for policy and decision-making (Mukherjee et al., 2014;Vo et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":156,"text":"One area where a greater understanding of ecosystem value and management options is needed is the Sundarbans. This area is often considered the largest single tract mangrove forest in the world, covering approximately 10000 km 2 and straddling Bangladesh and India respectively by 60 per cent and 40 per cent (FD, 2010;Hossain et al., 2016). The entire Sundarbans was declared a Reserve Forest in 1869 and is often considered the first scientifically-managed mangrove ecosystem in the world. Since then, the physical boundary of the Bangladesh Sundarbans has remained mostly unchanged, but the quality and quantity of ecosystem services are at risk. Though the Sundarbans is an indispensable element for Bangladesh, the forest and its associated resources are subject to rapid degradation due to several natural and anthropogenic drivers that degrade the capacity of the forest to deliver ecosystem services that are critical for millions of people in Bangladesh (Inman, 2009;Swapan & Gavin, 2011;Hossain et al., 2016)."},{"index":4,"size":112,"text":"Though different scientific studies have addressed ecological or social issues related to the Sundarbans, there are very few studies that combine the analysis of both social and natural systems to address rapid environmental changes and associated impacts on ecosystem services. In-depth studies are required to identify the trend of environmental changes and status of ecosystem services of the Sundarbans regarding which factors are most responsible for triggering the changes and which factors interact to further deteriorate the situation. In this study, we take a mixed-methods approach, with primary data on local community perceptions of mangrove ecosystem services and threats supplemented by various secondary data sources, including forest product inventories and meteorological data."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study site description","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":283,"text":"The Sundarbans mangrove forest is composed of three wildlife sanctuaries (Sundarbans West, East and South) which are classified as International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) category IV protected areas. It is situated in the ancient delta of the Ganges River in south-west coastal Bangladesh and stretches across Satkhira, Khulna and Bagerhat districts. The Sundarbans was declared a Ramsar site in 1992 and UNESCO listed the three wildlife sanctuaries as a World Heritage Site in 1997 (Uddin et al., 2013). The Sundarbans mangrove serves as a breeding and nursery ground for a variety of fish and shellfish, including many commercial species (MEA, 2005;Food and Agriculture Organization, 2010; Supporting Information 1). The Bangladesh Sundarbans harbour a variety of terrestrial and aquatic species which includes large and small trees, shrubs, herbs, birds, fishes, reptiles, amphibians, cetaceans and 16 molluscs which altogether represent about 35 per cent of the total fauna of Bangladesh (Chaffey et al., 1985;FD, 2010; Table 1). The Sundarbans is also globally well known as the home of the endangered Bengal Tiger Panthera tigris ssp. Tigris (Linnaeus, 1758) (440 in number) (FD, 2010). About 90 per cent of commercial fishes and 35 per cent of all fish species from the Bay of Bengal utilize the Sundarbans as the nursery ground for their early life stages. Rural communities living within 20 km (known as the impact zone) of the forest boundary are largely dependent on mangrove forest resources for the maintenance of their livelihood (Rouf & Jensen, 2001;Islam & Chuenpagdee, 2013). Additionally, approximately 18 per cent of households of the southwestern coastal zone are dependent on resources of the Sundarbans, for example, fish, shrimp, molluscs, crabs and medicinal plants (Rahman & Rahman, 2013)."}]},{"head":"Field interviews","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Fieldwork was conducted for six months (July to December 2015) within three fishing communities of the Sundarbans, situated in the southwestern part of Bangladesh. For primary data collection, a number of qualitative tools such as individual interviews, focus group discussions with various groups of stakeholders, key informant interviews with knowledgeable persons and oral history were employed in three fishing villages in the three districts of Khulna division that included Burigoalini in Satkhira, Kamarkhola in Khulna, and Chila in Bagerhat district (Figure 1)."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Using a semi-structured questionnaire (Supporting information 2), 90 individual interviews with mangrove dependent communities (fish, crab, shrimp/bivalves, snail and oyster harvesters, and Nypa palm collectors) were conducted (Table 2). The 29 questions focused on the following themes: 1) socio-economic profile of the respondents; 2) extent of their perceived dependency on mangrove ecosystem services; and 3) perceptions of natural and anthropogenic environmental changes in the forest, and how this affects livelihood outcomes. In total, each interview took approximately 45 minutes to complete. In addition to the 90 individual interviews above, six focus group discussions sessions with resource users (where each group size consisted of  8-10 persons) were conducted. Finally, 15 key informant interviews or cross-check interviews with local entrepreneurs, NGO personnel working on mangrove issues and forest officials were conducted to collect and verify or necessary information (Table 2). For analysis of qualitative data, content analysis method was employed; themes were identified and classified into manageable categories of different variables, such as provisioning services, drivers of changes of ecosystem services, etc."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"Secondary data collection on ecosystem services and threats Several datasets were collected to validate environmental changes and threats that were highlighted in the interviews. Meteorological data were collected from the Meteorological Department of the Bangladesh Government. Production data on forest products and the number of tourists visiting the Sundarbans were collected from the office of the Chief Conservator of Forest, Department of Forest of the Bangladesh Government."}]},{"head":"Results and discussion","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"Status of ecosystem services from the Sundarbans mangrove forest Interviews and secondary data suggested that three types of ecosystem services are primarily derived from the Bangladesh Sundarbans. These include provisioning services (benefits that people obtain directly, e.g., timber and food products such as fish), cultural services (non-material benefits, e.g., mangrove tourism), and regulatory services (benefits obtained from regulation of ecosystem processes, e.g., carbon sequestration and protection from cyclones). Of these services, provisioning and cultural services directly affecting the everyday lives of the Sundarbans-dependent communities were  the most discussed and were the easiest for local communities in which to perceive changes. Hence the present study focused on these two services."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Provisioning services (fish, shrimp, honey, wax, wood, medicinal plants, fodder etc.)"},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"The Sundarbans mangrove fishery resources consist of fishes, crustaceans (e.g., prawn, shrimp, crabs, lobsters) and molluscs (e.g., bivalves, clams, mussels, oysters) (Supporting Information Table 4). One respondent fisher said '…from the forest no one returns empty handed, if you have no other income earning option, at least you can make a living from the mangrove forest. This is the case for many households living adjacent to the Sundarbans'."},{"index":4,"size":293,"text":"The communities harvest white fish, crabs, post larvae of shrimp and prawns. Harvested white fish are usually sold as fresh, although some high-valued fish as well as trash fish and shrimp are sold dried. Crabs are mainly exported live to foreign markets, particularly in Southeast Asia. It is estimated that 75 per cent of the exported shrimp are cultivated in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts where the Sundarbans are situated (Islam et al., 2015). Post larvae of shrimp collected from the rivers of the Sundarbans enjoy higher preference than hatchery-produced post larvae, since the former has a higher survival rate and is considered superior quality. More than 0.7 million people are employed either directly or indirectly in shrimp farming and other related occupations (Banks, 2003; Figure 2). A significant proportion of these jobs will be dependent on the presence of the mangrove forest, due to the strong evidence suggesting that mangroves enhance fisheries yields in many situations, as they act as a fish nursery area (Mumby et al., 2004;Carrasquilla-Henao & Juanes, 2017). The Bangladesh Sundarbans are also utilized for non-timber forest products. The Giant Honey Bee (Apis dorsata Fabricius, 1793) is a resident species in the Sundarbans. According to one key informant forest official, the Sundarbans produces about 50 per cent of the total volume of honey produced in Bangladesh. In addition, a variety of non-wood plant materials are collected by local communities for a variety of purposes such as thatching materials, fodder for domestic animals, medicinal purposes, foods 0 30000 60000 90000 120000 150000 180000 210000 2001-2002 2002-2003 2003-2004 2004-2005 2005-2006 2006-2007 2007-2008 2008-2009 2009-2010 2010-2011 2011-2012 2012-2013 2013-2014 2014-2015 Production (dry fish, white fish and crab in Quintal, PL in Thousand) Ecosystem services Bangladesh Sundarbans • Fish and shellfishes as food."},{"index":5,"size":48,"text":"• Fruits of Keora (Sonneratia apetala) and Ora (Sonneratia caseolaris L) used as food and culinary additions, young shoot of Phoenix paludosa freshly eaten as raw food, juice and fruits from Nypa fruticans. • Baoli lata (Sarcolobus globosus Wall.) are edible and consumed as raw or cooked food."}]},{"head":"Fisheries","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"• The Sundarbans provides shelter to 678 aquatic species (of which 210 species are fish, 59 reptiles, 8 amphibians, 11 cetaceans and 16 molluscs)."}]},{"head":"Honey and wax","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"• About 50 % of total honey produced in Bangladesh.  and culinary to consume and drinks (Table 3). A number of respondents also highlighted the important role of the Sundarbans as sources of medicinal plants that serve as medicine for communities living in the remotely located region."},{"index":2,"size":133,"text":"The extraction of non-timber forest products from mangroves is relatively understudied, with only one review of traditional and medicinal uses of mangrove plants (Bandaranayake, 1998). However, the interview data gained in this study echoes that of other limited studies conducted in South Asia that have shown the importance of honey for local livelihoods. Getzner and Islam (2013) showed that 9 per cent of households in their study site in the Bangladesh Sundarbans were actively engaged in honey production. Honey production shows a particularly interesting trend; while this study and others have shown that is now an important non-timber forest product, this has only been the case in the last 20 years, with the honey production being very low in the Sundarbans in the 1970s-80s, at <100 tonnes per year (Hossain et al., 2016)."},{"index":3,"size":171,"text":"Commercial harvesting of timber such as Sundri (Heritiera fomes Buch.Ham.), Goran (Ceriops decandra (Griff.) Ding Hou) and Bean (Avicennia officinalis L.), was the primary economic product of the Sundarbans until the late 1980s (Figure 3). A reduction in growing stock due to over-exploitation forced the government to impose a forestry hunter), mongoli (making business of earthen made utensils used in salt production industry), kagoji (people engaged to produce hand-made paper from gewa wood, Excoecaria agallocha L.), dhali (experts in fighting with traditionally-made weapons (dhal-sorki) to defend against criminal gangs of mog (a tribe community) and purtugiz-olandaz, sana (community leader employed for maintenance (caretaker) of the dike or embankment by the government). moratorium in 1989 to restrict large-scale timber harvesting, eventually leading to the banning of all timber harvestingincluding fuel wood collectionby 1995. However, many mangrove taxa are still used by the community for a variety of purposes such as firewood, construction (pole, house, hunts, boat construction, fences, etc.), furniture (chairs, tables, shelves, fishing equipment, etc.) and wood (Tables 3 and 4)."}]},{"head":"Cultural services","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":177,"text":"The  there are still untapped opportunities for jobs through the stronger promotion of ecotourism in the Sundarbans region. Eco-tourism is a key neoliberal conservation intervention in many mangrove sites across the tropics, and can encourage conservation by encouraging responsible travel that conserves environmental features while promoting sustainable livelihoods (The International Ecotourism Society, 2015) and empowering local communities. However, due to poor focus on this topic by academics, we do not have a strong sense of the overall magnitude or financial value of mangrove eco-tourism at broad scales. What we do know from selected case studies is that strong tensions exist between environmental protection and economic development in mangrove eco-tourism activities. For example, Thompson et al. (2017) showed that rapidly increasing eco-tourism activities in mangroves in Langkawi, Malaysia was causing erosion and other negative environmental impacts. This was due to economic competition, governance issues and a mixed understanding of eco-tourism. Thus, decision-makers wishing to utilize cultural ecosystem services in the Bangladesh Sundarbans must do so in a sustainable manner that learns from the experiences of previous eco-tourism activities."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"The ecological environment of the Sundarbans also provides important cultural services by shaping the religious belief of the forest-goers. Before entering the Sundarbans, forest-dependent Hindu communities follow various rituals and offer worship to the goddess, Bon Bibi (The Forest Lady). Idols of the forest goddess Bon Bibi are placed in different parts of the forest for worship. Forest-goers believe that Bon Bibi will protect all those who seek protection from her from all evils (Table 3). These are the least researched of all mangrove cultural services and are particularly hard to quantify and manage (Quieroz et al., 2017), though they are potentially some of the most important for local communities who interact with the mangrove ecosystem daily."}]},{"head":"Recent changes in the Bangladesh Sundarbans and implications for ecosystem services","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Changes in climatic variables in the Sundarbans","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"In this study, time series data on temperature, rainfall and humidity in three stations of the Sundarbans, Satkhira, Khulna and Mogla (Bagerhat), were analyzed over a period of 24 years . Temperatures increased by 0.07 C and 0.27 C per decade respectively in Satkhira and Khulna, which is higher than the average rate of global temperature increase of 0.06 C per decade (Mitra et al., 2009). Temperature at the Mongla station has decreased by 0.06 C per decade from 1991 to 2014."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"Rainfall plays a significant role on mangroves due to its impact on salinity, which closely affects the distribution pattern of mangrove species. According to the data from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (2015), the highest rainfall in the Sundarbans was observed in June between 1991 to 2014. The amount of maximum rainfall was relatively low in Satkhira, when compared with Khulna and Bagerhat (Mongla). In this study, it was observed that rainfall patterns have been altering over the last 35 years, but this slightly varies from the finding of Rimi et al. (2009) which showed that, in Satkhira, rainfall had been decreasing in pre-monsoon and winter and increasing in monsoon and post-monsoon. In the present analysis, rainfall had an increasing trend from the mid pre-monsoon, monsoon and first part of the post-monsoon (April to October) while a decreasing trend was found for the last part of the post-monsoon, winter and first part of the pre-monsoon (November to March). These are statistically significant (p < 0.001)."},{"index":3,"size":263,"text":"Humidity is an important weather parameter that could influence the daily activities of people and other biota (Pitchaikani et al., 2017). According to the data from Bangladesh Meteorological Department (2015), the humidity pattern of the Sundarbans is almost uniform in Khulna and Bagerhat (Mongla) regions and slightly reduced in Satkhira. Time series data of humidity from 1991 to 2014 suggested average humidity of the Sundarbans is 80 per cent. Humidity becomes low during summer (pre-monsoon) when high temperature and comparatively low rain was observed. Ghosh et al. (2017) also found that over the period 1977-2015, average maximum and minimum temperature have been increasing in the Sundarbans, while annual total rainfall has been decreasing which has considerable impacts on mangrove canopy coverage. Increasing temperature trends could affect mangroves by changing phenological patterns and species composition (Gilman et al., 2008;Ghosh et al., 2017). Ghosh et al. (2017) found that the dominant mangrove tree species Sundri (H. fomes) has decreased considerably with the increase of average maximum temperature. Fish physiology, growth and reproduction are directly influenced by temperature (Chowdhury et al., 2010) and the breeding performance of many commercial mangrove fisheries species such as finfish (especially Mugil spp.), shrimp (Family: Penaeidae) and mud crab (Scylla serrata) are closely related to rainfall. For example, Staunton-Smith et al. (2004) found positive correlations among spawning seasons and rainfall for sea bass (Lates calcarifer). Thus, rainfall anomalies could affect the breeding performance of important commercial species of the Sundarbans. Lesser rainfall increases salinity, which is responsible for decreasing the growth, productivity and survival of mangrove seedlings (Gilman et al., 2008)."}]},{"head":"Community perceptions of other anthropogenic factor of changes","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The communities that are dependent upon the Sundarbans reported negative trends of ecosystem services arising from the mangroves. They perceived a number of causes as responsible for this deterioration."}]},{"head":"Unsustainable exploitation practices","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Interviews with the respondents revealed that fishers use a number of harmful fishing practices such as the catching of buried and undersized crabs, harvest of white fish by draining out of mangrove creeks, and using chemicals that poison all species indiscriminately. In particular, the collection of shrimp and prawn using fine mesh gear is blamed for killing other non-target species. One key informant forest official elaborated More than 80 per cent of the households (mainly women and children) living on the forest edge are involved shrimp and prawn post larvae (PL) collection. The majority of them are poor, do not have any other occupation. Also, this fishing activity requires little capital, so they took it as an income earning option. However, it is widely recognized that this fishing activity kills hundreds of other species. This practice is illegal but usually not strictly applied as the participants are very poor."},{"index":2,"size":174,"text":"Destructive fishing practices degrade overall habitat quality and catching high proportions of juvenile species could lead to 'recruitment overfishing' that would ultimately compromise the provisioning ecosystem service supply, as fish stocks are unable to reproduce sufficiently. This is particularly an issue when fishing close to mangroves, as mangroves are now well known to be important nursery areas for juvenile fish (Carrasquilla-Henao & Juanes, 2017; Whitfield, 2017) due to the dense above-ground root network of mangrove vegetation providing shelter from larger predators. Thus, fishing close to the mangrove fringe or inside the forest is likely to target juvenile fish. Among commercially-important fish species in the Sundarbans, Tenualosa ilisha (Hamilton, 1822), Lates calcarifer (Bloch, 1790), Pangasius pangasius (Hamilton, 1822), Plotosus canius (Hamilton, 1822) and Scylla serrata (Forsskål, 1775), are considered overexploited (Rouf & Jensen, 2001). One crab trader from Buri Goalini stated 'nowadays we are finding fewer and fewer full grown crabs from collectors. It seems there is overfishing of crabs in the forest, thus crabs do not get the opportunity to reach sexual maturity age'."},{"index":3,"size":99,"text":"Forest coverage with high canopy closures (≥60 per cent) has reduced significantly from 78 per cent (in 1959) to only 24 per cent (in 2010), mainly due to large-scale felling and death attributable to top dying diseases (IUCN, 2014). Illegal collection of other forest products like timber, fuel wood and thatching materials is also reported by the respondents. The respondents reported a number of factors that lead to unsustainable exploitation practices which include poverty, long term debt bondage and population growth. For example, the total number of fisherman in and around the Sundarbans has doubled between 2001and 2010(IUCN, 2014))."}]},{"head":"Shrimp farming and land use change","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"About 75 per cent of shrimp exported from Bangladesh are cultivated in Khulna, Bagerhat and Satkhira districts, where the Sundarbans are situated (Islam et al., 2015). The rapid expansion of shrimp farming to supply the increasing demand for shellfish has led to the destruction of around 9 500 ha of mangrove forest in the area (Azad et al., 2007). Some key informants and respondents indicated that shrimp farming had converted agricultural land, resulting in many people losing their agricultural jobs and ultimately becoming dependent on the forest ecosystem services. 'Before shrimp culture was introduced in the vicinity of the Sundarbans, many people were employed in agriculture, but shrimp culture in agricultural land made may people jobless. These people ultimately took forest-based occupations. Thus, exploitation of forest resources increased', said one NGO official. To supply shrimp and prawn fry to shrimp farming, many households have become involved in the destructive practices of shrimp and prawn fry collection. Another key informant revealed that salinity intrusion, caused by a number of factors including shrimp farming, is often responsible for reducing land fertility and agricultural production, e.g., crops, rice, poultry, livestock and terrestrial forest cover that ultimately exert more pressure on the resources of the Sundarbans."},{"index":2,"size":176,"text":"The patterns observed in the study area are indicative of trends in the Sundarbans as a whole, with the Sundarbans losing 8.3 per cent of its land (about 50 000 ha) on its northern front due to deforestation for shrimp culture from 2000 to 2010 (Rahman & Rahman, 2013). Such direct mangrove losses due to land cover conversion to aquaculture mirror similar changes across the tropics (Hamilton, 2013;Thomas et al., 2017), particularly in Southeast Asia (Richards & Friess, 2016). While direct impacts of aquaculture due to conversion are relatively straightforward to quantify, aquaculture also has indirect impacts on neighbouring mangroves. These impacts include the deterioration of water quality (through hydrological and chemical effects) and increased loading of nutrients and suspended sediments into surrounding waters (Dierberg & Kiattisimkul, 1996). While mangroves are known to assimilate and filter shrimp pond effluent under certain conditions (Robertson & Phillips, 1995), high nutrient loads are likely to have adverse impacts on neighbouring mangrove macrobenthos and decrease the density of mangrove species in the forest (Swapan & Gavin, 2011;Hossain et al., 2013)."}]},{"head":"Coastal development activities","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":255,"text":"Respondents considered local coastal development activities a key threat to the Sundarbans mangroves, especially developments such as the Mongla seaport, the second largest sea port in Bangladesh. As part of the port activity, different cargo and water vessels use river channels inside the eastern part of the Sundarbans. Frequent movement of the vessels pollutes the water due to leaching of oil and accidental oil spills. For example, on 9 December 2014, the Cargo OT Southern Star, which was carrying 75 000 gallons (357 664 L) of heavy fuel oil (black furnace oil), collided with another vessel and partly sank in the Shela river (United Nations & Government of Bangladesh, 2014; Aziz & Paul, 2015). Respondents reported that they observed oil was deposited on the soil, leaves, roots, pneumatophores, stems and floating fruits. Many fishers had to stop their fishing operations for several weeks, with substantial impacts on livelihoods. Oil spills have a multitude of impacts on the mangrove ecosystem, as reviewed by Duke (2016). The most immediate and lethal issue is the oil that sticks to macro and microbenthic fauna and tree pneumatophores, reducing oxygen exchange and causing suffocation. However, oil also has longer-term, sub-lethal effects on components of the mangrove ecosystem due to toxicity and build-up in mangrove sediments. Clean-up operations may also impact mangroves, as oil dispersants may also be toxic. Duke (2016) describes recovery pathways for oil-impacted mangroves, depending on the magnitude of the spill and the time it takes for oil to break down into less toxic residual products under sunlight."}]},{"head":"Reduction of freshwater flow","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The Ganges River, through its tributaries, supplies freshwater to the Sundarbans, and thus plays a crucial role in maintaining the health of the mangrove ecosystem. Withdrawal of water from the Ganges River by the Farraka barrage in India has caused drastic reduction of freshwater flow to the Sundarbans, adversely affecting growth and vitality of mangrove species (IUCN, 2014). This is because mangroves are not obligate halophytes, so establishment and growth are reduced in hypersaline conditions (Lovelock & Feller, 2003;Krauss et al., 2008). Findings of the focus group discussion indicated that three or four decades ago, freshwater remained in the river system of the Sundarbans (with very low salinities or even less than 0.5 ppt) for almost eight months (April to November) of the year due to excess volumes of freshwater from upstream. This freshwater pulse now remains for only 2.5-4 months during the rainy season (mid-August to October/November) due to the reduced freshwater flow from upstream."},{"index":2,"size":195,"text":"Respondents also mentioned a number of negative consequences that have arisen from the construction of various dikes and polders, such as the enhanced deposition of silts in the river bed causing siltation that results in the shifting of fish habitats, migration routes, breeding areas and catch compositions, and creating problems for navigation in water ways. The respondents also identified siltation in rivers and rivulets as drastically decreasing the amount of fishable areas. Due to siltation, resources collectors can more easily travel over channels, as many are now dried up during dry season, allowing them to permeate the forest further and more easily. Fishers can now more easily drain channels to catch even the smaller fish. One key informant forest official from the Chandpai area said 'Due to high silt deposition in the forest, some channels around the Sundarbans become almost dried up during winter and low tide, which facilitates illegal and over-exploitation as people can easily pass over the channel on foot and collect wood, fuel wood and travel back safely without being apprehended by forest officials. This situation also increased the tendency to use poison for fishing in the mangrove creeks with shallower water'."},{"index":3,"size":215,"text":"Due to high salinity, soil fertility has also decreased, requiring that farmers apply more agricultural fertilizers that in turn further degrade the mangrove environment through pollution, said one key informant. Reduction of freshwater flows disrupts the hydrological cycle and cause increased rainfall during the pre-monsoon, wet monsoon and post-monsoon in upper catchment areas, leading to more floods and waterlogging and causing more riverbank and coastal erosion (Rahman & Rahman, 2013). Increased salinity and sedimentation have also caused shifts in fish habitat by destroying or reducing the quality of the waterways. The dominant species of Sundri (H. fomes) and Goran (C. decandra) are affected by top-dying diseases (Islam & Gnauck, 2008). The reduction of water flows causes ecological changes in the forest and trailing active ecosystems function (Basar, 2009;Aziz & Paul, 2015). The prevailing air during dry seasons (summer and winter) carries more salt, feeling more humid and warm. The growth of fungus facilities in humid conditions, which may have some link with the top-dying disease, is highly related to the level of salinity, and will spread rapidly and affect H. fomes in the Sundarbans. Due to high salinities, the tree densities in the buffer territory or areas adjacent to the boundary are reduced, as many terrestrial plants are unable to survive (Ishtiaque et al., 2016)."}]},{"head":"Cyclones and other extreme events","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The Sundarbans region has been struck by 174 natural disasters between 1965 and 2010 (Rahman et al., 2011). At least 70 major cyclones reached the coastal region of Bangladesh over the past two centuries and the Sundarbans mangroves have acted as a physical barrier, therefore reducing asset loss and damage. However, mangroves forests also suffer damage during coastal protection, with Cyclone Sidr in 2007 causing severe damage to 36 per cent of the mangrove area (CEGIS, 2007). When planting and rehabilitating mangroves for coastal protection, it is important to encourage the growth of species that can withstand damage or resprout after disturbance (Primavera et al., 2016;Villamayor et al., 2017)."},{"index":2,"size":152,"text":"Recurrent extreme events such as cyclone and tidal surges do a lot of harm to the communities of the Sundarbans by damaging houses, sanitation systems, fishing utensils and communication systems, pushing residents into debt cycle with money lenders (CEGIS, 2007). A study shows that in the aftermath of Cyclone Aila, almost 80 per cent of regional (local) workers lost their jobs, among which 40 per cent are bound to change their profession (Mallick et al., 2011). Almost all of the respondents in this study felt environmental shifts in the region after Cyclone Aila in 2009. One key informant from a local NGO in Burigualini stated 'Cyclone Aila caused complete changes in the livelihoods and environment in the region. The whole area became salty, nowadays with a drought-like situation created, forest resources were also destroyed but people became more dependent on the forest as the opportunity for livelihoods from agriculture were drastically reduced.'"},{"index":3,"size":95,"text":"The respondents perceived some other impacts, such as rising tidal water of cyclones removing mangrove propagules, thus hampering regeneration. A number of fishers perceived that saltwater driven in by cyclones negatively affected the fertility of fish eggs. Another study also indicated that saltwater intrusion from the cyclone caused fish eggs and larvae to suffer osmotic stress, resulting in high mortalities (Islam & Chuenpagdee, 2018) This forced the people living in the impact zone to turn to shrimp fry collection or fishing as their primary survival strategy, thus increasing pressure on an already decreasing mangrove fishery."}]},{"head":"Governance issues","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"The management regime of the Sundarbans is hierarchical and primarily focused on earning revenue. There are some regulation and conservation measures in place (such as temporal and spatial closures, gear restrictions, a moratorium on felling trees, etc.) to increase mangrove resources in the Sundarbans. However, a number of respondents reported that violations of these regulations are rampant, as many people are involved in illegal logging, poaching of wildlife, and using banned and destructive fishing practices such as poison and fine-meshed nets, and catching undersized species. These situations are common in mangroves in many countries across the tropics, where economic resource objectives at the provincial level clash with broader national obligations for habitat conservation (Primavera, 2000;Friess et al., 2016)."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Almost all of the respondents reported some cases of corruption where they had paid excess fees to obtain permission for entry into the mangrove forest to collect resources. Different studies indicated that fishers needed to pay up to ten to fifteen times extra than the actual fees for fishing permit. Such rampant corruption in the Sundarbans is another reason for overexploitation. Forest officials in the Sundarbans extract around 2.3 million BDT (about USD 28 400) per year from fishers operating in the forest (Khoda, 2008). Another concern raised by the communities is subjective insecurity, such as the incident of kidnapping by criminal gangs inside the forest. Some respondents indicated that, to pay ransoms or bribes, they often undertook destructive fishing practices or illegally overstayed in the forest to earn more money."}]},{"head":"Markets and globalization","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":248,"text":"The majority of the forest-dependent people suffer high levels of income poverty and human development poverty (Table 5). The majority of the people interviewed in this study are poor and have limited access to formal credit markets. The patron-client relationship is mostly dominant in the region and wields the most social power. The majority of resource collectors don't have access to national or global markets for their products due to their financial inability and an established market structure regulated by existing intermediaries (money lenders, commission agents, etc.), so products are sold at the district level. The majority of respondents reported that they had to take loans from forest resources traders to undertake resource extraction. In order to repay these loans, respondents preferred to maximize income through over-exploitation. Some respondents mentioned that middlemen often pushed them to resort to destructive fishing practices (e.g., using fine-meshed illegal fishing gear, poison, harvest of protected species or illegal logging) to maximize their trade. These middlemen are powerful and backed by local politicians and officials of the Forest Department, one key informant complained. Globalization of mangrove products demand is another driver. The demand for live crabs in Southeast Asia appeared to be a driver governing the unsustainable exploitation practices in the Sundarbans. Many middlemen hired waged labour and employed them in crab harvests, which are mostly unsustainable. Respondents reported that these practices included the catch of undersized and buried crabs. Some respondents perceived these practices could put substantial pressure on the mangrove ecosystem."}]},{"head":"Tourism","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"Eco-tourism in the Sundarbans has become a source of revenue for the Forest Department. Local people also benefited from tourism in different ways (e.g., by providing various modes of transportation, acting as boat men or tourist guides, through their grocery business, selling food, beverages and daily commodities, or via their hotel or resort). However, insufficient eco-tourism facilities, associated with irresponsible touristic activities, often result in noise pollution, water pollution, or disturbance to natural harmony of the biotics. According to a key informant from the Forest Department, 'a number of tourists often don't follow the guidelines of responsible tourism/good practice, often move inside the forest [frequent tourists walking through the forest may kill propagules, seedlings and saplings and cause breakdown of pneumatophores], climbing on trees, taking photographs, excessive sound and light on board at night time often disturb the homeostasis/ tranquillity of wildlife, e.g., monkey, deer, bat, birds, snake, crocodile, etc.'"},{"index":2,"size":188,"text":"Cleaning certain areas of forest to create tourist facilities, such as corridors, boardwalks, watchtowers, cottages and other structures, also disturbs nature to some extent. A fisherman from Chila reported that, in addition to issues with the navigation of large tourist boats (cf. the death of mammals, dolphins, due to collision with commercial ships, cargo boats, and other mechanized boats), visitors also often enter small or narrow and shallow channels in small boats. These may disturb the migration or movement of the fishes, increasing turbidity and harming (often killing) fish by clogging their gills with sediment. Some harmful activities by tourists were noticed during the present study, included dumping of trash that could cause environmental degradation in the forest. Adverse environmental impacts are common in mangrove ecotourism activities. For example, the mangroves in the Kilim Geopark in Malaysia have suffered loss due to infrastructure development and shoreline erosion due to increased boat speeds to ferry tourists between areas (Shahbudin et al., 2012). Tourism operators may also cause environmental degradation due to negative practices to try and attract wildlife, or by not following boat speed limits (Thompson et al., 2017)."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":298,"text":"Human overuse of the Sundarbans mangrove forest has created numerous threats and habitat deterioration could impact the provision of ecosystem services to local communities. Local resource users in coastal Bangladesh exploit a number of ecosystem services, particularly provisioning services (those linked to food and shelter, including employment and income opportunities) and cultural services such as spiritual strength and aesthetic values. Despite their importance, human-induced factors coupled with other environmental changes have created enormous pressure on the viability and sustainability of the Sundarbans mangrove system. Coastal management and governance in the Sundarbans faces major challenges in dealing with multiple threats and stressors, which are both natural and anthropogenic in origin. Though the Sundarbans has been intensively managed since at least 1869, interestingly, the hierarchical governance system of the forest has persisted with little involvement of local people in management decisions. Due to a lack of well-defined resource ownership and rights and a top-down management approach, forest-dependent people have not been able to participate in activities undertaken for conservation and sustainable use of the Sundarbans mangrove resources. In the last few decades in particular, the Sundarbans has been under intense pressure from resource exploitation and the existing governance structure has, in some instances, proven ineffective in addressing the issue of sustainability. This calls for an immediate need for transformation in governance structure, one that will focus on restoring ecological diversity and fostering economic diversity, in line with the rapidly changing local socio-ecological context. For each commercially exploitable species, optimum harvest limits (e.g., maximum economic yield and maximum sustainable yield) need to be determined to control the level of harvesting effort. To this end, this study calls for the attention of policy makers to manage the Sundarbans ecosystem sustainably in a manner that is economically viable, socially equitable and ecologically sound."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Location of the study areas in the Sundarbans namely Burigoalini (Shyamnagar, Satkhira), Kamarkhola (Dacope, Khulna) and Chila (Mongla, Bagerhat) in south-west Bangladesh. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Production of fish, shrimp and crabs from the Sundarbans, Bangladesh over the past 15 years (from 2000-01 to 2014-15). Source: Data from FD, 2016. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Production scenarios of fuel wood, Goran (Ceriops decandra) and Nypa Palm (Nypa fruiticans) from the Sundarbans, Bangladesh over past 30 years (from 1980-81 to 2010-11). Source: Data from FD, 2016. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Species distribution in the Bangladesh Sundarbans.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Source of primary information, methods, sample size, categories, and characteristics of the surveyed communities.    Key informant interview 5 5 5 15 Key informantinterview55515  Tools/ methods and sample size (number) Focus group discussion 2 2 2 6 Tools/ methods andsample size (number)Focus groupdiscussion2226    Individual interviews 30 30 30 90 Individualinterviews30303090 Distance from the physical boundary of the Sundarbans (m)   200-400 50-200 250-500 Distance fromthe physical boundaryof the Sundarbans (m)200-40050-200250-500 Location/ Geographical coordinates    22 15'18.5\"N 89 13'41.9\"E 22 29'18.1\"N 89 30'12.9\"E 22 22'57.5\"N 89 38'30.5\"E Location/Geographical coordinates22 15'18.5\"N 89 13'41.9\"E22 29'18.1\"N 89 30'12.9\"E22 22'57.5\"N 89 38'30.5\"E Village or community    Burigoalini Kamarkhola Chila 3 villages Village orcommunityBurigoaliniKamarkholaChila3 villages District (Sub-district)    Satkhira (Shyamnagar) Khulna (Dacope) Bagerhat (Mongla) Total District(Sub-district)Satkhira (Shyamnagar)Khulna (Dacope)Bagerhat (Mongla)Total  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Ecosystem services (ES) from the Sundarbans mangrove forest (based on respondents' interviews). Ecosystem Brief description of ES categories (categories according to the Common EcosystemBrief description of ES categories (categories according to the Common services International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) v4.3 (http://cices.eu/)) servicesInternational Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) v4.3 (http://cices.eu/))  CICES categories of ES: Provisioning services CICES categories of ES: Provisioning services Foods and drinks  Foods and drinks  "},{"text":" Leaves of Clerodendrum inerme (L.) Gaertn to cure diarrhoea of cattle /goats (livestock).• Bark of Xylocarpus moluccensis (Lam.) M. Roem. to treat dysentery (Amasoya), gastric pain and diabetes. Fire wood/ Fire wood/ fuel wood fuel wood  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Continued Ecosystem services Brief description of ES categories (categories according to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) v4.3 (http://cices.eu/)) Rhizophora apiculata Blume, Rhizophora mucronata Lamk., Cynometra ramiflora L., Excoecaria agallocha L., Lumnitzera racemosa Willd. are used in construction (pole, house, hunts, boat construction, fences etc.) and furniture. Biodiversity of the Sundarbans appeared on several postage stamps of the Bangladesh government. Biodiversity of the Sundarbans also appeared in different handicrafts of the region. • Kapalkundala, a Bengali romance novel (the first ever novel in Bengali literature based in the Sundarbans forest, published in 1866) written by Bankim Chandra Chattopadhyay. Timber  Timber (construction  (construction and furniture  and furniture wood)  wood)  CICES categories of ES: Cultural services CICES categories of ES: Cultural services Ecotourism and • From 2001-2002 to 2014-2015, 1 439 806 tourists visited the Ecotourism and• From 2001-2002 to 2014-2015, 1 439 806 tourists visited the recreation Sundarbans (of which 1 409 410 are local and 30 386 are recreationSundarbans (of which 1 409 410 are local and 30 386 are  foreign). Total revenue collected by forest department was USD foreign). Total revenue collected by forest department was USD  1 087 599. 1 087 599. Aesthetic value  Aesthetic value and  and religious  religious importance  importance Other cultural  Other cultural services  services  • Various types of indigenous or traditional occupations exist in the • Various types of indigenous or traditional occupations exist in the  Sundarbans, for instance bawalis (timber, firewood & thatch Sundarbans, for instance bawalis (timber, firewood & thatch  cutter), jalley/chunery (fish, crab, shrimp/bivalves, snail & oyster cutter), jalley/chunery (fish, crab, shrimp/bivalves, snail & oyster  harvester), moualis (honey extractor/collector), and ghasal harvester), moualis (honey extractor/collector), and ghasal  (harvester of grasses). A number of indigenous occupations no (harvester of grasses). A number of indigenous occupations no  longer in existence (extinct in nature, but are recorded in longer in existence (extinct in nature, but are recorded in  "},{"text":"Table 3 . ContinuedEcosystem servicesBrief description of ES categories (categories according to the Common International Classification of Ecosystem Services (CICES) v4.3 (http://cices.eu/))  "},{"text":" cultural and spiritual value of mangroves remains very difficult to convert into monetary values, but the Sundarbans is a culturally important ecosystem for dependent communities and beyond. A part of the forest is declared as a UNESCO World Heritage Site, thus making it globally significant. The scenic beauty, river cruises, wildlife observation and jungle trail activities of the Sundarbans attracts thousands of tourists each year. From 2001-2002 to 2014-2015, 1 439 806 tourists visited the Sundarbans (of which 1 409 410 are local and 30 386 are foreign). Total revenue collected by forest department was USD 1 087 599. Several key informants indicated that there is a high potential to increase economic benefit from tourism in the Sundarbans. Tourism activities also create employment opportunities for local communities and  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Forest products and revenue collected over the course of years, 1999-2000 and 2015-2016 from the Bangladesh Sundarbans. (Source: FD, 2016). CICES categories Service producers (1999-2000) (2015-2016) CICES categoriesService producers(1999-2000)(2015-2016) of ecosystem (Unit)    of ecosystem(Unit) services  Amount Revenue Amount Revenue servicesAmountRevenueAmountRevenue    (USD)  (USD) (USD)(USD) Provisioning Ceriops decandra 21 078.2 (MT) 38 788.72 1 250 (No.) & 394.23 ProvisioningCeriops decandra21 078.2 (MT) 38 788.72 1 250 (No.) &394.23  Numbers (No.) &/   27 071 (MT) Numbers (No.) &/27 071 (MT)  or metric ton (MT)    or metric ton (MT)  Thatching material 33 036.24 34 676.78 2 509.9408 37 153.88 Thatching material33 036.2434 676.78 2 509.940837 153.88  Nypa fruticans (MT)    Nypa fruticans (MT)  Phoenix paludosa 1 040.8 (MT) 646.65 80 (No.) & 397.13 Phoenix paludosa1 040.8 (MT) 646.6580 (No.) &397.13  (No.) &/or (MT)   276.76 (MT) (No.) &/or (MT)276.76 (MT)  Thatching material 4 055.48 1 788.95 1 14.058 13.51 Thatching material4 055.48 1788.95 114.05813.51  (Grasses) e.g. Malia grass    (Grasses) e.g. Malia grass  (Cyperus javanicus) (MT)    (Cyperus javanicus) (MT)  Honey (MT) 222.08 7 118.59 76.96 19 048.77 Honey (MT)222.087 118.5976.9619 048.77  Wax (MT) 55.56 2 671.63 19.482 6 296.73 Wax (MT)55.562 671.6319.4826 296.73  Fuelwood (ft 3 ) 69 370 1 47 523 1 14 455 3 10 190 3 Fuelwood (ft 3 )69 370 147 523 114 455 310 190 3  Excoecaria agallocha (ft 3 ) 84630 1 33186.59 1 6026 3 3893.96 3 Excoecaria agallocha (ft 3 )84630 133186.59 1 6026 33893.96 3  Bivalves (Clams, mussels 2 435.92 781.91 9.44 2 2 298.21 2 Bivalves (Clams, mussels2 435.92781.919.44 22 298.21 2  & oysters) and    & oysters) and  molluscs(MT)    molluscs(MT)  Dry fish (MT) 1 226 1 18 997.60 1 1 054.39 174 617.93 Dry fish (MT)1 226 118 997.60 1 1 054.39174 617.93  Fishes/white fishes (MT) 4 205.28 84 001.13 1 045.41 124 209.73 Fishes/white fishes (MT) 4 205.2884 001.13 1 045.41124 209.73  Crabs (MT) 145.68 1 2 148.49 1 495.16 57 898.51 Crabs (MT)145.68 12 148.49 1 495.1657 898.51  Shrimp fry (post larvae  4 227.62 1 52 400 3 33.59 3 Shrimp fry (post larvae4 227.62 1 52 400 333.59 3  of Bagda, 3 436 940 1   of Bagda,3 436 940 1  P. monodon) (No.)    P. monodon) (No.) Cultural Tourists (No.) 59 169 1 14 587.68 1 128 175 171 226.41 CulturalTourists (No.)59 169 114 587.68 1 128 175171 226.41  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Socio-economic profile of the respondents in study areas. Variable Description Mean (AESD) Frequency VariableDescriptionMean (AESD)Frequency    (%) (%) Household Number of family members 6 (1.8)  HouseholdNumber of family members6 (1.8) composition Number of earning members 1 (0.47)  compositionNumber of earning members1 (0.47) Education Illiterate  51 EducationIlliterate51  Primary School (class 1 to 5)  31 Primary School (class 1 to 5)31  Secondary School (class 6 to 10)  18 Secondary School (class 6 to 10)18 Dependency ratio Dependent rate on earning members 4 (1.64)  Dependency ratioDependent rate on earning members4 (1.64) Income Respondent's net yearly income (BDT) 69 400 (18 140) - IncomeRespondent's net yearly income (BDT)69 400 (18 140)- Sanitation 1 ! if the respondent belongs to a social 1.2 (0.36) 81 Sanitation1 ! if the respondent belongs to a social1.2 (0.36)81  organization/group   organization/group  2 ! otherwise   2 ! otherwise Credit from 1 ! if the respondent has loans 1.55 (0.53) 56 Credit from1 ! if the respondent has loans1.55 (0.53)56 middleman (dadon) 2 ! otherwise   middleman (dadon)2 ! otherwise Government scheme 1 ! if the respondent receives 1.45 (0.48) 44 Government scheme1 ! if the respondent receives1.45 (0.48)44  government scheme   government scheme  2 ! otherwise   2 ! otherwise Food crisis 1 ! if the respondent suffers 1.27 (0.45) 74 Food crisis1 ! if the respondent suffers1.27 (0.45)74  from food crisis   from food crisis  2 ! otherwise   2 ! otherwise Damage and loss 1 ! if the respondent 1.12 (0.34) 86 Damage and loss1 ! if the respondent1.12 (0.34)86 from extreme lost their assets   from extremelost their assets events 2 ! otherwise   events2 ! otherwise  "}],"sieverID":"c66d4808-f4d2-4be1-b925-4a2dd14bb662","abstract":"Mangroves are now well known to provide a range of ecosystem services that benefit local populations, though such ecosystem services are at risk from mangrove deforestation and degradation across much of the tropics. This study aimed to identify the natural and anthropogenic drivers of change that affect ecosystem services of the Sundarbans mangrove forest. Secondary data analysis and primary fieldwork were conducted in three districts in the Sundarbans region of Bangladesh to understand ecosystem service usage and the perceptions of local resource users. Time series data for a range of ecosystem services and biophysical, socio-economic variables were analyzed to identify the range of trends and the significant drivers of change. Also, community perceptions were consulted to elicit how these changes are felt and how they affected the local ecosystem services users. Results show that most of the ecosystem services of the Sundarbans experienced negative changes over the last two decades. Time series analysis and community perceptions held a number of drivers responsible for these changes. Climatic change, rapid environmental change, demand for mangrove products on the global market, major infrastructure development and governance failure were identified as primary drivers leading to the degradation of ecosystem services of the Sundarbans. The study calls for a transformation in the stewardship of ecosystem services of the Sundarbans and other mangroves across the tropics, to escape the situation where negative environmental impacts might be difficult to reverse."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0103f7c144842ca4e7da11bb42d314ee","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b1cdc7f4-77cc-4014-8e59-c6e1819347f9/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Study #4004 Contributing Projects: • P1965 -Africa RISING: Sustainable intensification of low-input farming systems","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Part II: CGIAR system level reporting","index":1,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Links to the Strategic Results Framework: This report was generated on 2022-08-19 at 08:15 (GMT+0) Sub-IDOs: Sub-IDOs: • Conducive agricultural policy environment • Conducive agricultural policy environment Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Too early to say Description of activity / study: Factors including climate, crop, soil management and type, can Description of activity / study: Factors including climate, crop, soil management and type, can influence agriculture contribution to global carbon cycle, minimal soil disturbance, maintaining influence agriculture contribution to global carbon cycle, minimal soil disturbance, maintaining permanent soil cover and crop rotations. Using micrometeorological methods measuring CO2 flux, permanent soil cover and crop rotations. Using micrometeorological methods measuring CO2 flux, researchers compared alternative CA in central Zimbabwe +/-3 years. Micrometeorological methods researchers compared alternative CA in central Zimbabwe +/-3 years. Micrometeorological methods detect differences in total CO2 emissions of agriculture. Analysis: CA produce less CO2 emissions (for detect differences in total CO2 emissions of agriculture. Analysis: CA produce less CO2 emissions (for the plot with the most consistent CA practices was 0.564 ± 0.0122 g CO2 m−2 h−1) significantly under the plot with the most consistent CA practices was 0.564 ± 0.0122 g CO2 m−2 h−1) significantly under 0.928 ± 0.00859 g CO2 m−2 h−1 for the conventional tillage(CT). Overall, no-till CA using cover crops 0.928 ± 0.00859 g CO2 m−2 h−1 for the conventional tillage(CT). Overall, no-till CA using cover crops produced (-)CO2 emissions than CT and fallow produced (-)CO2 emissions than CT and fallow Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • National • National • Global • Global Country(ies): Country(ies): • Zimbabwe • Zimbabwe Comments: analysis in Harare, central Zimbabwe but analysis for global outreach. Comments: analysis in Harare, central Zimbabwe but analysis for global outreach. Links to MELIA publications: Links to MELIA publications: <Not Defined> <Not Defined> 1 1  "}],"sieverID":"82cb51d3-2cf9-4413-b8fa-6948cc65d6a7","abstract":""}

data/part_1/01307a0627327739e69258ea4b851ebc.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"01307a0627327739e69258ea4b851ebc","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fc814b78-f437-4e1d-8abb-a7f3c38a9b8f/retrieve"},"pageCount":32,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"During its first phase (2012)(2013)(2014)(2015)(2016), the Africa RISING project in the Ethiopian highlands implemented various action-based on farm research activities that align with the Ethiopian government effort. A total of 22 action related protocols alongside 11 explanatory protocols were identified and grouped under seven thematic areas."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"-Feed and forage development -Field crop varietal selection and management -Integration of high value products into mixed farming system -Improved land and water management for sustainability -Mixed farming system through more effective crop-livestock system integration -Cross cutting problems and opportunities -Knowledge management, exchange and capacity development This document presents some of the technology showcases which are proposed for scaling during the project second phase (2017)(2018)(2019)(2020)(2021). Unlike the first phase, which was limited to two kebeles in each of the four regions, the second phase is expanding to scale and reach more beneficiaries. This requires strong partnership and engagement with various development partners."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"The technology show cases are summarized and structured in a way that they give a background and description of the technologies, evidences of benefits, alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities, the planned partnerships for Scaling, the proposed beneficiaries and the planned activities."},{"index":4,"size":13,"text":"Theme 1-Feed and forage development Feed resource innovations-Scaling at farm and watershed levels"}]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":150,"text":"In Ethiopia, livestock are key sources of livelihood for rural households, and this sector accounts for about 46% of the agricultural GDP nationally. Despite the huge livestock resource, the productivity has remained very low. Feed is one of the major constraints impeding livestock production in the country. In the highlands, where mixed crop-livestock farming is practiced, the feed resource base has been on decline due to the continual conversion of grazing lands to arable lands and concomitant loss of fertility on the remaining pasture lands. It is thus important to improve the feed resource base by introducing, among others, well-adapted and high yielding fodder crops and efficient utilization practices. Through action research and participatory on farm evaluations, the Africa RISING project in Ethiopia has been identifying forage innovations that would help to alleviate the problems of feed quality and quantity. The forage innovations identified for wider scaling include the following:"},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"Production of rainfed/irrigated oat-vetch mixtures supplements: Oat-vetch mixed forage produces high quality (energy and protein rich) and quantity forage that can be used as a supplement to locally available feed resources for ruminant livestock. This forage mixture can grow in a wide range of soil types and environments and has a short growth cycle of 60-70 days, making it suitable for both irrigated and rainfed conditions. In the Africa RISING research sites, the intercropped fodder has yielded 11-19 tons/ha DM under rainfed condition, with 15% crude protein and 9.5 MJ metabolizable energy/kg DM. The forage can be used as a good rotation crop in areas where crop disease is a major problem due to mono cropping. Daily supplementation of 1-2 kg DM oat-vetch mixture to dairy cows has showed a potential to improve milk yield by more than 50%."},{"index":3,"size":150,"text":"Integration of Tree lucerne in the backyard and outfield growing niches: Tree lucerne is a fodder and soil fertilizer leguminous tree that grows well in the highlands on well drained soils. Under good management, tree lucerne can reach up to 2 m of height and be ready for the first forage cut within 9 months of planting. The leaf and edible branches of the plant contain high amounts of crude protein (20-25%) and digestible organic matter (70%) providing a nutritious supplement to ruminants (Figure 1). A cutting height of 1-1.5 m gives fodder dry biomass yield of up to 7 t/ha under farmers' management condition. The plant Photo 1: Integration of fodder trees and grasses in the cropping system to improve the feed resource base and protect environmental degradation does not compete with other crops, and thus is suitable for strip cropping on soil bunds in watersheds and other niches."},{"index":4,"size":135,"text":"Production of sweet lupine as a feed and food crop in the highlands: Highlands of Ethiopia suffer from shortage of land to allocate separate plots for food and feed. Intervention with sweet lupine, a leguminous food and feed crop that grows on well drained soils in the highlands proved to cater diverse farmers' needs at the same time. The grain of sweet lupine has high crude protein content (37%) for use as food and concentrate supplement to livestock. Sweet lupine produces as high as 2.6 t/ha of grain, in addition to the crop residue biomass of 3.8 t/ha. Currently, there is a wide spread disease problem with faba bean and field pea crops. Inclusion of sweet lupine in the cropping system therefore helps to break disease cycles and offer alternative pulse grain for different purposes."},{"index":5,"size":120,"text":"Integration of desho and other grasses on soil bunds, back yard and outfield growing niches: Desho grass has proved to be an effective indigenous grass that grows well on soil bunds in watersheds. It stabilizes the soil bund through its root system, thereby prolonging the life of the soil bunds . The grass has also good nutritional quality (about 11% crude protein), and can be harvested 3-4 times per year depending on availability of rainfall and produce 4-5.5 ton DM/ha. Desho grass can easily be propagated using root splits with almost hundred percent survival rate in the highlands. Therefore, scaling this feed innovation is useful both to protect the environment and improve livestock productivity and generate additional income for smallholders."},{"index":6,"size":124,"text":"Intercropping forages with faba bean: Farmers in Ethiopian highlands depend on crop thinning and weed outs from crop fields for feeding their livestock during the crop growth season when stored feed stock is depleted and most of the arable lands are covered with crops. Intercropping cultivated/improved forages with food crops like faba bean showed that farmers can harvest quality forage from their crop fields during critical feed shortage time while maintaining the balance between grain and fodder. When oat forage is intercropped with faba bean, it is possible to obtain about 2.6 tons of good quality forage DM/ha (10% CP) without significantly affecting the grain yield of the faba bean. Economic analysis of this practice also showed that intercropping indeed improves whole plot productivity."},{"index":7,"size":107,"text":"Production of alfalfa forage where there is access to irrigation water: Growing alfalfa forage has a potential to offer substantial income from small area of land at backyards. Once established and with good management (manuring and irrigation) alfalfa is harvested in 4-5 weeks interval and produces 7-10 tons DM/ha forage containing 20-24% crude protein. It contains high calcium content and provides more calcium per hectare than any other forage, making it an ideal supplement for dairy cows and poultry. Thus, alfalfa forage contributes significantly to home garden intensification by producing high quality protein supplement for poultry and dairy production, improving livestock productivity, income and nutrition of households."},{"index":8,"size":101,"text":"Postharvest feed resource handling: Proper utilization of available feed resources is one of the ways to cope with feed shortages. In the Africa RISING research sites, wooden feed troughs and feed storage sheds reduced feed wastage during utilization and storage by about 30-50%. The technology also reduced work load on women and youth by minimizing labour demand for feeding and taking care of animals. Mixing locally available feed resources and fodder supplements on feed troughs allowed formulation of balanced rations for improved livestock productivity. Promotion of these technologies is therefore important to implement a sustainable cut-and-carry feeding system in the highlands."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":129,"text":"Application of the above-mentioned technologies at household and watershed level primarily improves feed resource availability and quality, which directly improves livestock productivity and income of farmers. Despite serious feed constraints nationally, adoption of improved forage cultivation and utilization practices remained very low. This appears to be due to low level of awareness, inaccessibility of the technologies and poor extension system. Africa RISING project has developed an effective technology promotion method through the establishment of farmer research groups and innovation platforms, where farmer groups learn from each other by testing new technologies and communicating results at a community level. Another benefit from application of these technologies is the contribution to environmental sustainability of the mixed farming system in the highlands by reducing soil erosion, controlling runoffs and improving carbon sequestration. "}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"In its second growth and transformation plan (GTP II), the government of Ethiopia has given special emphasis to the livestock subsector with the objective of adequately exploiting its potential for rural poverty reduction, food security, export earnings, and job creations for youth and women. Improving animal feed resources is one of the main strategies to realize these objectives. The proposed technologies thus align very well with current government development agenda and environmental protection initiatives."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Scaling partnerships have been formed with district level public sector offices including the bureau of agriculture and natural resources, livestock and fisheries as well as nongovernment organizations (InterAide , CRS, Send -a-Cow, World Vision,) working in different localities. Joint planning and implementation plans have been developed where Africa RISING project provides technical backstopping through training and research and the scaling partners avail their manpower and resources to reach farm households with the technologies. The scaling partnership has been started in 2017 main cropping season and there is a plan to widen the network of partnership in the coming years. "}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The end beneficiaries will be smallholder farmers in Africa RSING sites: Amhara, Oromia, Southern and Tigray regions. About twenty thousand farm households will be targeted directly over three years in each of the four regions. In addition, the same number of households will be reached indirectly through different technology dissemination methods including farmer to farmer experience/knowledge sharing arrangements and local media."}]},{"head":"Activities","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"The activities under this funding scheme will include: 1) capacity building of scaling partners to ensure that the resources involved (manpower and capital) in the technology scaling are properly managed, 2) establishment of Africa RISING technology village across the four regions, where farmers' validated technologies are implemented as a package and research evidences are generated. The Africa RISING villages will to be tailored to serve as laboratory of sustainable intensification of the smallholder system, 3) identify emerging research issues in the scaling process and conduct backstopping and action research."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"Theme 2: Field crops varietal selection and management Improved cereal and legume crop varieties for improved food security and increased income"}]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Cereals (wheat, barley) and food legumes (faba bean, field pea, chickpea and lentil) are the most important commodities in mixed farming system of the Ethiopia highlands (Figure 2). These crops are used for food, and incomes to millions of smallholder farmers. Food legumes help to improve soil fertility, soil health and increase production and productivity of cereals. High yield gaps of cereals and food legumes are due to low adoption of improved crop varieties, diseases, poor soil fertility and weak seed delivery system. As a result, domestic production could not meet the demands of increasing population and provide raw materials for agro-industries as well as export markets. The introduction of farmer and industry preferred high yielding varieties of barley (food and malt), durum wheat and food legumes can diversify and assure sustainable production of bread wheat by reducing the threat of rusts, grassy weeds and improved soil fertility. Recent study showed that food legumes are more profitable than cereals. For example, faba bean is two times more profitable than Tef and wheat (http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-valuechains/library/details/en/c/383672/)."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"Figure 2. Area coverage and households (HHs) growing key crop commodities in cereal-legume cropping system in the highlands of Ethiopia"}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"In the first phase of the project, farmer and industry preferred cereal and highland food legume varieties with wide and specific adaptations were selected in the four intervention sites where productivity of the cultivars were 2-3 times higher than the local cultivars (Figure 2). These cultivars are being adopted by farmers in the project and outside the project sites."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"In the 2015/16 cropping season, farmers selected durum wheat cv. Utuba and planted over 100 ha of land in three districts of Bale zone (http://globalrust.org/blog/how-pasta-wheathelping-ethiopian-farmers-escape-poverty). Moreover, Gondar Malt Factory PLC, is scaling out (over 500 ha) malt barley cv. Bekoji-1 selected by farmers from Africa RISING action research in 2017/18 cropping season in north Shewa. Farmers (male and female) income increase through adoption of new technologies giving an opportunity; to send their children to school, have better housing and health care. Ethiopia is spending millions of dollars to import bread wheat, durum wheat and malt barley to fill the gaps of food and raw materials for its growing agro-industries. The country also exports food legumes like faba bean and chickpea where Ethiopia fetches about 97 million dollars in 2013 (http://www.fao.org/sustainable-food-value-chains/library/details/en/c/383672/). So scaling of high yielding cereals and food legume technologies not only improve food and nutrition but also create job opportunities to youth in the agro-industries (Figure 3). "}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"Cereals and food legumes are priority commodities of the Federal government and supporting extension of new technologies in Amhara, Oromia, Tigray and SNNPR for food, nutrition, incomes, raw materials and export. In GTP-II, the GoE is planning to increase the productivity of cereals from 2.1 to 3.1 and pulses from 1.7 t/ha to 2.3 t/ha in 2019/20. Technologies identified in Phase-I gave higher product than the new target by GoE. The technologies will play key roles to increase the productivity of wheat, malt barley and food legumes in major commercialization clusters developed by Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA). Increasing the productivity of durum wheat, malt barley, large seeded chickpea and faba bean will help the country to compete in regional and international markets. The project train development agents; farmers and establish seed growers mainly for food legumes to increase access to seeds of new cultivars and will contribute to the ambitious plan of GoE to boost crop productivity and production. "}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":273,"text":"Partnership was established through the Innovation Platforms (IPs) at the project sites where farmers, Bureau of Agriculture (BoA), research centers, Universities and input suppliers were involved in the planning and monitoring of the project activities. In Phase-II, the existing IPs will continue to play key roles in technology scaling in the project target areas. Currently the project is partnering with farmers, Farmer Unions, seed growers, BoA in the four Africa RISING action sites, Gondar Malt Factory, ISSD, Oromia Seed Enterprise (OSE) and Research Centers. ICARDA-USAID funded projects on malt barley, faba bean and chickpea is also linked to the project for greater impacts. BoA in the four regions are participating in the scaling of farmer and industry preferred crop technologies using their own resources. Africa RISING is provided initial seeds for multiplications and training of BoA experts. Malt factory is committed to further scaling technologies selected by farmers and ISSD is committed to strengthen seed growers to multiply and market seeds to farmers. Gondar malt factor created a linkage of its malt barley scaling activities in north Shewa (Amhara Regional State) where with Africa RISING-Phase-II and scaling malt barley cultivars in seven districts using their own resources. The scaling activities covered about 1731 ha where 3869 farmers (9% female farmers) participated. Oromia seed enterprise(OSE) is committed to multiply high yielding food legumes and durum wheat cultivars in Bale zone farm to be marketed to farmers. Currently OSE is multiplying 500 kg of Durum wheat cv. Utuba on their own farm and showed interest to engage in seed multiplications of farmer selected cultivars during the project period and play key seed provider to farmers."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"The beneficiaries of technology scaling and capacity (knowledge and skills) strengthening are smallholder farmers (male and female), seed growers, agro-industries, traders, researchers, development agents, input suppliers and policy makers. The four-major cereal and food legume growing regions (9 districts in Bale Zone; 9 districts in North Showa Zone, 4 districts in Hadya Zone and 5 districts in south Tigray) will be targeted. Over 30,000 HHs (150,000 family members) will be directly benefited from the intervention through technology, knowledge and skill transfers in 2018/19 cropping season. During the project period, 5-10 seed growers will be established in the four intervention regions and licensed by BoA to produce certified seeds and market to users."}]},{"head":"Key activities (2018-2021)","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":144,"text":"Key activities in scaling technologies, knowledge and skills that will be implemented with partners in the four Regional States are:  Scaling of high yielding durum wheat and barley cultivars to diversify bread wheat mono-cropping  Scaling of high yielding faba bean and field pea cultivars with Rhizobium inoculant in barley-legume cropping system  Scaling of high yielding faba bean, field pea, kabuli chickpea and lentil cultivars with Rhizobium inoculants in wheat based cropping system  Scaling of integrated legume parasitic weed management in the Northern highlands  Scaling of PICS bags to reduce post-harvest losses of food legumes due to storage insects  Scaling of barely and food legumes in Belg season in Bale and North Shoa zones  Technology validation of new crop varieties and management practices through R4D for diversification and intensification, and conducting backstopping research  Capacity strengthening of partners"}]},{"head":"Improved potato varieties and technologies for improved food security and increased income","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"In the highlands of Ethiopia, potato is an important food crop and a major source of household income. It is a nutritious, high-value, short cycle crop and one of the few major food crops for the \"hunger months\" of July to Nov./Dec. before harvest of grains, providing cash for school fees in September. The production and area planted to potato have more than quadrupled since 1961. The CSA 2016 statistics show that over a million HHs produce about 3.6 million tons of potatoes on about 296, 600 ha during meher (long rain) and belg (short rain) seasons. Despite the increasing importance of potato, the sub-sector in Ethiopia is still underdeveloped with a mean yield of about 12 t/ha, although smallholder yields can reach 35 t/ha."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"During AR Phase I, through a participatory variety selection (PVS), potato varieties that are disease resistant and yield three to seven times higher than local varieties were identified. Functional seed systems via decentralized community based-seed production (CBSP) were also established to increase the availability of quality seed of these improved varieties for increased productivity at the four sites. An innovative diffused light storage technology that improves the quality of seed potato was also successfully demonstrated at the target sites of the four regions."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"The following technologies that were found appropriate and useful by farmers in phase I will be scaled in phase II."},{"index":4,"size":82,"text":"i. Improved potato varieties (Belete and Gudane) that have excellent performance (Plate 1) ii. Quality planting material, and iii. Diffused Light Stores (DLS) to obtain quality seed potato for increased productivity These technologies are relevant to sustainable intensification because they enable to increase productivity per area, input and time. The varieties to be scaled possess resistance to late blight, requiring less chemical spray improving environmental health. Since potato has a short production cycle, it can escape effects of climate change, particularly drought."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":229,"text":"Use of quality seed of improved varieties that are more resistant to late blight than the local varieties will enable farmers to get high yields. Improved varieties: Belete, Gudane, Jalene and Gorebella yielded 3 to 7 times higher than local varieties (25-65 t/ha vs 8-10 t/ha) under good agricultural practices (GAP) in Lemo, Endomohani and Debre Birhan during phase I (Photo 2). The economic return from potato production is significantly higher than cereals and pulses. Preliminary studies showed that the net profit per ha from production of potatoes is three times higher than that of faba beans and seven times higher than that of barley and wheat (Photo 3), crops that share same agro-ecology with potato. Quality seed potatoes obtained from DLS reduce postharvest losses, as they produce short, green and sturdy sprouts that do not break off during transportation and planting compared to long etiolated sprouts. The high potato yields obtained from implementation of these technologies will improve food security, increase both domestic and export trade. The newly developed National \"Horticulture Development and Marketing Strategy\" shows that potato ranks first as an export crop among roots and tubers and prospects for increased export are very promising. According to CSA 2016 statistics, potato contributed over 870 m USD worth revenue to the GDP. This can be significantly increased by increasing productivity using potato technologies this project intends to scale."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Photo 2: Excellent stand and high yield/plant of Gudene variety in Gumer (SNNPR)"}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"In GTP II, agriculture especially smallholder agriculture will remain the most important source of economic growth. To improve food security and reduce poverty, GTP II prioritizes increased production capacity, improved productivity and production as well as improved quality of produce and competitiveness. High value crops, export crops, and crops that can be profitably produced under irrigation such as horticultural crops, of which potato is one, are given special attention. Another area emphasized is empowerment of women and youth."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"Potato being a short cycle, very productive smallholder crop, suited to irrigated agriculture, and with high potential for export, is very well suited to contributing to the government's GTP II goal. This crop is both a garden and field crop that is widely produced by women. Since it is a highland crop, it is suitable for the governments' mountain initiative that focuses on creating employment for youth. This project is well aligned to the USAID's objective of \"increased economic growth with resiliency in rural Ethiopia\" and to USAID's support to food self-sufficiency and youth employment. "}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"In the scaling process during phase II, CIP will collaborate and partner with the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR), Regional Bureaus of Agriculture and Natural Resources (RBoANR), Zonal and Woreda Agriculture Offices, Federal and Regional Research Institutes and Centers, and Agriculture Growth Programs (AGP) the four major regions, Oromia Irrigation Development Authority (OIDA), and with ATA's Agricultural Commercialization Clusters (ACC). CIP reached out to these partners and they agreed to provide and facilitate provision of technical backstopping, activity monitoring, data collection and more importantly to cover costs of inputs such as quality seed potatoes, materials for DLS construction, fertilizers and other needed chemicals."},{"index":2,"size":34,"text":"International Potato Center will coordinate the overall implementation and provide training to woreda officers, crop experts and development agents (DAs) in a ToT approach. CIP will also provide technical backstopping together with other partners."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"The project will directly reach 40,000 farmers (240,000 people) in four years in Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray regions. The phase I sites will be the starting points for scaling and then other areas for scaling within the regions will be identified together with RBoANR. We expect that another 5,000 to 10,000 farmers, corresponding to 30,000 and 60,000 people, respectively will benefit indirectly. Since potato enjoys domestic and export markets and lends itself to processing, many more traders and processors will also be beneficiaries of the project. Going forward, a strong potato processing industry will substitute for imports of chips, saving the country hard currency. Export of chips and crisps to neighbouring countries will help Ethiopia earn foreign currency. All this will improve livelihoods of communities, aligning to GoE's and USAID's priorities."}]},{"head":"Activities","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"In AR phase II, scaling of potato technology will focus on:"},{"index":2,"size":222,"text":" Training agricultural experts on selected technologies and overall potato production. These trainees will cascade the knowledge to producers at grassroots level.  Supplying early generation seed potato for cooperatives, for them to multiply and sell quality seed to producers. The starter seed will be produced at research institutes first year only.  Will demonstrate integrated potato bacterial wilt (BW) control. Potato BW is a major constraint that will cripple the potato industry if not contained. There are proven technologies to contain the disease, which will be integrated and demonstrated to the farmers where the disease has been recorded during phase I of AR.  Some research will be conducted in the following areas to solve important problems. Details will be given during the development of the full proposal. o Conduct a survey to determine adoption of improved potato varieties, quality seed and DLS in AR phase I intervention areas. o Developing irrigation agronomy packages for irrigated potato production together with research centers and OIDA. o Conduct participatory variety selection (PVS) in areas that have not adopted improved technologies o Determine effect of integrating early maturing potato varieties into cereal/legume cropping system on water use. This will be done with CIAT in selected watersheds. o Effect of low-cost potato mechanization on potato productivity Giving power to Africa RISING farmers through small mechanizations"},{"index":3,"size":425,"text":"The benefits of small mechanization on planting (opening planting furrows, fertilizer application, seed placement and covering in one pass), threshing, spraying, irrigation and transport have been documented. Although single pass direct seeding using a two-wheel tractor (2 WT) appears profitable and ready for scaling out, it is evident that most Ethiopian farmers will not be able to purchase 2 WTs and implements individually. Still, they could access mechanization services, delivered by dedicated well-trained service providers. This model -which has been adopted in Bangladesh where a single two-wheel tractor can service up to 30 farmers for planting services -is the model successfully tested by CIMMYT and its partners in Ethiopia. For service provision to be viable as a business activity, mechanization use rates should be maximized. This means that a model of service provision depending on seeding only (few weeks of demand per year) is unlikely to be viable: other operationsallowed by the versatility of 2WT -should be considered, including operations that are less seasonal or time-bound such as threshing, water pumping and transporting. This guarantees that 2WTs are in productive use for a greater part of the year (benefit to the service providers) and reduce the unit cost of custom work (benefit to farmers receiving the service). The demand for threshing, water pumping and transporting is generally high, even at low labour wages. The majority of field and farm operations are performed manually by smallholders and up to 80 % of the human labour is provided by women and children. Women have multi-task roles in smallholder farming families and technologies such as mechanization that reduce drudgery and free up time from women and children are critical for the development of smallholder agriculture in Ethiopia and other African countries. Additionally, mechanization offers an avenue for improved agronomic practices namely timely planting, precise application of fertilizer, achievement of the correct crop density as well as efficient utilization of soil moisture during the planting window at the beginning of the cropping season. Mechanizing harvesting and threshing or shelling reduces post-harvest losses and ensures quality of grain is controlled. Increased precision in field operations due to mechanization is critical for sustainable intensification of the smallholder farming systems of Ethiopia. Mechanization of farming operations will increase the productivity of both labour and land available to farming households in Ethiopia. Additionally, mechanization will help in reducing soil and land degradation by erosion on smallholder farms thereby protecting the environment in farming communities. The provision of different services based on the twowheel tractor technologies creates employment in the rural communities of Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":190,"text":"Two-wheel tractors are multi-purpose and smallholder farmers, rural entrepreneurs and the whole community at large benefit from small mechanization technologies. For smallholder farmers reduced time for field operations, reduced drudgery and increased crop yields are the major benefits derived from the two-wheel tractor based technologies (Figure 4). The benefits of small mechanization on planting (opening planting furrows, fertilizer application, seed placement and covering in one pass (Photo 4), threshing, spraying, irrigation and transport have been documented. Service providers, both individual or operating in groups, can generate income through offering land preparation, planting, shelling and threshing, water pumping for irrigating high value crops, and transport services in the rural communities of Ethiopia. Farmers in different parts of the country can receive a specific range of services that are needed in their community, thereby making small scale mechanization applicable to different regions of Ethiopia. The multi-purpose nature of twowheel tractor based technologies is good for smallholder farming communities in different parts of sub Saharan Africa. Photo 4: Planting using the conventional animal drawn maresha system (left picture) and service provider planting teff using a 2 WT drawn planter (right picture) in Ethiopia"}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"The government of Ethiopia through the Ministry of Agriculture and the Ethiopian Agricultural Transformation Agency developed a national mechanization strategy in 2014. The aim of the strategy is to increase the farm power available to Ethiopian farmers 10 folds (from the current 0.1 Kw ha -1 to 1 kW ha -1 ) by 2025, with at least half of this power derived from fuel and electric engines. Large tractors (with four wheels and two axles) are well suited to large-scale and medium-scale Ethiopian farmers. But these farmers only represent about 10% of the estimated 14.7 million farmers in the country. Another form of mechanization, appropriate to the scale of the vast majority of Ethiopian farms is required. Aligned to the mechanization strategy is also an initiative on employment creation with a special focus on the youth. Small mechanization through two-wheel tractor based technologies offers an opportunity to create employment and also attract the youth to agriculture, which is one of the focus areas of the second Agricultural Growth Program (AGP) in Ethiopia."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Mechanizing farm operations reduces labour burden on women and children. This allows increased participation of women and the youth in economic activities as the freed labour can be used for other income generation enterprises in communities leading improved livelihoods in rural communities. Additionally, increased precision in field operations through mechanization increases the overall productivity of the smallholder farming systems leading to increased crop yields and household food security."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"CIMMYT has developed partnership with the Department of Mechanization in the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR), Amio Engineering Pvt. Ltd., and the Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR) in order to build the capacity of service providers and scale out small mechanization technologies in the different regions of Ethiopia. The current partnership has been strengthened by collaborating with other small mechanization initiatives in Ethiopia such as the ACIAR-funded project 'Farm Power and Conservation agriculture for Sustainable Intensification' and the GIZ-funded project 'Appropriate Mechanization for Sustainable Intensification of Smallholder Farming in Ethiopia'. More partners are still targeted and these include micro-finance organizations that can give credit to service providers and farmers, International Potato Centre (CIP), International Water Management Institute (IWMI), other manufacturers and importers of agricultural equipment, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), farmer cooperatives/unions and private sector players involved in tractor hire services. Recently the MoANR through the Department of Mechanization imported 100 two-wheel tractors, disc ploughs, walking harvesters, shellers and threshers, and these have been distributed to different regions of Ethiopia. Amio Engineering Pvt. Ltd is setting up a network of spare parts dealers in areas where small mechanization is being promoted. The Ethiopia Institute of Agriculture Research through Melkassa Training Centre provides technical staff for capacity building of service providers."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"It is projected that the project will directly reach 20000 smallholder farmers over 4 years through various services from individual and youth group service providers. More smallholder farmers will indirectly benefit from the project through awareness and demand creation campaigns and on-farm demonstrations, and field days that will be conducted in Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray regions of Ethiopia. Service providers will benefit through business opportunities generated during and after the lifespan of the project. Initially the project targets to start working directly with at least 60 service providers spread across the Amhara, Oromia, SNNP and Tigray regions but this number will increase over the years. Previous experience from the small scale mechanization projects by CIMMYT has shown that each SP can serve at least 30 households when providing planting and transport services only. Local mechanics and spare parts dealers from project communities will have business opportunities from the machinery operated by the service providers. It is envisaged that increased demand for two-wheel tractor based services will open new business opportunities for equipment manufacturers and micro-finance organizations in the different regions of Ethiopia."}]},{"head":"Activities","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"The following activities will be implemented in collaboration with the different project partners;"},{"index":2,"size":137,"text":" Demand/awareness creation of mechanization services derived from two-wheel tractor based technologies: This will be achieved through demonstrations of 2 WTs, planters, shellers, threshers, walking harvesters, trailers and water pumping at field days and exchange visits in different communities where service providers will be based.  Capacity development -technical and agribusiness training of service providers, equipment operators and local mechanics  Market linkages and stakeholder engagements -this will be achieved through round table meetings and workshops at various levels (woreda, regional and national levels)  Information materials (flyers/bulletins) on 2 WT based technologies and available services will be developed, translated into local languages and distributed to farmers through the network of project partners  Backstopping research Theme 3: Integration of high value products into mixed farming systems High value fruit trees to improve nutrition and income diversification"}]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"The majority of the Ethiopian highlands have complex topography and are sensitive to different land degradation processes. Traditional annual crop-livestock farming systems are practiced in these fragile areas and annual crop yields are very low due to frost and poor soil fertility. Because of this and other associated reasons, most smallholder farmers in the Africa RISING sites are challenged with food insecurity and under-nutrition, among others. High value trees including temperate fruit trees are untapped opportunities, especially in the high lands of Ethiopia. During the first phase of the project, ICRAF and its partners have introduced high value trees (mainly avocado, apple and walnut) and their management practices and characterized their performance through on farm, experimental trial, laboratory, socio economic survey and capacity building. During field visits and project evaluation meetings our partners have demanded the scaling out/up of high value trees within and outside the current intervention sites. Therefore, this intervention will respond to the local demand and government's initiative to scale out/up high value trees and campaign and facilitate for their wider adoption by addressing some of the challenges including, but not limited to, 1) Inaccessibility and unavailability of quality germplasm at a required quantity, 2) lack of technical knowhow in propagation and management techniques both Development Agents (DAs), national research organisations, and farmers 3) lack of awareness and familiarity with the potential opportunities that high value trees can contribute."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":103,"text":"The high value multipurpose trees having different uses and production cycles, are an essential component of sustainable agriculture because of the wide socioeconomic and ecological roles it plays in these systems. As shown in the pictures below (Photos 5, Lemo, Tigray and Sinana) avocados and apples fruits profusely within two years after planting. The benefits include improve and diversified household income, food, feed and nutrition, soil health and land productivity, empower women, job opportunity for youth and reduced migration, and resilience to climate shocks and climate mitigation when annual food crops fail during drought period since perennial trees persist and provide various products."}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"This intervention contributes to meet USAID mission in Ethiopia, all three System Level Outcomes of the CGIAR Strategy, SDG No.2, Ethiopia's Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP-II) (1) reduced poverty, (2) End hunger achieve food and nutrition security, and (3) and substantially to improved natural resource systems and ecosystem services. Moreover, due to high export demand for avocado to France and China the government has requested us to scale up avocados widely."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"We have multiple partners in the four regions. In the first phase of the Africa RISING project, our collaboration with extension, research, universities and farmers was strong and has laid an excellent ground with success stories of our research on HVT which has been implemented at homestead and farm levels. Our partnership with government offices offers huge opportunity for scaling up because they reach millions of small holder farmers at all levels. They will provide input and extension service for scaling up/out. In Lemo woreda, the scaling up process has already initiated with farmers contributing their own money, however the challenge is lack of availability of quality seedlings. Options are generally implemented following the spatial organization of the landscape whereby afforestation/reforestation is implemented at the upper part of the landscape, terraces combined with biological measures at the middle and gully rehabilitation, water harvesting and irrigation are key interventions at the lower parts of the landscape (Figure 5)."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Reforestation and enclosures (complemented with appropriate soil and water conservation (SWC) measures where necessary), are primarily targeted at degraded areas in the upper and sleep slopes. Across agricultural and grazing areas, stone and/or soil bunds (of different forms and types based on site-specificity) integrated with multipurpose biological measures (grasses, agroforestry trees, fruit trees) can be implemented. This is to reduce runoff/erosion and/or conserve soil moisture. The type and design of these options depend on slope, soil type, land use and the problem at hand (e.g., whether to reduce erosion, conserve moisture or both). In the middle and lower parts of landscapes, gully rehabilitation measures may need to be in place. Depending on the width, depth, and status (whether collapsing, drained or not) of the particular gully, different options can be implemented."},{"index":3,"size":123,"text":"Examples include: reduce excess runoff upslope, control further gully development using vegetative and structural measures, reduce runoff and sediment flow using barriers (check dams) of stone/wood/earth, trap sediment and store water by constructing earth embankment across deep gully, reduce gully incision and bank erosion using artificial grassed waterway, and create buffer against collapse due to erosion and/or animal trampling using biological measures such as bamboos, jatropha, vetivier and other herbaceous and woody plant species. In the lower parts of landscapes, soil moisture conservation, water harvesting and irrigation are vital interventions. These include deep trenches, percolation pits, check-dam ponds, micro-catchments/ponds, and small reservoirs. Throughout the landscape, improved grazing land management and homestead development are key for system diversification and improving food and nutrition security."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"The above interventions should be guided by and supplemented with income generating options such as timber, fuelwood, bee-hives, high value fruits, vegetables, improved crop varieties and multipurpose feed species."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"The improved landscapes enhance overall system productivity and improve provision of ecosystem services due to decreased soil erosion, improved soil health and improved soil moisture on site. The biological options integrated across space provide economic and social benefits as well as improve biodiversity and ecosystem gains. The landscapes would ultimately be climate-resilient which will then sustain their long-term multifunctionality. The upslope interventions (biophysical and biological) increase baseflow, which helps expand irrigation area and/or increase the frequency of irrigation. Such diversification improves both food and nutrition security, especially to women and children. Integrated watershed management also reduces sediment yield, and sustains both irrigation and power supply."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"When SLM interventions are integrated with income generating options such as timber, fuelwood, and beehives, income and nutrition security increases. These sustain adoption of landscape level interventions. "}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The government of Ethiopia aspires the country to reach middle-income status by 2025. To achieve this, various policies, strategies and programs are designed: Growth and Transformation Plan, Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP), Productivity Safety Net Program (PSNP), and the Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy, among others. Different activities such as intensification, diversification, irrigation, and mechanization are some of the activities planned to achieve the above programs/strategies."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Under its SLM, PSNP, and CRGE, the main emphasis revolves around integrated land and water management to create multifunctional climate-resilient landscapes and communities."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"We have various partners who are interested to collaborate with us and scale technologies and approaches. Some include the SLMP, Amhara Region Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), InterAid (NGO), Wukro St. Marry (NGO), Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Participatory Small-scale Irrigation Development Program (PASIDP), Ministry of Environment, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC). The various partners contribute in-kind resources such as gabions, seeds, and expert-time. The NGOs implement packages of technologies in their watersheds at their expenses (with our training and capacity development support). Communities in the study and scaling sites contribute 'free-labour' to implement and manage land and water management options. The SLMP uses its resources to implement watershed management technologies and with some matching funds, we can strengthen their activities such as quantitative evidence generation."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"The beneficiaries from this project are manly local communities, government institutions, research/knowledge institutions and the private sector. Within the coming five years, we aim to scale our interventions across 42 watersheds. Within each watershed, we will consider landscapes of around 1,000 ha where the integrated practices will be implemented."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"With this, we will cover about 42,000 ha of land. Considering average land holding in Amhara, Tigray, SNNPR and Oromia, there will be more than 50,000 direct beneficiary households. We also expect to have over 1 million indirect beneficiaries. Resilience building through water and energy efficient water lifting and delivery system in sustainable intensification for smallholder farming systems in Ethiopia?"}]},{"head":"Activities","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"With increasing interest to narrow down yield gaps and meet the food demand supply balance, the Government of Ethiopian (GOE) is highly committed to improving agricultural water management. These initiatives involve development and investments for sustainable agricultural production and productivity through increased access to stored, surface and/or groundwater for full or supplementary irrigation. Ethiopian government plan and programmes such as the Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I and II) and climate resilient green economy (CRGE) initiatives clearly reflects these initiatives. In support to these endeavors, during phase I, Africa RISING project has tested and piloted several technologies related to water lifting and delivery, and on field water management for improved precision."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"An exemplary work in this regard is the introduction and testing of solar pump based water lifting for smallholder's irrigation. With its six imported solar (PV) sets, the project demonstrated and evaluated the performances of solar pump based water lifting technologies under smallholder setting in Ethiopia (Photo 5). With additional four solar (PV) demonstrated by the Livestock and Irrigation Value Chain for Ethiopian Smallholders (LIVES) project, the solar (PV) based water lifting technology was linked to different water delivery and application systems (e.g., furrow, drip and overhead application) to test which application methods lead to most efficient and maximum benefits with limited environmental impacts and less drudgery for women. The technology was also tested on a variety of crops including pepper, cabbage, carrot and fodder."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":32,"text":"A feasibility analysis based on one cropping season data illustrate a strong financial viability of investments in solar pump based irrigation, but with clear differences across crop type and water application techniques."},{"index":2,"size":123,"text":"Based on evidence from previous experiment, the maximum irrigable land size varies between 4431, 2188 and 2797 m 2 if supported with drip, farrow and overhead water application techniques, respectively. This implies that the capacity of the solar pump can be doubled if drip system is attached to it. Moreover, it gives an opportunity for smallholders to share the initial investment cost or open an option for water delivery service provision for those who have capacity to invest but have limited land to irrigate. However, the level of feasibility proxied by the Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) are different based on the level of discount rate and water application method. Photo 6. Solar pump linked to drip system"}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":100,"text":"Following Phase I, there are number of initiatives to pilot solar (PV) based irrigation. For example, the Agricultural Transformation Agency (ATA) and IFAD and Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources, as part of PASIDP II, has a plan to develop decision support tool (e.g. suitability mapping) and piloting solar(PV)-drip based irrigation systems. A private sector called Solar Development PLC recently started to supply solar pump for irrigation in Ethiopia. From different sources IWMI has also allocated resources to develop solar pump suitability map and business model and the report on these will be ready the latest end of March 2017."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":257,"text":"The water and energy efficient water lifting and delivery techniques proposed for out scaling under phase II is in line with the new initiatives of piloting solar (PV) based irrigation system by ATA in eight districts of Ethiopia. IWMI team in Ethiopia has been contributing to the review and planning process of these new initiatives and more consultation going on. In principle ATA has agreed to use our skills, knowledge and evidence generated during Africa RISING Phase I. They also agree on the need of backstopping and proper monitoring to answer key issues suggested under backstopping research questions above. ATA is well aware of the decision support tool (solar suitability map) being developed by IWMI to support proper targeting of potential areas. Hence, knowledge created through Phase II will be used as input to support ATA's initiative to further scale out solar (PV) beyond the current plan of 8 pilot districts. Proper and sustainable scaling out of water and energy efficient technology proposed here requires sustainable supply chain and continuous support in terms of provision of spare parts and installation of the technology. IWMI team is in continuous consultation with Solar Development PLC and the later to deliver the services. Currently Solar Development is importing three containers of sunflower solar pump models. MoU is signed between IWMI and Solar Development PLC and most likely this will be extended to three parties involving supplier (Solar Development PLC), implementer (ATA) and back stopper (Africa RISING-IWMI). Africa RISING/IWMI will contribute through research, knowledge sharing, monitoring and evaluation (M&E), capacity building."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":230,"text":"This proposed work has three key modalities of implementations: i) implementations of ATA in eight districts located in SNNPR and Oromia regional states. ii) Solar Development PLC will directly promote its solar (PV) based water lifting and thus will access more farmers beyond the targets of ATA and thus link to us to provide further service. iii) PASIDP II will pilot solar (PV) based irrigation system where IWMI can potentially contribute as service provider. In addition to the two regional states targeted by ATA, the second and third implementation modalities will probably link us to the remaining Africa RISING regions namely: Amhara and Tigray. Therefore, the basic figure we will use on estimating the Targets / Zone of Influence will be the number of solar pump units Solar Development PLC imports and assuming that three rounds of import will be fully sold out within the project period. The first batch of import in three containers is about 200 units and in five years this will be about 1000. Assuming an irrigation capacity of 0.5 ha when attached to drip system and about 0.25 ha irrigable land holding per household 5 head per a farm per household a total of 10 000 people will be benefited directly and indirect beneficiaries will be about 40 000. This over all figures in fact does not include the number of beneficiaries from PASIDP project."}]},{"head":"Activities","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"The following are major activities:"},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":" Knowledge sharing and awareness creation based on AR PHASE I experiences (partly done)  Support in targeting land scape (solar suitability map) and farm typology with key stakeholders?  Support in matching technology packages (solar (PV)-water delivery and application systems; crop type, inputs to landscape and farm types)  Develop and test monitoring data collection tool for backstopping  Implementation and collection of data related to research questions for backstopping  Monitoring and evaluation Provision of service delivery and drip kits for enhanced water access and irrigation efficiency: out scaling experiences from phase I"}]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Agricultural mechanization is seen as one of the strategies for agricultural transformation in Ethiopia. The current mechanization strategy outlines implementation strategies to increase mechanization in Ethiopia, one of which is identifying the most impactful mechanized technology opportunities and increase accessibility of financing services to farmers for mechanization technologies and service (ATA, 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"With increasing interest to ensure water access for irrigation, the government of Ethiopian (GOE) is engaged in construction of water reservoirs, mainly large dams. The regional government and farmers are also developing small scale water harvesting structures tapping into ground-and surface water for full or supplementary irrigation. The Growth and Transformation Plan (GTP I and II) and Climate Resilient Green Economy (CRGE) strategy clearly reflects these initiatives. However, these initiatives may not ensure water access to every farmer, especially in areas water scarcity is severe, unless the initiative is complemented with water service delivery. This initiative will also yield successful outcome if water delivery service is complemented with drip irrigation, to enhance water use efficiency, which increases productivity due to mechanization."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"In support to these endeavors, during Phase I, Africa RISING project/IWMI has tested and piloted water delivery in Lemo, (Southern Nations, Nationalities and Population (SNNP) regional state, using motor pump mounted two-wheel tractors (2WTs). The water delivery service was linked to different application systems (drip and overhead application) to test which application methods lead to most efficient and maximum benefits with limited environmental impacts and less drudgery for women. The on-farm action research tested on three crops namely: cabbage, carrot and fodder."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"The results, based on one cropping season monitoring and analysis, illustrated a strong economic feasibility with clear disparity across crop types and water application techniques. Water delivery service combined with drip irrigation yields to most feasible outcomes measured by Net Present Value (NPV) and Internal Rate of Return (IRR) indicators. From the on-farm action research better insights were also gained on the distance to water source and whether farmers will be able to pay for water (Hagos et al. 2016, Photo 6)."},{"index":2,"size":81,"text":"Anticipated benefits from the widespread uptake of these innovations  Building resilience through increases productivity and mitigation of crop failure through supplementary irrigation or full irrigation,  Creates job for youth and female farmers as service providers,  Diversify sources of income (e.g. transportation) to the service providers and beneficiary households,  Increase land productivity and contribute to food security of smallholders, and  Ensures access to nutrient dense food such as vegetables and fruits and animal products under irrigation condition."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"There are initiatives to promote 2WTs by MOANR in collaboration with CIMMYT and regional bureaus in Debre Birhan (Amhara), Bako and Assela (Oromia) and Adwa (Tigray) in Ethiopia. IWMI team in Ethiopia has been contributing to planning this new initiatives and consultation is still ongoing. The team with the regional microfinance organizations and MOANR will design a financing mechanism for out scaling. There is need of backstopping and proper monitoring by experienced institutions, such as IWMI and CIMMYT."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"Proper and sustainable out scaling of water delivery and efficient irrigation proposed here requires innovative financing mechanism for farmers to access the tanker and drip kits. The team proposes a revolving fund to target households. The seed money for the revolving fund will be provided by the project. Proper and sustainable out scaling of water delivery and efficient irrigation proposed here requires also sustainable supply chain and continuous support in terms of provision of spare parts and installation of the technology. IWMI team is in continuous consultation with iDE, particularly in supporting the installation and implementation of drip facilities and tankers, to deliver this task. Discussions with Bruf Tesfa, another partner engaged in the supply of microirrigation technologies are still ongoing."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Photo 7. Drip System with water delivery"}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"This proposed work will run in four districts in four Africa RISING regions namely: Amhara, Oromia, SNNPR and Tigray. The crops targeted are high value vegetables, which have food security and nutrition benefits. 2WTs (in total 8 2WTs) are already imported and allocated to each site. The 2WTs are equipped with 500L tanks and a motor pump so that service providers can transport water. Drip kits and tankers will be provided on loan by the project for the beneficiaries to receive water from service providers and produce vegetables efficiently. One 2WT can serve 30 households in each site. The total households served will, thus, be 120 households, consisting on average of 600 population in the lifespan of the project (Table 1). The unit cost is drip kits cultivating 100 m2 and 400 L tanker is 2400 USD. The first 12 units will cost roughly about (including 10% miscellaneous expenses) USD 30000, which will be financed by Africa RISING. Other farmers will be benefit by involving the local microfinance organizations and MOANR."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Moreover, the project will provide in-kind contribution through expertise for technical training of service providers, mechanics, co-operative members and other partners. Total 120 600 * Two kebeles were target kebeles in phase I and will not be included in the calculation."}]},{"head":"Activities","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"Monitoring and evaluation will be an important component of this proposed project and the mechanism for data collection on actual implementation is also indicated earlier. The indicator for process monitoring will evolve along implementation but an example may include:  Number of drip sets implemented and farm households engaged;  Areas of land irrigated and typed and diversity of crops grown and their productivity performances;  Number of events on experience exchange between the intervention and domain farmers;  The cost of 2WTs and the services it provided,  Cost of fuel and labour time used in the service,  The amount of capital invested as seed money and cost-sharing mechanisms (could be in kind); and  Impact on livelihoods using food security and nutrition indicators."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Another activity envisaged is supply chain analysis of water delivery and drip technologies. This will help mapping the role of private sectors in the supply of these technologies and identifying bottlenecks."}]},{"head":"Bridging yield gaps through soil test -based nutrient amendments","index":45,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Background and Description","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"Successive Ethiopian governments financed the import of chemical fertilizers, with the volume of the import increase from 200,000 to 894,000 tonnes between the years 1994 and 2014. However, despite these increasingly large investments there is no convincing evidence showing that increased fertilizer application led to proportionally increased crop and livestock yield per unit of inputs. The challenge the country has been facing are: 1) Given the huge diversity of the country, in terms of soil types, cropping systems and landscape positions, the types of fertilizers currently imported in large amounts and the recommendation domains suggested by ATA did not bring about the expected benefits; and 2) The fertilizer plants may not be able to produce the required type and quality of fertilizer blends for the specific landscapes unless additional information is generated on the agronomic and economic efficiency of the various fertilizer blends for specific locations and production systems."}]},{"head":"Evidence of Benefits","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"Taking the more integrated and targeted approach to fertilizer use that the work proposed here aims to support (i.e. as part of a broader set of interventions aimed at enhancing system productivity) could improve the agronomic and economic benefits. This project is now seeking to encapsulate its findings into sets of decision support tools for fertilizer recommendations for various soil types, crops and farming systems and other specific situations and institutionalize them to be used for scaling-up approaches. By doing so, cereal crop yield could increase by 30 to 80%, depending on the agroecologies and crop types with significant cost reduction due to targeted input applications. This input efficiency could also significantly reduce the costs of import of fertilizers, while improving productivity."}]},{"head":"Alignment with Government of Ethiopia (GoE) / USAID Priorities","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"The Africa RISING project has been instrumental to steer-up national discussion on how to improve fertilizer recommendations in the country, which became also a major input for development of the new Ethiopian Soils Strategy, currently being developed by the Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources. ICRISAT-Africa RISING has been a key member of the task force to develop the soils strategy."}]},{"head":"Partnerships for Scaling","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"The Africa RISING project, working on appropriate input delivery has been engaged with multiple national and regional partners to scale-up its tools and methods to various regional and national institutions at scale. To mention few:"},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"1. On November 3 rd , 2015, following a recommendation made by an EIAR senior staff, EIAR DG has asked ICRISAT to present the experiences of Africa RISING project on niche specific soil fertility management to the soil scientists of EIAR at the headquarters. Almost all the Directors and senior staff participated in the seminar, chaired by the Director General, Dr Fentahun Mengistu;"},{"index":3,"size":205,"text":"2. On Dec 18 th , 2015, a follow-up workshop was conducted based on the recommendation of the DG of EIAR and other senior directors a nation workshop entitled 'Decision support tools for appropriate fertilizer recommendation in Ethiopia'. It was organized by Africa RISING-ICRISAT, EIAR, CIAT and GIZ team by inviting all the major stakeholders in fertilizer and soil fertility research in the country, including representative of regional research institutes, ATA, GIZ, multiple Universities, MoANR and other stakeholders; 3. On December 1 st and 2 nd , 2016 ICRISAT and CIAT have organized the second national workshop in collaboration with EIAR and GIZ to evaluate progresses made in developing decision guides for fertilizer application and develop a database by bringing the available soil-related data together and analyze trends and benefits; 4. On December 5 th ICRISAT, EIAR and ATA have agreed to re-analyse the data generated by EIAR and ATAT in 65 districts of the country following Africa RISING methodologies and approaches. It is a work in progress. 5. On January 23 rd , 2017, our team held a meeting with the Minister of Agriculture and Rural Development, His Excellence Dr. Eyasu Abrha to discuss about institutionalizing best approaches and practice on soil fertility management."}]},{"head":"Beneficiaries","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Besides the extension system at regional, woreda and kebele levels, small scale farmers dependent on crop-livestock systems are the major beneficiaries of these interventions. Our objective is to directly reach about 14,000 farmers in the second year of scaling, which would be cascaded to more communities over time."},{"index":2,"size":117,"text":"Activities 1) Develop a revised farming system-based soil fertility management maps created for the target zones and widely shared 2) In the second year ensure that at least 14,000 farmers would be awarded Soil Health certificates, along with recommendations per farm units. 3) Validating the decision support tools with 3500 households with appropriate use of fertilizer inputs in targeted landscape positions 4) Quantify benefits in terms of increased yield of grain and crop residue and nutritional quality in targeted landscapes / woredas, in the target zones 5) Validate the recommendation domains and suggest policy measures for disseminating targeted use of inputs for intensification in the target zones 6) Disseminating technology and institutional recommendations through various communication channels"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Effect of supplementing tree lucerne leaf to crop residue diets on the performance of fattening Menz sheep "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Mean productivity of farmer selected crop varieties across the four Africa RISING sites "},{"text":" Photo 3: Short, green sprouts of potatoes stored in DLS (left) compared to long, etiolated sprouts potatoes stored under dark conditions. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Total time taken for land preparation and planting using 2 WT based planters and wheat yield from direct seeding compared with conventional practice in Ethiopia. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Matching options with context to implement site-and niche-specific measures across landscapes "},{"text":" Community mobilization and stakeholder engagement  Identify priority areas of intervention and develop land-use plan  Develop similarity maps and recommendation domains  Co-identify site-and context-specific interventions  Match options to locations considering option by context approach  Facilitate and co-implement options/technologies across landscapes  Developing scaling framework and scale options to other areas  Build capacity of stakeholders and partners (short-and long-term)  Build database and knowledge management  Communication and disseminations of results (frameworks, tools, models)  Generate evidences and conducting backstopping research "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" In Bale, the scaling process has already been started in partnership with Sinana Agricultural Bureau, Sinana research centre, Madawalabu University and Agricultural Growth program (AGP). The Ministry of Agriculture and Natural Resources (MoANR), Ministry of Environmental, Forest and Climate Change (MEFCC), Ethiopian Institute of Agricultural Research (EIAR), Ethiopian Environment and Forest Research Institute (EEFRI), partners at Woreda, Zonal and regional level in Tigray Region, Amhara Agricultural Research Institute (ARARI), Second Phase Sustainable Land Management Program (SLMP-II) are ready to scale up fruit trees and our intervention approach in all regions. We will partner with local and international NGOs (including World Vision Ethiopia, Ethiopian Orthodox Church's Development & Inter-Church Aid Committee, and Relief Society of Tigray) which ICRAF has been partnering with in the DryDEV project which targets 40,000 farmers in six districts in Oromia and Tigray regional states of Ethiopia. Development partners, such as SUNARMA which is a local NGO working in North Shewa Zone will be included in the second phase of the project to assist with the implementation and scaling-out of the evidence based technologies and approaches. The main contribution of the local NGOs will be in facilitating access to inputs including seeds, seedlings, implement the interventions.Photo 5. High value fruit trees farming in different Africa RISING sites of the Ethiopian highlandsLow agricultural productivity and poor water/land management coupled with rainfall variability are among the critical challenges to agricultural intensification in Africa. Comprehensive evaluations of over 25 years of SLM/SWC and water harvesting interventions in northern Ethiopia demonstrate that implementation of context specific linked technologies following the landscape continuum is the key for successful environmental management, increasing water availability (in-situ and ex-situ), enhancing productivity, and creating climate resilient communities/watersheds. We generally argue that watershed management requires integrated approaches whereby package of best-bets are implemented across the landscape continuum. We thus do not 'list' single items as Theme 4: Improved land and water management Theme 4: Improved land and water management Enhancing food security and environmental Enhancing food security and environmental stability through Integrated Watershed stability through Integrated Watershed Management Management Background and Description Background and Description  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Expected beneficiaries in the four regions Region Kebeles Directly engaged RegionKebelesDirectly engaged   households households  "},{"text":"Potential beneficiaries in Zone Solar based water lifting, delivering and application technologies  Amhara 1 30 150 Amhara130150 Oromia 1 60 300 Oromia160300 SNNPR 2* 6 42 SNNPR2*642 Tigray 1 30 150 Tigray130150  "}],"sieverID":"6790ea26-bea9-4577-baa3-0d20b9e5933f","abstract":"Enhancing food security and environmental stability through Integrated Watershed Management ."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"020e67398be0fa600f6e9414a0d5e90d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/2fb1400d-f6aa-4ba8-a5b5-e936b9cdd02b/retrieve"},"pageCount":41,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"The correctness of AST is the responsibility of the laboratory"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"• Some test systems have problems with aminoglycosides, others with trimethoprimsulfa"},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"• Some types of tests do not cope well with some agents/bacteria (vancomycin, colistin, fosfomycin)"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• Some agents are just difficult (piperacillintazobactam)!"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"• Some breakpoints are problematic (ciprofloxacin and Enterobacterales, colistin and Pseudomonas aeruginosa; MRSA and ceftaroline and ceftobiprole)"},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• Some devices are generally problematic (gradient tests for several species/agent combinations; truncated concentrations series in semi-automated devices; difficulties QCing semiautomatic devices)"},{"index":7,"size":2,"text":"• ……."},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"EUCAST helps to identify problematic areas, but depending on the device and/or material used, the laboratory also needs to identify problematic areas. EUCAST 2020       The MIC is the basis for determining clinical breakpoints."},{"index":9,"size":21,"text":"• Breakpoints are not scientifically calculated values • Breakpoints differ over time • Breakpoints differ depending on the availability of agents"},{"index":10,"size":19,"text":"• If chlorampphenicol was the only available agent, we could not afford to be very stringent in our criteria"},{"index":11,"size":17,"text":"• Breakpoints differ between agencies and committees EUCAST recent/current projects The basis for all phenotypic susceptibility testing:"},{"index":12,"size":3,"text":"EUCAST 2021 23"}]},{"head":"MIC","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The MIC is a relative measure influenced by variation in any parameter The use of ECOFFs "}]},{"head":"How clinical breakpoints are determined","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"General rationale behind EUCAST breakpoints"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"• Microbiology"},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"• Defining target organisms (few or many) for the agent • Characterizing the MIC wild typ of target organisms."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"• to avoid that breakpoints split wild type distributions."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"• Infectious diseases"},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"• Defining target infections • Identifying clinical evidence for and against specific infections and organisms • Clinical outcome by MIC and organisms"},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"• PK/PD • Dosing"},{"index":8,"size":10,"text":"• Standard and increased dosing (identify national and international differences)"},{"index":9,"size":8,"text":"• Modes of administration and influence on PK/PD"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"• Mechanistic AST -detection of a R-mechanism  Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Detection of a R-mechanism indicates resistance. • Detection of a R-mechanism indicates resistance. • Not quantitative • Not quantitative • No breakpoints • No breakpoints • Expert rules AST • Expert rules AST • Predicts resistance OR susceptibility • Predicts resistance OR susceptibility • Not quantitative • Not quantitative • May change over time • May change over time G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020  "},{"text":"Phenotypic AST -based on MIC and breakpoints  • Predicts resistance and susceptibility • Predicts resistance and susceptibility • Quantitative • Quantitative • Reference method: broth microdilution (CLSI, EUCAST, ISO); Surrogate tests: disk diffusion, gradient tests, semiautomated devices, computeraided microscopy, microcalorimetri, flowcytometri • Reference method: broth microdilution (CLSI, EUCAST, ISO); Surrogate tests: disk diffusion, gradient tests, semiautomated devices, computeraided microscopy, microcalorimetri, flowcytometri  "},{"text":"Genotypic AST -detection of the gene  • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Not quantitative • Not quantitative • Breakpoints not required, but validation does • Breakpoints not required, but validation does • No reference method • No reference method  "},{"text":"• Mechanistic AST -detection of a R-mechanism  Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) Antimicrobial susceptibility testing (AST) Phenotypic AST -based on MIC and breakpoints Phenotypic AST -based on MIC and breakpoints • Predicts resistance and susceptibility • Predicts resistance and susceptibility • Quantitative • Quantitative • Reference method: broth microdilution (CLSI, EUCAST, ISO); Surrogate tests: disk diffusion, gradient tests, semiautomated devices, computeraided microscopy, microcalorimetri, flowcytometri • Reference method: broth microdilution (CLSI, EUCAST, ISO); Surrogate tests: disk diffusion, gradient tests, semiautomated devices, computeraided microscopy, microcalorimetri, flowcytometri Genotypic AST -detection of the gene Genotypic AST -detection of the gene • Not quantitative • Not quantitative • No breakpoints • No breakpoints • Expert rules AST • Expert rules AST • Predicts resistance OR susceptibility • Predicts resistance OR susceptibility • Not quantitative • Not quantitative • May change over time • May change over time G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020  "},{"text":"AST -detection of a R-mechanism  Disk diffusion is often straight forward, Disk diffusion is often straight forward, dependable and unproblematic dependable and unproblematic Disk diffusion is • Cheap The MIC Disk diffusion is • Cheap The MIC • Flexible Onur and Erika in the next seminars • Flexible Onur and Erika in the next seminars • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Detection of a R-mechanism indicates resistance. • Not quantitative • Rapidly adaptable • Predicts resistance but cannot guarantee susceptibility • Detection of a R-mechanism indicates resistance. • Not quantitative • Rapidly adaptable • No breakpoints Expert rules AST • Continuous variable • No breakpoints Expert rules AST • Continuous variable • Intrinsic resistance and IF/THEN rules • Not quantitative • Untrustworthy -prone to change • Easy to QC • Intrinsic resistance and IF/THEN rules • Not quantitative • Untrustworthy -prone to change • Easy to QC G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020 G Kahlmeter 2020  "},{"text":"a tool in the determination of clinical breakpoints • To avoid dividing wild type MIC distributions of important target organisms • As a surrogate  "},{"text":"clinical breakpoint when Pk/Pd data is incomplete and clinical data pertain only to wild type organisms • For sensitive detection of (screening for) resistance   "},{"text":"surveillance of antimicrobial resistance when clinical breakpoints…  • are not sensitive enough • are not sensitive enough • have not been determined • have not been determined • change over time • change over time • differ between systems (CLSI, FDA, EUCAST etc) • differ between systems (CLSI, FDA, EUCAST etc)  "}],"sieverID":"449e19fb-8d6e-444f-b38c-2b8b1c843a7e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"023daebb0303e850baf441eacc29fb1b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d9337ed9-ec60-4fd3-8785-f8d501237e76/retrieve"},"pageCount":18,"title":"Genetic Diversity and Population Structure of Maize Inbred Lines with Varying Levels of Resistance to Striga hermonthica Using Agronomic Trait-Based and SNP Markers","keywords":["genetic diversity","genotyping-by-sequencing","maize","population structure","SNP markers","Striga hermonthica"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Maize (Zea mays L.) is an important cereal crop playing a crucial role in global food security and as a source of income for smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA). It is referred to as the queen of cereals because of its high yield potential, ease in processing, and low cost [1]. Maize is a major source of food and livelihood for over 900 million people in Africa [2]. Its production exceeds that of rice and wheat [3], and it holds a unique position in world agriculture. Maize has enormous genetic diversity due to its prolonged selection [4][5][6], and it has become a model crop for major cereals [7] because its genome harbors tremendous phenotypic and molecular diversity [8]. Its molecular diversity is about fivefold higher than other domesticated crops [8,9]."},{"index":2,"size":274,"text":"Maize has the potential to alleviate food insecurity in SSA, but several biotic and abiotic stresses hamper its production. These stresses account for over 50% reduction in grain yield estimated at over USD 7 billion resulting in hunger, malnutrition, and food scarcity [10]. Striga poses severe threat to cereal production in SSA. Among the more than 40 known Striga species worldwide, Striga hermonthica [Del.] Benth is the most destructive, harmful, and widespread in SSA, causing significant yield loss in cereals [11,12]. S. hermonthica is a root hemiparasite plant that parasitizes its host and extracts water and essential nutrients from it, resulting in stunting, wilting, chlorosis, reduction in yield, and death of the host. Grain yield losses due to S. hermonthica can reach up to 100% in susceptible maize cultivars under severe field infestation [13]. The use of resistant varieties, in combination with other control measures, including fertilizer and rotation, is considered a viable approach to combat the menace caused by this parasitic plant. For decades, maize breeders at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) have developed S. hermonthica tolerant and resistant lines. These lines have been developed from populations, composites, a backcross containing Z. diploperennis and synthetics that have been improved for field resistance to S. hermonthica using recurrent selection schemes [14,15]. These source populations were developed from mixtures of diverse maize germplasm without due regard to their heterotic patterns. Assessing the genetic diversity of these inbred lines using agronomic based-traits and molecular data will facilitate the selection of potential parental lines for use in developing desirable bi-parental source populations and also superior hybrids and synthetics with durable resistance to S. hermonthica [16,17]."},{"index":3,"size":330,"text":"Genetic diversity is the foundation for crop improvement, and it plays an important role in breeding programs [18]. Information on genetic diversity and relatedness among maize inbred lines have been useful in selecting parental combinations for developing superior hybrids and for assigning inbred lines into heterotic groups [19][20][21]. Population structure analysis also provides a valuable understanding of genetic diversity and serves as a guide for selection [22]. Many assessment methods, including morphological markers, heterosis, pedigree data, and molecular markers, have been used to estimate genetic diversity in plants [23,24]. Morphological markers have been widely used to assess genetic diversity because they are cheap, rapid, and easy to measure [25]. However, they are highly influenced by the environment and several other factors limit their ability to estimate genetic diversity [16]. Molecular markers are a useful tool for assessing genetic diversity because they are stable, polymorphic, readily available in the genome, and are not sensitive to environmental factors [26]. Several types of molecular markers have been used to assess genetic diversity and group maize inbred lines into heterotic groups [27][28][29]. Among the numerous types of molecular markers used are single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers. SNPs are mostly used because of their stability and abundance in the genome [30]. They have been widely used in plants to evaluate genetic diversity, construct linkage maps, and association analysis [31,32]. However, studies have shown that joint analysis of molecular and morphological data provides in-depth insight into population structure and genetic diversity, and this has been used in different crops [33][34][35][36][37]. Belalia et al. [38] demonstrated the usefulness of this method in maize by assessing the genetic diversity of 56 populations using 14 agro-morphological traits and 18 simple sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Both marker systems revealed significant genetic diversity in the maize populations. The objectives of this study were, therefore, to assess the genetic structure and genetic diversity in a panel of tropical maize inbred lines using agronomic traits recorded under Striga-infested conditions and molecular marker (SNPs)."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant Materials","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":176,"text":"A total of 150 inbred lines at S 7 to S 9 stages of inbreeding having diverse reactions to S. hermonthica were randomly selected from a large number of lines with different genetic backgrounds and used in the present study. The inbred lines were derived from diverse source populations (Table 1). Ten inbred lines with known resistance (9450), tolerance (5012, 1393, 1368, 4001, 9030, 9071, KU1414-SR, and MMB90) and susceptibility (5057) reactions to S. hermonthica were included as benchmarks to assess the performance of the lines. Phenotypic Evaluation: The inbred lines were evaluated under Striga-infested conditions at Abuja (9 • 15 N, 7 • 20 E; 490 m asl) and Mokwa (9 • 21 N, 5 • 10 E; 210 m asl) in Nigeria during the main rainy seasons of 2017 and 2018. The lines were arranged in a 15 × 10 alpha lattice design with two replications and planted in strips. Within each strip, an inbred line was planted in a 4 m long row, with 0.75 m inter-row spacing and 0.25 m intra-row spacing."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"The field was treated with ethylene gas two weeks before planting to remove S. hermonthica seeds from the soil through suicidal germination. S. hermonthica seeds used for artificial infestation of the infested blocks were collected from farmers' sorghum fields in the previous planting year. Two maize seeds were planted in a 6 cm deep hole injected with 8.5 g of sand mixed with Striga seeds. The mixture contains approximately 3000 germinable Striga seeds. Two weeks after planting, all maize plants were thinned to one plant per hill to attain a population density of 53,333 plant ha −1 . Fertilizer was applied at the rate of 30 kg/ha of Nitrogen, 60 kg/ha each of phosphorus and potassium at planting, and an additional 30 kg/ha nitrogen was applied four weeks later. Weeds other than Striga were removed from plots manually throughout the planting season."}]},{"head":"Trait Measurements","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"Data recorded under Striga-infested conditions include: plant stand, anthesis and silking days, plant height, ear aspect, and grain yield (Supplementary Table S1). The total number of plants was counted in each plot immediately after thinning. Days to anthesis and silking were recorded as the number of days from planting to when 50% of the plants in a plot had anthers shedding pollen and showing emerged silks, respectively. Anthesis-silking interval was calculated as the interval in days between dates of silking and anthesis. Plant height was measured in centimeters as the distance from the base of the plant to the height of the first tassel branch. Ear aspect was scored on a scale of 1 to 5, where 1 = clean, uniform, large and well-filled ears, and 5 = rotten, variable, poorly filled, and small ears. All ears harvested from each plot were shelled to determine per cent moisture, which was used to determine grain yield adjusted to 15% moisture under infested conditions. Striga damage rating was visually rated in each infested row at 8 and 10 weeks after planting using a scale of 1 to 9, where 1 = no visible host plant damage symptom, and 9 = all leaves completely scorched, resulting in premature death [39]. Additionally, the number of emerged S. hermonthica plants was counted in each infested row at 8 and 10 weeks after planting."}]},{"head":"Genotyping","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"DNA was extracted from young leaves of each inbred line using a modified cetyltrimethylammonium bromide (CTAB) protocol [40]. Purified DNA was sent to Elshire group facility in New Zealand for genotyping-by-sequencing [41]. Genomic DNA was digested with the restriction enzyme ApeK1, and genotyping-by-sequencing libraries were constructed in 96-plex and sequenced on Illumia HiSeq2500 [41]. Raw flow cell output was processed to genotype calls using the trait analysis by association, evolution and linkage (TASSEL)-GBS pipeline [42]. Reads and tags found in each sequencing result were aligned to the Zea mays L. genome reference, version AGPV4 (B73 RefGen v4 assembly)."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic Analysis","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Analyses of variance combined across the four year-location combinations were computed for all traits measured under Striga infested conditions based on mixed-model analysis with the restricted maximum likelihood procedure in SAS version 9.4 [43]. In this analysis, environments, replication (environment), and block (replication × environment) were considered as random effects. Heritability estimates and Least-squares means (Lsmeans) were generated from the combined analysis. The Lsmeans generated from the combined analysis was used for principal component analysis in FactorMiner and missMDA R packages [44]. The optimal number of factors to be retained was determined using the principle of Peres-Nero [45] while the dimdesc function implemented in missMDA was used to assess the contribution of each trait. Using the most discriminant variable, Gower's dissimilarity matrix was generated using cluster R package, and the count variables were scaled. The final Hierarchical cluster analysis was performed using ward.D2 method in cluster R package [46]. Correlation among the different phenotypic variables was performed using the R software, and results were displayed as a heatmap."}]},{"head":"Quality Control and Genotypic Analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":241,"text":"Over 560,000 SNPs were received from the Elshire group in New Zealand. To determine the quality of the data, quality control (Q.C.) was performed to retain only bi-allelic sites, SNPs with minor allele frequency (MAF) less than 5% and missing data more than 10% were removed from the data set. In addition, SNPs with high linkage disequilibrium (L.D) were pruned using the indep-pairwise function implemented in PLINK (SNP window size: 50, SNPs shifted per step: 5, r2 thresholds: 0.5) [47]. Based on the above parameter, 16,735 SNP markers were retained for further analysis. Summary statistics, including minor allele frequency (MAF), polymorphic information content (PIC), heterozygosity, and gene diversity, were estimated using\"-freq\" and \"-hardy\" functions implemented in plink [47]. Population structure analysis was performed through ADMIXTURE [46] using a cross-validation error (k) ranging from k = 2 to k = 10 [48,49]. The optimal number of clusters was inferred using k-means analysis after varying the possible number of clusters from 2 to 50 using the Bayesian information criterion (BIC). A discriminant analysis of principal components (DAPC) was carried out using the adegenet R package [50]. Membership probabilities of the individuals for the different groups were estimated using a cut-off value of 80% suggested through the DAPC. A pairwise genetic distance matrix was calculated using identity-by-state (IBS). A Ward's minimum variance hierarchical cluster dendrogram was then generated from the genetic distance matrix using the analyses of phylogenetics and evolution (ape) R package [51,52]."}]},{"head":"Joint Analysis of Agronomic-Based and Molecular Data","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"Genetic groups were defined using a combination of the agronomic trait-based and genotypic dissimilarity matrices. The joint matrix was generated by the summing the genotypic and agronomic trait-based dissimilarity matrices. Similarities between the hierarchical clusters generated from the agronomic trait-based and genotypic data were accessed using the tanglegram function implemented in the dendextend R package [53]. The relationship between the dissimilarity matrices of the agronomic trait-based matrix under Striga infestation, genotypic and joint distance matrices were assessed using a Mantel test based on the Monte-Carlo method with 9999 permutations."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Diversity Based on Agronomic Traits","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"In the combined analyses of variance, differences among environments and inbred lines were significant for all traits measured under Striga infestation except for ear aspect (Supplementary Table S2). Heritability estimates for agronomic traits varied from 0.78 to 0.90 (Supplementary Table S3). Grain yield ranged from 13 kg ha −1 to 3299 kg ha −1 with an average of 1580 kg ha −1 . The Jaccard's dissimilarity matrix based on the agronomic data revealed the presence of large genetic variability among the inbred lines, with the highest genetic distance (0.81) observed between an IWDS inbred line and a TZLC derived inbred line whereas the lowest genetic distance (0.03) was observed between an IWDS line and a line derived from a composite."},{"index":2,"size":199,"text":"Assessment of the phenotypic diversity using the agronomic traits grouped the inbred lines into five clusters based on their reaction pattern to S. hermonthica (Figure 1). Cluster I consists of a known Striga susceptible line (5057) and a line derived from IWDS that supports the largest number of emerged Striga plants. The two inbred lines in this cluster also had the highest Striga damage symptom rating at 8 and 10 weeks after planting. Cluster II consists of twenty-nine inbred lines that support few emerged Striga plants, with moderate Striga damage symptoms and they produced intermediate grain yield. Inbred lines in this cluster are characterized as tolerant to Striga infestation. Cluster III consists of one hundred and five inbred lines that support fewer emerged Striga plants with varying levels of Striga damage symptoms. These lines are characterized as moderately resistant to Striga infestation. Cluster IV consists of five maize inbred lines with high Striga emergence count and damage symptoms. These lines yielded more than the susceptible lines and they are characterized as moderately susceptible to Striga infestation. Cluster V had nine inbred lines with low Striga emergence and Striga damage symptoms. These lines are characterized as resistant to Striga infestation."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The results of principal component analysis (PCA) showed that the first three components together accounted for 81% of the total phenotypic variation (Table 2). The first principal component explained 49% of the total phenotypic variation with the main contribution from seven variables. Principal component two accounted for 18% of the total variation with traits including days to silking and anthesis-silking interval contributing the most to this component."},{"index":4,"size":67,"text":"Further correlation analysis found a significant and positive correlation between grain yield and ear per plant and also between ear aspect and Striga damage rating at 8 and 10 weeks after planting. In contrast, there was a negative correlation between grain yield and ear aspect, Striga damage rating at 8 and 10 weeks after planting, and Striga count at 8 and 10 weeks after planting (Figure 2).    "}]},{"head":"Genetic Diversity and Population Structure Based on SNP Markers","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The SNP markers used in this study were unequally distributed across the ten maize chromosomes. The highest number of SNPs was found on chromosome 1, with 2532 SNPs, while the lowest was on chromosome 10, with 1208 SNPs. The summary statistics of the 150 inbred lines using the 16,735 SNP markers shows that the minor allele frequency varied from 0.05 to 0.50, with an average of 0.24. The observed heterozygosity rate ranged from 0.00 to 0.98 with an average of 0.10, however, most of the inbred lines (96%) had 1% heterozygosity rate, which is the expected amount of residual heterozygosity in inbred "}]},{"head":"Genetic Diversity and Population Structure Based on SNP Markers","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":294,"text":"The SNP markers used in this study were unequally distributed across the ten maize chromosomes. The highest number of SNPs was found on chromosome 1, with 2532 SNPs, while the lowest was on chromosome 10, with 1208 SNPs. The summary statistics of the 150 inbred lines using the 16,735 SNP markers shows that the minor allele frequency varied from 0.05 to 0.50, with an average of 0.24. The observed heterozygosity rate ranged from 0.00 to 0.98 with an average of 0.10, however, most of the inbred lines (96%) had 1% heterozygosity rate, which is the expected amount of residual heterozygosity in inbred lines. The expected heterozygosity, also known as gene diversity, varied from 0.10 to 0.50, with an average of 0.32. Polymorphic information content values ranged from 0.10 to 0.47, with an average of 0.26 (Table 3). The population structure analysis performed through Admixture revealed a rapid elbow at k = 5, which grouped all the 150 inbred lines into five clusters (Supplementary Figure S1B). In addition, using the Bayesian information criterion (Supplementary Figure S1A), the optimal number of clusters was obtained at k = 5, which corresponds to the number of the cluster under the DAPC (Figure 3). Estimation of the cluster membership revealed that cluster IV had the highest number of inbred lines (54), and cluster III had the lowest number of inbred lines (8). The genetic distance between pairs of the 150 inbred lines ranged from 0.02 to 0.41, with an average of 0.33. The highest genetic distance (0.41) was observed between an early maturing inbred line (TZEC) and an intermediate maturing inbred line (IWDS) that combines resistance to S. hermonthica with tolerance to drought. The lowest genetic distance (0.02) was observed between two inbred lines showing low emerged Striga plants."},{"index":2,"size":220,"text":"Based on the dissimilarity matrix generated from the SNPs, at a cophenetic coefficient correlation of 0.70 for the ward.D2, the inbred lines were grouped into five clusters (Figure 4A) based on their parental genetic background. Cluster I consists of 22 inbred lines, with 19 of them originating from a backcross containing ZDIP and the remaining three originating from TZLC. All inbred lines in this group had white kernel color, they are also high yielding and support few emerged Striga plants. Cluster II consists of 27 inbred lines derived from an intermediate maturing synthetic (IWDS). Most of the lines in this cluster are high yielding and support fewer emerged Striga plants. Cluster III consists of eight inbred lines, with seven of them originating from an early maturing composite (TZEC) and the remaining from a late-maturing synthetic (TZLC). Inbred lines in cluster II and III all had a white kernel color (Supplementary Table S4). Cluster IV had 54 inbred lines, with varying levels of resistance to S. hermonthica as well as a well-known susceptible line. Most of the inbred lines in this cluster originated from the different source populations. Cluster V consists of 39 inbred lines derived from the late maturing synthetic TZLC. Most of the lines originating from TZLC, they are high yielding and supported few emerged Striga plants (Figure 4A).  "}]},{"head":"Combined Analysis of Phenotypic and Genotypic Data","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":239,"text":"The agronomic trait-based hierarchical cluster generated under Striga-infested condition was compared with the genotypic-based cluster analysis. It was observed that the clustering pattern of the inbred lines was different for both agronomic trait-based and the genotypic cluster. However, few inbred lines seven (5%) maintained the same group across both hierarchical clusters (Figure 5). These inbred lines are from diverse source populations with different reactions to Striga infestation. Six of the lines are from the ZDIP and the TZLC groups while the last line is a known susceptible inbred line. Membership and grouping patterns also changed between the agronomic-trait-based and molecular-based analyses. Genetic diversity assessment using the combined agronomic-trait-based and genotypic matrices (joint matrix) showed that the inbred lines clustered into three distinct groups (Figure 6). Cluster I consists of two susceptible and low-yielding inbred lines, whereas cluster II consists of three high yielding and resistant lines that support few emerged Striga plants. Cluster III consists of 145 inbred lines, with most of them having varying resistance reactions to S. hermonthica, but none of them was susceptible to Striga. Further analysis using the Mantel test found a very low correlation (r = 0.001) between the agronomic and the molecular dissimilarity matrices. However, a high correlation (r = 0.85) was observed between the joint matrix and the agronomic dissimilarity matrix, while a moderate correlation (r = 0.50) was observed between the joint matrix and the genotypic data-based matrix (Supplementary Figure S2).   "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"Analysis of variance under Striga infestation showed that there was significant variation among the inbred lines used in this study. The significant difference observed across environments and genotype X environment interaction for most of the traits measured could be due to seasonal factors [54,55]. The hierarchical cluster analysis based on agronomic characteristics under Striga infestation grouped the inbred lines according to their reaction pattern to S. hermonthica, with most of the inbred lines in each group emanating from different source populations. Cluster I comprises inbred lines that are susceptible to Striga infestation while cluster IV and II contains inbred lines that are tolerant to Striga infestation. Inbred lines in these two clusters yielded more than the susceptible lines but support the emergence of Striga plants and this can increase the Striga seed bank in the soil. Cluster III and V consist of inbred lines that are resistant to Striga infection; they support few emerged Striga plants, less Striga damage symptom rating, and were high yielding. Inbred lines in these two clusters can serve as parental lines in developing durable Striga-resistant maize hybrids and synthetics. Several studies have reported the importance of phenotypic traits in unraveling the diversity and differentiation in maize [25,56]."},{"index":2,"size":247,"text":"Phenotypic characterization is essential in describing breeding lines and also serves as meaningful criteria for selecting materials with desirable traits for breeding purposes. However, phenotypic traits are easily influenced by environmental factors. The advent of the molecular marker technique has made the evaluation of genetic diversity easier because environmental factors do not control them. Several types of these markers have been used to assess the level of genetic diversity in different crops ranging from dominant to codominant markers. For this study, 16,735 SNP markers from the genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS) platform were used to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of the inbred lines. The three complementary approaches used to define the optimal number of groups in this study (DAPC, hierarchical cluster analysis, and Admixture ancestry) all grouped the inbred lines into five distinct groups. The assigning of group membership in DAPC is in agreement with the hierarchical cluster analysis; this finding is consistent with reports from other studies [36,57,58]. The high cophenetic correlation coefficient (>0.70) observed for the hierarchical cluster analysis indicates the reliability of this approach to summarize the information of dissimilarity matrices [34]. Moderate levels of admixture were observed among the inbred lines used in this study, this indicate shared ancestry among the inbred lines. Most of the inbred lines used in this study emanated from the hybridization of various source populations that have been subjected to improvement under Striga infestation [15] and these source populations have different genetic backgrounds and exhibit broad genetic diversity."},{"index":3,"size":102,"text":"The combined dissimilarity matrix of the agronomic-trait-based and molecular marker data grouped the inbred lines into three distinct clusters based on their reaction pattern to S. hermonthica. Seven inbred lines maintained the same cluster positions across both hierarchical clusters when compared with each other. The six inbred lines from the ZDIP and the TZLC groups are high yielding and support low emergence of Striga plants; they also have low Striga damage rating. These lines can be used as desirable parents to broaden and diversify the genetic base in Striga resistance breeding programs. The last inbred line is a known susceptible inbred line."},{"index":4,"size":171,"text":"The low correlation observed between the genotypic and agronomic-trait-based distance matrices in this study should not be regarded as a limitation to access the genetic diversity but as an indicator of the complementarity of these methods [59]. The low correlation observed can also be attributed to the ability of the molecular marker to detect variations at the genetic level and they are not liable to natural or artificial selection unlike phenotypic markers [60]. In addition, molecular markers are selectively neutral, whereas the portion of the genome associated with the phenotypic trait is usually subjected to selection under the environmental influence [61,62]. Several authors have suggested that the best way to identify divergence among accessions is the combined use of molecular and phenotypic data, as these tools are complementary [33][34][35][36][37]60,61]. Andrade et al. [34] assessed the genetic diversity among sweet potato genotypes using morphological and molecular data. The study observed a low correlation between the distance matrix obtained with morphological and molecular data and this corroborates with the findings from our study."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"The high and moderate correlation observed between the combined dissimilarity matrix and the phenotypic and genotypic dissimilarity matrices, respectively, is an indication that genetic diversity analysis based on the joint matrix is an invaluable tool to cumulatively and reliably allocate genotypic and phenotypic information. This result is consistent with the findings of other studies [36,61,62]. The use of both agronomic trait and molecular data in assessing genetic diversity helps to maximize genetic diversity as well as productivity in crop plants [63]. Studies have also shown the efficiency of combined dissimilarity matrix of morphological and molecular data in deciphering the genetic variability in different crops [33,34,64]."},{"index":6,"size":112,"text":"In conclusion, assessment of the genetic diversity using both agronomic traits and molecular data revealed the existence of considerable genetic variability among the evaluated materials. It also provides invaluable information on the reaction patterns of the inbred lines to S. hermonthica. The molecular diversity analysis was able to group the inbred lines based on their genealogy and historical background than the phenotypic diversity analysis. However, the grouping patterns between both clusters were inconsistent due to non-overlapping information between the data types. The joint diversity analysis explores the synergy of the two approaches (molecular and agronomic) by capturing the information to provide a comprehensive understanding of the entire diversity among the inbred lines."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Hierarchical cluster analysis based on agronomic traits measured under Striga infestation condition using ward.D2 method showing the genetic relationships among the 150 inbred lines based on Gower's dissimilarity matrix. "},{"text":"HeightFigure 1 . Figure 1. Hierarchical cluster analysis based on agronomic traits measured under Striga infestation condition using ward.D2 method showing the genetic relationships among the 150 inbred lines based on Gower's dissimilarity matrix. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlation coefficient under Striga infested. Striga Damage Symptom Rating (STTRAT 1 and 2) = Striga damage rating at 8 and 10; Weeks After Planting (WAP), Striga Count or Emerged Striga plant (STRCO 1 and 2) = Striga count at 8 and 10 WAP, Plant Height Infested (PLHTIN), Ear Per Plant Infested (EPPIN), Ear Aspect Infested (EASPIN), Days to anthesis infested (POLSHEDIN), Grain Yield under Striga Infestation (YLDIN). *** p significant at 0.001, ** p significant at 0.01, * p significant at 0.05. "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Correlation coefficient under Striga infested. Striga Damage Symptom Rating (STTRAT 1 and 2) = Striga damage rating at 8 and 10; Weeks After Planting (WAP), Striga Count or Emerged Striga plant (STRCO 1 and 2) = Striga count at 8 and 10 WAP, Plant Height Infested (PLHTIN), Ear Per Plant Infested (EPPIN), Ear Aspect Infested (EASPIN), Days to anthesis infested (POLSHEDIN), Grain Yield under Striga Infestation (YLDIN). *** p significant at 0.001, ** p significant at 0.01. "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Discriminant analysis of principal component (DAPC) using 16,735 SNP markers. The axes represent the first two linear Discriminant. Each color represents a cluster, and each dot represents an inbred line. Each color represents the different subpopulations identified by DAPC analysis. Figure 3. Discriminant analysis of principal component (DAPC) using 16,735 SNP markers. The axes represent the first two linear Discriminant. Each color represents a cluster, and each dot represents an inbred line. Each color represents the different subpopulations identified by DAPC analysis. "},{"text":"Figure 4 .Figure 4 . Figure 4. (A) Hierarchical cluster analysis based the genotypic data using ward.D2 method showing the genetic relationship among 150 maize inbred lines based on IBS using 16,735 SNPs. (B) Admixture plot showing clustering of the inbred lines into five clusters based on the cross-validation error and Bayesian-based clustering analysis. A vertical bar represents each inbred line. The colored sections in a bar indicate membership coefficients of the inbred line in the different clusters. Identified subgroups are cluster 1. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Comparison of hierarchical cluster analysis from the phenotypic under Striga infestation (A) and the genotypic (B). The ash lines in between the two dendrograms represent mismatched inbred lines from the genotypic to the phenotypic while the colored lines are inbred in the same position from phenotypic to the genotypic cluster. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Comparison of hierarchical cluster analysis from the phenotypic under Striga infestation (A) and the genotypic (B). The ash lines in between the two dendrograms represent mismatched inbred lines from the genotypic to the phenotypic while the colored lines are inbred in the same position from phenotypic to the genotypic cluster. "},{"text":"Figure 6 .Figure 6 . Figure 6. Hierarchical cluster analysis based on combined agronomic and molecular data using ward.D2 method. "},{"text":"Table 1 . List of source populations for the 150 inbred lines used in this study. Source Population Genetic Background of Source Population Lines Evaluated Source PopulationGenetic Background of Source PopulationLines Evaluated  Lines derived from a backcross (BC4) containing a Z.  Lines derived from a backcross (BC4) containing a Z. ZDIP diploperennis accession as a donor parent plus lines derived from bi-parental crosses involving one parent 39 ZDIPdiploperennis accession as a donor parent plus lines derived from bi-parental crosses involving one parent39  derived from the same Z. diploperennis backcross  derived from the same Z. diploperennis backcross  A late-maturing composite formed by crossing  A late-maturing composite formed by crossing  TZB-SR with seven inbred lines developed for field  TZB-SR with seven inbred lines developed for field TZLC resistance to S. hermonthica plus lines derived from 44 TZLCresistance to S. hermonthica plus lines derived from44  bi-parental crosses involving one parent derived  bi-parental crosses involving one parent derived  from the same source populations  from the same source populations  An early maturing composite formed by crossing  An early maturing composite formed by crossing  TZESR-W C3 with eight inbred lines developed for  TZESR-W C3 with eight inbred lines developed for TZEC field resistance to S. hermonthica plus lines derived 13 TZECfield resistance to S. hermonthica plus lines derived13  from bi-parental crosses involving one parent  from bi-parental crosses involving one parent  derived from the same composite  derived from the same composite  A synthetic formed from medium maturing white  A synthetic formed from medium maturing white IWDS inbred lines and improved for resistance to Striga and drought plus lines derived from bi-parental crosses 30 IWDSinbred lines and improved for resistance to Striga and drought plus lines derived from bi-parental crosses30  involving one parent derived from these synthetic  involving one parent derived from these synthetic  Lines derived from diverse source populations plus  Lines derived from diverse source populations plus MIXED the tolerant lines expensively used as donors of field 24 MIXEDthe tolerant lines expensively used as donors of field24  resistance to form populations  resistance to form populations  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Principal component analysis and variables contributing the most under Striga infestation. Variables PC1 PC2 PC3 VariablesPC1PC2PC3 Days to silking −0.441 0.855 −0.068 Days to silking−0.4410.855−0.068 Ear aspect 0.884 0.070 −0.303 Ear aspect0.8840.070−0.303 Ear per plant −0.824 −0.064 0.324 Ear per plant−0.824−0.0640.324 Plant height −0.388 0.212 −0.221 Plant height−0.3880.212−0.221 Striga count at 8 WAP 0.651 0.148 0.712 Striga count at 8 WAP0.6510.1480.712 Striga count at 10 WAP 0.633 0.182 0.719 Striga count at 10 WAP0.6330.1820.719 Striga damage at 8 WAP 0.878 0.107 −0.092 Striga damage at 8 WAP0.8780.107−0.092 Striga damage at 10 WAP 0.881 0.201 −0.085 Striga damage at 10 WAP0.8810.201−0.085 Yield −0.786 −0.173 0.434 Yield−0.786−0.1730.434 Anthesis silking interval −0.302 0.908 0.014 Anthesis silking interval−0.3020.9080.014 Eigenvalue 4.886 1.745 1.478 Eigenvalue4.8861.7451.478 Variance (%) 48.863 17.459 14.784 Variance (%)48.86317.45914.784 Cumulative variance (%) 48.863 66.321 81.105 Cumulative variance (%)48.86366.32181.105  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Diversity indices of the 150 inbred lines based on 16,735 single-nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers.  MAF Ho He PIC MAFHoHePIC Minimum 0.05 0.00 0.10 0.1 Minimum0.050.000.100.1 Maximum 0.50 0.98 0.50 0.47 Maximum0.500.980.500.47 Mean 0.24 0.10 0.32 0.26 Mean0.240.100.320.26  "}],"sieverID":"57c8fe6d-ace9-41fa-8cb6-1d509da58a5d","abstract":"Striga hermonthica is a serious biotic stress limiting maize production in sub-Saharan Africa. The limited information on the patterns of genetic diversity among maize inbred lines derived from source germplasm with mixed genetic backgrounds limits the development of inbred lines, hybrids, and synthetics with durable resistance to S. hermonthica. This study was conducted to assess the level of genetic diversity in a panel of 150 diverse maize inbred lines using agronomic and molecular data and also to infer the population structure among the inbred lines. Ten Striga-resistance-related traits were used for the phenotypic characterization, and 16,735 high-quality single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs), identified by genotyping-by-sequencing (GBS), were used for molecular diversity. The phenotypic and molecular hierarchical cluster analyses grouped the inbred lines into five clusters, respectively. However, the grouping patterns between the phenotypic and molecular hierarchical cluster analyses were inconsistent due to non-overlapping information between the phenotypic and molecular data. The correlation between the phenotypic and molecular diversity matrices was very low (0.001), which is in agreement with the inconsistencies observed between the clusters formed by the phenotypic and molecular diversity analyses. The joint phenotypic and genotypic diversity matrices grouped the inbred lines into three groups based on their reaction patterns to S. hermonthica, and this was able to exploit a broad estimate of the actual diversity among the inbred lines. The joint analysis shows an invaluable insight for measuring genetic diversity in the evaluated materials. The result indicates that wide genetic variability exists among the inbred lines and that the joint diversity analysis can be utilized to reliably assign the inbred lines into heterotic groups and also to enhance the level of resistance to Striga in new maize varieties."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0292122fc2f7c7c928c9d0193e5c1be9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/171347d8-7c1c-4373-956f-5cf8b1b32581/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Suitability of testers to characterize provitamin a content and agronomic performance of tropical maize inbred lines","keywords":["testers","testcrosses","inbreds","provitamin A","carotenoids","tropical maize"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"Vitamin A deficiency (VAD) is one of the highest health risks, with the largest prevalence in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Southeast Asia (WHO, 2009). The prevalence of VAD in SSA has been estimated to be 48% in 2013 (Stevens et al., 2015). Vitamin A is an essential micronutrient needed by the human body to improve vision and immunity from infectious diseases such as malaria, diarrhea, and measles (Rice et al., 2004). As humans are not able to synthesize vitamin A in their bodies, they need to obtain it from plants and other sources in their diets."},{"index":2,"size":163,"text":"White maize (Zea mays L.) is consumed as a staple food in many countries in SSA such as South Africa, Nigeria, Ethiopia, Tanzania, Kenya, Malawi, Mali, and Zambia, where VAD is most prevalent. Although over 90% of the maize produced in Africa is white (Khumalo et al., 2011), the production of orange maize is increasing due to rising promotion for its intake due to higher carotenoid content (Ekpa et al., 2019). In addition, an acceptability study conducted by Muzhingi et al. (2008) revealed that consumers like the flavor of provitamin A (PVA) maize, and they do not object to its orange color. The development of maize varieties with enhanced levels of provitamin A carotenoids (PVA) has, thus, been considered an important and affordable approach to mitigate the negative impact of VAD in SSA. Biofortification of maize with provitamin A has been achieved because of the presence of considerable genetic variation in PVA concentrations (Ortiz-Monasterio et al., 2007;Menkir et al., 2008;Pixley et al., 2013)."},{"index":3,"size":324,"text":"In many African countries, hybrid maize varieties have been grown for decades because of their high yield potential and other desirable agronomic features such as uniformity of hybrid plants, large and uniform cobs, and resistance to pests and diseases. In SSA, 17% improvement in maize yield due to the adoption of hybrid varieties was reported by Suri (2011). Advances in understanding the breeding value of suitable testers are, therefore, important for accurate assessment of the combining ability of new provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines to select promising parents for developing productive hybrids and source populations for more robust inbred lines (Hallauer and Lopez-Perez, 1979). Commonly used testers can be classified into two groups: broad genetic base testers and narrow genetic base testers. Broad genetic base testers such as open-pollinated cultivars and synthetic cultivars can be used to assess general combining ability (GCA) effects of lines under evaluation, whereas narrow genetic base testers can be used to assess both GCA and specific combining ability (SCA) effects (Acquaah, 2012). Testers can also be classified based on their frequency of favorable alleles of a trait of interest. Several studies have been conducted and provided different recommendations about selecting desirable testers for maize breeding programs. Some recommend selecting testers with a low frequency of favorable alleles to identify lines with a high frequency of favorable alleles for developing productive hybrids (Hallauer and Miranda Filho, 1995;Hallauer et al., 2010) whereas others propose the use of inbred testers with high frequencies of favorable alleles to select parents of hybrids with superior agronomic performance for direct commercialization (Abel and Pollak, 1991;Hallauer and Carena, 2009). To the best of our knowledge, however, suitable testers that can be used for assessing the combining ability of provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines to develop superior hybrids have not been reported. Such information can help in identifying new parental lines in a breeding program to generate hybrids combining high yield potential with elevated provitamin A content."},{"index":4,"size":125,"text":"Lines by tester crosses have been extensively used not only to identify suitable testers but also to determine the mode of inheritance of traits, including carotenoids. Some studies found additive gene action is more important in regulating the PVA carotenoid content in maize (Menkir et al., 2014;Owens et al., 2014;Suwarno et al., 2014), while another study reported the preponderance of non-additive gene action in controlling PVA concentrations (Halilu et al., 2016). These inconsistent findings highlight the need to further assess the type of gene action controlling PVA concentration in maize. In addition, identifying parents with desirable combining ability effects for both provitamin A content and agronomic traits may facilitate simultaneous increases in grain yield and provitamin A levels in new parental lines and their hybrids."},{"index":5,"size":133,"text":"The maize breeding program at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (IITA) developed many provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines by introgressing favorable alleles of high β-carotene content from 12 exotic lines into elite tropical inbred lines (Menkir et al., 2015). The provitamin A-enriched maize lines have been further crossed to tropical introduced maize inbred lines of diverse origin to broaden the genetic base of the existing germplasm and develop new parents with greater concentrations of provitamin A and other carotenoids. When such new inbred lines are developed from crosses between elite lines and introduced lines with unknown heterotic affinities, crossing the new lines with known testers and evaluating the resulting hybrids in multiple locations can determine their usefulness as parents to develop source populations and high-yielding hybrids with greater levels of provitamin A."},{"index":6,"size":76,"text":"The present study was, therefore, conducted to 1) assess the suitability of maize inbred lines with contrasting levels of provitamin A for assessing the combining ability of maize inbred lines in accumulating provitamin A and other carotenoids, and grain yield, 2) confirm the mode of inheritance of provitamin A and grain yield, and 3) identify promising inbred lines with desirable combining ability effects for use to develop high-yielding hybrids with much higher levels of provitamin A."}]},{"head":"Materials and methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Plant material and experimental design","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":322,"text":"A total of 60 PVA maize inbred lines developed at the Maize Improvement Program of IITA and two inbred testers with different levels of PVA concentration were used in this study (Supplementary Table S1). The PVA lines were selected based on variation in provitamin A content (5.4-51.7 μg/g) and the presence of different temperate donor parents of high β-carotene as well as tropical recipients (Maazou et al., 2021). The two testers represent two complementary heterotic groups of the IITA maize breeding program. Tester 1 represents heterotic group A while tester 2 represents heterotic group B (Menkir et al., 2004;Zebire et al., 2021;Maazou et al., 2022). The 60 lines were crossed to the two testers using a line × tester mating design to produce 120 testcrosses during two dry seasons (December 2019 to April 2020 and December 2020 to April 2021) at IITA's research field in Ibadan (7 °29′11.99″N, 3 °54′2.88″E, altitude 190 masl), Nigeria. The hybrid seeds from reciprocal crosses were bulked to obtain a sufficient quantity of seeds for multi-environment evaluations, and reduce the cost of carotenoid analysis. The decision to bulk reciprocal crosses was made considering the fact that reciprocal effects are not important for provitamin A content in maize grain (Ortiz-Covarrubias et al., 2019). The 120 testcrosses and a hybrid from a cross between the two testers as well as three commercial hybrids, namely, Ife Hybrid-3, Ife Hybrid-4, and Oba Super 2 included as checks were evaluated at four locations in Nigeria, Ikenne (3 °42′ E, 6 °54′ N, 30 masl), Saminaka (8 °39′ E, 10 °34′ N, 760 masl), Zaria (7 °45′ E, 11 °8′ N, 622 masl), and Mokwa (5 °4′ E, 9 °18′ N, 457 masl) in 2020 and 2021 during the main cropping seasons (June to November), making a total of eight environments. Agronomic data were collected from the eight environments, while carotenoids were evaluated in four environments (Ikenne and Saminaka in 2020 and 2021)."},{"index":2,"size":100,"text":"The trial was arranged in a 31 × 4 alpha-lattice design with two replications. Experimental plots were single 5 m long rows spaced 0.75 m apart with a plant-to-plant spacing of 0.25 m within a row, giving a population density of 53,000 plants ha-1. The fertilizer NPK 15:15:15 was applied at the rate of 60 kg N ha-1, 60 kg P ha-1, and 60 kg K ha-1 during planting; urea (46-0-0) was used to apply 60 kg N ha-1 4 weeks after planting. Herbicides (Primextra and Gramazone) were also applied 2 days after planting as recommended for optimum maize production."}]},{"head":"Agronomic data collection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":214,"text":"Plant height (PHT), ear height (EHT), days to anthesis (DYANTH), days to silking (DYSK), ear aspect (EASP), plant aspect (PASP), grain weight, and grain moisture were recorded from each plot. The data collection was carried out following the method described by Menkir et al. (2014). Briefly, PHT and EHT were measured in cm as the distance from the base of the plant to the first tassel branch and the node bearing the upper ear, respectively. DYANTH and DYSK were recorded as number of days from planting to the date when 50% of the plants in a plot had tassels shedding pollen and emerged silks, respectively. Anthesis-silking interval (ASI) was calculated as the difference between DYSK and DYANTH. Ear aspects were scored on a 1 to 5 scale, where 1 represented clean, well-filled, uniform and larger ears, while 5 represented diseased, poorly filled, variable, and smaller ears. Plant aspect was also scored on a 1 to 5 scale, where 1 represented uniform, clean, vigorous, and good overall phenotypic appeal, while 5 represented weak, diseased, and poor overall phenotypic appeal. Harvested ears were shelled, and the grain moisture content of shelled grains was measured using a portable DICKEY-john moisture tester. The grain weight and moisture content were used to compute grain yield adjusted to 15% moisture."}]},{"head":"Carotenoid analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":357,"text":"In each year of field evaluation, composite grain samples for carotenoid analysis were taken from harvested self-pollinated ears of five representative plants in each plot at two locations (Ikenne and Saminaka). Carotenoids were extracted from the maize kernels and quantified by high-performance liquid chromatography (HPLC, Water Corporation, Milford, MA, United States) at the Food and Nutrition Laboratory at IITA. The extraction protocol and carotenoid analysis used were based on the method described by Howe and Tanumihardjo (2006). Briefly, 0.6 g finely ground sample of each entry in two replicates was transferred into a 50 ml glass centrifuge tube to which 6 ml of ethanol and 0.1% butylated hydroxyl toluene were added, vortexed for 15 s, and incubated at 85 °C in a water bath for 5 min. After that, 500 μl of 80% potassium hydroxide (w/v) was added to each sample, vortexed for 15 s, and incubated at 85 °C in a water bath for 10 min with vortexing at about 5 min intervals. The samples were then immediately placed on ice and 3 ml icecold deionized water was added to each of them, vortexed for 15 s, and 200 μl internal standard β-Apo-8′-carotenal and 4 ml hexane were added. After vortexing and centrifugation, the top hexane layer formed was transferred into a new test tube. The hexane extraction was repeated thrice, adding 3 ml hexane each time. The samples were allowed to dry down completely under nitrogen gas using a concentrator (Organomation Associates, Inc., Berlin, MA, United States) and reconstituted in 1 mL of 50: 50 methanol:dichloroethane and vortexed for 10 s. For each sample, 50 μl aliquots of each extract were injected into the HPLC system and run for major carotenoids based on the calibration of the standard of each carotenoid. Carotenoids were separated by a C30 column (4.6 × 250 mm; 3 μm) eluted by a mobile phase using methanol/water (92: 8 v/v) as solvent A and 100% methyl tertiary-butyl ether (MTBE) as solvent B. The flow rate of solvent was 1 mL/min, and absorbance was measured at 450 nm for carotenoid detection. Chromatograms were extracted after the runs and major carotenoids were identified."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Total carotenoid was calculated as the sum of concentrations of α-carotene, lutein, β-carotene, β-cryptoxanthin, and zeaxanthin. PVA was calculated as the sum of β-carotene and half of each of β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene content (US Institute of Medecine, 2001). All concentrations were described in μg g-1 dry weight (DW)."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"The combined analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed following the line × tester procedure of Singh and Chaudhary (1977) using the Proc mixed procedure in SAS version 9.4 (SAS Institute Inc, 2012). In the combined analysis, each location-year combination was considered an environment. Hybrids were considered as fixed effects, while environment, replication (environment), block (replication × environment), and environment × hybrid were considered as random effects in the linear model. The hybrid mean square was further partitioned into lines, testers, line × tester, environment × line, environment × tester, and environment × line × tester effects using a line × tester analysis. The genetic variance estimates resulting from combined analysis of variance of testcross means of each tester obtained from the eight environments were used to assess the usefulness of the testers (Afolabi et al., 2021). Phenotypic and genotypic correlation coefficients between agronomic traits and carotenoids were estimated using META-R v6.03 (Alvarado et al., 2020), developed at CIMMYT, Mexico."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Standard heterosis (H) was also calculated for each testcross using the formula of Fan et al. (2016):"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"where F1 is the grain yield of a testcross and CK is the grain yield of the hybrid between the two testers (T1 × T2)."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"After exclusion of the checks, the general combining ability (GCA) and specific combining ability (SCA) effects of the parental inbred lines and the variance components for each trait were calculated with analysis of genetic design (AGD-R, V.5.0) (Rodríguez et al., 2018). The restricted maximum likelihood method (REML) was used to estimate the variance components (Rodríguez et al., 2018). The relative importance of GCA and SCA effects was estimated using the formula of Baker (1978) as follows:"},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"where MSGCA and MSSCA are the mean squares for GCA and SCA, respectively. The closer the ratio to unity, the greater the predictability of hybrid performance based on GCA effects alone (Baker, 1978)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Variations in carotenoid content and agronomic traits among testcrosses"},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"In the combined analysis of variance, environment and hybrid had significant effects on all carotenoids (Table 1). There were significant line ×environment, tester ×environment, and line ×tester ×environment interaction mean squares for most of the carotenoids in our study. The GCA effects among inbred lines and between testers as well as the SCA effects were significant for all carotenoids (Table 1). The proportional contribution of line, tester, and line ×tester to the total genotypic variance for all carotenoids varied from 2 to 16%, 80-98%, and 0.4-40%, respectively. The repeatability values varied from 0.65 to 0.95 for all carotenoids (Table 1). Baker's ratios for carotenoids varied from 0.98 to 0.99 (Table 1). As shown in Figure 1A, the contributions of the additive gene effects were greater than 80% for most of the carotenoids."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"The combined analysis of variance also revealed significant environmental effects on grain yield and other agronomic traits (Table 2). The differences among hybrids and hybrid ×environment interactions were significant for grain yield and other agronomic traits (Table 2). Significant GCA effects were found among the PVA inbred lines and between the two testers for grain yield and other desirable agronomic traits (Table 2). The variations in SCA effects were also significant for grain yield and other agronomic traits. The line × environment interaction mean squares were not significant for grain yield and most measured agronomic traits, whereas the tester ×environment interaction mean squares were significant for grain yield and most of the major agronomic traits. The line ×tester ×environment interactions were not significant for all measured agronomic traits (Table 2). The proportional contribution of line, tester, and line ×tester to the total genotypic variance for grain yield and other agronomic traits varied from 5 to 35%, 44-93%, and 2-23%, respectively. Repeatability estimates for grain yield and other agronomic traits varied from 0.72 to 0.92 (Table 2). The relative importance of the GCA mean squares over the SCA mean squares varied from 0.87 to 0.99 for grain yield and other agronomic traits (Table 2). Also, the contribution of the additive gene effects was greater than that of the non-additive gene effects for grain yield and all measured agronomic traits (Figure 1B)."},{"index":4,"size":86,"text":"The tester with low provitamin A content (T2) displayed slightly higher genetic variance estimates for β-carotene and provitamin A content (Table 3). On the other hand, the two testers (T1 and T2) showed similar genetic variances for lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, and α-carotene. The genetic variances for the tester with high provitamin A content (T1) were the highest for grain yield, days to anthesis, days to silking, and ear aspect, whereas those for T2 were highest for plant height, ear height, and plant aspect scores (Table 3)."}]},{"head":"Carotenoid content and agronomic performance of testers and their testcrosses","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"Provitamin A and other carotenoid content as well as agronomic performance of the 120 testcrosses are presented in Supplementary Table S2. The testcrosses accumulated between 6.2 and 18.4 μg/g of provitamin A in their grains. Amongst these, 58 testcrosses of T1 and 45 testcrosses of T2 accumulated as much PVA as or significantly higher PVA than the best commercial provitamin A-biofortified hybrid, that is, Ife Hybrid-4. Moreover, 44 testcrosses of T1 and 10 testcrosses of T2 had 24-95% higher PVA concentrations than the cross between the two testers (T1 × T2). None of the 60 testcrosses of T1 and 59 testcrosses of T2 accumulated significantly less PVA than T1 × T2 (Supplementary Table S2). Over 90% of the testcrosses involving the two testers had mean lutein, zeaxanthin, β-cryptoxanthin, α-carotene, and β-carotene content that did not differ significantly from or significantly higher than that of T1 × T2."},{"index":2,"size":233,"text":"Testcrosses of T1 had mean grain yields varying from 3,994 to 7,906 kg/ha, whereas those of T2 had grain yields ranging from 4,206 to 7,618 kg/ha (Table 4, Supplementary Table S2). A total of 32 testcrosses of T1 and 38 testcrosses of T2 did not differ significantly from the best hybrid check, Ife Hybrid-4, in their mean grain yields. A total of 50 testcrosses of T1 and 57 testcrosses of T2 produced as high as or 16-30% higher grain yields than the cross between the two testers (T1 × T2). Amongst the testcrosses showing competitive or better grain yields than Ife Hybrid-4, 10 testcrosses involving T1 and one testcross involving T2 accumulated 13.0-15.1 μg/g of provitamin A. The observed increases in the provitamin A content in these hybrids over Ife Hybrid-4 varied from 14 to 33%. The tester T1 had higher minimum, maximum, and mean lutein, βcarotene, and PVA concentrations compared to T2 (Table 4). In addition, the high PVA tester had a broader range for grain yield (Table 4). Almost all the testcrosses had anthesis and silking dates that were similar to or 4 days later than that of T1 × T2 (Supplementary Table S2). More than 75% of the testcrosses had the same as or significantly higher plant height and ear placement than T1 × T2. Also, more than 95% of the testcrosses had desirable plant and ear aspect scores (≤3.0)."},{"index":3,"size":189,"text":"As shown in Supplementary Table S3, 33 testcrosses of T1 and 38 testcrosses of T2 displayed positive standard heterosis of 1-30% for grain yield (Supplementary Table S3). Amongst these, 15 testcrosses of T1 and 24 testcrosses of T2 had standard grain yield heterosis of 10-30%. For provitamin A Frontiers in Genetics frontiersin.org content, 58 testcrosses involving T1 showed standard heterosis varying from 9 to 96%, while 42 testcrosses involving T2 displayed standard heterosis varying from 1 to 60%. It is noteworthy to highlight that amongst the testcrosses showing at least 10% standard heterosis for grain yield, all 15 testcrosses of T1 displayed standard heterosis of 22-60% for provitamin A content while only 11 testcrosses of T2 showed standard heterosis of 10-60%. The two provitamin A-enriched commercial hybrids (Ife Hybrid-3 and Ife Hybrid-4) had standard heterosis of 6-16% for grain yield and 20-21% for provitamin A content. The number of testcrosses involving T1 showing positive standard heterosis was 43 for lutein, 43 for zeaxanthin, and 58 for βcarotene, whereas those involving T2 with positive standard heterosis were 29 for lutein, 60 for zeaxanthin, and 31 for βcarotene (Supplementary Table S3)."},{"index":4,"size":60,"text":"Correlation analysis showed significant but small negative genotypic and phenotypic correlations between grain yield and lutein, β-carotene, and provitamin A content (Supplementary Table S4). In contrast, the genotypic and phenotypic correlations between grain yield and zeaxanthin were significant and positive. Zeaxanthin was positively correlated with β-cryptoxanthin and α-carotene but negatively correlated with provitamin A and βcarotene content (Supplementary Table S4)."}]},{"head":"Combining ability estimates for provitamin A-enriched inbred lines and testers","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"The high provitamin A tester (T1) had significant and positive GCA effects for lutein, β-carotene, and provitamin A but had significant and negative GCA effects for zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin (Table 5). In contrast, the low provitamin A tester (T2) had significant and positive GCA effects for zeaxanthin and β-cryptoxanthin but had significant and negative GCA effects for lutein, β-carotene, and provitamin A content. T1 had negative but not significant GCA effects for grain yield but had significant and positive GCA effects for days to anthesis, days to silking, and plant and ear height. T2 had positive but not significant GCA effects for grain yield but had significant negative GCA effects for days to anthesis, days to silking, and ear height (Table 5)."},{"index":2,"size":237,"text":"Estimates of GCA effects of the provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines for grain yield, other agronomic traits, and carotenoids are presented in Supplementary Table S5. A total of 26 inbred lines had positive GCA effects for grain yield, whereas 27 lines had positive GCA effects for provitamin A content (Supplementary Table S5). Amongst these, 10 lines (TZI2012, TZI2142, ATZI2130, TZI2065-2, TZI2161, TZI2025, TZI1278, TZI1314, TZI1304, and TZI2032) showed a positive GCA effect for both grain yield, and provitamin A content. It is worth mentioning that most of the lines with significant positive GCA effects for provitamin A content had negative GCA effects for grain yield (Supplementary Table S5). Amongst all testcrosses, 27 inbred lines crossed to T1 and 23 inbred lines crossed to T2 had positive SCA effects varying from 0.10 to 1.67 μg/g of provitamin A (Supplementary Table S6). In addition, 24 inbred lines each crossed to T1 and T2 exhibited moderate (SCA effects ≥ 100 kg/ha) to significant positive SCA effects for grain yield (Supplementary Table S6). Out of the inbred lines with positive SCA effects for grain yield, eight inbred lines crossed to T1 and seven inbred lines crossed to T2 also had positive SCA effects for the PVA content. Only three inbred lines, namely, TZI2025, TZI2024, and TZI2156 in crosses with T1 combined significant and positive SCA effects for grain yield with positive SCA effects for the provitamin A content (Supplementary Table S6)."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":174,"text":"Progress in the development and deployment of new maize hybrids combining high yields with enhanced concentrations of  provitamin A hinges on the identification and use of desirable testers. A good tester in maize breeding should be simple to use, provide information that correctly classifies the performance of lines under evaluation, and maximizes genetic gain (Hallauer et al., 1988). The current study was thus conducted to assess the usefulness of inbred two testers with contrasting provitamin A content in revealing genetic differences among provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines. A total of 60 maize inbred lines with varying concentrations of provitamin A were evaluated in crosses with the two testers in four test environments for carotenoid content and eight test environments for agronomic performance in Nigeria. The results showed that both carotenoid content and agronomic performance of the testcrosses were significantly affected by the differences in environmental factors arising from prevalent differences in the amount and distribution of rainfall, temperature, and nutrient content of the soil as well as moisture-holding capacity of soil during testcross evaluation."},{"index":2,"size":422,"text":"Although the line ×tester ×environment interactions were significant for two of the five carotenoids and provitamin A, their interaction mean squares were 3-18 times smaller than the corresponding mean squares for testcrosses. Also, none of the agronomic traits displayed significant line ×tester × environment interactions. These results demonstrate the dominant role of the genetic backgrounds of the testcrosses in defining their agronomic performance and carotenoid content across test environments, which is reflected in the observed high repeatability values for all carotenoids and agronomic traits. The significant GCA and SCA effects and high baker's ratio values for carotenoid concentrations, grain yield, and other agronomic traits suggest that the expressions of these traits are controlled by both additive and non-additive gene effects. The contribution of the additive gene effects was, however, greater than the contribution of the non-additive gene effects to the observed total genetic variance for both carotenoid content and agronomic traits. The preponderance of additive gene effects highlights the feasibility of early generation evaluation and selection of high-yielding inbreds with high provitamin A content that can subsequently be used as parents of superior hybrids. The prominence of additive gene effects in the inheritance of carotenoid concentrations and agronomic traits also indicates that populations formed from the most promising provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines identified in the present study could be invaluable sources of new inbred lines The choice of a suitable tester in hybrid breeding programs is determined by the capacity of the tester to discriminate among new maize inbred lines under evaluation. The observed significant line × tester interaction for carotenoids and agronomic traits in the present study indicates that the two testers were effective discriminating the provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines across environments. These results are consistent with the findings of other studies assessing the combining ability, carotenoid content, and agronomic performance of maize inbreds in hybrid combinations (Menkir et al., 2014;Owens et al., 2014;Suwarno et al., 2014;Annor and Badu-Apraku, 2016;Owusu et al., 2017). Additional critical factors for identifying suitable testers include GCA effects, magnitude of genetic variance, frequency of favorable alleles for the target traits, and average testcross performance (Sprague and Tatum, 1942;Guimarães et al., 2012). In the current study, T1 had significant and positive GCA effects for β-carotene and PVA content and thus has favorable alleles for these traits with additive effects. Moreover, the testcrosses involving T1 had more PVA content compared with the testcrosses involving T2, suggesting that the choice of a tester with high provitamin A content can impact higher provitamin A content in its hybrids."},{"index":3,"size":216,"text":"The low provitamin A tester (T2) had slightly higher genetic variance for β-carotene and provitamin A content, suggesting that its unfavorable alleles allowed better expressions of favorable alleles controlling provitamin A levels in the 60 maize inbred lines evaluated. Other studies have also reported that testers with a low frequency of favorable alleles would be effective in eliciting genetic differences among inbred lines (Rawlings and Thompson, 1962;Hallauer and Lopez-Perez, 1979). Nonetheless, significant and large genetic variances were also found among testcrosses involving the high provitamin A tester (T1) for β-carotene and provitamin A content, indicating its effectiveness in discriminating the provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines evaluated in our study. The two testers also showed comparable genetic variances for other carotenoids, indicating that T1 and T2 were effective in characterizing the other carotenoid content in testcrosses. The results of analyses of genetic variances and GCA effects suggest that T1 can be considered a suitable tester for identifying promising provitamin A-enriched parental lines to develop superior provitamin A-biofortified hybrids for deployment. The low PVA tester that displayed positive GCA effects for grain yield, zeaxanthin, and β-cryptoxanthin and negative GCA effects for plant height and ear heights can also be used as a second potential tester to evaluate maize inbred lines for agronomic performance and non-provitamin A carotenoid content."},{"index":4,"size":187,"text":"Estimating the GCA effects of inbred lines is also important for selecting potential parents to develop high-yielding hybrids and synthetic varieties with high provitamin A content. Eight inbreds with significant positive GCA effects for provitamin A content displayed negative GCA effects for grain yield possibly due to the negative correlation (r = −0.25, p < 0.01) between these traits arising from the dilution effects of different yield potentials of the testcrosses. Nevertheless, 10 inbred lines had positive GCA effects for both provitamin A content and grain yield in the present study, suggesting that these inbreds possess favorable alleles for use to improve agronomic performance and provitamin A content in new inbred lines derived from source populations. Furthermore, the 16 inbred lines with positive GCA effects (four inbreds with significant positive GCA effects and 14 inbreds with non-significant positive GCA effects) for grain yield but negative GCA effects (five inbreds with significant negative GCA effects and 13 inbreds with non-significant positive GCA effects) for provitamin A content can be exploited as parental lines to increase the frequency of favorable alleles for grain yield in tropical maize breeding programs."},{"index":5,"size":175,"text":"The significant SCA effects for provitamin A content recorded for two of each of T1 and T2 testcrosses implies that crossing specific pairs of parental lines can optimize provitamin A concentrations in their hybrids. The two testcrosses involving T2 also had moderate (159 and 173 kg/ha) and positive SCA effects for grain yield and can thus be used as potential female parents for developing three-way cross hybrids with high yield potential and a higher levels of PVA. Many testcrosses included in the present study combined grain yields and provitamin A content comparable to or surpassing the best commercial hybrid marketed in Nigeria (Ife Hybrid-4). All of the top 10 highest yielding testcrosses out-yielded Ife Hybrid-4. Four of the top 10 highest yielding testcrosses had PVA concentration surpassing the PVA level of Ife Hybrid-4. Two testcrosses (TZI 2025 × T1 and TZI1715 × T2) with grain yields of 7,256 and 7,257 kg/ha, respectively, had 15.0 μg/g provitamin A content that met the target set by the Harvestplus Challenge Program (https://www. harvestplus.org/crop-development/, accessed on 29 June 2022)."},{"index":6,"size":166,"text":"The observed high level of standard heterosis for grain yield and provitamin A content in 25 testcrosses of the provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines and the two testers indicated that the inbred parents carry favorable complementary alleles to the two testers. Also, many testcrosses exhibited high positive heterosis for lutein, zeaxanthin, and β-carotene content. These results further demonstrate the possibility of simultaneously improving grain yield and provitamin A content in maize hybrids. The weak (the coefficients of determination (R 2 ) = 0.06) but significant negative correlation (r = −0.25, p < 0.01) between grain yield and provitamin A content confirms the feasibility of developing high-yielding hybrids with considerably high levels of provitamin A content. These findings were different from those of Menkir et al. (2014) and Halilu et al. (2016), who reported a positive but non-significant correlation between grain yield and PVA content. Further studies involving inbred lines with diverse genetic backgrounds may be necessary to elucidate the type of relationship between the two traits."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Our study found the two inbred testers were successful in discriminating the provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines. There was a significant genetic variation among the hybrids for all carotenoids, grain yield, and other agronomic traits. The high provitamin A tester that exhibited positive GCA effects for βcarotene and PVA concentrations, broader testcross performance in grain yield and other agronomic traits, and higher levels of provitamin A in testcrosses can be considered as an appropriate tester for breeding programs targeting the development of superior provitamin A-biofortified hybrids. The tester can also be used in separating provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines into heterotic groups to maximize the expression of heterosis in hybrids. The 10 best inbred lines (TZI2012, TZI2142, ATZI2130, TZI2065-2, TZI2161, TZI2025, TZI1278, TZI1314, TZI1304, and TZI2032) with positive GCA effects for grain yield and provitamin A content identified in the present study could be used as parental lines to form highyielding single cross hybrids and synthetic varieties with high concentrations of provitamin A. Also, the best testcrosses with good SCA effects for provitamin A content and grain yield could be used as parents to develop three-way-cross hybrids with superior agronomic performance and enhanced concentration of provitamin A."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 FIGURE 1 Proportion of additive (lower bar) and non-additive (upper bar) genetic variances for provitamin A and other carotenoids (A), and grain yield and other agronomic traits (B) of 60 provitamin A inbred lines used in line ×tester crosses evaluated across eight environments in Nigeria in 2020 and 2021. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 Mean squares from the combined analysis of variance of provitamin A and other carotenoids of testcrosses of 60 provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines and two testers evaluated across four environments in Nigeria in 2020 and 2021. Source of variation DF Lutein Zeaxanthin β-Cryptoxanthin α-Carotene β-Carotene Provitamin A Source of variationDFLuteinZeaxanthinβ-Cryptoxanthinα-Caroteneβ-CaroteneProvitamin A Env 3 722.67** 385.65** 12.51** 2.57** 829.52** 909.02** Env3722.67**385.65**12.51**2.57**829.52**909.02** REP (Env) 4 77.73** 93.37** 9.3** 1.05** 34.71** 57.67** REP (Env)477.73**93.37**9.3**1.05**34.71**57.67** Block (Env × Rep) 240 4.64** 5.88** 0.4** 0.08** 2.48** 3.04** Block (Env × Rep)2404.64**5.88**0.4**0.08**2.48**3.04** Hybrid (H) 123 28.6** 61.85** 8.35** 0.18** 34.27** 25.83** Hybrid (H)12328.6**61.85**8.35**0.18**34.27**25.83** Testcross 119 29.25** 60.92** 11.31** 2.25** 34.16** 25.14** Testcross11929.25**60.92**11.31**2.25**34.16**25.14** Line (GCA) 59 75.13** 85.35** 15.26** 0.34** 50.32** 45.35** Line (GCA)5975.13**85.35**15.26**0.34**50.32**45.35** Tester (GCA) 1 367.23** 5215.77** 388.35** 2.58** 2438.68** 1498.54** Tester (GCA)1367.23**5215.77**388.35**2.58**2438.68**1498.54** Line × tester (SCA) 59 15.11** 10.11** 1.63** 0.1** 6.22** 5.94** Line × tester (SCA)5915.11**10.11**1.63**0.1**6.22**5.94** Hybrid × Env 369 3.45** 3.31 0.37* 0.06** 3.15** 3.25** Hybrid × Env3693.45**3.310.37*0.06**3.15**3.25** Line × Env 177 4.41* 5.22 0.53 0.09** 4.97** 5.17** Line × Env1774.41*5.220.530.09**4.97**5.17** Tester × Env 3 66.89** 42.52** 7.39** 0.73** 67.63** 85.09** Tester × Env366.89**42.52**7.39**0.73**67.63**85.09** Line × tester × Env 177 4.71* 4.54 0.47* 0.07 3.07** 3.48** Line × tester × Env1774.71*4.540.47*0.073.07**3.48** Error 252 2.11 764.68 0.29 0.04 1.29 1.36 Error2522.11764.680.290.041.291.36 Repeatability  0.89 0.94 0.95 0.65 0.91 0.87 Repeatability0.890.940.950.650.910.87 CV (%)  18.41 17.94 13.59 24.42 12.63 10.25 CV (%)18.4117.9413.5924.4212.6310.25 Baker ratio  0.98 0.99 0.99 0.98 0.99 0.99 Baker ratio0.980.990.990.980.990.99 DF, degree of freedom *, ** significant at probability <0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.    DF, degree of freedom *, ** significant at probability <0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 Mean squares from the combined analyses of variance of grain yield and other agronomic traits of testcrosses of 60 provitamin A-enriched maize inbred lines and two testers evaluated across eight environments in Nigeria in 2020 and 2021. Source DF Grain Days Days Plant Ear height Plant Ear aspect SourceDFGrainDaysDaysPlantEar heightPlantEar aspect of variation  yield to tasseling to silking height  aspect  of variationyieldto tasselingto silkingheightaspect Env 7 711565530** 4052.42** 3470.24** 95126.36** 8507.51** 5.58** 15.28** Env7711565530**4052.42**3470.24**95126.36**8507.51**5.58**15.28** REP (Env) 8 17729670** 13.01** 14.32** 888.45** 626.08** 0.34 0.82** REP (Env)817729670**13.01**14.32**888.45**626.08**0.340.82** Block (Env × Rep) 480 1112531 2.09** 2.4** 163.36** 123.04** 0.22 0.16 Block (Env × Rep)48011125312.09**2.4**163.36**123.04**0.220.16 Hybrid (H) 123 7278902** 15.2** 16.11** 1298.19** 748.63** 0.75** 1** Hybrid (H)1237278902**15.2**16.11**1298.19**748.63**0.75**1** Testcross 119 7221635** 14.72** 15.50** 1226.83** 731.19** 0.77** 0.97** Testcross1197221635**14.72**15.50**1226.83**731.19**0.77**0.97** Line (GCA) 59 10025419** 29.98** 32.14** 2948.56** 1664.49** 1.14** 1.29** Line (GCA)5910025419**29.98**32.14**2948.56**1664.49**1.14**1.29** Tester (GCA) 1 21472764** 504.27** 470.06** 17708.19** 10343.3** 1.46* 3.58** Tester (GCA)121472764**504.27**470.06**17708.19**10343.3**1.46*3.58** Line × tester (SCA) 59 9365602** 8.4** 9.69** 430.96** 247.19** 0.69** 1.16** Line × tester (SCA)599365602**8.4**9.69**430.96**247.19**0.69**1.16** Hybrid × Env 860 1592711** 1.75** 1.9* 146.29** 94.81** 0.23* 0.19* Hybrid × Env8601592711**1.75**1.9*146.29**94.81**0.23*0.19* Line × Env 177 1961929 2.35 2.52 211.3** 137.75** 0.27 0.23 Line × Env17719619292.352.52211.3**137.75**0.270.23 Tester × Env 3 19595613** 6.32 7.49 4137.21** 673.71** 1.17** 0.35 Tester × Env319595613**6.327.494137.21**673.71**1.17**0.35 Line × tester × Env 177 1314650 1.63 1.86 176.34 85.6 0.27 0.16 Line × tester × Env17713146501.631.86176.3485.60.270.16 Error 503 1136506 1.43 1.57 97.92 70.25 0.18 0.16 Error50311365061.431.5797.9270.250.180.16 Repeatability  0.82 0.92 0.92 0.91 0.91 0.72 0.84 Repeatability0.820.920.920.910.910.720.84 CV (%)  17.19 2.1 2.14 5.16 9 17.09 15.76 CV (%)17.192.12.145.16917.0915.76 Baker ratio  0.87 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.99 0.88 0.89 Baker ratio0.870.990.990.990.990.880.89  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 Genetic variance and standard error between testcrosses obtained for the testcrosses of each tester (T1 and T2) evaluated at four locations in 2020 and 2021. Traits Genetic variance ± standard error TraitsGenetic variance ± standard error  T1 T2 T1T2 Grain yield (kg/ha) 7.776 ± 313.802 4.031 ± 253.711 Grain yield (kg/ha)7.776 ± 313.8024.031 ± 253.711 Days to anthesis 10.021 ± 0.413 7.81 ± 0.373 Days to anthesis10.021 ± 0.4137.81 ± 0.373 Days to silking 10.624 ± 0.432 7.997 ± 0.389 Days to silking10.624 ± 0.4327.997 ± 0.389 Plant height (cm) 9.379 ± 3.478 10.121 ± 3.941 Plant height (cm)9.379 ± 3.47810.121 ± 3.941 Ear height (cm) 7.905 ± 2.874 9.415 ± 2.717 Ear height (cm)7.905 ± 2.8749.415 ± 2.717 Plant aspect (1-5) 3.093 ± 0.077 4.164 ± 0.096 Plant aspect (1-5)3.093 ± 0.0774.164 ± 0.096 Ear aspect (1-5) 7.312 ± 0.111 4.495 ± 0.09 Ear aspect (1-5)7.312 ± 0.1114.495 ± 0.09 Lutein (µg/g) 9.613 ± 0.671 10.582 ± 0.547 Lutein (µg/g)9.613 ± 0.67110.582 ± 0.547 Zeaxanthin (µg/g) 9.708 ± 0.564 9.811 ± 0.681 Zeaxanthin (µg/g)9.708 ± 0.5649.811 ± 0.681 β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g) 16.966 ± 0.252 16.552 ± 0.274 β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g)16.966 ± 0.25216.552 ± 0.274 α-Carotene (µg/g) 2.473 ± 0.036 2.694 ± 0.049 α-Carotene (µg/g)2.473 ± 0.0362.694 ± 0.049 β-Carotene (µg/g) 6.578 ± 0.567 8.293 ± 0.377 β-Carotene (µg/g)6.578 ± 0.5678.293 ± 0.377 Provitamin A (µg/g) 5.253 ± 0.51 7.496 ± 0.4 Provitamin A (µg/g)5.253 ± 0.517.496 ± 0.4  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 Minimum, maximum, and mean values of agronomic traits and carotenoids for the testcrosses of two testers evaluated across eight environments. Trait T1   T2   TraitT1T2  Min Max Mean Min Max Mean MinMaxMeanMinMaxMean Grain yield (kg/ha) 3994.73 7906.10 6087.90 4206.17 7618.21 6293.15 Grain yield (kg/ha)3994.737906.106087.904206.177618.216293.15 Days to anthesis 55.13 59.81 57.49 54.19 58.47 56.45 Days to anthesis55.1359.8157.4954.1958.4756.45 Days to silking 56.38 61.31 59.05 55.63 60.00 58.05 Days to silking56.3861.3159.0555.6360.0058.05 Plant height (cm) 177.69 213.81 194.32 165.31 213.44 188.29 Plant height (cm)177.69213.81194.32165.31213.44188.29 Ear height (cm) 80.31 113.88 95.26 77.81 107.25 90.63 Ear height (cm)80.31113.8895.2677.81107.2590.63 Plant aspect (1-5) 1.88 3.17 2.50 1.96 3.25 2.57 Plant aspect (1-5)1.883.172.501.963.252.57 Ear aspect (1-5) 1.81 3.34 2.59 1.91 3.00 2.50 Ear aspect (1-5)1.813.342.591.913.002.50 Lutein (µg/g) 4.32 19.46 8.53 4.31 14.92 7.31 Lutein (µg/g)4.3219.468.534.3114.927.31 Zeaxanthin (µg/g) 1.78 12.70 7.30 6.05 17.71 11.95 Zeaxanthin (µg/g)1.7812.707.306.0517.7111.95 β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g) 1.36 5.84 3.32 2.45 6.90 4.59 β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g)1.365.843.322.456.904.59 α-Carotene (µg/g) 0.51 1.23 0.79 0.53 1.48 0.89 α-Carotene (µg/g)0.511.230.790.531.480.89 β-Carotene (µg/g) 6.41 16.84 10.69 4.16 12.40 7.49 β-Carotene (µg/g)6.4116.8410.694.1612.407.49 Provitamin A (µg/g) 8.43 18.42 12.74 6.20 15.07 10.23 Provitamin A (µg/g)8.4318.4212.746.2015.0710.23 TABLE 5 Estimates of general combining ability (GCA) effects for two     TABLE 5 Estimates of general combining ability (GCA) effects for two testers evaluated across eight environments.      testers evaluated across eight environments. Traits T1 T2     TraitsT1T2 GY (kg/ha) −107.71 108.28     GY (kg/ha)−107.71108.28 DYANTH (days) 0.51** −0.52**     DYANTH (days)0.51**−0.52** DYSK (days) 0.5** −0.5**     DYSK (days)0.5**−0.5** PHT (cm) 2.99 −3     PHT (cm)2.99−3 EHT (cm) 2.3* −2.3*     EHT (cm)2.3*−2.3* PASP (1-5) −0.03 0.03     PASP (1-5)−0.030.03 EASP (1-5) 0.04 −0.04     EASP (1-5)0.04−0.04 Lutein (µg/g) 0.62* −0.62*     Lutein (µg/g)0.62*−0.62* Zeaxanthin (µg/g) −2.33** 2.33**     Zeaxanthin (µg/g)−2.33**2.33** β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g) −0.64** 0.64**     β-Cryptoxanthin (µg/g)−0.64**0.64** α-Carotene (µg/g) −0.05 0.05     α-Carotene (µg/g)−0.050.05 β-Carotene (µg/g) 1.59** −1.59**     β-Carotene (µg/g)1.59**−1.59** Provitamin A (µg/g) 1.25** −1.25**     Provitamin A (µg/g)1.25**−1.25** *, ** significant at probability <0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.      *, ** significant at probability <0.05 and 0.01 levels, respectively.  "}],"sieverID":"37752f54-3ae4-4ee6-b4a3-842e56f742af","abstract":"Vitamin A deficiency poses health risks for children, pregnant women, and nursing mothers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) and Southeast Asia. Provitamin A-biofortified maize varieties can contribute to minimizing the adverse effects of vitamin A deficiency in areas where maize is a staple food crop. Identifying suitable testers is important to breed provitamin A-biofortified hybrid maize. This study was therefore conducted to 1) assess the suitability of maize inbred lines with contrasting levels of provitamin A (one with high and one with low provitamin A concentration) to assess the combining ability of maize inbred lines in accumulating provitamin A and other carotenoids, and grain yield, 2) confirm the mode of inheritance of provitamin A and grain yield, and 3) identify promising inbred lines with desirable combining ability effects for use to develop high-yielding provitamin A-biofortified hybrids. The inbreds crossed to the two inbred testers were evaluated in four environments for the carotenoid content and eight environments for the agronomic performance. The combined analysis of variance revealed a significant genetic variation among the testcrosses for all carotenoids, grain yield, and other agronomic traits. The mode of inheritance for grain yield, other agronomic traits, provitamin A, and other carotenoids was regulated by both additive and non-additive gene effects with a prominence of additive gene effects. The high provitamin A tester that displayed positive GCA effects for β-carotene and provitamin A content, broader agronomic performance of testcrosses, and higher levels of provitamin A in testcrosses can be considered suitable for breeding programs developing provitamin A-biofortified hybrids. The inbred lines TZI2012, TZI2142, TZI2130, TZI2065-2, TZI2161, TZI2025, TZI1278, TZI1314, TZI1304, and TZI2032 with positive GCA effects for grain yield and provitamin A content could be used as parental lines to develop source population of new inbred lines and high-yielding hybrids with elevated levels of provitamin A. The best performing hybrids are promising for release as highyielding provitamin A maize hybrids after further evaluations."}

data/part_1/03627180e9d9b1f1512666e7b01c847e.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03627180e9d9b1f1512666e7b01c847e","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/37006f9d-19e0-4554-af15-779c9fde2fb0/retrieve"},"pageCount":5,"title":"Skinfold thickness, condition score and tritiated water space in Boran cattle","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Liveweight per se is not necessarily a good indicator of body condition. Little and McLean (1981), for instance, have demonstrated that there is no predictive relationship between liveweight and body fat content in cattle in which total body fat varied over a fourfold range at similar liveweights. McLean et al (1983) showed that in cattle whose body weight decreased only slightly during the dry season, body fat reserves had decreased substantially and were largely replaced by water."},{"index":2,"size":85,"text":"Scoring systems to estimate body condition or level of body fat reserves in cattle have been successfully used for both Bos taurus and Bos indicus cattle (Buxton, 1982;Lowman et al, 1976;Nicholson and Butterworth, 1986;van Niekerk and Louw, 1982;Wellington, 1981). Although the scores are subjective, they have been shown to be both repeatable and reproducible in both species (Jansen et al, 1985;Nicholson and Sayers, 1987a). There is also a high correlation between condition score change and changes in weight or heart girth (Nicholson and Sayers, 1987b)."},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"In an attempt to develop a more objective approach than condition score for the routine assessment of body fat reserves in cattle, the measurement of anal fold thickness was evaluated. This was described by Charles (1974) as an accurate estimator of carcass fatness; when pinched up with a caliper, the anal fold consists of the skin and subcutaneous fat normally found between the tuber ischii and the base of the tail, and its thickness is indicative of the fat reserves in an animal's body. Johnson and Davis (1983) have demonstrated the applicability of the method for carcass fatness evaluation in both pure Bos taurus and B. taurus × B. indicus hybrids."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":131,"text":"Twenty-nine Boran cows with fasted liveweights averaging 350 kg (± 62 SD) were given condition scores on a scale varying from 1 (lean minus) to 9 (fat plus) with halfpoint steps according to the scoring system of Nicholson and Butterworth (1986). Following restraint in a headbail, anal fold thickness was measured as described by Charles (1974) by one operator using a Harpenden skinfold caliper modified for use on cattle (Johnson and Davis, 1983). It was found that the subcutaneous fat tended to pull away from the skin and was difficult to hold; a two-operator method was therefore devised in which one operator pinched the skin and underlying fat with both hands, while the second operator made three caliper measurements between them. In addition, dewlap thickness was measured in a few animals."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"A known quantity of tritiated water was injected intramuscularly into each animal in the evening. After 14 hours, during which water and food were withheld, an equilibration blood sample was taken and fasted liveweight measured. Evening injection reduced the chances of unequilibrated tritiated water leaving the animal by evaporation. The blood was centrifuged and the activity of plasma water was measured directly in a pseudocumene cocktail using a Wallac liquid scintillation counter with an external channels ratio method for quench correction. Background plasma and an appropriately diluted HTO solution were used to prepare the standard. The methodology is discussed in detail by Nicholson (1987)."},{"index":3,"size":51,"text":"Total body water and total body fat (TBF) were calculated for each animal from HTO space and fasted liveweight (FLW), using the equations of Little and McLean (1981). The relationships between condition score, anal fold thickness (AFT) and TBF (expressed as a percentage of FLW) were examined using linear regression analysis."}]},{"head":"RESULTS AND DISCUSSION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"The data obtained for fasted liveweight and the estimated total body fat, condition score and anal fold thickness for the 29 Boran cows are given in Table 1. While the equations of Little and McLean (1981) were derived from data on Bos taurus and B. taurus × B. indicus hybrids, and were shown to be applicable over a wide range of body fatness, no pure B. indicus animals were involved in that study. It is possible, therefore, that they may not apply rigorously to such cattle for the estimation of total body fat in absolute terms. However, there is no reason to doubt that the estimates derived here are perfectly valid in a comparative sense, and that the comparison of condition score and anal fold thickness as estimators of total body fat is equally valid. Anal fold thickness 2 (cm) 1.21 ± 0.19 0.89 -1.9"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Anal fold thickness 3 (cm) 2.92 ± 0.88 1.4 -4.6"},{"index":3,"size":13,"text":"Total body fat (% FL W 4 ) 22.4 ± 5.07 8.4 -31.4"},{"index":4,"size":5,"text":"1 SD = standard deviation."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"2 Measured by single operator. Condition score provided the most reliable indicator of body fat percentage. AFT, was poorly correlated with total body fat, and although the underlying subcutaneous fat was more easily measured by using a second operator, this approach still produced a less precise estimate of body fat than did condition score. No other skin site appeared to offer a feasible alternative."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"Although the measurements of anal fold thickness by Johnson and Davis (1983)   Brisbane, Australia, personal communication). However, since this study found condition score to be closely correlated with estimated body fat percentage in these animals (equation 1), it was concluded that its use can provide valuable information in the routine assessment of their nutritional status."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"3 Measured by two operators. 4 FLW = fasted liveweight.The relationships calculated between estimated total body fat (% FLW, y) and the other parameters areanal fold thickness (cm) measured by one operator, and AFT 2 = anal fold thickness (cm) measured by two operators. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Mean and range of fasted liveweight, condition score, anal fold thickness and estimated total body fat in 29Boran cows, Abernosa Ranch, Ethiopia, 1987.      ± SD 1 Range ± SD 1Range Fasted liveweight (kg) 350 ± 62.1 256 -471 Fasted liveweight (kg)350 ± 62.1256 -471 Condition score 6.02 ± 1.63 2.5 -9 Condition score6.02 ± 1.632.5 -9  "},{"text":" produced an accurate estimate of carcass fat in both pure B. taurus and B. taurus × B. indicus hybrids, the technique was found unsuitable for B. indicus animals (E.R. Johnson, University of Queensland,  "}],"sieverID":"48084fb7-5f29-4e2d-b024-60d59365489f","abstract":"AN ATTEMPT was made to use anal skinfold thickness as a quantitative measurement to estimate body fat in Boran cattle (Bos indicus). The normal single-operator technique gave a poor relationship between skinfold thickness and estimated total body fat, but this was greatly improved by using two operators. Nevertheless, the technique remained inferior to body condition score, which was very highly correlated with estimated body fat percentage. It was concluded that condition scoring provides a valuable index of the nutritional status of Bos indicus cattle, and that measurements of anal fold thickness are not applicable to such animals."}

data/part_1/03c4fb743341335d0d2bf53d6fdf3d13.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"03c4fb743341335d0d2bf53d6fdf3d13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0d2effd3-4bf8-43a4-a4c7-280a1286babc/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Study #3905 Contributing Projects: • P817 -3.2.4 Innovative Risk Management Tools for the Poor Part I: Public communications","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Outcome story for communications use:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":368,"text":"Millions of smallholder farmers around the world lack access to affordable high-quality crop insurance. Their farms are often too small and too remote for insurers to visit fields and verify damage in person. Index insurance addresses these constraints by settling claims based on a predetermined index (e.g. rainfall level) which is supposed to be correlated to crop losses resulting from weather and catastrophic events; however, the level of correlation between such indices and the actual damage to crops is often weak, resulting in discrepancies between losses and compensation. Working with the private sector and the international development community, PIM researchers have assessed alternative types of insurance and found that the growing use of digital technology in developing countries, more specifically the use of smartphone cameras, provides an attractive insurance solution. By relying on visible crop characteristics observed on farmers' smartphone pictures, picture-based insurance (PBI) [1] allows to detect damage at the plot level without the need for in-person visits by insurance agents, thus minimizing the costs of damage verification. A formative evaluation conducted in partnership with the Borlaug Institute for South Asia (BISA) and HDFC Ergo General Insurance in India has demonstrated the feasibility and economic viability of this approach [2]. As a result of this research, several institutions have become interested in PBI and incorporated it into their insurance or risk management operations. Since inception, the project has expanded to cover a wide range of crops and thousands of farmers in India, Kenya, and Ethiopia, with testing and adoption of picture-based crop monitoring by HDFC ERGO General Insurance (India), Dvara E-Registry (India), the Government of India, ACRE Africa (Kenya), the R4 Rural Resilience Initiative (Ethiopia) and the Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) (India, Kenya). These institutions provide agricultural risk management services to millions of farmers, highlighting the potential for scaling up. A current focus of the project team is to ensure that the PBI products offered to farmers are inclusive [7] and benefit women as much as men -which may not naturally be the case due to existing gender gaps in smartphone ownership. Another promising area is the integration of information from ground images with satellite imagery for rapid automated claims settlement and loan disbursement."}]},{"head":"Links to any communications materials relating to this outcome:","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"• https://tinyurl.com/ybz42qup "}]},{"head":"CGIAR innovation(s) or findings that have resulted in this outcome or impact:","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Picture-Based Insurance is a new, innovative way of delivering affordable, comprehensive, and easy-to-understand crop insurance. By relying on visible crop characteristics derived from farmers' own smartphone pictures, the project aims to minimize the costs of loss verification and detect damage at the plot level, making crop insurance more attractive and accessible to small farmers. Importantly, such an instrument lends itself to natural synergies with agro-advisories, adoption of climate-smart practices, and other value added services."}]},{"head":"Innovations:","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"• 335 -Picture-based insurance: delivering affordable crop insurance using farmers' smartphone pictures to assess crop damage (https://tinyurl.com/2md7eqk8)"}]},{"head":"Elaboration of Outcome/Impact Statement:","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"A pilot implementation of picture-based insurance [1] with 750 farmers in the rice-wheat belt of India confirmed the feasibility of the approach: nearly two-thirds of trained farmers were able to take at least four smartphone pictures (one per growth stage), which was considered sufficient for loss assessment; severe damage was visible from these pictures in 71 percent of affected sites, a significant improvement over index-based products (which identified severe damage in less than 34 percent of affected sites) [2]. Related studies found that the stream of images could be used to quantify important phenological stages in agricultural crops that are not registered by common satellite remote sensing vegetation indices [3], which can help support crop modeling, extension and insurance efforts [4]. Other research found that PBI improves willingness to pay for insurance without inducing moral hazard or adverse selection [5]. This research has led to adoption of the innovation by multiple insurance programs: -HDFC ERGO General Insurance has provided PBI products for weather index-based insurance to 1,000 farmers in Haryana, Odisha and Tamil Nadu (India); insurance premiums have been reduced following PIM's research."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"-Dvara E-Registry applies picture-based crop monitoring for credit scoring, partners with HDFC ERGO General Insurance to insure the resulting loans, and facilitates scaling through machine learning and linking with remote sensing."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"-The Government of India's Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Center is piloting picture-based crop monitoring for village-level yield estimation, with future applications in the Pradhan Mantri Fahsal Bima Yojana, India's national crop insurance scheme, which reaches millions of smallholder farmers across the country."},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"-ACRE Africa has provided PBI products for weather index-based insurance to 2,000 farmers (Kenya) and shares the associated data to advance artificial intelligence for agriculture."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"-The R4 Rural Resilience Initiative uses PBI in its weather index-based insurance program (Ethiopia), which has thousands of farmers enrolled."},{"index":6,"size":93,"text":"-The Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) successfully tested the PBI approach for providing agro-advisories [6] and is working to provide agro-advisories and insurance at a larger scale through its PlantWise program in Tamil Nadu (India) and Kenya. PIM, CCAFS and Big Data supported this outcome. PIM funded R&D for using smartphone images for claim settlement, the app and website, and the costs of smartphones in Ethiopia. CCAFS funded work on bundling insurance with other risk management approaches, engagement with R4, and outreach. Big Data funded expansion with Dvara E-Registry and CABI."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"CGIAR system level reporting Link to Common Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : No Stage of maturity of change reported: Stage 2  Geographic scope: Geographic scope: • Multi-national • Multi-national Country(ies): Country(ies): • India • India • Ethiopia • Ethiopia • Kenya • Kenya Comments: <Not Defined> Comments: <Not Defined> Key Contributors: Key Contributors: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: Contributing CRPs/Platforms: • BigData -Platform for Big Data in Agriculture • BigData -Platform for Big Data in Agriculture • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • PIM -Policies, Institutions, and Markets • PIM -Policies, Institutions, and Markets Contributing Flagships: Contributing Flagships: • F3: Inclusive and Efficient Value Chains • F3: Inclusive and Efficient Value Chains Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing Regional programs: <Not Defined> Contributing external partners: Contributing external partners: • NCFC -Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre • NCFC -Mahalanobis National Crop Forecast Centre • The University of Manchester • The University of Manchester • BISA -Borlaug Institute for South Asia • BISA -Borlaug Institute for South Asia • HDFC ERGO General Insurance Company Ltd. • HDFC ERGO General Insurance Company Ltd. • CABI -Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International • CABI -Centre for Agriculture and Biosciences International • ACRE Africa -Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise • ACRE Africa -Agriculture and Climate Risk Enterprise • WFP -World Food Programme • WFP -World Food Programme • Government of India • Government of India • 3ie -International Initiative for Impact Evaluation • 3ie -International Initiative for Impact Evaluation Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs: Sub-IDOs: • Improved access to financial and other services • Improved access to financial and other services • Reduced smallholders production risk • Reduced smallholders production risk  "}],"sieverID":"c2baa550-0354-4d5c-8b85-ae5d0fe2490f","abstract":"Picture-Based Insurance provides affordable high-quality crop insurance by using smartphone images of smallholders' crops. PIM research has led to large-scale testing and adoption of picture-based crop monitoring by private-sector insurance companies and associated partners HDFC ERGO General Insurance (India), Dvara E-Registry (India), Government of India, ACRE Africa (Kenya), R4 Rural Resilience Initiative (Ethiopia) and Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International (CABI) (India, Kenya), creating opportunities to strengthen crop insurance, financing and agro-advisories for millions of farmers."}

data/part_1/04100ae81a717c8a8e24deac772db0cf.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04100ae81a717c8a8e24deac772db0cf","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b67b0bbc-5322-4eb9-ab09-79f8528e3a65/retrieve"},"pageCount":21,"title":"Reports about natural outcrossing in common bean location % source","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"Wild common bean in Costa Rica "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" : why common bean, why Costa Rica ? 2. Distribution of target materials in the Central Valley 3. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated and wild forms in Costa Rica 4. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated forms on station and in situ 5. Evidence of gene flow across the geographic range 6. Evidence of gene flow involving other species of the phylum 7. Conclusions Outline Conclusions 2. Hybrid swarms identified by morpho-agronomic variation confirmed by molecular markers : 3. Direction of gene flow predominantly from wild into cultivated; other direction present, in cases predominant : 4. Gene flow is very limited among improved varieties, less limited among landraces : possible (lag with GIS; variation year-to-year) methodology established cleistogamy = indirect effect of domestication !? grouped flowering = direct effect of domestication areas for conservation/ for agricultural production defined 1. Populations of wild forms, compatible wild species, and hybrid swarms mapped for Costa Rica : why the change ? problem of quantification ; no mastering of sampling in open vegetation !? genetic linkage still unknown Conclusions (cont.) 6. Hybrid swarms are repeatedly found across the range, where forms are in contact 7. Other species of the phylum might be involved but with limited consequence : 8. Long-term persistence is conditioned to direct/ indirect human activities little use of hybrid swarms by farmers; domestication is past !? today management of rural landscape does not favour weedy forms contact is becoming elusive ! 5. On station, gene flow seems related to temperature and insect activity active pollinators versus nectar robbers ! limited biological, evolutionary significance, but . . . if humans find advantage ! likely mechanism by which races were formed in an autogamous crop ! heat stress -unpredictable -would favour outcrossing these wild legumes are 'good' species ! Thank you ! BMZ, CIAT, CONAGEBIO, U. de Costa Rica, U. Nal de Colombia foto Mazariegos 1998 R. Whilhelm, H-J. Jacobsen, Z. Lentini, M.C. Duque, N. Chaves, W. Barrantes M. Carvajal, M. Gómez, O. Toro, A. Hernández, C. Ocampo "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"2004 location conservation status Pirrís Virilla Norte Virilla Sur Candelaria Norte Candelaria Sur Reventazón    Outline  Outline X = 3.12 22.2 % % 4. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated forms on station and in situ X = 3.42 X = 2.81 X = 2.78 X = 2.70 X = 2.47 54.1 % % 50.2 % 74.2 % 79.6 % wild type vulg Section Phaseoli Phaseolus vulgaris L. 77.8 79.8 45.9 % 20.2 % 25.8 % 20.4 % 49.8 cocc Section Coccinei 5-7/ 78 ! % Terminal area Internal area _ _ _ dumo cost Section Phaseoli 3. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated and wild forms in Costa Rica # 2115, weedy 1 mm 1 mm # 2111, wild form Piedra de Aserrí _ _ acut Section Acutifolii 2. Distribution of target materials in the Central Valley 5.2 g 14 g Aserrí, en San José _ adapted from Delgado et al. 1999 adapted from Freytag & Debouck 2002 Chacón et al. 2007 (2x= 2n = 22) Costa Rica: 22 populations in 1. Introduction: why common bean, why Costa Rica ? 4 watersheds X = 3.12 22.2 % % 4. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated forms on station and in situ X = 3.42 X = 2.81 X = 2.78 X = 2.70 X = 2.47 54.1 % % 50.2 % 74.2 % 79.6 % wild type vulg Section Phaseoli Phaseolus vulgaris L. 77.8 79.8 45.9 % 20.2 % 25.8 % 20.4 % 49.8 cocc Section Coccinei 5-7/ 78 ! % Terminal area Internal area _ _ _ dumo cost Section Phaseoli 3. Evidence of gene flow between cultivated and wild forms in Costa Rica # 2115, weedy 1 mm 1 mm # 2111, wild form Piedra de Aserrí _ _ acut Section Acutifolii 2. Distribution of target materials in the Central Valley 5.2 g 14 g Aserrí, en San José _ adapted from Delgado et al. 1999 adapted from Freytag & Debouck 2002 Chacón et al. 2007 (2x= 2n = 22) Costa Rica: 22 populations in 1. Introduction: why common bean, why Costa Rica ? 4 watersheds 5. Evidence of gene flow across the geographic range  5. Evidence of gene flow across the geographic range acutifolius costaricensis dumosus coccineus vulgaris # 2111 acutifoliuscostaricensisdumosuscoccineusvulgaris # 2111 6. Evidence of gene flow involving other species of the phylum Aserrí 6. Evidence of gene flow involving other species of the phylum Aserrí     11 January 1987 11 January 1987 Transformed data 1mm 2 epigeal 7. Conclusions = 9cm 2 epigeal epigeal hypogeal n= 30 for each biological form epigeal Standley 1937 ! Transformed data 1mm 2 epigeal 7. Conclusions= 9cm 2 epigealepigealhypogealn= 30 for each biological form epigeal Standley 1937 !     source: Salcedo et al. 2004 source: Salcedo et al. 2004  "}],"sieverID":"57e91a6c-5f9b-4ae5-b8c1-3a43f9fbe1c0","abstract":""}

data/part_1/04180427c0944348af3951ced7d3bfa7.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04180427c0944348af3951ced7d3bfa7","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9ea1aeb9-9abc-413c-b0b9-afa6c6a10f48/retrieve"},"pageCount":3,"title":"Study #2065 Contributing Projects: • P34 -(ICRAF -WA) Building resilient agro-sylvo-pastoral systems in West Africa through participatory action research (BRAS-PAR)","keywords":["OICR","Outcome Impact Case Report Reporting 2021 Evidences Geographic scope","• Regional Region(s)","<Not Defined> Comments","The program covers only West Africa"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"• Increased rate of yield for major food staples from current 1%/year • Increase in water and nutrient (inorganic, biological) use efficiency in agro-ecosystems, including through recycling and reuse Description of activity / study: WAAPP is agricultural productivity program which aims at increase yield through good genetic materials but also better use of inputs (increased use efficiency)"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Results Reporting Indicator of Policies : Yes Policies contribution: <Not Defined> Stage of maturity of change reported: Stage 1 Links to the Strategic Results Framework: Sub-IDOs: • Improved forecasting of impacts of climate change and targeted technology development • Increased resilience of agro-ecosystems and communities, especially those including smallholders Is this OICR linked to some SRF 2022/2030 target?: Yes SRF 2022/2030 targets: "}],"sieverID":"c6a513ae-2c72-4559-8a05-fa207546e4f0","abstract":"Since its launch in October 2017, a 2-year project of 2,550,230 US$ funded by the West African Agricultural Productivity Program facilitated by CORAF/WECARD entitled \"Capacitating Stakeholders in Using Climate Information for Enhanced Resilience in the Agricultural Sector in West Africa (CaSCIERA-TA)\" is expanding approaches, tools, knowledge and skills in CSA developed by the regional team to Benin, Guinea, Mali, Niger and Togo in two communes per country. Choices of CSA options are done based on past, prevailing and projected climate."}

data/part_1/04524096d9398249b0f0c7fd2a3d8c22.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04524096d9398249b0f0c7fd2a3d8c22","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/e467fbb7-28c5-4545-9638-8b72319de55a/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":243,"text":"Day two of the Agknowledge Africa Share Fair featured a series of focus groups. Participants had a wide choice and seamlessly distributed themselves among nine different focus groups. I (Roxy) attended a fascinating session entitled \"reporting agriculture\". Susanna Thorp from WRENmedia gave a great presentation highlighting the challenges and opportunities of reporting on agricultural related issues. \"Agriculture is a multidimensional and multifaceted subject\", said Susanna. I was so pleased to hear Susanna refer to smallholder farmers as entrepreneurs. She then proceeded to touch upon another topic -young people. \"We need to reach out to the young people, agriculture is not SUBSISTENCE only. Agriculture is a source of business!\" said Susanna. Not pre-empting the youth session later during the day, we talked how we can keep young people in the farming business. There was a consensus that for this to happen, farming has to become a source of income. The participants recognized that farmers do farming in an integrated manner and they do not just tackle one single aspect. This may be a challenge when one has to report about the topic. At the same time everyone recognized that farmers need to trust their information/ knowledge source. Moving to challenges and opportunities of reporting on agriculture, participants mentioned that one of the challenges we collectively face is to make journalists understand the value of reporting about agriculture. How can we make agriculture an enticing and attractive subject matter? More on The Share Fair blog"}]},{"head":"Radio fanatics","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":706,"text":"Meet Clement Kirenga, from Rwanda, Fred Madanje from Kenya and Jimmy Ssenabulya from Uganda. The three of them have one passion in common: radio! As they put it \"we are the voice of the voiceless\". They met at the Share Fair drinking bunna. While discussing how to put into use. Gladson's intervention about radio's use of knowledge sharing at coffee break, our radio aficionados decided to join efforts and produce their own show. After establishing a mobile studio in a small office, it all began. Interviews of participants, sounds, short features about the market place, they are especially proud of their piece on the Mesheta bar, published like the rest of their work on www.share-fair.podomatic.com. \"One of the most used tools in Knowledge management in Africa is radio. It is getting more and more accessible and we hope that people here at the Share Fair will be pathways to share agricultural knowledge at home\", says Clement. The three of them will certainly be those pathways … Exploring the 'Spoken Web': a new way of using the Internet Imagine using your mobile phone to connect to a voice site on the Internet to listen to your to your favourite blog or news stories! According to IBM, this might just be one of the ways we use the Internet in coming years! No, it will not replace the current technology that involves using a browser on your computer to search for what you need online, but the company is banking a lot on a new voiceplatform that utilizes mobile phones to avail information -via voice-to many people especially in the world's marginalized areas where people do not read and write. The new 'Spoken web' will be based on speech recognition software that allows mobile phone users to call a dedicated number, upload 'voice' information which is then stored in the server and is searchable by callers via mobile phones. All kinds of information would be uploaded and classified and organized in the same way it is done on the Internet. A user who needs specific information dials into a specific 'voice site' from their mobile phone and is directed to the most relevant information which they can listen to and use. The 'Spoken Web' has been under development since 2004 and is being tested by IBM in its research labs in New Delhi India. It has been piloted successfully in parts of India. IBM believes this new platform holds great potential for transferring and sharing information especially by organizations that can use it to communicate with people in the field where they implement their projects. Read more on ILRI news Blog Rencontre Arielle Teddy et Miharintsoa Randriantsarafara, participantes à la Foire aux Savoirs du Congo Brazzaville et de Madagascar se sont rencontré il y a trois jours et ne se quittent plus. « Nous avons créé notre premier blog ensemble, prosperer news, grâce aux sessions du social media group, il n'est pas encore alimenté mais je voudrais partager ce que je vois dans le monde rural dans le cadre de mon travail », explique Arielle. « C'est possible grâce aux technologies apprises ici, à la Foire aux savoirs », ajoute Miha, « radio, google, blogging, c'est vraiment enrichissant. » Et si ce blog leur permettait de rester amies malgré la distance ? C'est tout ce qu'on leur souhaite… Focus on youth! This was a key message that came out of the AgKnowledge Africa Share Fair 2010. It was heard in a number of sessions but was more deeply explored in the focus group discussion on the youth on Wednesday morning. This session focused on how to inspire the youth to be involved in agriculture, how to reach them with agricultural information, and how to make use of the youth and their enthusiasm for new and social media to be part of the sharing process. One key result of the session on youth was that participants committed to finding success stories of youth to document and share. One avenue for this is the new 'Growing talents' feature series on the ICT-KM website which is giving a voice to the youth in agricultural research for development during the International year of the Youth, which was launched during the session-see www.ictkm.cgiar.org"}]},{"head":"Tweets you may have missed","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":353,"text":"There is a lot of indigenous Knowledge, but how much of it is on the web? Cultures with no info on the web will die\" (http://twitter.com/maureenagena) Knowledge is like a garden: if it's not cultivated it cannot be harvested (http://twitter.com/ictkm) all good things come to an end ... so we end 2dy but i know its the beginning of greater things ... (http://twitter.com/ednahkaramagi) New passionate podcast about three guys making http://is.gd/gaTTX (http://twitter.com/janradio) Grassroots K has to be complemented by research K. how can we bring the 2 K together? teach children to make K travel! (http://twitter.com/gaurisalokhe) Thanks, thanks, thanks … A big thank you to all of you for your willingness to co-create and share knowledge and ideas throughout the Share Fair. Four days of non-stop and creative conversations is a wonderful thing to experience. Special thanks to all the session organizers and facilitators -great job! Thanks also to the many people who made the fair possible -ILRI conferencing, catering and housing -for delicious and smooth meals, the social event, the meeting areas, the tent, the smiles -Million, Hailu, Elias, Getachew and the team. ILRI national liaison office for massive help and advice with visas, tickets, airport pickups -Tibebe and team; ILRI transport and engineering groups for local buses and transport as well as the glorious campus and gardens; Our IT colleagues who gave us digital bandwidth, wireless, and constant support (Ketema and team). The ILRI Knowledge Management and Information Services (KMIS) team who labored for weeks on all the preparations -Abeba and Meron at the infodesk and beyond, the ILRI colleagues from other groups who offered help and assistance, Azeb and the InfoCenter team -and the 'Bunna' ladies; Genevieve, Zerihun, Paul (Karaimu) and others for the Daily Tail; Daniel and Tesfaye -the 'hornblowers'; Genevieve, Apollo, Liya, Wondimu, Tsehay, Emaelef, Asabech, Zerihun for the market place, the donkeys, the shops, the tej tasting,… A special thank you to the Day Zero organizers notably Nadia, and the whole social media 'club.' Finally, the organizations who contributed their financial and intellectual resources to make this happen: CTA, FAO, GTZ, ICT-KM, IFAD, IKM Emergent, and ILRI."},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Fair Photos"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"118fcaec-fe94-4959-b615-5ade7fd2a5ed","abstract":""}

data/part_1/046404f1affdb7a7b893eb39949b7a17.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"046404f1affdb7a7b893eb39949b7a17","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3d21a2e2-bcaa-485f-957a-0332da8f1408/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"The issue","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":75,"text":"While advances in agricultural technologies have helped improve productivity over the last several decades, achieving sustainable nutrition security remains more elusive. At the same time, the attention of nutritionists is gradually shifting from a focus on quantity (measures of calories and body structure), to a more qualitative approach that accounts for dietary diversity. A shortage of micro-nutrients in the diet is referred to as hidden hunger and is becoming increasingly prominent in the development agenda."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The three regions in northern Ghana where Africa RISING intervened cover 40% of the nation's land mass and have the highest poverty rate in the country. Small-holder farmers constitute a majority of the population and, due to the remoteness of the communities, their diets depend heavily on the crops and animals they produce."},{"index":3,"size":53,"text":"This study investigated whether on-farm diversity and the production of nutrient-rich crops and livestock by-products contribute to the improvement of dietary diversity and micronutrient intake in the household. In addition, it evaluates what the early effects of the Africa RISING project are in Ghana on the production and dietary diversity of project beneficiaries."}]},{"head":"Africa RISING intervention","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"Northern Ghana is characterized by cereal-legume production systems with low input use. Maize is by far the most commonly grown crop, followed by rice and groundnut (Table 1). In addition, about 30% of households practice intercropping, 20% apply manure, and only 2% use irrigation."}]},{"head":"Table 1: Percentage of farmers cultivating different crops in Africa RISING intervention regions in northern Ghana","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"The Africa RISING project started in late 2012 and, during the first two years, focused on three key technologies: improved maize varieties combined with fertilizer; improved cowpea varieties combined with pesticides; and improved soybean varieties combined with integrated soil fertility management. We expect these innovations to increase productivity and broaden production diversity of beneficiary farmers, eventually leading to better diets for their households."}]},{"head":"Preliminary results","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Simply by looking at differences in the averages we can observe that beneficiary households cultivated a significantly wider range of crops and livestock types than any other group, and especially relative to households in the control group (Fig. 1). Both the nonbeneficiary groups in project target villages had higher production diversity than the control groups, which could be indicative of not only the possible spill-over effects, but also the presence of systematic differences between target and control communities independent from the project."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"Figure 2 shows that, even in terms of consumption diversity, beneficiary households present the greatest dietary assortment: they consumed the largest number of different food types during the reference week, although the differences among the groups are relatively small in magnitude."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Table 2 presents the regression coefficient measuring the impact of participation in Africa RISING on the production diversity of the farm, Table 3 captures the overall effect of production diversity on dietary quality and, finally, Table 4 shows the measure of direct impact of Africa RISING on nutritional outcomes. Here the comparison is limited to project direct beneficiaries (AR2013) and pure controls.  We can notice that for the first two relationships we obtain robust and consistent positive relationships across all estimators, while for the last one we find no significant impact. This can be explained by the fact that, given the early stage of the project, it is still early to measure a direct impact of improved agricultural technology on nutritional outcomes. "}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"We showed that, independent from productivity, the diversity of crop and livestock products produced on-farm has a significant positive effect on the dietary quality of the farming households of northern Ghana."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"We thus recommend that the Africa RISING implementers keep emphasizing the importance of farm diversification as one of the main pillars of sustainable intensification and, whenever possible, couple it with nutrition trainings to encourage all family members to diversify their diets."}]},{"head":"Data and Methodology","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A total of 1,284 households participated in a socioeconomic survey conducted in the summer of 2014 by IFPRI. Detailed data were collected on household demography, costs, and quantities of agricultural inputs; crop-level area cultivated and harvest, household-level food consumption, assets owned, and child and women anthropometric measures."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"The survey included four different groups: 2013 project beneficiary households (AR2013); households that showed an interest in participating the project in 2014 (AR2014); non-beneficiary households in project target villages (ARNB); and households in non-project target villages with similar agroecologies as target villages but distant enough to avoid contamination (Control)."},{"index":3,"size":47,"text":"Through an instrumental variable approach (IV and IV-GMM) accounting for the simultaneity between the variables of interest, we recover the causal impact of Africa RISING on production diversity, the contribution of production diversity on dietary quality and, finally, the direct link between project participation and nutrition outcomes."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The Africa Research In Sustainable Intensification for the Next Generation (Africa RISING) program comprises three research-for-development projects supported by the United States Agency for International Development as part of the U.S. government's Feed the Future initiative. Through action research and development partnerships, Africa RISING will create opportunities for smallholder farm households to move out of hunger and poverty through sustainably intensified farming systems that improve food, nutrition, and income security, particularly for women and children, and conserve or enhance the natural resource base. The three projects are led by the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (in West Africa and East and Southern Africa) and the International Livestock Research Institute (in the Ethiopian Highlands). The International Food Policy Research Institute leads an associated project on monitoring, evaluation and impact assessment. Prepared by: Sara Signorelli, IFPRI africa-rising.net This document is licensed for use under a Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial-Share Alike 3.0 Unported Licence "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: Number of crop and animal-based food items produced "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Regression results: AR on production diversity  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Regression results: production diversity on diet quality  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Regression results: interaction effects on diet quality  "}],"sieverID":"5168232a-d5e5-4292-91ce-44e4c127dffc","abstract":"Preliminary evidence shows that Africa RISING increased the production diversity of project beneficiaries and that production diversity had an overall positive impact on dietary quality. In turn, we did not find any direct impact of Africa RISING on nutritional outcomes, but given the early stage of the project this is not surprising. This relationship would have to be re-evaluated at a later stage."}

data/part_1/0465074ed9c6dca6665757f75c59cc0f.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0465074ed9c6dca6665757f75c59cc0f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/45f1bd74-a057-44d6-828a-d5c86071a9bc/retrieve"},"pageCount":8,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Background (Max.300 words)","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"Grasspea (Lathyrus sativus L) is a high-protein food-feed legume grown by nearly 200 million poor crop-livestock farmers on about 5 million hectares in dry areas. Because it is tolerant to drought, disease, and low soil fertility, it sometimes serves as the only available food source for the poor when other corps fail 1,2,3,4,5 . Planting grasspea in rotations with cereals or as a green manure is sustainable. It improves cereal yields and soil fertility 1,6 . Approximately 90% of its total production is in Asia (Bangladesh, India, Nepal, Pakistan) and East Africa (Ethiopia, Eritrea) 1,3 . Production, processing and marketing, by women offer an alternative or extra source of revenue. It is estimated that nearly 0.5 million people in Asia and Africa currently suffer from 'lathyrism', or paralysis of the leg caused by the presence of a neurotoxin (β-N-oxalyl-L, β-diaminopropionic acid or β-ODAP) in the seeds 6, 7, 8. Domestic animals also suffer. The leaves and stems have low or zero β-ODAP content and can be used as fodder without any health effects."},{"index":2,"size":110,"text":"Research by ICARDA and partners indicates that the seed β-ODAP content could be reduced through genetic enhancement and improved agronomic practices, but millions of poor farmers in Asia and Africa still grow toxic landraces because locally-adapted low-toxin lines and packages for their sustainable production are lacking 1,2,9 . Also, most national grasspea improvement programs do not have access to cheaper and faster methods to determine seed β-ODAP content. Further research and development is needed to develop adapted low-toxin grasspea lines and options (technological and socio-economic) to encourage adoption by farmer to improve food security, and prevent lathyrism, poverty and associated environmental degradation in smallholder crop-livestock farming systems in drought-prone areas."}]},{"head":"Project purpose (Max. 200 words)","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"a) State project purpose simply and directly:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"The purpose is to develop and disseminate options for the use of low-toxin grasspea as a food-feed crop to provide safe food for smallholder farmers and their livestock and to prevent degradation of the natural resource base in drought-prone areas of Africa and Asia."},{"index":3,"size":97,"text":"Specific objectives are to : (1) establish an interest group for research and development on grasspea as a food-feed crop in drought-prone areas in Africa and Asia; (2) organize a stakeholders' workshop to review the use of grasspea as a food-feed and identify benchmark sites and communities for testing and scaling-up options for use of low-toxin grasspea lines as a food-feed crop; (3) develop a project proposal to seek additional funds for research and development; and (5) strengthen the capacity of project partners and disseminate project findings. b) State why the SLP is the appropriate funding mechanism:"},{"index":4,"size":72,"text":"The SLP provides a forum for inter-center synergy for collaborative research and development on the production and use of food-feed crops for sustainable crop-livestock production.  2) A stakeholders workshop to review the use of grasspea as a food-feed crop and identify benchmark sites and communities representative of the dry areas of Africa and Asia organized and a first draft of the workshop proceedings prepared by the end of the 5 th quarter."},{"index":5,"size":44,"text":"3) Database on indigenous knowledge on grasspea and lathyrism, including local methods to treat seeds to reduce toxicity, and constraints and opportunities for grasspea as a food-feed crop for smallholder crop-livestock farmers in selected communities documented by the end of the 4 th quarter."},{"index":6,"size":20,"text":"4) A project proposal developed based on the consultations, workshop and surveys by the end of the 5 th quarter."},{"index":7,"size":31,"text":"5) Seed of selected low-toxin grasspea lines multiplied and distributed to research and development agencies in participating countries to initiate detoxification of landraces by the end of the 7 th quarter."},{"index":8,"size":43,"text":"6) Enhanced capacity and awareness of at least 40 research and development staff, 5 policy makers, and 2 graduate students on production and use of grasspea as a foodfeed crop through the consultations and workshops by the end of the 7 th quarter."},{"index":9,"size":65,"text":"Expected outputs from the larger proposal will include: 1) cheaper and faster methods for determining seed β-ODAP content, 2) adapted low-toxin grasspea genotypes, 3) reduction in prevalence of lathyrism, 4) sustainable technological options for the production and use of low-toxin grasspea as a food-feed crop, 5) policy and institutional options for adoption of low-toxin grasspea, 6) strengthened capacity and enhanced information exchange between all stakeholders."},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"12. Potential Impact of Outputs: (Max. 200 Words)"}]},{"head":"a) Poverty alleviation","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Empowering farmers in Ethiopia to produce rural low-toxin grasspea will create jobs and provide additional income."}]},{"head":"b) Food security","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Low-toxin grasspea would provide safe food for humans and feed for livestock in regions where drought is frequent. The availability of high quality feed could result in increased meat and milk production thereby preventing malnutrition."}]},{"head":"c) Environmental protection or enhancement","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The expected increase in livestock feed from the adoption of low-toxin grasspea lines will reduce grazing pressure on rangelands. The use of grasspea in rotations with cereals and as green manure crop could increase soil organic carbon and nitrogen concentrations and prevent erosion by providing vegetative cover."}]},{"head":"Research Activities in Relation to Outputs (Max. 300 words)","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The SLP seed grant will be used for the following activities over a 2-year period."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"• An interest group of research and development agencies working on grasspea as a food-feed crop and lathyrism in Africa and Asia will be established through consultations based on information gathered from the Lathyrus and Lathyrism Newsletter and the TWMRF (Output 1)."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"• A stakeholders' workshop will be organized to elaborate the project components, define roles, and select benchmark sites and communities. Invited speaker will review research and development activities, policy and institutional arrangements relating to the use of grasspea as a food-feed crop in the participating countries."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"Participants will include -community-base organizations (CBOs), farmers' interest group (FIGs), national agricultural research and extension institutes (NAREs), nongovernmental organizations (NGOs), and policy makers. A draft of the workshop proceedings will be prepared (Output 2)."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"• Surveys will be conducted in the selected communities to document local knowledge on production, markets, culinary treatments and use, and experience with grasspea and lathyrism to complement existing data with assistance of graduate students."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"The survey data will be integrated into Geographical Information System (GIS) databases to characterize the benchmark sites and to identify the recommendation domain. Ex-ante economic impact of low-toxin cowpea will be assessed (Output 3)."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"• A project proposal will be developed based on the information from the consultations, workshop and baseline surveys (Output 4)."},{"index":8,"size":26,"text":"• Seeds of selected low-toxin grasspea lines from ICARDA will be multiplied and distributed to research and development institutions to initiate detoxification of landraces (Output 5)."},{"index":9,"size":20,"text":"• Capacity of the partners will strengthened and knowledge exchange enhanced through the workshop, project reports, and graduate training (6)."}]},{"head":"Impact and Beneficiaries: (Max. 150 words)","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"a) State, preferably in quantified terms, what development impact might be achieved in the short or medium term and who are the beneficiaries."},{"index":2,"size":106,"text":"Within the two-year project period, a research and development interest group on grasspea as a food-feed crop will be formed, the capacity and awareness of at least 20 research and development staff, 2 policy makers, 2 MSc and 3 FIG will be enhanced through participation in consultations, workshops and surveys. In the medium-term (5-8 years), farmer-adoption of the low-toxin grasspea may prevent the incidence of lathyrism by 10-20%. Also, crop and livestock outputs of resource poor farmers is expected to increase by 20%, household income by 20%, and soil organic carbon and nitrogen by 10% when planted in rotation with cereals or used as green manure."}]},{"head":"b) State, what indicators will be used to demonstrate impact","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Perceptions of research and development staff, policy makers and farmers through monitoring surveys, number of households adopting low-toxin grasspea as a food feed-crop, land area covered by the low-toxin grasspea, and reported cases of lathyrism."}]},{"head":"c) State","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":", what activities will be undertaken during the project's life to prove impact either ex-ante or ex-post."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Monitoring and adoption surveys to provide data for ex-ante impact assessment of the potential rate of adoption."}]},{"head":"Dissemination and Uptake Pathways (Max. 150 words):","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"a) Indicate what channels will be employed to ensure technology uptake"},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The channels will include: 1) using a community-based participatory approach to allow FIGs, CBOs, NGOs in applying recommended packages on their fields; 2) involving all stakeholders (NARS, NGOs, CBOs, FIGs policy makers) from problem identification through evaluation and monitoring of technologies; 3) organizing farmers' field days, travel workshops, and farmer-farmer visits; and 4) producing easy-to-read extension bulletins, and policy briefs."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"b) Indicate what methods will be used to upscale the findings"},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"The project findings will be up-scaled by: 1) involving NARES, NGOs and policy makers in general meetings; 2) the use of local media for passing important messages; and 3) production of policy briefs, advisory notes, and posters in local languages for decision makers."}]},{"head":"c) Suggest what might be the dimensions of the eventual recommendation domain","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The dry areas in Asia and Africa with annual rainfall ranging from 150-300 mm, covering a land area of more than 200 million hectares, and home to nearly 100 million poor farmers will be the recommendation domain."}]},{"head":"Risks and Assumptions Associated with Output Achievement (Max. 200 words):","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":6,"text":"• There will be political stability."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"• Landrace grasspea is a significant food-feed crop."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• The larger proposal will be funded for 3 -4 years."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"• Policy makers and NAREs in the participation countries will be supportive because they are already looking for technologies to prevention lathyrism, and reduce food insecurity and poverty in dry areas. • Local and international NGOs and Advanced Research Institutes are willing to participate. "}]},{"head":"Financial Summary (Funds","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Funding Strategy","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Indicate which major donor is being targeted by the seed money period and the amount of funds sought. Explain why the Concept Note has a good chance of success in being turned into a major project proposal. Indicate in a timeframe the plan and milestones that will be achieved in order to submit a concept note and/or a full proposal to the identified donor."},{"index":2,"size":21,"text":"• Asian Development Bank and African Development Bank are targeted for about US$981,200 over a period of 3 to 4 years."},{"index":3,"size":68,"text":"• The Concept Note has a good chance of being turned into a major project proposal because the seed money will be used to build a multi-institute and multi-disciplinary research and development consortia with complementary capabilities for project proposal development and implementation. The proposed activities will also provide quantitative data and baseline information needed to write the proposal. A similar ICARDA-led project on grasspea was funded by DfID."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"• Time-frame and milestones that will be achieved to submit a concept note and/or a full proposal are presented with the outputs (see section 11). Details are shown in Table 1. "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" c) State what inter-center synergies are expected from SLP participation in the project The expected synergies are ICARDA's expertise in research for development on low-toxin grasspea and farmer participatory research in the dry areas of West Asia and North Africa, and ILRI's expertise in ruminant nutrition, forage quality and animal health. "},{"text":"10 . 1 ) Will the Project Contribute to CGIAT Goals in? National and international research and development agencies working on grasspea and lathyrism in Africa and Asia contacted, and an interest group on the use of grasspea as a food-feed crop established by the end of the 1 st quarter. "},{"text":" Requested from SLP):Breakdown costs for the following line items: Employment, Capital equipment, Consumables, Travel, Training, Dissemination, Overheads (in Thousand US Dollar units) "},{"text":"Table 1 . Timing of project activities and milestones Activities Year 1 Year 2 Consultations and stakeholders' workshop Baseline survey and literature review Develop concept note and project proposal Multiplication of selected low-toxin grasspea lines Capacity building and knowledge exchange Project reports  "},{"text":"19. Specific Capabilities of Consortia Members and Key Staff (Max.300 words)   knowledge dissemination.  knowledge dissemination. IGFRI Grasspea improvement, agronomy, animal nutrition, and Mehra R B IGFRIGrasspea improvement, agronomy, animal nutrition, andMehra R B  knowledge dissemination.  knowledge dissemination. USK Grasspea improvement using molecular techniques Chowdhury M A USKGrasspea improvement using molecular techniquesChowdhury M A TWMRF Prevalence of Lathyrism and dissemination of low-toxin Palmer V TWMRF Prevalence of Lathyrism and dissemination of low-toxinPalmer V  grasspea  grasspea BAD Livestock production, and knowledge exchange Abdul Majid BADLivestock production, and knowledge exchangeAbdul Majid BLPRI Livestock and forage production, graduate training Hamid Jalil BLPRILivestock and forage production, graduate trainingHamid Jalil Member Capability/Responsibility Key Staff Member Capability/ResponsibilityKey Staff ICARDA Genetic enhancement of low-toxin grasspea using Ali El-Moneim ICARDA Genetic enhancement of low-toxin grasspea usingAli El-Moneim  conventional and molecular methods. and development of  conventional and molecular methods. and development of  tools for predicting seed β-ODAP content.  tools for predicting seed β-ODAP content. ILRI Ruminant nutrition, forage potential of germplasm, and Hanson J, Micheal B ILRIRuminant nutrition, forage potential of germplasm, andHanson J, Micheal B  animal health.  animal health. BARI Grasspea improvement, agronomy, and animal production Raman R R BARIGrasspea improvement, agronomy, and animal production Raman R R EARO Grasspea improvement, agronomy, animal production and Teketay D EAROGrasspea improvement, agronomy, animal production and Teketay D  "}],"sieverID":"fff3c71a-19ec-406a-9e0b-180a9d010d37","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"04867c91884c0e54694c48d399f28d01","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/9225aeff-d1d1-4664-b8d4-313cb5593136/retrieve"},"pageCount":4,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"The interface of market access and SPS requirements: Lessons from recent ILRI research in Africa"},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Derek Baker, Karl Rich, Ayele Gelan, Acho Okike, Delia Grace and Mohammad Jabbar for many livestock sector stakeholders (Rich and Perry 2011a). However, access to export markets for African livestock and livestock product has been limited, nationally and regionally (Rich, Perry, and Kaitibie 2009;Williams et al., 2006). ILRI's work on constraints to export market access addresses low productivity, underdeveloped marketing systems, limited competitiveness, and the prevalence of highly contagious transboundary diseases such as foot-and-mouth disease (FMD) (Perry and Rich 2007;Rich 2009;Rich and Perry 2011b)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"ILRI research shows that African countries' export trade in live and processed animals is mainly constrained by costs of production and (scale-dependent) transactions between producer and foreign consumer. The impact of animal disease is felt more in terms of low productivity and high mortality than through costs of SPS compliance."},{"index":4,"size":50,"text":"ILRI's in-depth whole-chain studies identified cost items and market actor behaviors that contribute to poor export performance. Costly and ineffective drug delivery systems in Somalia, high feed costs in Ethiopia, high transport costs in East Africa, and high marketing costs and lack of information in West Africa, were common culprits."}]},{"head":"Why control transboundary diseases?","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"Some authors argue that the benefits of controlling endemic diseases like FMD in developing country settings are limited (Scoones and Woolmer 2006). However by taking the whole farming system into account, and considering reductions of risk and vulnerability for the poorest groups, ILRI research has identified benefits far beyond market access (Perry and Rich 2007). In Southeast Asia, for example, ILRI highlighted the potential impact of FMD on commodity harvest cycles that depend on buffalo for draught power (Perry et al. 2002). ILRI work in Zimbabwe (Randolph et al., 2005;Perry et al., 2003) also demonstrated inequitable benefits: While improved FMD control contributes to national economic growth and benefits lower-income groups, higher-income groups tend to capture greater benefits. Perry et al. (2005) show how out-grower schemes for export businesses, in Kenya for example, allow participation of smallholders and are an avenue for pro-poor growth. More generally, the control and eradication of disease can provide huge gains -Rinderpest eradication in South Asia significantly helped producers in Pakistan and India to access lucrative (and growing) Middle Eastern markets (Roeder and Rich 2009;Rich et al. 2011)."}]},{"head":"Methodologies used in SPS studies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The feasibility of Ethiopia's proposed SPS system was analyzed through an import risk assessment and a dynamic cost-benefit model.  2000) to assess the evolution of profits and costs and visually identify and analyze potential bottlenecks in the system, thus better facilitating scenario analysis of intervention options necessary to improve the system."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"The impact of tariff (TBs) and non-tariff barriers (NTBs) on market access for dairy products among EAC members used a spatial equilibrium modeling approach, highlighting the effects of eliminating barriers on the welfare of producers and consumers."}]},{"head":"Prospects for market access","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Our research examined the interface between market access and Sanitary and Phyto-Sanitary (SPS) barriers to trade."},{"index":2,"size":42,"text":"In Ethiopia, this involved an ex ante assessment of the epidemiological and economic feasibility of a credible SPS certification system for disease-free meat, and compliance with export standards of Middle Eastern markets in the short-term, and developed markets in the longer term."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"Further ILRI work identified risks and the critical control points for them, in a feedlot-based system. In the dairy sector, ILRI looked at the potential direct and indirect impacts of removing costs associated with intra-regional trade in dairy products among East African Community (EAC) member countries. In both cases, particular attention was paid to distributional consequences associated with improved market access."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"Other ILRI studies took an ex post approach, characterizing livestock production and marketing systems for export markets based on traditional trading patterns."},{"index":5,"size":69,"text":"One was Sudan (El Dirani et al., 2008), where declining export sales to the Middle East led to a study of the entire value chain. A second was Somalia (Negassa et al., 2008)  Pox in another. The resulting low animal productivity and high mortality, off-take rates of just 16-22% for domestic and export markets, and the high rejection rates, all contribute to high unit costs that erode export competitiveness."},{"index":6,"size":35,"text":"In Somalia, animal quality was found to be governed by a ubiquitous eye-assessment scoring/grading system that closely met the needs of exporters and traders, but much less the needs of producers (Negassa et al., 2011)."},{"index":7,"size":89,"text":"With Terra Nuova, ILRI characterized the actors at each stage of a multilayered value chain functioning over very large distances and using highlydeveloped traditional governance systems (Mugunieri et al., 2008). ILRI also characterized commercial practices in the export value chain, profiling the use of livestock brokers and agency arrangements between exporters and their agents that buy from remote areas. Examination of limited data on costs and revenues revealed loss-making elements in these value chains, explained as necessary to maintain access to exporters or importing agents in the export markets."},{"index":8,"size":27,"text":"In the EAC dairy sector, ILRI's ex ante analysis indicated that eliminating existing tariffs would raise aggregate Dressed chilled small ruminant carcasses in Somalia (photo: Terra Nuova)"},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"EAC welfare by 0.5%. Also eliminating non-tariff barriers would boost that effect to 2.1%. A projected 20% reduction in transport costs, in addition to removing tariff and non-tariff barriers, would double the gain in overall EAC welfare by 4.2%."}]},{"head":"Response strategies","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":65,"text":"Rather  ILRI's work on West African trade policy helped shape the regional policy initiative under the Club du Sahel's Livestock and Regional Market Potentials and Challenges in the Sahel and West Africa to 2020 and subsequent livestock compacts. Efforts at regional trade liberalization in East and West Africa included recent African Union initiatives, with ILRI expecting to play a knowledge management role in both regions."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"A policy choice for many countries is the extent of commitment to disease control needed to achieve and maintain export market access. ILRI analyses show that high costs of control may be justified by benefits not directly associated with the gains from international trade. These benefits may not, however, accrue to the poor as much as to the non-poor. Current work with IFAD in Swaziland and Mozambique is examining ways to offset such imbalances by supplying capital to beef trading systems linking smallholder and poorly-resourced producers with fattening and slaughter operations for export."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" , in formal or informal markets, can enhance livestock systems' potential as a pathway out of poverty. Such access can foster the growth of new value chains, creating employment opportunities "},{"text":" than SPS-related compliance interventions, most ILRI recommendations focus on productivity via feed and improved animal health. Costs can also be reduced by technological or policy interventions. Transport remains a significant cost problem. Transactions and service costs are high due to low volumes and informal local taxes. Somalia's arrangements for export trade featured some important organizational arrangements that provided protection against risks. Improved information flows are a pre-requisite for progress. Planning requires information on pricing and competition in international markets allows better targeting. Information shortages on disease incidence hamper efforts to increase productivity. Quality requirements, and associated price premiums, are generally imperfectly transmitted among the extensive trader networks. Future prospects For the future, ILRI's work on trade and market access reflects the need for enhanced information flow on one hand and multidisciplinary aspects of cost competitiveness on another. In a continuing partnership with Terra Nuova, ILRI will commence a new project in Somalia to facilitate knowledge storage and sharing on livestock systems. This will include formalization of quality grading systems, their extension to producers, and integration of past ILRI livestock genetics work in Somalia with value chain characterization.A project in Botswana will use value chain analysis to rationalize the needs of local production and market systems with the heavily-supported export industry. This takes a holistic view of production, tackling the blends of animal species producing export beef, animal health threats associated with communal grazing, and division of responsibility between control of transboundary diseases and control of more mundane diseases. "},{"text":" www.ilri.org P O Box 30709, Nairobi 00100, Kenya Phone: + 254 20 422 3000 Fax: +254 20 422 3001 Email: ILRI-Kenya@cgiar.org P O Box 5689, Addis Ababa, Ethiopia Phone: +251 11 617 2000 Fax: +251 11 617 2001 Email: ILRI-Ethiopia@cgiar.org 'Better lives through livestock' ILRI is a member of the Consortium of International Agricultural Research Centers The brief has a Creative Commons licence. You are free to re-use or distribute this work, provided credit is given to ILRI. "},{"text":" The former used the OIE 'Hazard Identification, Release Assessment, Exposure Assessment and Consequence Release Assessment, Exposure Assessment and Consequence Assessment' methodology. Assessment' methodology.  "},{"text":" that supplies live cattle, sheep, goats and camels to the Middle East, and recent initiatives include exports of processed, chilled products. In both cases, ILRI work provided a first scientific characterization of trading systems that were perceived to be institutionally weak. grading systems. Despite large numbers of intermediaries grading systems. Despite large numbers of intermediaries in both countries, the export value chains transmit some in both countries, the export value chains transmit some basic incentives well: Heavy penalties for rejection at basic incentives well: Heavy penalties for rejection at destination in Sudan, and Somalia's strong link between destination in Sudan, and Somalia's strong link between animal size and condition and prices paid. animal size and condition and prices paid. Between 1997 and 2005 in Sudan, El Dirani et al. (2008) Between 1997 and 2005 in Sudan, El Dirani et al. (2008) reported, on average, 31% of animals offered for export reported, on average, 31% of animals offered for export were rejected within the domestic sections of the value were rejected within the domestic sections of the value chain; another 2% was rejected between the export and chain; another 2% was rejected between the export and import ports. The main causes of rejection were detected import ports. The main causes of rejection were detected symptoms of diseases. Data from 2006 found 57% flock symptoms of diseases. Data from 2006 found 57% flock incidence of Heart Water in one state, 64% PPR in two incidence of Heart Water in one state, 64% PPR in two others, and 30% incidence of Heart Water and Sheep others, and 30% incidence of Heart Water and Sheep In West Africa, ILRI compared elements of domestic and In West Africa, ILRI compared elements of domestic and cross-border costs with prices of imports from outside the cross-border costs with prices of imports from outside the region, finding significant cost and logistic disadvantages. region, finding significant cost and logistic disadvantages. Constraints to export market access Constraints to export market access and export success and export success The risk assessment in Ethiopia concluded there was The risk assessment in Ethiopia concluded there was a negligible risk that properly handled meat and meat a negligible risk that properly handled meat and meat products from Ethiopian cattle, sheep and goats would products from Ethiopian cattle, sheep and goats would introduce and establish pathogens of concern to the im- introduce and establish pathogens of concern to the im- porting countries. The results suggest that market access porting countries. The results suggest that market access for livestock exports is achievable -but that other factors for livestock exports is achievable -but that other factors constrain export success. Further analysis concluded that constrain export success. Further analysis concluded that exports to Middle Eastern markets were not economically exports to Middle Eastern markets were not economically feasible. The main cause was the high cost of feed. By feasible. The main cause was the high cost of feed. By contrast, the costs of the SPS certification were just 5% of contrast, the costs of the SPS certification were just 5% of product value. The systems dynamics approach showed product value. The systems dynamics approach showed that improving feed use through better rations or more that improving feed use through better rations or more integrated supply chains lowered system costs. integrated supply chains lowered system costs. ILRI's study of cattle and beef in West Africa identified ILRI's study of cattle and beef in West Africa identified high transport and handling costs as the major barrier to high transport and handling costs as the major barrier to trade. High fattening and logistic costs were exacerbated trade. High fattening and logistic costs were exacerbated by lack of access to working capital. by lack of access to working capital.  "}],"sieverID":"244a3d9a-b515-465f-b907-38c32124f20d","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0487c73c43b64fdc61d5dcbe6575e304","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cde1fc40-b95a-43dd-aa7d-e7d09704ea70/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"Cassava disease management: Knowing the insect vector Bemisia tabaci in Laos","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"South East Asia (SEA) -increased cassava production Cassava has become an important crop in terms of both rural livelihoods and economic development in Southeast Asia. In Laos, has been traditionally grown as a subsistence crop, but in recent years cassava cultivation in this country has expanded and is becoming a \"cash crop\" for farmers (Malik et al., 2020).  • The economic impact of cassava disease continues to accumulate rapidly. Estimates of infected production area in 2022 include:"},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"• 419,560 ha in Cambodia (~76% of planted area in June 2022),"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"• 120,686 ha in Vietnam (72,400ha in 2021),"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"• ~480,000ha in Thailand (105,777ha in 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"• In Laos there had been several new outbreaks, but eradication efforts have reportedly kept the area low (<100ha) decreasing from the 600 ha in 2021"},{"index":6,"size":18,"text":"• This represents over 37% of the combined cassava area in those countries (up from 24% in 2021)."},{"index":7,"size":12,"text":"Draw on global experience to develop a regional control plan September 2018"},{"index":8,"size":33,"text":"The overall project aim is to enhance smallholder livelihoods and economic development in mainland SEA by improving the resilience of cassava production systems and value chains by addressing the rapidly evolving disease constraints."}]},{"head":"Establishing sustainable solutions to cassava diseases in mainland Southeast Asia","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"And why whiteflies are important when you are studying Geminivirus?"},{"index":2,"size":14,"text":"44 reproductively isolated but morphologically indistinguishable cryptic species of Bemisia tabaci complex Delaquis 2023"},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"In 2016 from 150 whitefly samples collected in Cambodia and Vietnam, 149 were identified as Asia II 1 and one as Asia II 6. 2020"},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"In the last years in Cambodia and Vietnam, the outbreaks of CMD caused by SLCMV were found to be associated with Bemisia tabaci Asia II 1 whiteflies, the only known efficient vector for SLCMV (Wang et al., 2016;Uke et al., 2018;Y. Chi et al., 2020) This leaf is not fully expanded "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" USD exports for Thailand ~1.4 Billion USD exports for Vietnam ~1.2 Billion USD imports from Cambodia ~0.35 Billion USD export from Lao PDR Cassava Mosaic Disease Cassava Mosaic Disease in the world Sri Lanka Cassava Mosaic Virus (SLCMV) was first reported in Cambodia in 2015 and is now present throughout the major producing regions adding constraints to farmers already dealing with climate and market uncertainty. "},{"text":" https://pestdisplace.org/projects/PDP_00063/provinces/map#3.44/18.47/103.34     "},{"text":"\" Starting at one corner of the field, take samples and the picture of the first expanded leaf, every 3rd plant following a diagonal transect (30 plants)\" the potential vector How could we know what cryptic species are in each locality, if they are not distinguishable morphologically? DNA BARCODING FOR INSECT DNA barcoding refers to the technique of sequencing a short fragment of the mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) gene "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"46c6c7aa-5ad5-4829-91ca-c29a6c6ee5c8","abstract":""}

data/part_1/049156d21b7e24c1afba56941a979c3a.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"049156d21b7e24c1afba56941a979c3a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/4185ac51-df04-4297-b031-f5a85df77e30/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"RW-BB186: A new iron biofortified beans variety released in Rwanda","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Project Title: P333 -Biofortified varieties "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Description of the innovation: <Not Defined> New Innovation: Yes  Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV) Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds) Stage of innovation: Stage 3: available/ ready for uptake (AV)Innovation type: Genetic (varieties and breeds)  "},{"text":"Geographic Scope: National Number of individual improved lines/varieties: 1 Country(ies   "},{"text":"Names of top five contributing organizations/entities to this stage:  • CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de • CIAT (Alliance) -Alliance of Bioversity and CIAT -Regional Hub (Centro Internacional de Agricultura Tropical) Agricultura Tropical) • HarvestPlus • HarvestPlus Milestones: Milestones: • All HarvestPlus Phase 1 countries ('target') release full target varieties and HarvestPlus Phase 2 • All HarvestPlus Phase 1 countries ('target') release full target varieties and HarvestPlus Phase 2 countries ('priority') have tier 1 crops in release pipelines countries ('priority') have tier 1 crops in release pipelines Sub-IDOs: Sub-IDOs: • 14 -Increased availability of diverse nutrient-rich foods • 14 -Increased availability of diverse nutrient-rich foods Contributing Centers/PPA partners: Contributing Centers/PPA partners:  "}],"sieverID":"1aaf73e5-9cd4-4213-9c3e-35ca232924e7","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0523729cdc516535736cab68d1442918.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0523729cdc516535736cab68d1442918","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d4091b08-62f9-463f-97e5-31d6c9ace2ce/retrieve"},"pageCount":2,"title":"7 new, more productive wheat varieties multiplied in collaboration with seed producers located in strategic growing areas of Mexico","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Deliverables associated:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"• D10663 -Seed multiplication producers' report of at least 10 wheat varieties selected in 2018. ( Not disseminated)"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"• D10645 -Yield, agronomic and phytopathological performance report of 5 new lines with interest for the wheat value chain in Mexico evaluated during the 2018-2019 winter cycle. (Not disseminated)"},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"• D7213 -Agronomic and physiological traits of elite lines of high yielding potential evaluated with high throughput phenotyping technologies. (Not disseminated)"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"• D7214 -High-yielding and drought tolerant lines and heat tolerant lines selected. (Not disseminated)"},{"index":5,"size":2,"text":"Contributing CRPs/Platforms:"},{"index":6,"size":11,"text":"• CCAFS -Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security • Wheat -Wheat"}]}],"figures":[],"sieverID":"e62d39a9-306f-4322-bead-a4737b3cc42a","abstract":"Description of the innovation: 17 new, more productive wheat varieties multiplied in collaboration with Mexican seed producers located in strategic growing areas. The multiplied seed (more than 95 tons) was distributed to farmers of different regions of Mexico."}

data/part_1/05cbc1318d1be1f44035802122bb7e13.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"05cbc1318d1be1f44035802122bb7e13","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/58a69d23-b0a1-42d1-ac26-f0f6a0b1453e/retrieve"},"pageCount":20,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Gap/limitation:","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"• Priority may be given to the areas where there is lesser studies"},{"index":2,"size":2,"text":"Risk factors "}]},{"head":"History of repeat breeding","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"History of repeat breeding is positively associated with seropositivity Disease economics (cont…) Disease economics (cont….)"}]},{"head":"Gap","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"• There is paucity of comprehensive economic studies on impact of brucellosis in India • No study has been observed on the economics of brucellosis control programme in India • Different studies use different parameters and approaches for working out the economic impact, cost, and loss, therefore the estimates varies widely • Difficult to extrapolate the prevalence data as sero-prevalence does not mean occurrence of the disease or loss. • More systematic economics studies and approach are required to assess the economic impact, loss and cost of brucellosis"}]},{"head":"Human brucellosis","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"• Brucellosis has been reported as a major cause of pyrexia of unknown origin (PUO). • In India, the disease is reported sporadically but the true incidence is estimated to be much higher than reported because of misdiagnosis and under reporting (Boral et al. better lives through livestock ilri.org ILRI thanks all donors and organizations who globally supported its work through their contributions to the CGIAR system"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Dalviet al. 2007) History of retention of placenta History of retention of placenta is positively associated with seropositivity (Aulakh et al. 2008) History of metritis/ endometritis History of metritis/ endometritis is positively associated with seropositivity (Patel et al. 2014) Farming system Organized farms are positively associated with sero-positivity, compared to unorganised (Kumar et al. 2016) Mixed herd Cattle being housed with goat and/or sheep are more likely to be sero-positive (Calistri et al. 2013) Herd size Larger herds are positively associated with sero-positivity, compared to smaller herds (Mugizi et al. 2015) Distance between herds/ density of herds Herds located close to one another are positively associated with sero-positivity than located away from each other (Soomro et al. 2014) Breeding method Breeding by artificial insemination is positively co-related with sero-positivity, compared to natural mating (Shome et al. 2014) Risk factors Gap/limitations • Contradictory risk factors are also reported by some studies • Identification of risk factors requires adequate sample size and ability to accurately measure true disease status. • Confounding factors may mask the actual association or falsely demonstrate an apparent association between the treatment and outcome. • Establishing actual cause effect relationship is difficult without confirmatory diagnosis Disease economics • Terminologies like economic impact, loss, and cost of brucellosis are used by some researchers loosely and interchangeably • Reduced milk yield (10%) cause an economic loss of INR 2,774 per cow and INR 3,015 per buffalo cow (Panchasara 2012). • Average costs of treatment following abortion, repeat breeding and retention of placenta of dairy cattle were estimated at INR 250, INR 320 & INR 506 (Panchasara 2012). • Brucellosis cause 20-25% loss of milk production (Bano & Ahmad Lone 2015) • Abortion caused a loss of INR 5,908 per animal (Dhand et al. 2005). "},{"text":" 2009). • Sen et al. (2002) found 6.8% sero-positive cases among the patients with PUO. • Pathak et.al (2014) also found 6% sero-prevalence among patients with PUO. Human brucellosis (cont…) • Higher sero-positivity rate (27 %) was recorded in Ludhiana in a purposively sampled population (Yohannes and Sing 2011) . • 0.8% prevalence reported among a larger group of PUO patients (Kadri, 2000) • History of ingestion of raw milk (87%), occupational contact with animals (81%) & handling of infected materials (62%) were reported as the major risk factors (Kochar et al. 2007) • Among the occupational groups, veterinarians were the most affected followed by farm workers (Yohannes et al. 2011) Gap: • No study has been observed in randomly selected general population Knowledge, attitude and practices (KAP) • ILRI-ICAR study on KAP in Bihar, India suggest the following: Gap: Dearth of studies on KAP in India Control • Brucella abortus S19 is the most widely used vaccine in the world • B. abortus RB51 vaccine has proved safe and effective against bovine brucellosis & exhibits negligible interference with diagnostic serology • Both Brucella S19 and RB51 vaccines are recommended by OIE • A study in UP found that periodic testing of all animals and segregation of sero-positive animals reduces seropositive from 12.4% to 1.2% (Kollannur et al. 2007). • Another study in Punjab found, B. abortus S19 vaccine reduced the rate of abortion from 8% to 1% in cows and from 3% to 1% in buffalo (Gill et al. n.d.) Contol (cont…) • Safe and effective vaccines against human, pig and wildlife brucellosis are not generally available (Godfroid et al. 2010) Gap: • Needs more action research projects on brucellosis control in field condition keeping in view the prevailing challenges in India • More effort is required to produce safer and effective vaccines (e.g. effective in all age groups, thermostable, not interrupting in diagnostic serology etc.) • Technological intervention may not be good enough without building knowledge & capacity of stakeholders Conclusion • Plenty of epidemiological studies have been conducted in India on brucellosis, many are repetitive in nature. • Prevalence data has important bearing on milk trade and investment on control programme, so assessing true prevalence is critical • In some part of India, epidemiological studies are relatively fewer; there is need to prioritize • Needs well accepted, economically acceptable model for assessing disease economics. • Customized knowledge products should be designed & implemented for the target groups • More research may be initiated on developing a more effective vaccine for the Indian context Thank You This presentation is licensed for use under the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International Licence. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" Punjab, UP, Karnataka, Gujarat, Maharashtra,….. Prevalence Prevalence • Only 4 outbreaks of brucellosis in cattle and buffalo reported • Only 4 outbreaks of brucellosis in cattle and buffalo reported with 46 cases in 2016 (Annual Report, DAHDF, 2017) with 46 cases in 2016 (Annual Report, DAHDF, 2017)  "}],"sieverID":"c4a65e94-6259-4729-82d5-dffe050006dd","abstract":""}

data/part_1/067532c00ef4191e1531503528c41020.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"067532c00ef4191e1531503528c41020","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/ad0713d9-4f44-4f0d-801f-5e283c805968/retrieve"},"pageCount":26,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":89,"text":"environmental, social, and economic dimensions across productive landscapes. While the concept is new, and still evolving, many of the practices that make up CSA already exist worldwide and are used by farmers to cope with various production risks [2]. Mainstreaming CSA requires critical stocktaking of ongoing and promising practices for the future, and of institutional and financial enablers for CSA adoption. This country profile provides a snapshot of a developing baseline created to initiate discussion, both within countries and globally, about entry points for investing in CSA at scale."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"• Agriculture contributes to about one-third of gross domestic product (GDP) in Nepal and provides employment to 74% of the economically active population. Since slightly less than half of agricultural producers in the country have transitioned to commercial production, efforts to conserve native plant genetic resources (PGR) through community seed banks (CSB), precise fertilizer management and integrated pest management technologies need to be scaled-up as a way to sustainably intensify the country's limited agricultural land."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"• The country is endowed with an array of geographical, topographic, climate, and ecological conditions, as well as with diverse cultural norms and social groups. These have led to an uneven transformation of the society and its economy. Agricultural investments need to acknowledge this diversity through targeted interventions that are adapted to different agro-ecologies and farm types."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"• CSA programs must target vulnerable social groups (e.g. women and youth) by making information and resources available and accessible to them. CSA investments not only enhance crop productivity, but can also contribute to improved working conditions for women (e.g., workload, physical burden) and their position in the society. Water harvesting, improved cattle and goat sheds, and biogas production have especially high potential to reduce the drudgery of farming for women."},{"index":5,"size":62,"text":"• Land degradation, fragmentation, and limited resource ownership are barriers for effective planning and increased productivity in Nepal. The role of the Agriculture Development Strategy (ADS) in facilitating mechanisms to support equitable and effective access and control over land, especially for women and youth, is essential for creating an enabling environment for on-field adoption and the scaling-out of CSA practices and technologies."},{"index":6,"size":83,"text":"• Several policies provide an enabling environment for the promotion of CSA actions, yet efforts to coordinate initiatives are sporadic, leading to the duplication of efforts and ineffective resource allocation. Sectors tend to work in isolation, limiting the development of an effective multi-sectoral vision that creates synergies and leverages resources. There is a need for improved governance and policy commitment for delivering planned results in a more integrated way. Capacity building for CSA planning and implementation can be a first step towards that."},{"index":7,"size":53,"text":"• Some CSA technologies are costly and financial support is crucial for uptake, especially in resource-poor communities. The potential for national and international CSA finance is high as there are several opportunities attract new funding. To effectively prioritize and utilize such resources, mechanisms to monitor the targeting and allocation of funds are needed."},{"index":8,"size":37,"text":"• Information dissemination through information and communication technology (ICT) and farmer-tofarmer dissemination needs to be scaled-up to make the extension effort more rapid and effective. This will require initial government support, mainly in the form of subsidies."},{"index":9,"size":194,"text":"• Highlighting practices that have proven most effective in delivering on CSA goals as 'champions' would aid in the diffusion of CSA investments across scales and regions of the country. This requires further efforts to take stock of the costs and benefits of CSA practices in a more systematic and comprehensive way, complementing the initial findings from this study. People, agriculture and livelihoods in Nepal [3, 5, 6]   Nepal is considered a low-income country, with a GDP per capita of US$ 689.5 in 2015 [3]. Agriculture is the mainstay of the economy and a traditional way of life for the people, contributing almost one-third of total GDP and providing employment to 74% of the economically active population. Agriculture exports provide important revenues for the country. However, insufficient production of key crops (such as rice and maize) to meet domestic demand explains the high import rates of staple crops in the country. The slow growth of the agriculture sector in recent years 1 has been associated with farming practices highly dependent on weather conditions, insufficient irrigation facilities, unavailability of agricultural inputs (particularly seed and fertilizers), and an increasing trend of land fallowing and abandonment [4]."}]},{"head":"P I","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate-Smart Agriculture in Nepal","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Agricultural land occupies 29% of the country's land area,the equivalent of 4,123,120 ha. Around 15% of this area is classified as arable, whereas 17% of the land is under permanent meadows or pastures [5]. The forest area in Nepal has been maintained at 25% since 2005 [3]  7 ."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Subsistence agriculture and crop-livestock integration are the main characteristics of Nepalese agriculture. The country has three representative agro-ecological zones (AEZs), oriented east to west, and characterized by different altitudes, climates, and agricultural production systems [10]."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"The mountain region in the north, situated at more than 2,000 meters above sea level (m.a.s.l.), has a warmtemperate to alpine climate. The predominant agricultural activities in this zone are transhumant livestock production (e.g., hilly cattle, goats, sheep, etc.), rain-fed crop cultivation (e.g., potato, barley, and buckwheat), and temperate fruits (e.g., apple and pear). Around 29% of the area is grazing land and crops are mainly rain-fed ('bari' land). The region is also characterized by high population migration rates to lower altitude areas, scarce road infrastructure, and minimal education opportunities."},{"index":4,"size":35,"text":"The mid-hill region, ranging between 300 and 2,000 m.a.s.l., has a climate that varies between subtropical to warm temperate. Crops are grown in upland terraces and irrigated fertile lands in river basins and valleys ('khet'"}]},{"head":"Land use","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Agricultural production systems","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Land use in Nepal [5]   2 This represents an increase from approximately 18 million in 1990."},{"index":2,"size":7,"text":"3 Average land holding is 0.7 hectare."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"4 Driven by employment opportunities, Nepal has witnessed a surge in youth migration to various foreign destinations in the last decade, with crude net migration decreasing from -1.21 during 1995/00 to -6.42 during 2005/10 [7]. Crude net migration refers to the ratio of net migration to the average population in a year. The value is expressed per 1,000 inhabitants. Higher negative values mean more inhabitants are leaving rather than entering the country."},{"index":4,"size":22,"text":"5 The poverty incidence in Nepal reduced from 30.9% of the population in 2004 to 25.5% in 2010 and 21.6% in 2017."},{"index":5,"size":23,"text":"6 According to Hindu beliefs, which remain a building block of the Nepalese society, property transfer and inheritance remains within the male line."},{"index":6,"size":41,"text":"7 Government sources even claim an increase in the forest area from 39.6% to 44.7% during the 13th planning period. However, the data shall be interpreted with caution since the methods for calculating the forest land vary from the WB/FAO methods."},{"index":7,"size":100,"text":"The population of Nepal has been increasing steadily at an annual rate of more than 2%, reaching 28.5 million people in 2015 2 . This growth trend has been particularly strong in urban areas. A rise in rural-to-urban migration has been accompanied by an increase in the importance of non-farm activities for income generation. Despite this trend, the large majority of the population still derives its livelihoods from agriculture, usually practiced on fragmented plots of land. Agriculture is dominated by small-scale farms of less than two hectares (ha) 3 , which occupy roughly 76% of the country's cultivated land [6]."},{"index":8,"size":84,"text":"Remittances from migration 4 are among the largest contributors to poverty reduction and the incidence of absolute poverty in Nepal (i.e., people living on less than US$ 1.25/day), which has reduced from 53% in 2004 to 25% in 2011 5 . Despite this, inequality remains very high, as indicated by a low Gini Index (a score of 32.8 out of 100). Poverty and inequality is particularly pervasive in rural areas and in the mountainous and mid and far western regions of the country [3]."},{"index":9,"size":108,"text":"Gender division of labor is embedded in cultural norms and varies across socio-economic contexts, caste systems, ethnic groups, and religion. Women play an important role in household food security and nutrition quality, as they are the main cultivators of subsistence crops (such as maize and millet) and the keepers of traditional knowledge regarding food production, storage, and processing (cooking). Women engage mostly in rain fed agriculture and are more active in the mountainous areas, carrying out time-consuming, labor-intensive activities. Women, for example, are the main workers in rice fields in Nepal. Men, meanwhile, tend to manage irrigated fields and are the main decision-makers in the Terai region [8,9]."},{"index":10,"size":63,"text":"Women's access to decision-making and control of resources households remains limited by traditional and patriarchal norms 6 . Studies have revealed that women tend to have less access and ownership rights to productive resources (especially land) compared to men, rendering their households more exposed to food insufficiency and limiting their ability to access credit or make long-term agricultural investments on the land [8]."}]},{"head":"People, agriculture, and livelihoods","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Since most of the arable land area is already exploited, agricultural intensification has been the predominant strategy for productivity increases, manifested through the cultivation of three or more crops a year and a higher use of fertilizers (especially in hilly and mountainous areas). However, per capita arable land availability (0.082 ha/person) is less than half of the world's average [3] and hampers commercialization and the realization of economies of scale for small-sized farms by constraining farm mechanization."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Production systems key for food security in Nepal [5]   land). Maize, millet, grams, potato, ginger, cardamom, and temperate fruits, particularly citrus, are the main crops grown in bari land, whereas rice and wheat are common in khet lands. Dairy and commercial vegetable production are rapidly growing in places nearby market centers in this zone."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"The Terai region in the south, located below 300 m.a.s.l., is home to the majority of cropland in the country and a key contributing area to the agricultural GDP of Nepal. The highly fertile soils allow for the cultivation of rice (the main crop in the region), wheat, chickpea, lentil, oilseed, mustard, sugarcane and tropical fruits (e.g., mango, litchi). Crop intensification is very common in this region. Farmers in this zone also rely on livestock production, mainly cattle, goats, and buffalo."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"The following infographic shows a selection of agriculture production systems key for Nepal's food security. The importance is based on the system's contribution to economic, productivity and nutrition quality indicators. For more information on the methodology for the production system selection, consult Annex 1."},{"index":5,"size":96,"text":"Rice, maize, and wheat are the key food crops in the country, occupying approximately 31%, 18%, and 15% of the total harvested area and contributing 7.5%, 1.7%, and 1.5%, respectively to the national GDP [5]. Still, average yields of these crops remain well below regional and global averages despite government efforts to invest in improved varieties and promote the use of inputs [5]. Timely unavailability or distribution of seeds and fertilizers, inadequate nutrient management, and high dependence on monsoon rainfall due to a lack of irrigation are among the main reasons for low agricultural productivity [4]."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"With the recent development of local market centers and road corridors, vegetable production is growing at a fast rate (9% per year) [11] and has already emerged as an important contributor to the national economy (3.53% of GDP) [5]. This has also resulted in a higher use of inputs, especially of chemical fertilizers."},{"index":7,"size":69,"text":"Lentil and mustard are the main crops cultivated in the winter season 8 and a key income source in the Terai region, along with sugarcane. Farmers are increasingly converting their farms to sugarcane plantations, following the establishment of sugar factories in the region. Increased water scarcity and labor shortages have also encouraged farmers to switch from seasonal crop production to biannual or even perennial crops (such as sugarcane) [5]."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Input utilization and application varies greatly across Nepal's AEZs. Higher adoption rates of modern varieties and agrochemicals (i.e., fertilizers and pesticides) are found in the Terai, followed by farmers in the hills and mountains [12]."},{"index":9,"size":93,"text":"Animal husbandry is common to all AEZs, but is especially predominant in mountainous areas. People use livestock for various purposes, including milk, meat, transportation, hides/skin, and manure. The dairy industry (e.g. cow and buffalo) provides extra income and sources of nutrition for smallholders farmers nearby large market centers. In addition, goats are a key income-generation source for smallholders in hilly and mountainous regions. However, livestock productivity in Nepal is low compared to regional averages. As a result, demand for livestock and livestock products, and particularly milk and meat, has outstripped supply in Nepal."},{"index":10,"size":43,"text":"Agriculture input use in Nepal [3, 5]   Nepal has experienced improvements in food (kcal) availability, protein and fat intake, and a decline in undernourishment and underweight rates over the past years [13], owing to governmental efforts to boost food security throughout the country."},{"index":11,"size":96,"text":"Despite these trends, Nepal ranks 82nd out of 113 countries in the Global Food Security Index, and food deprivation is estimated at 51 kcal/person/day [14]. There is significant regional disparity in food availability in Nepal, associated with exposure to climate events (especially droughts in the hill and mountain districts) [15] and a high dependency on food aid. Difficult geographical conditions, a poor road network, inadequate warehouse infrastructure, poor Information and Communication Technologies (ICT) tools and lack of timely and relevant information and low household incomes are key challenges to food distribution and access in the country."},{"index":12,"size":61,"text":"Although Nepal is one of the richest countries in term of agro-biodiversity, people today tend to eat less diverse and nutritious foods than in the past. Malnutrition rates in the country are among the highest in the world, disproportionately affecting women and girls in poor households [8]. Malnutrition is also higher among socially marginalized and disadvantaged groups (such as the Dalits)"}]},{"head":"Food security and nutrition","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Food security, nutrition, and health in Nepal [3, 5, 13, 14, 15]   9 Traditional form of community food reserve system in which food grain reserves are stored in temples to be used in times of food insecurity."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"due to a lack of basic health and sanitary measures and the absence of early warning systems and food safety nets that once existed within these communities (e.g. Dharma Bhakari 9 ). These conditions are likely to be exacerbated in the future, under a more unpredictable and extreme climate."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"Greenhouse gas emissions in Nepal [5, 16]   Nepal's GHG emissions are estimated at roughly 40 megatons of CO 2 equivalent (CO 2 eq) per year, including emissions from Land Use Change and Forestry (LUCF) 10  [16]. Per capita annual GHG emissions, including LUCF, are less than a quarter of the world average, at 1.52 tons of CO 2 eq."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"More than half of the country's total emissions come from the agricultural sector. Of all agricultural emissions, 60% are attributable to enteric fermentation and manure management from livestock production. Meanwhile, approximately 24% of agricultural emissions result from cropping practices including rice cultivation, crop residues, cultivation of organic soils, burning of crop residues, and the use of synthetic fertilizers. Promotion of practices and technologies geared towards improved efficiency in animal production (e.g., balanced animal nutrition, reduction of disease incidence, and genetic improvement) can, therefore, be crucial for GHG reduction in Nepal. Recent trends in cropland intensification suggest an accelerated increase in agricultural emissions unless adequate measures to apply and manage agricultural inputs (such as precise fertilizer management techniques) are implemented."}]},{"head":"Agricultural greenhouse gas emissions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Challenges for the agricultural sector Despite various efforts to increase production and productivity of agriculture, the gap between national food demand and supply is increasing in Nepal. The population is expected to reach approximately 33 million by 2030 and 36 million by 2050, with particularly high growth rates in urban areas. Similarly, life expectancy is also projected to increase from 70.9 years in 2015 to 73.7 years by 2030 and 78 years by 2050 [17]. Household consumption expenditures are also increasing in the country at an annual rate of 2.9% [3] and people tend to consume more rice, vegetables and meat products than before."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"With agricultural activities practiced on small, fragmented pieces of land 11 , poor road access, mechanization and commercialization of food and food products remains a challenge for small-scale farmers. Although some cooperative-based marketing systems have been established for vegetable and dairy sectors, the market structure for other crops and livestock is very weak and unknown among most farmers. Support for minimum prices or other market risk reduction measures (e.g., warehousing, insurance) are scarce."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"In the absence of rigorous land use planning, many agricultural areas in the country have been converted to serve other non-agricultural purposes (such as housing). This has effectively led to a shrinking of land area available for cultivation and pastures. A surge in youth migration to towns and cities has led to further land abandonment in remote areas. Community forestry programs, meanwhile, have successfully led to an increase in the forest cover in Nepal."},{"index":4,"size":49,"text":"An increase in cropping intensity 12 has not only allowed for the production of more food on limited arable land, but has also contributed to environmental and soil health degradation, manifested through lower soil fertility, high soil erosion (especially in the areas with intense tillage), and higher environmental pollution."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"Limited knowledge about sustainable agricultural practices is attributed to the low coverage of agricultural extension services in the country (the extension worker to farmer ratio in Nepal is roughly 1:1,000). This has not only led to low yields [19], but also to the adoption of practices that have done more harm than good to the soil and the environment. Overgrazing in the hilly and mountainous regions has affected the availability and productivity of native pastures. Meanwhile, crop intensification without adequate fertilizer management has contributed to the loss of soil micronutrients and soil organic matter across all regions [1]."},{"index":6,"size":56,"text":"The underperformance of the agriculture sector is also linked to the inadequacy of irrigation services in the country. Around 55% of agricultural land is reported to be irrigated, yet year-round provision of water is often limited, making major crops like rice and wheat highly dependent on rainfall and potentially bringing about new conflicts over water resources."},{"index":7,"size":61,"text":"Nepal also lacks a reliable supply of quality seed and inputs, contributing to low seed replacement rates (SRR) 13 for rice (4.4%), wheat (4-8%), maize (3.8%), and pulses (1.6%) [20], compared to a desirable rate of 25%-30%. Moreover, despite government subsidies, fertilizer use is very low in the country, due to a lack of timely supply and know-how for adequate application."},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"Next to crop cultivation, livestock production is a key source of income and livelihoods for the majority of farm households. Yet, low livestock productivity is a major challenge, especially for poor farm households. Although in 2015 the government established a separate Ministry of Livestock Development, progress in enhancing availability and quality of livestock-targeted extension is slow and access to modern animal health services and genetic improvement services remains scarce. Use of traditional breeds (and limited availability of improved breeding stock), inadequate housing and feeding conditions, insufficient supply of inputs such as quality feeds, lack of strong milk/meat/ wool processing plants and other commercial operations as well as a lack of established insurance schemes and risk transfer mechanisms are among the main reasons for underperformance of the livestock sector."},{"index":9,"size":45,"text":"Poor investment capacity is linked with high poverty rates among smallholder farmers in Nepal. Government investment in the agriculture sector has been diminishing in recent years, while foreign investment in the agriculture sector is less than 1% of total foreign investment in the country [21]."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"Due to its landlocked position, Nepal's trade relations are mainly developed with India. Although the country is trying to enhance trade relations with China, trade with India is likely to dominate for the foreseeable future. Nevertheless, strong trade barriers (e.g., high tariff rates and sanitary and phytosanitary requirements and other non-tariff barriers) have discouraged Nepalese exports to the country."},{"index":11,"size":22,"text":"11 The average land holding per person in Nepal has been decreasing, from 0.8 ha in 2001/02 to 0.7 ha in 2011/12."},{"index":12,"size":66,"text":"12 Calculated using the effective area sown to temporary crops divided by the physical area under temporary crops. Cropping intensity in Nepal has increased from 1.78 in 1991/92 to 1.85 in 2011/12, with steadier growth recorded in the Terai than in the hills and mountains [18] 13 SRR indicates the percentage of the cropped area that sowed with quality (certified) seed compared to farm saved seed.."}]},{"head":"Agriculture and climate change","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"Precipitation in Nepal ranges between 150 mm and over 5,000 mm per annum, varying considerably across the country's topography. Roughly 80% of the total rainfall occurs during the monsoon season, which usually lasts over three months [22]."},{"index":2,"size":103,"text":"An analysis of weather data recorded between 1971 and 2012 shows significant spatial and temporal (inter-annual) variation, with increases in annual precipitation of 0.7 mm/ year and temperature increases of 0.04°C/year and 0.01°C/ year for maximum and minimum temperature, respectively. Particularly high precipitation increases were registered at higher altitudes (up to 6.6 mm/year), while decreases were experienced in mid-hills regions (-2.3 mm/year) [22]. Other studies reported increased variation of rainfall and a higher risk of drought events in the winter seasons in Nepal. An increase in the number of dry days in pre-and post-monsoon periods and of heavy rainstorms was also identified [26]."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Based on the averages of several Global Circulation Models (GCMs), climate projections for Nepal suggest a continued"},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"The impact of climate change on net trade in Nepal (2020-2050) [29]   increase in mean annual temperature 14 , a faster warming of the country's western regions, (compared the eastern region), changes in precipitation during the monsoon period (with variations from -14 to 40%), as well as the increased likelihood of heavy precipitation events. While there is considerable uncertainty in climate models with respect to precipitation, it is likely that Nepal will receive higher total rainfall in the future, particularly in the central and western regions [27]."},{"index":5,"size":71,"text":"Changes in precipitation patterns are likely to affect rainfed agricultural activities, causing significant annual yield variability and higher production risks. Climate change is also expected to increase the frequency of weatherrelated hazards (e.g. droughts and floods), further affecting croplands and yields. Costs associated with the impacts of climate variability and extreme events are estimated at US$ 270-360 million/year (expressed in 2013 prices), representing 1.5 to 2% of the country's GDP [28]."},{"index":6,"size":24,"text":"Projected changes in temperature and precipitation in Nepal by 2050 [23, 24, 25]   Changes in annual mean temperature (°C) Changes in total precipitation (%)"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"Average precipitation (%) Average temperature (°C) 14 The increase ranges between 0.5 and 2.0° C by 2030."}]},{"head":"Potential economic impacts of climate change","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"An analysis using the International Model for Policy Analysis of Agricultural Commodities and Trade (IMPACT) 15  [Robinson et al., 2015] was carried out for the selected key production systems in Nepal, analyzing impacts of climate change over the period of 2020 -2050, on net trade, yield and area (for crops), and animal numbers (for livestock products). The results are presented as the percentage differences between a scenario where climate change occurs (CC) compared to a scenario without climate change (NoCC). The results show that CC has mixed effects on agricultural production, potentially contributing to the increase in yields and land area for some crops, and decreases for others 16 . For example, climate change is likely to increase rice, vegetable and sugarcane crop areas, while reducing the area of maize, wheat, lentil and potato."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"In terms of yield levels, maize, potato, sugarcane and lentil are likely to be most negatively affected by CC, as yields in 2050 are projected to be lower by -16.1%, -8.9%, -8.0% and -4.9% under a CC scenario, as compared to NoCC. Also rice and vegetable yields are expected to be lower under CC than under NoCC, yet the projected differences are comparably small (-0.4% and -0.1%, respectively). Wheat, on the contrary, is likely to benefit from climate change, as by 2050 the yield levels are shown to be 3.4% higher under CC than NoCC."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Regarding livestock, the future scenarios indicate that between 2020 and 2050, climate change will negatively influence the number of cattle and buffalo kept for dairy and milk production (by -0.46 and -0.32%), while the impact on number of goat is projected to be almost the same for both scenarios (+0.04pp under CC)."},{"index":4,"size":159,"text":"Regardless of the scenario, crop modeling results suggest that Nepal may become more dependent on imports of maize, potatoes, rice, vegetables (as group) and wheat in the period of 2020 to 2050. However, the impact is less pronounced under CC than under the NoCC scenario. Comparing both scenarios, climate change is projected to improve (decrease) the net trade deficit for several crops and livestock products, as net imports under CC are projected to be lower for rice (-21.9 percentage points [pp]), potato (-1.7pp), maize (-1.2pp), wheat (-0.2pp), vegetables (-0.01pp) and cattle meat (-0.01pp). At the same time, net import of lentils and goat meat are projected to be higher under CC by +2.06pp and +0.5pp, respectively, with goat meat transitioning from a net export product in 2020 to a net import product in 2050. In terms of exports, model results suggest that levels for dairy exports are likely to be more pronounced under CC by 0.9pp, compared to NoCC."},{"index":5,"size":11,"text":"15 IMPACT, developed by the International Food Policy Research Institute [30],"},{"index":6,"size":150,"text":"is a partial equilibrium model using a system of linear and non-linear equations designed to approximate supply and demand relationships at a global scale. This study used the standard IMPACT model version 3.2, less the IMPACT-Water module. The tool uses the General Algebraic Modeling System (GAMS) program to solve a system of supply and demand equations for equilibrium world prices for commodities. The tool generates results for agricultural yields, area, production, consumption, prices and trade, as well as indicators of food security. 16 The IMPACT model scenarios are defined by two major components: (i) the Shared Socioeconomic Pathways (SSPs), which are global pathways that represent alternative futures of societal evolution and (ii) the Representative Concentration Pathways (RCPs), which represent potential greenhouse gas emission levels in the atmosphere and the subsequent increase in solar energy that would be absorbed (radiative forcing) [31]. This study used SSP 2 and RCP 4.5 pathways."},{"index":7,"size":77,"text":"Climate change impacts on yield, crop area and livestock numbers in Nepal [29]  CSA technologies and practices present opportunities for addressing climate change challenges, as well as for economic growth and development of the agriculture sector. For this profile, practices are considered CSA if they enhance food security as well as at least one of the other objectives of CSA (adaptation and/or mitigation). Hundreds of technologies and approaches around the world fall under the heading of CSA."},{"index":8,"size":128,"text":"Most CSA practices identified in the study address key challenges to the agricultural sector, such as water stress, soil erosion and reduced soil fertility, and higher incidences of pests and diseases due to climate change. These practices include: precision nutrient management in cereals and rice (using leaf color charts or green seekers, and improving the timing, placement, rate and source of fertilizer application), improved water and irrigation management for rice, vegetables, potato and sugar cane (using wastewater collection and rainwater harvesting techniques, or implementing efficient irrigation such as ridge and furrows in potatoes, solar-based irrigation in rice, or micro-irrigation in vegetables), soil conservation techniques such as zerotillage sowing and conservation agriculture 17 in wheat, maize, lentils and mustard, or even ratoon management for minimum soil disturbance in sugarcane."},{"index":9,"size":77,"text":"Crop intensification techniques (legume intercropping or mixed cropping in cereals, sugarcane or lentils) are also common. Traditional crop rotation systems, such as ricewheat in the Terai region, or maize-millet in the hill region, are sometimes further complemented by adding leguminous intercrops (such as mungbean catch-cropping between rice and wheat), which helps increase the system's overall productivity by allowing the cultivation of an additional crop, maintaining continuous soil cover, increasing soil organic matter, and replenishing soil nitrogen content."},{"index":10,"size":35,"text":"Other techniques include improved planting and management of crops via integration of beekeeping for supplementary pollination, integrated pest management (for late blight and red ant in potato), or use of droughttolerant and high-yielding varieties (lentil)."},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"Livestock practices mostly address challenges related to fodder shortages and farm yard manure (FYM) management. Cattle, buffalo and goats (for meat and dairy) are particularly vulnerable to climate change in the mid-hill and higher mountain ranges, where increased water stress, temperature abnormalities and reduced fodder availability render livestock production challenging. Therefore, CSA practices for dairy and goat focus on the adoption of good husbandry practices such as: improved feed and fodder management via increased production, processing and storage of fodder crops (e.g. through agro-forestry); shift to"}]},{"head":"CSA technologies and practices","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"total or partial stall feeding to improve manure and nutrient management, increase productivity and reduce/reverse deforestations, and promotion of stress-tolerant breeds by use of artificial insemination."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"While the analysis focuses on crop-and livestock-specific practices, many of these measures increase their overall effectiveness if combined at farm level in a way to enhance the resilience of the whole agriculture system. For example, planting permanent trees and hedge crops can address landslide risks, complementing field-level CSA practices (such as precision nutrient management) and thus bring additional benefits to the system."},{"index":3,"size":20,"text":"Also, changing from one crop system to another may be an efficient production decision on a farm in some cases."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"For instance, with rice being a highly water-demanding crop, changing it to a suitable alternative crop, which would increase the efficiency of water and help reduce methane emission, would be a more viable and sustainable option for both farmers and the entire agricultural system."},{"index":5,"size":13,"text":"Furthermore, innovative methods for disseminating knowledge and skills need further exploration and promotion."},{"index":6,"size":70,"text":"Modern ICT-based approaches (mobile phone applications), have been used in pilot projects to provide agro-advisories and weather forecasts throughout the country 18 . Adapting the learnings from farmer-to-farmer extension systems for integrated pest management (IPM) (through farmers' school) and from similar approaches (such as diversity field schools, climate field schools) shows high potential for disseminating knowledge and skills, in a context where government resources for agricultural extension services are limited."},{"index":7,"size":45,"text":"Last but not least, improved capacity of local institutions for planning, accessing funds and implementing climate change adaptation actions are important enablers of innovation. Building institutions at community level, such as community seed banks, can support communities in identifying, testing and adopting new CSA practices."},{"index":8,"size":112,"text":"The following graphics present a selection of CSA practices with high climate smartness scores according to expert evaluations. The average climate smartness score is calculated based on the practice's individual scores on eight climate smartness dimensions that relate to the CSA pillars: yield (productivity); income, water, soil, risks (adaptation); energy, carbon and nitrogen (mitigation). A practice can have a negative/ positive/ zero impact on a selected CSA indicator, with 10 (+/-) indicating a 100% change (positive/ negative) and 0 indicating no change. Practices in the graphics have been selected for each production system key for food security identified in the study. A detailed explanation of the methodology is available in Annex 2."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"17 Refers here to zero-tillage with mulching from crop residues."},{"index":10,"size":41,"text":"18 For example: MoAD piloted an ICT based agro-advisory in its AMIS-PPCR project; LI-BIRD and CCAFS provided SMS based weather and agro-advisory service to farmers in Dang, Nawalparasi and Lamjung districts; ICIMOD and CEAPRED piloted SMS based agro-advisory in Kabhre district."},{"index":11,"size":136,"text":"Underground, or aquifer, water is the main source of irrigation in the Terai region, which accounts for 22.2% of total irrigated area in Nepal [21]. There, farmers often use diesel or electric pumps to extract water from underground sources. Yet these pumps are very expensive, depend on an unreliable electricity or diesel supply, and produce significant amounts of GHG emissions. The initial investment for installing solar-based irrigation systems is high, as it costs approximately US$ 10,000 to install a solar unit capable of extracting 120,000 liters of water per day. Therefore, supporting the communities for the investment is important. For this project, 75% of the investment was incurred by the project funds, while the remaining 25% was covered by the local community. Farmers also generated additional resources by leveraging support from local and district development funds."}]},{"head":"Solar","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"After the installation of the solar-powered irrigation system, farmers were able to establish rice nurseries and to transplant rice at earlier dates, minimizing the risk of crop failure. With a guaranteed water supply, farmers are gradually converting to commercial vegetable production, which is likely to increase cropping intensity by 200-300%, eventually leading to improved income."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"A post-hoc investment analysis for the 12 solar-based irrigation systems shows that the average benefit-cost ratio of the investment is 4.6 over a period period of 12 years [32]. When these systems were installed, Nepal's government did not provide subsidies on solar-based water pumping for irrigation (though often there was 75% subsidy on solarbased pumping for drinking water). Yet the government recently revised the policy to include irrigation schemes in its subsidy scheme, which could encourage communities to invest in this technology in to the future."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Case study: Solar-based irrigation system  Institutions and policies for CSA Nepal has multiple institutions and policies advancing sustainable agricultural development and climate change adaptation, and many of them are key for providing an enabling environment for research, development, and promotion of CSA practices. The following graphic highlights key institutions whose main activities relate to one, two or three CSA pillars (adaptation, productivity and mitigation). More information on the methodology is available in Annex 3."},{"index":4,"size":68,"text":"Most of the institutions involved in CSA in Nepal promote practices for increasing agricultural productivity and food security, and environmental sustainability (eco-agricultural practices). While none of the government agencies had explicitly worked on CSA before 2016 (some CSA practices were promoted by agricultural extension workers without referring explicitly to the concept) several initiatives by non-governmental organizations (NGOs) have played an important role in informing policy makers on CSA."},{"index":5,"size":249,"text":"Nepal adopted a new constitution in 2015 envisioning a federalist reform. Once the new federalist structure is in place, it will devolve the agricultural sector yielding higher authority and decision-power to local governments (i.e. municipalities and rural municipalities). This is likely to facilitate targeted, localized planning, and will contribute to promoting, implementing and monitoring of CSA practices in Nepal. In general, these institutions operate within traditional hierarchical structures and with limited resources and capacity to operationalize their objectives. The institutions are highly fragmented and do not coordinate effectively, hindering the advancement of CSA on the public agenda, which requires aligned, integrated, multi-sectoral approaches to agricultural development. A multi-sectoral coordinating mechanism, such as the Nepal Planning Commission (NPC), has the potential to enhance coherence across sectors. NPC has already developed a climateresilient planning guideline with the intention of improving climate-sensitive development planning for all sectors. The graphic shows a selection of policies, strategies and programs that relate to agriculture and climate change topics and are considered key enablers of CSA in the country. The policy cycle classification aims to show gaps and opportunities in policy-making, referring to the three main stages: policy formulation (referring to a policy that is in an initial formulation stage/consultation process), policy formalization (to indicate the presence of mechanisms for the policy to process at national level) and policy in active implementation (to indicate visible progress/outcomes toward achieving larger policy goals, through concrete strategies and action plans). For more information on the methodology, see Annex 4."}]},{"head":"Policies for CSA in Nepal","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Nepal ratified the UNFCCC in 1994, signed the Kyoto Protocol in 2002, and ratified the Paris Agreement in 2016. The country has already submitted two National Communications to the UNFCCC, in 2007 and in 2013, and submitted its Nationally Determined Contribution (NDCs) in 2016. In the last decade, the government has formulated a number of key policies with an emphasis on managing climate change as a cross-cutting priority topic in national plans. A few notable policies include: "}]},{"head":"Financing CSA","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Financing is critical for incentivizing farmers and communities, public institutions and the private sector to invest in the development and promotion of CSA in Nepal."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"The graphic highlights existing and potential financing opportunities for CSA in Nepal. The methodology can be found in Annex 5."}]},{"head":"Financing opportunities for CSA in Nepal","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"National opportunities for funding research and development in the agriculture sector include public funds channeled through various ministries and departments, commercial banks (which provide loans to farmers), NGOs, community forestry user groups (e.g., CFUG fund), and, to some extent, private sector companies (particularly seed and agribusiness companies)."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"Financing for the agricultural sector, both from the national budget and from international cooperation, has oscillated, decreasing significantly over the last decade. Hence, access to financing opportunities for CSA has been rather limited."},{"index":3,"size":185,"text":"About 8.3% of all foreign grants and 7.8% of foreign loans are spent on the agriculture, forestry and fishery sectors 19 . Agriculture sector expenditure in 2012 was US$ 0.19 billion, or approximately 5% of the total agriculture GDP of the country [30]. Approximately US$ 17.8 million-representing 0.3% of the agriculture GDP 20 -was spent on agricultural research in 2012, which is lower than in neighboring countries, India and Bangladesh [37]. The share of agriculture expenditures in the total budget is likely to increase in the future in Nepal, although concerns over the capacity of MoAD and MoLD to expend the budget remain. Despite the fact that donor assistance increased slightly after the end of Nepal's 10year conflict, the capacity to absorb these funds by the government has been limited [21]. New international climate funds such as the Green Climate Fund (GCF) offer opportunities to leverage funds for scaling-up CSA throughout the country. Nepal has already been awarded small-scale financial support from the GCF to prepare its NAP (US$ 2.9 million). Nepal has initiated the process to access larger GCF grants in the near future."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Furthermore, there is great potential for increasing funding of CSA practices by focusing on investing in local government plans and extension systems. With the bulk of agricultural decision-making power devolved to the local government level, mainstreaming of CSA into local government plans allows for the mobilization of funds and block-grants received from the central treasury to scale-up CSA practices at the community level."},{"index":5,"size":37,"text":"There is also vast potential for private sector engagement in CSA promotion, through weather-based insurance, ICTbased agro-advisory services, development and marketing of climate-resilient seeds, and the promotion of agricultural machinery and tools, among others. The banking sector"}]},{"head":"Potential Finance","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"can play an important role by increasing access to financial services to enable investments in capital-intensive CSA practices like solar-based irrigation, micro-irrigation systems, or cattle shed improvement. There is a need for assessing the constraints for increased private sector investment in this field and for removing barriers through effective public-private-partnerships."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" National and international NGOs and development agencies have been more proactive in supporting CSA practices, implementing projects that aim to enhance the adaptive capacity and livelihoods of smallholder farmers and to address climate risks. Institutions like the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) and the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP) have provided technical support to develop programs and policies for climate change adaptation in agriculture. Several institutions have initiated projects with the explicit objectives of piloting and promoting CSA practices. For instance, LI-BIRD and CCAFS jointly implemented a CSA project through which they identified champion CSA practices for three AEZs and developed CSA scale-up strategies. LI-BIRD is also a key actor in implementing the CSV program. Furthermore, Practical Action led a project to promote CSA practices for industrial crops through private sector engagement. The International Centre for Integrated Mountain Development (ICIMOD) and the Center for Environment and Agricultural Policy Research (CEAPRED) are piloting a Resilient Mountain Village concept with strong emphasis on CSA for hill systems. The Government of Nepal has been proactive in setting up policies and strategies for climate change adaptation. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" -powered water pumping has been piloted as an alternative to diesel and electric pumps in Nepal. With support from the CGIAR Research Program on Climate Change, Agriculture and Food Security (CCAFS) and the Climate and Development Knowledge Network (CDKN), Local Initiatives for Biodiversity, Research, and Development (LI-BIRD) piloted 12 solar-powered irrigation systems to extract water from various sources (e.g. streams, ponds, and aquifers) in Bardiya, Dang, Nawalparasi and Mahottari districts in Nepal's Terai region. Solar powered water pumping is an environmentally friendly CSA technology that reduces GHG emissions from diesel pumps while providing a reliable source of water for irrigation.  "},{"text":"CSA practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars  Rice (31% of total harvested area)  Rice (31% of total harvested area)  Rain-fed  Rain-fed  Terai Productivity TeraiProductivity   Increments in yield due to the higher Increments in yield due to the higher   number of tillers and better grain quality. number of tillers and better grain quality. System of rice intensification with Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD) Irrigated Terai Adaptation Minimizes water use and increases water use efficiency for rice cultivation. Enables larger area for cultivation in areas with limited water availability. Mitigation System of rice intensification with Alternate Wetting and Drying (AWD)Irrigated TeraiAdaptation Minimizes water use and increases water use efficiency for rice cultivation. Enables larger area for cultivation in areas with limited water availability. Mitigation   Reduced methane emission from rice fields. Reduced methane emission from rice fields.  Rain-fed Terai Productivity Increases in productivity and income Rain-fed TeraiProductivity Increases in productivity and income   through system intensification. through system intensification. Irrigation at   Irrigation at critical time   critical time (solar-based)   (solar-based) Crop   Crop intensification Mid-hill  intensificationMid-hill (legume   (legume intercropping,   intercropping, terracing)   terracing)   Productivity Productivity   Higher profits due to increased crop yields Higher profits due to increased crop yields   and reduced production costs. and reduced production costs. Conservation  Adaptation ConservationAdaptation agriculture (minimun Mid-hill Increases moisture retention due to mulching and cover crops, reduces soil agriculture (minimunMid-hillIncreases moisture retention due to mulching and cover crops, reduces soil tillage,  erosion caused by heavy downpours. tillage,erosion caused by heavy downpours. cover crop,   cover crop, intercropping)   intercropping)  "},{"text":"Table 1 . Detailed smartness assessment for top ongoing CSA practices by production system as implemented in Nepal. <30 30-60 60>      <3030-6060> <30%       <30% <30%       <30% <30%       <30% <30%       <30% <30%       <30% <30%       <30%  Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient YieldIncomeWaterSoilRisk/InformationEnergyCarbonNutrient  "},{"text":"small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars Maize   <30 30- 60> <3030-60>    Productivity Productivity    Higher profits due to increased crop yields Higher profits due to increased crop yields    and reduced production costs. and reduced production costs. Conservation   Adaptation ConservationAdaptation agriculture (minimun Terrai Increases moisture retention due to mulching and cover crops, reduces soil agriculture (minimunTerraiIncreases moisture retention due to mulching and cover crops, reduces soil tillage, <30% erosion caused by heavy downpours. tillage,<30%erosion caused by heavy downpours. cover crop, intercropping)   Mitigation Reduces fuel requirements for tillage. cover crop, intercropping)Mitigation Reduces fuel requirements for tillage.    Mulching and cover crops increase soil Mulching and cover crops increase soil    carbon capture and Soil Organic Matter carbon capture and Soil Organic Matter    (SOM). (SOM). Wheat (15% of total harvested area) Wheat (15% of total harvested area)  Rain-fed Terai Rain-fed Terai  <30% <30% Conservation   Conservation agriculture   agriculture (zero/minimum   (zero/minimum tillage,   tillage, mulching)   mulching)  Irrigated Terai Irrigated Terai  <30% <30%  Rain-fed Terai Rain-fed Terai  <30% <30% Mixed   Mixed cropping with   cropping with leguminous   leguminous species and   species and mustard   mustard  <30% <30%    Productivity Productivity    Increases in yield due to appropriate water Increases in yield due to appropriate water    management. management. Micro-irrigation (drip irrigation, sprinkle) Terai Adaptation Increases availability of water. Minimizes water use per unit of production, increasing water use efficiency. Micro-irrigation (drip irrigation, sprinkle)TeraiAdaptation Increases availability of water. Minimizes water use per unit of production, increasing water use efficiency.    Mitigation Mitigation    Reduces energy required for irrigation. Reduces energy required for irrigation.  "},{"text":"60 <30% Nepal CSA practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars Vegetables   <30 30- 60> <3030-60>    Productivity Productivity    Increases in yield due to appropriate water Increases in yield due to appropriate water    management. management. Micro-irrigation Mid-hill Adaptation Micro-irrigationMid-hillAdaptation (drip irrigation,   Increases availability of water. Minimizes (drip irrigation,Increases availability of water. Minimizes sprinkle)   water use per unit of production, increasing sprinkle)water use per unit of production, increasing    water use efficiency. water use efficiency.    Mitigation Mitigation    Reduces energy required for irrigation. Reduces energy required for irrigation.  Mid-hill Productivity Increases in yield, income and household Mid-hillProductivity Increases in yield, income and household    nutrition by enabling vegetable growing in nutrition by enabling vegetable growing in    extremely dry areas. extremely dry areas. Waste-water   Waste-water collection   collection and rainwater   and rainwater harvesting   harvesting  Irrigated Irrigated  terai terai Zero tillage   Zero tillage seeding for   seeding for relay cropping   relay cropping  Rainfed terai Rainfed terai    Productivity Productivity    Increases in income due to harvesting of Increases in income due to harvesting of    multiple crops. multiple crops. Mixed cropping with mustard or wheat Rain-fed Terai Adaptation Reduces risk of complete crop failure. Allows optimum use of scarce water resources. Mitigation Mixed cropping with mustard or wheatRain-fed TeraiAdaptation Reduces risk of complete crop failure. Allows optimum use of scarce water resources. Mitigation    Increases above-and below-ground Increases above-and below-ground    biomass and carbon capture compared to biomass and carbon capture compared to    mono-cropping. mono-cropping.  "},{"text":"60 30-60% 30-60% <30% <30% <30% >60%  CSA        CSA Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient YieldIncomeWaterSoilRisk/InformationEnergyCarbonNutrient  "},{"text":"practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars   <30 30- 60> <3030-60> Lentil (4% of total harvested area) Lentil (4% of total harvested area)    Productivity Productivity    Increases in income due to harvesting of Increases in income due to harvesting of    multiple crops. multiple crops.    Adaptation Adaptation Zero tillage   Reduces risk of complete crop failure. Zero tillageReduces risk of complete crop failure. seeding for Irrigated terai Allows optimum use of scarce water seeding forIrrigated teraiAllows optimum use of scarce water relay cropping   resources. relay croppingresources.    Mitigation Mitigation    Increases above-and below-ground Increases above-and below-ground    biomass and carbon capture compared to biomass and carbon capture compared to    mono-cropping. mono-cropping.  <30% <30%  High hills/ High hills/  Mountains Mountains  <30% <30%  High hills/ High hills/  Mountains Mountains Appropriate   Appropriate planting   planting method (flat   method (flat bed in dry,   bed in dry, ridge-furrow in   ridge-furrow in wet)   wet)    Productivity Productivity    Promotes higher yield due to escape of Promotes higher yield due to escape of    terminal heat. Reduces production costs, terminal heat. Reduces production costs,    increasing profit. increasing profit.  Rain-fed Terai Rain-fed Terai Zero-tillage   Zero-tillage sowing   sowing  "},{"text":"60 <30% 30-60% 30-60% 30-60% Nepal CSA practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars   <30 30-60 60>     <3030-6060> Mustard (4% of total harvested area)     Mustard (4% of total harvested area)         Productivity Productivity         Promotes higher yield due to escape of Promotes higher yield due to escape of         terminal heat. Reduces production costs, terminal heat. Reduces production costs,         increasing profit. increasing profit. Zero-tillage sowing Irrigated Terai <30%      Adaptation Allows seed sowing even under water scarcity conditions. Allows early sowing helping to escape terminal heat. Maintains soil moisture in dry season. Zero-tillage sowingIrrigated Terai <30%Adaptation Allows seed sowing even under water scarcity conditions. Allows early sowing helping to escape terminal heat. Maintains soil moisture in dry season.         Mitigation Mitigation         Protects soil structure and organic carbon Protects soil structure and organic carbon         reserves. Promotes fuel and energy savings reserves. Promotes fuel and energy savings         due to reduced tillage. due to reduced tillage.  Rain-fed Terai <30%      Productivity Increases crop yield due to greater pollination. Rain-fed Terai <30%Productivity Increases crop yield due to greater pollination. Supplementary        Supplementary pollination        pollination (integration with        (integration with beekeeping)        beekeeping)  <30%      <30%  Rain-fed      Productivity Rain-fedProductivity  Terai      Reduces production costs, increases TeraiReduces production costs, increases  <30%      income. <30%income. Ratoon management (minimum soil disturbance)        Adaptation Minimizes soil disturbance, maximizing moisture availability. Ratoons are more adaptive to climatic stresses. Ratoon management (minimum soil disturbance)Adaptation Minimizes soil disturbance, maximizing moisture availability. Ratoons are more adaptive to climatic stresses.         Mitigation Mitigation  Irrigated Terai      Less fuel required for tillage thereby reducing GHG related emissions. Reduces water pumping/transport requirements. Irrigated TeraiLess fuel required for tillage thereby reducing GHG related emissions. Reduces water pumping/transport requirements.  30-60%      30-60%         Productivity Productivity         Increases in household income and profit Increases in household income and profit         due to harvesting of multiple crops. due to harvesting of multiple crops. Intercropping (autumn: lentil; spring: mung bean) Rain-fed Terai      Adaptation Integration of legume crop diversifies the production system, hence reduces risk of complete crop failure. Intercropping (autumn: lentil; spring: mung bean)Rain-fed TeraiAdaptation Integration of legume crop diversifies the production system, hence reduces risk of complete crop failure.         Mitigation Mitigation         Reduce requirement of synthetic Nitrogen- Reduce requirement of synthetic Nitrogen-         based fertilizers, reducing nitrous oxide based fertilizers, reducing nitrous oxide         emissions. emissions.   Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient YieldIncomeWaterSoilRisk/InformationEnergyCarbonNutrient  "},{"text":"<30% CSA practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars Sugar cane (1% of total harvested area) <30 30- 60> <3030-60>    Productivity Productivity    Increases in household income and profit Increases in household income and profit    due to harvesting of multiple crops. due to harvesting of multiple crops. Intercropping (autumn: lentil; spring: mung bean) Irrigated terai <30% Adaptation Integration of legume crop diversifies the production system, hence reduces risk of complete crop failure. Intercropping (autumn: lentil; spring: mung bean)Irrigated terai <30%Adaptation Integration of legume crop diversifies the production system, hence reduces risk of complete crop failure.    Mitigation Mitigation    Reduce requirement of synthetic Nitrogen- Reduce requirement of synthetic Nitrogen-    based fertilizers, reducing nitrous oxide based fertilizers, reducing nitrous oxide    emissions. emissions. Cow and buffalo (milk) (NA) Cow and buffalo (milk) (NA)  <30% <30% Stall feeding   Stall feeding combined with   combined with biogas plantt   biogas plantt  Mid-hill Mid-hill Improved   Improved farm yard   farm yard manure (FYM)   manure (FYM) management   management  Mid-hill Mitigation Mid-hillMitigation  <30% Reduces GHG emissions by reducing use of synthetic fertilizers. <30%Reduces GHG emissions by reducing use of synthetic fertilizers. Goat (meat) (NA)   Goat (meat) (NA)    Productivity Productivity    Faster growth and higher feed conversion Faster growth and higher feed conversion    ratio due to proper housing. ratio due to proper housing.  High-hill Adaptation High-hillAdaptation Improved   Reduces exposure to adverse climatic ImprovedReduces exposure to adverse climatic goat-sheds   conditions, reducing animal stresses (e.g. goat-shedsconditions, reducing animal stresses (e.g.    cold waves). cold waves).  "},{"text":"60 <30% 30-60% 30-60% Nepal CSA practice Region and adoption rate (%) Predominant farm scale S: small scale M: medium scale L: large scale Climate smartness Impact on CSA Pillars  <30 30-60 60>     <3030-6060> Goat (meat) (NA)        Goat (meat) (NA)         Productivity Productivity         Faster growth and higher feed conversion Faster growth and higher feed conversion         ratio due to proper housing. ratio due to proper housing.         Adaptation Adaptation Improved goat-sheds Mid-hill <30%      Enhances soil moisture and fertility. Reduces soil erosion and increases biodiversity. Improved goat-shedsMid-hill <30%Enhances soil moisture and fertility. Reduces soil erosion and increases biodiversity.         Mitigation Mitigation         Increases carbon storage in soils. Reduces Increases carbon storage in soils. Reduces         use of synthetic fertilizers and related GHG use of synthetic fertilizers and related GHG         emissions. emissions.  High-hill      Productivity Reduces loss of assets and income from High-hillProductivity Reduces loss of assets and income from  < 30%      livestock, thereby increasing household profits. < 30%livestock, thereby increasing household profits. Reduce inbreeding by providing new bucks        Adaptation Reduces the risk to extreme climate conditions without compromising production and quality. Reduce inbreeding by providing new bucksAdaptation Reduces the risk to extreme climate conditions without compromising production and quality.  Mid-hill      Mid-hill  30-60%      30-60%    Yield Income Water Soil Risk/Information Energy Carbon Nutrient YieldIncomeWaterSoilRisk/InformationEnergyCarbonNutrient  "},{"text":" The Ministry of Finance (MoF), through the Central Treasury, allocates funds to different ministries based on the annual program approved by the NPC. The focal ministry for CSA is MoAD, with MoLD, the Ministry of Irrigation (MoI), MoFALD, these local funds. Nepal has also accessed most of the climate change funds established under the UNFCCC framework. The Least Developed Country Fund (LDCF), for example, was accessed to develop Nepal's NAPA and the Adaptation Fund (AF), provided financial support to implement climate change adaptation activities in the western hills. The Climate Investment Fund (CIF), meanwhile, enabled the implementation of a Pilot Program for Climate Resilience (PPCR), part of which focuses on developing an agriculture management information system for promoting weather-based agroadvisory services to farmers. Finally, Global Environment Facility (GEF) funds-supported by the International Fund for Agricultural Development-have been used for running Overcoming institutional and policy barriers for CSA scaleup requires a multi-pronged approach to agricultural development and multi-stakeholder alignment and coordination. In this regards, strengthening the role of NPC could be crucial for advancing CSA practices on the public agenda in Nepal. Moreover, local policies, such as LAPAs, have proven successful in providing a model for planning and implementation of adaptation actions at lower levels of decision-making. LAPAs now represent opportunities for prioritizing and mainstreaming CSA actions.Strengthening the capacity of frontline extension staff and establishing an institutional structure to coordinate the delivery of information to farmers is also important, especially where CSA practices and technologies are knowledge-intensive. Long-term planning and investment in infrastructure, access to productive resources for smallholders, institutional capacity, and strong publicprivate-cooperative partnerships would contribute to improving the research-extension-education continuum for enabling CSA. This also requires strengthening national climate and weather databases. Reliable and effective crop insurance, and weather forecasting and agro-advisory facilities are not possible without adequate investments in data collection and management. Such investments would also be a critical step towards increasing the government institutions' capacities for measurement, reporting and verification (MRV) of progress on national climate targets, which are adamant for successful implementation of climate policies outlined in the country's NDCs, and can be critical to increasing Nepal's access to financial resources dedicated to CSA.Outlookprojects supporting agriculture sector adaptation, though none of these projects explicitly promote CSA practices.Financing through Scaling-up Renewable Energy Program (SREP), the Forest Investment Program (FIP), the International Finance Corporation (IF), and BioCF (World Bank Bio Carbon Fund) has been accessed and used for promoting renewable energy, value chain development, agribusiness, and biogas-most of which are supportive of CSA goals. The World Bank and Asian Development Bank (ADB) have also invested in agricultural development and value chain projects, as have bilateral donors and INGOs.Several upcoming initiatives represent important opportunities for potential CSA finance in Nepal. The World Bank plans to support the government in improving the livestock sector by increasing productivity, enhancing value addition, and improving climate resilience of smallholder farms and agro-enterprises in selected livestock valuechains. MoAD, MoLD and FAO are also collaborating to access the GCF for building resilience of smallholder farmers in Nepal. These financing opportunities will be crucial for advancing CSA in Nepal.Nepal's CCP establishes an ambitious target to invest 80% of the climate change funds at the VDC level, with only 20% equally distributed among intermediary organizations for the purposes of coordination and implementation. An innovative approach to realize this goal has been Climate-Adapted Villages (CAV), piloted between 2013 and 2016, illustrating the ability of grassroots organizations to leverage local resources for adaptation. These pilots demonstrate that the integration of CSA into agricultural and local development plans increases the likelihood of co-finance and co-investment, which enhances the cost-effectiveness of climate finance. MoPE and their respective departments and district line MoPE and their respective departments and district line agencies which play a pivotal role in channeling agricultural agencies which play a pivotal role in channeling agricultural development funds and coordinating field implementation. development funds and coordinating field implementation. Although some of these funds may have been accessed Although some of these funds may have been accessed by farmers for adoption of CSA practices, the promotion by farmers for adoption of CSA practices, the promotion of CSA or climate change adaptation is not the explicit of CSA or climate change adaptation is not the explicit purpose of these funds. purpose of these funds. Several local funds, such as community forestry user group Several local funds, such as community forestry user group (CFUG) funds, have been used for the promotion of CSA (CFUG) funds, have been used for the promotion of CSA practices, yet their effective use could be increased with practices, yet their effective use could be increased with greater coordination and cooperation between agriculture greater coordination and cooperation between agriculture extension system and extension system and  "}],"sieverID":"d3ff2a56-3925-489f-b3d3-69f0652e0ef3","abstract":"The climate-smart agriculture (CSA) concept reflects an ambition to improve the integration of agriculture development and climate responsiveness. It aims to achieve food security and broader development goals under a changing climate and increasing food demand. CSA initiatives sustainably increase productivity, enhance resilience, and reduce/remove greenhouse gases (GHGs), and require planning to address tradeoffs and synergies between these three pillars: productivity, adaptation, and mitigation [1]. The priorities of different countries and stakeholders are reflected to achieve more efficient, effective, and equitable food systems that address challenges in Economic relevance of agriculture in Nepal [3, 5]   "}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"068b6b490012008cd5bda3a58ae131b8","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3e273051-f18f-4c2c-aa66-d4a793a35f68/retrieve"},"pageCount":23,"title":"Desafíos y oportunidades para el sector papa en la zona andina en el contexto de la COVID-19","keywords":["Value chain","food systems","malnutrition","health","family agriculture","decapitalization"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Palabras clave adicionales: Cadena de valor, sistemas alimentarios, malnutrición, salud, agricultura familiar, descapitalización."}]},{"head":"Introducción","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":112,"text":"La pandemia de la COVID-19, que se ha extendido rápida y ampliamente por todo el mundo desde finales del 2019, ha tenido profundas implicaciones para la seguridad alimentaria y la nutrición, principalmente en los segmentos más vulnerables de la población. Hemos sido testigos de una interrupción importante de las cadenas de suministro de alimentos, a nivel global, como consecuencia de las cuarentenas y cierre de fronteras provocados por la crisis mundial de salud, además de una importante desaceleración de la economía mundial. Esta pandemia ha afectado múltiples dimensiones de la vida social y económica, como los sistemas alimentarios, y sigue siendo una amenaza para el acceso de las personas a los alimentos."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"Esta crisis ha resultado en ingresos más bajos y precios fluctuantes de algunos alimentos, con alzas al inicio de la pandemia, lo que los colocó fuera del alcance de diversos segmentos de la población. La situación actual se caracteriza por un alto grado de incertidumbre. Estimaciones señalan que entre 83 y 132 millones de personas adicionales (FAO et al., 2020), que incluyen entre 38 a 80 millones de personas en países de bajos ingresos que dependen de las importaciones de alimentos, experimentarán inseguridad alimentaria como un resultado directo de la pandemia (Torero, 2020)."},{"index":3,"size":117,"text":"En América Latina, el número de personas que necesitan asistencia alimentaria casi se ha triplicado en el 2020 (Naciones Unidas, 2020). Se debe indicar que la seguridad alimentaria en la región andina depende en gran medida de la pequeña agricultura familiar que representa entre 60% al 80% de las unidades productivas en rubros como leche y derivados, papa, leguminosas y hortalizas. Es consenso que se hace necesario tener alternativas de intervención y de apoyo para reducir los efectos negativos de la crisis actual y reforzar la resiliencia. La crisis de la COVID-19 generó regulaciones estrictas sobre los mercados y la venta minorista de alimentos durante los primeros tres meses del cierre, a mediados de marzo del 2020."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"En Perú, esta situación deterioró la situación financiera de millones de familias y miles de empresas, las cuales estaban imposibilitadas de trabajar y operar, respectivamente. Una gran cantidad de la población, sobre todo urbana, quedó con ingresos económicos mermados o, directamente, sin ingresos. Las cifras no pueden ser más elocuentes: en el trimestre móvil abril-mayo-junio 2020, se perdieron 6.7 millones de empleos a nivel nacional, respecto al mismo periodo del año anterior, lo que representa una caída de 39.6%"}]},{"head":"En","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"Colombia, las medidas de confinamiento generaron un gran impacto sobre la economía y el desempleo. Además, con el deterioro del mercado laboral, el consumo se redujo significativamente y la canasta de consumo se ha orientado principalmente hacia bienes de primera necesidad (Comunicación personal de Héctor Villarreal -Minagricultura)."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"El propósito de este artículo es proporcionar información que contribuya a comprender los efectos a corto plazo de la pandemia de la COVID-19 sobre el sector papa en la región andina y sus consecuencias para los actores de esta cadena, especialmente los pequeños productores."}]},{"head":"Metodología","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Durante el periodo entre abril 2020 y marzo 2021, se usó una metodología mixta para la colección de datos e información. La realización de este trabajo que incluyo revisión de literatura, información estadística, consulta de fuentes bibliográficas y revisión de materiales en línea, en gran parte coyunturales durante el transcurso de la pandemia, entrevistas a actores clave de la cadena de la papa y de entidades de investigación y desarrollo."},{"index":2,"size":80,"text":"En una primera parte se presenta la situación del sector papa en la zona andina y en una segunda sección, se analizan los efectos de la COVID-19 sobre la cadena de la papa, sus alcances sobre los actores de la cadena y las consecuencias de la pandemia sobre la agricultura familiar y los sistemas alimentarios basados en papa. Finalmente, se anotan algunas conclusiones y recomendaciones sobre las acciones y las políticas requeridas para sostener al sector papa y sus actores."}]},{"head":"Análisis crítico: Resultados y discusión","index":5,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"El sector papa en la zona andina","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"Las papas han sido domesticadas junto con otros cultivos andinos y se volvieron un alimento básico de las familias andinas durante miles de años. En las zonas altoandinas, se continúan cultivando más de 4,000 variedades de papas nativas y la papa sigue siendo el principal cultivo de los pequeños productores para su alimentación y como una fuente importante de ingresos (Devaux et al., 2020)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Antes de presentarse la actual crisis, la tendencia de producción en los países andinos mostraba un aumento, principalmente en Perú y Colombia, mientras que, en los otros tres países, la producción no mostraba cambios importantes (Figura 1)."},{"index":3,"size":151,"text":"En Perú, el sector papa ha sido uno de los más dinámicos de la agricultura en los últimos años. Algunos indicadores, en base a información oficial (MINAGRI, 2016), nos confirman esta situación para el período 2005-2016, donde los principales indicadores han tenido un crecimiento importante: el área sembrada 22.9%; la producción 42.4%; el rendimiento 19.2%; los precios nominales promedios en chacra 140.5%; el consumo per cápita 20.2%. En este marco, el Perú se ha convertido en el primer productor de papa de Latinoamérica y ocupa el puesto número 12 en el mundo. Se han desarrollado segmentos de mercados asociados a la biodiversidad de las variedades nativas para el mercado nacional e internacional. Se estima el rendimiento promedio en 15 toneladas métricas (tm) por ha. De este cultivo dependen más de 700,000 familias, sembrando un poco más de 380,000 hectáreas con una producción de 5.7 millones de toneladas al año (MIDAGRI, 2020)."},{"index":4,"size":145,"text":"En Ecuador, la papa es uno de los principales cultivos tradicionales y en su producción se vinculan alrededor de 85,000 familias. El 97% de la producción de papa se obtiene en la sierra, principalmente en la zona central (Chimborazo, Tungurahua, Cotopaxi) con 45% y en la zona norte (Carchi, Imbabura) con 45%, donde se siembra casi todo el año. De acuerdo con el Instituto Nacional de Estadísticas y Censos (INEC, 2020) y su última encuesta de Superficie y Producción Agropecuaria Continua, la superficie cosechada y sembrada de papa ha ido disminuyendo en los últimos años, llegando en el 2019 a alrededor de 20,600 hectáreas, con una producción de 275,000 tm al año. Esto representa una reducción marcada ya que hace algunos años se encontraba por encima de las 300,000 tm. Se estima que el rendimiento promedio en la actualidad llega a 13.3 tm por ha."},{"index":5,"size":163,"text":"En Bolivia, existen casi 200 mil hectáreas de este cultivo, involucrando a más de 250,000 familias. Su producción es de alrededor de 1.1 millones de toneladas de papa anuales. El 93% de la producción primaria se obtiene de tres de las cinco ecorregiones que existen en el país en los departamentos de La Paz, Potosí, Cochabamba, Oruro y Tarija. En los últimos años, la producción de papa se ha incrementado en los valles mesotérmicos de Santa Cruz y Cochabamba, donde el rendimiento puede llegar a niveles superiores a 20 tm por ha. La producción de estos valles abastece principalmente a las industrias de procesamiento. En contraste en muchas zonas de altura de los otros departamentos, la papa se siembra en condiciones de suelos pobres y con alto riesgo climático que ocasionan rendimientos bajos. El rendimiento promedio de Bolivia, que llega a 6.5 tm por ha, según la FAO, y como se muestra en la Figura 1, es el más bajo de la región."},{"index":6,"size":147,"text":"En Colombia, el área sembrada con papa en los últimos 10 años ha permanecido relativamente estable, fluctuando entre 122,000 y 131,000 hectáreas. Las variaciones del área están dadas mayoritariamente por el comportamiento de los precios del tubérculo en el ciclo inmediatamente anterior (Minagricultura, 2020). La producción en estos 10 años ha oscilado entre 2.5 y 2.8 millones de toneladas, de las cuales entre 6% y 8% se industrializa con el procesamiento, sobre todo en hojuelas (chips) o en papa a la francesa (bastones). Se estima que unas 100,000 familias se dedican al cultivo de la papa y el 95% siembra menos de tres hectáreas y de ese número, 80% menos de una ha. Los principales departamentos productores de papa son Cundinamarca, Boyacá, Nariño y Antioquia, los cuales concentran el 91% del área y la producción. Se estima que el rendimiento promedio llega a 20 t por ha."},{"index":7,"size":92,"text":"El papel que juega la papa en las dietas de los países andinos sigue siendo importante como alimento básico de los productores y consumidores (Figura 2). El consumo de papa constituye una proporción relativamente alta de la disponibilidad diaria de calorías, lo que refleja su importancia como fuente tradicional de energía. Al nivel de territorios más específicos, las variedades de papa nativa son una parte importante de la dieta local contribuyendo también a la nutrición, por su mayor contenido de micronutrientes (Zn y Fe), vitamina C y por ser ricas en antioxidantes."},{"index":8,"size":41,"text":"El Perú, se destaca como uno de los países donde el consumo de papa ha crecido significativamente, alcanzando en el 2019 una cifra de 90 kg/persona. Figura 1. Evolución de la producción de papa en los países de la zona andina."},{"index":9,"size":13,"text":"Figura 2. Evolución del consumo per cápita de papa en los países andinos."},{"index":10,"size":10,"text":"Fuente: FAOSTAT New Food Balances. Last Update February 19, 2020"},{"index":11,"size":74,"text":"Esto se debe a diversas políticas públicoprivadas, infraestructura rural, expansión del comercio de supermercados enfocado en la papa y una fuerte relación con el sector gastronómico, que incluye variedades nativas y la expansión de productos procesados. Lo interesante de este caso es que las formas de consumo se han diversificado y ahora se comercializa diversas presentaciones de productos frescos y procesados tanto para los mercados nacionales como para los internacionales (Ordinola et al., 2018)."},{"index":12,"size":153,"text":"En Ecuador, el consumo per cápita se mantiene desde hace varios años en alrededor de 20 a 25 kg/persona al año, siendo uno de los más bajos con relación a los otros países de la zona andina. En los últimos años el Ministerio de Agricultura y Ganadería viene buscando incentivar su consumo, estabilizar el precio y mejorar la rentabilidad de la producción. En la demanda nacional del producto se estima que alrededor del 75% se orienta al consumo doméstico, el 8% al consumo industrial y el 17% para semilla. En Bolivia, la papa es el alimento más consumido en el país, el consumo per cápita llega a alrededor de 65 kg, según la FAO. Se reporta que, para satisfacer el consumo interno, se realizan importaciones de papa de Perú y Argentina y que cadenas nacionales de pollería importan papa pelada y picada en bastón, precocida y congelada directamente de Argentina, Perú y Canadá."},{"index":13,"size":97,"text":"En Colombia, debido a los cambios de hábito de consumo, en la última década se ha reducido considerablemente el consumo per cápita de papa, lo que ha afectado a los agricultores del país. De acuerdo con la FAO, actualmente el consumo per cápita se encuentra en 35.5 kg, como se puede ver en la Figura 2. En respuesta a esta situación, el Ministerio de Agricultura y Desarrollo Rural y la Federación Colombiana de Productores de Papa han implementado diversas campañas de promoción del consumo de papa tanto a nivel de los agricultores como de los consumidores finales."}]},{"head":"Efectos de la COVID-19 sobre la cadena de la papa y sus actores","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Las actividades en el sector de la papa son estacionales, sensibles al tiempo e involucran muchas interacciones directas o indirectas entre actores en las diversas cadenas. La crisis de la COVID-19 puede amenazar el desempeño y resiliencia del sector de la papa de múltiples formas: * La restricción y el bloqueo de la movilidad afecta las actividades de los productores y trabajadores reduciendo el acceso a los campos de cultivo y la conectividad."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"* Si los agricultores no pueden acceder a insumos, crédito o mano de obra, las actividades de producción y cosecha de papa pueden ser gravemente afectadas. * Una interrupción tanto de la producción como de la logística de la cadena afectará a los procesadores, comerciantes y proveedores de servicios que no podrán continuar con sus actividades y cumplir con sus roles, desestabilizando la eficiencia de la cadena de valor. * Si se cierran los canales de comercialización, los precios se afectan, disminuyendo los ingresos del sector."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Las interrupciones y restricciones debidas a la COVID-19 pueden tener efectos múltiples sobre el sector y de gran alcance afectando las condiciones de vida de los actores de la cadena, especialmente de los pequeños productores (Béné et al. 2021)."}]},{"head":"Los efectos de la pandemia sobre el sector papa en cada país de la zona andina.","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Perú","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Para el caso del Perú, dado que el inicio de la crisis coincidió con el último mes del ciclo productivo de la papa en marzo del 2020, las cosechas se pudieron realizar en las zonas de producción 3 y no se reportaron pérdidas a nivel productivo ligadas a la COVID 19. Por el lado comercial sí se evidenciaron resultados negativos."},{"index":2,"size":70,"text":"Las medidas de confinamiento social que empezaron hacia el 15 de marzo coincidieron con las cosechas de la denominada \"campaña grande\" provenientes de la sierra, que se realizan entre marzo y junio. Tomando a Lima como el destino más importante de la producción nacional y en particular su principal mercado de referencia, Gran Mercado Mayorista de Santa Anita, se pueden identificar algunos comportamientos en el marco de la COVID 19."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Hay que indicar que en un principio los mercados no fueron controlados como centros de propagación del virus, situación que para mayo-junio cambió drásticamente, ya que se habían convertido en espacios de alto riesgo de contagio y se implementaron medidas más restrictivas sobre su funcionamiento (sobre todo a nivel minorista)."},{"index":4,"size":198,"text":"Tomando como referencia la Figura 3, se observa tres grupos principales de papas comercializadas en el mercado de la papa en Lima y su relación con la segmentación de agricultores y la biodiversidad: la papa blanca o comercial, la papa amarilla que es semicomercial y las papas nativas de color que sirven a la seguridad alimentaria y son menos comercializadas en este mercado, aunque en los últimos años se ha incrementado su volumen de comercio. * En el caso de la papa blanca (comercial), en el 2020, las diversas variedades han tenido un comportamiento de abastecimiento por debajo de lo observado en los últimos años. Por ejemplo, en la variedad Canchán, una de las más populares, el nivel de abastecimiento en mayo del 2020 llegó a ser 61% menor que el período de comparación de 2016-2019 y en junio 76%; los precios también fueron menores en 34%, en mayo, y 37%, en junio (Figuras 4 y 5). Se observó un comportamiento similar para la variedad Única, estas dos variedades se destinan a su uso como papa frita en pollerías y estos establecimientos se mantuvieron cerrados desde el inicio de la cuarentena, lo que hizo caer drásticamente la demanda."},{"index":5,"size":159,"text":"Esta situación se pudo recuperar hacia inicios de julio, cuando se flexibilizaron las condiciones de la cuarentena y diversos establecimientos comerciales comenzaron a operar, aunque se debe indicar que las cosechas de la campaña grande de sierra terminaron a fines de junio.  * Para la papa amarilla, se registró un abastecimiento menor en 46% en mayo 2020 en comparación con el promedio del mismo mes en los últimos cuatro años y en junio esta cifra llegó al orden del 28%; en la misma línea, los precios mayoristas fueron 22% menores, en mayo, y 20%, en junio. Normalmente, esta variedad proveniente de Huánuco y Apurímac es demandada por su alta calidad. Uno de los factores que podría haber contribuido a sostener de alguna manera su demanda serían el mantenimiento de la venta en supermercados y en los canales alternativos como los mercados itinerantes promovidos por el gobierno central y municipalidades, así como las ventas en línea y el consumo regional."},{"index":6,"size":145,"text":"También, hay que tomar en cuenta que la zona de Huánuco de donde proviene principalmente esta variedad produce dos campañas al año, lo que le da un margen de maniobra para los siguientes meses al poder recuperar ingresos en momentos del año donde otras zonas no cuentan con producto y obtener mejores precios. El segmento de papas nativas de color para la elaboración de chips ha ido creciendo y se ha ido posicionando en mercados gourmet en base la diversidad de los productos desarrollados. En el 2015, el valor de exportación fue de US$ 2.5 millones según la Asociación de Exportadores. Dos experiencias representativas de este segmento pudieron operar en el marco de la crisis actual y seguir comprando producto a los productores, abasteciéndose de variedades de papa nativa de color y amarillas entre abril y junio, época de la cosecha principal de la sierra."},{"index":7,"size":66,"text":"Una de ellas es la Central de Productores Agropecuarios para la Industria Andina (AGROPIA, www.agropiaperu.com). Desde el 2008, se dedica a la exportación de hojuelas (chips) de papas nativas a mercados europeos bajo el esquema y la marca Ethiquable. Agrupa a pequeños productores con más de 150 familias de comunidades campesinas de las zonas altoandinas de la región de Huancavelica y Junín (Ordinola y Bellido, 2016)."},{"index":8,"size":64,"text":"El otro caso es el de la empresa Inka Crops (www.inkacrops.com), la cual exporta productos procesados en base a papas nativas, que trabaja con alrededor de 300 agricultores de 25 comunidades andinas del centro del Perú (Huancavelica y Junín). En los meses de mayo y junio del 2020, la empresa mantuvo los contratos con sus productores lo que les permitió mantener el flujo comercial."},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":"Asimismo, según la revista Agraria 4 , la exportación de papa amarilla (que también es nativa) congelada aumentó considerablemente en el período enerooctubre 2020 a mercados como Estados Unidos, España y Japón, lo que aseguró la compra de producto fresco a los pequeños productores en el marco de la pandemia."},{"index":10,"size":64,"text":"Según Eguren, 2021, en base a información del Ministerio de Desarrollo Agrario y Riego, se observa que la siembra de tres cultivos -papa, maíz y quinua-superó las campañas anteriores. Esto indica el papel importante que ha jugado la agricultura familiar en mantener las áreas sembradas y contribuir a la resiliencia de los sistemas alimenticios. Esta constatación se extiende a otros países de la región."},{"index":11,"size":86,"text":"En Perú, la pandemia tuvo también un efecto sobre la importación de papa procesada en Perú. A pesar de que las importaciones de papa procesada congelada han venido creciendo de manera significativa en los últimos años, todavía representan menos del 1% de la producción nacional. En el 2000, llegaron a 3,181 tm, llegando a su volumen máximo en el 2016 (33,523 tm) y descendiendo ligeramente el 2019 (33,080 tm). Este producto es destinado para el uso de los establecimientos de comida rápida (fast food). (Figura 8)."},{"index":12,"size":82,"text":"En el 2020, durante los primeros cuatro meses se mantuvo la misma tendencia de los años anteriores (2016-2019), pero en mayo y junio caen drásticamente hasta 883 tm y 441 tm, respectivamente, por las restricciones de comercio internacional y la crisis de demanda que se dio en los diferentes mercados. Se recuperó en julio, volvió a caer en agosto, en setiembre llegó a 1,629 tm y finalmente diciembre, cerró con 1,872 tm. Todavía no se llega a los volúmenes del período 2016-2019. "}]},{"head":"Ecuador","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"En Ecuador, la pandemia llegó también en el momento de la cosecha y no afectó la producción de manera directa y no hubo mayores dificultades en mano de obra para la cosecha. Según un empresario del sector 5 , el principal problema fue la distribución y comercialización de los productos, debido a las medidas sanitarias y a las exigentes restricciones de movilización. Se cerraron mercados de abasto y ferias al aire libre."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"La caída completa del consumo en servicios de comida como los restaurantes, hoteles y cafeterías afectó la demanda y la comercialización de la papa. La papa ha sido también víctima de la especulación al momento de la cosecha que al ser un producto perecible presionó los precios a la baja."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Los contratos para bastecer supermercado o industrias fueron la solución para asegurar el nexo demanda-oferta con los supermercados y las empresas. Pero pocos productores tenían la oportunidad de vender mediante contratos, por lo que se quedaron con su producto al inicio de la pandemia."},{"index":4,"size":211,"text":"El mismo empresario opina que el consumo de papa, en general, no se vio afectado por la pandemia. Con relación a los hábitos de compra de productos frescos, los supermercados parecen haber bajado su volumen de venta, siendo reemplazados por los canales de venta directa: productores, micromercados, tiendas de barrio, con menos riesgos de contaminación y que se han convertido en opciones para los consumidores. Al parecer, se acortó la cadena de intermediación y puede ser una opción para el surgimiento de canales no convencionales en el futuro. La lógica que ha seguido el sector es la siguiente: las áreas ya estaban sembradas cuando se inició la pandemia, y se debían cosechar de todas maneras. Al cerrarse los canales de comercio, se produce una sobreoferta relativa y los precios caen. De acuerdo con las expectativas de los productores, en la siguiente campaña, los niveles de siembra pueden reducirse por los problemas de precios más bajos observando en el 2020, cuando el quintal de papa fresca llegó a US$ 15 con relación a US$ 20 en el 2019 y una posible reducción de la demanda. A pesar del volumen de negocio todavía limitado, cabe mencionar también la exportación de chips de papas nativas de color a través de la empresa Kiwa (www.kiwalife.com)."},{"index":5,"size":79,"text":"La pandemia afectó sus exportaciones que incluyen, Arabia Saudita, uno de sus mercados principales, y los EE.UU., Costa Rica, Uruguay y el Caribe. El CEO de la empresa reconoce que entre marzo y abril del 2020 hubo restricciones para el comercio exterior, pero que, desde mayo, se empezó a normalizar. La logística de aprovisionamiento se pudo manejar y se siguió recibiendo materia prima, ya que las áreas de producción agrícola se mantuvieron abiertas y conectadas al negocio 6 ."},{"index":6,"size":43,"text":"De otra parte, en Ecuador, existen diversas empresas que importan papa prefrita congelada para venderlas a las \"cadenas de comida rápida o fast food\" 7 . Las importaciones representan el 2% de la producción nacional y están muy relacionas al sector de hoteles,"}]},{"head":"Bolivia","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"En el caso de Bolivia, en la fase inicial de la pandemia, los productores de papa, en su mayoría agricultores familiares, estuvieron orientados a la cosecha. Se observó que las restricciones impuestas ante la propagación de la COVID-19 impidieron que los agricultores puedan entregar su producción a los intermediarios y mayoristas en los centros de venta en La Paz, El Alto y otras ciudades intermedias. Por esta razón, el abastecimiento de tubérculos, hortalizas y frutas en los mercados mayoristas enfrentó marcados problemas de transporte, distribución y cierre de operaciones al nivel nacional. Se evidenció un alza de precios de hortalizas, incluyendo la papa, al consumidor final en las primeras semanas de la cuarentena. El precio de la papa llegó a subir al doble de su precio normal. El Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesinado, en una entrevista Figura 9. Ecuador: Importaciones de papa congelada para fritura."}]},{"head":"Fuente:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Elaboración propia en base a información de Aduanas. concedida a la Asociación de Gobiernos Municipales del Departamento de La Paz, indicó que, en abril, la arroba (12 kg) de papa se vendía entre Bs 45 y Bs 50 en los mercados de La Paz, en comparación con el precio habitual que se ubicaba entre los Bs 20 y Bs 30. En los siguientes meses, los precios se estabilizaron, ya que el volumen producido durante el período de cuarentena logró abastecer al mercado interno. La experiencia de los mercados móviles para el abastecimiento de la población y la desconcentración de personas en los mercados centrales se convirtió en una solución eficiente. Esta iniciativa promovida al nivel nacional fue implementada y adaptada por los gobiernos autónomos municipales identificando estratégicamente zonas periurbanas y aisladas de los centros de abasto, lo que permitió una venta directa del productor al consumidor (Mendoza et al., 2019). Se prevé que, en los próximos meses, las posibles alzas en los precios de los insumos podrán trasladarse a la producción influyendo en sus costos."},{"index":2,"size":144,"text":"En el caso de la papa, la Dirección Nacional de Semillas del Instituto Nacional de Innovación Agropecuaria y Forestal ha reportado en su momento un déficit importante de semillas certificadas que podía convertirse en una amenaza directa para las siguientes campañas. Un reto pendiente para el gobierno es garantizar la seguridad alimentaria según el Plan nacional de respuesta y rehabilitación para el sector agropecuario frente a la COVID-19 (Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural y Tierras, 2020). Bolivia enfrenta una recurrente importación neta de productos hortícolas, considerándose además que la importación legal es una fracción menor respecto a la importación por contrabando (Figura 10). Como la producción nacional no alcanza para satisfacer la demanda nacional, esta situación promueve, indirectamente, la importación de papa de Perú y Argentina, lo que puede causar un impacto dramático sobre el sector por encima de los problemas directos de la pandemia.  "}]},{"head":"Colombia","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"En el caso de Colombia, en el 2020 se han presentado restricciones en transporte, comercialización y producción y de manera particular, los agricultores de papa han enfrentado dificultades para transportar sus cosechas debido a los diferentes cierres de vías que tuvieron lugar entre marzo y abril, lo que dificultó la movilidad de las cosechas principalmente entre el sur y el centro del país. Esto tuvo como consecuencia que el precio de la papa bajara dramáticamente y hubo grandes demostraciones campesinas. Como el producto local no se vendía, se desarrolló una estrategia de compras de bultos de papa en las autopistas, pero no fue una solución real. Según un estudio (Minagricultura, 2020), el sector de la papa ha tenido diversas dificultades en el 2020."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"A inicios del 2020, se presentaron temperaturas bajas que no se registraban desde 2010. En la mayoría de los municipios de Boyacá y Cundinamarca, se empezaron a registrar las típicas heladas de la primera temporada seca del año; estos fenómenos comprometieron el área sembrada del primer período del año y retrasaron las siembras 8 . A las pérdidas ocasionadas por las condiciones climáticas, se sumaron las relacionadas a la COVID-19, que impactaron negativamente la demanda del producto, generando una sobreoferta en los mercados y, por ende, una caída en los precios."},{"index":3,"size":188,"text":"Esta situación es el resultado de una disminución de la compra por parte de los hogares colombianos que, según el Departamento Administrativo Nacional de Estadística, disminuyó en un 50% en la primera semana de setiembre del 2020 frente a la primera semana de abril del mismo año. Adicionalmente, el canal de Hoteles, Restaurantes y Cafeterías (HORECA), que consume el 25% de la producción nacional de papa, se mantuvo cerrado durante seis meses y, finalmente, los productos procesados a partir de la papa, hojuelas, papa prefrita y congelada, vieron su demanda disminuida. Esto a su vez afectó el requerimiento de materia prima, la cual terminó en los centros mayoristas de comercialización, aumentando aún más la oferta de producto en esos canales. Con relación a los precios, se dio un efecto bastante fuerte a la baja que refleja la caída de la demanda y la imposibilidad de los mercados para absorber la oferta disponible. La Figura 11 muestra una diferencia notable entre la curva de precios pagados al productor en el 2020 y el promedio histórico de precios registrados entre 1991 y 2019, representando una caída en más de 20%."},{"index":4,"size":64,"text":"Según Marc de Beaufort, consultor en campañas de mercadeo de papa en Colombia (comunicación personal), una lección de esta situación de crisis debida a la pandemia es la importancia de generar productos versátiles que no tengan los problemas de mantener la papa fresca y su rápido deterioro. En Colombia, se juntó otra crisis, la llegada de entre uno y dos millones de refugiados venezolanos. "}]},{"head":"Fuente:","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"Minagricultura. Programa de apoyo a la comercialización de la papa: justificación técnica, Colombia, 2020."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"La papa, con sus altos valores nutritivos y la sobreoferta que se dio durante la pandemia, podría haber sido una manera de ayudar durante la crisis migratoria si hubiera habido una industria de procesamiento de papa como puré de papa instantáneo que podría haber aprovechado la papa disponible. Pero no ocurrió y se perdió la papa mientras los migrantes en muchas ocasiones recibían productos importados como parte de la ayuda del gobierno. Se necesita fomentar un sector más dinámico e innovador que responda rápidamente a las oportunidades."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"Por el otro lado, las importaciones de papa procesada congeladas a junio del 2020 habían disminuido por el cierre de las fronteras. A causa de la contracción del mercado mundial, las importaciones de papa precocida congelada fueron de 46,284 toneladas en el 2020 mientras que para el 2019 alcanzaron 54,572 toneladas. Las importaciones representan alrededor del 4% de la producción nacional. Además, con la pandemia la demanda de estos productos importados se redujo drásticamente por el cierre de canales como fast food y hoteles. Se observó también una caída en la demanda por la producción procesada nacional. Colombia tiene una mediana industria de procesamiento de papa prefrita congelada."}]},{"head":"Análisis de las consecuencias de la pandemia en la agricultura familiar en el marco de los sistemas alimentarios basados en la papa","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":223,"text":"Estudios implementados por el Banco Interamericano de Desarrollo (BID) durante el período comprendido entre febrero y mayo del 2020; es decir, durante la primera etapa de la pandemia y un seguimiento para el período comprendido entre agosto y noviembre del 2020 contribuyen a presentar una imagen sobre los nuevos y continuos retos que enfrenta la agricultura familiar en América Latina y el Caribe en el contexto de la COVID-19 (Salazar et al., 2021). Con el objetivo de obtener la perspectiva de los productores agropecuarios, el estudio se hizo mediante contactos a distintos productores de varios países de la región, incluyendo: Argentina, Bolivia, Paraguay, Perú y República Dominicana. Después de un año del inicio de la pandemia, el estudio permite observar que un alto porcentaje de productores consideran que las ventas de sus productos han disminuido como consecuencia de la pandemia y que han alterado principalmente los precios afectando los ingresos de los productores. Los problemas generales que enfrentaron los productores encuestados en los meses de agosto a noviembre del 2020, independientemente de si su producción o ventas se vieron afectadas son: la obtención de insumos y el incremento en sus precios, el acceso a mano de obra y la falta de transporte para acceder a mercados indicando una mejora debido al levantamiento y flexibilización de las restricciones de aislamiento impuestas por la pandemia."},{"index":2,"size":283,"text":"El impacto de la crisis de la COVID-19 sobre la liquidez de los productores fue también resaltado, mientras en la Fase 1 de la encuesta, un 70% de productores manifestó haber tenido que usar ahorros, acceder a préstamos o vender activos para mitigar los efectos de la crisis, el 82% recurrió a alguna de estas estrategias de mitigación de shocks en el período agosto-noviembre. Solo un 27% respondió haber recibido algún aporte del gobierno durante la Fase 2. Esto parece indicar que no hubo una expansión significativa de las políticas públicas enfocadas en brindar apoyo directo a la agricultura familiar durante los seis meses desde el inicio de la crisis. Los resultados apuntan a que la crisis puede haber afectado de forma crítica la producción agrícola de los pequeños agricultores familiares, convirtiéndose en un ciclo vicioso de bajos precios, bajos ingresos y alta inseguridad alimentaria. Casi la mitad de los encuestados (48%) mencionó haber dejado de tener una alimentación saludable y haber tenido una alimentación basada en poca variedad de alimentos. En general, estos resultados muestran que el impacto de la pandemia en la inseguridad alimentaria se ha generado principalmente a través de dos vías. La primera es a través de una reducción en el acceso a los alimentos, ya que los hogares cuentan con menores recursos económicos. Esto les genera preocupación de desabastecimiento (56%), en algunos casos incluso lleva a disminuir el número de comidas (16%), o a reducir la ingesta de alimentos (25%). La segunda vía es a través de un deterioro en la utilización de los alimentos. De hecho, el análisis muestra que gran parte de los hogares sacrificaron los alimentos saludables (48%) y la diversidad de la dieta (44%)."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Estas observaciones, sobre todo sobre los ingresos de los productores a raíz de la pandemia, fue también recalcada en Ecuador, Colombia y Perú, según otras fuentes. Con el impacto de la COVID-19, en Ecuador, la pobreza en el campo, que ya era alta, se agudizó porque además de los ingresos de la finca, los ingresos se componen de las remesas que llegan de Estados Unidos y Europa, las que cayeron dramáticamente. La población originaria de comunidades y pequeños pueblos regresaron de las ciudades al campo porque habían sido despedidos, lo que representó una reducción de ingresos (FIAN Ecuador, 2020). De igual manera, en Colombia, la rentabilidad del cultivo de papa fue severamente afectada."},{"index":4,"size":205,"text":"El análisis del Minagricultura para elaborar el programa de apoyo a la comercialización de la papa (Minagricultura, 2020) muestra que, para el cultivo de la papa, el valor medio de los precios promedio durante los primeros nueve meses del año es inferior a los respectivos costos unitarios de producción, lo que se traduce en pérdidas de rentabilidad que oscilan entre el 14% y el 26%, dependiendo de la variedad. Sin embargo, se indica, que las pérdidas registradas en el mes de setiembre se incrementaron significativamente, oscilando entre el 34% y el 53%, lo que evidencia el impacto de la crisis en el sector. En Perú, hay indicios que la reducción de los ingresos de los agricultores, por la baja de los precios de los alimentos en los primeros meses, y las dificultades de transporte ya mencionadas, pueden haber tenido como consecuencia que muchos productores hayan tenido que descapitalizarse para poder financiar su campaña o, como advierte la FAO, hayan comprometido las ganancias del siguiente período productivo. Del orden de magnitud de este proceso de descapitalización puede depender las variaciones en la incidencia de la pobreza de los productores, la viabilidad de la próxima campaña agrícola, y la propia seguridad alimentaria de sus familias (Eguren, 2021)."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"Por otra parte, sondeos realizados por el Centro Internacional de la Papa (CIP), entre los meses de mayo y julio del 2020, a nivel de territorios en Perú con productores de papa en la sierra de la Libertad y Junín permiten profundizar los efectos a corto plazo de la pandemia sobre las condiciones de vida de las familias de productores (Vargas et al., 2021)."},{"index":6,"size":271,"text":"Recalcamos algunas constataciones interesantes: (i) dado lo avanzado de la campaña agrícola, la producción no se vio afectada directamente por la crisis sanitaria; (ii) la comercialización del cultivo fue mayormente afectada resultando en precios menores y afectando la disponibilidad de liquidez en las familias con un riesgo elevado de una descapitalización de los productores, además se generó incertidumbre en los canales de comercialización que, como se puede observar en el análisis del BID, se hizo sentir hasta noviembre; (iii) la disponibilidad de mano de obra fue afectada por la COVID-19 y fue compensada en parte por la mano de obra familiar; (iv) se identificaron restricciones para proveerse de alimentos, por escasez en los mercados y por precios altos, lo que hizo cambiar los patrones de consumo de alimentos incrementando el consumo de alimentos básicos como la papa. Esto levanta preocupaciones por parte de las autoridades de salud sobre el efecto a largo plazo sobre la malnutrición y sobre todo la anemia debido a la reducción de la diversidad de la dieta y del consumo de alimentos de origen animal; (v) en algunas zonas, se identifica una tendencia a menor intención de siembra en la próxima campaña pero según una publicación reciente sobre la situación de la papa (MIDAGRI, 2021), se observa que esta tendencia varió según las regiones y no fue generalizada para la siembra de papa; y (vi) al nivel de políticas, se indica una fuerte necesidad de asistencia técnica tanto para aspectos técnicos como comerciales para la próxima campaña y se requiere un acceso a liquidez para compensar las pérdidas y estimular la producción en la próxima campaña agrícola."}]},{"head":"Conclusiones","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Este artículo permite proporcionar observaciones descriptivas para empezar a entender los efectos a corto plazo de la COVID-19 sobre la cadena de la papa en la zona Andina y sus actores analizando las consecuencias de la pandemia sobre la agricultura familiar con énfasis en los sistemas alimentarios basados en papa."},{"index":2,"size":291,"text":"El análisis de la situación en los países muestra que en promedio no hubo una disminución importante de la producción de la papa por causas ligadas a la COVID-19. Sin embargo, sí se presentaron problemas relacionados con las ventas de la cosecha. Esta situación se relaciona principalmente por dificultades en el transporte de la producción, una menor demanda de alimentos causada por las restricciones y una disminución de ingresos de los productores debido a un menor precio de venta. Como el producto local no se vendía, se generaron estrategias de compra alternativa como los mercados móviles en Bolivia y Perú y canales de venta directa de los productores en Ecuador. El efecto negativo en los ingresos de los productores tiene implicancias preocupantes, en primer lugar, para la rentabilidad del cultivo pudiendo influir la continuidad de la producción agrícola y en las futuras decisiones de siembra. La falta de liquidez puede obstaculizar la capacidad de los agricultores para adquirir insumos para la producción optando por insumos menos costosos de menor calidad y poco confiables como puede ser en el caso de la semilla. La falta de insumos de calidad puede tener impacto en las cosechas e ingresos futuros. En segundo lugar, la reducción de ingresos genera efectos sobre la seguridad alimentaria de las familias de productores reduciendo la diversidad de la dieta con efectos sobre la malnutrición ya prevalente en los países. Es probable que la dinámica observada debido a la pandemia conduzca a un círculo vicioso de disminución de la producción, reducción de las oportunidades de mano de obra agrícola y volatilidad de los precios de los alimentos, que pueden causar un mayor deterioro de la seguridad alimentaria y nutricional, tal como lo han señalado la FAO y el PMA (2020)."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Las medidas de apoyo del Estado en los países, tanto en el campo como en la ciudad, fueron limitadas y constituyeron apenas un alivio temporal. Las políticas y medidas de apoyo deberían fortalecer la asistencia técnica en temas productivos y comerciales. Favorecer un mejor acceso a liquidez mediante créditos u otros mecanismos permitiría compensar las pérdidas sufridas por los actores de la cadena, sobre todo las familias de productores, y apoyar la producción en las próximas campañas agrícolas. En un plazo inmediato, se pueden considerar diversas medidas de apoyo para el ciclo de producción y comercialización más inmediato: (i) la instalación del cultivos con una adecuada programación geográfica y un manejo de información detallada para sembrar en zonas y tiempos adecuados;"},{"index":4,"size":124,"text":"(ii) asegurar el aprovisionamiento y manejo de semilla de calidad e insumos adecuados con financiamiento para mejorar la productividad; (iii) el desarrollo de protocolos específicos de manejo del cultivo en el marco de la actual pandemia; (iv) trabajar el desarrollo de productos procesados que faciliten el comercio para responder a oportunidades como atender a mercados institucionales necesarios en épocas de crisis y apoyados por programas sociales; (v) fortalecer los acuerdos entre productores y empresas en el marco de las cadenas de valor fortaleciendo mercados nicho aprovechando la biodiversidad; y (vi) promover las asistencia técnica para el desarrollo de tecnologías digitales y también el comercio por canales digitales donde prima la conveniencia del consumidor con un mercadeo inteligente para responder a las tendencias (Lindermann, 2020)."},{"index":5,"size":196,"text":"Como marco general, para hacer frente al contexto de la pandemia y sus efectos sobre la oferta y demanda de alimentos, es importante que los ministerios de agricultura prioricen medidas dirigidas a la agricultura familiar que produce la mayor parte de los alimentos para el consumo interno de los países de la región. Hay que tomar en cuenta que este tipo de agricultura incluye también actividades agrícolas diversificadas que contribuyen a garantizar la sostenibilidad del medio ambiente y la conservación de la biodiversidad. En este contexto, la papa juega un rol importante por ser un cultivo tanto de consumo propio como de fuente de ingreso, contribuyendo así a la resiliencia de los sistemas agroalimentarios de las zonas rurales altoandinas de la región. Las dificultades generadas por la crisis sanitaria hacen resaltar los problemas de la agricultura familiar y la alta vulnerabilidad de los productores debido a que sus principales productos como la papa son perecederos, no cuentan con circuitos de comercialización alternativos a sus rutas naturales, carecen de infraestructura de acopio, almacenamiento y todavía el procesamiento no es generalizado. Se necesita fomentar un sector más dinámico e innovador que responda efectivamente a los desafíos y oportunidades."}]},{"head":"Agradecimientos","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":87,"text":"Los autores agradecen Héctor Villareal, Galo Miño, Martin Acosta, Jorge Quiroga y Guy Hareau por sus contribuciones y comentarios al artículo, así como a Verónica Valcárcel por el apoyo en la edición sugerida de este artículo. Asimismo, a Víctor Suárez, que trabajó la información estadística referida a los países andinos. La publicación de este artículo recibió el apoyo financiero del Centro de Investigaciones Internacionales de Canadá (IDRC, por sus siglas en inglés) a través del Programa de Investigación del CGIAR (CRP) sobre Raíces, Tubérculos y Bananas (RTB)."}]},{"head":"Conflictos de intereses","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Los autores declaramos que este artículo no tiene conflicto alguno de interés"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figura 3 . Figura 3. Segmentación del mercado central de la papa en Lima. Fuente: basado enOrdinola et   al., 2011     "},{"text":"Figura 5 . Figura4.Volumen de abastecimiento (tm) en el mercado de Lima "},{"text":"Figura Figura 8. Perú: Importaciones de papa procesada congelada para fritura Fuente: Elaboración propia en base a información de SUNAT. "},{"text":" Figura 10. Importación de alimentos hortícolas en Bolivia (el 2020 solo incluye datos a marzo). "},{"text":"Fuente Fuente: Plan nacional de respuesta y rehabilitación para el sector agropecuario frente a la COVID-19, Ministerio de Desarrollo Rural y Tierras, 2020. "},{"text":" Figura 11. Precios promedios mensuales pagados al productor de papa Parda Pastusa ($/kg). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"4a9f2853-03a2-4c9b-8a98-7b42c7a6e21d","abstract":"Este artículo busca proporcionar información para comprender los efectos de la pandemia de la COVID-19 sobre el sector papa en la región andina y sus consecuencias para los actores de esta cadena, especialmente los pequeños productores. Se presenta primero la situación del sector papa en la zona andina y, en segundo lugar, se analizan los efectos de la COVID-19. En promedio no se registró una disminución importante de la producción de papa en la región por causas ligadas a la COVID-19. Sin embargo, se observaron problemas relacionados con la contracción de venta de la cosecha por dificultades de transporte y de comercialización acompañadas por una disminución de precios, que afectaron la cadena. La reducción de los ingresos de los productores tiene implicancias primero para la rentabilidad del cultivo, pudiendo influir en la continuación efectiva de la producción agrícola y en las futuras decisiones de siembra. En segundo lugar, la reducción de ingresos tiene un efecto sobre la seguridad alimentaria de las familias reduciendo la diversidad de la dieta e incrementando el consumo de alimentos básicos, menos nutritivos, extendiendo la malnutrición. Las medidas de apoyo del Estado en los países, tanto en el campo como en la ciudad, fueron limitadas y constituyeron un alivio temporal. Las dificultades generadas por la crisis sanitaria hacen resaltar los problemas de la agricultura familiar y la alta vulnerabilidad de los productores. Se incluyen algunas conclusiones y recomendaciones sobre acciones y políticas requeridas para sostener la cadena de la papa y sus actores y responder ágilmente a los desafíos y oportunidades."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"06f65d836f418d65021b738bd00ef19c","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/98753928-853d-4319-9be7-e7ffcb99f461/retrieve"},"pageCount":62,"title":"Kitutu Cache North (Kisii) Nyaribari Cache (Kisii) South and East Kamagambo (Migori)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Tables Table 1: Characteristics of the households in the four locations in the survey and the enumerator responses on the survey implementation Reliability and rapport were subjectively evaluated by enumerators  "}]},{"head":"Summary","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"In June 2019, a survey of 413 smallholder farmer households was carried out in western Kenya, Kisii County (Kitutu Chache North and Nyaribari Chache) and Migori County (South and East Kamagambo and Suna West). The purpose was to establish the baseline conditions and farm characteristics prior to the implementation of the LegumeSELECT project. More than 50% of the interviewees were females. The average family size was four persons per household across all sites. The sites were fairly similar in terms of types and composition of farm activities. The sites were characterized by small-scale landholdings, from 0.5 to 2 ha. The farms in Kisii were generally smaller than the farms in Migori. Livestock ownership was generally higher in Migori (1.8 tropical livestock units [TLU]) compared to Kisii (<1 TLU). Little off-farm income was reported in all sites. A big gender disparity was observed, with about 30% to 50% of households reporting zero female decision-making regarding the use of farm products and income."},{"index":2,"size":308,"text":"All sites showed mixed farming systems in which the main food crop was maize and the minor crop was usually common beans (Phaseolus vulgaris L.). Suna West is located in an area of lower agricultural potential, where the drier climate means that drought-tolerant crops such as groundnuts, millet and sorghum are more suitable to the region's farming system, although maize and beans are still the most commonly grown. In all sites, it was common to grow maize as the main crop with common beans as an intercrop, or when common bean was grown as the main crop, maize was the priority intercrop. Common beans (semi-climbing and dwarf types) were by far the most commonly grown grain legume across the sites. Of the total households surveyed, 36% were growing common beans in Migori and 42% in Kisii. Common cash crops were groundnut, sugar cane, kales, banana, and in Kisii tea; although the majority of households were not able to break through into commercial production. Sesbania was the most commonly grown tree legume. In Nyaribari Chache it was grown by under 20% of the households and in Suna West by 10%, while in the other sites the reporting was negligible. This may indicate scope for the promotion of tree or shrub legumes. Legumes were mainly grown for household consumption, with a minority of respondents also growing legumes for sale. The use of legumes as animal feed or for environmental services was low. Fertilizer use was widely reported in all sites, and virtually all interviewed farmers applied it. The use of hybrid seeds, tick-spraying and veterinary services were reported by a low to moderate proportion of respondents. Nearly half of the respondents were not applying any soil or water conservation practices. About 20-30% of households reported problems with soil fertility and erosion, and this rose to about 40% in Suna West."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"The extent of poverty was high with the overwhelming majority of the study respondents living below poverty line of USD1.90 per day. The poverty rate was highest in the Suna West site at 86% and lowest in Kitutu Chache North at 65%. Nyaribari Chache, and South and East Kamagambo had poverty rates of 73% and 71%, respectively. Under these circumstances, subsistence food production is inadequate to meet the basic calorific needs of the households."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"Requiring cash to meet other needs, farmers are often forced to sell at harvest time well aware that they will have to buy the same food from the market at exorbitant prices at a later date. There are two hunger periods per year across the sites, the major one being in January to February and a minor one in May to July. In Suna West, the major hunger peak was May to July, and the minor peak was longer, from October to February. During the lean season the main foods consumed include grains/roots/tubers, vegetables and milk. During the flush season, increased consumption was reported for eggs, meat, fruits, nuts and legumes."},{"index":5,"size":90,"text":"Livestock ownership was associated with improved living standards, as consumption of livestock products and later sale became more pronounced as household income increased. In the two sites in Kisii, and in South and East Kamagambo (Migori), the foundation for commercial livestock production had been laid through increased use of planted forages, cutting and carrying feeds, mineral supplementation and use of crop residue for feed (although incorporation of residues into soil was more common). Suna West lagged behind in this regard, as reliance was still on open grazing in natural pasture."}]},{"head":"Introduction and methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":163,"text":"Interviews were carried out at project locations in Kisii and Migori counties of western Kenya in late June 2019. Two sites were sampled per county: Kitutu Chache North and Nyaribari Chache in Kisii, and South and East (S&E) Kamagambo and Suna West in Migori (Figure 1). The interview questionnaire is presented in Annex 1. Table 1 shows that more farmers were interviewed in Kisii (over 100 per study site) than in Migori (below 100). There were generally more females (over 50%) than male respondents. The number of respondents of either gender who were head of their household (HH) was nearly two thirds. These respondents were most likely to be married (70-80%). The proportion of female HH heads that were single was higher (between 10% and 25%) than the single males (less than 5%) across all sites. More than half of the respondents were female and, according to the enumerator responses on survey implementation (reliability and rapport), the interviews seemed to have gone well."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"In Kitutu Chache North, 117 respondents were surveyed of which 59% were females and 41% males. Of the total surveyed, 60% were HH heads. Of the HH heads interviewed, 80% of them were married while 17% were single females and 3% were single males."},{"index":3,"size":43,"text":"In Nyaribari Chache, 102 respondents were surveyed of which 52% were females and 48% males. Of the total surveyed, 70% were HH heads. Of the HH heads interviewed 78% of them were married while 19% were single females and 1% were single males."},{"index":4,"size":45,"text":"In South and East Kamagambo, 99 respondents were surveyed of which 49% were females and 51% males. Of the total surveyed 67% were HH heads. Of the HH heads interviewed 84% of them were married while 11% were single females and 4% were single males."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"In Suna West, 99 respondents were surveyed of which 59% were females and 41% males. Of the total surveyed 73% were HH heads. Of the HH heads interviewed 71% of them were married while 24% were single females and 3% were single males "}]},{"head":"Statistical analyses","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"Survey responses were summarized according to the four study sites. Unless otherwise specified, averages presented are means, and an indication of variance is expressed as standard deviation (sd). For survey questions with categorical answers, percentages of the study population (per site) was used for the summary."}]},{"head":"Key site characteristics","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"The average altitude for the Kitutu Chache North site is 1,544 metres above sea level (masl). It receives an annual precipitation of 1,424 mm with an average temperature of 13.1 o C. The Nyaribari Chache site is at an elevation of 1,700 m asl. It receives a total average rainfall of over 1,500 mm characterized by a bimodal distribution of February to June for the long rains and September to November for the short rains. The Kamagambo site is at an elevation of 1,530 m asl and receives a bimodal rainfall with an annual precipitation of 1,600 mm. Its long rains season falls between March and June and the short rains between November and January. Suna West is characterized by a bimodal rainfall model with 1,369 mm total annual precipitation and 21.2 o C average temperature. It is on an elevation of 1,500 masl. It has two season peaks that are similar to those of Kamagambo."},{"index":2,"size":89,"text":"Smallholder farmers in the project sites operate a highly mixed cropping system. Maize is the most dominant crop grown by farmers across all the project areas. Maize and common beans constitute the main food crops with kales, spider plant and black nightshade as the vegetable relishes. These are also sold for cash. In terms of frequency of reporting on the types of crops grown, Nyaribari Chache has more farmers reporting across a wider range of activities followed by Kitutu Chache North, S&E Kamagambo and Suna West in that order."},{"index":3,"size":270,"text":"As the graphs below demonstrate (Figure 2-5), there is a striking similarity between the cropping systems of the different sites but with unique site specifications. The crops grown most often (maize, kales, common beans, etc.) and least often (watermelon, cassava, tomatoes, etc.) are comparable across the sites. The uniqueness of the Kitutu Chache site is its proximity to the huge food market of Kisii town. This has encouraged farmers to produce a variety of food crops all year round to feed the large and increasingly urban population. The Nyaribari Chache site is part of the greater Keumbu hinterland and is strategically situated to supply the Keumbu market from where a wide range of agricultural products are sold for onward transportation to both near and far-flung markets like Kericho, Nakuru and Nairobi. Chief among the products from Nyaribari Chache are bananas, kales, avocado and chewing sugar cane. The S&E Kamagambo site, which is dissected by the Rongo-Migori road, is strategically located to supply the increasing food demands of Rongo town and the greater southwest Kenya region. Consequently, S&E Kamagambo farmers grow a wide range of food crops and fruits to supply to this market. Some farmers in this site also reported growing commercial cane for supply to the Sony Sugar factory. The Suna West site, in comparison, is located south of the Migori County headquarters near the Kenya-Tanzania border and suffers from poor road infrastructure making it hard for farmers to access the lucrative Migori market. Farmers participating in the survey in this site grow a wide range of food crops, though on a smaller scale compared to the other sites."},{"index":4,"size":92,"text":"There have been past initiatives by both government and nongovernment actors to promote the growing of herbaceous and tree legumes (calliandra, desmodium, leucaena etc.) in the project sites. A forerunner project of the LegumeSELECT was implemented in the same sites between the years 2014 to 2017. The outcomes of these past efforts can still be seen on some farms where legumes are grown to fulfil a variety of functions including livestock feed, fuel, erosion control, shade, etc. The Suna West site has, however, been less affected by these past legume intervention initiatives."}]},{"head":"Resource endowments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":182,"text":"All the sites have comparable family sizes of nearly four members per household ( Total farm production is relatively high at all sites except in Suna West. The degree of market orientation at the three sites of Kitutu Chache, Kamagambo and Nyaribari Chache is high due to participation in diversified income generation enterprises such as milk, tea, coffee, vegetables and sugar cane production. Income levels follow the same pattern as production levels: Kitutu Chache North has the highest average off-farm income at USD143 followed by Kamagambo at USD77 with the other two sites reporting incomes of USD40. The reliability of these averages needs to be ascertained given the high variability in values reported. Kitutu Chache North has an average family size of 4 persons and mean land holdings of 0.8 ha per household (Table 2). Generally, 0.7 ha is cultivated leaving only 0.1 ha for the homestead and the uncultivable portions. The high proportion of land under cultivation confirms the critical shortage of land at this site. Average TLU at the site is 0.9, which suggests huge potential to increase livestock productivity."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Nyaribari Chache North has an average family size of 3.9 persons and mean land holdings of 1.3 ha per household -0.4 ha higher than in Kitutu Chache North. On average, 1.1 ha is cultivated leaving 0.2 ha for the homestead and the uncultivable portions. The high proportion of land under cultivation indicates a critical shortage of land at this site. Average TLU at the site is 1.3, which, though higher than Kitutu Chache North, is still very low considering the areas immense agricultural potential."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"S&E Kamagambo has an average family size of 4.1 persons with an average land holding of 0.8 ha per householdsimilar to sites in Kitutu Chache North. On average, 0.7 ha is cultivated leaving 0.1 ha for the homestead and the uncultivable portions. Average TLU at the site is 1.8 ha, though higher than in Kisii, it is still low considering the areas immense agricultural potential."},{"index":4,"size":59,"text":"Suna West has an average family size of 4.4 persons with an average land holding of 1.3 ha per household. On average, 1.1 ha is cultivated leaving 0.2 ha for the homestead and the uncultivable portions. Average TLU at the site is 1.4 ha, though higher than in Kisii it is still low considering the areas immense agricultural potential."}]},{"head":"Livelihoods","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":74,"text":"Figures 2-5 give an indication of the size and make-up of the household economies. Each vertical bar represents one household, and the height of each bar represents the total annual value of all farm and non-farm produce and incomes, measured in USD and adjusted to 2015 purchasing power parity. The households have been ordered from poorest to richest, and the blue dashed line indicates the international poverty line of USD1.90 per person per day."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The colours of the bars represent different sources of value (for example green is the value of all crops grown and consumed by the household, and blue is the value of crops grown and sold). These charts show that in Kisii livestock sale and consumption are very important for households. A minority of wealthier households also engage in crop sales. There is little non-farm income."},{"index":3,"size":230,"text":"Food crops represent the main source of food for domestic consumption across all sites. A sizeable proportion of these same households sold excess crops for cash. A major distinction between the Kisii and Migori sites is the degree to which respondents in the former are more dependent on cash sales from livestock than in the latter. The survey results revealed that the level of destitution is higher in Suna West (Migori County) where the percentage of households below the USD1.90 poverty line is higher than the other three sites. Even for those that live above the USD1.90 threshold, the majority are still poor. Figure 2 shows that more than 65% of the study sample live below or very close to the poverty line, which means that life is an everyday struggle to survive for most households. There is even a sizeable proportion (nearly half of those interviewed) whose production value is near zero. These households are engaged in subsistence production of crops and livestock but it is insufficient to satisfy their nutritional requirements. This situation is further exacerbated by the need to sell part of their inadequate food stocks out of desperation for cash. From Figure 2 it is evident that many households depend on a meagre harvest as their only source of food and income. This category does not have livestock or off-farm income sources to fall back on."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"As the economic level of the households improves, livestock consumption and sales begin to take hold and complement or even surpass crops as a source of sustenance. Except for a few households, however, the majority are not able to increase their crop farming beyond subsistence level and incomes from crops are generally very limited."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"As the economic level of households improve, it is livestock that play a greater role as sources of food and income."},{"index":6,"size":157,"text":"For households above the poverty line there is also a slight increase in proceeds from off-farm activities, which complement income mainly from livestock. Kitutu Chache North is the least poor of the four sites. Figure 3 shows that in Nyaribari Chache nearly 73% of the study sample live below or very close to the poverty line of USD1.90 per day meaning that nearly 75% of the population live a life of struggle in search of livelihood necessities. More than half of the study sample live below USD1 a day with the bulk of respondents barely surviving and generating close to nil quantifiable income. There are households that reported consuming and also selling part of their meagre food stocks for cash in order to meet domestic necessities. They sell cheaply when the market prices are depressed after harvest and find it hard to buy at exorbitant prices several months later when supplies are low and food prices high."},{"index":7,"size":73,"text":"Results from the study suggest income from crops is generally very limited. As in Kitutu Chache North, the crop component remains at subsistent level across the different economic strata. As the economic level of households improves, livestock begins to play a greater role in the food and income provision. The proportion of households reporting proceeds from off-farm sources is considerably lower than in Kitutu Chache North, even for households above the poverty line."},{"index":8,"size":34,"text":"Livestock plays a greater role in the source of food and income as a household's economic level rises. Livestock ownership is thus an indicator of a change in the economic condition of a household."},{"index":9,"size":200,"text":"In Migori, crop sales play a greater role in household economies compared to Kisii. In S&E Kamagambo livestock sales also make up a major proportion of the household economy for moderate and less poor households. There is little nonfarm income reported. Suna West appears to be markedly less productive (poorer) than the other three locations. Figure 4 shows that more than 71% of the study sample live below or very close to the poverty line of USD1.90 per day, which means that for them everyday life is a struggle. For the majority who are below the poverty line, the value of their production activities is nil or negligible. For households below the poverty line in S&E Kamagambo, the proportion (by value) of crops used for consumption is higher than for the two sites in Kisii. This may mean that although they are yet to attain self-sufficiency in their domestic food requirement, the value of what they consume is higher than in Kisii. The value of food sold is also higher. Considered together this may be a pointer for the households to shift away from subsistence and towards food commercialization, though they have a long way to go to achieve this."},{"index":10,"size":110,"text":"What is of critical importance now is for households to endeavour to cross the poverty line after which the elements of food self-sufficiency and commercialization can begin to crystallize. For households below the poverty line, the role of livestock in both consumption and sold value is much less pronounced than for crops. For households above the poverty line the value of food and livestock consumed and sold increases, which indicates the desire by households to sell food surpluses after attaining food self-sufficiency. Livestock contribution in this category is higher than the category of those below the poverty line, which makes it an indicator of wealth, as had been previously discussed."},{"index":11,"size":117,"text":"While the majority of households are not yet at the desired level, the hallmarks of gradually realizing it in the long run are evident from these results. Figure 5 shows that more than 86% of the study sample live below or very close to the poverty line of USD1.90 per day which means that majority struggle every day to eke a living. In fact, three quarters of the households live on less than USD1 a day with the majority in this category not producing food of any quantifiable value. For these subsistence households the value of the food produced is insufficient to provide both the quantity and quality of nourishment that ensures a healthy and vibrant life."},{"index":12,"size":142,"text":"These households are for the most part dependent on a hostile market economy in which they buy food at exorbitant prices due to the inadequacies of their own farms to provide more than a few months food. The poorest households reported very little cash income from farm products, consuming the majority of their production. Slightly wealthier households (but still below the poverty line) showed more sales of farm produce, mostly crops. A few households are engaged in off-farm activities to complement their meagre on-farm incomes. The selling of food seems to increase with the level of economic well-being. Of the 20% of households living above the poverty line there is a marked increase in sold crops and livestock. The overall picture, however, remains one of extreme poverty for the majority of households. Suna West is the poorest of the four project sites."}]},{"head":"Cropping systems","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Banana and tea farming are major cash earning enterprises for farming households across all four sites but it is in the two Kisii sites, and to a limited extent in the S&E Kamagambo, where they are commercially grown. Less prominent cash enterprises include pawpaw, guava, loquat, mango and avocado tree crops. In this highly mixed farming system, other crops being grown at subsistence levels are amaranth, pumpkin leaves, onion, sorghum, millet and cowpea. In the Nyaribari Chache site farmers also grow sugar cane for cash."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Other crops grown, though by fewer farmers, in all the sites include tomatoes, cassava, sweet potatoes, pineapples, spinach, Irish potatoes, plantain, desmodium, cabbage, grapes, passion fruits, green gram, groundnut, jute mallow, lemon, Leucaena leucocephala, oranges, pigeon pea, plum, soya bean, tree lucerne, tree tomato, vetch grass and watermelon."},{"index":3,"size":7,"text":"Figure 6: Crops grown in Nyaribari Chache"},{"index":4,"size":120,"text":"In Nyaribari Chache (Figure 6), the growing of maize and the vegetable, kales ('sukuma wiki'), were reported by 100% of respondents in the study. These were closely followed by avocado and banana, grown by 80% and 70% of respondents, respectively. Another diverse category of crops that were reported by 30-50% of the farmers include, at the lower range, amaranth, bush bean, guava, sugar cane and at the upper range, semi-climbing bean, black nightshade vegetable, spider plant and tea. A further wide range of crops reported by between 10% and less than 30% of the respondents include sorghum, sesbania, pumpkin, onions, millet, mango, cowpea and calliandra. Some respondents (<10%) also reported growing cabbages, cassava, desmodium, pineapples, plantain, spinach, sweetpotato and tomatoes."},{"index":5,"size":275,"text":"Like in Nyaribari Chache (Figure 7), growing maize in Kitutu Chache North was reported by 100% of the farmers surveyed but the growing of the vegetable, kales ('sukuma wiki'), was only reported by 80%. These were closely followed by avocado and banana, grown by 70% of respondents, and common bean, grown by 60% of respondents. Between 20% and 40% of farmers also reported growing amaranth, guava, mango, millet, tea, onions, pawpaw and spider plant. A few respondents (<10%) reported growing calliandra, cowpea, groundnut, loquat, pumpkins, sesbania and spinach. In S&E Kamagambo (Figure 8), maize farming was reported by 100% of the farmers included in the study and 80% reported that they were growing vegetables and fruits such as kales ('sukuma wiki') and avocado. Sixty per cent (60%) reported that they were growing mango and banana. Another diverse category of crops that between 30% and 50% of the farmers reported growing include amaranth, bush bean and semi-climbing bean (both common beans), pumpkins, spider plant, sugar cane, sweetpotato, guava, cassava and cowpea. A few respondents (<10%) also reported that they were growing Irish potato, loquat, onions, oranges, sesbania, spinach and tomatoes. In Suna West (Figure 9), the growing of maize was reported by 100% of farmers surveyed and the vegetable, kales ('sukuma wiki'), was reported by 60%. These were closely followed by avocado, mango, bush and climbing beans, pumpkin, sweetpotato, amaranth, banana, cassava, cowpea, black nightshade which were grown by between 20% and 60% of households. A further wide range of crops grown by 20% or less of the respondents include sorghum, sesbania, soya bean, tomato, onions, millet, mango, cow pea and calliandra, lemon and Irish potato."}]},{"head":"Intercropping","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"Intercropping maize and common bean is the most common combination in the study sample (Tables 3-6)."},{"index":2,"size":359,"text":"Intercropping is a strategy that farmers operating small and declining landholdings can use to increase land productivity. On a small piece of land, farmers are able to realize an early bean harvest from the intercrop. Maize and common beans complement each other through the distinct nutrients they mine and their contrasting root structures, which explore different depths in the soil and facilitate intensification. The semi-climbing bean crop uses the maize as an anchor as it explores the space above ground, it also competes with the maize for soil nutrients and sunlight both of which are critical for the eventual grain filling in the pods. Other intercropping practices reported in the study sites are maize/groundnuts, maize/calliandra and sugar cane/bush bean. In all cases of intercropping, which crop is main or minor depends on several factors chief of which are the farmers' production goals (e.g. domestic food production, market orientation, etc.). In Kitutu Chache North (Table 3) maize is the main crop and common beans (semi-climbing and bush) are the intercrop for 67% of the farmers interviewed. Conversely, 48% of farmers planted bean as the main crop and maize as the companion crop in that system. In Nyaribari Chache (Table 4), 31% of the farmers interviewed grew maize as the main crop and used one of the two common bean types as intercrops. Conversely, 26% of those growing beans as the main crop were using maize as the intercrop. Other minority crops reported are calliandra as an intercrop for the maize crop and sugar cane intercropped with a common bean main crop. In S&E Kamagambo (Table 5), 62% of the study sample reported growing maize as the main crop intercropped with common beans and 20% intercropped maize with groundnut. Forty-two per cent of interviewees reported growing common beans as the main crop, which was intercropped with maize. In Suna West (Table 6), 56% of the study sample reported growing maize as the main crop with common beans (climbing or bush beans) as the intercrop and in 12% of the cases, maize was intercropped with groundnut. For 38% of interviewees, common bean was the main crop, and it was intercropped with maize."}]},{"head":"Crop production","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"Maize is grown on a fairly small acreage in Kisii and relatively large acreage in Migori, where landholdings tend to be bigger (Table 7). The maize yield, which is the main staple food in western Kenya, across all sites in this study sample was between one and almost two tonnes per ha. Kamagambo has the highest yield of the four sites. There is therefore tremendous potential for increasing cereal production given the proven higher yield potential of up to 10 tonnes per ha. Farmers tend to intercrop maize with a diverse range of leguminous crops like common beans, soya bean, cowpea and groundnut, among others. Maize is generally grown for household consumption though a few households are able to produce surplus for market."},{"index":2,"size":367,"text":"Banana is a major cash earner in Kisii where it is grown on small plots as shown in Table 7. There is also banana growing in Kamagambo, which in many respects is a spill over practice from the neighbouring Kisii County, which is the main banana-producing county in Kenya. Here the banana acreage is relatively bigger (0.5 ha) due to the larger landholdings there. Banana growing was not identified in Nyaribari Chache or Suna West sites. The natural conditions in Suna West are not conducive for banana production. As shown in Table 7, farmers in Kitutu Chache North generate considerable income from the sale of bananas. Vegetable production is another source of income as represented by the 'sukuma wiki' (kales). Vegetables are grown on small plots and are judiciously harvested over the season(s) and sold in both local and far-flung markets including Nairobi. Other vegetables include spider plant and amaranthus. Maize, bananas, tea and kale were major crops for consumption and sale in Kitutu Chache North and Nyaribari Chache sites. Production was fairly similar in the two sites. The average maize acreage was 0.6 ha in Kitutu Chache North and 0.8 ha in Nyaribari Chache with an estimated yield of over 1,766 kg/ha and 1,336 kg/ha, respectively. By all standards, this is a low yield given that on-farm yields of 7.1 t/ha have been realized in this region under research conditions (Okoko et al. 2003). The gap between actual and potential maize yield highlights the immense potential that still exists for raising on-farm productivity, which will be critical for averting a food crisis in the face of high and increasing food demand. As noted earlier, the majority of study sample households are food deficient for most of the year and have to depend on buying food from the market at exorbitant prices. Strategies to support farmers to gradually increase on-farm productivity and attain both food self-sufficiency and market surplus are therefore required. Despite the low on-farm maize productivity, the results show that nearly 60% of the yield is actually consumed domestically while the balance is sold for the much-needed cash. Note that tea was a major cash crop in Kitutu Chache North but not in other locations."},{"index":3,"size":76,"text":"Bananas were grown on smaller plots (0.5 ha) in Kitutu Chache North. The average reported yield of 1,150 kg/ha in Kitutu Chache is low given that banana yields under research conditions in the region were 60 t/ha (Kwach et al. 2000). In Kitutu Chache an average of 26% of the produced banana is consumed at home while 74% is sold, making it a major income earner in the region. Bananas were not grown in Nyaribari Chache."},{"index":4,"size":104,"text":"Maize and bananas were major crops in S&E Kamagambo, and maize was the primary crop in the Suna West site. The average maize acreage for S&E Kamagambo and Suna West site are 0.6 and 0.8 ha, respectively. Their corresponding yields are 1,766 and 1,334 kg/ha. In both sites, nearly 60% of the harvested grains are consumed at home with the balance being sold to meet the much-needed cash for other basic household necessities. Banana cultivation acreage averages 0.5 ha in S&E Kamagambo achieving average yields of 1,150 kg/ha. Twenty-six per cent of the harvest is consumed at home and 74% is sold for cash."}]},{"head":"Handling and use of crop residues","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":186,"text":"The maize crop is the main source of crop residues among respondents who reported recycling the residues back into the soil. Maize stover returned to the soil in Kitutu Chache North was reported by 50% of households, whilst its use as animal feed was reported by 34% of households (Table 8). Other uses were reported but by less than 10% of respondents (burn 9%, fuel 7%, manure 3% and compost 3%) (Table 8). Stover from both bush beans and semi-climbing beans is predominately returned to the soil by 37% of the survey respondents. Using bean stover for livestock feed is also practiced by 20% of respondents. The use of bean stover for other uses such as fuel, manure, composting and cash was nil to negligible. Thirteen per cent (13%) of survey respondents also reported using banana stover for livestock feed. Tea stover was returned to the soil by 7% of respondents. 'Soil' refers to direct return to soil -residues are left in field and ploughed back in. Other uses of crop residues (e.g. composting, mixing with animal manure) may later also be returned to the soil."},{"index":2,"size":116,"text":"Maize stover is mainly used for improving soil fertility (52% of respondents) and as livestock feed (39% of respondents -Table 9). Burning was reported by 13% and fuel by 3%. Using beans stover for improving soil fertility was reported by 31% respondents and 18% used it as livestock feed. Stover from kales was returned to the soil by 15% of respondents and used as animal feed by 3%. Farmers reported using of banana stover for feed (14%) and fertilizing the soil (10%).  'Soil' refers to direct return to soil -residues are left in field and ploughed back in. Other uses of crop residues (e.g. composting, mixing with animal manure) may later also be returned to soil."},{"index":3,"size":203,"text":"Returning stover to the soil is common in S&E Kamagambo and was reported by 76% of farmers (Table 10). Maize residue was used as livestock feed by 45% of respondents. Less than 10% of farmers used maize stover for fuel, 4% burnt it as part of land preparation whilst 3% used it as manure and 1% as compost. The use of maize stover for fuel is an indication of a shortage of fuelwood due to deforestation caused by population pressure on the limited available land. Burning of crop stover though discouraged as a farming practice is nevertheless still being carried out, though the practice is gradually declining. Combined, stover from bush beans and semi-climbing beans was returned to the soil by 37% of the survey respondents. Bean stover use for livestock feed was also practiced by 9% of farmers. The use of beans for manure is negligible. Groundnut stover was returned to the soil by 6% of farmers and used as feed, manure or compost by a few respondents. 'Soil' refers to direct return to soil -residues are left in field and ploughed back in. Other uses of crop residues (e.g. composting, mixing with animal manure) may later also be returned to soil."},{"index":4,"size":123,"text":"In the Suna West (Table 11) site the use of maize stover for soil incorporation is the most common practice for 81% of those interviewed. Its second most common use is as livestock feed at 39%. Other uses include as manure 10%, fuel 9%, composting 8% and burning at 4%. The bean stover is returned to the soil by 34% while 10% use it as livestock feed. Other uses (burn, manure and compost) of bean stover are practiced by a minority of the respondents. Sugar cane was used for soil fertility by 17% of the respondents while 5% used it as a cattle feed. Groundnut stover was used for soil fertility by 13% of the respondents with other uses reported by few farmers"}]},{"head":"Livestock","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"Of the 117 farmers in the study, over 80 own cattle and about 60 also keep local chicken (Figure 10). Other livestock species kept include goats (25) and sheep (<10) with negligible ownership of other livestock. Open grazing on natural pasture is the common practice reported by over 60 of the respondents. Other more commercially oriented dairy farmers cultivate high yielding forages (40) to supplement the low yielding natural pasture. About 25 of the respondents gathered forages (cut and carry), nearly 30 give supplements to their animals, 20 use crop residues as feed and less than 10 farmers reported giving minerals to their livestock."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"As corroboration for the results reported on crop residue use as livestock feed, livestock keepers reported crop residue among their mix of feeding options, with the practice being more entrenched in the Kisii than in the Migori sites. Similarly, the use of mineral supplementation (dairy meal and salt) was reported. Dairying in this site has the potential to grow to a commercial level with the right institutional support to farmers. The two livestock types owned by farmers in Nyaribari Chache were mainly cattle (>80) and chicken (60) with a few households reporting ownership of goats (<10) -see Figure 11. Open grazing on natural pasture is the common practice reported by 60 of the respondents. Other more commercially oriented dairy farmers practice the cultivation of high-yielding forages (40) like Napier grass and a diversity of legume crops such as desmodium, calliandra, etc."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"As corroboration for the results reported on crop residue use as livestock feed, 40 livestock keepers reported using crop residue as animal feed. Similarly, the use of mineral supplementation (dairy meal and salt) was reported. Farmers at this site have the potential to grow into commercial dairy producers with the right institutional support mechanism."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Figure 12: Comparison of livestock endowment and feeds in Kamagambo"},{"index":5,"size":32,"text":"Figure 12 shows that four livestock types owned by farmers in Kamagambo were mainly cattle (>70), chicken (55), sheep (30) and goats ( 20) with a few households reporting ownership of ducks."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Open grazing on natural pasture is the common practice reported by 70 of the respondents. Other more commercially oriented dairy farmers cultivate high-yielding forages (20) like Napier grass and a diversity of legume crops such as desmodium, calliandra, etc."},{"index":7,"size":59,"text":"As corroboration for the results reported on crop residue use as livestock feed, 20 livestock keepers reported using crop residue as animal feed. Similarly, the use of feed supplementation (dairy meal and salt), and cut and carry, etc. was reported. With the right institutional support mechanism, farmers at this site have the potential to grow into commercial dairy producers."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Figure 13: Comparison of livestock endowment and feeds in Suna West"},{"index":9,"size":102,"text":"Figure 13 shows that the four livestock types owned by farmers in Suna West were cattle (>55), chicken (50), sheep (>20) and goats (5). Open grazing on natural pasture is common and practiced by 50 of the respondents, whilst crop residue is used as animal feed by >10 farmers and forages by 5 farmers. This site is the least developed compared to the other three with respect to livestock management. Whereas the farmers in the other three sites have diversified the array of feeds for their livestock, in this site there is still over-reliance on natural pasture in an open grazing system."}]},{"head":"Legumes grown","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Figure 14: Legumes types and their uses in Kitutu Chache North"},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"Common beans (bush and semi-climbers) were the most common legume crop in Kitutu Chache North, grown by over 40% (Figure 14) of farmers surveyed. Farming groundnuts and a host of other legumes was reported but by very few respondents. The percentage of respondents reporting the growing of improved fodder shrubs was very low in this study despite past research and extensive efforts to promote them among smallholder mixed farmers. Improved fodder shrubs include calliandra, leucaena and desmodium. In this site far fewer farmers reported the growing of the indigenous leguminous sesbania compared to the other sites."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Food (70%), livestock feed (20%), soil fertility (<30%) and income (>10) were the priority functions given by farmers for preferring the different legumes. The two functions of erosion control and fuel were reported by far fewer percentages of farmers."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Figure 15: Legumes types and their uses in Nyaribari Chache"},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"In Nyaribari Chache, common beans (bush and semi-climbers) were the most common crop, grown by nearly 40% (Figure 15) of farmers surveyed. The locally adapted sesbania tree legume was reported by nearly 20% and calliandra (a relic of past research and extension initiatives) by more than 10% of the respondents. Other legumes were reported by far fewer respondents in the site. Food (>60%), livestock feed (<40%), income (<40%) and soil fertility (20%) in that order were the priority functions given by farmers for preferring the different legumes. The two functions of erosion control and fuel were only reported by very few farmers."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Figure 16: Legumes types and their uses in S&E Kamagambo"},{"index":7,"size":114,"text":"In S&E Kamagambo, common beans (bush and semi-climbers) were the most common crop, grown by nearly 40% (Figure 16) of farmers surveyed. Farming groundnuts was nearly as popular as common beans and was reported by nearly 40% of respondents. Cowpeas were being grown by about 10% of the respondents. Groundnuts and cowpeas are adapted to lower altitude and relatively drier regions of Migori compared to the higher altitude and wetter Kisii County. The percentage of respondents reporting the growing of improved fodder shrubs was very low in this study site despite past research and extension efforts to promote them among smallholder mixed farmers. These include calliandra, leucaena and desmodium and the locally adapted sesbania."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"Food (<80%), livestock feed (<30%), soil fertility (<20%), income (30%) and erosion control (20%) were the priority functions given by farmers for preferring the different legumes. The functions of fuel was reported by a far smaller percentages of farmers."},{"index":9,"size":10,"text":"Figure 17: Legumes types and their uses in Suna West"},{"index":10,"size":60,"text":"Figure 17 shows that in Suna West, common beans were the most common crop, grown by nearly 40% of farmers surveyed. Groundnut and cowpea farming was reported by 30% and 10% of respondents, respectively. Sesbania and soya beans were grown by 10%, and less than 10%, respectively. Other legumes grown by far fewer farmers include calliandra, desmodium and pigeon pea."},{"index":11,"size":37,"text":"Food (70%), livestock feed (<30%), soil fertility (20%), erosion control and income (<40) were the priority functions given by farmers for preferring the different legumes. The function of fuel was reported by far smaller percentages of farmers."}]},{"head":"Legume production","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"The yield/ha of common beans across the sites shows no discernible pattern but varies from under 0.1 to under 0.5 tonnes, which is extrapolated from small plot yields of between 0.1 and 0.5 ha (Table 12). These are bean yields realized from intercropped maize/common bean mixtures."},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"Groundnuts in Migori sites show yields of over 0.2 to under 0.3 tons per ha estimated from plots of 0.2 ha and 0.5 ha, respectively. The viability of these estimates needs to be corroborated given the high variability shown by the standard deviations. Common bean production in Kitutu Chache North (Table 12) is done on small plots of between 0.1 and 0.2 ha within the main maize crop. The extrapolated yields of between 0.1 and less than 0.5 tons/ha is far below the proven yield of 2.5t/ha for this region (ICRISAT 2013). In S&E Kamagambo and Suna West sites in Migori, groundnuts were planted on 0.5 and 0.2 ha plots with a corresponding yield of 276 and 212 kg/ha, respectively (Table 13). This reported yield is far lower than the proven yield of nearly thrice these levels on research trials in this region (Kidula et al. 2010)."}]},{"head":"Planting strategies for legumes","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"In Kitutu Chache North (Table 14) common beans are mainly grown as intercrops (nearly 90%) while all the sesbania was intercropped. Cowpea is grown as an intercrop by all the respondents as are groundnuts, desmodium and calliandra."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"In Nyaribari Chache common beans were also mostly intercropped (85%) with about 15% being sole cropped. Half of the respondents were intercropping cowpeas with the other half practicing sole cropping. Leucaena leucocephala was all sole cropped as was most of calliandra (67%). Desmodium is either monocropped (33%), grown on strips (33%), or field margins/contours (33%). Also growing mainly on field margins/contours is the locally adapted sesbania. Vetch grass though reported by few respondents was sole cropped when grown."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"In S&E Kamagambo (Table 15) common beans were, again, mostly intercropped (90%) as were all the cowpea (100%)."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Nearly half of the respondents were intercropping groundnuts (46%) with the remainder practicing sole cropping."},{"index":5,"size":98,"text":"Sesbania was planted on field margins and contours by all the respondents. Desmodium and vetch grass, though only reported by few respondents, were sole cropped when grown. Across all sites, the majority of land cultivated is owned by the respondents. This is the case even for Suna West where land for hire is readily available. Low take-up of rented land suggests rental charges are probably beyond the income ability of the majority of households surveyed. Across all the sites only a negligible proportion of farmers are renting in land. Even fewer are those that are renting out land."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Figure 18: Cultivated acreage and the types of land tenure by site -Kitutu Chache North"},{"index":7,"size":88,"text":"In Kitutu Chache North, 70 of the 117 households (Figure 18) in the study own less than 0.5 ha of land, nearly 95 of the households own 1 ha or less and nearly all of them own 2 ha or less. This finding demonstrates the limitation of land as a factor of production in this site specifically and Kisii County generally. The land tenure system for the majority (> 110) is private ownership with the remaining few (<10 ) renting in land for cultivation as a coping strategy."},{"index":8,"size":178,"text":"There is little reported renting out of land or use of communal land, which emphasizes the acute shortage of land for cultivation in this region. Figure 19 shows that less than 40 of the 102 households in the study own less than 0.5 ha of land, nearly 60 of the households own 1 ha or less and nearly 80 of them own 2 ha or less. The land tenure system for the majority (approx. 100) is private ownership with the remaining few renting in land for cultivation. No one reported renting out of land or use of communal land. In S&E Kamagambo (Figure 20) less than 40 of the 99 households in the study own less than 0.5 ha of land, nearly 60 of the households own 1 ha or less. Nearly 85 of them own 2 ha or less. A few households (<10) own larger holdings of between 2 and 3.5 ha. The land tenure system for the majority (nearly 100) of households is private ownership with the remaining minority renting in land or using communal land."},{"index":9,"size":14,"text":"Figure 21: Cultivated acreage and the types of land tenure by site -Suna West."},{"index":10,"size":69,"text":"In Suna West (Figure 21) less than 60 of the 95 households in the study own less than one ha of land. Less than 85 of them own 2 ha or less. Some households (>10) own larger holdings of between 2 and 3.5 ha. The land tenure system for the majority (nearly 90) of households is private ownership with the remaining minority renting in land or using communal land."}]},{"head":"Land management","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":172,"text":"In Kitutu Chache North (Table 16) fertilizer use is the most widely reported farm management practice at 98%, followed by spraying (plunge dipping livestock and disease and pest control in crops) reported by 54% of the households. There are other farm productivity boosting practices that were reported but by a minority of farmers. These include manure use (26%), use of hybrid seeds (32%), deworming (35%) and contour ploughing among others. Several other key practices that are critical to sustainable agriculture like afforestation, composting, terracing, etc. were reported by a negligible number of respondents. Nearly half of the respondents were not applying any land conservation measures on their farms at all. These results emphasize the importance of increasing the percentage of households applying these best practices as a basis for transforming on-farm productivity. It is also significant that the low level of awareness within the study sample of soil problems of moisture (16%), fertility (29%) and erosion (16%) means a significant proportion of the respondents that are ignorant of these key soil parameters."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"In Nyaribari Chache fertilizer use is the most widely reported farm management practice, at 97%, followed by spraying (plunge dipping livestock and disease and pest control in crops), which was reported by 64% of the households."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"Other productivity enhancing practices that were reported by a sizable proportion of the respondents include manure (47%), livestock vaccinations (44%), deworming (42%) and use of hybrid seed (40%) and general veterinary use (31%). It is noteworthy that the percentage of the study sample reporting on the application of best practices in livestock management is higher than in the Kitutu Chache North site. There are several other farm productivity boosting practices that were reported but by a minority of respondents. More attention needs to be put to help adopt productivity boosting practices so that they can further along the path of adoption of these best practices."},{"index":4,"size":140,"text":"In S&E Kamagambo, fertilizer use is the most widely reported farm management practice at 95% followed by spraying (plunge dipping livestock and disease and pest control in crops), which was reported by 56% of respondents and livestock vaccinations (52%). Other practices that were reported by a sizeable proportion of respondents include deworming (45%), manure use (38%), use of hybrid seed (35%), perception of soil erosion and fertility (32%). There are a range of other farm productivity boosting practices that were reported but by a minority of farmers. It is noteworthy that similar to all sites, nearly half of the study sample farmers were not applying any meaningful land conservation measures. This is where more attention needs to be put to help to move the farmers along the path of adoption of these best practices for desired change to be achieved."},{"index":5,"size":129,"text":"In the Suna West site fertilizer use is the most widely reported farm management practice at 86%. The proportion of farmers reporting other best practices is generally low at this site compared to the other three sites, save for their perception of soil fertility and erosion at 42% and 41%, respectively. Other practices that were reported by a sizeable proportion of respondents include deworming (21%), spraying/vaccinations (31%), strip planting (21%), manure use (31%) use of hybrid seed (35%) and perception of soil erosion and fertility (32%). It is noteworthy that similar to all sites, more than half (55%) of the farmers in the study were not applying any meaningful land conservation measures, an area that needs more attention to help farmers adopt more of these best practices. Human welfare"}]},{"head":"Food security","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"During the lean period, respondents reported significant reduction in some foods including meat, eggs, fruits, nuts and legumes. Other foods whose consumption is only marginally reduced during this period include grains and tubers, vegetables and milk."},{"index":2,"size":505,"text":"The results across sites demonstrate that women have less decision-making power compared to men over household income and consumption of foodstuffs. Depending on the site, between one-third to two-thirds of households reported no or very little female decision-making. The next most common response was of shared decision-making, with women taking a slightly lesser role compared to men. The third most common response was of very high levels of female control over income and foodstuffs, which is typical of households headed by a single female. Generally, in Kitutu Chache North (Figure 22) there are two hunger peaks in one year. The main peak is in January and February where it affects more than 70% and 35% of the respondents, respectively. There is a minor hunger peak from May to July (May 15%, June 25% and July 20%). August to November months represent the hunger free period at the site with a small or negligible number of households reporting hunger. In the lean season, the foods consumed include grains/roots/tubers (80%) leafy vegetables (<80%), vegetables and milk (60%), legumes and fruits (>30%), and milk and meat at <20%. The pattern of food consumed during the flush season is similar to that in the lean season except that the percentage of households reporting is consistently higher for each food type. This increase is highest for eggs, meat, fruits, nuts and legumes, which show a doubling of consumption in the flush season compared to the lean season. The corresponding increase in milk, vegetables and grains/roots /tubers consumption is marginal. Generally in Kitutu Chache North (Figure 23), there are two hunger peaks in one year. The main peak is in January, February and March where it affects up to more than 45%, 30% and 20% of the respondents, respectively. There is a minor hunger peak from May to July (May 15%, June 25% and July 20%). The August to December months represent the hunger free period in the site with a small or negligible number of households reporting hunger. In the lean season, the foods consumed include grains/roots/tubers (60%) leafy vegetables (55%) and milk (60%), legumes and fruits (>30%), meat (20%). The pattern of the food consumed during the flush season is similar to that in the lean season except that the percentage of households reporting is consistently higher for each food type. This increase is highest for eggs, meat, fruits, nuts and legumes, which shows a doubling of consumption in the flush season compared to the lean season. The corresponding increase in milk, vegetables and grains/roots/tubers consumption is marginal. Generally in S&E Kamagambo (Figure 24), there are two hunger peaks. There is a main one from May to July (May <30%, June <40% and July 15%). The second peak is in January and February where it affects up to 25% and <10% of respondents, respectively. The August to December months represent the hunger free period in the site with a small or negligible number of households reporting hunger. A second hunger free period covers the months of March and April."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"In the lean season, the foods consumed include grains/roots/tubers (60%) leafy vegetables and milk (<60%), vegetables (50%) and milk (40%). The foods that are sparingly consumed during these lean times are eggs (<20%) meat (<10%) fruits (>10%), nuts/seeds (<5%) and legumes (>10%). The pattern of the food consumed during the flush season is similar to that in the lean season except that the percentage of households reporting is consistently higher for each food type."},{"index":4,"size":130,"text":"There is a doubling, trebling and even quadrupling in the frequency of the households that are consuming the food that were only moderately reported in the lean season. This increase is highest for fruits, nuts, legumes, eggs and meat. The corresponding increase in milk, vegetables and grains/roots /tubers consumption is marginal. Contrary to other sites, Suna West (Figure 25) shows three hunger peaks: one in January and February, another from May to July and a minor one from October to December. The January peak affects approximately 25% of households, the next peak is in June with more than 25% of households affected and the last peak in November affecting >10% households. The results depict a site that has a serious food deficit situation, as there are no hunger free months."},{"index":5,"size":92,"text":"In the lean season, the foods consumed by the majority of the households include grains/roots/tubers (>60%) leafy vegetables (<55%) and milk (50%). The pattern of the food consumed during the flush season is similar to that in the lean season except that the percentage of households reporting is consistently higher for each food type. There is a doubling, trebling and even quadrupling in the frequency of the households consuming eggs, meat, fruits, nuts/ seeds and legumes during the flush period. The corresponding increase in milk, vegetables and grains/roots /tubers consumption is marginal."},{"index":6,"size":59,"text":"Female control of production In Kenya, like in many other developing countries, women shoulder the bulk of the farm workload but they have little say in how the proceeds from their labour is utilized. Data was collected in this study to establish the situation in the specific study sites as far as female control of farm production is concerned."},{"index":7,"size":51,"text":"Female control of production in Kitutu Chache North (Figure 26) is nil in nearly 60 of the households interviewed. At the other extreme, in slightly more than 20 of the households, women control nearly 100% of production with another significant result being some 20 households reporting 50% control (i.e. shared decision-making)."},{"index":8,"size":130,"text":"Female control of production in Nyaribari Chache (Figure 26) is nil in slightly more than 40 of the households interviewed. Shared decision-making (i.e. 50% control) was reported by about 35 households. About 10 households reported full female control (100%) of production. Overall, it shows that women are in some level of control of production in slightly more than 40 of the total 102 households studied. Female control of production in S&E Kamagambo is nil in slightly under 35 of the households interviewed (Figure 27). In about 35 households, the decision-making and control of production was shared. In about 10 of the households, female control of farm production was 100%. Overall, the results show that nearly 50% of women in the studied households are in some level of control of production."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"Female control of production in Suna West (Figure 27) is nil in slightly more than 30 of the households interviewed. In about 30 households, control of production by women was 50%. In about 12 households production control was 100%"},{"index":10,"size":4,"text":"Concluding discussion and recommendations"},{"index":11,"size":176,"text":"More than 50% of the study sample were female respondents. While female farmers are the majority in terms of their contribution to farm production, the study has revealed that females are in the minority in terms of control of production. The average family size was four persons per household across all sites. The acreage within the sites is characteristically small-scale, generally between 0.5 and 2 ha with Kisii being on the lower range and Migori on the upper range. It is also a highly mixed crop and livestock farming system with a primary objective being selfsufficiency for home consumption with a majority (50% to 80%) living close to the poverty line (USD1.9). A secondary production objective of selling surplus to market is associated with the relatively wealthier households though selling out of desperation for cash among the poorer households too. Among the key crops grown and livestock kept are maize, beans, groundnuts, kales, bananas, sugar cane, sesbania, cattle, chicken, sheep and goats. Bean, groundnut and cowpea are the key legume species growing in the study area."},{"index":12,"size":356,"text":"Majority of the indicators of best farm practices are low ranging from nil to <20% with fertilizer being the only one in near universal use. Use of hybrid seed, spraying, veterinary services and perception of soil problems, among others, were reported by a low to moderate proportion of respondents. Livestock ownership has been shown in this study to be an indicator of economic wellness of the household as it is less apparent within poorer households than wealthier ones. The main uses of grown legumes were food, income, feed, soil fertility, erosion control and fuel in that order. The two sites each in Kisii and Migori counties are similar in the type and composition of farm activities. Suna West is located in a potentially less agricultural area compared to the other sites. There is no discernible pattern for off-farm activities, as fewer responses than expected were elicited regarding this source of livelihood. The key crops grown are also the main sources of residue on farms where it is mainly used for livestock feed and soil fertility amendment. In the two Kisii and S&E Kamagambo sites, a foundation for commercial livestock production has been laid through use of planted forages, cutting and carrying feeds, mineral supplementation and use of crop residues as feed. Households in Suna West still have a long way to go to transform livestock farming from their current reliance on open grazing on natural pasture. There are two hunger periods across all sites, the major one being in January to February and a minor one in May to July, but in Suna West these two hunger seasons are reversed. Suna West has an additional third minor hunger period from October to December. In the lean season the foods consumed include grains/roots/ tubers, vegetables and milk. The pattern of the food consumed during the flush season is similar to that in the lean season except that the percentage of households reporting is consistently higher for each food type. The study depicts a picture of a male-controlled culture in which men dominate with respect to control of farm production even though the contribution of women is higher."},{"index":13,"size":17,"text":"Annex 1: RHoMIS questionnaire Enumerator: Introduce yourself, and then read out the following statement to the interviewee(s)."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FiguresFigure 10 : Figures "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: Map showing location of project sites in Kisii and Migori counties "},{"text":"Figure 2 : Figure 2: Value of activities in Kitutu Chache North "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 3: Value of activities in Nyaribari Chache "},{"text":"Figure 4 : Figure 4: Value of activities in S&E Kamagambo "},{"text":"Figure 5 : Figure 5: Value of activities in Suna West "},{"text":"Figure 7 : Figure 7: Crops grown in Kitutu Chache North "},{"text":"Figure 8 : Figure 8: Crops grown in S&E Kamagambo "},{"text":"Figure 10 : Figure 10: Comparison of livestock endowment and feeds in Kitutu Chache North "},{"text":"Figure 11 : Figure 11: Comparison of livestock endowment and feeds in Nyaribari Chache "},{"text":"Figure 19 : Figure 19: Cultivated acreage and the types of land tenure by site -Nyaribari Chache. "},{"text":"Figure 20 : Figure 20: Cultivated acreage and the types of land tenure by site -S&E Kamagambo. "},{"text":"Figure 22 : Figure 22: Food deficit months and foods consumed in Kitutu Chache North "},{"text":"Figure 23 : Figure 23: Food deficit months and foods consumed in Nyaribari Chache "},{"text":"Figure 24 : Figure 24: Food deficit months and foods consumed in S&E Kamagambo "},{"text":"Figure 25 : Figure 25: Food deficit months and foods consumed in Suna West "},{"text":"Figure 26 : Figure 26: Female control of production in Kisii County sites "},{"text":"Figure 27 : Figure 27: Female control of production in Migori County sites "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Site resource endowment characteristics  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Kitutu Chache North  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Nyaribari Chache  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -S&E Kamagambo  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Suna West  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Comparative crop production and income across Kisii and Migori sites  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Percentage of households reporting uses of crop residues -Kitutu Chache North  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Proportion of households reporting each use of crop residues -Nyaribari Chache  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Proportion of households reporting each use of crop residues -S&E Kamagambo  "},{"text":"Table 11 : % households reporting each use of crop residues -Suna West  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Legume productivity in Kisii sites.  "},{"text":"Table 13 : Legume productivity in Migori sites  "},{"text":"Table 14 : Proportion of households in each location who follow specific planting strategies for legumes, in the Kisii County sites  "},{"text":"Table 15 : Legume cropping systems comparison Migori County sites  "},{"text":"Table 16 : Land and livestock management practices in households (HH) in the four study sites  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Characteristics of the households in the four locations in the survey and the enumerator responses on the survey implementation Reliability and rapport were subjectively evaluated by enumerators. Avg=mean average, sd=standard deviation, mins =minutes Location  No. % female % HH % HH % single % Interview % % good LocationNo.% female% HH% HH% single%Interview%% good   interviews respondents head heads female single duration reliable rapport interviewsrespondentsheadheadsfemalesingledurationreliablerapport     respondents married heads male (mins) (avg   respondentsmarriedheadsmale(mins) (avg        heads and sd)   headsand sd) Kisii Kitutu Chache 117 59 60 80 17 3 34 (18) 63 99 KisiiKitutu Chache11759608017334 (18)6399  North          North  Nyaribari 102 52 70 78 19 1 32 (14) 87 100 Nyaribari10252707819132 (14)87100  Chache          Chache Migori S&E 99 49 67 84 11 4 32 (16) 91 99 Migori S&E9949678411432 (16)9199  Kamagambo          Kamagambo  Suna West 95 59 73 71 24 3 32 (17) 91 99 Suna West9559737124332 (17)9199  "},{"text":" Table 2). Two sites, one in each county, have similar farm sizes with Kitutu Chache North and Kamagambo having a mean of 0.8 ha and Nyaribari Chache and Suna West reporting a mean of 1.3 ha. Average TLU is one in the three sites of Kitutu Chache North, Nyaribari Chache and Suna West and nearly two in Kamagambo.  "},{"text":"Table 2 : Site resource endowment characteristics   Kisii    Migori  KisiiMigori  Kitutu Chache North Nyaribari Chache S&E Kamagambo Suna West Kitutu Chache NorthNyaribari Chache S&E KamagamboSuna West  Mean Sd Mean Sd Mean Sd Mean Sd MeanSdMeanSdMean SdMean Sd HH size (members) 4.0 1.8 3.9 1.7 4.1 1.7 4.4 1.8 HH size (members)4.01.83.91.74.11.74.41.8 Land owned (ha) 0.8 0.7 1.3 1.1 0.8 0.7 1.3 1.1 Land owned (ha)0.80.71.31.10.80.71.31.1 Land cultivated (ha) 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.0 0.7 0.8 1.1 1.0 Land cultivated (ha)0.70.81.11.00.70.81.11.0 Livestock holdings (TLU) 0.9 0.9 1.3 1.2 1.8 1.7 1.4 1.8 Livestock holdings (TLU)0.90.91.31.21.81.71.41.8 Total value of production (USD/MAE/day) 2.2 33.2 1.5 3.9 1.5 2.6 0.8 1.3 Total value of production (USD/MAE/day)2.233.21.53.91.52.60.81.3 Cash income (USD/MAE/day) 1.3 4.4 0.9 3.3 0.8 2.1 0.4 1.0 Cash income (USD/MAE/day)1.34.40.93.30.82.10.41.0 Crop production value (USD/HH/year) 583 39,447 415 2,222 748 2,139 541 1,113 Crop production value (USD/HH/year)58339,4474152,2227482,1395411,113 Livestock production value (USD/HH/year) 880 2,474 782 1,935 551 1,140 182 590 Livestock production value (USD/HH/year) 8802,4747821,9355511,140182590 Market orientation (% produce sold) 40 37 44 37 37 34 36 33 Market orientation (% produce sold)4037443737343633 Off-farm income (USD/HH/year) 143 1,320 41 1,660 77 810 38 503 Off-farm income (USD/HH/year)1431,320411,6607781038503  "},{"text":"Table 3 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Kitutu Chache North   Companion crop  Companion crop Main crop    Main crop  Maize Climbing beans Bush beans MaizeClimbing beans Bush beans Maize - 36 31 Maize-3631 Climbing bean 27 - 0 Climbing bean27-0 Bush bean 21 0 - Bush bean210-  "},{"text":"Table 4 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Nyaribari Chache   Companion crop  Companion crop Main crop Maize Climbing beans Bush beans Calliandra Sugar cane Main cropMaizeClimbing beansBush beansCalliandraSugar cane Maize - 8 23 4 1 Maize-82341 Climbing bean 16 - 1 0 0 Climbing bean16-100 Bush bean 10 1 - 0 4 Bush bean101-04  "},{"text":"Table 5 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -S&E Kamagambo   Companion crop  Companion crop Main crop Maize Climbing beans Bush beans Groundnut Main cropMaizeClimbing beansBush beansGroundnut Maize - 27 35 20 Maize-273520 Climbing bean 25 - 0 0 Climbing bean25-00 Bush bean 14 1 - 0 Bush bean141-0  "},{"text":"Table 6 : Percentage of households reporting intercropping practices -Suna West   Companion crop  Companion crop   Climbing Bush  ClimbingBush Main crop Maize beans beans Groundnut Main cropMaizebeansbeansGroundnut Maize - 22 34 12 Maize-223412 Climbing bean 22 - 0 0 Climbing bean22-00 Bush bean 16 2 - 0 Bush bean162-0  "},{"text":"Table 7 : Comparative crop production and income across Kisii and Migori sites    Kisii    Migori   KisiiMigori   Kitutu Chache North Nyaribari Chache Kamagambo  Suna West  Kitutu Chache NorthNyaribari ChacheKamagamboSuna West   Mean Sd Mean Sd Mean Sd Mean Sd MeanSdMeanSdMeanSdMeanSd Maize Harvest (kg) 655 670 673 971 655 670 673 971 MaizeHarvest (kg)655670673971655670673971  Land area (ha) 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 0.6 0.6 0.8 0.9 Land area (ha)0.60.60.80.90.60.60.80.9  Yield (kg/ha) 1,766 2,866 1,334 1,813 1,766 2866 1,334 1,813 Yield (kg/ha)1,7662,8661,3341,8131,76628661,3341,813  Consumed (%) 59 32 54 32 59 32 54 32 Consumed (%)5932543259325432  Sold (%) 41 20 46 23 41 20 46 23 Sold (%)4120462341204623  Sale income (USD/yr) 367 469 502 737 367 469 502 737 Sale income (USD/yr)367469502737367469502737 Banana Harvest (kg) 560 567 - - 560 567 - - BananaHarvest (kg)560567--560567--  Land area (ha) 0.5 0.5 - - 0.5 0.5 - - Land area (ha)0.50.5--0.50.5--  Yield (kg/ha) 1150 377 - - 1,150 377 - - Yield (kg/ha)1150377--1,150377--  Consumed (%) 26 20 - - 26 20 - - Consumed (%)2620--2620--  Sold (%) 74 11 - - 74 11 - - Sold (%)7411--7411--  Sale income (USD/year) 448 452 - - 448 452 - - Sale income (USD/year) 448452--448452--  "},{"text":"Table 8 : Percentage of households reporting uses of crop residues -Kitutu Chache North  Feed Soil Burn Fuel Manure Compost Sell FeedSoilBurnFuel Manure Compost Sell Maize 34 50 9 7 3 3 0 Maize345097330 Bush bean 11 12 0 1 0 1 0 Bush bean111201010 Climbing bean 9 26 0 0 3 1 0 Climbing bean92600310 Kale 7 15 0 0 2 2 0 Kale71500220 Banana 13 3 0 0 0 1 3 Banana13300013 Tea 0 7 0 0 0 0 0 Tea0700000 Sugar cane 0 1 1 0 0 0 0 Sugar cane0110000 Groundnut 0 2 0 0 0 0 0 Groundnut0200000  "},{"text":"Table 9 : Proportion of households reporting each use of crop residues -Nyaribari Chache  Feed Soil Burn Fuel Manure Compost Sell FeedSoilBurnFuelManureCompost Sell Maize 39 52 13 3 0 0 0 Maize3952133000 Bush bean 15 16 0 0 0 0 0 Bush bean151600000 Climbing bean 3 15 0 0 0 0 0 Climbing bean31500000 Kale 10 11 1 0 0 0 0 Kale101110000 Banana 14 10 1 0 0 0 0 Banana141010000 Tea 0 25 1 0 0 0 1 Tea02510001 Sugar cane 3 13 1 0 1 0 1 Sugar cane31310101 Groundnut 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Groundnut0000000  "},{"text":"Table 10 : Proportion of households reporting each use of crop residues -S&E Kamagambo Feed Soil Burn Fuel Manure Compost Sell FeedSoilBurnFuelManureCompost Sell  "},{"text":"Table 11 : % households reporting each use of crop residues -Suna West  Feed Soil Burn Fuel Manure Compost Sell FeedSoilBurnFuelManureCompostSell Maize 39 81 4 9 10 8 0 Maize3981491080 Bush bean 8 19 2 3 2 1 0 Bush bean81923210 Climbing bean 2 15 0 0 1 1 0 Climbing bean21500110 Kale 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 Kale1100110 Banana 3 3 0 0 1 1 0 Banana3300110 Tea 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Tea0000000 Sugar cane 5 17 0 1 2 2 0 Sugar cane51701220 Groundnut 3 13 0 0 4 2 0 Groundnut31300420  "},{"text":"Table 12 : Legume productivity in Kisii sites  Grain legumes  Kitutu Chache North  Nyaribari Chache Grain legumesKitutu Chache NorthNyaribari Chache  Mean Sd Mean Sd  MeanSdMeanSd Climbing bean Harvest (kg) 133 344 26 25 Climbing beanHarvest (kg)1333442625  Land area (ha) 0.2 0.2 0.3 0.2 Land area (ha)0.20.20.30.2  Yield (kg/ha) 295 618 92 65 Yield (kg/ha)2956189265  Sale income (USD/yr) 49 121 32 27 Sale income (USD/yr)491213227 Bush bean Harvest (kg) 42 54 45 57 Bush beanHarvest (kg)42544557  Land area (ha) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.1 Land area (ha)0.10.10.10.1  Yield (kg/ha) 289 282 482 751 Yield (kg/ha)289282482751  Sale income (USD/yr) 56 98 79 34 Sale income (USD/yr)56987934 Groundnut Harvest (kg) 275 247 - - GroundnutHarvest (kg)275247--  Land area (ha) 0.2 - - - Land area (ha)0.2---  Yield (kg/ha) - - - - Yield (kg/ha)----  Sale income (USD/yr) 1,016 - - - Sale income (USD/yr)1,016--- Non-grain legumes (data scarce)     Non-grain legumes (data scarce) Calliandra Plant count 4 1 6 5 CalliandraPlant count4165  Harvest (kg) 60 - 38 29 Harvest (kg)60-3829 Sesbania Plant count 9 9 8 5 SesbaniaPlant count9985  Harvest (kg) 10 - 23 23 Harvest (kg)10-2323 Desmodium Land area (ha) 0.0 - 0.0 0.0 DesmodiumLand area (ha)0.0-0.00.0  Harvest (kg) 100 - 50 - Harvest (kg)100-50-  "},{"text":"Table 13 . Legume productivity in Migori sites  Grain legumes  S&E Kamagambo  Suna West Grain legumesS&E KamagamboSuna West  Mean Sd Mean Sd  MeanSdMeanSd Climbing bean Harvest (kg) 216 664 45 30 Climbing beanHarvest (kg)2166644530  Land area (ha) 0.5 0.4 0.5 0.4 Land area (ha)0.50.40.50.4  Yield (kg/ha) 99 78 125 135 Yield (kg/ha)9978125135  Sale income (USD/yr) 110 83 32 17 Sale income (USD/yr)110833217 Bush bean Harvest (kg) 66 89 56 299 Bush beanHarvest (kg)668956299  Land area (ha) 0.2 0.3 0.2 0.2 Land area (ha)0.20.30.20.2  Yield (kg/ha) 324 321 341 520 Yield (kg/ha)324321341520  Sale income (USD/yr) 154 158 261 636 Sale income (USD/yr)154158261636 Groundnut Harvest (kg) 110 116 49 27 GroundnutHarvest (kg)1101164927  Land area (ha) 0.5 0.4 0.2 0.1 Land area (ha)0.50.40.20.1  Yield (kg/ha) 276 171 212 74 Yield (kg/ha)27617121274  Sale income (USD/yr) 299 333 111 107 Sale income (USD/yr)299333111107 Non-grain legumes (data scarce)     Non-grain legumes (data scarce) Calliandra Plant count NA NA 6 4 CalliandraPlant countNANA64  Harvest (kg) NA NA NA NA Harvest (kg)NANANANA Sesbania Plant count 7 8 4 1 SesbaniaPlant count7841  Harvest (kg) NA NA NA NA Harvest (kg)NANANANA Desmodium Land area (ha) 0.1 0.1 0.1 0.0 DesmodiumLand area (ha)0.10.10.10.0  Harvest (kg) 25 NA 25 NA Harvest (kg)25NA25NA  "},{"text":"Table 14 : Proportion of households in each location who follow specific planting strategies for legumes, in the Kisii County sites  Kitutu Chache North (% of HH with crop) Nyaribari Chache (% of HH with crop) Kitutu Chache North (% of HH with crop)Nyaribari Chache (% of HH with crop)  Intercrop Sole Strip Field margin Intercrop Sole Strip Field margin IntercropSoleStripField marginIntercropSoleStripField margin   crop  or contour  crop  or contour cropor contourcropor contour Climbing bean 82 -      Climbing bean82-  "},{"text":"Table 16 : Land and livestock management practices in households (HH) in the four study sites   Kitutu Nyaribari S&E KitutuNyaribariS&E (% of HH)  Chache North Chache Kamagambo Suna West (% of HH)Chache NorthChacheKamagamboSuna West   (% of HH) (% of HH) (% of HH) (% of HH)(% of HH) (% of HH) Farmer perceptions Soil fertility problems 29 18 32 Farmer perceptionsSoil fertility problems291832  Soil erosion problems 15 18 32 Soil erosion problems151832  Soil moisture problems 16 16 16 Soil moisture problems161616 Crop inputs used Fertilisers 98 97 95 Crop inputs usedFertilisers989795  Manure 26 47 38 Manure264738  Pesticides 9 12 2 Pesticides9122  Hybrid seeds 32 40 35 Hybrid seeds324035  Compost 6 0 1 Compost601  None 0 1 1 None011 Livestock inputs used Spraying 54 64 58 Livestock inputs usedSpraying546458  Deworming 35 42 45 Deworming354245  Vaccinations 28 44 52 Vaccinations284452  General vet 21 31 28 General vet213128  Antibiotics 3 2 5 Antibiotics325  Traditional 3 3 10 Traditional3310 Land conservation practices Contour ploughing 30 16 12 Land conservation practicesContour ploughing301612  Cut off drain 18 20 10 Cut off drain182010  Hill afforestation 2 6 3 Hill afforestation263  Ridge and furrow 1 3 12 Ridge and furrow1312  Soil or stone bunds 0 2 2 Soil or stone bunds022  Strip planting 13 22 21 Strip planting132221  Terraces 0 4 3 Terraces043  Water ponds 1 0 1 Water ponds101  None 48 48 49 None484849  "}],"sieverID":"f4aa26f0-72e6-4a0e-821e-c6d47b89ad84","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0701a0ae85b1b8a06e0e37e4e73dcb00","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://digitalarchive.worldfishcenter.org/bitstream/handle/20.500.12348/2244/wifg_asia_working_wives.pdf"},"pageCount":11,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"With the onset of the market economy, the home and the workplace started to be separated. The workplace was located farther and farther away from home, and a system of labor power in exchange for wages emerged. The household, as a unit of production and consumption, underwent profound changes, one of which was the political economy of gender."},{"index":2,"size":179,"text":"The rural fishing sector in the Philippines, however, did not change as significantly as its urban manufacturing/service sector counterparts. Traditional methods of fishing require much physical effort, which the men generally provide. Nevertheless, the \"helping out\" role of women in coastal fisheries is work that cannot be dispensed with, even with more men in the fish production system. The labor supply of women remains low. This low rate of participation in the labor force implies that women remain limited to short working hours, \"feminine\" jobs. The high incidence of unpaid female labor contributes to the low cash incomes brought home by women. Subsistence level fishing keeps women mostly as homemakers, or as workers in non-fishing-related economic activities such as in the informal service sector. In a fish production system that is very limited to catching fish and selling them immediately with the least storage and/or preservation, there is inequality in access to economic resources in the community for women. There is subordination of women to men's work, resulting in the women's inability to exercise their full potentials and capabilities."},{"index":3,"size":91,"text":"A large number of households in coastal communities lives below the poverty threshold. The urgent need to augment family income leaves the wife no choice but to sell her labor services in any paid work opportunity. Unfortunately, this phenomenon does not change the reproductive role of women, causing women to bear multiple roles and responsibilities-one of the central issues of feminism. It is not only the men who bring home the rice and fish for daily living. Women do too, and they still have to cook and serve their family members."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"The crucial question then is how can women's access to economic resources in general and employment in particular be improved. The Philippine coastal fisheries sector lags behind in terms of productivity,"}]},{"head":"WORKING WIVES IN PHILIPPINE COASTAL FISHERIES M.Bañez-Sumagaysay","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"UPV Tacloban College, Philippines efficiency in resource allocation, and employment levels. Given this scenario, how can it increase women's paid work hours/efforts?"},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"In aid of legislation and development policy formulation for the coastal fisheries sector, this paper attempts to identify correlates of married women's contribution to the labor market. Aside from wage rates, what are the factors that can change a married woman's decision regarding the extent of paid work hours that she offers in the labor market?"}]},{"head":"Specification of the Model","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":37,"text":"The conceptual model is cast in the income-leisure choice model where the married woman who opts to offer her labor services in the market consciously decides on the number of work hours spent for pay or profit."},{"index":2,"size":166,"text":"The decision to work is ultimately a decision to manage time between work and home. This decision is the choice between being in the labor force or being out of the labor force. A neoclassical time allocation model advanced by Becker (1965) andMincer (1962) is used to explain how an individual decides on the allocation of her time between the home and the labor market (Blau and Ferber 1992). Known as the New Household Economic Model, it assumes that adult members of the family make informed and rational decisions, resulting in the attainment of maximum utility or satisfaction. Individuals decide whether or not to participate in the labor market by comparing the value of their market time, w, to the value they place on their time spent at home, w*. Participation in the labor force, the choice of whether or not to work or seek market work, is based on a comparison of market opportunities and the benefits of staying at home (Filer et al. 1996)."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Participation decisions depend on changes in economic variables that influence the values of both market and non-market times. Factors that influence market time (w) include woman's education, changing levels of economic activity, increases in overall labor productivity, and higher wages brought about by urbanization. Increases/improvement in these areas have caused rising trends in married women's participation in the labor force (Blau and Ferber 1992). However, this trend cannot entirely be ascribed to higher wages nor can those changes that influence the relative value of non-market time (w*) be overlooked. These variables include demographic trends, tastes, rising husband's income, availability of mother-substitutes, and presence of non-labor income (Blau and Ferber 1992)."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"Once in the labor force, how much time do workers spend on their jobs? The labor supply decision refers to the number of hours that workers are willing to work. The income-leisure choice model that is used to analyze how a rational decision maker chooses whether or not to participate in the labor force can similarly be applied to analyze how such a decision maker chooses the number of work hours to supply (Filer et al. 1996). Under consumer utility maximization assumptions, a worker will supply labor services up to a point where her/his marginal rate of substitution of income for leisure equals the wage rate."},{"index":5,"size":97,"text":"A married woman's labor supply behavior is, then, basically a rational decision concerning a trade-off between benefits derived from working for pay or profit, on one hand, and the benefits derived from undertaking non-market activities at home, on the other. In order to determine the significant correlates of married women's differential labor supply behavior, the model to be empirically tested is written as EMPW = f ( AGEW, EDUC, CHIL, LAST, HHSI, SUBS, HUSY, OTHY, NOLY, FISH, ATTI, WOCO, WOMB, FERT) The data source is primary information derived from a rapid appraisal survey conducted for the purpose."}]},{"head":"Where","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"The dependent variable, EMPW, is measured in terms of work hours offered in the labor market for wage or profit on an average monthly basis. A woman is defined to be a market participant if she worked for money some time in the survey period."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The employment of the woman includes both primary and secondary jobs, in fishing and fishing-related activities. Employment is either to work for other employers or are self-employment activities. Average work hours per day during the month immediately preceding the conduct of the survey is the relevant data. Specifically, the measure of work effort is the number of days worked per week multiplied by the \"average\" or \"usual\" hours worked per day. This measure avoids the kind of sample bias that arises when one uses only the reported hours on the day the survey is conducted. This specification is derived from the model used by Heckman and Macurdy (1980) in analyzing the life cycle labor supply decisions of married women."},{"index":3,"size":114,"text":"The independent variables include demographic, economic, and socio-psychological factors relevant to the working married woman and her family. Table I shows a summary of the variables used in this study and their corresponding measures. The subjects of the study consisted of women who had been continuously married to the same spouse during the past year. They had been working for pay or profit during the month immediately preceding the week when the survey was conducted, from December 1999 to January 2000. The nature of their employment may have been on a full-time or part-time basis. The women may have been working in the fishing sector either for pay or profit. Unpaid work is excluded."},{"index":4,"size":76,"text":"The research locale was purposively chosen for this study. It included Capoocan, Barugo, and Carigara (all along Carigara Bay) in Eastern Visayas, Philippines. These fishing communities produce a volume of fish that is immediately sold in its fresh state, with the least preservation (e.g., salting, refrigeration, smoking) needed. Three barangays, from where 20% of the married women (but not less than 30), were randomly chosen as subjects of the study. There were 254 married women -respondents."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"Using SPSS, correlation and stepwise multiple regression were run to statistically determine significant correlates of married women's labor force participation in the fisheries labor market. At least four alternative regressions were run. That is, models that include demographic variables only, economic variables only, socio-psychological variables only, and finally, all the identified variables. This is an attempt to determine significant predictors per identified category of the variables used. "}]},{"head":"FISH Value of fishing vessels and paraphernalia","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Market value of fishing vessels/paraphernalia owned by the family."}]},{"head":"Socio-psychological Variables:","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"ATTI Husband's attitude towards female work A Rating Scale adopted from Layo (1977) was used."}]},{"head":"WOCO Wife's work commitment","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"The score taken from a Work Commitment Index adopted from Herrin (1979)."}]},{"head":"WOMB Wife's premarital work experience","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Dummy variable; 1 if wife worked before marriage, 0 otherwise."}]},{"head":"FERT Future fertility plans","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Dummy variable; 1 if wife plans to bear a child in the future; 0 otherwise."}]},{"head":"Results","index":10,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"A. The Profile of Married Women","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The number of hours spent by a married woman in paid work or work for profit partly depends on the nature of the market or the occupational group that she belongs to. Research results show that married women in coastal fisheries have short average work hours at only 4.7 hours per day, happening intermittently, or 104.25 hours per month. This is very short compared to the formal market where labor laws have set an employee's regular work hours at 8 hours per day for 5 days per week, or from 176 to 184 hours per month."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"Demographic Characteristics. Married women in fishing communities exhibit a profile that is typical of participants in informal labor markets. They are as young as 20 years old and as old as 73 years old with a mean age of 42 years. There is no minimum age requirement for entry nor a maximum age requirement for retirement from paid work."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Educational attainment does not serve as a screening device in informal markets. While there are college graduates (those with 14 years of formal schooling), there are also women with no completed years of schooling. The fishing communities registered a mean value of 7.3 years."},{"index":4,"size":127,"text":"Household sizes are as small as two and as large as 11. The former refers to cases of old families where the couple has been left alone, or in female-headed families with a child or grandchild to take care of. The latter refers to extended families, or in some cases, to nuclear families with many children. The average household size is about six. The life cycle of the family is indicated by the number of children below six years old, and the number of years since the last childbirth. Data shows that the more recent the last childbirth, the greater the number of children below six years old. On the average, the women have at least one small child who was born within the last six years."},{"index":5,"size":105,"text":"Economic Indicators. The families of the women in this study are poor, and generally fall below the poverty threshold as reflected by selected economic parameters. Highest monthly income of husbands is PhP9,000.00 (US$180) with a mean value of Php2,631.70 (US$52). Variations in monthly incomes are due to any of the following: the frequency of fishing; type of fishing vessels used; ownership of fishing vessels; hours spent in fishing and fishing-related activities; engaging in non-fishing economic activities such as poultry and livestock-raising; having multiple employment; rentals of family-owned properties; or in some cases, being hired in the formal sector, whether on a regular or contractual basis."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"At the other end of the continuum are husbands whose incomes equal zero. This gives rise to femaleheaded families, where the wife usually becomes the primary breadwinner. In many cases, all able-bodied family members get employed in order to augment family income. However, data reveal that average monthly contributions of other family members to family income is low, with a mean value of PhP486.20 (US$9.60). This income is irregular."},{"index":7,"size":39,"text":"Non-labor income is another source of the family's wealth. This comes from transfer payments, rentals of assets, winnings from gambling, and other forms of aid from private/government sectors. Most often, this form of income is intermittent, unstable, and low."},{"index":8,"size":83,"text":"Ownership of properties indicates access to economic resources, which may affect women's decisions to participate in the labor force and the extent of paid work hours. In fishing communities, the market value of fishing vessels/paraphernalia owned indicate that only few families own the bigger vessels, which assure economies of scale in fishing operations. Non-ownership of the tools of the trade means lesser work hours spent by the husband and male family members in fishing, and hence, lower incomes derived from the said activity."},{"index":9,"size":30,"text":"Socio-psychological Considerations. Perceptions and social nuances attached to particular economic sectors affect a married woman's decision as to whether or not she will get paid work and to what extent."},{"index":10,"size":37,"text":"In a rating scale where a score of 25 reflects the least favorable attitude of the husband towards his wife's labor supply decisions (as perceived by the wife), a mean value of 15.1 can be construed negatively."},{"index":11,"size":31,"text":"Husbands generally would disapprove of their wives working if the family income is sufficient. Given no better option, husbands then find themselves appreciating wives who help earn for the family's upkeep."},{"index":12,"size":33,"text":"The involvement of women in fish production makes work for the men as the former are relegated to the type of work which are extensions of housework along constructs of maternalism and nurturance."},{"index":13,"size":38,"text":"Women are oftentimes considered as appendages to men's work. They clean fishing paraphernalia/tools of the trade, mend fish nets, and market the harvest. Most of these work is unpaid but is necessary in the whole fish production system."},{"index":14,"size":124,"text":"Women's commitment to work for non-familial reasons reveal a mean of 33.0. In a scale of 1 to 50, this score does not seem to reflect a very strong desire in the married woman to work for reasons not directly related to family welfare considerations. Hence, what moves married women to work is basically the need to uplift the family's standard of living over their desire to reach self-fulfillment and self-realization brought about by the use of their potentials/capabilities. A married woman's decision to work may also be affected by her pre-marital work experience. About 65% of the 254 women-respondents claimed to have worked for pay or profit before marriage. Labor force participation is, however, lower in purely subsistence fishing where the males dominate."},{"index":15,"size":86,"text":"Fertility among married women is high in the fishing communities as claimed by 200 respondents (78.70%). This may be due to the value attached to children as sources of financial assistance and security. The same reason holds for another finding which reveals that children serve as mother-substitutes in cases when mothers decide to seek paid work outside the home. Older children and the presence of non-nuclear family members release mothers to the labor market. About 25.60% of the households in fishing villages have mother-substitutes at home."}]},{"head":"B. Significant Predictors of Married Women's Labor Supply Behavior","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":69,"text":"A correlation matrix of the variables reveal the expected relationships. The number of work hours offered by a married woman in the market is positively and significantly associated with EDUC. This reveals that a higher educational attainment increases the labor supply of the woman. OTHY and LAST though positively associated with EMPW do not come out to be significant variables due to its (EMPW) being highly correlated with EDUC."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"On the other hand, CHIL, FISH, and ATTI show a negative and significant association with EMPW. This indicates that the married women's work hours spent on paid work decreases with the presence of more children who are below six years old in the home, or with a greater ownership of fishing vessels/paraphernalia, or with an unfavorable attitude of the husband towards female work. Other variables that are negatively associated with EMPW though insignificant, include HHSI, HUSY, NONY, ATTI and SUBS. This result can be explained by the high correlation between the said variables."},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"A stepwise multiple regression from SPSS was used to determine the minimum number of predictors needed to explain the maximum variance in the criterion, and to estimate the likely score of a criterion from the predictors identified in the study."}]},{"head":"Regression 1: Demographic-Variables-Only Model","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"The presence of children less than six years old comes out as a more significant predictor than the household size. Beta coefficients are -0.215 for CHIL and 0.191 for HHSI. A married woman's work hours in fishing and fishing-related activities decreases by 3.623 for every additional child in the family below six years old. It, however, increases by 1.786 per unit change in household size, all other factors held constant. EMPWfish = 25.259 -3.623CHIL + 1.786HHSI (-3.120) (2.772)"},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"The adjusted R 2 in the regression run, though significant, is very low. Only at most 3.8% of the total variance in the labor supply behavior of married women is explained by the demographic predictors."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"A major proportion of the total variance can be explained by other factors that are excluded in this demographic-variables-only model. The resulting adjusted R 2 is low at 7.6%. This indicates that the identified independent variables are not enough to explain the total variance in the criterion. An economic-variables-only model, therefore, leaves so much of the total variance of EMPW to be explained by factors excluded in the model."}]},{"head":"Regression 3: Socio-psychological-Variables-Only Model","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":46,"text":"A third regression model to include socio-psychological variables does not reveal any significant parameter. The model does not provide a good explanation of the total variance in the work hours offered by a married woman in the labor market. Obviously, it excludes many possible good predictors."}]},{"head":"Regression 4: All-Variables Model","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":104,"text":"In a fourth regression specification, all the identified independent variables are included in a stepwise multiple regression analysis. The variable that is most highly related to the criterion variable is entered first into the regression equation followed by variables that are the next most strongly related to the criterion once their relationship with the other variables is taken into account. If later variables are strongly associated with the variables already entered, then it is less likely that they will independently account for much more of the variance than those previously entered and so they are unlikely to be included as predictors (Cramer 1997: 301)."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"No demographic variable is found to significantly explain the total variance in EMPW."},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"EMPWfish = 9.601 -0.00045FISH + 0.0021OTHY + 0.791WOCO (-4.444) (2.537) (2.144)"},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Two of the significant predictors are economic variables and one is a socio-psychological variable."},{"index":5,"size":47,"text":"Ownership of fishing vessels/paraphernalia is negatively related to the married woman's work effort. This can be explained through the husband's access to the means of production/economic resources which increases his income and discourages his wife to work. The husband's attitude towards female work is generally less favorable."},{"index":6,"size":92,"text":"OTHY exhibits a positive relationship with EMPW. That is, a woman's work hours increases by 0.0021 per additional unit change in other family members' contribution to family income. This is rather a less expected relationship since ordinarily, higher family incomes will discourage women to work for more hours. This result may then be explained: while there are additional income contributions from other family members, such contribution is relatively low to enable the family to move to a higher standard of living. Hence, the married woman is still pushed to work longer hours."},{"index":7,"size":54,"text":"A woman's work commitment to non-familial reasons is positively related to her work hours in the labor market. EMPW increases by 0.791 per unit increase in WOCO. Working hours is significantly improved and this is related to a woman's desire for self-actualization/self-realization over the desire to work in order to augment the family income."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"The adjusted R 2 reveals a low value at 8.9%. The multiple linear regression model as a whole does not explain nor \"fit\" well the variance in the dependent variable. It shows that only a very small proportion of the linear variance in the criterion is explained by all the independent variables acting together. A low value of the adjusted R 2 can occur for several reasons."},{"index":9,"size":50,"text":"First, the vector of predictors may not be good explanatory variables. In this study, all the variables included in the model have largely a priori theoretical considerations as cited in the literature review. It, however, deliberately did not include the variable, offered wage to the woman in the labor market."},{"index":10,"size":48,"text":"While literature shows that this is a very significant predictor in universal studies, this was purposively excluded in this paper since its objective is to determine significant predictors of a married woman's work hours, other than the alternative wages offered to the married woman in the labor market."},{"index":11,"size":61,"text":"Second, in cross-section studies a lower squared multiple correlation may occur even if the model is a satisfactory one because of the large variation across individual units of observation which is inherent in the data (Pindyck and Rubinfeld 1991). This suggests that the R 2 alone may not be a suitable measure of the extent to which a model is satisfactory."},{"index":12,"size":55,"text":"Third, in social research, particularly high values of R 2 should not be expected. This is because there are so many factors, which might contribute to influence a variable that one cannot reasonably expect to be able to analyze or even measure. As a rule of thumb, the R 2 depends obviously on individual circumstances."},{"index":13,"size":39,"text":"Fourth, a low R 2 does not necessarily mean that there is no association between the variables, nor is there the absence of significant predictors of the criterion (Norusis 1985). Instead, it indicates that there is no linear relationship."},{"index":14,"size":97,"text":"Results of this study further reveals that based on the F statistic, the computed R 2 is significant. It is possible for R 2 to be significant at a given level even if the value is low, and/or even though very few of the regression coefficients are found to be significant according to individual t-tests (Pindyck and Rubinfeld 1991). This situation arises if the independent variables are highly correlated with each other. The result may be high standard errors of the coefficients and low t-values, yet the model as a whole may fit the data very well."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Several results from the regression runs/models using the SPSS stepwise multiple regression analysis may be interpreted as follows: AGEW was not found to be a significant predictor. This may be due to the possibility of a potential non-linear relationship between AGEW and EMPW. Young mothers and older women have relatively lesser work hours in the market. It is the middle-age woman who finds more hours in the labor market. Young mothers withdraw from the labor force when children are born and the couple starts to build a family. The older women withdraw from the labor market because of age and because the traditionally male-dominated fishing sector will prefer men over women, and younger women over older women, specifically when there is surplus labor. The older women are first to be fired but last to be hired in an arena where masculinity dominates the hiring-firing decisions."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"The recency of last childbirth, LAST, is not significantly related to work hours. This may be caused by the variable's high correlation with other demographic variables such as CHIL and HHSI, and other economic variables such as FISH and OTHY all of which have shown significant contribution in explaining total variance of the criterion. It is noted that collinearity results in high standard errors of coefficients."},{"index":3,"size":78,"text":"The presence of mother-substitutes, SUBS, does not significantly affect EMPW either. It is the common practice in fishing communities for mothers to bring small children to the workplace. In non-fishing economic activities such as vending or tending a store, the house is the workplace and the shop. Hence, the mother harmoniously combines home time and work time. The presence or absence of mothersubstitutes seem not to significantly affect the length of time a woman spends for paid work."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"A higher educational attainment improves the productivity of women in the workplace. It also improves the women's understanding of the production process and new techniques/technology of the trade. A higher educational attainment widens the opportunities for better-paying non-fishing-related work (such as employment in the formal sector), and increases the probability of multiple employments. However, EDUC does not come out as a significant predictor."},{"index":5,"size":139,"text":"On the other hand, HHSI does. Based on literature, HHSI may either have a direct or an inverse relationship with the labor supply behavior of married women. On one hand, a woman may increase work hours to improve the financial position of a large family whose needs are increasing. Or, it could be viewed as a larger family reflecting a not-so-young family whose children can be left on their own, hence, releasing the mother to seek more paid work hours. Or still, a larger family implies the presence of mother-substitutes that similarly enables the woman to seek longer paid work hours. On the other hand, a woman may decrease work hours if a large household size means that more able-bodied family members are significantly contributing to family income. In this study, it is the positive relationship that is revealed."},{"index":6,"size":79,"text":"Another significant demographic predictor is CHIL. The presence of children in the family who are less than six years old adversely affects a woman's labor supply decision. A mother is traditionally expected to perform her maternal/nurturing domestic roles over and above engaging in economic activities for pay or profit. Moreover, among poor families, nursemaids are uncommon. This leaves the woman no choice but to spend more time at home to rear small children at the expense of work time."},{"index":7,"size":67,"text":"With regards to economic variables, FISH is a significant predictor that shows negative relationship with EMPW. This can be explained by the family's access to the means of production. That is, if the family owns the tools of the trade, chances are for incomes to be higher. Hence, the woman need not work in favor of spending more home time to take care of her growing children."},{"index":8,"size":127,"text":"On the other hand, OTHY, another significant predictor of EMPW affects in a positive manner. That is, even if other family members contribute to the total family income, a woman will still desire to work longer if such contribution falls below a minimum level which is set by the family as a requirement to stay on a target/desired welfare position of the family. In the study, therefore, it seems that contribution of other family members to total family income is low. This is expected in fishing communities where alternative job opportunities are limited, and where the labor force lacks human capital. Consequently, jobs do not provide stable, regular and better terms/working conditions. On the other hand, a possible non-linear relationship between OTHY and EMPW is worth considering."},{"index":9,"size":98,"text":"Among the socio-psychological factors, only WOCO came out as a significant predictor, the commitment of the woman to work for non-familial reasons. Work is not primarily carried out for material or financial reasons but more increasingly because of the woman's desire to express herself and use her expertise/capabilities in activities outside the daily routine and the confines of the home. This behavior was observed specifically for women with higher educational attainment. However, increase in work efforts are registered in non-fishing-related economic activities since the fisheries sector is male dominated and the traditional fish production system is not woman-friendly."},{"index":10,"size":60,"text":"On the other hand, FERT and WOMB do not significantly explain the total variance in the criterion, EMPW. Future fertility plans is highly correlated with household size, and the number of children below six years old, which was found to be a significant predictor. This multicollinearity may also explain why pre-marital work experience failed to emerge as a significant predictor."},{"index":11,"size":56,"text":"The empirical analysis, moreover, showed that the combined influence of the various factors resulted in higher R 2 values and more significant predictors of the labor supply behavior of women. Obviously, the addition of independent variables that are based on a priori theoretical framework, and the absence/minimum multicollinearity of the predictors will increase R 2 ."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Women in fishing communities generally have low educational attainment. They come from mediumsized households of about six family members, at least one of whom is below six years old. They are married to husbands who, with a similar educational profile, do not bring home as much cash income as necessary for the family to stay above the poverty threshold. Other able-bodied family members contribute to family incomes, but these incomes are earned irregularly and at low levels."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The labor supply behavior of married women is a decision concerning a trade-off between the benefits derived from working for pay or profit, and the benefits derived from undertaking non-market activities at home. Married women tend to offer more work hours in the labor market under the following conditions: absence of children who are less than six years old, greater work commitment for non-familial reasons; a larger household size which allows for the presence of mother-substitutes and/or insufficient income contribution by other family members; and the family's non-ownership of fishing vessels/tools of the trade."},{"index":3,"size":70,"text":"These empirical results show that the significant predictors are mostly economic in nature. In view of these findings, the following recommendations are made. To address the issue of low R 2 values, further studies can be undertaken in the following areas: All of these can be done for academic purposes such as to develop instructional materials. These are expected to improve/contribute to the existing local literature on women and work."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"In aid of legislation and policy-development formulation, the following entry variables that will improve the married women's status in the fisheries labor market seem to stand out from the empirical results: a) the introduction of women-friendly fishing technology that spans from production, storage/preservation, and marketing; b) provision of non-fishing related work for more family members who are able and willing to work to augment family income; c) better and greater access to the means of production/economic resources through a mechanism that will enable the family to derive sufficient and regular incomes throughout the year; d) a community-based re-orientation through barangay public forums on a gender-sensitive and genderfair coastal fisheries economy, where women are not merely appendages to men's work but are equal partners in the whole fish production system."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" EMPW = woman's work effort AGEW = age of the married woman EDUC = married woman's educational attainment CHIL = presence of children less than six years old LAST "},{"text":" a) a new set of data gathered in fishing communities which use alternative types of fishing technology; b) possibilities of a nonlinear relationship between EMPW on one hand, and HUSY or EDUC or OTHY on the other hand; c) the inclusion of a more direct predictor which has a strong a priori theoretical framework such as alternative wage offers to the married woman; d) a more qualitative replication of this research in various economic sectors and different occupational groups in the market. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Measurement of variables. Code and Name of Variable Measurement Dependent Variable: EMPW Woman 's work effort Days worked per week multiplied by the \"usual\" hours worked per day during the month immediately preceding the survey.CHIL Presence of children less than 6 years oldNumber of children less than 6 years old who are living with the mother. Demographic Variables:  Demographic Variables: AGEW Age of married woman The chronological age at nearest birthday. AGEW Age of married womanThe chronological age at nearest birthday. EDUC Married woman's educational attainment Number of years of formal schooling completed. EDUC Married woman's educational attainmentNumber of years of formal schooling completed. LAST Recency of last childbirth Number of years since last childbirth. LAST Recency of last childbirthNumber of years since last childbirth. HHSI Household size Headcount of persons dwelling in the same unit and sharing in the HHSI Household sizeHeadcount of persons dwelling in the same unit and sharing in the  budgeting and decision-making activities. budgeting and decision-making activities. SUBS Availability of mother substitutes Dummy variable: 1 if there are available mother-substitutes, 0 otherwise. SUBS Availability of mother substitutesDummy variable: 1 if there are available mother-substitutes, 0 otherwise.  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Demographic profile of married women in fishing communities (n= 254).  Sector Variable Minimum Maximum Mean SD SectorVariableMinimumMaximumMeanSD Fishing EMPW (dependent variable) 14.00 144.00 104.25 54.90 FishingEMPW (dependent variable)14.00144.00104.2554.90  Age of woman 20.00 73.00 42.0 11.28 Age of woman20.0073.0042.011.28  Highest educational attainment .00 14.00 7.3 2.50 Highest educational attainment.0014.007.32.50  Household size 2.00 11.00 6.3 2.14 Household size2.0011.006.32.14  Years since last childbirth .00 40.00 7.2 7.28 Years since last childbirth.0040.007.27.28  No. children less than 6 years old .00 4.00 1.1 1.18 No. children less than 6 years old.004.001.11.18  Presence of mother-substitutes Yes = 65 (25.60%)     Presence of mother-substitutes Yes = 65 (25.60%)  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Economic profile of married women in fishing communities (n= 254).  Sector Variable Minimum Maximum Mean SD SectorVariableMinimumMaximumMeanSD Fishing Husband's income .00 9000.00 2631.7 1765.06 FishingHusband's income.009000.002631.71765.06  Other family members' contribution to income .00 10200.00 486.2 1470.34 Other family members' contribution to income.0010200.00486.21470.34  Nonlabor income .00 42000.00 9598.4 11987.69 Nonlabor income.0042000.009598.411987.69  Market value of fishing vessel owned .00 5000.00 174.0 553.57 Market value of fishing vessel owned.005000.00174.0553.57  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Socio-psychological profile of married women in fishing communities (n =254)  Sector Variable Minimum Maximum Mean SD SectorVariableMinimumMaximumMeanSD Fishing Husband's attitude toward female work 5.00 23.00 15.1 3.24 FishingHusband's attitude toward female work5.0023.0015.13.24  Woman's work commitment 22.00 44.00 33.0 3.26 Woman's work commitment22.0044.0033.03.26  Pre-marital work Yes = 165 (65.00%)     Pre-marital work Yes = 165 (65.00%)  Fertility plans Yes = 200 (78.70%)     Fertility plans Yes = 200 (78.70%)  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Significant demographic predictors of married women's labor supply behavior  Regression Run Significant Predictors B SE B Beta T Sig t Regression RunSignificant PredictorsBSE BBetaTSig t Demographic-Variables-Only-Model CHIL  -3.623 1.161 -.215 -3.120 .002 Demographic-Variables-Only-Model CHIL-3.6231.161-.215-3.120.002  HHSI  1.786 .644 .191 2.772 .006 HHSI1.786.644.1912.772.006  (Constant)  25.259 3.862  6.540 .000 (Constant)25.2593.8626.540.000  Adjusted R 2 = 0.038 F = 6.053 p value = .003    Adjusted R2 = 0.038 F = 6.053 p value = .003 Economic-Variables-Only Model FISH  -4.367E-04 .000 -.262 -4.319 .000 Economic-Variables-Only ModelFISH-4.367E-04.000-.262-4.319.000  OTHY  1.990E-03 .001 .146 2.414 .017 OTHY1.990E-03.001.1462.414.017  (Constant)  35.652 1.575  22.629 .001 (Constant)35.6521.57522.629.001  Adjusted R 2 = 0.076 F = 11.381 p value = .000    Adjusted R2 = 0.076 F = 11.381 p value = .000 All variables Included FISH  -4.466E-04 .000 -.268 -4.444 .000 All variables IncludedFISH-4.466E-04.000-.268-4.444.000  OTHY  2.079-03 .001 .153 2.537 .012 OTHY2.079-03.001.1532.537.012  WOCO  .791 .369 .129 2.144 .033 WOCO.791.369.1292.144.033  (Constant)  9.601 12.252  .784 .434 (Constant)9.60112.252.784.434  Adjusted R 2 = 0.089 F = 9.228 p value = .000    Adjusted R2 = 0.089 F = 9.228 p value = .000 Regression 2:       Regression 2:  "},{"text":"Economic-Variables-Only Model Alternative income level parameters and the ownership of properties were used in the model. FISH and OTHY are significant predictors of EMPW, with FISH as the better predictor as indicated by the beta coefficient.Work hours decrease by 0.0004 units per unit change in the market value of fishing vessels/paraphernalia owned by the woman's family, all other factors held constant. On the other hand, total work hours increases by 0.0019 per unit increase in income contributed by other family members to the family coffers. EMPWfish = 35.652 -0.0004FISH + 0.0019OTHY EMPWfish = 35.652 -0.0004FISH + 0.0019OTHY (-0.262) (0.146) (-0.262) (0.146)  "}],"sieverID":"d7fa5d80-37f2-4ff8-888b-86c21ea2c18f","abstract":"The decision to work is ultimately a decision on how to spend time; the choice being based on a comparison of the gains derived from market opportunities and the benefits of staying at home. Once in the labor force, the labor supply decision (that, is, the number of hours per time period) is influenced by various demographic, economic, and socio-psychological factors. Using this framework, this paper seeks to determine the significant predictors of married women's labor supply behavior. This is further an attempt to identify potential entry variables in aid of legislation and policy formulation that will address gender issues. The focus is on married women in Philippine coastal fisheries."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07183b8e2c1f8c6e086f799bd5de401a","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/13bd05b5-8e2b-4f29-be81-6f68c765cb27/retrieve"},"pageCount":58,"title":"THE EFFECT OF INTERCROPPING OF MAIZE WITH PIGEONPEAS ON GRAIN YIELD AND PIGEONPEAS FUELWOOD SUPPLY IN KONGWA DISTRICT, TANZANIA ELVIS FAHAMU JONAS A DISSERTATION SUBMITTED IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SCIENCE IN MANAGEMENT OF NATURAL RESOURCES FOR SUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE OF SOKOINE UNIVERSITY OF AGRICULTURE","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"LIST OF TABLES","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"x Table 1:  "}]},{"head":"Background Information","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"Intercropping of legumes with cereals is a time-honored practice, particularly among rural smallholder farmers of subtropical and tropical countries. It is widely practiced for the purpose of diversifying food production and household income since the legumes and maize are both cash and food crops (Ullah et al., 2007;Mafongoya et al., 2006). In other areas, the practice is often employed for the purpose of economizing inorganic nitrogen fertilizer use thereby increasing and sustaining productivity and profitability per unit area (Lingaraju et al., 2008)."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"In Dodoma Tanzania, cereal-legume intercropping systems have been reported by different authors. These include sorghum, pearl millet or maize crops with legumes (groundnuts, cowpeas or bambara groundnuts) planted randomly between cereals (Letayo, 2001), and maize (Zea mays) and pigeonpeas (Cajanuscajan) intercropping systems (Kimaro et al., 2009). The growth of the two crops together in the same field during a growing season may result in inter specific competition or facilitation between plants (Zhang and Li, 2003). Thus, the plant densities in mixture, physiological and morphological attributes, and the relative proportions of component crops are important in determining yield and production efficiency of cereal-legume intercrop systems (Kimaro et al 2009;)."},{"index":3,"size":176,"text":"Pigeonpeas is one of the few crops with a high potential to enhance productivity per unit area due to its complementarity with maize (McCown et al., 1992;Myaka et al., 2006;Nene and Sheila, 1990;Sakala et al., 2000). It is a drought tolerant, deep rooted, slow-growing plant, its seeds are used for feed and after harvesting the plants are cut and used for fuel (Albert 2004;Willey and Reddy, 1981). These attributes make pigeonpeas potential grain legume crop that may be successfully intercropped with maize by resource-poor farmers in low rainfall areas. The legume also improve soil fertility and yields of associated cereal crops through biological nitrogen (N) fixation, nutrient pumping and incorporation of green manure (Chikowo et al.,2004;Ghosh et al.,2006). However, intercropping is one of the cropping strategies to increasing crop production for resource limited farmers and has been shown to utilize land more efficiently as well as being more stable than monoculture systems (Francis, 1986). The potentials and limitations of intercropping maize with pigeonpeas under various cropping densities in semiarid central Tanzania have not yet been documented."}]},{"head":"Problem Statement and Justification","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Pigeonpeas plants have both physiological and morphological attributes that may reduce interspecific competition in mixed culture. Despite these attributes, reduction in maize yields when intercropped with pigeonpeas in semiarid environments has been widely reported and associated with competition for nutrients and moisture (Snapp et al., 2002;Myaka et al .,2006;Isaac and Kimaro,2011). Previous studies have attempted to evaluate competition for nutrients in cereal-pigeonpeas intercropping systems and possible approaches for their mitigation through improved nutrient management practices, especially phosphorus (Kimaro et al., 2009;Ghosh et al., 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"However these studies addressed nutrients competition alone but not for moisture which is a key factor influencing intercropping advantages in semiarid areas (Isaac and Kimaro, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Another approach to mitigate competitive interactions and enhance facilitative interaction in mixtures is through adopting appropriate planting densities. Intercropping of maize with pigeonpeas has been practiced by the small scale farmers in other parts of Tanzania (e.g."},{"index":4,"size":62,"text":"Babati and Kilosa) using mainly the alternate cropping arrangement (Myaka et al., 2006;Rao and Mathuva, 2000;Mafongoya et al., 2006). Through these studies assessed crop grain yields and soil nutrient replenishment by legumes, giving insufficient information on legumes woody production. The extent to which these arrangements may affect both maize and pigeonpeas grains yields and leguminous woody yields is poorly known in Kongwa"},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"District. Therefore, this study evaluated the effect of various intercropping arrangements on grains yields of maize and pigeonpeas plus pigeonpeas wood yield. The results provide guidelines optimizing yields of maize and pigeonpeas in semiarid climates of Central Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Objectives","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Overall objective","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"The overall objective of this study was to optimize maize and pigeonpeas grain yields and pigeonpeas fuel wood supply in intercropping system in semi-arid, Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Specific objectives","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"The specific objectives were: i. To evaluate the effects of maize-pigeon peas intercropping under different spatial cropping arrangements on crops and fuel wood yields ii. To identify the appropriate intercropping arrangement that optimizes grain yields of maize and pigeon pea and fuel wood supply."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER TWO","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"LITERATURE REVIEW","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields in Intercropping Management Systems","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"In semi-arid tropics, maize and pigeon peas are traditionally grown in monoculture and intercropping systems to diversify food and income sources (Rao and Mathuva, 2000;Snapp et al., 2002;Kimaro et al., 2009).In Eastern and Southern Africa, the interest for pigeonpeas production is increasing daily partly due to its ability to be mixed with other crops and to produce food grain under harsh conditions imposed by moisture stress, high temperatures and infertile soils (Gwata and Siambi, 2009). A study conducted in Tanzania demonstrated that the yield of unfertilized maize intercropped with pigeonpeas generally equaled the yield of a moderately fertilized sole maize crop (Myaka et al., 2006). The suitability of pigeon pea for intercropping lies in its initial slow growth. Because of this slow growth a companion crop with a fast initial growth phase often completes most of its growth and development during the lag phase of pigeon pea thereby minimizing competition for resources (Snapp et al., 2002;Kimaro et al., 2009)."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Over 80% of pigeonpeas production in Africa takes place in Malawi, Mozambique, Tanzania, Uganda and Kenya which together have over 800,000 ha of arable land under maize-pigeonpea intercropping (AGRA communications, 2012). A study conducted by (Dasbak et al., 2009)   Kimaro et al. (2009) also noted a 30% and 70% decline in maize and pigeonpeas yields, respectively under semi-arid conditions due to a combination of nutrient and moisture competition (Isaac and Kimaro, 2011)."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Adu-Gyamfi et al., (2007) reported that when nitrogen fertilizer is not applied, in cropped legumes will fix most of their nitrogen from the atmosphere and not compete with maize for nitrogen resources. Also he observed that intercropping maize and pigeonpeas maintained maize yields while producing an important cash crop to supplement smallholder income in semi-arid climates of Tanzania."},{"index":4,"size":153,"text":"A study conducted in Tanzania demonstrated that the yield of unfertilized maize intercropped with pigeon pea generally equaled the yield of a moderately fertilized sole maize crop (Myaka et al., 2006). However, an earlier study by Valenzuela and Smith (2002) revealed that the initial growth of pigeonpeas is slow, and thus as an intercrop it is initially less competitive for light, water, and soil nutrients when grown as a companion crop with short-season cash crops. Furthermore, a study conducted in the northern transitional zone of Karnataka in South West India revealed that intercropping of maize and pigeonpeas at 4:2 row ratios is more productive and remunerative than sole crops of either maize or pigeonpeas and other intercropping systems under rainfed conditions (Lingaraju et al., 2008). A study conducted in Tanzania and Malawi showed mean grain yields of pigeonpeas ranging from 0.172 to 0.740 t ha -1 across several environments (Høgh-Jensen et al., 2007)."},{"index":5,"size":77,"text":"Another study conducted by Nndwambi (2015), observed cropping systems had no significant influence on grain yield during the 2010/11 season. Intercropped plots achieved 20.5% more grain yield than sole maize plots. Sole maize achieved higher yield of 4.148 t ha -1 than 3.297 t ha -1 under intercropping. Also he noticed a significant difference in pigeonpeas grain across the different cropping systems. Mathews et al, (2001a) reported lower maize yields under mono-cropping system compared to intercropping system."},{"index":6,"size":135,"text":"Molatudi and Mariga (2012) recorded higher grain yield of 3.674 t ha -1 under sole plots than 3.416 t ha -1 under intercropped plots during the 2007/8 season. Makumba et al. (2009) noticed higher maize grain yields and stover biomass in plots intercropped with Gliricidia sepium than in sole maize plots. The study also found reduction of about 25.81% from sole maize to intercropping. Waddington (1997) reported that intercropping resulted in minimal yield reduction of the maize associated with pigeon pea. Lingaraju et al. (2008) reported reduction in yield of pigeonpeas attributed to the decreased dry matter production, pods per plant and grain weight per plant. Furthermore, Akinnifesi et al. (2007) found that over 4 consecutive cropping seasons, grain yields of maize increased by 340 percent in gliricidiamaize intercropping, when compared to unfertilized sole maize."}]},{"head":"Land Equivalent Ratio (LER)","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"An important tool for the study and evaluation of intercropping systems is the Land Equivalent Ratio (LER). The LER is calculated using the formula (Mead, 1986);"},{"index":2,"size":129,"text":"Yield of 'a' in sole crop Yield of 'b' insole crop An LER value of 1.0 indicates no difference in yield between the intercrop and the monoculture (Mazaheri and Oveysi, 2004). Any value greater than 1.0 indicates a yield advantage for intercrop. A LER of 1.2 for example, indicates that the area planted to monocultures would need to be 20% greater than the area planted to intercrop for the two to produce the same yields. Yield advantages from intercropping as compared to the sole cropping are often attributed to mutual complimentarily effects and minimizing the intercrop competition of component crops on available resources like light, water and nitrogen. This could be due to spatial and temporal separation due to differences in plant architecture and moisture uptake at different times."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"Intercropping of pigeonpeas and green gram in 1:3 row ratios recorded higher LER of 1.52"},{"index":4,"size":213,"text":"over other system and the lowest one with 1:2 row proportions. It was concluded that, for producing the same amount of yield, 52% more area is required under sole crop system. This is accordance with the findings of Prakash and Bhusha (2002) in pigeonpeas/Cstor + greengram. When total LER values were higher than one, the advantage of intercropping over sole stands is shown, in regard to the use of environmental resources for plant growth and thus crop production (Mead and Willey, 1980). Kimani (1985) reported that in all cases of intercropping Land Equivalent Ratio was superior to mono-cropping. Hence, it was concluded that alternating two rows of pigeonpeas with two rows of maize gave the most efficient use of land. Nndwambi (2015), observed yields of pigeon peas in intercropping systems being generally higher than in mono-cropping systems in both seasons. The inconsistency in grain yield of pigeonpeas in both sole and intercrop plots was attributed to erratic rainfall patterns. He also, however, obtained grain yields in pigeon pea in intercropping plots during the first season than those of the sole plots indicating that there was more soil moisture conservation in intercrop plots. Ansari et al. (2012) reported lower productivity (0.61 t/ha) under intercropped stands of pigeon pea than in sole stand (1.52 t/ha)."},{"index":5,"size":123,"text":"Furthermore, Nndwambi (2015), observed the land equivalent ratios (LER) for the two crops (maize and pigeon pea) over two seasons to range from 1.686 to 3.702. In addition, partial LER value greater than one of pigeonpeas intercropped with maize suggest positive interactions between pigeon pea and maize in the use of available resources. Marer (2005), however, stated that large yield advantages observed in intercropping systems are due to the component crops that differed in their use of natural resources and utilized them more efficiently resulting in higher yields per unit area than that produced by their sole crops obtained LER values greeter than 1.0 in all pigeonpea/maize mixture under both open pollinated maize and hybrid maize mixtures in the two seasons of production."}]},{"head":"Pigeonpeas Fuel Wood Yield in the Maize and Pigeonpeas Intercropping","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Cereal crops are demanding appropriate cultivation technologies according to the growing conditions as high wood biomass yields to be possible to be obtained. Within the cultivation technologies, plant density and row spacing could contribute to the production of wood biomass in an efficient way (Ion et al., 2015). Biomass yield is affected by different plant population densities (Abuzar et al., 2011). Plant densities can be increased to provide maximum dry matter production (Yilmaz et al., 2007)."},{"index":2,"size":86,"text":"Cropping system increased aboveground biomass by 23.7% relative to sole maize. Dry stems of pigeon pea are an important source of fuel in rural India and produces about 10 to 12 tons per ha of dry woods (Matthews and Saxena, 2001;Joshi et al., 2003). Intercropping of maize and pigeonpeas in Nigeria significantly (P<0.01) reduced stem dry matter yield of the pigeonpeas genotype compared to sole crop system in both 2005 and 2006. The results were attributed to negative effect of the intercropped maize on the pigeonpeas."},{"index":3,"size":79,"text":"However, our results clearly indicated that interspecific competition reduced yields and nutrient uptake of both maize and pigeonpeas when little or no fertilizer was applied (Kimaro et al., 2009). Tejpal and Mahendra (2003) reported that intercropping with maize significantly declined the dry matter production of pigeonpeas and leaf area index. Mathews and Saxena (2005) reported that late planting after December of the long to medium duration varieties pigeonpeas could result in smaller canopy and hence lower wood biomass yields."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER THREE","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Materials","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Location of the study site","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"The "}]},{"head":"Description of the study area","index":16,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"The District experience binomial rainfall pattern characterized by the short rains commencing in mid-November/early December to January and the long rains (mid-February to May)with annual temperature varying from mean minimum of 18 o C to maximum of 34 o C (KDP, 2012).The average rainfall ranges from 200 to 800 mm (Bationo et al., 2006). However, seasonal distributions of rain can be very sporadic with 48% of the rain falling towards the end of the growing season giving little advantage to crop growth and yield (Kimaro et al. 2009)."}]},{"head":"Soils","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":102,"text":"The soils of the study site are diverse with moderate permeability and shallow to deep profiles with large depth variations both within and between localities but dominated by highly weathered tropical soils (KDC, 2012;Meliyo et al., 2014)..The initial site characterization (Meliyo et al., 2014) shows that soil fertility is very low with deficiency of most major elements, including nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), organic matter and exchangeable cations (Table 1). This study is conducted in the sites which are part of the Africa RISING project and hence initial conditions of the experimental sites were conducted centrally as described in Ahazi et al. (2015). "}]},{"head":"Population","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Kongwa District has a total human population of 295,476 people with males comprising 146, 779 and females 148, 677(KDP, 2012). The District had a total of 60, 301 households with an average of 5 persons per household. The major economic activities of the majority of households (90%; N=54271) is farming."}]},{"head":"Socio-economic activities","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Main cultivated subsistence crops include maize, sorghum, millet, common beans, pigeonpeas, bambara nuts, chick peas, sweet potatoes, cassava and vegetable crops with tomatoes and leafy vegetables being the leading horticultural crops. Main cash crops include groundnuts, sesame, sunflower cast oil seeds, and cashewnuts. According to KDP (2012), Kongwa District is divided into three farming systems namely (1) mixed scales cropping systems (which are comprised of small, medium and large scale crop production systems);"},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"(2) Mixed farming system (agro-pastoral system);and (3) Pastoral system. Large part of the district is Semi-arid areas and have growing period of 75 -179 days (Bationo et al., 2005)."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental design, treatments, establishment and Managements","index":22,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental design and treatments","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":114,"text":"The experiments in both Mlali and Chitego villages were laid out in a randomized complete block design (RCBD) with three replications. Each treatment occurred exactly once per replicate and was assigned randomly to the experimental plots in each block. Each of the three blocks had 5 plots each measuring 9.0m x 6.0m (Fig. 1).The distance between blocks was 2m and between plots was 2m. Treatments were spatial integration of pigeonpeas and maize under various intercropping arrangements: Pure stand of pigeonpeas and maize (PPPP and MMM), alternate rows of maize and pigeonpeas (1MM: 1PP), one row of maize and two rows of pigeonpeas (1MM: 2PP), two rows of maize and one row of pigeonpeas (2MM:"},{"index":2,"size":147,"text":"1PP) (Plate 1). In both seasons, 3-4 seeds of both maize and pigeonpeas were sown per hill and thinning of maize was done 2 weeks after germination leaving two plants per hill. While those of pigeonpeas were done one month after germination in all sites leaving one plant per hill. At sowing, basal application of phosphorus fertilizer (Minjingu brand called Nafaka plus) was applied at the rate of 30kgP/ha by broadcasting to all plots and incorporating into the soil using a hand hoe. This was to ensure optimal growth of maize and pigeon pea, because the soil was highly deficient of phosphorus (Table 1). Clean weeding was done twice at 21 and 45 days after planting using hand hoe to control weeds throughout the experimental periods. Insect pesticides of pigeonpeas \"AMECAN\" was sprayed twice at the rate of 1.5Litres/ha at 50% flowering and at grain filling stages."}]},{"head":"Data collection","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"At maturity, maize grains were harvested from the inner plot area of 4m x 3.6 m and weighed in the field and sub-sampled for moisture content determination in the laboratory at 60 0 C."},{"index":2,"size":141,"text":"These sampling procedures were also used to assess pigeonpeas grain yield one month after maize harvesting. Three pigeonpeas plants (small, medium and large size height) from the same inner plot in each plot at harvesting stage were destructively sampled and separated into stem and leaf fractions for determination of wood biomass based on dry weight (60 0 C). Height (cm) and root collar diameter (RCD, mm) of the selected pigeonpeas were measured for determination of wood yield. A graduated pole was used for height measurement and veneer calliper for RCD. The RCD measurement was taken at 10cm above the ground to minimize variation. Grain and biomass yields were then extrapolated to one hectare based on yield per sampled area. Wood biomass yields were estimated using the following published equation for pigeonpeas developed in semiarid areas of Dodoma (Kimaro et al., 2009):"},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Ln (Wood)=1.917LnD+4.447; R 2 =0.91; SEE=0.24; CF=1.03; p<0.0001 (1)"},{"index":4,"size":47,"text":"Where Ln is the natural logarithm, D is the measured RDC of pigeonpeas, p is probability of the model, R 2 is the coefficient of determination, SEE is the standard error of estimate of the model and CF is the correction factor for converting median into mean."}]},{"head":"Data analysis","index":25,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Evaluation of the productivity of the intercropping systems","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"The, yield data of maize and the respective yields of the associated species in sole and intercropped plots were used to determine the Land Equivalent ratio (LER) as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"LER = (Yab/Yaa) + (Yba/Ybb) (Ghosh et al, 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Where: Yaa and Ybb are yields of sole crops a and b; Yab and Yba are yields of the respective intercrops. The calculation of the LER enabled the determination of productivity of the different intercropping systems when compared to the respective monocultures."},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"Hence, values of LER greater than 1 are considered advantageous intercrop systems (Ghosh et al, 2006)."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Data collected were checked for normality and constant variance assumptions using the graphical analysis of residuals in Microsoft Excel 2007. Thereafter the data collected was subjected to one way Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) using Statistical Analysis System (SAS version 9.2) at 0.05 level of significance to determine differences in the treatment effect."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER FOUR","index":28,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":29,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Generally maize and pigeonpeas grain yields in Chitego were considerably higher than corresponding yields in Mlali in both of the 2015 and 2016 growing seasons (Fig. 2;"},{"index":2,"size":76,"text":"Appendix 1-2). Maize grain yield for various treatments ranged from 1.35 to 2.65 t/ha in 2015 and from 2.06 to 3.22 t/ha in 2016 while for pigeonpeas it ranged from 0.93 to 1.94 t/ha in 2015 (Fig 2a-b) and 0.62 to 1.44 t/ha in 2016 (Fig. 2c-d). Average maize yield at Chitego during the 2015 (2.49 t/ha) and 2016 (2.89 t/ha) growing seasons were 62% and 56% higher than the corresponding yields at Mlali (Fig. 2a-b))."},{"index":3,"size":213,"text":"Relative to monoculture, yield of maize during the 2015 season was reduced by up to 40% and 62% in Mlali and Chitego villages respectively (Fig 2a). The corresponding reduction in 2016 was 39% in Mlali and 33% in Chitego (Fig 2b). In both seasons the highest reduction of maize yield was noted for the 1MM: 2PP intercropping treatment (i.e., 1-row maize and 2 rows of pigeonpeas), reflecting variations in yield penalty for different planting combinations. At the 1MM: 1PP ratio, the most common ratio used by farmers, maize yield reduction was modest, ranging from 30 to 40% in 2015 and from 13 to 15% in 2016 in both sites. Similarly, pigeonpeas grain yield declined relative to the pure stand and it was higher in Chitego than in Mlali for both seasons (Fig. 2c and d). The decline in pigeonpeas grain yield ranged from 6 to 59% in Mlali and from 22 to 61% in Chitego, with the highest values in each site obtained by treatments with two rows of maize and one row of pigeonpeas (2:1 ratio). Averaged grain yield of pigeonpeas at 1PP:1MM ratio for the two seasons was 0.7 t/ha for Mlali and 1.41 t/ha for Chitego and it was about 39% (27 to 57%) of the yield at pure stand. "}]},{"head":"Productivity of Maize and Pigeonpeas in Intercropping","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"The LER during the 2015 season was highest at the 1M: 2PP ratio in Mlali (1.32) and at the 2MM: 1PP ratio in Chitego (1.56). On the other hand LER at the 1:1 ratio was intermediate during the 2015 season but the highest (1. 46 and 1. 53) during the 2016 cropping season (Table 2). The 2015 season was a bad year with poor and sporadic precipitations during the growing season and hence lower crop yields (Fig. 2). Thus higher LER at the 1MM: 2PP combinations in Mlali during the harsh season like 2015 suggests that increasing proportions of pigeonpeas on farm in lower potential sites is a promising strategy to optimize yields under intercropping because pigeonpeas is a drought tolerant crop and could perform well under moisture stress conditions compared to maize."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"It can also act as a security crop in case of reduced productivity of the companion crop."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"However, the highest LER at 1MM:1PP in the 2016 season suggests that in a good year when yields of both crops in mixture are normal, farmers will benefit more by adopting the alternate intercropping pattern. This cropping pattern is also less sensitive to variations in site and weather conditions as noted by intermediate LER during the 2015 season (Table 2)."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"These results suggest that the 1MM: 1PP ratio could be adopted for wider use by farmers in the two sites. Overall the LER result affirms that farmers who diversify crop production by intercropping will benefit more even in seasons of uncertain crop production like the 2015 season. Additional benefits are also expected from other non-food products like fuelwood presented in the next sections. "}]},{"head":"CHAPTER FIVE","index":32,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"DISCUSION","index":33,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Generally, maize and pigeonpeas grain yields (Fig. 2 and Appendix 1-4) were considerably The 27-34% yield reductions in intercropped pigeonpeas yields in 2005 and between 30-33% in 2006 are similar to 34% reduction reported by Smith et.al. (2001). The yield of the intercropped pigeonpeas (Fig. 2c-d) despite the dominance by maize at the early growth stages was attributed to the recovery growth during the period (time gap) between the harvesting of maize and pigeonpeas (Ghosh et al 2006)."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"At 1MM: 1PP ratio, the most common ratio used by farmers, maize yield reduction was modest and it was higher in 2015 (30-40%) compared to 2016 (13 -15 %) in both sites."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Similarly, pigeonpeas yield declined relative to the pure stand and it was higher in Chitego than in Mlali for both seasons (Fig. 2c and d). These results are in line with Waddington (1997) who reported minimal yield reduction of maize intercropped with pigeon pea."},{"index":4,"size":87,"text":"However, yield decline ranged from 6-59% in Mlali and from 22-61% in Chitego, with the highest values in each site obtained by treatments with two rows of maize and one row of pigeonpeas (2:1 ratio). Lingaraju et al. (2008), also reported intercropping of pigeonpeas with maize resulted in significant reduction of maize yield, especially at 1:1 and 2:2 row ratios due to competition. Among intercropping systems he observed maize + pigeonpeas (50%) at 3:1 row ratio recorded higher maize grain yield (5.7 t/ha) over other row ratios."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"The magnitude of reduction was less with 2:2 and 4:2 row ratios as compared to 2:1 and 3:1 row ratio due to lesser competition of maize in these systems. In this study, averaged yield at 1MM: 1PP ratio for the two seasons was 0.7 t/ha for Mlali and 1.41 t/ha for Chitego and it was about 39% (27-57%) of the yield at pure stand."}]},{"head":"Pigeonpeas Wood Yields","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Within the cultivation technologies, plant density and row spacing could contribute to the production of wood biomass in an efficient way (Ion et al., 2015). In this study no significant Other authors' like (Nndwambi 2015), observed aboveground biomass yield of 9.998 t/ha -1 under sole maize plots which 23.7% higher than that of intercropped plots. Abuzar et al (2011) observed that biomass yield is significantly affected by different plant population densities .This assertion is a confirmation of earlier report by Madar (2001), Rathod et al (2004) and Lingaraju et al;(2008), who in their separate studies reported that mixture of cereals and legumes produce higher dry matter yield in cereals than when the cereals are grown alone."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"In this study, relative to monoculture, wood yield reduction among treatments was higher in 2016 season compared to 2015 season. The results are in line with the observation by Mathews et al., (2001) who also noted the reduction of both maize and yield biomass in mixture. (Mathews et al., 2001) .The reduction in dry matter yields of stems of intercropped pigeonpeas compared to the sole pigeonpeas are attributed to the negative effect of the intercropped maize on the pigeonpeas (Mathews et al., 2001)."}]},{"head":"Productivity of Maize and Pigeonpeas in Intercropping","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":83,"text":"The evaluation of the intercrops against the monocultures (Table 2) based on LER revealed that, intercropping is more productive than growing each of the crops separately. This result is in agreement with the findings of other researchers (Schilling and Gibbons, 2002;Lingaraju et al., 2008;Phiri et al., 2013). In this study all the intercropping systems recorded significantly higher LER over their respective sole crops (Table 2). Marer (2006) also observed LER of 1.54 in maize and pigeonpeas intercropped at 4:2, 2:2 and 3.1row ratios."},{"index":2,"size":98,"text":"The 2015 season in our study was a bad year with poor and sporadic precipitations during the growing season and hence lower crop yields (Fig. 2). Thus higher LER at 1MM: 2PP combination in Mlali in a poor season like the 2015 suggests that increasing proportions of pigeonpeas on farm in lower potential sites is a promising strategy to optimize yields under intercropping because pigeonpeas is a drought tolerant crop and could perform well under moisture stress conditions compared to maize. It can also act as a security crop in case of reduced productivity of the companion crop."},{"index":3,"size":127,"text":"However, LER at 1MM: 1PP in the 2016 season suggests that in a good year when growth and yields of both crops in mixture are normal, farmers will benefit more by adopting the alternate intercropping partner. The 1MM: 1PP cropping pattern is also less sensitive to variations in site and weather conditions as LER was higher and similar in both sites and seasons (Table 2). Marer (2005) concluded that intercropping of maize and pigeonpeas (50%) at 4:2 row ratios is more productive and remunerative than sole crop of maize or pigeonpeas under rain-fed semiarid conditions (470 -650mm/year) of northern transitional zone of Karnataka in India. Sarkar and Shit (1990) and Quiroz and Martin (2003) also recorded higher LER in maize based intercropping systems compared to sole cropping."},{"index":4,"size":43,"text":"Apparently pigeonpeas intercropping at the appropriate proportions based on local site conditions is necessary and a promising strategy to optimize yields in mixture. This study suggests that the 1MM: 1PP ratio could be adopted for wider use by farmers in the two sites."},{"index":5,"size":26,"text":"Overall the LER result affirms that farmers diversifying crop production by intercropping will benefit more even in seasons of uncertain crop production like the 2015 season."}]},{"head":"CHAPTER SIX","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":4,"text":"6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS"}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":160,"text":"Overall, results reported in this study suggest low yield potential for pigeonpeas and maize at Mlali site. Maize and pigeonpeas yields of individual components can be reduced under intercropping but these losses may be offset by diversified products from the intercrops when farm level productivity is assessed. Increasing proportions of pigeonpeas on farm in lower potential sites is a promising strategy to optimize yields under intercropping. Pigeon peas could perform well under moisture stress conditions compared to maize and this have contributed to higher LER in 1MM: 2PP row ratios during the harsh season of 2015. LER at 1MM: 1PP during the 2016 season suggests that in a good year when yields of both crops in mixture are normal, farmers will benefit more by adopting the alternate intercropping partner. Under the conditions of this study, 1MM: 1PP ratio is the best intercropping arrangement that should be encouraged to farmers as it optimizes maize and pigeonpeas grains yields in Kongwa District."}]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"i. It is recommended that farmers who wish to grow maize and pigeonpeas should grow them in association with maize by adopting the alternate intercropping partner 1MM: 1PP cropping arrangements as to benefit more. This planting combination was less sensitive to changes in site conditions (Mlali versus Chitego) and provided moderate LER in both seasons."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"ii. More field experiments be conducted to verify the results obtained in the current study iii. Further study is recommended to examine mechanisms for interspecific competitions for moisture and/or nutrients since semiarid sites have dry and degraded soils. "}]},{"head":"APPENDICES","index":40,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"1. 0 INTRODUCTION ..................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Background Information ............................................................................................. 1 1.2 Problem Statement and Justification ........................................................................... 2 1.3 Objectives .................................................................................................................... 3 1.3.1 Overall objective ............................................................................................. 3 1.3.2 Specific objectives .......................................................................................... 3 CHAPTER TWO ................................................................................................................ 3 2.0 LITERATURE REVIEW ......................................................................................... 4 2.1 Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields in Intercropping Management Systems ........... 4 2.2 Land Equivalent Ratio (LER) ...................................................................................... 6 2.3 Pigeonpeas Fuel Wood Yield in the Maize and Pigeonpeas Intercropping ................ 8 CHAPTER THREE .......................................................................................................... 10 viii 3.0 MATERIALS AND METHODS ............................................................................ 3.1 Materials .................................................................................................................... 3.1.1 Location of the study site .............................................................................. 3.1.2 Description of the study area ........................................................................ 3.1.2.1 Climate .......................................................................................... 3.1.2.2 Soils ............................................................................................... 3.1.2.3 Vegetation and land use ................................................................ 3.1.2.4 Population ...................................................................................... 3.1.2.5 Socio-economic activities .............................................................. 3.2 Methods ..................................................................................................................... 3.2.1 Experimental design, treatments, establishment and Managements ............. 3.2.1.1 Experimental design and treatments ............................................. 3.2.1.2 Experimental establishment and Managements ............................ 3.2.2 Data collection .............................................................................................. 3.2.3 Data analysis ................................................................................................. 3.2.3.1 Evaluation of the productivity of the intercropping systems ........ 3.2.3.2 Statistical Analysis ........................................................................ CHAPTER FOUR ............................................................................................................. 4.0 RESULTS ................................................................................................................. 4.1 Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields.......................................................................... 4.2 Pigeonpeas Wood Yields .......................................................................................... 4.3 Productivity of Maize and Pigeonpeas in Intercropping ........................................... CHAPTER FIVE .............................................................................................................. ix 5.0 DISCUSION ............................................................................................................. 5.1 Maize and Pigeonpeas Grain Yields.......................................................................... 5.2 Pigeonpeas Wood Yields ........................................................................................... 5.3 Productivity of Maize and Pigeonpeas in Intercropping ........................................... CHAPTER SIX ................................................................................................................. 6.0 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMANDATIONS ................................................ 6.1 Conclusions ............................................................................................................... 6.2 Recommendations ..................................................................................................... REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. APPENDICES ................................................................................................................... "},{"text":"Figure 1 :Figure 2 : Figure 1: The experimental layout of the maize and pigeonpeas intercropping patterns at both Mlali and Chitego study sites. ....................... 13 Figure 2: Grain yields of Maize (a-b) and pigeonpeas (c-d) under different croppingarrangements during the 2015 and 2016 growing seasons at Mlali and Chitego Villages ........................................................................ 19 Figure 3: Wood yield (a and b) under different cropping arrangements during the 2015 and 2016 growing seasons at Mlali and Chitego Villages. .................................................... ERROR! BOOKMARK NOT DEFINED. "},{"text":" at the teaching and research farm of the Department of Crop Science, University of Nigeria Nsukka, observed that intercropping significantly (P<0.01) depressed pigeonpeas grain yield compared to sole cropping system. In 2005, they observed hybrid maize intercropping depressing pigeonpeas grain by 34.2% while open pollinated maize intercropping depressing it by 27.7%. In 2006, hybrid maize intercropping depressed the grain yield in pigeonpeas by 33.5% while open pollinated maize depressed it by 30.2%. "},{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: The experimental layout of the maize and pigeonpeas intercropping patterns at both Mlali and Chitego study sites. "},{"text":"Figure 3 : Figure 2: Grain yields of Maize (a-b) and pigeonpeas (c-d) under different cropping arrangements during the 2015 and 2016 growing seasons at Mlali and Chitego Villages "},{"text":" higher in 2016 in Chitego (high potential site) than in 2015 season in Mlali (lower potential site). The higher crops yields during the 2016 cropping season in Chitego possibly reflect high potential of this site as noted by sustained moisture availability over the cropping season and adequate nutrient uptake that promoted vegetative growth, leading to more yields.Lower yields in 2015 compared to 2016 in both sites are possibly due to sporadic rainfall patterns at the beginning of the season. Relative to monoculture, yield of maize during the 2015 season was reduced by up to 40% and 62% in Mlali and Chitego villages respectively (Fig 2a). The corresponding reduction in 2016 was 39% in Mlali and 33% in Chitego (Fig 2b). In both seasons the highest reduction of maize yield was noted for intercropping treatment in mixture, reflecting variations in yield penalty for different plant combinations. "},{"text":"( P>0.05) treatment effect on wood yield was observed in 2015 season (Fig 4; Appendix 5b). However, wood yield of pigeonpeas under monoculture during the 2016 season was the highest (5.24t/ha), followed by 1MM: 2PP and finally 1MM: 1PP and 2MM: 1PP planting ratios (Fig 4a).This declining trend reflects competition for soil water between the maize and pigeonpeas in the intercrop and under different plant arrangements. Overall, pigeonpeas wood yield in this study was comparatively higher in 2015 season compared to 2016 season (Fig 4a: Appendix 5a-b). "},{"text":" study site was located at Kongwa District, Dodoma Tanzania, during 2015 and 2016 cropping seasons. The experiment was set in Mlali village (latitudes 5.47 o and 6.26 o S and longitudes 36.15 o and 37.08 o E) and Chitego village (latitudes 5.61 o and 6.74 o S and longitudes 36.35 o and 37.29 o E).  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Soil characterization of the study sites at Mlali and Chitego villages   pH OC N P CEC Ca Mg K EC BS pHOCNPCECCaMgKECBS Location (H20) (%) (%) (mg kg -1 ) (Cmol (+) kg -1 )   (mScm -1 ) (%) Location(H20)(%)(%)(mg kg -1 )(Cmol (+) kg -1 )(mScm -1 )(%) Mlali 6.2 0.50 0.05 5.38 6.32 1.90 1.46 0.86 0.08 67.67 Mlali6.20.500.055.386.321.901.460.860.0867.67 Chitego 6.2 0.72 0.08 7.16 8.20 3.47 1.06 0.76 0.12 68.00 Chitego6.20.720.087.168.203.471.060.760.1268.00  "},{"text":"Table 2 Table LER for Maize-Pigeonpeas Intercropping at Mlali and Chitego Villages Maize-PP ratio 2015 2016   Mlali Chitego Mlali Chitego MlaliChitegoMlaliChitego 2M:1PP 1.13 1.56 1.21 1.17 2M:1PP1.131.561.211.17 1M:1PP 1.12 1.47 1.46 1.53 1M:1PP1.121.471.461.53 1M:2PP 1.32 1.15 1.54 1.28 1M:2PP1.321.151.541.28  "},{"text":"Appendix 1: Detailed data and ANOVA table for the effect of intercropping arrangement on maize grain yield at Chitego and Mlali during 2015 season Appendix 1a Detailed maize grain data on sources during 2015 season  Site Treatments Maize grain yield (t/ha) 2015 SiteTreatmentsMaize grain yield (t/ha) 2015 Chitego 1MM1PP 2.03 Chitego1MM1PP2.03 Chitego 1MM2PP 1.06 Chitego1MM2PP1.06 Chitego 2MM1PP 3.34 Chitego2MM1PP3.34 Chitego MMMM 2.98 ChitegoMMMM2.98 Chitego 1MM1PP 2.39 Chitego1MM1PP2.39 Chitego 1MM2PP 1.19 Chitego1MM2PP1.19 Chitego 2MM1PP 3.04 Chitego2MM1PP3.04 Chitego MMMM 4.02 ChitegoMMMM4.02 Chitego 1MM1PP 2.37 Chitego1MM1PP2.37 Chitego 1MM2PP 1.48 Chitego1MM2PP1.48 Chitego 2MM1PP 3.19 Chitego2MM1PP3.19 Chitego MMMM 2.76 ChitegoMMMM2.76 Mlali 1MM1PP 0.98 Mlali1MM1PP0.98 Mlali 1MM2PP 1.44 Mlali1MM2PP1.44 Mlali 2MM1PP 1.12 Mlali2MM1PP1.12 Mlali MMMM 1.57 MlaliMMMM1.57 Mlali 1MM1PP 1.16 Mlali1MM1PP1.16 Mlali 1MM2PP 1.26 Mlali1MM2PP1.26 Mlali 2MM1PP 1.66 Mlali2MM1PP1.66 Mlali MMMM 2.85 MlaliMMMM2.85 Mlali 1MM1PP 1.50 Mlali1MM1PP1.50 Mlali 1MM2PP 1.69 Mlali1MM2PP1.69 Mlali 2MM1PP 1.39 Mlali2MM1PP1.39 Mlali MMMM 1.69 MlaliMMMM1.69  "}],"sieverID":"120dfb5b-8955-4f21-a2d5-079c8901c1b2","abstract":"Knowledge on extent to which alternate cropping arrangements may affect yields of both maize and pigeonpeas and fuelwood production from pigeonpeas is important for maximization of outputs. Field experiments were conducted during the 2015 and 2016 periods in Mlali and Chitego Villages, Kongwa District, Dodoma, Tanzania, to assess the effect of intercropping arrangements on the grain yields of maize and pigeonpeas and pigeonpeas fuelwood supply in semi-arid environments. The intercropping arrangements tested were various ratios of maize and pigeonpeas: 1MM: 1PP, 1MM: 2PP, and 2MM: 1PP row proportions, and in their monocultures. Maize grain yields at 1MM: 1PP ratio for the two seasons averaged 0.7 t/ha for Mlali and 1.41 t/ha for Chitego. The increase was 39% higher (27-57%) than mean yield at pure maize (maize monoculture). Maize yield at Chitego during the 2015 (2.49 t/ha) and 2016 (2.89 t/ha) growing season were 62% and 56% higher than the corresponding yields at Mlali. The LER during the 2015 season was highest at 1MM: 2PP ratio in Mlali (1.32) and at 2MM: 1PP ratio in Chitego (1.56). On the other hand LER at 1:1 ratio was intermediate during the 2015 season but the highest (1. 46 and 1. 53)during the 2016 cropping season. Although intercropping reduced yields of sole crops, LER at 1:1 in the 2016 season suggests that in a good year, farmers will benefit more by adopting the alternate intercropping partner. These results suggest that the 1MM: 1MM ratio could be adopted for wider use by farmers in the two sites. Overall the LER results affirm that farmers diversifying crop production by intercropping will benefit more even in seasons of uncertain crop production like the 2015 season. It is recommended that farmers who wish to grow maize and pigeon pea should grow them in association with maize by adopting the alternate intercropping partner 1MM: 1PP cropping arrangements as it provide more benefit.iii DECLARATION I, ELVIS FAHAMU JONAS, do hereby declare to the Senate of Sokoine University of Agriculture that this dissertation is my own original work done within the period of registration and that it has neither been submitted nor being concurrently submitted for a degree award in any other institution."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0750ad141e4c19e8bac6be245fbaa4fd","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/eb203876-cc45-4032-93a0-66cad84c79a8/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Crédits","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"Auteurs : ANACIM Design : Nataal7 (nataal7@yahoo.fr) Photo : ANACIM, Google Financement : USAID-CINSERE (CCAFS/ICRISAT) © Edition 2018 PRÉFACE L 'USAID et le CCAFS/ICRISAT collaborent avec l'Agence nationale de l'Aviation civile et de la Météorologie (ANACIM) et ses partenaires nationaux au Sénégal, dans le but de renforcer la capacité de résilience des agriculteurs, éleveurs et pêcheurs face aux risques climatiques, par l'utilisation des services d'information climatiques (SIC)."},{"index":2,"size":63,"text":"Démarré en 2011, en phase pilote, dans la zone de Kaffrine, le projet CCAFS/ICRISAT a connu un franc succès auprès des populations rurales, ce qui a permis son extension à l'échelle nationale en 2016, avec le soutien de l'USAID. Exemple : Si un arbre de 2m se trouve sur le site, le pluviomètre doit être distant au moins de 8 m de l'arbre."}]},{"head":"ELEMENTS CONSTITUTIFS","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"L'ensemble du pluviomètre comprend :"},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"• Un seau gradué de 0.5 à 150.0 mm • Un pied métallique à 1.5m du sol"},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Le pluviomètre un instrument météorologique destiné à mesurer la quantité de précipitations tombée pendant un intervalle de temps donné en un endroit donné."}]},{"head":"INSTALLATION","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"Le pluviomètre doit être installé au sol en évitant toute surface inclinée. Ô Lors d'une forte pluie si l'éprou-"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Des formations sont ainsi dispensées par l'ANACIM en vue de permettre aux utilisateurs de comprendre les concepts de changement climatique et les avantages liés à l'utilisation des services d'information climatiques. C'est dans ce contexte que des manuels de formation ont été conçus et mis à la disposition des acteurs de terrain. Ces manuels sont le fruit d'une collaboration entre l'USAID, le CCAFS/ICRISAT et l'ANACIM, dans le cadre du projet USAID/CINSERE. Le CGIAR est un partenariat mondial de recherche agricole pour un avenir sûr. Ses recherches sont menées par 15 centres du CGIAR en étroite collaboration avec des centaines d'organisations partenaires. www.cgiar.org. Directeur Général de l'ANACIM Monsieur Magueye Marame NDAO Contact ANACIM -Aéroport Léopold Sédar Senghor Dakar Yoff -Tél : 00221 33 865 60 00 / 33 865 60 76 E-mail : anacim@anacim.sn LE PLUVIOMÈTRE À LECTURE DIRECTE • Surface bien dégagée de tout obstacle trop élevé. • Eviter toute surface inclinée, terrasse ou toiture. • La distance du pluviomètre aux objets environnants ne devrait pas être inférieure à quatre fois la hauteur de ces objets. "},{"text":"Ô La pluie journalière est mesurée de 08:00 le jour J à 08:00 jour J+1 (le lendemain). Pour lire, se mettre à la même hauteur que la lame Ô Les pluies inférieures à 0.5 mm sont notées comme traces (TR). "}],"sieverID":"81aefcdc-9620-4993-a8cf-268b02258ed5","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07c22a6b3e92aa155f4939cdd9307b4b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/d82a7bb5-3ac8-4238-a6c0-17dec8d19d74/retrieve"},"pageCount":46,"title":"Assessment of Seed Producer Associations in Uganda","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Executive summary","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"In Uganda, until recently, more institutionalized local seed production chain was limited to seed grains such as cereals and legumes and, to limited extent, vegetables. Over the past two decades, several initiatives have emerged to promote production of clean planting for both seed grains and plant parts of vegetatively propagated crops (VPCs), including sweetpotato. Initial efforts by partners (including line NGOs, public and private sectors, and farmers) have been made to establish active chain structures for production and dissemination of early generation to quality-declared seed. Uganda's national seed policy was reviewed to include VPCs for inspection and certification, piloted through established regional registered seed producer associations for sweetpotato planting material."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Interventions continue to focus on improving the seed production and dissemination of clean planting for improved crop productivity."},{"index":3,"size":59,"text":"The International Potato Center (CIP), through its SweetGAINS program, is currently implementing sustainable, inclusive seed systems for accelerated dissemination and adoption of market-preferred varieties in the Kamuli district in eastern Uganda. For this work to be successful, there must be an understanding of work and operations of established seed producer associations (SPAs) -which is the purpose of this report."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"By investigating the on-going seed-related activities in this region, we can better inform and develop proposed interventions to improve seed systems for these farmers and, eventually, throughout Uganda. Our key focus would be on improving capacity of SPAs to learn and support seed system protocols for ensuring high-quality, disease-free seed with strong links between farmers and the marketplace."},{"index":5,"size":38,"text":"Due to COVID-19, our interviews were taken over the telephone with randomly-selected 13 irrespective of crop focus. From these interviews, we conclude the following major points (which are elaborated in details and supported with evidence in this report):"},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"1. Many SPAs deal with more than one seed crop 2. NGOs in the area are providing support to solve logistical, inspection-related and certificationrelated challenges;"},{"index":7,"size":68,"text":"From these observations, we make the following recommendations: 1. To enhance the capacity of SPAs to use clean seed in their respective areas of operation; 2. To encourage diversified seed incomes by focusing on multiple crops; 3. To enable phasal withdrawal of selected NGOs to drive more SPAs to be self-sustaining; and 4. To develop stronger knowledge among SPAs of market demands, business planning, and internal seed inspection."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"The full set of recommendations with explanation are available in section 3.0.   16. How Seed Producers Associations support their members: strengths (Scale: High = (≥ 75% N), Medium = (≥ ≤ 50% N) and Low = (< 50% N)"}]},{"head":"List of Figures","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"Table 17. How Seed Producers Associations support their members: weakness (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high)"},{"index":2,"size":124,"text":"Table 18. Potential impact of the opportunities (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high) for Seed Producers' Associations Table 19. How would the following threats impact on the seed producers' association activities? Impact of threats (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high)  (FAO, 2010;Bizikova et al., 2020). Further, the associations also improved bargaining power and appropriate decision-making among smallholder farmers with traders to have a fairer price (Rajendran, S., 2018), especially in developing countries (Bizikova et al., 2020). Collective action through farmers organizations often seen as a key factor in enhancing access to markets (Hellin et al., 2006)."},{"index":3,"size":75,"text":"In recent years, the number of associations are increasing. The major objective of these associations is to provide access to quality seed, finance, and markets for their members. In addition, the association also facilitate seed certification process by engaging regulators on timely basis. Further, the association also provides necessary trainings focusing on good agricultural practices and business skills on timely basis to their members. Currently these associations are operating at a national and regional level."},{"index":4,"size":237,"text":"In Uganda, root, tubers, and banana (RTB) crops are major food security crops apart from Mazie. Though, root, tubers and banana crops are emerging in the market, but access to quality inputs and extension services for these crops among smallholders are always a challenge. Therefore, smallholder farmers have formed a group or associations or cooperative societies for selected crops to gain better access to quality inputs and improve crop income. Often these forms of collective actions who deals with root, tubers and banana are supported by developmental projects. However, some groups or associations able to run their activities by generating a revenue through a membership or several other ways of generating revenues due to level of commercialization of crops. For example, sugarcane and potato are a cash crop which have exclusive farmers organizations. For the potato crop, farmers have created a Uganda National Seed Potato Producers Association (UNSPPA). Whereas farmers who deals with less commercialization of RTB crops such as sweetpotato, they are part of the associations, but the associations normally deals with more than one crop. The reason behind, the association may not be able to generate sufficient revenue if the association deals with a single crop which have less commercial value. It might hamper association's functionality due to lack of fund generation. Therefore, it puts in the situation where sweetpotato producers to be part of with the association that deals with more than one crop."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"Uganda is one of the largest producers and consumers of sweetpotato in Sub-Saharan African countries. Rural consumers largely source roots from their own farm, whereas urban consumers are fully dependent on market. The demand for root among urban consumers increasing in recent years due to fast growing urbanization in Uganda."},{"index":6,"size":98,"text":"This situation has created increasing trend towards commercialization of sweetpotato crop which puts pressure on producers to produce more sweetpotato and trade with traders on a fair price and gain better bargaining power. This requires a collective action approach to deal with traders. At present, in Uganda, the sweetpotato production increases due to largely area expansion not through yield expansion. The reason behind, lack of access to quality sweetpotato planting materials and access to extension services on Good Agricultural Practices (GAPs) for root and vine production and access to right variety that provides more yield and better income."},{"index":7,"size":98,"text":"Therefore, it is necessary to empower sweetpotato root and vine producers by providing them access to better market, quality inputs, extension, and credit services. At the same time, it is also necessary to link upstream of the seed value chain actors with the downstream of the seed value chain actors to ensure that farmers will have access to quality seed. This requires an exploration study to understand functionality of existing farmers associations who focuses on seed business in Uganda and learn lessons for strengthening the functionality of associations that deals with sweetpotato crop, particularly focusing on seed business."},{"index":8,"size":19,"text":"Therefore, in July -September 2020, CIP scientists have partnered with NaCRRI and have undertaken an exploration study in Uganda."}]},{"head":"Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Structured interviews were conducted to understand the operations and experiences of different farmers' associations to inform planning for capacity building activities. In addition, using Strengths, Weaknesses, Opportunities and Threats (SWOT) analysis (Figure 1), the study also identifies strategies that farmers' associations follow to strengthen their activities. The interviews included the following themes: roles and responsibilities of committees, crops grown, quality control, support to members, business plans, source of generating funds for association, common customers and capacity building of seed producers."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The study involved a total of 18 individual respondents representing 14 farmers' associations for different crops including RTB crops. Associations were purposively selected to ensure that associations deal with vegetatively propagated crop (VPCs) as sweetpotato is part of VPCs by nature. The challenges faced by these crops are same. Purposely selected farmer-driven associations engaged in seed production irrespective of grain or plant part seed propagation."},{"index":3,"size":183,"text":"Due to COVID-19 pandemic related travel restrictions, telephone interviews were conducted.  1 shows that low numbers of total active members for Mukama Afayo, Tabagon Seed and Agali Awamu Farmers seed producers' association, reportedly, attributed to some members being non-seed producers but belong to the association as active members of savings schemes. The main focus seed crop is potato for UNSPPA, WASWAPPA and MIFA, and sweetpotato for SOSPPA, Nawanyago and Miti SPAs. SOSPPA has both the largest numbers of total active members and women members. In Kamuli, apart from sugarcane association producing more commercially, Mukama Afayo, Agali Awamu and Nawanyago have more women SPs than men. Although, most of them are producing sweetpotato planting material, Nawanyago association is the only registered under eastern Uganda sweetpotato seed association for inspection and certification of sweetpotato planting material by the Ugandan Ministry of Agriculture, Animal Industry and Fisheries (MAAIF). Table 2 illustrates the key organs of seed producer associations included the production, finance and marketing committees with roles of enhancing production and quality control, managing loans to members and selling or procuring basic seed for planting, respectively."}]},{"head":"Roles of different committees of SPA","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Objectives of SPA","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Table 3. Foundation objectives of different seed associations (N=18)"},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"Table 3 shows that overall, availability of quality seed and marketing were key objectives upon which many seed associations were formulated and existed.  Whereas many seed varieties are planted (Table 4a) especially for sweetpotato and beans, table 4b shows that only a few of them are sold. sweetpotato seed association and member of the Eastern Uganda sweetpotato regional association initially focused on sweetpotato planting material only, subsequently, producing the highest number of seed crops.   Table 5c shows that quality control and quality assurance is mainly managed by the sugarcane association and more bulk sales are involved. MAAIF and Africa Network involved in capacity building the seed producers association members through training.  Table 8 shows that different associations have focus on extending support to their members."}]},{"head":"Objective","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seed crops grown by different SPAs","index":7,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Number of seed crops grown by individual associations","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Seed quality control and assurance by different SPAs","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sources of financial support to the associations and support to members","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":260,"text":"Commonly, associations focus on empowering members through trainings, internal quality management, and collective marketing. Table 9 shows that most buying initial seed, quality control and selling of seed produced is done at association level not individual seed producer. This may be attributable to mainly institutional contribution in forming these associations and their role in linking the seed association to potential market because most of the seed produced is bought by institutions. Table 11 shows that annual national agricultural field shows or days present the commonest opportunity for seed producers' associations to promote their activities to the public. Others common ones are demonstrations and poster presentations. Crops regularly promoted include sweetpotato, potato, beans, and cassava. Table 12 shows that even seed association do not sell all varieties being multiplied are sold. Among the key reasons is that those not sold are not largely preferred. Many association seed producers reported benefits including construction of individual permanent houses, payment of school fees and acquisition of land for cultivation provided evidence of the economic contribution of seed producer association to individual members. Seed enterprises enhanced household richness among and within farming communities. Crop improvement strategies oriented toward local seed markets could provide important benefits and incentives to farm households living in these marginal environments. There is a need, however, for an enhanced theoretical understanding of local seed markets in analysing crop variety choices and the diversity of materials grown in less favoured environments.         Table 15 shows that the frequency of institutional seed buying is the commonest across seed crops and what is your interpretation?"}]},{"head":"Business plans","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Table 16. How Seed Producers Associations support their members: strengths (Scale: High = (≥ 75% N), Medium = (≥ ≤ 50% N) and Low = (< 50% N)"},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"Table 16 shows that technical capacity building through trainings and market linkages for quality planting material are high priority services extended to members.  18. Potential impact of the opportunities (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high) for Seed Producers' Associations Table 18 shows that successful seed association have high for funding form different support organization as they diversify the crops produced as they are key entry platforms in the communities."}]},{"head":"Potential impact of opportunities","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"Score Funding extended to seed producers' associations for production of planting material because of dealing in NGO-preferred varieties High Joint marketing of members' seed enhances bargaining power and confidence building High Entry platforms for other stakeholders promoting seed-related initiatives thus, developing new alliances with multi-stakeholders High On-farm adaptation e.g. using screenhouses for sweetpotato and stem cuttings potato for production of EGS material reduces the cost on seed High Meeting the requirements for enrolment with existing regional seed producer association insures registration for seed inspection and certification and market access High Savings and loans schemes are possible sources of funding the seed enterprise High Diversification into new seed product categories and/or options opens up alternative seed markets which builds new revenue streams High Institutional seed markets including schools provide wider market base for quality planting material and more profitable customer choice High Joint Starter seed sourcing reduces on transport costs and on-farm production of clean planting material decreases costs paid for EGS at on-station and transportation to on-farm thus, boosting its profitability or passing on the benefits to the end-users of clean planting material High Table 19. How would the following threats impact on the seed producers' association activities? Impact of threats (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high) Table 19 sows that most of the seed association deal in projects' targeted varieties and do not effective business plans to show the projected volumes."}]},{"head":"Recommendations, conclusions, and areas of attention","index":13,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Recommendations","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"1. Ensuring timely availability of inputs including quality seed and market for seed were the key aims of SPA formation. However, sources of basic seed were very proximally distant and very expensive, and not easily accessible to insect-proof nets unless provided by support partners. Satellite sources of basic seed and indicative investment plans drawn, and cost involved for desired seed structures such as screenhouse for production of onfarm basic that significantly lowers the cost and ensure that it easily available. Such structures also create constant awareness and reminding the local communities about measures to manage and maintain clean planting material. Could be referred to as local seed clinics for planting material."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"2. Most of the seed production is dependent on produced rain-fed and seed production requires sizeable land which is becoming increasingly limiting due to land fragmentation."}]},{"head":"Impact of threats","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":121,"text":"Score Focusing on institutional priority varieties such as orange-fleshed sweetpotato is disincentive to improving production and productivity of locally market preferred varieties High General lack of branding creates unclear distinction between clean and unclean planting material High Fragility and unsustainability of seed systems due to lack of inclusion of local market preferred varieties among the clean material being promoted by institutions in collaboration with seed producer associations High Whereas the seed producers' associations operate parallelly within the potential crops producing communities, the markets share of the varieties being supported is generally associated with institutional linkages but not demanded by local customers. Such is evidence of lack of changing customer buying behavior which is a threat to the seed system supply chain."}]},{"head":"High","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"Most seed Producers Associations lack effective business and not well informed about the seed demand during different seasons High Seed Producer Associations do not have choice of varieties to produce thus, excluding even the most market preferred High Whereas diversity in seed crops cushions income, seed producers need multiple trainings because different seed crops may require specific skills High Although seed production seemed profitable, there was lack of evidence on farmer-to-farmer purchases. Record keeping needs to be enhanced"}]},{"head":"High","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":118,"text":"In cases where is very limiting and farmers especially women could consolidate by engaging in joint group seed production ventures. In this way decisions on management factors such as isolation distance and input acquisition and even exploring opportunities could be easily managed. In this way seed could be group business enterprise since some SPAs such as Tabagon started as community savings and loans associations. SPAs should be encouraged to appreciate to invest in profitable seed business. Consider irrigation to supplement and regulate seed production 3. Explore comparative advantage of diversification through multiple crop seed enterprises or individual SPA members specialize. Explore the advantages of rotational seed crops and different maturity periods to harness the benefits diversified income streams."},{"index":2,"size":112,"text":"Opportunities of horizontal and vertical integration in seed production. Examples of vertical integration such as miniscreen seed production -open field seed productionsilage making during off season. Horizontal such as seed crop diversification using the advantage of crop rotations and intercrops e.g. beans (legume) -sweetpotato or beansmaize intercrops would maximise on profits from land use and reducing on costs of production by apportioning total costs of production to different crops. 4. Generally, the role of NGO in nurturing and continued capacity building especially the production of planting material of VPCs is still vital since it's the youngest seed venture and the gains made in getting the operational seed value chain nodes is recommendable."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"Notably, removing NGO logistical support and coordination would lead to collapse of most seed producer association. For, example the sweetpotato regional associations depend on the partners to coordinate and finance inspection and certification. Essential inputs such aphid proof nets and basic seed are largely provided freely or at subsidised prices."},{"index":4,"size":24,"text":"Since seed information continues to be dynamic, continued support by NGOs and technical partners for capacity building of seed producers associations is still vital."},{"index":5,"size":272,"text":"Conducting cascading capacity building for member seed producers and possible dencetralised or satellite sub regional associations for regular information updates and basic seed sourcing could contribute to sustainability. However, recommended that support should be scaled out in phasal manner to allow the SPAs eventually gain control as private ventures. For example, whereas, the build-up existing seed structures was based on selected crop varieties, there has been reported demand by SPAs to get basic seed of varieties of their choice. Such evidence does not only connote appreciation of using clean planting material but provides window to allow then conduct their independent seed business. than farmer driven. Even the apex regional association are reliant on NGOs for information on production and marketing. SPA grow many varieties, but a few are marketed. It seemed that they are not always sure which ones will be marketed. Integrated seed would such silage making would absorb the unsold portion of seed. The association need to develop production plans and projection on demand and indicative prices. There is strong need to strengthen the member skills and practices for quality inspection through cascading trainings and provision of simple reference material and seed approvals for planting especially within the communities of seed production. This would minimise the risks of delaying planting especially sweetpotato because there is a single inspector in the region that covers several districts. Reliant on a single inspector, especially during times of epidemics such COVID-19 that restricts movements may disrupt or fail timeliness in supplies. Most SPAs grow seed crops promoted by collaborating institutions who link them to specific markets. Thus, the local market preferred varieties are excluded."}]},{"head":"Conclusions, and areas of attention","index":18,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CHECKLIST FOR SEED PRODUCER ASSOCIATIONS","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Study objective","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"The main objective is to understand how seed is produced and organised in different seed associations "}]},{"head":"Seed crops seed grown","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":183,"text":"3.1 List the focus seed crops? 3.2 How does the association ensure that recommended varieties and quality seed of the different crop(s) are planted by the members? 3.3 Does the association decide on the choice of crop(s) varieties to be planted by the different members? 3.4 How does the association support members to access starter material for planting? 3.5 Which are the most common crop(s) varieties sold by the association? 3.6 Does the association participate in decision regarding new release of variety? 3.7 Do you support your members for accessing new variety when it get released? 3.8 If yes, how do you support? 3.9 Does the association have members growing more than one variety? 3.10 How does the association decide on the acreage or quantity of planting material to be produced by each member? 3.11 How many seasons in a year is seed sold by the association? 3.12 What standard units does the association use to produce and sell seed? Bags, bundles, suckers, etc. 3.13 In the last two seasons, on average how many units (e.g. bags) did the association sell per season?"}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 : Figure 1: SWOT analysis framework for assessment of Seed Producers Associations in Uganda Figures 1a-b: Number of seed crops produced by each association in Uganda "},{"text":"Figure Figure 1a-b. Number of seed crops produced by each association in Uganda "},{"text":"7. Seed associations should enhance community seed awareness and coordination through established sub county development models platforms, radios and shows and simple messages using ICT. Seed association should come up with clear pricing stabilisation strategy for seed. Whereas it is relatively clearer for grain seed crops, price for sweetpotato planting material is fluctuates and depends on buyer-seller negotiations very unstable and largely determined by NGOs. Associations should periodically introduce seed stock taking and insurance schemes. 8. Seed inspection and certification of SPA sweetpotato fields is done by the MAAIF inspectors, and the cost is still met by the support NGOs such as HarvestPlus. Also, all varieties inspected are those targeted by the supporting NGOs, registered and basic seed sourced from known laboratories. Internal inspection is done by quality assurance team within the association and focuses mainly on ensure adequate availability of land for seed production and association supports acquisition of basic seed for members and enhancing GAPs. Internal inspection does not influence decision by the inspector. "},{"text":"Findings form the different selected seed and planting material Producers Association (SPAs) reveal that most of the SPAs multiple seed crops to diversify incomes and security. Although, many varieties are grown by individual seed producers, selected varieties are sold. Not sure what happens to the remaining varieties that are not sold. "},{"text":"1. 0 Respondent information Date of interview (dd/mm/yyyy) ___________Time of interview Start hh: mm _____ End hh: mm____ Geogrophical location: Region _______________ District _______________Village _______________ Name of respondent: Last, middle, first............................. Age.............................. Sex............ Telephone Contact............................................ Educational level: Primary ( ) Secondary ( ) Tertiary ( ) Graduate (√) above graduate ( ) [√ Tick] 2.0 Understanding the roles and responsibilities of association members (These characteristics influence member involvement and contribution) 2.1 What is the name of your association? ...................................................................... 2.2 Type of association 1=SACCO, 2 = community-based org (CBO), 3 = church/religious based org 4=other (specify) 2.3 When did the association start (month/year)? ......................... 2.4 Is the association registered, if so when was it registered (month/year)? 2.5 What type of registration (e.g. cooperative, company, NGO, other) 2.6 Does the association operate bank accounts? If yes, what type (e.g. current, savings?) 2.7 In how many districts does the association operate? 2.8 What are the main objectives of the association? 2.9 Position in Association: Chairperson (√) Secretary ( ) Vice chairperson ( ) Subcommittee chairperson ( ) Member ( ) other (specify)............................... [√ Tick] 2.10 When did you (the respondent) join the association?........................................... 2.11 Are there annual membership fees? If so, what are they? 2.12 Is there any special fee structure for different types of members? 2.13 What other costs (financial, in kind, voluntary) associated with membership are incurred by members or office holders? 2.14 If not registered, why not? ........................................... "},{"text":"Table 1 . Summary of membership of Seed Producers' Associations  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Frequency of responses on roles of committees of 18 different Seed Producer Associations  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Foundation objectives of different seed associations (N=18)  "},{"text":"Table 4a . Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grown Table 4b. Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grown Table 5a. Seed Potato Association (N=5)  "},{"text":"Table 5b . Sweetpotato seed-vine Producers' Association (N = 4) Table 5c. Cassava Producers' Association (N = 2) Table 5c. Cassava Producers' Association (N = 2)  "},{"text":"Table 5e . Sugarcane and Banana Producers' Associations (N = 2)  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Common sources of funds and logistical support to the associations  "},{"text":"Table 7   "},{"text":"Table 13a . Source of capitalisation by different Seed Producer Associations  "},{"text":"Table 13b . Source of capitalisation by different Seed Producer Associations  "},{"text":"Table 14a . How associations create values  "},{"text":"Table 14b . How associations Deliver value  "},{"text":"Table 14c . How associations Capture value  "},{"text":"Table 14d . How associations defend value  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Common buyers of Seed producers' Association seedTable  "},{"text":"CHAPTER 2 2.0 Results and discussion 2.1 Status of enrolment Seed Producer Associations by sex Table 1. Summary of membership of Seed Producers' Associations Association Name District # of years old Total # of enrolled Active Seed Producers by sex Male Female Total  Table       Table Strengths: Characteristics of the business which give it advantages over its competitors Weaknesses: Characteristics of the business which make it disadvantageous relative to its competitors Strengths: Characteristics of the business which give it advantages over its competitorsWeaknesses: Characteristics of the business which make it disadvantageous relative to its competitors Opportunities: Elements in the external     Opportunities: Elements in the external environment that allow it to formulate and Threats: Elements in the external  environment that allow it to formulate andThreats: Elements in the external implement strategies to increase  environment that could endanger the implement strategies to increaseenvironment that could endanger the  profitability  integrity and profitability of the business profitabilityintegrity and profitability of the business Figure 1. SWOT analysis framework for assessment of Seed Producers Associations in Uganda   Figure 1. SWOT analysis framework for assessment of Seed Producers Associations in Uganda WASWAPA Mbale 13 30 15 15 30 WASWAPAMbale1330151530 Mukama Afayo Kamuli 5 30 5 10 15 Mukama AfayoKamuli53051015 NUSEMA Gulu 4 73 31 42 73 NUSEMAGulu473314273 SOSPPA Serere 15 170 68 102 170 SOSPPASerere1517068102170 Tabagon Seed Kween 3 15 1 4 5 Tabagon SeedKween315145 UNSPPA Kabale 21 17 12 5 `17 UNSPPAKabale2117125`17 Kamuli s/cane Kamuli 4 36 33 3 36 Kamuli s/caneKamuli43633336 Bakulimya Kamuli 6 29 9 20 29 BakulimyaKamuli62992029 Agali Awamu Farmers Iganga 5 30 5 15 20 Agali Awamu Farmers Iganga53051520 NFIRC Kabale 6 20 11 9 20 NFIRCKabale62011920 Nawanyago Kamuli 10 30 10 20 30 NawanyagoKamuli1030102030 MIFA Kween 12 40 22 18 40 MIFAKween1240221840 Miti Farmer Kyotera 10 65 35 30 65 Miti FarmerKyotera1065353065  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Frequency of responses on roles of committees of 18 different Seed Producer Associations Committee Key roles Frequency CommitteeKey rolesFrequency Finance (N = 9) Mobilize and enforce subscription  Finance (N = 9)Mobilize and enforce subscription  Evaluate and recommend for loan/credit  Evaluate and recommend for loan/credit  Marketing the product  Marketing the product  Accountability  Accountability  Advertising and promotions  Advertising and promotions Production and quality Internal quality control  Production and qualityInternal quality control control (N= 18) Determines the product to be promoted  control (N= 18)Determines the product to be promoted  Sourcing starter material  Sourcing starter material  Ensure GAP  Ensure GAP  Leads all the committees  Leads all the committees  Records and field monitoring to assess field  Records and field monitoring to assess field  capacities  capacities  Grading and sorting  Grading and sorting  Plan production activities  Plan production activities Marketing (N = 8) Selling seed and procuring starter material  Marketing (N = 8)Selling seed and procuring starter material  Conduct market intelligence  Conduct market intelligence  Ensure members use quality seed  Ensure members use quality seed Procurement and logistics Marketing seed and procuring starter seed  Procurement and logisticsMarketing seed and procuring starter seed Stores and records (N= 3) Record keeping  Stores and records (N= 3)Record keeping  Assess land available by member  Assess land available by member Disciplinary (N = 1) Ensure discipline among members  Disciplinary (N = 1)Ensure discipline among members Executive (N = 2) Bargain and acquire permits for sale of canes  Executive (N = 2)Bargain and acquire permits for sale of canes  Process legal registration of association  Process legal registration of association Savings and Credit (N = 2 Encourage savings  Savings and Credit (N = 2Encourage savings  Manage loans  Manage loans Training (N 2) Ensure members practice recommended skills  Training (N 2)Ensure members practice recommended skills  Ensure members can identify the different  Ensure members can identify the different  varieties  varieties  "},{"text":"Table 4a . Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grownTable 4a. Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grown Table4ashows that most of the seed producer associations were dealing in more than a single crop and several varieties. 2.3.1    2.3.1 Association, district Crop(s) Varieties produced # of seasons Association, districtCrop(s)Varieties produced# of seasons Mukama Afayo, Sweetpotato Kakamega, Ejumula, Semanda, Naspot 13, 8,  Mukama Afayo,SweetpotatoKakamega, Ejumula, Semanda, Naspot 13, 8, Iganga  10  Iganga10  Beans Naro bean 1, 2, 3, Nabe 15  BeansNaro bean 1, 2, 3, Nabe 15  Groundnuts Serenut 14R  GroundnutsSerenut 14R NUSEMA, Gulu Sweetpotato Ejumula, Kakamega, Naspot 13, Naspot 8,  NUSEMA, GuluSweetpotatoEjumula, Kakamega, Naspot 13, Naspot 8,   Naspot 11 Naspot 10  Naspot 11 Naspot 10 SOSPPA, Serere Sweetpotato Kakamega, Ejumula, Naspot 8; 10, 13,  SOSPPA, SerereSweetpotatoKakamega, Ejumula, Naspot 8; 10, 13,   Tanzania  Tanzania  Cassava Narocas 1  CassavaNarocas 1  Ground nuts Serenut 14, 11, 9  Ground nutsSerenut 14, 11, 9  Soya beans MakSoy  Soya beansMakSoy  Green grams Narogram  Green gramsNarogram  Cowpeas Secow 1, 2  CowpeasSecow 1, 2 Tabagon Seed, Beans Nabe 15, Naro bean 2 , Naro bean 12C  Tabagon Seed,BeansNabe 15, Naro bean 2 , Naro bean 12C Kween    Kween WASWAPA, , Potato Rwagume, Kachpot 1, Kinigi  WASWAPA, ,PotatoRwagume, Kachpot 1, Kinigi Mbale Climbing beans Nasse 12C  MbaleClimbing beansNasse 12C NFIRC, Kabale, Potato Rutuku, Victoria, Rwangume, Kachpot 1,  NFIRC, Kabale,PotatoRutuku, Victoria, Rwangume, Kachpot 1,   Kinigi, Marilihindi  Kinigi, Marilihindi UNSPPA, Kabale Potato Rwangume, Kachpot 1, Kinigi, Victoria Rutuku  UNSPPA, KabalePotatoRwangume, Kachpot 1, Kinigi, Victoria Rutuku Sugarcane seed ©Sugarcane Berege (hard), Berege super, Mabowa  Sugarcane seed©SugarcaneBerege (hard), Berege super, Mabowa Ass. Kamuli    Ass. Kamuli Bakulimya, Beans Naro bean 1 & 2  Bakulimya,BeansNaro bean 1 & 2 Kamuli Cassava Narocas, Nasse 14  KamuliCassavaNarocas, Nasse 14 Miti Coffee CWDR wilt resistant  MitiCoffeeCWDR wilt resistant  Sweetpotato Ejumula, Naspot 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, and New  SweetpotatoEjumula, Naspot 8, 10, 11, 12, 13, and New   Dimbuka  Dimbuka MIFA Potato Rwangume and Victoria  MIFAPotatoRwangume and Victoria Nawanyago Sweetpotato Kakamega, Ejumula, Semanda, Naspot 8, 9,  NawanyagoSweetpotatoKakamega, Ejumula, Semanda, Naspot 8, 9,   10, and 13  10, and 13  Beans NARO Bean 2 and 3  BeansNARO Bean 2 and 3  Cassava NAROCAS 1, Nasse 14 and 19  CassavaNAROCAS 1, Nasse 14 and 19 Agali Awamu Sweetpotato Kakamega, Naspot 8, 13 and Kabode  Agali AwamuSweetpotatoKakamega, Naspot 8, 13 and Kabode  Beans NARO Bean 2 and Roba 1  BeansNARO Bean 2 and Roba 1  "},{"text":". Varieties grown by different SPAsTable 4b . Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grownTable 4b. Selected Seed Producer association and seed crops grown Crop Common varieties sold Standard unit Previous Units sold Association CropCommon varieties soldStandard unitPrevious Units soldAssociation Sweetpotato Kakamega, Naspot 13 Bags 3,000 Mukama Afayo SweetpotatoKakamega, Naspot 13Bags3,000Mukama Afayo  Ejumula, Kakamega, Naspot Bags 20,180 NUSEMA Ejumula, Kakamega, NaspotBags20,180NUSEMA  13    13  Kakamega, Naspot 13, Ejumula, Bags 21,000 SOSPPA Kakamega, Naspot 13, Ejumula,Bags21,000SOSPPA  Naspot 8    Naspot 8 Beans Naro bean 1 Kg 200 Mukama Afayo BeansNaro bean 1Kg200Mukama Afayo  Nabe 15, Naro bean 2 Kg 3,000 Tabagon Seed Nabe 15, Naro bean 2Kg3,000Tabagon Seed  Nasse 12C Kg 700 WASWAPA Nasse 12CKg700WASWAPA  Naro bean 1 & 2 Kg Nil Bakulimya Naro bean 1 & 2KgNilBakulimya Potato Rwagume Kg 6,000 WASWAPA PotatoRwagumeKg6,000WASWAPA  Rwangume Kg 2,460 NFIRC RwangumeKg2,460NFIRC  Rwangume 80-kg bag 590 UNSPPA Rwangume80-kg bag590UNSPPA Cassava Narocas 1 Bags 10,500 SOSPPA CassavaNarocas 1Bags10,500SOSPPA  Narocas Bags 50 Bakulimya NarocasBags50Bakulimya Ground nuts Serenut 9 and 11 ¥Bags 250 SOSPPA Ground nutsSerenut 9 and 11¥Bags250SOSPPA Soya beans MakSoy Kg 600 SOSPPA Soya beansMakSoyKg600SOSPPA Green grams Narogram Kg 3,000 SOSPPA Green gramsNarogramKg3,000SOSPPA Cowpeas Secow 1, 2 Kg 4,000 SOSPPA CowpeasSecow 1, 2Kg4,000SOSPPA ©Sugarcane, Berege, Berege super Tonnes 21,600 Sugarcane seed ©Sugarcane,Berege, Berege superTonnes21,600Sugarcane seed  "},{"text":"Table 5a . Association focusing on Seed Potato (N=5) Details of the reported inspection and certification by MAAIF are missing for experience sharing. The guidelines for inspection and certification are recent developments because MAAIF (2015) on the revised National seed policy indicated that there was no basic seed production for potato. Follow up recommended. production, association supports acquisition of basic seed for members, and enhancing GAPs. production, association supports acquisition of basic seed for members, and enhancing GAPs. Measure Action % Importance Type of quality assurance MeasureAction%ImportanceType of quality assurance Quality control, Pre-plant, during 100 Field land approval for Internal control Quality control,Pre-plant, during100Field land approval forInternal control committee inspects growth and at  production and  committee inspectsgrowth and atproduction and member field harvest inspections  product confirmation  member fieldharvest inspectionsproduct confirmation  Sorting and grading  Confirm quality seed & Internal Sorting and gradingConfirm quality seed &Internal  at harvest  estimation  at harvestestimation Screenhouse Produce pathogen 100 Source of basic seed Internal by NFIRC ScreenhouseProduce pathogen100Source of basic seedInternal by NFIRC structures used symptomless seed    structures usedsymptomless seed Production of Using apical cuttings 20 Cost-effective seed External support Production ofUsing apical cuttings20Cost-effective seedExternal support disease-free mini (WASWAPA)  basic delivery by CIP disease-free mini(WASWAPA)basic deliveryby CIP tubers     tubers Inspection and MAAIF inspection 100 Confirm quality External Inspection andMAAIF inspection100Confirm qualityExternal certification   acceptance certification certificationacceptancecertification Enhancement of Trainings, attend 100 Able to identify Both internal and Enhancement ofTrainings, attend100Able to identifyBoth internal and technical skills of seminars and  disease symptoms and external technical skills ofseminars anddisease symptoms andexternal members provision of  practice GAP  membersprovision ofpractice GAP  reference materials    reference materials Application of seed Joint acquisition of 20 Rational allocation of Internal approach Application of seedJoint acquisition of20Rational allocation ofInternal approach box approach basic seed  basic seed based on by WASWAPA box approachbasic seedbasic seed based onby WASWAPA    capacity  capacity  "},{"text":"Table 5b . Sweetpotato seed-vine Producers' Association (N = 4)  "},{"text":"Table 5b  Measure Action % Importance Type of quality assurance MeasureAction%ImportanceType of quality assurance Enhancement of Trainings, attend 100 Able to identify Both internal and Enhancement ofTrainings, attend100Able to identifyBoth internal and technical skills of seminars and  disease symptoms external technical skills ofseminars anddisease symptomsexternal members provision of  and practice GAP  membersprovision ofand practice GAP  reference materials    reference materials Screenhouse Produce pathogen 25 Source of basic seed Internal by ScreenhouseProduce pathogen25Source of basic seedInternal by structures used symptomless seed   SOSPPA structures usedsymptomless seedSOSPPA Quality control, Pre-plant, during 100 Ensure members Internal control Quality control,Pre-plant, during100Ensure membersInternal control committee inspects growth and at  produce  committee inspectsgrowth and atproduce member field harvest inspections  recommended seed  member fieldharvest inspectionsrecommended seed    quality  quality  Coordinate joint 25 Confirm quality seed Internal by Coordinate joint25Confirm quality seedInternal by  supplies and  & estimation SOSPPA supplies and& estimationSOSPPA  deliveries    deliveries  Recommend not 25 Minimize supply of Internal by Recommend not25Minimize supply ofInternal by  more than 2 ratoons  infested cuttings an SOSPPA more than 2 ratoonsinfested cuttings anSOSPPA    implement crop  implement crop    rotation  rotation  Approve member 25 Crop allocation based Internal by Approve member25Crop allocation basedInternal by  application for crop  on member's mgt Mukama Afayo application for cropon member's mgtMukama Afayo  choices  capacity  choicescapacity  Confirm that each 100 Maintain isolation Internal Ass. Confirm that each100Maintain isolationInternal Ass.  member has  distances and control member hasdistances andcontrol  adequate land for  rotations  adequate land forrotations  production    production Inspection and MAAIF inspection 100 Confirm quality External Inspection andMAAIF inspection100Confirm qualityExternal certification   acceptance certification certificationacceptancecertification Replenishing seed Source material from 100 Avoid continued Internal Replenishing seedSource material from100Avoid continuedInternal material Senai or BioCrops  recycling of  materialSenai or BioCropsrecycling of  laboratories  degenerated material  laboratoriesdegenerated material  "},{"text":"Table 5c . Cassava Producers' Association (N = 2)Besides Table5cshows increased support for training by NARO and ISSD Measure Action % Importance Type of quality assurance MeasureAction%ImportanceType of quality assurance Enhancement of NARO facilitate 100 GAP by seed MAAIF Enhancement ofNARO facilitate100GAP by seedMAAIF technical skills of training on cassava  producers and ensure  technical skills oftraining on cassavaproducers and ensure members whitefly  production of disease-  memberswhiteflyproduction of disease-  interventions  free seed stems  interventionsfree seed stems  Association trainings 50 Able to identify Internal by Association trainings50Able to identifyInternal by  supported by ISSD  disease symptoms and Nawanyago & external supported by ISSDdisease symptoms andNawanyago & external    practice GAP by ISSD practice GAPby ISSD Replenishing seed Source material from 100 Avoid continued Internal association Replenishing seedSource material from100Avoid continuedInternal association material NARO  recycling of  materialNAROrecycling of    degenerated material  degenerated material Avoid widespread Conduct field  Minimise spread to Internal Avoid widespreadConduct fieldMinimise spread toInternal  inspections and  un-infected material  inspections andun-infected material  uproot infected    uproot infected Inspection and MAAIF (District 100 Confirm quality External supported by Inspection andMAAIF (District100Confirm qualityExternal supported by certification inspectors  acceptance ISSD certificationinspectorsacceptanceISSD Quality control, Confirm available 25 Quality assurance Internal Ass. control Quality control,Confirm available25Quality assuranceInternal Ass. control committee inspects land for production    committee inspectsland for production member field by member    member fieldby member  Field inspection by 100 Ensure members Internal control Field inspection by100Ensure membersInternal control  association team  produce  association teamproduce    recommended seed  recommended seed    quality  quality  Recommend a single 25 Avoid build-up of Internal Recommend a single25Avoid build-up ofInternal  ratoon  diseases & infected  ratoondiseases & infected    material  material  "},{"text":"Table 5e . Sugarcane and Banana Producers' Associations (N = 2)  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Common sources of funds and logistical support to the associations Source Source  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Support by collaborating institutions Support Support Org. Seed Crop Key technical areas Freq SupportSupport Org.Seed CropKey technical areasFreq Training IFDC Potato Seed stores mgt and  TrainingIFDCPotatoSeed stores mgt and    irrigation  irrigation  ISSD Beans Field crop mgt and  ISSDBeansField crop mgt and    monitoring, Demos  monitoring, Demos  VEDCO Sweetpotato Training and mentoring  VEDCOSweetpotatoTraining and mentoring  CIP Uganda Sweetpotato Training  CIP UgandaSweetpotatoTraining  CIP Uganda Sweetpotato Value addition  CIP UgandaSweetpotatoValue addition  AT Uganda Beans Soil mgt and fertilizer use  AT UgandaBeansSoil mgt and fertilizer use  CDA Coffee Nursery management  CDACoffeeNursery management  HarvestPlus Sweetpotato Agronomic and monitoring  HarvestPlusSweetpotatoAgronomic and monitoring   and beans and valued addition  and beansand valued addition  NARO Cassava Disease management  NAROCassavaDisease management Plantlets KARZARDI Potato Foundation seed  PlantletsKARZARDIPotatoFoundation seed Apical cuttings CIP Potato Foundation seed  Apical cuttingsCIPPotatoFoundation seed Basic seed CHAIN Uganda Beans Foundation seed  Basic seedCHAIN UgandaBeansFoundation seed Basic farm inputs ISSD Beans Pests spray chemicals and  Basic farm inputsISSDBeansPests spray chemicals and    basic seed  basic seed Aphid net IFDC with Agromat Potato Screenhouse construction  Aphid netIFDC with AgromatPotatoScreenhouse construction  HarvestPlus, Sweetpotato Screenhouse construction  HarvestPlus,SweetpotatoScreenhouse construction Packing material ISSD Beans Standard packing material  Packing materialISSDBeansStandard packing material Market ISSD Beans Buys  MarketISSDBeansBuys Publicity and Iganga farmer Beans Promote sales of seed  Publicity andIganga farmerBeansPromote sales of seed promotions Forum    promotionsForum Coordination EUSEMA Sweetpotato Market linkages  CoordinationEUSEMASweetpotatoMarket linkages Funds USAID Sweetpotato, Buys seed from members  FundsUSAIDSweetpotato,Buys seed from members   beans   beans Award contracts Coffee Dev Coffee Supply seedlings  Award contractsCoffee DevCoffeeSupply seedlings  authority (CDA)    authority (CDA) Marketing HarvestPlus Sweetpotato, Links to markets and buys  MarketingHarvestPlusSweetpotato,Links to markets and buys   beans seed from members  beansseed from members Factory Gov't Sugarcane Construct ethanol distillery  FactoryGov'tSugarcaneConstruct ethanol distillery Construct Gov't (MAAIF) Coffee Bulking, storage and  ConstructGov't (MAAIF)CoffeeBulking, storage and warehouse   packing  warehousepacking Quality control Gov't (MAAIF) Sweetpotato Inspection and certification  Quality controlGov't (MAAIF)SweetpotatoInspection and certification Quality control CDA and Coffee Res Coffee Inspection and certification  Quality controlCDA and Coffee Res CoffeeInspection and certification Packing & turplins Self-Help Africa Beans Packing and drying  Packing & turplins Self-Help AfricaBeansPacking and drying    material  material Sing posts IFDC Potato Advertisement  Sing postsIFDCPotatoAdvertisement Storage IFDC Potato Construct diffused light  StorageIFDCPotatoConstruct diffused light    stores  stores Table 7 shows strong NGO drive in the buildup of the seed producer association especially in Table 7 shows strong NGO drive in the buildup of the seed producer association especially in the links to acquisition of foundation seed, infrastructural development such as establishment the links to acquisition of foundation seed, infrastructural development such as establishment  "},{"text":"Table 8 . How associations frequently support their members Approach Frequency Association(s) ApproachFrequencyAssociation(s) Collective sales or linking farmers to markets 3 Kamuli sugar cane growers, Collective sales or linking farmers to markets3Kamuli sugar cane growers,   UNSPPA, SOSPPA UNSPPA, SOSPPA Attending field days and agriculture shows 2 Tabagon seed, Mukama Afayo, Attending field days and agriculture shows2Tabagon seed, Mukama Afayo, Advertisement by provision of signposts, radio 2 Nawanyago OFSP farmers, Advertisement by provision of signposts, radio2Nawanyago OFSP farmers,   Tabagon seed growers Tabagon seed growers Training in GAP and value addition 4 UNSPPA, Bakulimya, Mukama Training in GAP and value addition4UNSPPA, Bakulimya, Mukama   Afayo, SOSPPA Afayo, SOSPPA Internal quality management 4 WASWAPPA, UNSPPA, SOSPPA, Internal quality management4WASWAPPA, UNSPPA, SOSPPA,   Bakulimya, Bakulimya, Support each in urgent need 3 Tabagon seed, Nawanyago Support each in urgent need3Tabagon seed, Nawanyago   OFSP farmers OFSP farmers Assist in obtaining foundation seed 3 UNSPPA, WASWAPPA, Agali Assist in obtaining foundation seed3UNSPPA, WASWAPPA, Agali   Awamu Farmers Association Awamu Farmers Association Operate revolving fund/loans to boost individual 2 UNSPPA, Tabagon seed Operate revolving fund/loans to boost individual2UNSPPA, Tabagon seed household incomes   household incomes Obtaining permits for supply of material 1 Kamuli sugar cane growers, Obtaining permits for supply of material1Kamuli sugar cane growers, Create linkages for extension services 1 SOSPPA Create linkages for extension services1SOSPPA Attract other development partners 1  Attract other development partners1 Linkage to NaSARRI (SOSPPA) and BugiZARDI 2 SOSPPA, WASWAPPA Linkage to NaSARRI (SOSPPA) and BugiZARDI2SOSPPA, WASWAPPA (WASWAPPA)   (WASWAPPA)  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Status of implementation of activities by association (N = 14) Activity Activity  "},{"text":"Table 11 . Awareness and promotional activities by association Activity     Frequency     Total ActivityFrequencyTotal  Sugar cane Cassava Beans Beans (C) Sweetp otato Ground nuts Soya beans Green grams Pot ato +ves Sugar caneCassavaBeansBeans (C)Sweetp otatoGround nutsSoya beansGreen gramsPot ato+ves National  ++ +++ + +++++ + + + +++ 17 National+++++++++++++++++17 Field day           Field day District    +     + 2 District++2 field days           field days Roadside     +     1 Roadside+1 markets           markets Poster  + +  ++     4 Poster++++4 Demons  + ++  + +    + 6 Demons++++ ++6 Seed fairs     +     1 Seed fairs+1 Radio +        + 2 Radio++2 WhatsApp +         1 WhatsApp+1 Harvest         + 1 Harvest+1 money           money demos           demos New Vision         + 1 New Vision+1 Sign post         + 1 Sign post+1 (IFDC           (IFDC supported)           supported) WFD     +     1 WFD+1 Exhibition           Exhibition Total +ves 2 4 6 2 12 1 1 1 9 38 Total +ves246212111938  "},{"text":"Table 12 . Record of previous quantities of different seed crop varieties sold by different association in Uganda Association Crop Common vars sold # of seasons Standard Units Previous sales (Units) Av P. (UGX) per Unit AssociationCropCommon vars sold# of seasonsStandard UnitsPrevious sales (Units)Av P. (UGX) per Unit Mukama Sweet Kakamega, Naspot 13 2 Bags 3,000 15,000 MukamaSweetKakamega, Naspot 132Bags3,00015,000 Afayo potato      Afayopotato  Beans NARO Bean 1 2 Kg 200 4,000 BeansNARO Bean 12Kg2004,000  Ground nuts Serenut 14R 2 Kg 200 7500 Ground nuts Serenut 14R2Kg2007500 NUSEMA Sweet Ejumula, Kakamega, 2 Bags 10,000+ 15,000 NUSEMASweetEjumula, Kakamega,2Bags10,000+15,000  potato Naspot 13     potatoNaspot 13 SOSPPA Sweet Ejumula, Kakamega, 2 Bags 20,000+ 12,000 SOSPPASweetEjumula, Kakamega,2Bags20,000+12,000  potato Naspot 8 and 13     potatoNaspot 8 and 13  Cassava NAROCAS 1 1 Bags 10,500 15,000 CassavaNAROCAS 11Bags10,50015,000  Groundnuts Serenut 9 and 11 2 Kg 250 10,000 GroundnutsSerenut 9 and 112Kg25010,000  Soya beans MakSoy 2 Kg 600 3,000 Soya beansMakSoy2Kg6003,000  Green grams NARO Gram 2 Kg 3,000 7,000 Green grams NARO Gram2Kg3,0007,000  Cow peas Secow 1 and 2 2 Kg 4,000 3,000 Cow peasSecow 1 and 22Kg4,0003,000 Tebagon Beans Nabe 15 and NARO 2 Kg 3,000 5,000 TebagonBeansNabe 15 and NARO2Kg3,0005,000   Bean 2     Bean 2 WASWAPA Potato Rwagume 2 Kg 6,000 1,800 WASWAPAPotatoRwagume2Kg6,0001,800  Beans (C) Nasse 12C 2 Kg 700 6,000 Beans (C)Nasse 12C2Kg7006,000 NFIRC Potato Rwangume 2 Kg 2,460  NFIRCPotatoRwangume2Kg2,460 UNSPPA Potato Rwangume 2 Kg 47,200  UNSPPAPotatoRwangume2Kg47,200 Kamuli Seed Sugar cane Berege and Berege 1 Tonnes 21,600 99,000 Kamuli SeedSugar caneBerege and Berege1Tonnes21,60099,000 canes  super     canessuper  Banana Musakala 1 # 800 2,000 BananaMusakala1#8002,000  plantlets      plantlets Bakulimya Beans NARO Bean 1 and 2 2 Kg Nil Nil BakulimyaBeansNARO Bean 1 and 22KgNilNil  Cassava NAROCAS 1 1 Bags 50 20,000 CassavaNAROCAS 11Bags5020,000 Agali Sweetpotato Kabode, Naspot 8 2 Bags 420 15,000 AgaliSweetpotato Kabode, Naspot 82Bags42015,000 Awamu  and 13     Awamuand 13 Farmers Beans NARO Bean 2 2 Kgs 6000 4,000 FarmersBeansNARO Bean 22Kgs60004,000 Nawanyago Sweetpotato Kakamega, Semanda 2 Bags 3,500 10,000 NawanyagoSweetpotato Kakamega, Semanda2Bags3,50010,000   , Naspot 8 and 13     , Naspot 8 and 13  Beans NARO Bean 2 2 Kgs 550 4,000 BeansNARO Bean 22Kgs5504,000  Cassava NAROCAS 1 and 1 Bags 100 15,000 CassavaNAROCAS 1 and1Bags10015,000   Nasse 14     Nasse 14 Miti Coffee CWDR 1 Seedlings 1,000 40,000 MitiCoffeeCWDR1Seedlings1,00040,000  Sweetpotato Naspot 8, 11 and 2 Bags 6,000 10,000 - Sweetpotato Naspot 8, 11 and2Bags6,00010,000 -   new Dimbuka    15,000 new Dimbuka15,000  "},{"text":"Table 13a . Source of capitalization by different Seed Producer Associations  "},{"text":"Source of revenue and input sources Yes = √ and No = x response by different seed producer associations  Packing material provided √ √ x √ x x √ Packing material provided√√x√xx√ Cost sharing input x x √ x x x √ Cost sharing inputxx√xxx√ Basic seed grains provided x x √ x x x x Basic seed grains providedxx√xxxx Potato apical cuttings provided x x x x √ √ √ Potato apical cuttings providedxxxx√√√ Diffused seed stores / Irrigation x x x x x √ x Diffused seed stores / Irrigationxxxxx√x Ambient ware stores x x x x √ x x Ambient ware storesxxxx√xx constructed        constructed ≥ a single seed-crop produced √ √ √ x √ √ √ ≥ a single seed-crop produced√√√x√√√  "},{"text":"Table 13b . Source of capitalization by different Seed Producer Associations (continued)  "},{"text":"Mengya Source of revenue and input sources Yes = √ and No = x response by different seed producer  2.7.       2.7.  associations (1 -12)     associations (1 -12)  x x x √ √ √ xxx√√√ Demonstrations hosted x √ √ √ √ √ Demonstrations hostedx√√√√√ Partners' support for adverts x x √ √ √ √ Partners' support for advertsxx√√√√ Cost of certification by NGO x x √ √ √ √ Cost of certification by NGOxx√√√√ Packing material provided x x x x √ √ Packing material providedxxxx√√ Cost sharing input x x √ √ √ √ Cost sharing inputxx√√√√ Basic seed grains provided x x x x x x Basic seed grains providedxxxxxx Potato apical cuttings provided x x x x x x Potato apical cuttings providedxxxxxx Diffused seed stores / Irrigation x x x x x x Diffused seed stores / Irrigationxxxxxx Ambient ware stores constructed x x x x x √ Ambient ware stores constructedxxxxx√ ≥ a single seed-crop produced √ √ √ √ √ √ ≥ a single seed-crop produced√√√√√√  "},{"text":"Seed business and support to SPA membersTable 14a . How associations create values # Access to: N = 13 % respondents Associations # Access to:N = 13% respondentsAssociations 1 Quality seed 13 100 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 1 Quality seed13100UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC,    Agali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, Agali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA,    SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 2 Irrigation 1 7.7 NFIRC 2 Irrigation17.7NFIRC 3 Multiple crops 12 92.3 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 3 Multiple crops1292.3UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC,    Agali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Miti, Agali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Miti,    Mengya, S/cane Mengya, S/cane 4 Benefit from 11 84.6 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 4 Benefit from1184.6UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali adverts   Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, advertsAwamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,    Miti, Mengya, Miti, Mengya, 5 Training 13 100 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 5 Training13100UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, opportunities   Agali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, opportunitiesAgali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA,    SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 6 Screenhouses 10 76.9 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 6 Screenhouses1076.9UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, nets   WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, TABAGON, Mukama Afayo, netsWASWAPPA, SOSPPA, TABAGON, Mukama Afayo,    Miti, Mengya Miti, Mengya 7 Seed subsidies 12 92.3 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 7 Seed subsidies1292.3UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC,    Agali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Agali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA,    Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti 8 Certification 10 76.9 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 8 Certification1076.9UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali services   Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, servicesAwamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,    Miti, Mengya, Sugarcane Miti, Mengya, Sugarcane 9 Loans or merry 12 92.3 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 9 Loans or merry1292.3UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, go rounds   Agali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, go roundsAgali Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA,    Tabagon, Miti, Mengya, Sugarcane Tabagon, Miti, Mengya, Sugarcane 10 Apical cuttings 3 23.1 WASWAPPA, UNSPPA, NFIRC 10 Apical cuttings323.1WASWAPPA, UNSPPA, NFIRC 11 Better market 13 100 UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, 11 Better market13100UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC,    Agali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, Agali Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA,    SOSPPA, Tagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya SOSPPA, Tagon, Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya  "},{"text":"Table 14a  shows that access to key seed productive inputs including quality basic seed, shows that access to key seed productive inputs including quality basic seed, technical capacity building through trainings and access to financial services are crucial technical capacity building through trainings and access to financial services are crucial across associations. across associations.  "},{"text":"Table 14b . How associations Deliver value # Support Associations # SupportAssociations 1 Early generation seed (EGS) UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 1 Early generation seed (EGS)UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 2 Irrigation pumps NFIRC 2 Irrigation pumpsNFIRC 3 Participation in radio talk UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu 3 Participation in radio talkUNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu shows and achievement days farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, Mengya, shows and achievement daysfarmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, Mengya, 4 Hosting demonstration UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 4 Hosting demonstrationUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 5 Sharing available market UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 5 Sharing available marketUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali opportunities Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, opportunitiesAwamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti Mukama Afayo, Miti 6 Conducting internal inspection UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu 6 Conducting internal inspection UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu  farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, Mengya, farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, Mengya,  Sugarcane Sugarcane 7 Merry go rounds and UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 7 Merry go rounds andUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali revolving fund Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, revolving fundAwamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti,  Mengya, Sugarcane Mengya, Sugarcane  "},{"text":"Table 14b   "},{"text":"Table 14c . How associations Capture value # Source Associations # SourceAssociations 1 % contribution on sales Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu farmers, 1 % contribution on salesBakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu farmers, (commissions) S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, (commissions)S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo,  Miti, Mengya Miti, Mengya 2 % loans to members UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 2 % loans to membersUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti,  Mengya, Sugarcane Mengya, Sugarcane 3 Entry membership UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 3 Entry membershipUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 4 Seasonal subscription UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 4 Seasonal subscriptionUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 5 Projects' support UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu 5 Projects' supportUNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu  farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama  Afayo, Miti, Mengya Afayo, Miti, Mengya  "},{"text":"Table 14c   "},{"text":"Table 14d . How associations defend value # Source Associations # SourceAssociations 1 Internal inspection Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu farmers, 1 Internal inspectionBakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu farmers,  S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama Afayo,  Miti, Mengya Miti, Mengya 2 Participate in achievement UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 2 Participate in achievementUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali days and workshops Awamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti, days and workshopsAwamu farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Miti,  Mengya, Sugarcane Mengya, Sugarcane 3 Jointly source early generation UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 3 Jointly source early generationUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali material Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, materialAwamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 4 Collectively sell seed UNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali 4 Collectively sell seedUNSPPA, Nawanyago, Bakulimya, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali  Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Awamu farmers, S/cane, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon,  Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya Mukama Afayo, Miti, Mengya 5 Provide packing material UNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu 5 Provide packing materialUNSPPA, Nawanyago, NUSEMA, NFIRC, Agali Awamu  farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama farmers, WASWAPPA, SOSPPA, Tabagon, Mukama  Afayo, Miti, Mengya Afayo, Miti, Mengya  "},{"text":"Table 14d indicates that association defend their value by show casing through workshops and collective activities such as selling and sourcing early generation material.  "},{"text":"Table 15 . Common buyers of Seed producers' Association seed Seed Crop Common Buyer Frequency Seed CropCommon BuyerFrequency Sweetpotato HarvestPlus 3 SweetpotatoHarvestPlus3  VEDCO 3 VEDCO3  Schools 2 Schools2  Health centres 1 Health centres1  Namasagali University 1 Namasagali University1  PLAN 1 PLAN1  Local communities 1 Local communities1  NGOs 2 NGOs2  Secondary Vine multipliers 1 Secondary Vine multipliers1 Potato NARO 1 PotatoNARO1  Local communities 1 Local communities1  NGOs 2 NGOs2 Climbing beans NARO 1 Climbing beansNARO1 Beans Local communities 1 BeansLocal communities1  NGOs 2 NGOs2 Cassava Local community 1 CassavaLocal community1  NARO 1 NARO1  NGOs 1 NGOs1 Groundnuts NGOs 1 GroundnutsNGOs1  "},{"text":"Table 17 . How Seed Producers Associations support their members: weakness (Scale 1 -5: 1 = very low, 2 = low, 3 = medium, 4 = high, 5 = very high) Strength Strength  "},{"text":"Table   "},{"text":"Table 1 : List the focus seed crops Seed crop name Varieties Comments   "},{"text":"Table 2 : Seed crops and standard units Seed Crop    Standard units  Standard units Bags Bundles Other: Specify BagsBundlesOther: Specify Quantity Weight (Kg) Quantity Weight (Kg) Quantity Weight (Kg) Quantity Weight (Kg) QuantityWeight (Kg)QuantityWeight (Kg)  "}],"sieverID":"8038dace-9251-4065-9bf0-cf928972fcc2","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"07d0b81aaf18306701cb2ef8e0e20339","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/dfcffb1f-3c8d-431b-8fdb-8efcf920beb9/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Nutrient Deficiencies Are Key Constraints to Grain Legume Productivity on \"Non-responsive\" Soils in Sub-Saharan Africa","keywords":["missing nutrients","sustainability","double-pot technique","balanced nutrition","enhanced productivity","smallholder farms"],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":354,"text":"Leguminous plants are known to require phosphorus fertilizers and inoculation with nitrogen fixing rhizobia for optimum yield but other nutrients may also be lacking. In this study, the most limiting nutrients for legume growth were determined in soils where the crops had not responded to P and rhizobial inoculation in field trials, using the double pot technique. Soils were collected from 17 farmers' fields in West Kenya, Northern Nigeria, Eastern and Southern Rwanda, South-west and North-west Sierra Leone. Plant growth and mean biomass were measured on soils to which a full nutrient solution, containing phosphorus (P), potassium (K), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S) and micronutrients (MN) were added, and which were compared to a control (no nutrient added), and individual omissions of each nutrient. The relationship between soil properties and nutrient deficiencies was explored. Nutrient limitations were found to differ between soils, both within and across countries. Generally, each soil was potentially deficient in at least one nutrient, with K, P, Mg, MN and S emerging as most limiting in 88, 65, 59, 18, and 12% of tested soils, respectively. While K was the most limiting nutrient in soils from Kenya and Rwanda, P was most limiting in soils from Nigeria. P and K were equally limiting in soils from Sierra Leone. Mg was found limiting in two soils from Kenya and three soils from Rwanda and one soil each in Nigeria and Sierra Leone. Micronutrients were found to be limiting in one soil from Nigeria and one soil from Rwanda. Estimates of nutrient deficiency using growth and mean biomass were found to be correlated with each other although the latter proved to be a more sensitive measure of deficiency. With few exceptions, the relation between soil parameters and nutrient deficiencies was weak and there were no significant relations between deficiency of specific nutrients and the soil content of these elements. Although our results cannot be translated directly to the field, they confirm that individual and multiple nutrient deficiencies were common in these \"non-responsive\" soils and may have contributed to reported low yields. This highlights the need for balanced nutrition in legume production in SSA."}]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":166,"text":"Grain legumes, particularly cowpea (Vigna unguiculata (L.) Walp), groundnut (Arachis hypogaea L.), soybean (Glycine max L. Merril) and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris L.), play important roles in the livelihoods of smallholder farmers in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) (Nedumaran et al., 2015;Vanlauwe et al., 2019). Household surveys generally identify grain legumes as an affordable source of dietary protein in the diets of the poor (Latham, 1997) and as a source of cash income, especially for women (Odendo et al., 2011). Across the savannah regions of West Africa cowpea and groundnut residues are fed to livestock as protein supplements when animal feeds are in short supply (Tarawali and Mohamed-Saleem, 1995;Savadogo et al., 2000) while rotation of grain legumes with cereals has been reported to enhance cereal yields on smallholder farms (Franke et al., 2017). Further, legumes are also known to be a critical source of folic acid, a necessary nutrient for prenatal and early childhood health, thus a potent tool to fight childhood stunting (Smith and Haddad, 2014;Bevis, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":343,"text":"Despite their importance, legume yields on smallholder farms remain far below their potential, largely because the crops are grown on infertile soils without adding fertilizer (Sanchez et al., 1997). Integrated soil fertility management (ISFM) interventions, including use of P fertilizers, animal manure, composts, inoculants and seeds of improved varieties can increase productivity of grain legumes (Giller et al., 2013) but yield responses measured in field experiments are known to vary considerably (Ronner et al., 2016;Van Heerwaarden et al., 2018). Such variation may partly reflect the effect of additional nutrient constraints, something which has been observed explicitly in crops such as maize (Franke et al., 2008). The fact that local deficiencies of specific soil nutrients can limit crop yields and fertilizer responses would argue for more frequent field evaluations to detect such problems, in order to set priorities for future soil fertility management in the areas under study. Unfortunately, such in situ studies are typically expensive and hard to implement due to logistical, material and environmental constraints (Gibson et al., 1999). As a complement to such studies therefore, nutrient omission experiments performed in pots under controlled greenhouse conditions have been proposed as a powerful and cost-effective tool to identify key nutrient deficiencies in soils (Janssen, 1990). Although the transferability of results from such studies to natural conditions may be limited, because the sampled soil may not fully represent the field conditions, the technique has the advantage of being relatively quick and inexpensive, allowing soil limiting nutrients to be examined individually, with sufficient replication and in absence of complicating factors such as water stress and the occurrence of pests and diseases (Gibson et al., 1999). This paper analyses a set of soils from selected sites in western Kenya, Nigeria, Sierra Leone, and Rwanda where grain legumes had failed to respond to added P fertilizer or rhizobial inoculation-so-called \"non-responsive\" soils (Vanlauwe et al., 2015). Our aim was to identify specific nutrient deficiencies that may constrain legume growth and to provide information that may help design future field-based studies into appropriate soil fertility amendments in the region."}]},{"head":"MATERIALS AND METHODS","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Data Sources","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"A database containing 672 data points (soil-nutrient-growth period combinations) was compiled from five greenhousenutrient omission experiments conducted at the International Institute of Tropical Agriculture (lITA)-Kano station in Nigeria (in 2012), the Rwandan Agriculture Board Rubona Research Station (2013), the Sierra Leone Agricultural Research Institute (SLARI) in Sierra Leone (2013) and the University of Eldoret in Kenya ( 2015), all employing a double pot technique. Results from the experiment in Kenya were reported by Keino et al. (2015), and are included in the present analysis for cross country comparison."}]},{"head":"The Double-Pot Method","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":332,"text":"The double pot method is a rapid procedure used in diagnosing deficient plant nutrients in soils (Janssen, 1990). The set-up of the pots is as presented in Figure 1. Seedlings of test plants are sown in restricted quantity of soil placed in the upper pot (Pot 1), which has a gauze at the bottom. The growing roots pass through the gauze and reach the nutrient solution (in Pot 2) in which the desired test nutrient is omitted. The soil in Pot 1 is kept moist by irrigating with distilled water through a pipe filled with quartz. In this set up, two sources of nutrients are provided, which the plant can access simultaneously. The first is the test-soil itself, and the second the defined nutrient solution. By omitting one selected nutrient in the solution, the plant is forced to draw this nutrient from the soil. If the soil does not supply sufficient of this omitted nutrient, the plant will suffer from deficiency symptoms, such as limited growth and leaf deficiency symptoms. Such symptoms are visible in early growth stages, so that conclusions about further development and yield can be inferred after a few weeks.  Experimental Soils, Sampling, and Analysis Soils were collected from farmers' fields in Western Kenya (5 soils); Northern Nigeria (3 soils); the Northern (1 soil), Southern (2 soils) and Eastern (1 soil) provinces of Rwanda; Southwest (2 soils), and North-west (3 soils) Sierra Leone (Figure 2). Areas chosen for soil sampling were among the impact zones in which the N2Africa Project (www.n2africa.com) operated. In Kenya, Nigeria and Rwanda, previous agronomic experiments conducted in these soils (between 2009 and 2013) indicated poor yields of grain legumes with insignificant response to P fertilization and rhizobia inoculation (Van Heerwaarden et al., 2018). In Sierra Leone, soils were collected from fields where researchers suspected that nutrient deficiencies were limiting cowpea and soybean. The names of locations, GPS readings of fields and types of legumes grown prior to soil sampling are summarized in Table 1."},{"index":2,"size":344,"text":"From each field ∼60-70 kg of top soil (0-20 cm) was collected at 15-20 points in a zig-zag pattern across the field, using a spade or a hand hoe. The soil portions from each field were mixed to form a composite representative sample, air-dried, sieved to pass a 5 mm mesh then put in pots, each carrying 250 g. Roughly 200 g of soil per site was taken for chemical and physical analysis at Crop Nutrition Laboratory Services (CROPNUTS) in Nairobi, Kenya (for soils collected in Kenya and Rwanda); or the IITA-analytical laboratory at Ibadan, Nigeria (for soils collected in Nigeria and Sierra Leone). Soils were analyzed for particle sizes (sand, silt, and clay) using the hydrometer method (Gee and Or, 2002), pH in a 1:2 soil water volume ratio, total N using Kjeldahl method, soil organic carbon (SOC) by Walkley-Black dichromate oxidation method Nelson and Sommers (1982) and available P by Olsen method (Nelson and Sommers, 1982). Exchangeable cations (Ca, Mg, and K) were determined after Mehlich 3 extraction (Mehlich, 1984) at CROPNUTS, whereas the 0.1 M NH 4 OACc extraction method (Thomas, 1982) was used at IITA-Ibadan. Most soils were acidic (pH 4.2 to 5.5), except soil Kawangile and soil Nyarubaka from Rwanda and soil Garko from Nigeria, had a pH between 6.0 and 6.1 (Table 2). It is difficult to assign minimum or maximum threshold values for soil organic carbon (SOC) as the values depend very much on texture. However, adapting criteria from Landon (1991) to indicate low, medium and high levels of SOC for top soils of different texture in the tropics, it was low for soils in Kenya (except soil Kakamega 2) and soils in Nigeria, but was high for soils in Rwanda (except soil Musambira) and soils in Sierra Leone. All soils were low in N, K, Mg and Ca applications as these nutrients were available in low levels. In most soils, except soils Kawangire and Nyarubaka from Rwanda, available P was below 10 mg kg −1 indicating that crops would respond to P fertilizer application (Landon, 1991)."}]},{"head":"Nutrient Treatments","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":76,"text":"Seven N-free nutrient treatments were considered across countries. These included two treatments aimed at establishing the response of soybean to the application of all nutrients minus N: 1. Control (no nutrients added), 2. Complete (P, K, Mg, Ca, S, and a combination of micronutrients (MN) Mo, B, Zn, Cu, Mo and Fe) added. The remaining five treatments evaluated omission of a single macronutrient and a combination of micronutrients in turn: 3.-P; 4. -K; 5. -Mg; 6."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"-S; 7. -MN. A -Ca treatment was not included because plant roots cannot not grow in Ca free nutrient solution (Janssen, 1974). Salts, concentrations, chemical forms and rates of nutrients applied in different experiments are shown in Table 3. In Nigeria the concentration of nutrients was derived from a standard Hoagland's No. 2 solution (Hewitt, 1966). In Kenya, Rwanda and Sierra Leone the concentration of nutrients was derived from a standard Hoagland No. 2 solution in a half dilution and modified for the specific use with soybeans (Paradiso et al., 2012); the ion concentration in the Complete treatment was (in mM): P 0.5, K 3.0, Ca 2.5, Mg 1.0, S 1.0; (in µM): Fe 60.0, Mn 7.4, Zn 0.96, Cu 1.04, B 7.13, Mo 0.01."}]},{"head":"Experimental Procedures","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"Soybean was used as the test plant. Test varieties were TGx1740-2F for the experiments in Kenya and Rwanda; TGx1448-2E in Nigeria and TGx1951-4F in Sierra Leone. Before sowing, soybean seeds were inoculated with rhizobia inoculant Legumefix (supplied by Legume Technology UK) for experiments in Nigeria, Rwanda and Sierra Leone, and with Biofix (supplied by MEA Kenya ltd) in Kenya. Inoculation followed a two-step method described in Somasegaran and Hoben, 1994. Three to four soybean seeds per pot were sown which were thinned to single uniform plants, five days after emergence (DAE). The top pots were watered daily with distilled water to keep the soils at field capacity. The nutrient solutions (with pH adjusted between 6.0 and 6.5 using NaOH) were added in Pot 2, 5 DAE and renewed every 8-10 days. The experiments were laid out in a completely randomized design (CRD) with four replications, except in Sierra Leone where three replications were used. Experimental factors were soil and nutrient solution. To allow for destructive sampling at 3-4 intervals, an extra 3-4 pots per treatment per replication were included."}]},{"head":"Observations, Harvesting, and Measurements","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"From 10 days after emergence (DAE) onwards, regular observations were made on the experiments to detect visual nutrient deficiency symptoms in the leaves. Plant growth was determined at three growth periods (Table 4) through destructive sampling by cutting the plants at soil level followed by measuring and comparing shoot dry weight. Fresh weight (FW) was "}]},{"head":"Calculations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":111,"text":"Biomass accumulation in treatments where a single nutrient had been omitted was compared with the biomass in the treatment with all nutrients applied, which is expected to have the largest biomass accumulation due to optimal conditions for growth. The concept of sufficiency quotient (Janssen, 1974) was used to measure availability of nutrients in a specific soil. Nutrient sufficiency quotient (SQ) is an index of the difference in growth between plants on a deficient and on a complete solution, because of the difference in nutrient availability. It may be estimated by determining the relative increase in plant weight (Rs) and the mean growth rate of plants at given time t as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"where Rs is the relative growth rate; S = shoot dry weight in g and t = time in days."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Because of exponential growth, the mean growth at any given time is then estimated using the relation;"},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"The SQ of respective nutrient elements are estimated as;"},{"index":5,"size":84,"text":"Where; SQ x = sufficiency quotient for nutrient element in question, (Rs)-x = Relative growth rate of plants growing in nutrient solutions with x (nutrient element) omitted and (Rs) C = Relative growth rate of plants growing on complete nutrient solution. Since the exact variance of a ratio of Rs-x and Rs-C is undefined, we express the relative deficiency as a difference, rather than a ratio, so that the standard error of the estimate can be calculated exactly using the statistical procedure described below."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"We thereby define the sufficiency difference SD x , as:"},{"index":7,"size":16,"text":"Values of SD x significantly less than 0 provide evidence for deficiency of that particular nutrient."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"Statistical analysis was done using the programming language R (version 2.15.1). Data consisted of shoot dry weights (dwt_shoot) measured at three time points (time) for three to four replicates per soil and omitted nutrient (omitted_nutrient)."},{"index":2,"size":180,"text":"To evaluate evidence for deficiency of individual nutrients in the soil, the following linear mixed model was used to estimate the relative growth of each omitted nutrient treatment: ln(dwt_shoot) ∼ soil + soil : omitted_nutrient + soil : time + soil : omitted_nutrient : time A soil and replication specific time term was added as a random effect to account for repeated measurement in time by modeling the average growth per soil per replicate. The fixed terms soil and soil:time represent the average intercept and growth rate per soil. The complete nutrient treatment was defined as the reference level such that the coefficients for the interaction term interaction soil:omitted_nutrient corresponds to the difference in ln(dwt_shoot) of each omission treatment for a particular soil with respect to the complete treatment at t=0 and the coefficient for the interaction term: soil:omitted_nutrient:time represents the soil-specific regression slope of ln(dwt_shoot) against time, relative to the complete nutrient solution. As such, the latter provides a direct estimate of the sufficiency difference, SD x for the different omitted nutrients, with a significantly negative t-statistic indicating deficiency."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Similarly, the model: ln(dwt_shoot)∼ soil+soil:omitted_nutrient was used to evaluate the effects of specific nutrient deficiencies in individual soils on average shoot biomass accumulation. Data points with residuals larger or smaller than 4 standard deviations were removed before fitting final models for estimation."},{"index":4,"size":52,"text":"Soil parameters were summarized per country and their pairwise correlations were calculated and visualized with bi-plots based on principal component analysis of the scaled parameters. The relationship between values of SD x and average biomass for different soils and individual soil parameters was evaluated by linear regression with a correction for country."}]},{"head":"RESULTS","index":11,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Visual Deficiency Symptoms","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":141,"text":"In most cases, multiple deficiency symptoms occurred on the same plant simultaneously (Table 5). Deficiencies manifested by necrosis and yellowing of older leaves were common in all experimental soils and treatments, with severe symptoms recorded on -P and -K treatments in Kenya and Rwanda. P deficient plants were observed across soils in Kenya and Sierra Leone with Control and -P treatments. K deficiency symptoms were evident at an early growth stage (10 to 12 DAE) in the Control in Rwanda and across experimental soils in Kenya, Rwanda and Sierra Leone with the -K treatments. Mg deficiency symptoms were observed across soils and treatments in Rwanda, and in all soils in Kenya and Nigeria under -Mg treatment. Symptoms of Mo deficiency were observed on soil Masaba from Kenya with -MN treatment, and across soils from Nigeria under the Control and -MN treatments."}]},{"head":"Sufficiency Difference for Omitted Nutrients","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":171,"text":"One soil from Soba, Nigeria had significantly negative sufficiency differences for all tested nutrient treatments (Table 6). Of the 16 remaining soils, 10 soils showed growth reduction due to deficiencies in one or more nutrients, with -K (9 soils), -P (4 soils), -Mg (4 soils), -S (two soils) and -MN (2 soils) treatments having sufficiency differences significantly below 0 (Table 5). Potassium (K) deficiency was observed in Butula and Masaba soils in Kenya, Garko and Soba soils in Nigeria, Cyabingo, Musambira, and Nyarubaka soils in Rwanda, as well as Bondajuma and Kodenbotihun soils in Sierra Leone. Significant P deficiency was observed in Bondajuma, Foya Junction and Kodenbotihun soils in Sierra Leone and Soba soil in Nigeria. Magnesium (Mg) deficiency was found to reduce growth in soil Kakamega 2 in Kenya and soils Cyabingo and Musambira in Rwanda. Poor growth due to micronutrient deficiency was only detected on the Rwandan Musambira soil. Interestingly, three of the soils with evidence for nutrient deficiencies, had the controls not showing significant reduction in growth rate."}]},{"head":"Relative Shoot Biomass","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":52,"text":"Results for relative shoot biomass (Table 7), revealed more evidence for nutrient deficiency than growth rate. In addition to the Nigerian Soba soil, which again had significantly reduced biomass for all nutrient treatments except S, 16 soils were deficient for one or more nutrients. Potassium deficiency was again the most common (14   "}]},{"head":"Relationships Between Sufficiency Difference and Relative Shoot Biomass","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":106,"text":"Overall, the correlation between the sufficiency difference and relative shoot biomass was moderate though highly significant (R 2 = 0.30, p < 0.0001) (Figure 3). Out of 101 soil/nutrient combinations only 22 were significant for both measures. Significant results for growth were basically a subset of those for biomass, with only three instances where a significant soil/nutrient combination was not significant for biomass. In contrast, 34 soil/nutrient combinations with significant reduction in biomass were not significant for growth. Considering significant results over both methods suggests that deficiencies of K, P, Mg, S, and MN occured in 82, 59, 47, 12, and 6% of tested soils, respectively."}]},{"head":"Relationship Between Soil Properties and Nutrient Deficiencies","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"Overall, weak relationships between specific nutrient deficiencies and individual soil properties were observed (Figure 4). Of all the relations tested, only soil N and K concentration had a significant relationship with -K for growth rate and with -Mg and -P for relative shoot biomass. Nutrient deficiency was never significantly correlated with the soil concentration of the missing nutrient."}]},{"head":"DISCUSSION","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":211,"text":"This study was the first to evaluate deficiencies of individual nutrients constraining legume growth in a diverse sample of \"non-responsive\" soils from SSA, providing evidence on the missing elements that could contribute to poor yields and nutrient responses in the region. Visual deficiency symptoms and decreased growth, as measured by sufficiency difference and mean shoot biomass, revealed that K, P, Mg and to lesser extent S, and MN were limiting legume production in the tested soils. Overall, all the tested soils lacked at least one nutrient, with the occurrence and extent of deficiency varying between soils within and across countries. This variability confirms that soil nutrient limitations are spatially heterogeneous, supporting the notion that soil fertility management amendments on smallholder farms in SSA could be improved by tailoring to local conditions (Giller et al., 2011;Vanlauwe et al., 2015). Our results confirm other studies reporting wide-spread deficiencies of P and, to a lesser extent S, on maize in soils of West African savanna (Vanlauwe et al., 2002;Franke et al., 2008;Nziguheba et al., 2009Nziguheba et al., , 2016) ) and in soils of eastern and southern Africa, including Western Kenya (Kihara et al., 2016), although evidence for deficiencies of K, Mg, and micronutrients in the literature is relatively rare (Van der Zaag, 2010)."},{"index":2,"size":217,"text":"It is noteworthy therefore that K and Mg deficiencies were frequently detected in the present study, suggesting that these nutrients are perhaps a frequent cause of the lack of response to P and rhizobial inoculation. Although further confirmation is needed through field trials it is likely that including K and Mg in legume-specific fertilizers could improve legume yields where non-responsive soils are frequent. Similarly, the limitations found for S and micronutrients (usually in association with P or K deficiency) are an indication that limitations of secondary and micronutrients are locally important but less frequent. With many countries in SSA becoming progressively committed to a policy of agricultural intensification, adequate availability of these nutrients can no longer be taken for granted since the use of improved crop varieties with only N and P fertilization will in the long-term invariably lead to greater crop removal and deficiencies of other nutrients. Application of secondary and MN on soils revealing secondary nutrient limitations is one of the effective ways to enhance fertilizer use efficiency, and this can be done efficiently by blending commonly available NPK fertilizers with secondary and micronutrients (Vanlauwe et al., 2015). Legume-specific fertilizers with a wider blend of nutrients have been developed and marketed in several countries of sub-Saharan Africa based on this work (Giller and Ronner, 2019)."},{"index":3,"size":220,"text":"Two other notable results in our study were the multiple deficiencies observed for the soil from Soba in Nigeria and the absence of P deficiency in Rwandan soils. We have no clear explanation for the former observation but absence of P limitation in Rwanda soils was possibly a result of extensive use of P-fertilizers stimulated by the governmentsupported program on crop intensification (Ndushabandi et al., 2018). The crop intensification programme in Rwanda provides subsidies on fertilizers and seeds and support farmers to market their crops. Janssen (1990) quantified nutrient deficiency by the reduction in growth rate. Here we applied a statistical model to get accurate estimates of this reduction and corresponding mean relative biomass in a replicated experiment. Although correlation between both measures of nutrient deficiency was moderate, relative biomass estimation yielded more significant deficiencies than the sufficiency difference (Figure 2), suggesting superior sensitivity. It is possible that estimates of growth are sensitive to deviations from linearity in the measured time period. The fact that our growth measurements started relatively late (10-15 DAE), to elimate effects of seed nutrients, might have caused measures of slope (i.e., sufficiency difference) to be estimated less reliably. Nevertheless, our results suggest that relying on growth estimates alone may not be the best approach and that average relative biomass offers an appropriate measure of deficiency. "}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"The present study examined a small range of soils from selected farmers' fields in four countries in SSA, identified nutrients limiting legume growth and provided data relevant for developing strategies and identified possible solutions to improve legume productivity. The double pot technique used here may not be as reliable as field experiments for soil nutrient diagnosis but the results nonetheless shed light on nutrients which could raise yields of legumes grown in soils with similar characteristics to those tested here. Based on our sample, and assuming representability, deficiencies of K, P, Mg, S and micronutrients seem to be wide-spread in non-responsive soils and were detected in 88, 65, 59, 18, and 18% of the soils, respectively. If these deficiencies indeed translate to reduced yields under field conditions, ignoring them will harm prospects for sustainable agricultural intensification in smallholder production. In that case, strategies for improvement of legume productivity should consider among others, blending of commonly available NPK fertilizers with secondary nutrients like Mg and S, and the MN, and organic resources amendments including animal manure (where available) to achieve a balanced crop nutrition. Application of these should take into account a targeted approach to address soil-specific deficient nutrients for a more efficient use of fertilizers and other inputs. Research is needed to verify the current results under field conditions and to define the extent of secondary and micronutrients limitation to crop growth in SSA."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"FIGURE 1 | FIGURE 1 | Illustration of the setup of the double pot technique. "},{"text":"FIGURE 2 | FIGURE 2 | Map showing location of farms (yellow diamond shape) where soils used in this study were collected from. Colored shading marks different agro-ecological zones. "},{"text":"FIGURE 3 | FIGURE 3 | Relationship between sufficiency difference and relative biomass for the different nutrients in specific soils. Significant values are marked by up and down facing triangles for sufficiency difference and relative biomass, respectively. Stars indicate simultaneous significance for relative biomass and sufficiency difference. "},{"text":"FIGURE 4 | FIGURE 4| Plots showing the relation between sufficiency difference (upper row) and relative shoot biomass (lower two rows) and soil parameters for the cases where a significant relationship was found (indicated by an asterisk) and for soil content of the missing nutrient. Top row from left to right: growth reduction for -K, against N (%) and K (cmol/kg). Second row left to right: biomass reduction for -Mg, against K (ppm) N (%) and Mg (ppm). Bottom row left to right: biomass reduction for -P, against K (cmol/kg) N (%) and P (mg/kg). Results are shown for the model residuals after correcting for country. "},{"text":"TABLE 1 | Names of locations of farms where experimental soils were collected and corresponding legume grown on field before soil sampling. Country Site GPS reading Legume planted CountrySiteGPS readingLegume planted   Latitude Longitude  LatitudeLongitude Nigeria Kachia 9.52083 • 7.57065 • Cowpea NigeriaKachia9.52083 •7.57065 •Cowpea  Soba 10.59316 • 8.03064 • Cowpea Soba10.59316 •8.03064 •Cowpea  Garko 11.39364 • 8.53008 • Soybean Garko11.39364 •8.53008 •Soybean Kenya Masaba 0.19997 • 34.46061 • Soybean KenyaMasaba0.19997 •34.46061 •Soybean  Kakamega1 0.20722 • 34.67233 • Common bean Kakamega10.20722 •34.67233 •Common bean  Kakamega 2 0.20406 • 34.66817 • Common bean Kakamega 20.20406 •34.66817 •Common bean  Butere 0.19759 • 34.46581 • Soybean Butere0.19759 •34.46581 •Soybean  Butula 0.31994 • 34.28025 • Soybean Butula0.31994 •34.28025 •Soybean Rwanda Cyabingo 1.56732 • 29.67895 • Common bean RwandaCyabingo1.56732 •29.67895 •Common bean  Kawangire 1.80811 • 30.45027 • Common bean Kawangire1.80811 •30.45027 •Common bean  Nyarubaka 2.10722 • 30.14798 • Soybean Nyarubaka2.10722 •30.14798 •Soybean  Musambira 1.99203 • 29.86221 • Soybean Musambira1.99203 •29.86221 •Soybean Sierra Leone Gbombtrait 8.20059 • −12.43631 • Soybean Sierra Leone Gbombtrait8.20059 •−12.43631 •Soybean  Bondajuma 8.31088 • −10.84820 • - Bondajuma8.31088 •−10.84820 •-  Kodenbotihun 8.16726 • −12.43614 • Cowpea Kodenbotihun8.16726 •−12.43614 •Cowpea  Foya Junction 8.183589 • −11.40030 • - Foya Junction8.183589 •−11.40030 •-  MeriCurve 9.13493 • −12.90843 • Cowpea MeriCurve9.13493 •−12.90843 •Cowpea  "},{"text":"TABLE 2 | Top (0-20 cm) soil chemical and physical properties of the soils used in the experiments. Country of origin Site pH Total N OC Avail. P Exchangeable cations (cmol c kg −1 ) Particle size (g kg −1 ) Textural class* Country of origin SitepH Total NOCAvail. PExchangeable cations (cmol c kg −1 )Particle size (g kg −1 )Textural class*    (%) (%) (mg kg −1 )       (%)(%)(mg kg −1 )       K Ca Mg Clay Sand Silt  KCaMgClay SandSilt Nigeria Kachia 5.1 0.09 0.93 1.0 0.16 1.93 0.95 330 470 200 SCL NigeriaKachia5.10.090.931.00.161.930.95330 470200SCL  Soba 5.5 0.07 0.71 2.3 0.10 1.13 0.65 170 470 360 L Soba5.50.070.712.30.101.130.65170 470360L  Garko 6.0 0.05 0.55 trace 0.12 1.45 0.78 110 690 200 SL Garko6.00.050.55trace0.121.450.78110 690200SL Kenya Masaba 4.7 0.13 1.50 4.4 0.16 1.10 0.51 300 540 160 SCL KenyaMasaba4.70.131.504.40.161.100.51300 540160SCL  Kakamega 1 5.1 0.24 3.13 7.3 0.18 4.34 1.70 320 480 200 SCL Kakamega 1 5.10.243.137.30.184.341.70320 480200SCL  Kakamega 2 5.0 0.20 2.59 4.6 0.17 3.22 0.93 320 520 160 SCL Kakamega 2 5.00.202.594.60.173.220.93320 520160SCL  Butere 4.9 0.13 1.25 2.1 0.10 1.03 0.39 180 600 220 SL Butere4.90.131.252.10.101.030.39180 600220SL  Butula 5.0 0.15 1.58 6.2 0.16 2.49 0.98 240 580 140 SCL Butula5.00.151.586.20.162.490.98240 580140SCL Rwanda Cyabingo 5.0 0.12 2.33 8.4 0.12 1.30 0.22 329 451 220 SCL RwandaCyabingo5.00.122.338.40.121.300.22329 451220SCL  Kawangire 6.0 0.21 3.48 83.0 0.12 2.62 0.51 489 371 140 C Kawangire6.00.213.4883.00.122.620.51489 371140C  Nyarubaka 6.1 0.20 2.27 61.1 0.06 0.51 0.14 209 672 120 SCL Nyarubaka6.10.202.2761.10.060.510.14209 672120SCL  Musambira 4.6 0.09 1.42 13.2 0.09 0.08 0.02 409 551 40 SC Musambira4.60.091.4213.20.090.080.02409 55140SC Sierra Leone Gbombtrait 4.9 0.31 3.00 3.4 0.31 3.30 0.71 220 600 180 SCL Sierra LeoneGbombtrait4.90.313.003.40.313.300.71220 600180SCL  Bondajuma 5.2 0.19 2.60 3.6 0.30 3.90 0.58 200 680 120 SCL Bondajuma5.20.192.603.60.303.900.58200 680120SCL  Kodenbotihun 4.5 0.18 2.40 3.3 0.17 1.60 0.38 340 480 180 SCL Kodenbotihun 4.50.182.403.30.171.600.38340 480180SCL  Foya Junction 4.5 0.37 2.80 10.0 0.43 3.70 0.72 240 600 160 SCL Foya Junction 4.50.372.8010.00.433.700.72240 600160SCL  MeriCurve 4.2 0.30 2.80 3.2 0.33 2.50 0.53 260 600 140 SCL MeriCurve4.20.302.803.20.332.500.53260 600140SCL Textural class            Textural class  "},{"text":"TABLE 3 | Salt form and concentrations used to prepare the nitrogen-free nutrient solutions before application to the plants. Nutrient Compound  Concentration (mg /l)  Nutrient CompoundConcentration (mg /l)   Nigeria Kenya and Rwanda Sierra Leone Nigeria Kenya and Rwanda Sierra Leone P K 2 HPO 4 200 - 102.1 PK 2 HPO 4200-102.1  H 3 PO 4 - 49.0 - H 3 PO 4-49.0-  H 2 NaO 4 P. 2H 2 O - - 58.6 H 2 NaO 4 P. 2H 2 O--58.6 K K 2 CO 3 - 207.3 - KK 2 CO 3-207.3-  KCl 750 - 447.6 KCl750-447.6 Mg MgSO4•7H 2 O 200 246.4 493.0 MgMgSO4•7H 2 O200246.4493.0  MgCl 2 •6H 2 O (only in-S) 950 203.3 - MgCl 2 •6H 2 O (only in-S) 950203.3-  MgCO 3 (only in-S) - - 42.2 MgCO 3 (only in-S)--42.2 S MgSO 4 •7H 2 O - - - SMgSO 4 •7H 2 O---  K 2 SO 4 (only in -Mg) 174 174.3 - K 2 SO 4 (only in -Mg)174174.3- Ca CaCl 2 • 2H 2 O 1100 368.0 596.6 CaCaCl 2 • 2H 2 O1100368.0596.6  CaSO 4  - 435.0 CaSO 4-435.0  CaHPO 4. 2H 2 O 1000 - - CaHPO 4. 2H 2 O1000-- Mn MnCl 2 •4H 2 O 1.970 1.465 - MnMnCl 2 •4H 2 O1.9701.465-  MnSO 4. H 2 O - - 3.170 MnSO 4. H 2 O--3.170 B H 3 BO 3 2.860 0.441 1.100 BH 3 BO 32.8600.4411.100 Cu CuSO 4 •5H 2 O 0.080 0.260 0.650 CuCuSO 4 •5H 2 O0.0800.2600.650 Zn ZnSO 4 •7H 2 O 0.220 0.276 0.690 ZnZnSO 4 •7H 2 O0.2200.2760.690 Mo Na 2 MoO 4 •2H 2 O 0.140 0.002 - MoNa 2 MoO 4 •2H 2 O0.1400.002-  (NH4) 6 Mo 7 O 24 - - 0.080 (NH4) 6 Mo 7 O 24--0.080 Fe FeCl 3. 6H 2 O 0.100 - 0.100 FeFeCl 3. 6H 2 O0.100-0.100  "},{"text":"TABLE 4 | Harvesting periods (days after emergence for Nigeria, Kenya and Rwanda; days after planting for Sierra Leone) followed at each intermediate dry matter determination in different experiments. Experiment First harvest Second harvest Third harvest ExperimentFirst harvestSecond harvestThird harvest Nigeria 21 26 31 Nigeria212631 Kenya 14 21 28 Kenya142128 Rwanda 14 26 34 Rwanda142634 Sierra Leone 15 20 25 Sierra Leone152025 recorded, followed by oven drying of plant shoots at 60 • C to recorded, followed by oven drying of plant shoots at 60 • C to constant weight.   constant weight.  "},{"text":"TABLE 5 | Symptoms of deficiency of nutrients (in bracket) and period when first observed on plants growing on a particular experimental soils for different treatments. Treatment Kenya Nigeria Rwanda Sierra Leone TreatmentKenyaNigeriaRwandaSierra Leone Control From 10 DAE, in all soils; stunted From 17 DAE, in all soils; reddish From 12 DAE, in all soils; From 12 DAE, in all soils stunted ControlFrom 10 DAE, in all soils; stuntedFrom 17 DAE, in all soils; reddishFrom 12 DAE, in all soils;From 12 DAE, in all soils stunted  plants with dark green leaves (P) spots, interveinal chlorosis and yellowing and necrosis of plants with dark green leaves (P) plants with dark green leaves (P)spots, interveinal chlorosis andyellowing and necrosis ofplants with dark green leaves (P)   yellowing of older leaves (N, Mg, margins of older leaves, early leaf  yellowing of older leaves (N, Mg,margins of older leaves, early leaf   Mo) drop (N, K and Mg)  Mo)drop (N, K and Mg) Complete From 20 DAE, in all soils; yellowing No observed deficiency symptoms From 17 DAE, in all soils; older From 20 DAE, in all soils; older CompleteFrom 20 DAE, in all soils; yellowingNo observed deficiency symptomsFrom 17 DAE, in all soils; olderFrom 20 DAE, in all soils; older  of older leaves (N)  leaves yellow (N, Mg) leaves deep yellow (N) of older leaves (N)leaves yellow (N, Mg)leaves deep yellow (N) -P From 15 DAE, in all soils; stunted From 12 DAE, in all soils; yellowing From 17 DAE; in all soils, From 12 DAE, in all soils stunted -PFrom 15 DAE, in all soils; stuntedFrom 12 DAE, in all soils; yellowingFrom 17 DAE; in all soils,From 12 DAE, in all soils stunted  plants with dark green younger of older leaves (N) yellowing of older leaves with plants with dark green young leaves plants with dark green youngerof older leaves (N)yellowing of older leaves withplants with dark green young leaves  leaves, older leaves deep  severe interveinal chlorosis (P), old leaves yellow (N) leaves, older leaves deepsevere interveinal chlorosis(P), old leaves yellow (N)  yellow (N, P)  (N, Mg)  yellow (N, P)(N, Mg) -K From 12 DAE, in Masaba soils; older No observed deficiency symptoms From 12 DAE, in all soils; older From 12 DAE, in all soils; yellowing -KFrom 12 DAE, in Masaba soils; olderNo observed deficiency symptomsFrom 12 DAE, in all soils; olderFrom 12 DAE, in all soils; yellowing  leaves pale yellow, necrotic, leaves  leaves pale yellow, strongly of older leaves, grey-brown spot leaves pale yellow, necrotic, leavesleaves pale yellow, stronglyof older leaves, grey-brown spot  dropping early (N, K, Mg)  necrotic and dropping. Severe in progressive from older to younger dropping early (N, K, Mg)necrotic and dropping. Severe inprogressive from older to younger    soil Cyabingo and soil leaves (N, K) soil Cyabingo and soilleaves (N, K)    Musambira (N, K, Mg).  Musambira (N, K, Mg). -Mg From 10 DAE, in all soils; interveinal From 11 DAE, in all soils; interveinal From 10 DAE, in all soils; older No observed deficiency symptoms -MgFrom 10 DAE, in all soils; interveinalFrom 11 DAE, in all soils; interveinalFrom 10 DAE, in all soils; olderNo observed deficiency symptoms  chlorosis yellowing of older leaves, chlorosis on older leaves, severe on leaves chlorotic and necrotic,  chlorosis yellowing of older leaves,chlorosis on older leaves, severe onleaves chlorotic and necrotic,  early leaf drop (Mg, K) plant growing in soil Garko (Mg) severe in soil Cyabingo and soil  early leaf drop (Mg, K)plant growing in soil Garko (Mg)severe in soil Cyabingo and soil    Musambira (K, Mg)  Musambira (K, Mg) -S From 20 DAE, in Masaba and Butere No observed deficiency symptoms No observed deficiency No observed deficiency symptoms -SFrom 20 DAE, in Masaba and ButereNo observed deficiency symptomsNo observed deficiencyNo observed deficiency symptoms  soils; younger and older leaves pale  symptoms  soils; younger and older leaves palesymptoms  (S)    (S) -MN From 20 ADE, across soils; Irregular From 17 DAE, in all soils; thick pale From 12 DAE, older leaves No observed deficiency symptoms -MNFrom 20 ADE, across soils; IrregularFrom 17 DAE, in all soils; thick paleFrom 12 DAE, older leavesNo observed deficiency symptoms  leaves, thick and brittle, dark brown leaves, scorched and rolled younger yellow with interveinal chlorosis  leaves, thick and brittle, dark brownleaves, scorched and rolled youngeryellow with interveinal chlorosis  with irregular lesions progressing to leaves (Mo, N) (N, Mg)  with irregular lesions progressing toleaves (Mo, N)(N, Mg)  necrosis (Mo, Bo)    necrosis (Mo, Bo)  "},{"text":"TABLE 6 | Averages of the sufficiency difference of control and omitted nutrients (relative to complete) ordered per experimental soil and per P values.Except for the Control, results are for treatments where values for sufficiency differences were significantly below zero (0), ns = not significant. Country Soil CountrySoil  "},{"text":"TABLE 7 | Averages of log biomass of control and omitted nutrients (relative to Complete) that were significantly below zero (0) ordered per experiment soil, ns = not significant. Experiment Soil ExperimentSoil  "}],"sieverID":"760f6886-e0df-4c45-94eb-4f3ad3a1bb1e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0932c63861ddd5b2d95b2af903d7aef9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/509a6292-11ae-4e17-8c5a-fc54e8186771/retrieve"},"pageCount":52,"title":"Mbeya and Iringa districts Courtesy call to Agricultural Research Institute (ARI) -Uyole","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":207,"text":"The Africa RISING program and the Future Sustainable Intensification Innovation Lab (SIIL) recently held a joint field visit to activity sites in Tanzania. The goal of the seven-day long visit (5 -12 March 2018 ) was to promote more cross-learning and establish potential areas for future collaboration between the two United States Agency for International Development (USAID)-funded agricultural sustainable intensification programs funded by the visiting team comprised of: Jerry Glover (USAID Bureau for Food Security), Vara Prasad (Kansas State University/SIIL), Irmgard Hoeschle-Zeledon (IITA/Africa RISING East and southern Africa [ESA] and West Africa [WA]), Peter Thorne (ILRI/Africa RISING Ethiopia), Sieg Snapp (Michigan State University/SIIL/Africa RISING), Kindu Mekonnen (ILRI/Africa RISING Ethiopia), Mateete Bekunda (IITA/Africa RISING ESA), Jovin Lwehabura (International Center for Tropical Agriculture [CIAT]/SIIL) and Jonathan Odhong' (IITA/Africa RISING ESA & WA). The team made courtesy calls to various government agricultural officials, visited activities implemented by both programs and interacted with farmers. Starting off the trip in the southern highlands (Mbeya and Iringa), the team made its way to central Tanzania (Kongwa and Kiteto districts), eventually rounding the visit off in northern Tanzania (Babati District). This photo report provides a summary of the very eventful field visit. An online version of this photo report is also accessible at: https://spark.adobe.com/page/ITdAoZGJ3CYiB/"}]},{"head":"Commercialization of dressed bean seed and scaling to farmers through village-based agro-dealers","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"At Rashid Babuya's farm (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":121,"text":"The Future Sustainable Intensification Innovation Lab (SIIL) is implementing research activities to evaluate bidirectional learning and effective extension approaches to promote sustainable intensification technologies among researchers, extension, agro-dealers, seed companies, non-governmental organizations (NGOs) and farmers. The trials aim to inform farmers and input suppliers about the performance of improved bean varieties with different combinations of fertilizers (inorganic only, organic only, neither, and both). Limited knowledge exists about the use of baby demonstrations in creating demand for the improved varieties and spurring wider adoption to catalyze the village-based agricultural agents (VBAAs) incentives to sell the inputs at commercial prices. Although the study is still ongoing, preliminary results indicate that seed dressing (using Apron Star) and fertilizer use increased the productivity of beans."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"The delegation visited Rashid Babuya, a farmer/agro-dealer from Ruanda Village, Mbozi District in Mbeya Region. He is one of the farmers using the dressed bean seeds for the first time -at the onset of 2017/2018 cropping season."},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"The key benefits of dressing seeds include:"},{"index":5,"size":73,"text":" It stimulates root development leading to vigorous starts, uniform growth and higher yields  Strong against critical early season diseases  Controls sucking pests for about 21 days / 3 weeks after planting. 'I am planting the dressed bean seed on my farm and also selling it to my fellow farmers who are interested. So far, I have sold about 600 kg (in 50 kg packs) in this cropping season,' explains Babuya. "}]},{"head":"The Africa RISING -NAFAKA partnership project","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Africa RISING and the Feed the Future Tanzania NAFAKA ('grains') activity have been collaborating since 2015 to address persistent constraints to smallholder agricultural productivity and rural well-being in five regions. This is accomplished by introducing resilient crop varieties, diversifying and increasing food supply and income sources, improving nutrition, and addressing soil and land degradation. Utilizing a wide range of expertise, including research institutions, farmers associations, district-level extension, village-based agricultural advisors, agro-dealers, processors, and others, these efforts serve as a platform facilitating smallholder farmers to apply the latest technologies, practices, and innovations into their work."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"In this partnership, NAFAKA and Africa RISING collaborate to:"},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":" introduce and promote improved and resilient varieties of food crops (maize and rice);  disseminate best-bet agronomic management packages;  protect land and water resources and foster agricultural biodiversity;  improve household nutrition through introduction and scaling of quality declared seed (QDS) innovations for legume crops (soybean, groundnuts and beans); and  introduce and promote post-harvest management technologies to reduce losses and bring quality up to market standards."}]},{"head":"Improved maize variety and fertilizer demonstrations","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"Farmers at one of the Africa RISING -NAFAKA project demonstration site at Iwalanje Village in Mbozi District, Mbeya Region (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"The demonstration site is managed by members of the Iwalanje Agricultural Marketing Cooperative Society (AMCOS) group which has 84 members. This cropping season, the farmers are being trained on the following aspects of production: maize varieties, fertilizer types, herbicide application, safe use and handling of pesticides, and correct fertilizer application rates and procedures. Through demonstration sites such as this one, the Africa RISING -NAFAKA project has reached about 500 (195 women) farmers in Iwalanje Village."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"For clear comparison by farmers at the demonstration sites, usually one part is set-up with the usual farmers practice while the on the other side the recommended practice is set up."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Vara Prasad was amazed at the height of one of the maize varieties being demonstrated to farmers at the Africa RISING -NAFAKA demonstration site in Iwalanje Village (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"In Iwalanje Village, the Africa RISING-NAFAKA project works with about 500 smallholder farmers on variety selection, good agronomic practices, pests and disease management and post-harvest management. The project also supports a rural agro-dealer network, creating marketing links especially through contract farming and produces aggregation as well as youth involvement through training and deployment of local artisans as post-harvest machinery and spray service providers."},{"index":6,"size":72,"text":"The Africa RISING -NAFAKA project works with 600 farmers (211 female) in Nansama Village. These farmers belong to 8 different farmer associations including: Namsama Womens Group, Nansama AMCOS, Maku Group, Nansama Uboreshaji Group, Wakulima wa Mboga Matunda, Iganda AMCOS, Vijana Nansama, and Wakulima wa Maziwa Group. Like in Iwalanje Village, the smallholder farmers in Nasama have been trained on crop variety selection, good agronomic practices, pests and disease management and post-harvest management."},{"index":7,"size":25,"text":"NAFAKA director for input systems and productivity, Silvanus Mruma joins members of Nansama Women Group in a dance during the visit (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":8,"size":49,"text":"Africa RISING -NAFAKA project has worked with the Nansama Women's Group, and others, to build the capacity of its members on post-harvest management technologies, aggregation, collective access to inputs as well as collective marketing. Most of the groups have seen immense differences as a result of this capacity building."},{"index":9,"size":39,"text":"Top-line livelihood enhancements from Africa RISING -NAFAKA project Farmers in Iwalanje Village said the Africa RISING -NAFAKA project has improved their livelihoods because it has helped them to  Reduce post-harvest losses due to better storage in PICS bags."},{"index":10,"size":103,"text":" Increase maize harvests. The average harvest now is up from 15-20 kg per hectare.  Reduce costs for activities such as maize shelling which used to cost TZS 1,000 per bag, now they only pay TZS 700.  Open up of new income streams for the groups. For example, they have shelled 47,500 kg of maize was shelled earning the groups about TZS 400,000. These earnings have been reinvested by the group into savings and for internal lending to members.  Use of PICS bags ensuring that farmers who use them earn better income at the market due to better quality grains."}]},{"head":"Reducing post-harvest losses","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Some members of the Nansama Women Group and Nansama AMCOS demonstrate to Jonathan Odhong' (Africa RISING) how the maize sheller machine works (photo credit: Olaoluwa Olabode/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"The shelling machine has brought to an end the back-breaking practice of shelling maize by pounding sacks -a job which was mainly reserved for women and children. The group would, however, wish to increase the machine's shelling capacity (currently 50 bags/day) so that more members can be served within a short period. The project is supporting the manufacture of a machine with the capacity to shell 500 kg/ hour for the farmers groups. This will be a massive improvement on the current sheller which does 50 bags/day."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Jerry Glover asking farmers about the differences they have been able to observe after eight months of storing maize in PICS bags compared to ordinary storage bags. Farmers said the grains that were stored in the PICS bags stayed in pristine condition with no insect pest attacks, compared to grains which were stored in ordinary bags, which were attacked by insects (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Maize stored in PICS bags at a warehouse (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":5,"size":12,"text":"Discussion with farmers at Nansama Village market centre (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":6,"size":95,"text":"During discussions with farmers at Nansama Village, some farmers raised the concern that the prices of the PICS bags were still high (at TZS 5,000). The project team encouraged them to continue acquiring the bags as a group because purchasing them in high volumes allowed them to get great discounts from the retailers bringing down the unit price for a PIC bag to TZS 3,500. The project team also reminded farmers that ordinary bags, which could not be reused, retailed at TZS 1,000 unlike the PICS bags which were reusable for up to four years."}]},{"head":"Reclaiming acidic soils","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"A billboard at one of the Africa RISING -NAFAKA demonstration sites in Italule Village (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"Excessive levels of soil acidity limit the efficacy of fertilizers in maize-legume production systems. In certain parts of Iringa Region where this problem is persistent, the soils have a PH of between 4.5-4.8. The Africa RISING-NAFAKA project has set up demonstration sites in Iringa Region of Tanzania, to train 600 farmers in Italule and Utengule villages in Kilolo District on how to reclaim the productivity of the acidic soils through application of lime. At least 30 of these lime application sites have been set up in Iringa."}]},{"head":"Interactions with one of the lead farmer on whose land the liming demos have been set up (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":81,"text":"The team visited the farm of Kibwana Nyalusi, a host farmer for the liming demonstration. Nyalusi notes that, like him, most farmers in Italule Village know about lime, but have not been aware that it could be used to reclaim acidic soils. Within the demonstration sites farmers can evaluate by observation the following scenarios when they grow maize: (a) apply lime, and apply fertilizer (urea, CAN and YaraMilla cereal); (b) apply fertilizer only; (c) do not apply either lime or fertilizer."},{"index":2,"size":16,"text":"Kibwana Nyalusi, a host farmer for the liming demonstration in Italule Village (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":3,"size":50,"text":"'When we apply lime and use fertilizer, observable differences can be seen very early in the stages of plant growth. For example, these plants grow taller and have a wider girth than the maize plants grown on other parts of the demonstration plot where no lime was applied,' explains Nyalusi."},{"index":4,"size":51,"text":"'Applying lime to soils has lifted my maize yields from an average of about 4 -5 bags per hectare to 10 -14 bags per hectare. This is a big change although I am still hoping that the yield can go up even further to 20 -25 bags per hectare,' he adds."},{"index":5,"size":36,"text":"'It is great that farmers are starting to see the benefits of applying lime to their soils. We have trained them on the correct measures of application (1 tonne/acre),' said Africa RISING Scaling Specialist Haroon Sseguya."},{"index":6,"size":25,"text":"One of the significant challenges/hurdles that remains for the Africa RISING-NAFAKA project staff is facilitating a permanent solution for enabling farmers to easily transport/access lime."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"The project team has initiated a partnership arrangement with SAGCOT, a public-privatepartnership initiative, to help the farmers transport the lime. The team is also exploring setting up a meeting with cement producers who could (at a fee) supply lime to farmers in the area from Dodoma, about 266 km away."}]},{"head":"Village agricultural agents: frontline actors in the rural agroinput dealer network","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":79,"text":"As part of its efforts to create sustainable productivity of maize and legumes, the Africa RISING -NAFAKA project also supports a network of village-based agricultural agents (VBAAs) in all the districts where it works. The VBAA's are deployed by the project to complement the government extension agents as well as to be frontline actors in the rural agro-input dealer network. During the field visit, the team visited Siza Mkini, a 24-year-old agro-dealer in Kitowo Village in Kilolo District. ."}]},{"head":"Siza Mkini, at her agro-dealer shop in Kitowo Village (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"Mkini has been a VBAA since 2014 when she was selected by farmers in her village in consultation with the village extension officer. Since then she has been trained by the Africa RISING-NAFAKA project on business management skills, good agronomic practices for maize and beans, pests and disease management, correct application and handling of agrochemical etc."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"She is making a mark in Kitowo Village through her agro-dealer shop which she opened in 2016. 'Dukani kwa Siza' as the shop is popularly referred to within the locality is ensuring that farmers in the village now have easy access to agricultural inputs and the best advice on correct use of different agricultural inputs -almost at their door steps."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Mkini said running an agro-dealer shop is both satisfying and rewarding financially but she said that she is not in it to make huge profits out of fellow farmers, but rather to also contribute to improving the livelihoods of the community to which she belongs."},{"index":4,"size":79,"text":"'I buy 1 bag of urea at TZS 40,000 and sell to farmers at TZS 42,000. So, the margins are not so big. But also have arrangements with my suppliers who provide me with input consignments and I pay them when I make sales. This works for both myself and the supplier who by bringing his stock to my shop is guaranteed better sales because the end users (farmers) will have easy access to those products, ' she explains."},{"index":5,"size":53,"text":"Her business model requires that Mkini diligently keeps records of all her transactions. She was trained on how to do this by the Africa RISING-NAFAKA project and she maintains up-todate records of sales journals cash receipts , purchases and receivables. This season she has sold up to five metric tons of maize seed."}]},{"head":"Legume quality declared seed (QDS) production","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"Legumes have the potential to contribute to additional income for households, improve soil fertility and enhance household-level nutrition outcomes. However, despite intense interest by farmers to grow legumes such as beans, soybean, pigeon pea and groundnut, access to quality seed remains a significant challenge. To address this problem, the Africa RISING-NAFAKA project has been working to improve linkages between small local seed companies, community seed producers, and national breeding programs as a means of ensuring legume seed is easily accessible and available to farmers. The main activities in this efforts include, promotion of QDS seed production and building a vibrant QDS farmers' association in each district where the project is working. This activity is meant to enhance QDS producers' access to markets and other services such as credit, and engagement with district seed inspectors."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Abeid Chonya, a common bean QDS producer in Mkungungu Village, Iringa Rural District (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Abeid Chonya, a farmer in Mkungungu Village , Iringa Rural District who is producing QDS common bean seed and is also demonstrating drought tolerant maize varieties (through the WEMA project). The Africa RISING -NAFAKA project is implementing the common bean QDS production activity in 75 villages in Iringa and Mbeya Regions. Farmers like Chonya produce the QDS seed with the aim of selling it to fellow farmers in their villages and surroundings."},{"index":4,"size":31,"text":"Chonya has planted common bean variety Njano Uyole QDS on a One-acre farm. Like other QDS farmers working with the project, he was trained on the minimum standards for producing QDS."},{"index":5,"size":7,"text":"Abeid's QDS field (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":6,"size":44,"text":"'I spaced the rows at 50 cm intervals and 10 cm from one plant to the next within each row. This is how we were trained. I also had to pay attention to other requirements such as 3 m isolation distance requirement,' he explains."},{"index":7,"size":171,"text":"This is Chonya's second season as a common bean QDS producer. From his experience in the previous season, Abeid says he is planning to continue with common bean QDS seed production over the long haul. This is because he makes more selling common bean seed than when he sells the grain. After seeing how well the bean seeds performed, his fellow farmers in Mkungungu Village are already placing orders for the next season. Thanks to good training by the project team, Chonya is also making smart choices to rotate maize and common bean within his plot from one season to the next. This year, with the WEMA tego maize variety that he has cultivated, he hopes that he will get good harvest despite the abysmal performance of maize crop within the region over the past few years, thanks to common droughts. Earlier on in the season, he was also confronted by a fall army worm attack on his maize plants, but he managed to deal with them quickly by applying pesticides."},{"index":8,"size":137,"text":"Africa RISING -NAFAKA project achievements so far in the 2017/2018 cropping season  1,000 demonstration sites for maize, soybean, and common beans established.  262 government extension staff trained on use of different protocols for the establishment of demonstration plots.  161 QDS producers trained and supported (30 tonnes of legumes, 162 tonnes of rice)  146 village-based agricultural agents (VBAAs) trained and supported as rural agrodealers.  50 local artisans trained in production of maize shellers and threshers.  130 spray service providers trained in all the project villages to provide professional pesticide sprayer services at a fee to other farmers.  41 grants given to 110 producer organizations for production of shellers, purchase of PICS bags for grain storage and threshers.  Thousands of metric tons of inputs and products sold through linkages with agrodealers."}]},{"head":"Erosion remains one of the biggest challenges still faced by farmers in Kongwa and Kiteto districts (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"'During the cropping seasons, it is possible sometimes that the rains start and then stop and only resume after several days. At the early stages of plant growth, this can have lasting damage on a crop like maize. Therefore, when I learnt about tied-ridging from one of my friends in Mlali Village. I knew instantly that it was something that could make a difference for me,' explains Paulo about her first impressions of tied-ridging back in late 2016."}]},{"head":"Martha Paulo at her farm where she is conducting different tied-ridging experiments (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Martha is also conducting different experimentations with tied-ridging in her farm. She is comparing tied-ridging with the peat method of water harvesting which they have been using in the past and the effect of tied ridging when used for sunflower crops."}]},{"head":"Side by side: One of Martha Paulo's experiments is comparing the peat method (left) and tied-ridging (right)(photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":70,"text":"Despite the success that can be witnessed on-farm when industrious farmers like Kuto and Paulo adopt practices such as setting up the Fanya juu and Fanya chini terraces; challenges like erosion are more effectively dealt with through community level action. Going forward, the Africa RISING team in Kongwa District is at the early stages of initiating community-wide efforts within the district to stop erosion through setting up landscape level interventions."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The team is also working to quantify the economic benefits of farmers adopting interventions such as the Fanya juu and Fanya chini terraces."}]},{"head":"Other farmers like Boaz Elias Sabai and his wife Grace (pictured) have also adopted tiedridging after learning about it at Martha Paulo's farm (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA).","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Experiments and data collection on different soil and water conservation treatments have been ongoing in Mlali Village for the past four years (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."}]},{"head":"Genetic intensification of groundnut, sorghum, pigeon pea and drought-tolerant maize","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":145,"text":"Genetic intensification is one of the three pillars of sustainable intensification, alongside ecological intensification and socio-economic intensification. Over the past five years, Africa RISING has been working with farmers in Kongwa and Kiteto districts to improve the crop varieties available to farmers in these semi-arid parts of Tanzania as an entry point to sustainably intensifying their farming systems. In both districts, the scientists and farmers have implemented systematic variety screening, on-farm testing and participatory variety selection for groundnut, sorghum, pigeon pea and drought-tolerant varieties. Through this work, some promising varieties have been identified and are targeted for release in 2019/2020. It is worth noting that the Africa RISING team did not do a 'from scratch' breeding program to arrive at the varieties being released to farmers, but rather leveraged on working with breeders from other initiatives to identify best-bet/best-fit varieties for Kongwa and Kiteto districts."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"By testing the new improved varieties with farmers, the research team has been able to get feedback from them as well as from other stakeholders. The approach adopted by the team has been participatory by nature. Farmers, for example, have been evaluating the varieties based on their traits of interest such as drought tolerance, early maturity, ability to yield more, taste and number of pods produced per plant (for groundnut). To scale out the new varieties once the top varieties have been selected, the team plans to promote them through community seed banks."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"These efforts are aligned to the current food security strategy for Kongwa District. The district strategy, which is being popularized to farmers and other stakeholders under the rallying call of 'Ondoa njaa Kongwa'(Kick hunger out of Kongwa), aims to promote the growing of drought resistant crops, particularly sorghum. The district council, however, faces a lack of improved seeds, a challenge which they have this season surmounted through collaboration with the Africa RISING team which provided them with 40 kg of improved sorghum varieties which were distributed to some farmers within the district."}]},{"head":"On-farm groundnut participatory variety selection in progress at farmers field in Mlali","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"Village, Kongwa District (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":96,"text":"For a vast majority of farmers in Kongwa and Kiteto districts, groundnut is a good source of nutrition and income due to a limited number of cash crops. Groundnut also has additional benefits. It improves soil health through nitrogen fixation and its haulms are a cheap and rich source of animal feeds. However, farmers have limited access to improved earlymaturing and high-yielding varieties of groundnut with both farmer and market preferred traits. Through Africa RISING efforts, new varieties with over 60% yield advantage over the farmer-grown varieties have been identified and scaling out efforts are ongoing."},{"index":3,"size":27,"text":"A farmer standing at one of the on-farm sites where the early-maturing drought-tolerant maize varieties are being evaluated in Mlali Village, Kongwa District (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":4,"size":160,"text":"Maize is one of the most important cereal crops for people's food and income in the central zone of Tanzania. Productivity of the crop remains low in Kongwa and Kiteto districts with an average of 1.1 tons/ha due to a number of factors including frequent dry spells during crop development, extreme temperatures (heat), common use of unimproved varieties, poor agronomic practices, pests and diseases. The lack of availability of improved varieties has significantly contributed to their low use despite their commercialization. Through Africa RISING engagement, 42 intermediate maturity group and another set of 60 early-maturity drought-tolerant maize varieties are being evaluated in Kongwa and Kiteto districts with farmers to develop more locally-adapted hybrids. This year, 9 promising maize hybrid varieties have been selected from the initial set of varieties and the research team plans to include them in the national performance trials (NPT) out of which 2 of the best from each set will be selected for fast-track variety release."}]},{"head":"Improving child, maternal and household nutrition and market competitiveness","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"A majority of poor smallholder farmer households in central Tanzania, especially children and women, are affected by insufficient access to nutritious foods, low dietary diversity, under nutrition and micronutrient deficiencies. To address this challenge, the Africa RISING project team in Kongwa and Kiteto districts resolved to integrate nutrition sensitive agricultural interventions and nutrition specific interventions. The project team is linking up its efforts to improve on farm productivity of crops (introducing better yielding and droughttolerant varieties of groundnut, maize, pigeon pea, sorghum etc.) to a nutrition focused effort where farmers are also trained on how to improve child and household nutrition through innovative menus based on these crops."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"The nutrition activities aim to equip farmers taking part in these learning groups (still predominantly women) with a package of integrated technologies for improved child nutrition that can be applied concurrently to address: (i) health-related practices on the importance of breast-feeding, personal hygiene and food safety technologies and (ii) nutrition-related practices of introducing knowledge on food groups, and complementary food preparations using diversified food products."},{"index":3,"size":65,"text":"Practical lessons on handwashing, hygiene, child-feeding, and cooking recipes have been taught to the women attending the nutrition field schools. The team has also been collecting data and monitoring diarrhea and infection-disease status of the children, effects of dietary diversity, acceptability of the new recipes coupled with periodical measurement of anthropometry (height, weight and mid upper arm circumference) to study the impact on nutritional status."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"'Before the nutrition-focused interventions started here in Mlali Village, the diet of most families was predominantly maize-based. The effects of this kind of diet were quite telling on the children under five, most of whom were stunted. This has changed now and it is observable that more and more children in the village look healthier with plump cheeks,' explains Rehema Boniface, one of the women taking part in the nutrition field schools in Mlali."},{"index":5,"size":57,"text":"Two mothers from Mlali Village hold packets of the Africa RISING porridge premix that they formulated as part of the project's training activities on nutrition. The premix which is made from maize, soybean, millet and pigeon pea is loved by children for whom the ingredients provide the different food groups required for growth (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"Women in Mlali Village are being trained on different ways to improve child, maternal and household nutrition through innovative food recipes which are based on the improved crop varieties introduced to farmers by Africa RISING (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."}]},{"head":"Sustainable intensification in action","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":139,"text":"A visit to Moshi Maile's farm in Mlali Village gave the group a chance to see the farming systems approach to sustainable intensification deployed by the Africa RISING project. Maile is a model farmer among his peers there. He has managed to successfully implement different technologies promoted by Africa RISING at farm level into a synergistic arrangements. The technologies he has adopted from the project include: variety selection of improved crop varieties (for better productivity), rearing improved chicken ecotypes (for income and improving community breed), establishing soil and water conservation structures like Fanya juu and Fanya chini terraces (for erosion control), and establishing woodlots and fodder banks (for fuelwood supply and supply of leaf meals for poultry). The combined effect of all these improved technologies and agricultural practices has been an immense improvement in the livelihoods of Maile's family."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Jerry Glover holding a cock of one of the improved breeds (weighing 5.5 kg!). These improved cock breeds were introduced to Maile and other farmers in Mlali Village through the Africa RISING project (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":3,"size":35,"text":"The introduction of the improved cock breeds was so as to ensure sufficient cross-breeding with the local variety chickens towards improving the genetic stock of the local chicken ecotypes for better meat and egg production."},{"index":4,"size":119,"text":"The other elements of this work also entailed training farmers on proper husbandry and poultry feed processing from locally available materials such as maize bran, sunflower seed cake, Gliricidia leaves (harvested from the woodlots), sorghum, and millet. So far 1,163 cross-bred grower chicks have been distributed to farmers. The cross-bred chicken are fast growing and can attain a live-weight of between 3.1 and 4.2 kg after just 4 -5 months which is a good market weight. The cross-breeds are also better at producing eggs, laying on average 260 eggs/year compared to the local varieties which lay an average of 70 eggs/year. These comparative advantages means that a farmers such as Maile can get increased income and improved nutrition faster."},{"index":5,"size":21,"text":"A Fanya juu and Fanya chini terrace reinforced with Glyricidia and Napier grass at Moshi Maile's farm (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":6,"size":63,"text":"Farmers are encouraged by the Africa RISING project to reinforce the terraces with either or both of these two crops which are not only good at holding the soil particles together and therefore increasing the effectiveness of the terrace but also can be used for livestock feed. Maile usually dries the Gliricidia leaves and grinds it for use in formulation of chicken feed."},{"index":7,"size":29,"text":"'I have gained a lot from these combined technologies. I have, for example, built a better house from the income generated from selling these improved chicken breeds,' says Maile."},{"index":8,"size":77,"text":"This bean shelling machine prototype and other technologies will also be part of the array of improved technologies that will be demonstrated for farmers at Mushobozi's farm. This shelling machine prototype which (still is being enhanced) uses 0.3 litres of petrol to thresh 295 kg of beans/hour. This translates to a labour saving of 73% when compared to manual threshing of beans. The machine is seven times more efficient compared to manual threshing (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"SIIL is partnering with Wilfred Mushobozi (centre), an entrepreneur, to use his farm as an agricultural technology park (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":10,"size":70,"text":"In 2014, he heard about the maize-pigeon pea intercropping technology being tested by the Africa RISING program. The technology consisted of intercropping improved maize and pigeon pea seed at an inter row spacing of 100 cm and 50 cm in between rows using 20 kg P/ha at planting, from different sources of Phosphorus fertilizers. The different sources of P fertilizers were Di-Ammonium Phosphate (DAP), Minjingu Mazao, and Minjingu Hyperphosphate (granular)."}]},{"head":"Africa RISING technologies transitioning from one generation to the next","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"Olais Lukumay is 21 years old. At the end of last year (2017), he completed a diploma in accounting. Unlike majority of his schoolmates who have decided to go to Dar es Salaam to seek employment in big corporations, Lukumay opted to come back to his native Bermi Village in northern Tanzania to focus on vegetable farming and poultry production."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"'I opted to come back and farm because I learnt first-hand from my mother how much income one could generate from agriculture -with the right technologies, know-how and efforts,' notes Olais."},{"index":3,"size":116,"text":"Veronica Lukumay (his mother) has been involved in farming for over 20 years as her sole source of income. In 2013, she joined Africa RISING activities as part of the pioneer group of farmers who were at first participating in trials of improved technologies, and after seeing the benefits went ahead to adopt them. She participated in trials and demonstrations of technologies such as improved vegetable varieties and their corresponding good agricultural practices (GAPs), improved poultry production, and improved livestock feeding. Little did she know that her participation in these trials and demonstrations and her subsequent success with each of them was making a lasting impression on her children -Lukumay being the most interested among them."},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Forage chopper machine at Veronica Lukumay's homestead (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"'I was happy to see Lukumay get more involved in farming during the holidays. For me this was good because it made sure that he was not involved in any mischief within the village as most of young people are prone to during their holidays. Little did I know that we ignited his deep interest in farming through these activities,' explains his mother."},{"index":6,"size":53,"text":"For her, the fact that her son has mastered the different technologies from improved vegetables and GAPs, improved poultry husbandry, operation and use of fodder chopper is a big bonus. The Africa RISING technologies are now a legacy that she considers to have been passed down to the next generation in her family."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Whenever and wherever he can, Lukumay tries to influence his friends in Bermi Village to get into farming. Some of his friends are heeding his call and starting their own poultry broods with the corresponding improved husbandry practices promoted by Africa RISING."},{"index":8,"size":11,"text":"Olais Lukumay holding his mini-electric egg hatcher (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"In poultry production, he has gone an extra step forward and has started an artificial hatcher-an aspect that was not part of the practices promoted by Africa RISING. He has decided to do so because sees the potential in it. Although he is encountering difficulties in this venture like low hatching percentages and unstable electricity supply, he is not deterred."}]},{"head":"Low-cost screenhouses and automated irrigation kits revolutionizing vegetable production in Babati District","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"A screenhouse (in the background) in Gallapo Village (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA)."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The introduction of low-cost screenhouses coupled with automated irrigation kits is taking peri-urban vegetable production in Babati District, Tanzania, to the next level. The low-cost screenhouses provide an artificial crop environment through the use of soil covers and plant covers to control soil and aerial pests and climatic conditions while the automated irrigation kit helps farmers to use water resources more efficiently in growing vegetables. The result of these two components is: better agricultural practices, better yields, and better-quality vegetables into the market."},{"index":3,"size":12,"text":"The screenhouses cost about USD 300 (lower when local materials are used "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" The SIIL model for commercialization of dressed bean seeds and scaling seed access to farmers through village-based agro-dealers. Through this model, the project is reaching 17,250 farmers in Tanzania [a total of 117 village-based agro-dealers are attached to 150 farmers each (photo credit: Jonathan Odhong'/IITA). "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":" ). They are designed by Worldveg in collaboration A to Z Textiles Limited, a private firm operating in Tanzania. The automated irrigation kit (Smart Agricultural Research Optimization System -SAROS) is being piloted by the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT). Notes: TMI-Tomato inside screen house; TMO-tomato in open field; SWI-sweet pepper in screen house; SWO-Sweet pepper in open field. * Plants were planted in three beds measuring 1x10 meters; ** Show average number of aphids on sweet pepper. Table 1. Yield and marketable yield from screenhouse and open in Seloto   Table 1. Yield and marketable yield from screenhouse and open in Seloto Location Variety Total yield Yield(kg/m 2 )* Total Percent of Number of LocationVarietyTotal yieldYield(kg/m 2 )* TotalPercent ofNumber of   (kg)  marketable marketable tomato leaf (kg)marketablemarketabletomato leaf     (kg) surplus mines and aphids (kg)surplusmines and aphids       per plant in the per plant in the       6 th week. 6 th week. Seloto SWI 124.3 12.4 113.6 91 0** SelotoSWI124.312.4113.6910**  SWO 269.6 27.0 253.5 94 0.02** SWO269.627.0253.5940.02** Seloto TMI 262.9 26.2 252 96 8.1 SelotoTMI262.926.2252968.1  TMO 278.0 27.8 162.6 58 0 TMO278.027.8162.6580  "}],"sieverID":"df0b83f7-c453-43d5-94f6-d2504f8528cb","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09aca0129ad15ae19a00734004e93a0d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f081f5b5-8cba-4b9c-979a-06eacb92580c/retrieve"},"pageCount":7,"title":"Organic Crop Management Enhances Chicoric Acid Content in Lettuce","keywords":["AIDS","Antiretroviral","Crop Production Practices","HIV-1","Organic Fertilization","Phytochemical *"],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":225,"text":"Currently drug therapies for treating human immunodefiency virus (HIV-1), the causative agent of acquired immune deficiency syndrome (AIDS), target multiple enzymes that can disrupt the viral lifecycle [1][2][3]. For productive infection, this retrovirus needs to incorporate its cDNA into the host genome with the help of the viral enzyme, integrase [4]. Integrase activity is essential for viral replication, a key step in the infection of the host cell, and is inhibited by L-chicoric acid (decaffeoyltartaric acid) which is naturally found in a number of plants species. Extensive studies have shown that both in vivo and vitro chicoric acid is a potent and selective inhibitor of this enzyme with favorable therapeutic indices [5,6]. In addition, numerous synthetic analogs of chicoric acid have been examined for its efficacy as an antiretroviral agent with favorable results [7][8][9]. L-chicoric acid has been found to act synergistically when used in combination with drugs containing reverse transcriptase inhibitors and protease inhibitor and has been found to be equally effective against both wild and drug resistant mutants of HIV-1 [1]. The first drug using integrase inhibitor (Raltegravir) was approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) in 2007 while still others are being actively tested in clinical trials [10]. The focus on integrase inhibitors, especially L-chicoric acid for developing successful anti-HIV drug therapy, has been a promising area of study [3,[10][11][12]."},{"index":2,"size":131,"text":"Although chicoric acid has been identified in multiple plant species including Echinacea [13], dandelion [14], basil [15], and others [16], lettuce is particularly an attractive source of this phenolic compound since it is a commonly consumed leafy vegetable in many regions of the world including the US. Chicoric acid is a major phenolic compound in lettuce [17,18] and can accumulate in significant amounts in response to various abiotic stresses including, heat shock, chilling, mild water stress and high light [18,19]. In addition to abiotic factors, many biotic factors can also influence the accumulation of phytochemicals in plants [20]. Therefore, crop management practices and growing conditions are likely to play an important role in affecting the phytochemical content [21][22][23][24][25] and thereby, providing promising practical strategies to enhance this phytochemical content in lettuce."},{"index":3,"size":145,"text":"To keep pace with the rapidly growing demand for organic foods in the US, organic production has been steadily growing over the past two decades [26,27]. The increasing popularity of organic food is partly based on the overwhelming consumer perception that they are healthy and are rich in health-promoting nutrients and phytochemicals. Although many studies tend to support this view [21,25], a broader review of studies on various crops under varied field conditions suggests that the impact of organic practices on phytochemicals in crops is rather less than conclusive [28,29]. However, our previous studies have shown that several abiotic factors including growing conditions can lead to accumulation of a number of phenolic compounds in lettuce grown under greenhouse and field conditions [18,24]. Based on these findings, in this study we examine the effects organic management practices on many phenolic compounds including chicoric acid in lettuce."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Experimental Conditions and Plant Material","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":280,"text":"Seeds of a green leaf lettuce, \"Baronet\" were germinated in plastic pots, 8 cm × 8 cm × 7 cm (L × W × H), with a growing medium (Metro-Mix 350, Sun Gro, Canada). Seedlings were grown in a greenhouse in Manhattan at Kansas State University for 3 weeks until they were transplanted to field plots and certified organic plots (each plot 9.8 m × 6.1 m; L × W) at K-State Horticulture Research and Extension Center, Olathe, KS. Organic plots were managed organically for the past 5 years in compliance with USDA National Organic Program standards. The field trial was laid out on a completely randomized block design (CRBD) with 3 replications. Based on the analyses of soil samples (Kennebec silt loam) from K-State Horticulture Research and Extension Center, the amount of both organic and conventional fertilizers to be applied was determined. As the organic source, Hu-More 1N-0.4P-0.8K (composted cattle manure and alfalfa hay; Humalfa, Inc., Shattuck, OK, USA) was applied to each plot at 224 kg•ha -1 N. Commercial synthetic fertilizer 13N-13P-13K (Greenskeeper Select Lawn and Garden Fertilizer, T and N, Inc., Foristell, MO, USA) was used for conventional cultivation at 112 kg•ha -1 N. Fertilizers were incorporated into soil 1 week before transplanting the seedlings to the field plots. The plots were irrigated though the drip tape line. Both organic and conventional plots were divided into two groups; namely control (C) that did not receive any fertilizers and treated (F) that received either organic or synthetic fertilizer. From our preliminary studies, high fertility had an adverse effect on the accumulation of phenolic compounds in lettuce and therefore, control plots were selected not to receive any fertilizer application."}]},{"head":"Total Phenolic Content","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":246,"text":"For total phenolic content analysis, 3 leaf samples per treatment from 3 randomly selected plants were collected at the time of harvest. Samples were collected from fully expanded, just matured leaves and frozen immediately in liquid N 2 before transferring them to the laboratory where they were stored at -20˚C until use. The total phenolic content of lettuce leaves was determined by a modified Folin-Ciocalteu reagent method [30]. About 1 g of fresh leaf tissue was macerated in liquid N 2 with mortar and pestle and mixed with 3 mL 80% (v/v) acetone. The sample was placed into a 1.5 mL tightly covered micro-tube and incubated in darkness at 4˚C overnight. Subsequently, the sample was centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 2 min and the supernatant was used as phenolic extract. A mixture of 135 μL distilled water, 750 μL 1/10 dilution Folin-Ciocalteu reagent (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, MO, USA) and 600 μL 7.5% (w/v) Na 2 CO 3 was added to 50 μL of phenolic extract in a 1.5 mL micro-tube. After vortexing for 10 s, the mixture was incubated at 45˚C in a water bath for 15 min. Samples were allowed to cool at room temperature before measuring the absorbance at 765 nm by a spectrophotometer (U-1100, Hitachi Ltd. Japan). A blank was prepared using 50 μL 80% (v/v) acetone. A gallic acid standard curve was prepared from a freshly made stock solution of 1 mg•mL -1 gallic acid (Acros Organics, Belgium) in 80% (v/v) acetone."}]},{"head":"Antioxidant Capacity","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":276,"text":"The sample collection for the measurement of antioxidant capacity was the same as those for the analysis of total phenolic content. A modified ABTS (Aminobenzotriazole) method was used to analyze the antioxidant capacity of lettuce leaves [31]. Antioxidants were extracted by 5 mL extraction solution [acetone: water: acetic acid = 70:29.5: 0.5, (v:v:v)] from about 1 g of lettuce frozen in liquid N 2 . A 1 mL of the extract placed into a 1.5 mL tightly covered micro-tube was incubated in darkness at -20˚C overnight. Subsequently, the solution was centrifuged at 1000 rpm for 2 min. ABTS [(2.5 mM) (Roche Diagnostics, Indianapolis, IN, USA)] stock solution was prepared and 0.4 g of MnO 2 (Acros Organics, Belgium) was added to 20 mL of stock solution to generate ABTS radical cations (ABTS * ), stirring the mixture occasionally for 30 min at room temperature. Excess MnO 2 was removed by filtration first using a filter paper (No. 1, Whatman plc., UK) through a Buchner funnel, and then with a 0.2 μM syringe-end filter (Millipore Corp., Bedford, MA, USA). The ABTS * solution was incubated at 30˚C in a water bath during the analysis and was diluted to an absorbance 0.7 (±0.02) at 730 nm with 5 mM PBS [phosphate buffer saline, pH 7.4, ionic strength (150 mM NaCl)]. A 100 μL of the extract was add to 1 mL of ABTS * solution. The solution was vortexted for 10 s and its absorbance was recorded at 730 nm by a spectrophotometer (U-1100, Hitachi Ltd. Japan) at the end of 1 min reaction time. Trolox [(6-Hydroxy-2,5,7,8-tetramethylchroman-2-carboxylic acid) (Acros Organics, Belgium)] was used as a standard for quantification."}]},{"head":"High-Performance Liquid Chromatography (HPLC) Analyses","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"The extraction of phenolic compounds from lettuce leaves was carried out as described by Nicolle, et al. [32] with minor modifications. Three leaves collected from separate plants at the time of harvest were used per treatment."},{"index":2,"size":92,"text":"Frozen leaf sample (1 g) macerated in a mortar with a pestle using liquid N 2 was mixed with 50 mL of 70% methanol at 80˚C for 1 min. After stirring at room temperature for 1 h, the mixture was filtered through a filter paper (No. 1, Whatman plc., UK). The extract (25 mL) was evaporated to dryness by a rotary evaporator (Rotavapor R110, Brinkmann Instruments, Inc., Westbury, NY, USA) under reduced pressure at 50˚C and then resuspended in 5 mL of 70% methanol. The concentrated solution was filtered through a 0. "}]},{"head":"Plant Growth Characteristics","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Data on biomass accumulation in lettuce were collected at 5 and 7 weeks after germination. Fresh and dry weights of roots and shoots were determined using six lettuce plants per each treatment. Immediately after collecting samples, fresh weights of roots and shoots were measured in the field. The samples were dried at 70˚C in an oven for 3 d for the determination of their dry weights."}]},{"head":"Statistical Analysis","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"Analysis of variance (ANOVA) was performed by the statistical analysis system program (SAS Institute, Inc., Cary, NC, USA). Duncan's multiple range test was used to compare means."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":297,"text":"There were no significant differences in the total phenolic content or antioxidant capacity between lettuce crops grown organically and conventionally with or without fertilization (Figure 1). However, organic management enhanced the accumulation of some key phenolic compounds in lettuce. Chicoric acid was the dominant phenolic compound in lettuce followed by chlorogenic acid. Organic management of the crop resulted in a significant increase in the levels of chicoroc acid and quercetin glycoside in lettuce over conventional management. The conspicuous increase was in the chicoric acid content which nearly doubled by organic management practices while no differences were observed in amount of other phenolic compounds including chlorogenic and caffeic acids and luteolin glycoside between organic and conventional management practices (Figure 2). Similar results have been observed in lettuce in response to a number of abiotic stresses in a growth chamber study [18]. In our previous study, levels of chicoric acid and other phenolic compounds increased significantly due to a brief exposure of lettuce plants to stress conditions including chilling, heat shock and high light (800 μmol/m 2 /s) with high light producing the largest response of a four-fold increase over the control. This was confirmed in a recent field study with green and red leaf lettuce, where lettuce grown in open field with exposure to direct solar radiation produced more chicoric acid than did the crop grown in high tunnels [24]. Similarly, higher chicoric acid was found to accumulate in young lettuce seedlings grown in open field than under greenhouse conditions [33]. In addition, recurring mild water stress in lettuce was also found to increase chicoric acid by 2-fold and the expression of gene, phenylalanine ammonia-lyase (PAL), which encodes for the gateway enzyme in the phenylproponoid pathway responsible for the biosynthesis of a wide range of phenolic compounds [19]."},{"index":2,"size":142,"text":"The increase in the amount of chicoric acid in lettuce due to organic management was the largest (more than 0.8 mg/g FW). Chicoric acid has been extensively investigated as an effective inhibitor of HIV-1 integrase, an antiretroviral agent for developing effective therapies against AIDS. Chicoric acid was found to be a potent component in combination therapy and can act in a synergistic fashion with drugs that target other enzymes including Zidovudine, the first antiretroviral drug approved (nucleoside analog reverse transcriptase inhibitor) and a Nelfinavir (a protease inhibitor) [1]. Interestingly if chicoric acid was included in the drug regimen, the dose of these retroviral drugs could be reduced by more than 33% to obtain equivalent effect in controlling HIV-1 [34]. This may have the distinct advantage of reducing both the potential toxicity and the high cost associated with these drugs in treating AIDS."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"However, it should be noted that although large increases in chicoric acid and quercetin glycoside were noted with organic management, this trend was neither reflected in the overall content of phenolic compounds nor in the total antioxidant activity. In a study comparing organic and con-ventional management practices in lettuce, Zhao, et al. [35] observed similar results where no significant differences in either total phenolic accumulation or in some individual phenolic compounds that did not include chicoric acid."},{"index":4,"size":271,"text":"Fertilization generally reduced the overall phenolic content and antioxidant capacity in both organically and conventionally managed crops. It significantly reduced the accumulation of some key phenolic compounds including chicoric acid, chlorogenic acid, caffeic acid and quercetin glycoside only under organic management while it did not have any effect on the accumulation of these compounds under conventional management. In fact, caffeic acid accumulation was completely suppressed by organic fertilization in lettuce but not in conventionally managed crop. It is interesting that organically managed plants, not receiving any fertilizers, had 4 fold higher chicoric acid content than those receiving fertilization while there was no effect of fertilization in conventionally managed crop. Nitrogen over fertilization has been found to have a negative effect on crop quality by decreasing polyphenol content [36,37]. Conversely, nutrient deficiency, especially nitrogen has been found to induce phytochemicals such as ascorbic acid, flavanoids, and flavonols in Arabidopsis and tomato [38][39][40][41]. Similarly, the deficiency of other nutrients such as phosphorous, sulfur, and zinc also had an impact on the phytochemicals and related enzymes in several plant species [39,40,42]. Our results show that organically managed crops respond differently to fertilizations perhaps because they present unique set of conditions such as slow availability of soil nutrients and enhanced microbial activity [43,44], particularly with regard to some specific microbial interactions with plant roots, which are known to induce the accumulation of secondary metabolites in plants [45,46]. The field plots used in our study have been managed organically for the last 5 years and thus, it is reasonable to expect the presence of a favorable root-microflora interaction which may promote phytochemical accumulation in lettuce crop."},{"index":5,"size":246,"text":"With regard to the growth of lettuce plants, organically grown lettuce produced about 2.5 fold higher shoot biomass (fresh weight basis) at the time of harvest (7 week old) than its conventional counterpart with no fertilization (Table 1). Pre-plant application of organic fertilizers to the crop, although producing an unfavorable effect on the chicoric acid content, did not have any significant effect on fresh shoot weight at the time of harvest. The organic plots used here were managed organically for extended period of time and it is likely that they have built up a basal fertility level. Furthermore, addition of organic fertilization will make nutrients available at a slower rate which is likely to result in a rather steady and slower response in plant growth and biomass accumulations. However, in conventional plots, with fertilization, shoot biomass increased but was similar to that grown under organic conditions both at 5 and 7 week stages. Similar trend was also observed in the accumulation of biomass in the roots. The results show that in organically managed lettuce, there was no difference in the crop yields between pre-plant fertilization and no fertilization. However, avoiding pre-plant fertilization did have the additional benefit of increased chicoric acid content in the leaves. Thus, the results show that adoption of long term organic production practices but avoiding pre-plant fertilization is beneficial in enhancing the antiretroviral agent chicoric acid in lettuce by increasing both its content and the crop yield relative the conventionally managed crop."}]},{"head":"Conclusion","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"L-chicoric acid, an antiretroviral agent, is a dominant phenolic compound in lettuce and its accumulation is affected by a number of extrinsic factors including crop production and management practices. The results from this study indicate that organic management practices of lettuce can increase the L-chiocric acid content of leaves nearly 2-fold along with quercetin glycoside content compared to the conventional management practices. However, pre-plant application of fertilizers in organically managed crop resulted in reduced accumulation of many phytochemiclas including L-chicoric, chlorogenic and caffeic acids but did not have any significant effect on the crop yield. Therefore, adopting a long term organic production practices without the pre-plant fertilization is a successful practical strategy to significantly enhance the levels of L-chicoric acid in lettuce crop."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 .Figure 2 . Figure 1. Total phenolic content and antioxidant capacity in organically (open bars) and conventionally (shaded bars) grown lettuce plants at the time of harvest. C and F indicate control group and fertilizer group, respectively. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Fresh and dry weights of organically and conventionally managed lettuce plants at 5 weeks and 7 weeks (at harvest). C and F indicate control group, without fertilizers, and fertilizer group, respectively. The values are the means (n = 6) with significance at p = 0.05 ( * ), 0.01 ( ** ) or 0.001 ( *** ).      5 weeks   7 weeks  5 weeks7 weeks Soil management Fertilization Fresh weight (g) Dry weight (g) Fresh weight (g) Dry weight (g) Soil managementFertilizationFresh weight (g)Dry weight (g)Fresh weight (g)Dry weight (g)   Shoot Root Shoot Root Shoot Root Shoot Root ShootRootShootRootShootRootShootRoot Organic C 21.1 b 2.3 a 1.7 ab 0.15 ab 250.5 a 9.1 b 15.7 a 0.85 b OrganicC21.1 b2.3 a1.7 ab0.15 ab250.5 a9.1 b15.7 a0.85 b  F 30.7 a 3.1 a 2.4 a 0.19 a 313.2 a 13.1 a 18.6 a 1.19 a F30.7 a3.1 a2.4 a0.19 a313.2 a13.1 a18.6 a1.19 a Conventional C 12.1 c 1.7 b 1.1 b 0.12 b 97.0 b 4.9 c 6.8 b 0.42 c ConventionalC12.1 c1.7 b1.1 b0.12 b97.0 b4.9 c6.8 b0.42 c  F 28.8 ab 3.2 a 2.3 a 0.19 a 230.2 a 10.5 ab 14.5 a 0.8 b F28.8 ab3.2 a2.3 a0.19 a230.2 a10.5 ab14.5 a0.8 b Significance ** ** ** * *** ** *** *** Significance******************  "}],"sieverID":"23e8cfd1-dcc7-4640-aed2-aebe4e7f2eb9","abstract":"L-chicoric acid is a dominant phenolic compound in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) and has been shown to accumulate in response to many abiotic stresses and crop management practices. It is a potent inhibitor of human immunodeficiency virus (HIV-1) integrase needed for the replication of this virus and for the productive infection of the host cell. L-chicoric acid has been found to act synergistically in combination with anti-HIV drugs used for treating acquired immunodeficiency disorder (AIDS). We show in this study that organic management practices increase the chicoric acid content by nearly 2-fold compared to conventional management practices while they did not have a significant effect on the overall accumulation of phenolic compounds and antioxidants. Similar increase was observed in quercetin-3-O-glucoside under organic management. In addition, pre-plant fertilization decreased the levels of many phenolic compounds including chicoric acid under organic management unlike under conventional management. However, organically managed crop without pre-plant fertilization had better growth and produced about 2.5 times higher yield and higher chicoric acid content than did the conventionally managed crop. Thus, the results show that long term organic crop management practices, but avoiding pre-plant fertilization, can significantly enhance the yield of antiretroviral agent chicoric acid in lettuce."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"09f8a7f9364b583e0c875097056282d9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c9fb25ef-2c17-45e3-9751-187ba90f9fdd/retrieve"},"pageCount":16,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":98,"text":"are higher than the annual raínfall, whích is about \\300 mm. Over 90% ofthe rainfall is reeeived during the period from June to October. The monsoon sets in by 15 June and withdraws around 15 September. Winter conditions set in by mid-November, when the average minimum temperature reaches around ¡5°C. Hence, the rice erop should mature before this time. Sometimes winter conditíons set in early-by the thírd week ofOetober--and thís results in íncreased sterilíty and, thereby, low productivity. Under such fragíle eondítions, the identificatíon of suitable genotypes should be based both on climatic and edaphíc eharacteristies (IRRI-IGAU 2000)."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"The research sites are located in tbree villages: Tarpongi, Saguní, and Khairkut in the Raipur distriet. Tarpongi is 29 km in the north of Raipur; Saguni and Kharkut are 5 km to the west of Tarpongí. These villages are located within 50 km ofIGAU. There are 200 to 250 households in each village. More than 90% ofthe farming households in these villages belong to the other backward caste with small and margínallandholdings (owning less than a hectare), ofwhich the majority are Hindus. Male heads of households have an average of four years in school, while the majority of the women have lower levels of education and did not go to schooL AH ofthe farmers interviewed owned their own land. In eaeh village, 25 farmers were interviewed with regards to their fanníng and eropping systems, rice díversíty, and their eriteria for varietal selection. The survey was conducted in 1997 and 1998."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"The areas for rice production in these representatíve villages are heterogeneous. Farmers in these villages classify their land according to the topography/slope, such as upland, midland, and lowland. The light so¡ls in the uplands are cIassified by farmers as bhata (entisols), while the sandy loam in the midlands are referred to matasi (ínceptisols). The heavy-textured soils in the lowlands are referred to as kanhar (vertisols). Most of the drought-prone areas have light-textured soíls, whereas the more favorable arcas have heavy-structured soils. Tarpongí has líght-textured soils while the other two villages have heavy-structured soils. The length of the rice-growing season is primarily dependen! on moisture availabilíty, whích ís dependent on slope and soiJ type."},{"index":4,"size":118,"text":"Rice ís grown mainly in the rainy season (kharif) in a biasi system. Land preparatíon is done by bulJocks and rice is dry-seeded at the beginning ofthe rainy season in June. When enough rain has accumulated in the field, 25-to 30-day-old seedlin[s are wet-plowed, laddered, and redistributed. This traditional practice, ca1led beushening or biasi, is common in many rainfed areas of eastem India, particularly in Madhya Pradesh. Farmers continue tms practice with the beliefthat ít helps to control weeds and stímulate root growth (Fujísaka el aL 1993;Singh, Singh, and Singh 1994). Farmers grow purple-colored rice varieties as a strategy to identífy and eradicate wild rice (which is prevalent in this region) at an early stage of crop growth."},{"index":5,"size":197,"text":"F amily members provide the major source oflabor for rice cultivation. While maJe family members do most of the land preparatíon, rice broadeasting, and applícation of chemicals, females are predominantly responsible for weeding, applying farmyard manure, harvesting, threshing by band, winnowing, and managing seeds for storage. Seed selectíon ís done by both husband and wífe. Other post-harvest activities, such sun drying, dehusking, and parboiling are exclusively done by women. Caring for livestock and, consequently, daiJy collection of green fodder for the livestock is done mostly by women (Sharma et aL 1997). Thus, women's criteria for rice varietal choices may be influenced by their roles and responsibilíties in farming and their social and relígíous obligations, and may differ from those ofmen. The majority ofthe farmers obtain new seeds from their neighbors and from extension workers. Only 24% obtain new seeds from IGAU. This indicates a lack of awareness among farmers about the new technologies developed at the university. Weeds are prevalen! in farmers' fields, and roguing the rice fields to protect the purity of seeds is not cornmonly practiced ín these villages. Rice mixtures and weed seeds are commonly found in the seed stocked for the next season."},{"index":6,"size":175,"text":"The cropping intensity in these villages is low because ofthe lack of supplementary irrigation water during the rabi season. The cropping systems in the villages are rice-fallow, rice-lathyrus, or rice-chíckpea (table 1). The chickpea and lathyrus crops are grown as relay crops (locally called utera in rice). (5-30) A high díversity ofrice varíeties exists in these villages. The names of the varíeties grown by farmers in these villages are shown in table 2. Ofthe total area grown to rice in the lowlands ofTarpongi, 73% is grown with traditional varieties, while the rest (27%) has modem varíeties. Twenty years ago, there were about 20 traditional varíeties; however, this number has declined. In contrast, in the uplands of Saguni and Kharkut, the adoption of modem varíeties is slightly higher than thethe adoption of traditional ones. Traditional varíeties such as Safri-17 and Chepti gurmatia are popular in the lowlands. The main reason for adoption of traditional varieties in the lowlands with heavy soíls is because aH the traditional varíeties are tall and can sustain even late biasi operations."},{"index":7,"size":151,"text":"According to the rainfall pattem and soíl types of Chhattisgarh, farmers grow varieties according to the land elevation, hydrology, and soils. Rice varieties with a growth duration ofless than 110 days are grown on the upper (undulating) portion ofuplands with loamy to sandy Boíl bhata (entisols). Rice varíeties with a growth duratíon of 110 to 130 days are allocated mainly to the midland (gently undulating) sandy loam matasi (inceptisols). Varieties with a growth duration ofup to 140 days are best suited for light soils, such as those found in Tarpongi village. Late-maturing varíeties (140 to 155 days) are ideal for low-lying, heavy-textured dorasa andkanhar soil types, such as those found in Saguni and Khairkut. Crops are grown chronologically wífu fue lowland fields planted first and the upland helds planted last. Lowland fields are submergence-prone and need to be sown early so fuat seedlings are already establíshed before fue fields are flooded."}]},{"head":"F armers' perceptions of traditional and modem rice varieties","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":232,"text":"Afier identifyíng the modern and traditional varieties fanners grew, questions were asked about positive and negative attributes. These questions were open-ended and no attempt was made to ¡mpose a priori categories of answers, Table 3 shows the list of positive traits of popular traditional varieties such as Safrí-17 (late duratíon) and Chepti gurmatia (medium duration). Alfuough fuese traditíonal varieties have !ower yields, fanners prefer fuem because of fueir combined positíve Swarna and Mahamaya are two modem varieties tha! have thepositive qualities present in the traditional varieties. Swarna is a high yielder, late maturing and semi-dwarf. Farmers perceive tha! these varieties can tolerate drought Mahamaya, similar to Chepti gurmatia, also has the purple leaf sheath and purple auricle, which help to distínguish it from wild rice. 1t has potentially higher yields !han the traditional varieties; however, the modern varieties are mOfe susceptible lo diseases (bacteria! blight and gall midge). Mahamaya is also susceptible to lodging because of íts short starure (table 4). Actually, Swarna was released in 1982 from Andhra Pradesh and was tested by ¡he plant breeders. However, it was not recommended to farmers before 1992. The adoption of Swama has been fast and it has replaeed local varieties such as Safri and Dubraj and improved varieties such as Mashuri. However, sine e 1992, not a single variety with these positive combined eharacteristícs eould be relcased by the local brceders in IGAU"},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"Farmers' Selecrion Críteria {or Rice Varietíes .lI\"'q;::ua:::n.::I\"'IIy<-_____ -'-_"},{"index":3,"size":111,"text":"Mahamaya was only released in 1997. Both Swarna and Mahamaya were released for irrigated rice ecosystems, but because oftheir perceived ability to tolerate drought and theÍr high market demand by traders, these two varieties have become ver)' popular, Millers and traders prefer Mahamaya for making beaten rice and puffed rice. Poor farmers and agriculturallabarers who are paid in terms af rice prefer Mahamaya because they feel that it satisfies their hunger. Mahamaya has bold, coarse grains that they believe last longer in the stomach. F armers also prefer Swama for basi (Ieftover rice from dínner, dipped in water with a little salt and eaten the following day for breakfast or lunch)."}]},{"head":"Male andfemalefarmers' eriteria in seleeting riee varieties","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"Despite the active involvement of women in rice production, post-harvest, and seed-management activities, scientists, who are mastly men, aften talk with male farmers only. Ignoring women's knowledge and preferences for rice varieties may be an obstacle lo adoption of improved varieties, particularly in areas with gender-specific tasks and in farm aetivities where women have considerable influence. Far example, a released variety such as Pant-4 is high yielding but is rejected by wamen farmers because it is difficult to thresh by hand. In contrast, traditional varieties that are low yielders are still grown because of their desirable taste and their eating and cooking qualities that make them well-suited forrice produets that women prepare. Knowing men's and women's eriteria in rice varietal selection and access to and control of new seeds, information, etc., willlead lo more efficient dissemination ofimproved rice varieties for rainfed conditions and their subsequent adoption. Thus, in 1998, a team of scientists from the Directorate of Extension, ¡GAU, conducted focused research in the same villages. Our objeetive was to test and develop a methodology for eliciting male and fernale farmers' eriteria and to determine whether there are gender differences in these criteria in rice varietal choice."},{"index":2,"size":230,"text":"The majority of the women farmers are illiterate and are less exposed to household surveys; therefore, we used a simple participatory method of elicíting their perceptions regarding the useful traits they consider when selecting rice varieties. Men and women were separately involved in this activity. This method, which is like a game of cards (see methodology section), gave the farmers more time to think as weil as to elljoy the process. Tables 5 to 7 show the important traits thatmale and female farmers eonsider when selectíng rice varieties according lo land elevation and size of landholdíng. The results show that grain yield was the most important eriterion for both men and women farmers in selecting rice varieties for allland types and sizes oflandholding. Both men and women gave more value to eating quality (laste) and durationlmarurity for rice varieties grown on upland fields. However, women were more concemed with market price, drought tolerance, pes! and insect resistance, and competítiveness to weeds. On the other hand, men gave more importance to graín size and shape than women did. For midland conditions, women gave higher values lo eating quality and market price, while men gave more importance lo duration and marurity. For lowlands, eating quality and market price were considerations for both men and women. Women consistently gave higher values to the multiple use of straw for varieties grown in allland types."},{"index":3,"size":109,"text":"We also assessed whether there were differences in eriteria between men and women from marginal and large farms. Table 6 shows that there is not much difference between the eriteria across size oflandholdíng. Both men and women wíth large farms gave the highest value lo grain yield. Aside from grain yield, both men and women from the same economic category gave more importance to eatíng quality and market price. Duratíonlmarurity was more importan! to male farmers from large farrns than to women ofthe same category, similar to marginal farmers. Women from both large and small farms gave a higher value lo the multiple use of straw than men did."},{"index":4,"size":221,"text":"In summary, the most importan! traits tha! both men and women value in selecting rice varieties are grain yield, eatíng quality (taste), marke! price, durationlmarurity, drought tolerance, and resistance to pests and diseases. Women placed higher weights on multiple uses of straw aeross allland types and for both large and small landholdings. Men did not consider this as important, obvíously because women are more responsible than men in caring for the livestock. Rice straw is used as feed for the livestock and also mixed with cowdung to make a cake for household fue!. Thus, women consider both grain yield and rice biomass in selecting rice varieties according to their specific environments. A rice variety that has high grain yields but low quantity and quality of rice straw has a lower chance of adoption by women farmers. Men gave more importance to grain size and shape for varieties grown on the uplands. Men owning smaIl farms considered adaptation ofthe variety to specific soil conditions as being extremely important (second to yield) but were the only group to rank this highly. This may be because poorer farmers cultivate more marginalland (explaining the need for adaptation ofthe variety to soil type). Women did not rank this characteristic highly, probably because oftheir role in production (men tend to choose the varieties and cIear the land)."},{"index":5,"size":138,"text":"LogicaIly, drought tolerance was more important for upland and midland areas than for lowland areas. Women weighted this more highly than meno While the participatory ranking method was use fui in assessing the trade-offs between traits valued by farmers, this method could be improved by incIuding traits mentioned in the open-ended  questionnaires. The cards shown by the researcher limited the choice of desired traits--other traits based on specific cultural practíces, such as a preference for purple-colored rice varieties or for varieties suited to the beushening method of land preparation, were not mentioned at all. Moreover, other social considerations, such as a preference for late and medium varieties to coincide with a religious festival such as Diwali were not captured. Farmers usually harvest rice onIy afterthe Diwali festival. During this festival, families give special rice as gifts to relatives."}]},{"head":"Participatory varietaI selection","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Although scientists accept that farmers are careful managers and possess a wealth of knowledge about theÍr production systems, this knowledge is not sufficiently used in the formal breeding process (Kshirsager et al. 1998) Several strategies were used to mvolve farmers in PVS. Farmers volunteered to grow 16 early-to medium-duration group varieties and late-duration varieties on their own fields for three consecutive years. The early/mediuru-duration group varieties were tested at Tarpongi village on two farmers' fields that have light soíls. The late-duration varieties were tested on two farmers' fields at Saguni village under heavy soíls. The new varieties had sorne of the preferred eriteria mentioned by farmers obtamed in the intervíew and partícipatory-ranking activities."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Farmen and breeders ranked the rice Hnes on the station and on farmers' fields in the research siles.  Farmers' rankings were compared with breeders' rankings during different stages of crop growth (vegetative, flowering, and maturity) as shown in table 7."},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"Correlation between breeders and farmers al all siles and in al! the years was consistently low. Very few of the trials showed significant or highly significant agreement between farmers and breeders (trials that showed any significant agreement were mainly in 1999). In general, agreement was insignificant or even negalive (although not strongly so). It was impossible lo make an assessment of agreement between farmers and breeders in 1997 and 1998. However, in 1999, although there was high agreement in varietal ranking among farmers and among breeders, there was generally low agreement between farmers and breeders, which may indicate that farmers and breeders consider different criteria. Farmers' rankings are not correlated with yield, indícating Ihat farmers consider other criteria in their rankings."}]},{"head":"Assessment uf late-duratiun varieties included in PVS in Saguni, Raipur","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"The breeders' top five favorite late-duratíon varíeties ín the 1999 trials included Swama, BKP-232, R650-18l7, R304-34, and R738-1-64-2-2 (aH modern varieties). These varieties also ranked in the top five in yield. The farmers' top five favorite varieties included Swarna, Safii-17, R 738-1-64-2-2, Mahsurí, and R650-1817. These were not always the highest yielding varieties-in fact, Mashuri gave one of the lowest yíelds and Safii-17 (a tradítional variety) was somewhere in the middle. These varieties were likely selected for other reasons than yield. Varieties preferred by both groups (ranking on average in the top 5) included Swarna (first choice ofboth farmers and breeders, and also high yieldíng), R650-1817, and R738-1-64-2-2. These are aH modero varieties, and are also the three varieties that had the híghest yíelds in the trials (table 8). . Ranked low by both groups in fleld sites ! Bold rains, not susceptible to disease, oommands hl h market prlee Mahsun On-stalien. ranked wíthin top 5 by farmers, en station and in one farm site, although yield is consistently iow"}]},{"head":"Ranked consistentiy low by breeders IR54896","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"On-slation. ranked highly by breeders Yield is gaod, bu! larmers don't like it (one of their least favarttes) ______ -\"-.. Ra\"'r1.ked Jow by all in larm trials"}]},{"head":"Assessment of medium-duration varieties in Tarpongi, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":142,"text":"In Tarpongi, the top ranking medíum-duration varieties for breeders were R574-11, IR42342, Chepti gurmatia, BG380-2, R703-1-52-1, and ORl158-261. AlI of these were also the top six yielding varietíes. Al! are modem varieties except for Cheptí gurmatia. F or farmers, the top ranking varieties included BG380-2, ORI158-261, R714-2-9-3-3, IR63429, and R574-11. These are al! modem varietíes, bu! no! always top yielding. R714-2-9-3-3 gave medium yields, while IR63429 gave relatively low yields when compared with the other varieties. Farmers and breeders agreed onIy on R574-11, BG380-2, and ORl158-261 as their favorite varieties (table 9). During the kharif season 2000, Ihe medium-duratíon' varielies that were further evaluated on-stalion and on farmers' fields were IR4234 (breeders' choice), R574-1I (farmers' choice), BG380-2 (common choice), and Chepti gurmatía (best local choice). The late-duration varieties were BKP-232 (farmers' choice), R304-34 (breeder's choice), R650-1817 (common choice), and Swarna (local check)."},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":"The challenge facing plant breeders in IGAU and IRRI ís lo develop new cultívars that are better Ihan Swama and Maharnaya, while a1so meeting the other requirements and criteria thal furmers have for their given rice environments. While it is impossíble 10 combine all the requirements in one single variety, giving farmers (both men and women) an opportunity 10 test the performance of different rice genotypes on their own fields and 10 evaluate their cooking and eating qualíties can ¡ead 10 more efficient rice varietal improvement in the Chhattisgarh region in Madhya Pradesh."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":147,"text":"This paper focused on methodologies for improving our understanding ofthe eriteria used by farmers (both men and women) in selecling specific rice varieties and ofhow these criteria are considered in partícipatory breeding strategies in the rainfed lowland environments of the Chhatisgarh region in Madhya Pradesh, eastem India, Different methods for understanding farmers' eriteria in selecting rice varíeties were used. These melhods were (1) a questionnaire with open-ended queslions eliciting positive and negative attribules ofthe most popular modem and traditional varíeties, (2) a participatory weighted-ranking method, disaggregating the perceptions of men and women by land types and size oflandholdings, and (3) participatory varietal selection, where farmers evaluated severa] prereleased and local varíeties on their fields as well as on-station. The results of the study highlíght the importanee farmers attach to characteristies other than grain yield: eating quality (taste), rnarket price, durationlrnaturity, drought tolerance, and pest and inseet resistance."},{"index":2,"size":219,"text":"Both men and women have similar eriteria in choosing rice varíeties. However, straw quality for multiple uses is an important consideration for women farrners but not for meno F armers, particu-larIy women who do most ofthe weeding, prefer rice varíeties that are inherently dark green orpurpie to distinguish them from wild rice and enable the farmer to eradicate the wíld rice at an early stage of crop growth. Wild rice is a prevalent pesl and a constraint to high rice productivity in the Chhattisgarh regíon. The attributes considered by men and women farmers, however, are not gen-eralIy used as screenlng eriteria in most formal breeding prograrns, where the emphasis is mainly on grain yield. Qualíty attributes should be' emphasized more Ihan they have been in the past in breeding prograrns for rainfed areas. Because of the proximity of the villages lo !he markel, farmers prefer lo grow varieties Ibat no! only mee! their own eonsumption needs bul also those of consumers, including millers and traders. Therefore, farmers maintain their rice diversity and grow both traditional and modero varíeties that meet their varied interests and needs. Using approaches like farmer participatory breeding and varíetal selection from many rice lines provides an opportunity to fanners to choose varieties suitable lo their environment and needs as well as access to new seeds."},{"index":3,"size":54,"text":"Breeding lines R574-1l, BG308-2, and IR42342 performed well over the tbree years ofthe project in the medillm-duratíon group and showed tolerance to drought. Breeding lines R304-34 and JET -14444 (R 738-1-64) also proved promising. A large quantity of seeds have been multiplied by one ofthe farmers of Saguni village where blight is a problem."}]},{"head":"Seed Security in Badakshan, Afghanistan lqbal Kermali","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Abstraet","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":99,"text":"Badakshan is located in the extreme northeastem comer of Afghanistan and has not yet come under Taliban control. The province is virtually cut off from the rest of the country and is traditionally food deficient. The 20-year-old conflict in the region has further aggravated the situation, causing massive population displacement and almost complete destruction of civil institutions and infrastructure. The situation has become so serious that food aid has to be distributed in the period of grain deficit, starting from before the harvest. Simultaneously, efforts are being made to rehabilitate and improve the agricultural systems of these farming cornrnunities."},{"index":2,"size":302,"text":"In all formal and informal surveys in the area over the last three years, the farmers have identified good seed of wheat cultivars and fertilizer as being their main priority. Currently the seed of high-yielding cultivars acquired from the Centro Internacional de Mejoramiento de Maíz y Trigo (CIMMYT) are available, but such varieties do not always perform well underfarmer's conditions. The potential ofthese varieties can not be realized without the use offertilizers. Almost all the available animal dung is used to as fue! and Iittle is available for use as manure. The small amounts of chemical fertilizer available are totally inadequate in quantity and exorbitant in price. In response to these needs, improved varieties of wheat, potatoes, and vegetables are being provided to over 100 villages in five isolated districts bordering Tajikistan. Three to eight farmers in each village are testing the new planting materials under their local conditions. These farmer-Ied, on-farm evaluations are al so serving as demonstration plots forthe remainder ofthe farmers in the village. The farmers will compare the performance ofthe varieties provided with their existing varieties. Cultivation of the better of the two will be encouraged through farmer-to-farmer exchanges and credit through village organizations for the inputs. This procedure will be repeated every growing season whenever new potential materials, including varieties, ｬ ｡ ｮ ､ ｲ ｡ ｣ ｾ ｳ Ｌ ＠ and different crop species are available. A secondary goal is to enhance on-farm genetic diversity among and within different crop species. These activities will be gradually transformed into participatory breeding, allowing the community to gain full control over the type and amount ofvarieties being produced and exchanged with their neigbbors. Participation in the management and decision making for seed security by the farming community will contribute to reestablishing local food security and peace in the area."}]},{"head":"Introduction","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":116,"text":"Focus Humanitarian Assistance (FOCUS) is an intemational group of agencies established in Europe, North America, and Soulh Asia to complement lhe provision of emergency relief, principal!y in lhe developing world. It helps people in need reduce their dependency on humanitarian aid and facilitates lheir transition to sustainable, self-reliant, long-term development. FOCUS is affiliated wilh lhe Aga Khan Development N etwork, a group of institutions working to improve opportunities and living conditions for people of al! faiths and origins in specific regions of lhe developing world. Underlying the establishment ofFOCUS by the Ismaili Muslim cornmunity is a history of successful initiatives to assist people struck by natural and man-made disasters in Soulh and Central Asia, and Africa."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Assisting farmers in disaster situations to restore agricultural systems was identified as a priority in lhe Global Plan of Action for the Conservation and Sustainable Utilisation of Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture. The plan was adopted by over 150 countries at lhe Intemational Technical Conference on Plant Genetic Resources (Leipzig, Germany, June 1996). The conference Iqbal Kennali is a Senior Program Officer with the Focus Humanitarian Assistance Europe Foundation in the UK."},{"index":3,"size":84,"text":"recognized Ihat disasters, civil strife, and war pose challenges lo agricultural systems, Often, adapted crop varielies are losl and canno! be recuperaled locally. Food aid, combined with Ihe importation of often poorly adapted seed varieties, can undermíne food security and íncrease Ihe costs of donor assistance.ln such situatíons, the goal is 10 deliver seed of adapted varieties and landraces as needed to help reestablish indigenous agricultural syslems in arcas affected by disaster. In turn, Ihis can playa major role in restoring local food security,"}]},{"head":"Afghanistan","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":184,"text":"Afghanistan is one of the pooresl countries in the world. This millenium, the country passed (he mark of 2! years of conflict, which has brought complete destruction and immense suffering to its people. After the fall of the Soviet-backed government in 1992, ¡he prospects for peace have receded, with continuing civil war fragmenting the country into struggles between the various politica! and mililary groups in shifting allianees. Currentl}', more than 80% ofthe eountry is under the Taliban, while the remainder is under a united front. However, the Taliban movement is not yet recognized by the internatíonal community, exeept for Pakistan, Saudí Arabia, and the United Arab Emírates, The natíon's agricultural system has suffered from physical damage to irrigation structures, from mines, and from the disruption of normal markets and input-delivery mechanisms. Seeurity eoneems, high transport prices, and continual currency depreciation aH combine to cause shortages of agricultural iuputs such as seeds, fertilizers, chemieals, credit, and labor, resulting in increased food searcity. The civil umest has caused the country to move from near self-sufficiency in the mid-1970s lo a dependency on imports in recent years."}]},{"head":"Badakhshan","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":318,"text":"Badakshan, one ofthe mosl remote areas in Afghanistan, is located in the northeastern comer bordering Kunar, Lagham, Kapisa, and Thakar provinces, In addition, the province borders Pakistan in the southeast, China in Ihe east, and Tajikistan in the north. It is one ofthe two major areas not under the control of the Taliban. The Panj River (Amu Darya) separates its long border with Tajikistan. The province is normally linked with the rest of country a by narrow, drivable road through the province ofTakhar on the West. Currently, after Takhar tbe road intereepts the frontline with the Taliban. The provine e is thus virtually cut offfrom Ihe rest ofthe country, On tbe eastern side, the road is línked with the Gorno-Badakshan provinee ofTajikistan through a narrow bridge over the Panj River at lshkashem. Badakshan lies in the Hindu Kush mountain range with the Wakhan rising up into tbe Pamir Mountains. The Hindu Kush mountain system is characterized by young, rugged ranges witb sharp peaks and deep valleys. The eastern half of tbe provine e lies between 1,300 meters (Darwaz) to 3,000 meters (Wakhan). The westem half is at a lower elevation, wítb Keshem, the lowest point, at 960 meters. Inside the province, mosl of the districts are isolated from each other for a greater part ofthe year by heavy snowfall in the winter, landslides in spring, and floods in the surnmer, Because of tbe rugged mounlain terrain, mueh of the land area is uninhabitable. Connecting dirt roads are either very rough or do not exist. Donkeys, horses, and walking constitute tbe major means of transport. It is eornmon for villagers to walk three to four days lo the nearest market. There is virtually no effeetive government operating in Ihe provinee at the current time. The víllages and larger towns in 1. Kermali the province have no electricity, no running water, no sanitation facilities, few medical facilities, and poor schools."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Badakshan province has historically been isolated and neglected. It has always been considered a poor province; even before ¡he war, local agricultural production met only 50% of the needs. The few development inítiatives ever started were abandoned after the eornmunist takeover and the subsequent fight between the Taliban and the Northern Allianee. 1t í5 estímated that agricultural production is down by at least 40% as a resutt of the war (UNIDATA 1966)."}]},{"head":"Agriculture","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":120,"text":"The province has a highly diversified eropping system. Crop production, hortieulture, and livestock are Ihe maín sourees of income for most households. It is difficult lo obtain relíable statistics on agricultural produetion. Figures on land holdings provided by farmers during intervÍews tend 10 be grossly underestimated for fear of government taxalion and lo qualíf'y for humanitarian assistance. The majority ofhouseholds own less than one hectare, and further fragmentation ofland holdings occurs because of Ihe traditional inheritance laws. Srnaller farmers usually sharecrop Ihe land owned by farmers with relatively larger holdings (more !han two hectares). Many distrÍcts do not produce enough food, for example, surveys have shown tha! food deficits in Sheghnan, Ishkashem, and Wakhan range frorn two 10 5ix months."},{"index":2,"size":128,"text":"Autumn and spring wheat i5 Ihe main grain crop. Other crops include pulses (broad beans, vetches, field peas, grass peas) ofien grown as a companion crop with spring barley. Finger millet and chickpeas are also planted in spring. Srnall quantities of oil-seed crops such as sesarne and flax are oeeasionally grown for oil, bu! the wild mustard that giows as a weed in the wheat fields is harvesled by women and clúldren for oi! and cooking. Maize i5 grown at lower elevations (below 1600 m) from Darwaz through Shekay as a second crop after wheat. Colton is also grown in small quantities in sorne villages from Darwaz downstrearn, where it is used for stuffing quilts and pillows, and Ihe oi! extraeted from !he seed ís used for larnps."},{"index":3,"size":122,"text":"Vegetables include spinach, oníons, beans, occasionally tornatoes, carrols, squash, and a variety of herbs. Several kinds ofpotatoes ofvarying lengths of rnaturity are grown. These vegetables provide a supplementary dietduring the hungry months of spring and early surnmer before Ihe harvest. Fruit trees, particularly mulberries, are important. Olher cornmon trees inc1ude fruit trees such as walnut, apricot, plum, sour eherry, apple, and grape, and timber trees such as poplar, willow, and walnut. Several wild plants play an important role and include wild mustard, wild rhubarb, wild orclúd tuber, black cumin, licoriee, and mushrooms, in addítion lo the wild herbs of medicinal value. Opíum poppy i8 not cultivated on a cornmercíal basis, allhough small patches rnay be planted by addicts for Iheir own use."},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Livestock are a main source of Ihe household eeonomy in rural areas. The sale oflivestock ís the primary means for much of the population to earn income for purchase of other food and essential items, especially wheat, during the spring monlhs when they run out of food stock. The province has huge eornmon grazing areas that support herds oflivestock belonging to Ihe local people as well as to nomads."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" = not tested. W = Kendall's coefficient of concordance. r = Spearman_'s coefficient ofcorrelation. F = farmers. B = breeders. 1. Stage: V = vegetative stage, F = flowering, M = maturity. 2. Trial code: L = late, M = medium. "},{"text":"Table 1 . Characteristics ofthe Rice Land in the Research Sites in Raipur, Madhya Pradesh,  Eastern India     Eastern India S¡ope ! Upland . (ndulating) I M��dland (gently , undulaling) LOIYland (Ieveled and genlly undulating and terr.ced fields) Lowland (¡oveJed) Lowland (Iow Iying) S¡ope! Upland . (ndulating)I Mídland (gently , undulaling)LOIYland (Ieveled and genlly undulating and terr.ced fields)Lowland (¡oveJed)Lowland (Iow Iying) Soil. Bhata Matas; Dorna Kanhar Naja Soil.BhataMatas;DornaKanharNaja  (entisols) (inceptisols) (alfisols) (vertisols) (verlisoJs) (entisols)(inceptisols)(alfisols)(vertisols)(verlisoJs) Texture Gravely course , Sandyloam Silty c!ay Clayey Clayey TextureGravely course , SandyloamSilty c!ayClayeyClayey  loamy to sandy     loamy to sandy  Very shallow Moderate Moderate to deep Deep : Deep Very shallowModerateModerate to deepDeep: Deep  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Area (Rectares) Planled lo Modern and Traditional Rice Varieties by Sample Farming Households, Elevatlon of Rice Land, and ViIlage, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh Varieties  Tarpongi (n = 25)  Sagunl (n=50) Khalrkut (\"=50)   VarietiesTarpongi (n = 25)Sagunl (n=50)Khalrkut (\"=50) Modem  Upland Lowland  Upland Lowland Upland lowland Duratlon (days) ModemUplandLowlandUplandLowlandUplandlowlandDuratlon (days) Swama  0.8 7.82  27.64 9.86 38.66 5.0  late (150) Swama0.87.8227.649.8638.665.0late (150) Mahamaya   2.6  2.22 1.4 6.6 1.0  Medium (130) Mahamaya2.62.221.46.61.0Medium (130) Kranti  6.8 6.9  8.8 1.8 4.9   Medium (130) Kranti6.86.98.81.84.9Medium (130) 262  7.5 2.1   0.1 0.8   Medium, (125) 2627.52.10.10.8Medium, (125) H.M.T.       0.4   Medium (130) H.M.T.0.4Medium (130) Purnima  2.4 0.4       late (145) Purnima2.40.4late (145) IR36       : 0.6  Early (120) IR36:0.6Early (120) Culture   0.8  1.86 1.2    Medium (130) Culture0.81.861.2Medium (130) Others      0.7     Others0.7 Total MVs •1 20.62  40.52 15.06 51.36 6.6 !  Total MVs•120.6240.5215.0651.366.6! Tradltlonal Safri-BD ! 2.9 28.4  Ｗ ｾ Ｐ Ｔ ＠  40.62 5.2 i Late (150) Tradltlonal Safri-BD!2.928.4Ｗ ｾ Ｐ Ｔ ＠40.625.2iLate (150) Safri-17  1.2 10.7  12 64 0.44   Late (155) Safri-171.210.712640.44Late (155) Cheptl gurmat!a , 1o.a 7.0 .  3.2 3.8 : 064 5.0  Medium (130) Cheptl gurmat!a,1o.a7.0 .3.23.8: 0645.0Medium (130) .I'l.anlkajar i 1.8 1.4 , 6.3 1.84 5.68 04  Med!um (130) .I'l.anlkajari1.81.4,6.31.845.6804Med!um (130) Bhala safri ! 4A4 7.8 i , 0.4 212 1.6 ._M Medlum (130) Bhala safri!4A47.8i,0.42121.6._MMedlum (130) Aojan safri .. 0.5 0.1 : ,     Late (145) Aojan safri..0.50.1:,Late (145) Ganga 6alri  0.3     I   Late (145) Ganga 6alri0.3ILate (145) Nankershar  0.2  ,      Late (135) Nankershar0.2,Late (135) Dubraj   1.6        Dubraj1.6 Cheptl      4.7    Medium (130) Cheptl4.7Medium (130) Total Tradltional 20.14 57.0  29.5 18.82 49,50 122   Total Tradltional20.1457.029.518.8249,50122 Total of all vanetles 37.64 77.62  70.02 33.88 100.86 18.8   Total of all vanetles37.6477.6270.0233.88100.8618.8 %MV  46.49 26.57  57.87 44A5 50.92 35,11   %MV46.4926.5757.8744A550.9235,11 % Traditlonal  53.51 73.43  42.13 55.55 49.08 64.89   % Traditlonal53.5173.4342.1355.5549.0864.89 Note: Modem = semi•dwarf, high-yielding vaneties, Traditional = taH in slature wnelher Improved or not improved Note: Modem = semi•dwarf, high-yielding vaneties, Traditional = taH in slature wnelher Improved or not improved by seleclÍon. Upland no bunds between plots.        by seleclÍon. Upland no bunds between plots.  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Farmers' Assessment of Popular Traditional Varieties Variely Positive Iraits ____ -+...:N.:.:e:;,.9:ative Iraits VarielyPositive Iraits____ -+...:N.:.:e:;,.9:ative Iraits Sam-17 stable yield every year  has lower ylelds (2-3 t/ha) than Sam-17stable yield every yearhas lower ylelds (2-3 t/ha) than (late maturing) resistanl to pests and diseases  Swarna and Krantl (late maturing)resistanl to pests and diseasesSwarna and Krantl  drought toleran! good for heavy-textured 5011 9000 for beusheníng method 01 land preparation susceptible to IOOglng due to height (157-168 cm) can'l be used lo distinguish wild rice (karaga) drought toleran! good for heavy-textured 5011 9000 for beusheníng method 01 land preparationsusceptible to IOOglng due to height (157-168 cm) can'l be used lo distinguish wild rice (karaga)  tall (157 cm) and submergence tolerant too much slraw and less grain tall (157 cm) and submergence toleranttoo much slraw and less grain  competes with weeds  competes with weeds  raquires less water and fertilizer  raquires less water and fertilizer  photosensitive  photosensitive  good lasle and eating quality  good lasle and eating quality  gOoo grain quality (slender, fine, shinlng) gOoo grain quality (slender, fine, shinlng)  commands high market príce  commands high market príce  high milling recavery  high milling recavery  good quantity and quality of straw for making rope good quantity and quality of straw for making rope  matures near religious festival (Diwall)  matures near religious festival (Diwall) Chepti gurmatia good grain yield (3 t/ha)  yields lesser !hao Swarna Chepti gurmatiagood grain yield (3 t/ha)yields lesser !hao Swarna (medium duratlon) competes with weeds  susceptible to lodging because (medium duratlon)competes with weedssusceptible to lodging because  tolerant to drought  it is lall (137-142cm) tolerant to droughtit is lall (137-142cm)  ideal fO( líght soil or Matasi darse medium duration and cán be haIVested early, allowing rabi crop susceptible to bacterial blight and stamborar has more straw than grain ideal fO( líght soil or Matasi darse medium duration and cán be haIVested early, allowing rabi cropsusceptible to bacterial blight and stamborar has more straw than grain  purple pigrn<lolatioo helps in eradicaling wild rice purple pigrn<lolatioo helps in eradicaling wild rice  has good taste and ealing quality  has good taste and ealing quality  cammands a high prlee in the markel  cammands a high prlee in the markel  good for olher rice prOOucls (e.9., basí and pulao) good for olher rice prOOucls (e.9., basí and pulao)  preferred as wage by agriculturallaborers due to preferred as wage by agriculturallaborers due to  rts bold, caerse grains: can last longer in the rts bold, caerse grains: can last longer in the  stomaeh  stomaeh qualítíes. Chepti gurmatia, for example, has purple pigmentation Ihal helps farmers distinguish and qualítíes. Chepti gurmatia, for example, has purple pigmentation Ihal helps farmers distinguish and eradicate wild rice (karaga).  eradicate wild rice (karaga).  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Farmers' Perceptions of Traits of Popular Modero Varieties Variety Variety Swarna Swarna (Iale durallon) (Iale durallon)  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Men's and Women's Perceptions of Useful Traits of Rice Varieties by Land Elevation, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh Traits  Uplands Midlands Lowlands TraitsUplandsMidlandsLowlands  Men Women Men Women Men Women MenWomenMenWomenMenWomen Grain yield 19 19 27 25 30 27 Grain yield191927253027 Eating quality (taste) 16 11 6 17 11 19 Eating quality (taste)16116171119 Market price 3 10 8 13 9 13 Market price310813913 Duration/maturity 13 10 13 6 7 3 Duration/maturity131013673 Drought tolerance 6 11 5 3 3 1 Drought tolerance6115331 PesUinsect resistance 6 10 8 6 6 4 PesUinsect resistance6108664 Multiple use 01 straw O 8 5 11 6 11 Multiple use 01 strawO8511611 Grain size and shape 16 O 2 2 4 3 Grain size and shape16O2243 Milling recovery 9 O 2 2 4 4 Milling recovery9O2244 Lodging resistan ce 3 O 3 4 2 3 Lodging resistan ce3O3423 Fertilizer responsiveness 6 3 5 3 4 2 Fertilizer responsiveness635342 Weed competitiveness 7 7 3 1 2 2 Weed competitiveness773122 Submergence tolerance 5 5 1 2 2 2 Submergence tolerance551222 Good lar rice products O O 2 . 2 1 0.5 Good lar rice productsOO2 .210.5 Disease resistance O O 3 <0.5 3 0.5 Disease resistanceOO3<0.530.5 Adaptation to soils 3 0.5 2 1 2 1 Adaptation to soils30.52121 Adaptation to land level O 0.5 2 1 0.5 1 Adaptation to land levelO0.5210.51 Storage quality O 2 1 <0.5 2 1 Storage qualityO21<0.521 Ful1ness in stomach O  1 <0.5 1 1 Ful1ness in stomachO1<0.511 Cooking time O 3 1 1 0.5  Cooking timeO3110.5  100 100 100 100 100 100 100100100100100100  "},{"text":"Table 6 . Perceptions of Useful Traits of Rice Varieties, by Size of Landholding and Gender, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh Traits  larga farmers Marginal tarmers Traitslarga farmersMarginal tarmers  Men i Women Men Women MeniWomenMenWomen Grain yield 36  34 19 21 Grain yield36341921 Eating quality (taste) 13  12 9 18 Eating quality (taste)1312918 Market price 8  12 6 13 Market price812613 Duratíon/maturi1y 10  3 7 8 Duratíon/maturi1y10378 Mulliple use 01 straw     Mulliple use 01 straw  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Comparison between Ranks Attributed by Farmers and Breeders at Different Growth Stages in thePVS Trials, Raipur Villages, Eastern India, and IGAU Station, 1997-99     Agreement Agreement Correlation between AgreementAgreementCorrelation between among among farmers' & breeders' amongamongfarmers' & breeders'  "},{"text":"Table 8 . Assessment ofLate-Maturing Varieties Included in PVS, Saguni, Raipur, Madbya Pradesh, Eastern India Varíety . Ranking Varíety. Ranking Swama (check) : Favorite 01 both farmers and breeders Swama (check): Favorite 01 both farmers and breeders Safri-17 (check)  Safri-17 (check) R73&-64  R73&-64 R304-34  R304-34  "},{"text":"Table 9 . Assessment ofMedium-Duration Varieties Included in PVS, Raipnr, Madhya Pradesh Ranked well by farmers in all sites bol conslstently ranked low by breaders Lower-yieldlng varíety compared to others, but fanners seam to IIke it In any case Early, long grain, intennediate hei ht Consis!ently highly ranked by breeders, bu! given low rank by fanners in all sites excapt sta-Cons¡stently high yield, ,but even with highes! yield on larm, larmers don't I¡ke it Consistently ranked well by breeders, also one 01 the top 5 yielding varieties However, ij ranks in the middle with !armers Ranked hlghly by breader. and fanners In field and on-statlon : Generally has goOO yleld Varlety I Ranking VarletyI Ranking R714--2-9-3-3 , Ranked highly by farmers on farmers' fields and in 2 nd on-slatioo replicatíon, and is among R714--2-9-3-3, Ranked highly by farmers on farmers' fields and in 2 nd on-slatioo replicatíon, and is among  , the farmers' favorites , the farmers' favorites  i Consistently marked low by breedars i Consistently marked low by breedars R574•11 ! Top ranked by tarmers and by breaders in station tríals. Also, highest yield R574•11! Top ranked by tarmers and by breaders in station tríals. Also, highest yield  ! On-farm, la still in top 1-2 for breeder. but drops to 3-10'\" rank for fanners . Yleld on farm ls less (4 th and 6 th rank) ! On-farm, la still in top 1-2 for breeder. but drops to 3-10'\" rank for fanners . Yleld on farm ls less (4 th and 6 th rank) OR1158-26 , Ranked abou! 5-6 (on average) in all siles excep! in one field, where it was4t1 among farmers OR1158-26, Ranked abou! 5-6 (on average) in all siles excep! in one field, where it was4t1 among farmers  , Yield ranges from 3-6 tlha , Yield ranges from 3-6 tlha  Among !he top varieties lor !anners and Among !he top varieties lor !anners and IR63429  IR63429 IR42324  IR42324  tion repllcation #1 tion repllcation #1 Chepti gurmatia  Chepti gurmatia (local check)  (local check) BG380-2  BG380-2  "}],"sieverID":"a275f69e-adab-4e0c-8945-986760e1a9ce","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0a01b508746be711b94f91992b726230.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0a01b508746be711b94f91992b726230","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/fdca6b3a-0f21-470b-aecb-4ec501bbb1be/retrieve"},"pageCount":9,"title":"Survey data on income, food security, and dietary behavior among women and children from households of differing socio-economic status in urban and peri-urban areas of Nairobi, Kenya","keywords":["Wealth status Household food insecurity Women Children Dietary diversity Social media: (F.N. Nyakundi)","(M.G. Lung' aho)","(C.K. Chege)"],"chapters":[{"head":"Value of the Data","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":152,"text":"• These data fill a significant knowledge gap and provide an overview of food security and a nutrition profile of low-and medium-income households in Nairobi's metropolitan urban and peri-urban areas. • This data can be used by local communities in which the survey was administered to address food security and nutrition challenges through community-led initiatives targeting the entire population and vulnerable groups such as children under five and pregnant women. • Findings from these data can guide policymakers, advocacy teams, and implementers of food security interventions in the development of complementary and corrective policies and nutrition programming for vulnerable low-and medium-income households in Kenya's urban and peri-urban areas. • Program implementers can use these data to guide the development of appropriate interventions or to justify targeting for interventions for vulnerable households. The private sector, particularly the food processing sector, can use this information to develop affordable, innovative food products for low-income consumers."}]},{"head":"Data Description","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":216,"text":"The data was collected in the context of a Cultivate Africa's Future (CultiAF) project on pre-cooked beans, led by the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization (KALRO) and within/under the CGIAR Center Research Program (CRP) on Agriculture for Nutrition and Health (A4NH) in November 2015. A cross-sectional household survey was administered to collect nutrition, income, and demographic indicators used to assess access constraints to nutritious foods among urban and peri-urban consumers. Urban consumers were sampled from three subcounties of Nairobi County: Kibera, Dandora, and Mukuru Kwa Njenga. Peri-urban consumers were sampled from Athi River sub-county in Machakos County and Juja sub-County in Kiambu County. Data was collected using Open Data Kit (ODK). Sampling was undertaken among households with at least one child aged 6-59 months. In each household sampled, the target child, whose nutrition and anthropometric information was collected was indexed to track information collected. The primary caregiver of the index child, who was in most cases the child's mother, was purposively selected as the survey questionnaire respondent. The questionnaire used to collect the data has been edited and added to the Dataverse repository containing the data. A data dictionary which contains and describes all the 1147 data variables in the data is available Dataverse repository as Microsoft excel file adjacent to the dataset and questionnaire."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"Fig. 1 presents the geographical study sites where data was collected, while Fig. 2 shows the respondents' distribution among the study sites. Fig. 3 presents the Food Consumption Score (FCS) that shows the diet diversity and frequency of food consumption characteristics, by showing the proportion of households with their corresponding FCS per location. Fig. 4 presents the household Food Expenditure Share (FES) used to measure household food security characteristics by acting as an income proxy. Table 1 presents the minimum women's diet diversity (MDD-W) characteristics by showing the proportion of women from each age group that consumed food from each of the ten food groups."}]},{"head":"Experimental Design, Materials and Methods","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Survey site and population","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":197,"text":"The study sites were purposely selected based on the Living Standards Measurement Study (LSMS) to include the following income classifications: low income (Kibera), upper-low income (Dandora and Athi River), and medium income (Mukuru Kwa Njenga, Juja, and Athi River). Population data from the Kenya National Bureau of Statistics (KNBS) census was used to determine the number and location of households sampled. A random sampling technique was employed to select sample households from a population of 327,745 households. A total of 354 households were sampled: Kibera ( N = 98), Dandora ( N = 67), Athi River( N = 60), Mukuru Kwa Njenga  ( N = 89), and Juja ( N = 40). The sample size was calculated to achieve 80% power at α = 0.05 to ensure the study would detect the effect of either food insecurity or wealth inequality on poor dietary diversity at both the household and individual levels. Oral consent was obtained from the respondents before conducting the interviews. The survey targeted household representatives with adequate information on household food consumption, food intake by the index child (6-59 months), and index woman (biological mother or caregiver of the index child) as the study respondent.  "}]},{"head":"Questionnaire modules","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":23,"text":"The questionnaire modules were designed to collect data to ascertain whether these three study hypotheses were true, for both urban and peri-urban populations:"},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"1. Households that are asset-or income-poor are food insecure. 2. Households that are income-or asset-poor have poor dietary diversity for the household, women, and children. 3. Households that are food insecure have poor dietary diversity for the household, women, and children."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"The principal study variables collected included: household identification, household roster and demographics, dwelling characteristics, market access, household food consumption, house- hold non-food expenditure, infant dietary diversity, women's dietary diversity, household hunger scale, hunger coping strategies, and household income sources."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"Study questions that informed responses to the direction and association of the variables were:"},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"1. Is it that wealth status affects food security, which then affects dietary behavior? 2. Or does food security, independent of wealth status, affect dietary behavior? 3. Is the pattern of strength and direction of association similar for both urban and peri-urban populations?"}]},{"head":"Data collection and survey implementation","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"The questionnaire used for data collection was designed and then coded in Open Data Kit (ODK) to facilitate mobile data collection. The ODK form was hosted on a SurveyCTO cloud server. Enumerators used android tablets to collect data and transmitted it to the server on a daily basis. A data manager monitored the data received in the server and ran data quality checks for inconsistencies, patterns, and outliers, providing feedback to the field teams to improve performance."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"Data were collected by trained enumerators associated with KALRO. All enumerators had a university bachelor's or higher-level degree. All spoke English and Kiswahili languages fluently and were experienced in data collection in urban and peri-urban areas. Before data collection commenced, the enumerators received a four-day mandatory training on the questionnaire and Computer Assisted Personal Interviews (CAPI) enumeration skills using tablets."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"The survey intentionally targeted one primary caregiver of the index child in each household, usually the mother, so as to improve the accuracy and detail of child dietary diversity scores (CDDS) and MDD-W parameters. As a result, 94% of the study respondents were women."},{"index":4,"size":27,"text":"Data was collected using a face-to-face interview technique. The questionnaire was structured to generate both qualitative and quantitative data using a combination of open-ended and closed-ended questions."}]},{"head":"Household characteristics","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"This module was used to collect data on household location, roster, demographics, and dwelling characteristics. Data on assets and dwelling characteristics were used to generate the household asset-based wealth index."}]},{"head":"Household income sources","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"The household income module asked about the income sources from various livelihoods and the actual earnings in local currency for a recall period of twelve months."}]},{"head":"Household non-food expenditure","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"The household non-food expenditure module split household non-food expenditures into a period of thirty days for ten common expenditures and for period of six months for other expenses. Thirty-day recall items for recurring expenses that include rent, water, electricity, fuel, satellite, transport, garbage collection, household items, and addictive items such as alcohol and tobacco were recorded. Six-month recall expense items included medical fees, education fees, the debt amount, savings amount, house construction and house repairs, clothing, social events or celebration, and agricultural inputs. Estimates of all these household non-food expenditures and activities were recorded in local currency."}]},{"head":"Household food consumption","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":195,"text":"The food consumption module sought to gather the household's current status of quality and quantity of food consumption seven days prior to the interview [1] . The food consumption module contained a list of sixteen food groups: (1) Cereals and grains, (2) Roots and tubers, (3) Legumes/nuts, (4) Orange vegetables (vegetables rich in Vitamin A), (5) Green leafy vegetables, (6) Other vegetables, (7) Orange fruits (fruits rich in Vitamin A), (8) Other fruits, (9) meat, (10) Liver, kidney, heart and other organ meats, (11) Fish/shellfish, (12) eggs, (13) Milk and other dairy products, (14) Oil / fat / butter, (15) Sugar/sweets, and (16) Condiments/spices. For each food group, the frequency of intake in the last seven days, the quantity of food consumed by the household, source of food consumed (purchased, non-purchased, or both), the estimated total cost of the food (cash, credit, or value of both for purchased and non-purchased food), and primary source of non-purchased food was indicated. An aggregate of food consumption frequency and diversity was used to calculate the individual FCS as per the World Food Programme (WFP) (2009) [2] guidelines, and Leroy et al. [1] as shown in Fig. 3 ."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"The HFIAS data was collected using Coates' et al. [3] nine questions, commonly referred to as items, using a 30-day recall period. The HFIAS indicator was constructed to measure the occurrence and frequency of the food insecurity dimension. While the individual items measured the food insecurity occurrence, categorical items were used to measure the frequency at which each item occurred. The HFIAS indicator was then calculated, and the score ranging from a minimum of zero (food-secure households), and a maximum score of 27 (food-insecure households) was allocated to each household, as shown in the data."},{"index":3,"size":113,"text":"Using Smith and Subandoro's [4] measurement method, a combination of household food expenditure and non-food expenditure data was used to calculate FES. FES was used as a food security indicator and an income proxy for the households, as shown in Fig. 4 . FES was used as an income proxy because findings from WFP (2009) [2] indicate that poor households had a higher share of total expenditures going towards food compared to wealthy households. This is especially true for households that depend mainly on purchased food instead of own production, which is the case in Nairobi metropolitan area, where this study was carried out. FES data was collected using a 30-day recall period."},{"index":4,"size":46,"text":"The household food consumption module was designed to improve understanding of households' intake of key nutrient-rich foods. Aggregated data for food items from the 16 groups, was used to construct HDDS to measure dietary behavior and food access, as proposed by Leroy et al. [1] ."},{"index":5,"size":66,"text":"Finally, questionnaire responses from a series of nineteen questions were used to calculate the LCS indicator that measures the livelihood stress and assets depletion over a 30-day period before the survey as per WFP guidelines [2] . Respondents were classified into three broad categories depending on the food insecurity faced at household level. The LCS categories used in allocation include: stress, crisis , and emergency coping."}]},{"head":"Child dietary diversity score(CDDS)","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"This module asked questions about food and drinks offered to the index child within a household to measure a child's diet diversity using CDDS as per the WFP and WHO guidelines [ 5 , 6 ]. The infant dietary diversity module also asked if the child had received vitamin drops, oral rehydration solution, or had drunk anything from a bottle with a teat. The module used a frequency of food and water intake over the 24 h prior to the study and whether the intake reported was usual or unusual [ 5 , 6 ]."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"The module contained a list of nine liquid foods given to the child: (1) Breast milk, (2) Plain water, (3) Infant formula, (4) Animal milk, (5) Juice, (6) Clear broth, (7) Yogurt, (8) Thin porridge, and (9) Any other liquid."},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"The module also contained a list of 16 food groups: (1) Cereals and grains, (2) Roots and tubers, (3) Legumes/nuts, (4) Orange vegetables [vegetables rich in Vitamin A], (5) Green leafy vegetables, (6) Other vegetables, (7) Orange fruits [fruits rich in Vitamin A], (8) Other fruits, (9) Meat, (10) Liver, kidney, heart and other organ meats, (11) Fish/shellfish, (12) Eggs, (13) Milk and other dairy products, (14) Oil / fat / butter, (15) Sugar/sweets, and (16) Foods made from red palm oil or red palm nut. Details about the children's dietary intakes were collected from their mothers or primary caregivers."}]},{"head":"Women's dietary diversity","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"The Minimum Dietary Diversity -Women (MDD-W) indicator was used in this study as a proxy indicator to assess the micronutrient adequacy of diets consumed by women of reproductive age [7] . The dichotomous indicator had ten food groups: (1) All starchy staples, (2) Beans and peas, (3) Nuts and seeds, (4) Dairy, (5) Flesh foods, (6) Eggs, (7) Vitamin A-rich vegetables, (8) Vitamin A-rich dark green vegetables, (9) Other vegetables, (10) Other fruits."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Women were categorized into three age groups, 15 -25 years, 26 -35 years, and 36 -49 years to check for the relationship between age and diet diversity."}]},{"head":"Household hunger scale","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":96,"text":"The household hunger scale module used a set of eight questions to determine the occurrence of increasingly severe experiences of food shortage [8] . Four key module domains were assessed: worry about food access in the short term, uncertainty about food access in the long term, inadequate food quality, and insufficient food quantity. The recall period was 30 days. The module asked if the household had experienced any of the four domains, how often it occurred in the last 30 days, why the experience occurred, and who was affected -adults, children under 24 months, or both."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Map of Nairobi, Kiambu, and Machakos counties with study sites. "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Proportion of respondents per location. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Summary of household food consumption category per "},{"text":"Fig. 4 . Fig. 4. Summary of Food Expenditure (FES) by wealth quantile. "},{"text":"Table 1 A summary of the proportion of women that consumed food items from each food group per age-group.  Women aged Women aged Women aged Women agedWomen agedWomen aged Food Group 15-25 years 26-35 years 36-49 years Food Group15-25 years26-35 years36-49 years Starch 100% 100% 100% Starch100%100%100% Other Vegetables 98% 98% 100% Other Vegetables98%98%100% DGLV 97% 95% 88% DGLV97%95%88% Pulses 85% 88% 96% Pulses85%88%96% Dairy 85% 85% 80% Dairy85%85%80% Flesh 76% 78% 72% Flesh76%78%72% Other Fruits 74% 77% 64% Other Fruits74%77%64% Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables 70% 68% 60% Vitamin A-rich fruits and vegetables70%68%60% Eggs 63% 66% 40% Eggs63%66%40% Nuts & seeds 28% 20% 12% Nuts & seeds28%20%12%  "}],"sieverID":"b504d171-c6c1-4814-9e31-d9c25c81e747","abstract":"This article describes data collected to analyze consumer behaviors in vulnerable populations by examining key access constraints to nutritious foods among households of differing socio-economic status in urban and peri-urban areas of Nairobi, Kenya. The key variables studied include wealth status, food security, and dietary behavior indicators at individual and household level. Household food insecurity access scale (HFIAS), livelihood coping strategies (LCS), food expenditure share (FES), food consumption score (FCS), household dietary diversity score (HDDS), minimum dietary diversitywomen(MDD-W), and child dietary diversity score (CDDS) indicators were used to measure food security. Household assets were used to develop an asset-based wealth index that grouped the study sample population into five wealth quantiles, while income levels were used to estimate FES. The hypothesis that guided the cross-sectional survey conducted to generate these data is that vulnerability to food insecurity and poverty are important drivers of food choice that influence household and individual dietary behavior. Data from * Corresponding author."}

data/part_1/0cfc09a75980991fabf76011a811b416.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0cfc09a75980991fabf76011a811b416","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/c35fd65b-2c33-4fcd-b24c-28104147cc58/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"Replicating successful agricultural water management interventions in new locations requires consideration of economic, biophysical, institutional, and cultural data. The TAGMI tool offers one way to consider such factors, when targeting agricultural water management interventions","keywords":[],"chapters":[],"figures":[],"sieverID":"35f12da0-7d72-4e25-ae7f-c10862e19b85","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0d08feda625adab2462cbed9d74cca80.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d08feda625adab2462cbed9d74cca80","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/3a8a80cf-e93c-4ea1-80ec-28e16e37fe07/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"Genome-wide association study identifies loci and candidate genes for grain micronutrients and quality traits in wheat (Triticum aestivum L.)","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":220,"text":"Phenotyping. Twenty spikes of each entry were manually harvested, threshed, and carefully cleaned by discarding broken grains and foreign material without touching to metal parts of the farm equipment and used for micronutrient analysis. GZnC and GFeC were measured with a \"bench-top\" non-destructive, energy-dispersive X-ray fluorescence spectrometry (ED-XRF) instrument (model X-Supreme 8000; Oxford Instruments plc, Abingdon, United Kingdom) standardized for high-throughput screening of mineral concentration of wholegrain wheat 35 . The GZnC and GFeC were expressed in milligrams per kilogram (mg/kg). The GPC was measured by Infra-red transmittance-based instrument Infra-tec 1125 and expressed in percentage (%). The TKW was measured by weighing a set of randomly selected 1000 grains representing the whole grain sample in the Numigral grain counter. To record the TW, a thoroughly cleaned grain sample was poured into the metallic funnel of the hectoliter weight instrument developed by the ICAR-Indian Institute of Wheat and Barley Research, Karnal. After the grain was levelled well, the outlet was opened to allow the free flow of the grain in the metallic tubular container below till it is filled. Then the shutter was slid to remove the excess grain and to level it. The grain contained in the measuring can was then weighed using an electronic balance. The TKW was expressed in grams (g) and TW as kilogram per hectoliter (kg/hl)."}]},{"head":"Phenotypic data analyses. The phenotypic data was analysed with ACBD-R (Augmented Complete","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":88,"text":"Block Design with R) version 4.0 software 36 . The mean, coefficient of variation (CV), least significant difference (LSD), genotypic variance, and heritability were estimated. In ACBD-R v4.0, the best linear unbiased predictors (BLUPs) of each genotype were calculated for each environment and across environments along with four checks varieties (HD 3086, C 306, HI 1544, and GW 322). The calculated BLUPs were then used in the GWAS analysis. The frequency distribution graphs and correlation coefficients of the recorded traits were obtained through Past 3.01 software 37 ."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"Genotyping. The CTAB method by Murray and Thompson 38 was used to extract genomic DNA from the leaves of 21-day old seedlings. The genotyping was done using the 35 K Axiom® Wheat Breeder's Array 39 by outsourcing to Imperial life sciences, India. A total of 35,153 single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) markers were processed to obtain high-quality informative markers. The filtering was done in MS Excel and markers with minor allele frequency (MAF) less than 0.05 and greater than 0.95, missing data greater than 30%, and heterozygosity greater than 20% were removed. The remaining set of 9503 high-quality SNP markers was used in GWAS analysis."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Linkage disequilibrium (LD), population structure, and GWAS. The pairwise LD values (r 2 ) were estimated in TASSEL version 5.2.79 and the values were plotted against genetic distance (bp) in R Studio following 40 . The pattern of LD decay was determined as the distance where LD values reduced to half of their maximum value."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Population structure was inferred by two independent methods: Principal Component Analysis (PCA) using GAPIT version 3.0 41 , and by neighbour-joining (N-J) clustering method in TASSEL version 5.2.79. For cluster analysis, the distance matrix was generated to construct tree using TASSEL version 5.2.79 software by following N-J clustering method, then the tree file was exported in Newick format to construct N-J tree in iTOL version 6.5.2 (https:// itol. embl. de/)."},{"index":5,"size":116,"text":"The BLUPs from the 184 genotypes were used as phenotypic data in GWAS along with corresponding genotyping data. Significant marker-trait associations (MTAs) were identified using the Fixed and random model Circulating Probability Unification (FarmCPU) model approach in GAPIT version 3.03 41,42 . This algorithm selects the associated markers as a cofactor to control false positives using likelihood in MLM to avoid overfitting tests markers iteratively. The suitability of the model to account for population structure was assessed using quantile-quantile (Q-Q) plots. SNPs with p ≤ 0.0001 were considered significantly associated with individual traits. The past 3.01 software was used to draw box plots to show the allelic effects of the significant MTAs of GZnC and GFeC."}]},{"head":"In silico analysis.","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":149,"text":"A 100 bp sequence was extracted from Ensemble Plants database (http:// plants. ensem bl. org/ index. html) of the bread wheat genome (IWGSC (RefSeq v1.0)) and added on both sides of the SNP for in silico analysis. Insilico search for the putative candidate genes was then done using Basic Local Alignment Search Tool (BLAST) in the Ensemble plant database (https:// plants. ensem bl. org/ index. html). The genes found in the overlapping region and within 1 Mb upstream and downstream of the matched regions were selected as candidate genes and their molecular functions were determined. In addition, their expression patterns were investigated using the Wheat Expression database (http:// www. wheat-expre ssion. com/) and potential links to phenotypes were determined using Knetminer tool integrated with Wheat Expression database. The role of the identified putative candidate genes in the regulation of GZnC and GFeC was also determined with the previous reports."}]},{"head":"Results","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Phenotypic evaluations.","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":213,"text":"A set of 184 diverse genotypes in the GWAS panel were evaluated for nutritional and other grain quality traits in three diverse locations viz., IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and the combined data across three environments (E4). The summary statistics including mean, range, coefficient of variance, heritability, and variance estimates are presented in Table 1. The genotypic variance is significant for all the studied traits. An extensive range of variation was observed for all the traits in all the studied environments (Table 1; Fig. 1). The variation for GZnC, GFeC, GPC, TKW, and TW ranged from 17.56 mg/kg to 56.93 mg/kg, 25.47 mg/kg to 52.09 mg/kg, 8.6% to 15.81%, 24.33 g to 57.18 g and 64.48 kg/hl to 83.77 kg/hl, respectively. The heritability estimates for GZnC, GFeC, and GPC were variable and ranged between 0.5-0.88, 0.4-0.8, and 0.56-0.82, respectively, heritability for TKW and TW were greater and ranged between 0.73 and 0.92. Based on the combined BLUP values over the environments, the ten best-performing lines for the traits were selected and presented in Table 2. The landrace Navrattan and Syntheic Hexaploid Wheat (SHW) 2.38 were among the best performing genotypes for GZnC, GFeC, and GPC. The Indian variety Lokbold was found among the best performing lines for GZnC, GFeC, and TKW."},{"index":2,"size":119,"text":"The Pearson correlation coefficients (r) estimated between the traits in each environment are presented in Table 3. The association was positive and highly significant (p < 0.01 to 0.001) among GZnC, GFeC (Fig. 2), and GPC in each environment and across environments. The GFeC was found to have a consistently significant positive correlation with TW and TKW (p < 0.05-0.01) in E1, E2, and E4, however, GZnC did not show any correlation with either TW or TKW in any of the environments. Further, the association of GPC with TW and TKW was negative and significant in E2, E3, and E4 (p < 0.05-0.01). The TKW showed a strong positive correlation with TW in all the environments (p < 0.01-0.001)."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Marker distribution, LD decay and population structure. A set of 9,503 high quality SNP markers were distributed across the genome with the highest number of markers on the B sub-genome (3646), followed by A (2979) and D (2878) sub-genomes, respectively. Chromosome-wise distribution suggests that the highest number of markers were mapped on chromosome 1B (675) followed by chromosome 2B (653) and 1D (610). Chromosomes 4D (170) and 4B (266) had the least number of markers (Table 4)."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"The LD was estimated by calculating the squared correlation coefficient (r 2 ) for all the 9503 markers. Genomewide LD decayed with genetic distance, the LD decayed to its half at 4.71 Mb for whole genome, and 3.63 Mb for A, 5.63 Mb for B and 4.90 Mb for D sub-genomes (Fig. 3)."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"Population structure inferred by Principal Component Analysis (PCA) revealed three groups in the GWAS panel (Fig. 4a). The three groups consisted of 45 (G1), 20 (G2) and 119 (G3) genotypes respectively. The PC1, PC2 and PC3 accounted for 10.63%, 8.72% and 5.45% of the total variation respectively. The first three principal components were used as covariates in GWAS analysis to reduce the false positives. The Clustering methods (N-J tree) also revealed the three subpopulations, thus confirming the results of PCA (Fig. 4b). The G1 has most of the exotic lines, G2 constituted of some of the new Indian varieties and G3 was dominated by breeding lines. The Indian varieties were distributed in all three groups."},{"index":6,"size":69,"text":"Marker-trait associations. A total of 55 MTAs were detected; 4 for GFeC, 2 for GZnC, 23 for GPC, 15 for TKW, and 11 for TW. The details of these MTAs are summarized in Table 5 and depicted as Manhattan plots in Fig. 5. The Q-Q plots illustrating observed associations between SNPs and grain micronutrient concentrations compared to expected associations after accounting for population structure are presented in Fig. 5."}]},{"head":"MTAs for GFeC.","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":133,"text":"A total of four significant MTAs were identified for GFeC in E1, E3, and E4 environments on chromosomes 2B, 3A, 3B, and 6A (Table 5; Fig. 5). The phenotypic variation (PV) explained by these SNPs ranged between 8.82 and 12.62%. A major SNP on chromosome 3A (AX-95002032) located at 637.9 Mb explained 12.62% of the PV, while another SNP on chromosome 6A (AX-94715803) located at 585.4 Mb explained 11.14% of PV, both were detected in E3. The other SNPs, AX-94761251 on 2B and AX-94850629 on 3B explained the PV of 9.26 and 8.82%, respectively. The SNP, AX-95002032 had A and C alleles with a phenotypic average of 30.68 mg/kg and 36.14 mg/kg respectively. The SNP, AX-94715803 had A and G alleles with a phenotypic average of 30.6 and 34.76 mg/kg respectively (Fig. 6)."},{"index":2,"size":95,"text":"MTAs for GZnC. Two significant MTAs were identified for GZnC in E2 and E3 environments on chromosomes 1A and 7B (Table 5; Fig. 5). One SNP (AX-94422893) was identified on chromosome 7B, located at 488.4 Mb, and explained 7.60% of the PV, while another SNP on chromosome 1A (AX-94651424) located at 544.7 Mb explained 6.37% of PV. The SNP AX-94422893 had C and T alleles with a phenotypic average of 29.03 and 28.13 mg/kg respectively. The SNP AX-94651424 had C and T alleles with a phenotypic average of 24.04 and 22.51 mg/kg respectively (Fig. 6)."}]},{"head":"MTAs for GPC.","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"A total of 23 significant MTAs were identified for GPC across all environments and pooled mean, which were located on 13 different chromosomes viz., 1A, 1B, 1D, 2A, 2B, 2D, 3B, 3D, 4D, 5B, 6A, 7A, and 7D (Table 5; Fig. 5) and PV explained ranged from 1.91-18.19%. A major SNP detected in E1 on chromosome 4D (AX-95233137) located at 482.9 Mb explained 18.19% of the PV, while the SNPs on chromosome 1A, AX-Table 1. Genetic parameters from the GWAS panel evaluated in IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4). E1, IARI, New Delhi; E2, IARI, Indore; E3, GBPUAT, Pantnagar; E4, across environments; SD, standard deviation; CV, coefficient of variance; LSD, least significant difference; h 2 , heritability. *Significant at p < 0.05. **Significant at p < 0.01. ***Significant at p < 0.001.   "}]},{"head":"MTAs for TKW.","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":82,"text":"A total of 15 significant MTAs were identified for TKW across all the environments and pooled mean. The corresponding SNPs were assigned to 12 different chromosomes, namely, 1A, 1B, 1D, 2A, 2B, 2D, 3A, 3B, 4D, 5D, 7A, and 7B (Table 5; Fig. 5) and PV explained ranged from 1.17 to 12.07%.    In silico analysis. In silico analysis identified 23 candidate genes associated with important MTAs of GFeC and GZnC (Table 6). The candidate genes identified for GFeC includes TraesCS2B02G321500 (Domain of "}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The genetics of GZnC, GFeC, GPC, TKW, and TW has been studied using GWAS in the present study. The GWAS panel exhibited significant variability for all the investigated traits. The range of variability obtained in the present study for GZnC (17.56-56.93 mg/kg) and GFeC (25.47-52.09 mg/kg) is in the range reported previously [43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50][51] . The heritability estimates were higher (h 2 ≥ 0.60) for the studied traits, however, moderate heritability was found in some environments eg., > 0.40 and < 0.60 for GFeC in E1 and E4, GZnC and GPC in E4 (Table 1). The comparable heritability estimates were also reported in previous studies for these traits 29,32,[49][50][51][52][53] ."},{"index":2,"size":150,"text":"The two genotypes i.e. the Navrattan (landrace) and 2.38 (SHW) were among the best performing genotypes for GZnC (36.05 and 37.72 mg/kg), GFeC (37.87 and 38.27 mg/kg) and GPC (12.32% and 12.22%) based on the combined BLUPs across environments and hence can be efficiently utilized in breeding programmes. The genotype Lokbold was identified to be another good performer for GFeC (37.76 mg/kg), GZnC (35.26 mg/ kg), and TKW (49.8 g) and therefore can also be given due consideration in breeding programmes (Table 2). The performance of many old Indian varieties was found to be better for GZnC, GFeC, and GPC than recently released cultivars and vice versa was the case for TKW and TW, confirming the dilution effect, i.e. increased efforts of plant breeders in enhancing grain yield led to an unintentional increase of more starchy endosperm, thus reductions in other important quality components in modern wheat varieties 54 ."},{"index":3,"size":124,"text":"The significant positive correlations among GZnC, GFeC, and GPC indicate the possibility of simultaneous improvement of these traits. This finding is in line with earlier reports 44,[49][50][51][52] . Additionally, many studies suggested a common genetic basis for these traits through GWAS and conventional QTL studies 50,51,55,56 . Also, GFeC and GZnC showed either positive or no correlation with TKW and TW, indicating that the grain Zn and Fe can be increased without yield penalty. However, the study also shows the negative association of TW and TKW with GPC indicating yield penalty with the increase in GPC beyond a certain level 34 , thus it is suggested to improve protein quality profile with the optimum level of protein quantity required for the superior-quality end product."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"The population structure inferred by PCA revealed three sub-populations in the GWAS panel (Fig. 4). Similarly, NJ-based clustering divided the whole set of 184 genotypes into three distinct clusters. The genotypes were clustered in the previous studies mainly based on pedigree, geographical, and evolutionary origin 29,[31][32][33] . In the current study, G1 was dominated by exotic lines, G2 constituted new Indian varieties and G3 by breeding lines. Most significantly, the Indian varieties were mixed up with all the three groups, thus pointing towards their broad genetic base. The results also suggest that many new Indian varieties might have been bred by introgressing genes from exotic lines."},{"index":5,"size":470,"text":"The LD decay over genetic or physical distance in a population determines the density of marker coverage needed to perform GWAS. A faster LD decay indicates that a higher marker density is required to capture the markers close enough to the causal loci 57 . In the present study, the LD decayed to its half from the maximum LD at 4.71 Mb for whole genome, 3.63 Mb for A, 5.63 Mb for B and 4.90 Mb for D sub-genomes (Fig. 3). A similar LD pattern of 5.98 Mb was reported in a set of Chinese wheat landraces 58 . In contrast, the whole genome LD decay was faster and it was at the distance of 2 Mb in a set of CIMMYT spring bread wheat lines 59 . In addition,  Table 5. Marker trait associations (MTAs) detected for GFeC, GZnC, GPC, TKW, and TW in IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4).  the whole genome LD decay distance of 3 Mb was reported 60 . In contrast to faster LD decay, the slower LD decay distance of 22 Mb and 23 Mb respectively were found in a set of hexaploid wheat collections from Kazakhstan and in Mexican bread wheat landraces 61,62 . The variation in the LD pattern among different GWAS populations may be due to factors like selection, mutation, admixtures, non-random mating, etc. A total of 55 MTAs were identified, 4 for GFeC, 2 for GZnC, 23 for GPC, 15 for TKW, and 11 for TW. The four MTAs were identified for GFeC on chromosomes 2B, 3A, 3B, and 6A and explained the PV ranging between 8.82 and 12.62% (Table 5; Fig. 5). Previously, MTAs for GFeC were reported on chromosome 3A 28 , on chromosome 3B 1,27 , further QTL were reported on 2B and 6A by 51,63 . The major SNP on chromosome 3A (AX-95002032) located at 637.96 Mb explained 12.62% of the PV, and the putative candidate gene linked with this marker is TraesCS3A02G389000 (F-box-like domain superfamily). Interestingly, the E3 ubiquitin ligase complex containing the FBXL5 (F-box and leucine-rich repeats protein 5) protein targets iron regulatory protein (IRP2), the FBXL5 accumulating under iron-and oxygen-replete conditions and degraded upon iron depletion 64,65 . These observations also hint at the possible role of FBXL5 in iron sensing in plant systems. The SNP AX-94715803 on chromosome 6A located at 585.43 Mb explained 11.14% of PV. The putative candidate gene linked with this marker is TraesCS6A02G353900 (Zinc finger CCCH-type, G-patch domain). It is noteworthy that the zinc finger transcription factors, which control the functions of various genes, have a DNA binding domain that requires zinc or iron ions for its structural and functional stability and for activation 66 . The possible role of zinc finger protein in wheat grain zinc accumulation was also reported earlier 31,50,51  "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Frequency distribution of GZnC, GFeC, GPC, TKW and TW in the GWAS panel evaluated in IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4). "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Scatter plots showing the correlation of grain zinc (GZnC) and iron (GFeC) concentration in GWAS panel evaluated in IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4). "},{"text":"Figure 3 . Figure 3. Scatterplot showing linkage disequilibrium (LD) decay estimated by plotting (r 2 ) against genetic distance (bp) in 184 diverse bread wheat accessions. The green line indicates the threshold point where LD dropped to 50% of its maximum value. LD decay value is at cut off point is indicated on the x-axis with the green font. "},{"text":"Figure 4 . Figure 4. Three-dimensional principal component analysis plot (a), Neighbor-joining tree (b) inferring the population structure. "},{"text":"Figure 5 . Figure 5. Manhattan and QQ plots for GFeC, GZnC, GPC, TKW and TW from IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4). "},{"text":"Figure 6 . Figure 6. Allelic differences of the significant MTAs identified for GFeC and GZnC in IARI-New Delhi (E1), IARI-Indore (E2), GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3), and across environments (E4). "},{"text":"Table 2 . The highest-performing 10 lines for GFeC, GZnC, GPC, TW and TKW in the GWAS panel based on combined BLUPs across environments.  GFeC (mg/  GZnC (mg/       GFeC (mg/GZnC (mg/ Genotypes kg) Genotypes kg) Genotypes GPC (%) Genotypes TW (g) Genotypes TKW (g) Genotypeskg)Genotypeskg)GenotypesGPC (%) Genotypes TW (g) GenotypesTKW (g) Kundan 40.05 SHW (2.38) 37.72 Local collec-tion 1c01 13.00 C273 79.05 Lokbold 49.8 Kundan40.05SHW (2.38) 37.72Local collec-tion 1c0113.00C27379.05Lokbold49.8 UP2672 39.62 C591 36.41 IITR26 12.67 HD3118 78.93 DL1532 47.23 UP267239.62C59136.41IITR2612.67HD311878.93DL153247.23 NW1014 39.36 NP852 36.06 NP852 12.50 HD3354 78.81 Kundan 46.2 NW101439.36NP85236.06NP85212.50HD335478.81Kundan46.2 SHW (2.38) 38.27 Navrattan 36.05 Navrattan 12.32 HD2982 78.81 CS5 45.94 SHW (2.38) 38.27Navrattan36.05Navrattan12.32HD298278.81CS545.94 Hindi62 38.09 QBP128 35.95 VL829 12.29 HI617 78.69 Asocmap260 44.83 Hindi6238.09QBP12835.95VL82912.29HI61778.69Asocmap260 44.83 Westonia 38.04 Kharchia65 35.88 SHW (2.38) 12.22 HI1563 78.69 UP2425 44.65 Westonia38.04Kharchia6535.88SHW (2.38) 12.22HI156378.69UP242544.65 Navrattan 37.87 C273 35.63 NP770 12.11 RAJ4120 78.69 DBW187 44.52 Navrattan37.87C27335.63NP77012.11RAJ412078.69DBW18744.52 HD2932 37.81 NP770 35.46 DBW14 12.00 K68 78.56 PBW752 44.24 HD293237.81NP77035.46DBW1412.00K6878.56PBW75244.24 Lokbold 37.76 Lokbold 35.26 HD2189 11.99 QBP1210 78.56 PBW689 43.91 Lokbold37.76Lokbold35.26HD218911.99QBP121078.56PBW68943.91 HD2189 37.74 K68 34.98 HI1605 11.98 K1317 78.56 DBW43 43.51 HD218937.74K6834.98HI160511.98K131778.56DBW4343.51  "},{"text":" The SNP AX-94939463 on chromosome 7A located at 731.8 Mb, was identified in the three environments namely, E1, E3, and  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Pair-wise correlation coefficients among the traits in GWAS panel evaluated in IARI-New Delhi  Traits GZnC GPC TW TKW Traits GZnCGPCTWTKW  GFeC 0.60*** 0.28*** 0.18* 0.20** GFeC0.60***0.28*** 0.18*0.20** IARI-New Delhi (E1) GZnC GPC  0.46*** − 0.03 0.03 0.01 0.03 IARI-New Delhi (E1)GZnC GPC0.46*** − 0.03 0.030.01 0.03  TW    0.50*** TW0.50***  GFeC 0.37*** 0.22** 0.12 0.17* GFeC0.37***0.22**0.120.17* IARI-Indore (E2) GZnC GPC  0.30*** 0.09 − 0.19** − 0.23** − 0.01 IARI-Indore (E2)GZnC GPC0.30*** 0.09 − 0.19** − 0.23** − 0.01  TW    0.23** TW0.23**  GFeC 0.25*** 0.23** 0.06 0 GFeC0.25***0.23**0.060 GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3) GZnC GPC  − 0.14 0.1 − 0.16* − 0.04 − 0.15* GBPUAT-Pantnagar (E3)GZnC GPC− 0.140.1 − 0.16*− 0.04 − 0.15*  TW    0.50*** TW0.50***  GFeC 0.41*** 0.39*** 0.23** 0.15* GFeC0.41***0.39*** 0.23**0.15* Across Env (E4) GZnC GPC  0.30*** 0.14 0 − 0.04 − 0.18* Across Env (E4)GZnC GPC0.30*** 0.14 0− 0.04 − 0.18*  TW    0.34*** TW0.34***  "},{"text":"Table 4 . The sub-genome-wise distribution of SNP markers in the GWAS panel.  GWAS panel       GWAS panel Genome↓/chromosome → 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Total Genome↓/chromosome →1234567Total A 496 498 402 315 466 336 466 2979 A496 498 402 315 466 336 466 2979 B 675 653 478 266 588 540 446 3646 B675 653 478 266 588 540 446 3646 D 610 597 391 170 436 320 354 2878 D610 597 391 170 436 320 354 2878  "},{"text":"Table 6 . . The other two MTAs, AX-94761251, AX-94850629 found on chromosome 2B at 458.62 Mb and on chromosome 3B at 473.69 Mb explained a respective PV of 9.26 and 8.82%, respectively. In silico analysis revealed the putative candidate genes TraesCS2B02G321500 (Domain of Putative candidate genes identified for GZnC and GFeC. Trait SNP ID Position (Mb) Chr TraesID Putative candidate genes Molecular function TraitSNP IDPosition (Mb) Chr TraesIDPutative candidate genesMolecular function  AX-94761251 458.62 2B TraesCS2B02G321500 Domain of unknown function DUF3475 Domain of unknown function DUF668 Positive regulation of growth AX-94761251 458.622BTraesCS2B02G321500Domain of unknown function DUF3475 Domain of unknown function DUF668Positive regulation of growth     TraesCS2B02G321600 Zinc finger, GRF-type Zinc ion binding TraesCS2B02G321600 Zinc finger, GRF-typeZinc ion binding     TraesCS3B02G295000 Serine-threonine/tyrosine-protein kinase Wall-associated receptor kinase Protein kinase activity Polysaccharide binding, ATP binding TraesCS3B02G295000Serine-threonine/tyrosine-protein kinase Wall-associated receptor kinaseProtein kinase activity Polysaccharide binding, ATP binding      Nicotinamide-nucleotide adenylyltransferase Nicotinamide-nucleotide adenylyltransferase     TraesCS3B02G294600 Rossmann-like alpha/beta/alpha sandwich fold Cytidyltransferase-like domain activity Catalytic activity TraesCS3B02G294600Rossmann-like alpha/beta/alpha sandwich fold Cytidyltransferase-like domainactivity Catalytic activity      ATPase ATPase  AX-94850629 473.69 3B TraesCS3B02G294700 Reticulon-like protein Response to bacterium AX-94850629 473.693BTraesCS3B02G294700 Reticulon-like proteinResponse to bacterium     TraesCS3B02G294900 Glycoside hydrolase family 18 Serine-threonine/tyrosine-protein kinase Hydrolase activity, Hydrolyzing O-glycosyl compounds, Protein kinase activity, ATP binding TraesCS3B02G294900Glycoside hydrolase family 18 Serine-threonine/tyrosine-protein kinaseHydrolase activity, Hydrolyzing O-glycosyl compounds, Protein kinase activity, ATP binding GFeC    TraesCS3B02G294800 Bifunctional inhibitor/plant lipid transfer protein/ seed storage helical domain Lipid transport GFeCTraesCS3B02G294800Bifunctional inhibitor/plant lipid transfer protein/ seed storage helical domainLipid transport     TraesCS3B02G295300 Wall-associated receptor kinase, C-terminal Polysaccharide binding TraesCS3B02G295300 Wall-associated receptor kinase, C-terminalPolysaccharide binding     TraesCS6A02G353900 Zinc finger CCCH-type, G-patch domain Nucleic acid binding, Metal ion binding TraesCS6A02G353900 Zinc finger CCCH-type, G-patch domainNucleic acid binding, Metal ion binding  AX-94715803 585.43 6A TraesCS6A02G353700 Pheophorbide a oxygenase Rieske [2Fe-2S] iron-sulphur domain Chlorophyllide a oxygenase [overall] activity, 2 iron, 2 sulfur cluster binding AX-94715803 585.436ATraesCS6A02G353700Pheophorbide a oxygenase Rieske [2Fe-2S] iron-sulphur domainChlorophyllide a oxygenase [overall] activity, 2 iron, 2 sulfur cluster binding     TraesCS6A02G353800 Serine incorporator/TMS membrane protein Integral component of membrane TraesCS6A02G353800 Serine incorporator/TMS membrane proteinIntegral component of membrane     TraesCS6A02G354100 Peptidase family M49, NUDIX hydrolase domain Hydrolase activity TraesCS6A02G354100 Peptidase family M49, NUDIX hydrolase domain Hydrolase activity     TraesCS3A02G389000 F-box-like domain superfamily Protein binding TraesCS3A02G389000 F-box-like domain superfamilyProtein binding     TraesCS3A02G389100 Spindle assembly checkpoint component Mad1 Mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint signaling TraesCS3A02G389100 Spindle assembly checkpoint component Mad1Mitotic spindle assembly checkpoint signaling  AX-95002032 637.96 3A TraesCS3A02G389200 Domain of unknown function DUF4094, Glyco-syltransferase, family 31 Galactosyltransferase activity Hexosyltransferase activity AX-95002032 637.963ATraesCS3A02G389200Domain of unknown function DUF4094, Glyco-syltransferase, family 31Galactosyltransferase activity Hexosyltransferase activity     TraesCS3A02G389400 Pentatricopeptide repeat Protein binding TraesCS3A02G389400 Pentatricopeptide repeatProtein binding     TraesCS3A02G389300 Protein kinase-like domain superfamily Protein kinase activity TraesCS3A02G389300 Protein kinase-like domain superfamilyProtein kinase activity     TraesCS7B02G266000 Histone deacetylase domain superfamily Ureohydrolase domain superfamily Histone deacetylase activity Hydrolase activity TraesCS7B02G266000Histone deacetylase domain superfamily Ureohydrolase domain superfamilyHistone deacetylase activity Hydrolase activity     TraesCS7B02G265800 Cytochrome P450 Heme binding Metal ion binding TraesCS7B02G265800 Cytochrome P450Heme binding Metal ion binding  AX-94422893 488.41 7B  Myc-type, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain AX-94422893 488.417BMyc-type, basic helix-loop-helix (bHLH) domain GZnC    TraesCS7B02G265900 ily Helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain superfam- Protein dimerizationactivity GZnCTraesCS7B02G265900ily Helix-loop-helix DNA-binding domain superfam-Protein dimerizationactivity     TraesCS7B02G266100 Nucleotide-diphospho-sugar transferases - TraesCS7B02G266100 Nucleotide-diphospho-sugar transferases-     TraesCS7B02G266200 PPM-type phosphatase domain Phosphatase activity TraesCS7B02G266200 PPM-type phosphatase domainPhosphatase activity  AX-94651424 544.72 1A TraesCS1A02G365900 SANT/Myb domain, Homeobox-like domain superfamily DNA binding AX-94651424 544.721ATraesCS1A02G365900SANT/Myb domain, Homeobox-like domain superfamilyDNA binding     TraesCS7A02G560100 Polysaccharide biosynthesis domain superfamily Xylan biosynthetic process TraesCS7A02G560100 Polysaccharide biosynthesis domain superfamily Xylan biosynthetic process TKW AX-94939463 731.88 7A TraesCS7A02G560000 Dehydrin Response to abscisic acid Response to water TKWAX-94939463 731.887ATraesCS7A02G560000 DehydrinResponse to abscisic acid Response to water      Cold acclimation Cold acclimation  "}],"sieverID":"1d3790f7-1e28-490a-99d0-db156e49d34c","abstract":"Malnutrition due to micronutrients and protein deficiency is recognized among the major global health issues. Genetic biofortification of wheat is a cost-effective and sustainable strategy to mitigate the global micronutrient and protein malnutrition. Genomic regions governing grain zinc concentration (GZnC), grain iron concentration (GFeC), grain protein content (GPC), test weight (TW), and thousand kernel weight (TKW) were investigated in a set of 184 diverse bread wheat genotypes through genome-wide association study (GWAS). The GWAS panel was genotyped using Breeders' 35 K Axiom Array and phenotyped in three different environments during 2019-2020. A total of 55 marker-trait associations (MTAs) were identified representing all three sub-genomes of wheat. The highest number of MTAs were identified for GPC (23), followed by TKW (15), TW (11), GFeC (4), and GZnC (2). Further, a stable SNP was identified for TKW, and also pleiotropic regions were identified for GPC and TKW. In silico analysis revealed important putative candidate genes underlying the identified genomic regions such as F-box-like domain superfamily, Zinc finger CCCH-type proteins, Serine-threonine/tyrosine-protein kinase, Histone deacetylase domain superfamily, and SANT/Myb domain superfamily proteins, etc. The identified novel MTAs will be validated to estimate their effects in different genetic backgrounds for subsequent use in marker-assisted selection.Micronutrient deficiency, also known as 'hidden hunger' is mainly caused by the intake of diets often dominated by food staples low in minerals and vitamins 1 . It affects around two billion people worldwide and causes about 45% of deaths annually of children below five years of age 2 . Around 155 million children suffer from stunting and 52 million are wasted particularly in Asia and Africa 3 . The iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) deficiencies among the minerals caused due to reduced dietary intake are a greater risk factor for human health 4-6 and affect about onethird of the population in developing countries 7,8 . The Fe deficiency is indicated by reduced haemoglobin content resulting in anaemia and affects over 24.8% of the population worldwide and about 65% of the preschool-aged children in South-East Asia and Africa 9 . It can lead to several life-threatening diseases such as chronic kidney and heart failure, as well as inflammatory bowel diseases 10 . The Zn deficiency affects 17.3% of the global population mostly in developing countries of Asia and Africa 11 and is responsible for the death of over half a million children below the age of five years 12 . It induces a wide range of physiological problems, such as growth retardation, impaired brain development, increased vulnerability to infectious diseases, diarrhoea and pneumonia, as well as an increased risk of infant mortality, pregnancy, and childbirth complications, and a range of other chronic diseases [13][14][15] . The GPC along with nutritional importance also determines the processing and end-product quality of wheat. One of the most common causes of infection in humans is a lack of secondary immunity caused by"}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d1517f44f58995ec2b809f5f27fb629","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/869ed173-383b-4502-8cfd-94982cba9553/retrieve"},"pageCount":10,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":123,"text":"More farmers adopt CSA practices and technologies on their farms P4S is a cross-institution program led by World Agroforestry (ICRAF) and the International Center for Tropical Agriculture (CIAT) in collaboration with other CGIAR centers, development, government and private sector partners. P4S supports scaling up and out of CSA by working in close collaboration with partners to generate credible, relevant and legitimate evidence. This evidence is delivered at the right time and packaged in the right format so that is ready to be used in policy, programmatic and investment decisions. Injecting evidence into decision-making processes sows the seeds for efficient and effective development programming, more sustainable natural resource management and improved livelihoods of smallholder farmers. Ultimately, it helps to achieve the Sustainable Development Goals."},{"index":2,"size":65,"text":"Our theory of change is built around a strategy of three core actions: inform, engage, and empower. We form, consolidate and catalyze partnerships to develop demand-based science, defining what is needed and when. We develop cutting-edge analytical, participatory tools and release data to inform planning and action. We communicate and build capacity of users to employ the tools and data in day-do-day management and decision-making. "}]},{"head":"Our Science","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":44,"text":"We developed and collaborated on diverse science-backed tools and processes to help users make informed decisions that bring value for money and improve livelihood outcomes.  Using ERA to estimate potential trade-offs between rewards and risks for small-scale producers when investing in improved farming practices."}]},{"head":"Climate Wizzard","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"CSA Prioritization Framework","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":170,"text":"Note: Yields are greater than business-as-usual for most options, though risks grow along with rewards. Nevertheless, the potential benefits typically far exceed costs, with expected returns up to seven times greater. Rewards were calculated as the benefit-cost ratio. Risk considers crop yields over time, given varying weather conditions, and represents the possibility of yielding lower than the average yield when not using the improved farming technique. Data derived from farm budgets estimated during research trials in Kenya and Malawi and compiled as part of the ERA v1.0. Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment Plans (CSAIPs) are comprehensive analyses that identify concrete actions to boost climate-smart agriculture, targeted at investment and policy design. They are comprised of four analytical components: (i) a situational analysis of agriculture, food security, poverty, climate risks, and the governance and policy context; (ii) a prioritized set of investments to address climate-related challenges to agriculture; (iii) preliminary project concepts and analysis, based on detailed analyses of costs and benefits; and (iv) a monitoring and evaluation (M&E) roadmap for each investment."},{"index":2,"size":53,"text":"The CSAIPs build on the legacy of CSA Profiles and Climate Risk Profiles developed by P4S and partners over the past 8 years, which have laid the foundations for an improved understanding of climate challenges, solutions, and readiness to adopt CSA in target national and sub-national context in Asia, Africa, and Latin America."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Investments included in CSAIPs range from national to subnational and local scales and cover four broadly defined categories:"},{"index":4,"size":69,"text":"Innovations: these refer to enhanced inputs, seeds, breed, site-specific technologies and management practices for crops and livestock, to improve yields and resilience to climate impacts Farmers benefited from assistance in multiple stages, from design of resource maps and seasonal calendars to interpretation of seasonal forecasts provided by the government shortly before the cropping season, and documentation of successes, challenges and suggestions to improve the process based on lessons learned."},{"index":5,"size":55,"text":"Unlike typical climate information systems, PICSA combines historical climate information with seasonal forecasts to better understand climate variability and change and calculate risks. With this approach, extension staff no longer rely solely on qualitative information in their work and farmers are empowered to make their own farm decisions based on the information delivered to them."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"To facilitate information dissemination, through public-private partnerships and using climate information, partners have provided index-based insurance services to 750,000 farmers in the region. In Senegal, an additional 8,500 farmers now receive climate information via SMS, voice messaging and emails."},{"index":7,"size":50,"text":"An evaluation of the implementation of the PICSA approach in Kaffrine (Senegal) reveals improved knowledge of farmers about sowing dates, the use of locally adapted varieties and about strategies for adapting seasonal production plans (farm size) to the resources available (Ouedraogo, 2018). Photo: Farmers in Kaffrine (Senegal). J. Hansen (CCAFS)."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"| PAGE 9 P4S BY THE NUMBERS"}]}],"figures":[{"text":" Photo: CIAT/NeilPalmer "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Evidence for Resilient Agriculture informs more than USD 1 billion in investment plans and guides evidence-based policy, programming, and capacity building in Africa  Evidence for Resilient Agriculture (ERA) is a  Evidence for Resilient Agriculture (ERA) is a meta-dataset and analytical engine developed  meta-dataset and analytical engine developed under P4S. It uses 50 years of agricultural  under P4S. It uses 50 years of agricultural research in Sub-Saharan Africa to identify the  research in Sub-Saharan Africa to identify the effects of shifting from one farm practice to  effects of shifting from one farm practice to another on outcomes of productivity, climate 2,4,5,6 another on outcomes of productivity, climate2,4,5,6 resilience and mitigation. Insofar, ERA was  resilience and mitigation. Insofar, ERA was used to improve evidence-based policy  used to improve evidence-based policy development and implementation capacity,  development and implementation capacity, programming, research and value for money  programming, research and value for money of public and private investments.  of public and private investments. In Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and  In Mali, Cote d'Ivoire, Burkina Faso and Ghana, ERA data informed cost-benefit analy-  Ghana, ERA data informed cost-benefit analy- ses for Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment  ses for Climate-Smart Agriculture Investment Plans (CSAIPs), each valued at approximate-  Plans (CSAIPs), each valued at approximate- ly USD 250 M and covering a range of climate  ly USD 250 M and covering a range of climate information and on-farm practices.  information and on-farm practices.  "},{"text":"at a glance Science for impact Over the years, P4S research, engagement and outreach activities have informed multiple policies, investments, and capacity strengthening strategies across Africa. In Malawi and Kenya, data from ERA was used In Malawi and Kenya, data from ERA was used to conduct financial and risk analyses of maize to conduct financial and risk analyses of maize farming technologies, which informed farming technologies, which informed USDA-level discussions on capacity building USDA-level discussions on capacity building prioritized in the two countries. ERA data on prioritized in the two countries. ERA data on economic costs of farm practices was also fed economic costs of farm practices was also fed into the State and Trends in Adaptation Report into the State and Trends in Adaptation Report in 2021 developed under the leadership of the in 2021 developed under the leadership of the Global Center on Adaptation. Global Center on Adaptation. ERA has also been used in programming ERA has also been used in programming initiatives. It helped design OneCGIAR initiatives. It helped design OneCGIAR Initiatives and it became a key data source for Initiatives and it became a key data source for the CGIAR Adaptation Atlas, an interactive the CGIAR Adaptation Atlas, an interactive web portal that identifies adaptation options web portal that identifies adaptation options across Africa. The Atlas contributed to the across Africa. The Atlas contributed to the Global Commission on Adaptation Year of Global Commission on Adaptation Year of Action and the adaptation portfolio of the Bill & Action and the adaptation portfolio of the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation. Melinda Gates Foundation.  "}],"sieverID":"eb7ee077-7aa8-4c5f-83a0-cb16079dd4d7","abstract":"Our theory of change is built around a strategy of three core actions: Inform, Engage, Empower."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d5046e81a6cab190b176c056acd1ac9","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H_6404.pdf"},"pageCount":58,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":132,"text":"This visit was the first of its kind for both the farmers and the staff of IIMI-Pakistan. The financial support from the Swiss Development Cooperation for the visit is gratefully acknowledged. The cooperation from the w a t v users of the four pilot distributaries/ minor in organizing themselves into Water Users Federations and choosing appropriate leadership was one of the key factors that made the visit possible. Their contribution, therefore, cannot be over-emphasized. The hard work of the field teams behind all of the organizational activities also sharcs some of the credit for the succcss of the visit program. We are especially obliged to Mr. Rajan Subedi, Managing Dircctor of Consolidated Management Services in Nepal for putting every possible effort into making the visit a success. The strenuous efforts of Mr."},{"index":2,"size":72,"text":"Tissa Bandaragoda, Senior Management Specialist, and Professor Gaylord V. Skogerboe, Director IIMI-Pakistan belind arranging the finances for the tour also deserve special mention, and their comments on the earlier drafts helped in improving the report. We owe a lot of thanks to the participants of the tour for the zeal they expressed for learning, and to the organizations visited in Nepal for their hospitality, without which the efforts would not have paid-off."},{"index":3,"size":110,"text":"Last, but not least, the editorial assistance received from Ms. Verenia Duke, assistance by Ms. Samia Ali and Mr. Mobin-ud-Din Ahmad i n preparing the map of the visited sites, and the secretarial assistance of Mr. Manzoor Hussain arc thankfully acknowledged. We appreciate the ready offer of support extended to us by the Swiss Development Cooperation to meet the entire cost of this study tour. I am sure this was an instance when funds were well spent for a worthy cause. We in IIMI are happy to have participated in an activity which will have some long-term effects on Pakistan's on-going initiatives for institutional reforms in the irrigated agriculture sector."}]},{"head":"Don Jayatissa Bandaragoda Senior Management Specialist Pakistan National Program International Irrigation Management Institute","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":135,"text":"The Pilot Project on Farmer-Managed Irrigated Agriculture in the LBOD Area envisaged study tours for the leaders of the newly established Water Users Organizations. By this way, the farmer leaders could physically see how organized farmers are managing their irrigation resources. Though an inland visit to a farmer-managed distributary / minor would have been of much value for the newly selected farmer leaders, opportunities for an inland visit was impossible because of the non-existence of a farmer-managed distributary / minor in Pakistan. The presence of all the three modes of irrigation management, i.e. agency, joint and farmer managed, at the secondary level of the system in Nepal, helped in deciding to visit Nepal. Five office bearers from each of the IIMI's three pilot distributaries/ minor in Sindh and one in Punjab participated in the visit."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Consolidated Management Services of Nepal was requested to organize the visit as it has vast experience in organizing study tours for irrigation systems. The itinerary facilitated visiting five imgation systems in Nepal. The systems for the visit were carefully selected in order to provide an opportunity to the visitors for seeing all of the three management modes."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"At the outset of the field program on December 05, 1997, participants called on the Director-General of Irrigation, Nepal, who warmly welcomed the Pakistanis to his eounby and its imgation systems. Encouraging Pakistani farmers to benefit from the opportunity to learn how the Nepali farmers were managing their systems, he expressed that effective users participation at the secondary/ tertiary level of imgation systems was paying dividends."},{"index":4,"size":84,"text":"Pithuwa Irrigation System, to the east of Bharatpur / Chitwan Town and located in the Pithuwa Village Development Committee (VDC) area of the Chitwan District, was visited on December 06, 1997. The Water Users Association is managing this system. In order to meet its obligations, the association fixes a water tax based on the size of the user's land. WUA members expressed that the fixed supply compels users to use water more efficiently. Pakistani farmers confidently sought clarification about the topics of their interest."},{"index":5,"size":59,"text":"A deep tube-well project was visited. The group visited this tubewell scheme after introduction to the WUA and the project staff. Though installation costs are higher, the cost of water for a community-managed tubewell is about 25% lower than that of govemment-managed tubewells. Users expressed that their crop yields, cropping intensities and annual incomes per unit area have increased."},{"index":6,"size":55,"text":"The farmer-constructed imgation system of Sorah Chhatis Mauja serves 52 villages, irrigating 16 on one branch canal and 36 on the other. The Chhatis Mauja Branch Canal has 182 tertiary units. Group members eagerly inspected the canal and turnouts at Sorah-Chhatis Mauja Irrigation System and saw the locally developed diversion structure used for water distribution."},{"index":7,"size":120,"text":"The Chhatis Mauja Branch Canal has a total of 728 votes among the member farmers. Fines are levied for water theft and other offenses, which gradually increase with the number of offenses by the same farmer. Water allocatiorl is based on requirement. The main committee allocates and distributes water to branches; branches allocate and distribute to kulharas. When fines for abstention from channel clearance activity are not paid, irrigation water is withheld. The indigenous water structures used at the head of each channel allow proportionate water to the channels. Apart from the irrigation service fee, there are a few instances of receiving occasional grants from the District Irrigation Project. Charging entrance fees from visiting professionals and organizations also generates finances."},{"index":8,"size":178,"text":"The Gandak West Canal System is located along the Indian border in the Nawalparasi District of Nepal. This system is physically very similar to canal systems in Pakistan. Under government management, the system deteriorated due to livestock entry and poor maintenance. The Government of Nepal and USAID ratified an agreement for joint management between the Department of Irrigation and the farmers. User groups were organized following a bottom-up approach at the turnout, minor, branch and main canal levels. Asian Development Bank (ADB) and His Majesty's Government (HMG) presented an action plan, which was reviewed by a sub-project management committee consisting of agency and farmer representatives. Shareholders elect office bearers for the uppa tolis and one member for higher level leadership (toli). Shares have been distributed among water users at Rs 1 each. The users feel that timely maintenance by the WUA prevents physical deterioration of the s;'stem. After visiting the organization of West Gandak, the participants expressed their confidence about a farmer-managed irrigation system. Pakistani farmers paid rapt attention to the presentation about the system and the organization."},{"index":9,"size":175,"text":"The Begnas Irrigation System is the first hill irrigation system visited in Nepal, comprising a lake connected to a large canal, which the group visited on the morning of December 11, 1997. A unit water requirement for the rice crop is five liters/s/ha. This area demands high water use for crop production as the soil drains quickly. Farmers had been managing the canal system informally before the initiation of the project. However, the lake system was expanded and the canal was redesigned. The farmers participation has been included very recently in the project design. Project staff later informed the local Panchayat through the VDC that the system needed farmer participation. The government provides funds for maintenance; the organization prioritizes maintenance activities and supervises maintenance activities. Beneficiaries are not required to pay a water tax to the government. The irrigation system appears to be an agency-managed irrigation system with limited farmer participation. Though a WUA for the canal system exists, the organization is very weak because roles, responsibilities, and water rights have not been clearly defined."},{"index":10,"size":121,"text":"The visitors had opportunities to share their experiences among themselves as well as with experienced experts of imgation in Nepal. Besides an initial evaluation, a half-day experience-sharing meeting was conducted in Kathmandu after the group had visited all the intended imgation systems. The group recognized that despite a difference in the context of irrigation systems in Nepal and Pakistan, the physical hierarchies were alike. The size of irrigation systems in Nepal is compatible with potential demand. System designs cater to smaller-than-required command areas, enabling additional water supplies. Pakistani systems were constructed centuries ago with a designed cropping intensity of around 80%. While cropping intensities increased in Pakistan and maintenance is continuously neglected, system capacities reduce and the demand for water increases."},{"index":11,"size":99,"text":"De-politicization of the organizations, government support for Participatory Irrigation Management, egalitarian land distribution, and strong by-laws and a supportive judicial system in Nepal were regarded as the main differences with that of Pakistan. Government support for farmer-managed irrigation systems, one of the crucial factors for success, is totally absent in Pakistan, where, despite several requests from established WUFs, distributaries are not being turned over to farmers. Irrigation departments support pilot projects at policy levels, but field staff directly responsible for the system are reluctant to proceed further, also indulging in regulation activities that discourage farmers from cooperating with WUFs."},{"index":12,"size":40,"text":"The participants were of the view that the Pakistani organizations should be introvert so that every farmer gets his share and pays accordingly. These organizations should develop practical and realistic by-laws and frame appropriate systems, including systematic water charge collection."},{"index":13,"size":55,"text":"In the final evaluation by the participants, the relevance of discussions with the WUOs of all the irrigation systems was regarded highly useful. The WUA of the Gandak West Canal Irrigation System won high praises as an overwhelming majority regarded the discussion to be highly useful. WUA office bearers were highly knowledgeable about their system."},{"index":14,"size":43,"text":"Participants were also requested to evaluate the program organization, facilities provided, and coordination. The Government's enabling role in Nepali irrigation systems was highly appreciated, as Pakistani farmers are experiencing several institutional barriers to enable their organizations to operate and maintain their irrigation systems."},{"index":15,"size":13,"text":"According to their views, the similarity of irrigation systems helped largely in learning."},{"index":16,"size":25,"text":"Initiatives for self-organization among the Nepali farmers were especially mentioned and noticed by the participants. Participants also warmed to the participatory evaluation and experience-sharing meetings."},{"index":17,"size":48,"text":"This visit was extremely valuable in helping farmers to witness farmer-managed systems so that they could be inspired and encouraged. The favorable policy environment and the enabling role of the irrigation bureaucracy in Nepal was greatly appreciated, and was considered essential for the success of farmer-managed irrigation systems."},{"index":18,"size":43,"text":"The Pakistani farmer leaders were optimistic about removing initial social barriers as the organizations start managing their systems and improve their functioning with gaining experience. The institutional barriers were perceived to be the only obstacle in ilie way of successful farmer-managed irrigation systems."},{"index":19,"size":186,"text":"The most impressive part of the visit was the direct interactions among the farmers of the two countries. While Pakistanis were asking questions in Urdu, their Nepali counterparts were responding in Hindi. There had been almost no job for the facilitators due to this direct dialogue. Some of the Pakistani fanners, who earlier were skeptical about farmers managing an irrigation system in Pakistan, were found to become ardent advocates of an FMIS during the participatory evaluation conducted later. The similarity of the physical hierarchy and social setup of the canal irrigation systems in both the countries fiuther strengthened their beliefs. Most of the queries from the Pakistani leaders were related to water availability, allocation, distribution, equity, formulation of rules and their applications, effectiveness of the organizations in controlling free riding and irrigation service fees. Being agriculturists, the fanners also had many interactions about farming systems, size and tenure relationships, cropping patterns and intensities, crop yields, and income. Livestock and milk production were also discussed though less frequently. Pakistani fanners showed keen interest in managing their irrigation systems through their organizations, once these are turned-over to them."},{"index":20,"size":1,"text":"1."}]},{"head":"Background","index":3,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"INTRODUCTION TO PAKISTAN AND NEPAL IN SOUTH ASIA","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":85,"text":"Pakistan and Nepal are both democracies, but Nepal is a monarchy with the King as head of state, whereas a Prime Minister assisted by a Cabinet of Ministers governs Pakistan. These two countries share a contiguity of borders in South Asia, which is cut off from the rest of Asia by the Himalayan mountains. South Asia has a total area of nearly 2 million square miles, which holds one-fourth of the world's population, ranking as the third major concentration of human beings in the world."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"Neighboring countries in the region also share common histories, races, religions, languages, cultural backgrounds and colonial legacies. About 180 languages and more than 700 dialects are spoken here, but there are, however, only three main languages: English, Hindi and Urdu. Nepali has been developed / influenced off these."},{"index":3,"size":23,"text":"Pakistan's rich historical influence is long and complicated, and Nepal's ancient documentary history began with the Changa Narayan Temple inscription of 449 AD."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"In many ways, life in this region has remained the same for hundreds of years. The ancient customs may be seen side by side with the latest advances in civilization and science. Religions play a very important role in the region's social make-up because these affect people's styles of dresses and diet, and influence their choice of livelihood."},{"index":5,"size":28,"text":"Though the area is rich in resources, such as ores and farmlands, it remains insufficiently developed, and as a result, the area has a low standard of living."}]},{"head":"Human activities","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"In South Asia, man and his land have always been very closely related. A large portion of the land suitable for agriculture has been brought under cultivation, and this is the major occupation of the people. It is not only their chief means of livelihood, but also serves as the foundation of the region's economy, which provides food for the growing population and is the source of raw material for related industries. Adding to export products and accounting for much of the national income, agriculture also provides employment to the majority of the working population."},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"Every South Asian country has tried to develop its agriculture, but without changing its methods of agriculture, i.e.:"},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"-, small land holding feudalistic system ill organization combined with lack of capital In addition, these countries have not introduced much change in the types of crops grown in particular seasons, and are taking a long time to introduce new technology."},{"index":4,"size":58,"text":"As a result, agriculture in the region remains predominantly a subsistence way of life. Very fine fertile land, suitable climate and abundant labor is available in this region. Water storing facilities in the form of dams and barrages are present and different types of irrigation facilities are available, but the production of crops are not according to expectations."},{"index":5,"size":16,"text":"Since the ~O ' S , agricultural methods started changing for the better in the region:"},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"irrigation systems began to take new tums in agricultural development by both good seeds and good fertilizers were also introduced; control over weeds and pests and diseases were made possible; new technology and scientific methods added much more to the development of governments also started providing all the possible facilities to farmers to increase modem agronomic science was introduced; and more attention was given towards agricultural research."},{"index":7,"size":9,"text":"providing reliable and controllable water supplies to the lands; "}]},{"head":"1.3","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":19,"text":"In most of the countries, there are two or three main cropping seasons, and the following crops are cultivated:"}]},{"head":"Rice:","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"Wheat:"}]},{"head":"Maize:","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Chief crops grown in the region One-fourth of the world's total rice production comes from the region."},{"index":2,"size":9,"text":"Wheat is a staple food in the drier climates."},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"This crop is grown for both cattle and humans, which is grown in the plains and is used as grain as well as fodder."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"No big efforts are needed for its cultivation, because once it is sown, it can yield five to six crops. This is grown in most areas of South Asia, and in certain places, enough is grown for export."},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"This is an important cash crop and is grown in the canal irrigated areas."}]},{"head":"Sugarcane:","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":2,"text":"Tobacco cotton"}]},{"head":"Fodder","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"These are specially cultivated for milk animals and other cattle as little grazing land is available."},{"index":2,"size":66,"text":"Domestic animals such as cows, buffaloes, oxen, goats, sheep, pigs, donkeys and horses are an important part of the South Asian agricultural system. These are considpred to be an important sou These animals are a big source of meat, milk, butter, ghee, cheese and yogurt. All of these products are not used in the fresh form, but are canned or packed in fresh or dried forms."},{"index":3,"size":10,"text":"Their bones and leather are also utilized in many ways."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"of power in the rural areas, especially cattle."},{"index":5,"size":3,"text":"THE STUDY TOUR"}]},{"head":"TheNeed","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"The Pilot Project on Farmer-Managed Irrigated Agriculture in the LBOD Area envisaged that the program would facilitate study tours for selected leaders of newlyestablished Water Users Organizations ( W O s ) of the pilot irrigation systems in order for them to experience how other farmers are managing their irrigation resources."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Study visits of this nature have been extremely helpful in certain other countries."},{"index":3,"size":44,"text":"Unfortunately, the Pakistani experience of farmers managing irrigation systems is limited to the tertiary level. In the past, farmers had only been entrusted with the task of managing their watercourses, and their involvement at the secondary level (distributories and minors) had been altogether non-existent."},{"index":4,"size":63,"text":"Despite the fact that an inland visit to a farmer-managed distributory / minor would have been of much value for the newly-selected farmer leaders, opportunities for farmers to have an exposure program became well nigh impossible because of the non-existence of a farmer-managed distributory / minor in Pakistan. An explicit growing desire from the farmer leaders also developed with the passage of time."},{"index":5,"size":102,"text":"The idea was exchanged with a visiting IIMI consultant during the first quarter of 1997, concluding that a visit to a country with a similar social background and hydrological setup would serve the purpose well. All three modes of irrigation management i.e. agency, joint and farmer managed at the secondary level of the system exist in Nepal. Some of the farmer-managed systems were constructed by the farmers themselves without much support from irrigation-related agencies. In total, there are approximately seventeen thousand farmer-managed systems ranging from tertiary channels to main and branch canals. It was therefore decided to take the participants to Nepal."}]},{"head":"The Organization","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"Dr Important aspects in sclccting these sites were that it included at least one each of farmer-"},{"index":2,"size":93,"text":", agency-and jointly-managed systems, and participants had the opportunity to interact as well as physically see the systems. Visits to each site started with an introductory session, a brief description of thc system's hardware and software, and a question-answer forum for clarificatiotis. The organizations being visited were then briefed by the Pakistani participants about their own irrigation systems, including details of the process of formation of their organizations. As a gesture of goodwill, the Pakistanis also presented gifts to thc organizations heing visited. Visits were concluded with \"walk-throughs\" along the systcms, whcrever possible."},{"index":3,"size":81,"text":"One of the most important aspects of the program organization was the leadership and guidance provided by Mr. Rajan Subedi, the Managing Director of CMS. He has rich experience in irrigation policy, irrigation systems and community participation in irrigation management, and is also well-versed in Hindi. He made himself available for the entire visit. His experience, leadership qualities and effective communication were major factors leading to the success of the tour, and earned him high praises from all of the participants."}]},{"head":"COURTESY CALL ON THE DIRECTOR-GENERAL, IRRIGATION","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"At benefit from the opportunity to leam how the Nepali farmers were managing their systems, he expressed that effective participation has enabled secondary/ tertiary level management for several centuries. He is of the opinion that governments should acknowledge farmers' experience and knowledge base, useful in reducing both costs and clashes. He requested participants to acquire maximum exposure from field visits and share it with him upon their return."},{"index":2,"size":91,"text":"The group left his officc for Chitwan by road, a town situated 140 km to the south of Kathmandu. This canal, 3 meters wide and 7.5 kilometers long, originally catered for a design command area of 600 ha, which has now increased to 1300 ha. Water discharge at full supply is around 1,000 liters per second, and the head regulator gate regulates the level of incoming water. One of the banks serves as the service road / inspection path. There are 19 falls, each of which is I .5 in wide."}]},{"head":"4.","index":14,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"VISITS TO IRRIGATION SYSTEMS","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":157,"text":"Seventeen tertiary branch canals lead to farm ditches and farmers' fields, each 2 km long with an average command area of 30 ha. Three of these are exceptions in that one is small with a command area of 10 ha, and two large branches irrigate 100 ha each. Two types of branch canal structures are evident: 300 mm diameter Hume pipes, and weirs with wooden gates. The main canal committee has the following responsibilities: supervision and maintenance of the main canal; utilization of a Rs 18,000 allocation for bulldozer fuel to enable constructing the river bund (dike) to divert water; communicating the main committee's decisions to the branch canals and determining water allocations for each branch; contracting maintenance work and establishing links with HMG, Department of Irrigation (DoI) or other irrigation systems upstream of the intake point; ensuring that users excavate the main canal; bookkeeping, i.e. income and expenditure logs; conflict resolution; and coordination with line agencies."},{"index":2,"size":57,"text":"Each user on the branch is a member of the fanner's assembly which elects the branch canal committee comprising 5-6 executive members, including a chairman and a secretary. The secretary performs his tasks voluntarily and is responsible for recordkeeping, implementation of committee decisions, supervision of water rotation, preventing damage to structures and conflicts due to water theft."},{"index":3,"size":92,"text":"Maintenance work is prioritized according to the availability of finances, as well as its nature and expected impact. Annual maintenance involves excavation of the main and branch canals, and also strengthening the bund downstream from the head regulator to raise water levels. The high velocity of river water during the monsoon season usually washes away the bund. The Pithuwa WUA gets water during the night in the short-supply season (February to May), as irrigation systems downstream objected to water blocking. The two W A S reached this agreement a few years ago."},{"index":4,"size":106,"text":"After consulting with various branch committees, the main committee liaises with the irrigation department to provide the required amount of water, which is influenced by the size of irrigable land and the type of crops grown. The water allocation for the paddy crop, for example, is 100 minutes per ha. The size of outlet structures is fixed according to the serviceable area of the branch canal, varying between 12 and 160 ha of land. When a user does not avail water during his turn, the cycle continues on to tail end users, but he remains entitled to his water allocation at the completion of the cycle."},{"index":5,"size":67,"text":"The government is no longer paid a water tax since the WUA started managing the canal, but in ordcr to meet its obligations, the main committee fixes a water tax based on the size of thc user's land. Two types of water tax are charged: one fixed at Rs 50 pcr uscr per annum, and the other is variable, levied on annual expenditures per ha of land."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"A fine of Rs 25 is imposed when a user breaks the rotation schedule, and doubled for repeating the mistake, as well as canceling his turn. The third offense results in a disconnection."},{"index":7,"size":34,"text":"Disputes among users are resolved at the local level in meetings called for this purpose. The frequency of disputes has declined with the passage of time, and those related to water have almost disappeared."},{"index":8,"size":62,"text":"As a result of the WUA's interaction with politicians and the bureaucracy, it recently secured a government grant worth Rs 30 million to line the canal, strengthen the banks and head regulator, and to construct a permanent breaker in the river. The association employs two low paid staff, one technical person responsible for inspection and patrolling, and the other as gate operator."},{"index":9,"size":54,"text":"Cropping intensities have increased from 209 % to over 300 % as a result of the management transfer. WUA members express that the fixed supply compels users to make more efficient use of water in their fields. Their annual net income from crops is around 25 to 30 thousand rupees (or US$667) per ha."},{"index":10,"size":57,"text":"At the end of this visit, the group traveled to Bhairahwa, 140 km away from Chitwan, for an overnight stay. The AOs identify potential project areas, then motivate and assist communities with various formalities. Communities select appropriate sites before command maps are prepared. After tendering applications to relevant authorities, the WUA provides labor to install the tubewell."},{"index":11,"size":78,"text":"A distinct project feature is the concept of Women in Development (WID) for advocacy and development, but most of all providing women with a platform for their contribution to irrigated agriculture. Women Groups (WGs) are organized before various income generating skills are imparted. Skills training range from literacy classes to health and hygiene. Although communities have not as yet internalized women participation, they recognize and acknowledge WGs roles in inducing discipline among the male members of their society."},{"index":12,"size":65,"text":"As the groundwater is 300 -400 feet deep, heavy pumps, unavailable in the private sector, are required. This project resembles those of LBOD and SCARP tubewell schemes in Sindh and Punjab provinces (Pakistan), respectively, but the installation cost is much higher. In addition, operation and maintenance is also expensive. The average user pays Rs 300 per ha annually for minor maintenance, apart form electricity charges."},{"index":13,"size":46,"text":"Nevertheless, the cost of water for a community-managed tubewell is about 25% lower than that of govement-managed tubewells. Water allocation and distribution are demand-based on principle of first come, first served. Users express that their crop yields, cropping intensities and annual incomes per unit have increased."},{"index":14,"size":27,"text":"The W A S expect that the government will take care of major breakdowns. WUA sustainability depends on the continuous technical and financial support from the government."},{"index":15,"size":79,"text":"The associations have framed by-laws which members can amend when monthly meetings are held, attended by both land owners and tenants. Initially, some of the organizations were politicized, but being small groups, they soon realized their mistakes and de-politicized themselves. Many of the tubewell organizations owe their capacity for functioning smoothly to concentrated membership in relatively small areas, experience of collective action (like milk selling, for instance), relatively less skewed distribution of land, and extreme scarcity of irrigation water."}]},{"head":"Sorah-Chhatis Mauja Irrigation System","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"This irrigation system is easily accessible from the town of Bhairahwa, thus the participants departed from here on December 08, 1997 also, to where the site is situated close to the Indian border."},{"index":2,"size":134,"text":"The name of the system originates from the number of villages it serves, i.e. Soruh = 16, Chhutis = 36, Muuju = village. The system design serves 52 villages, irrigating 16 on one branch canal and 36 on another. Sixteen thousand hectares of land had been allotted to farmers for cultivation, of which around 12,000 ha is irrigated by the system. Between 60 and 300 ha of land is irrigated in each of the villages. The Chhatis Mauja branch canal has 182 tertiary units. Social organization resulting from farmers' initiatives revolving around the issue of water had been evident since irrigated ayiculture was introduced, but only formalized approximately 15 years ago. Organizational structures are based on social boundaries. A block of 15 ha of land forms one constituency (kulhara), and is entitled four votes."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"The Chhatis Mauja branch canal has 728 votes. Each kulhara selects own nominees (mukhtiars) and othcr committee members. The various kulhara are grL !ned into nine zones, a nominee from each forming the zonal committee (chifar). Thus here are 62 mukhtiurs who elect 9 chitur niukhtiars, one from each zone, who in ' n form the membership of the branch committee."},{"index":4,"size":75,"text":"The President, Vice President and Secretary arc elected by the 728 oters. The 12 members of the branch committee appoint a treasurer, 2 supervisors (rneifh mukhtiars) to oversee the organization's technical affairs, and two watchmen (sepahis). Thus, the branch committee comprises 17 members, 6 of which are elected by the branch committee to the main canal committee (mool samethe). Following a similar procedure, the Sorah Mauja branch also elects 5 members of the mool samethe."},{"index":5,"size":50,"text":"The main committee is elected every two years, which meets regularly each month, but emergency meetings are also called when necessary. The President informs the various kulharas about forthcoming meetings in writing, the sepahi delivers these letters, and each kulharu meets to decide who would represent them in the meeting."},{"index":6,"size":31,"text":"The moo1 samefhe estimates expenditures and resources, the manpower needed to excavate the main and branch canals, imposes and collects fines, mobilizes resources, recovers cost and interacts with government agencies, etc."},{"index":7,"size":35,"text":"Annual expenditures amount to between 0.15 and 0.20 million rupees, the major chunk going to salaried staff, repairs, and fuel for the borrowed bulldozer used to construct a diversion b i d in the river."},{"index":8,"size":66,"text":"Major sources of funds come from: a) b) people who prefer to pay in lieu of physical exertion; fines for water theft and other offenses (the fine for water theft gradually increases with the number of offenses by the same fanner); occasional grants from the District Irrigation Project; entrance fees from visiting professionals and organizations; and additional surcharges proportionate to area when more money is needed."},{"index":9,"size":71,"text":"The branch committees delineate boundaries for each kulhara, announcing the dates and times for channel clearance. Each kulhara completes work according to its own methods, while branch committees inspect the quality of work done. Meifh mukhfiars patrol the channel daily to inspect work done and keep irrigation offenses in check. Sepahis also inform meifh mukhfiurs when something goes wrong. Sepuhis deliver written letters from committees to other organizations or individual farmers."},{"index":10,"size":67,"text":"Water allocation is bascd on requirement. The main committce allocates and distributes water to branches; branches allocate and distribute to kulharus. Distribution is proportionate to the number of people who contribute to channel clearance activity. When fines for abstention from channel clearance activity are not paid, irrigation water is withheld. The indigenous water structures used at the head of each channel allow proportionate water to the channels."},{"index":11,"size":42,"text":"When water becomes inadequate during peak demand seasons, it is provided to various channels in a rotational order. The branches have fast slopes at the tail ends, thus temporal dclays are low. Uscrs have never had a reason to complain about equity."},{"index":12,"size":52,"text":"Organizational by-laws evolved with time, were approved by the committee, then registered at the district irrigation office. Disputes are settled at the local level. Of only three disputes during the last year, two were settled locally and the other landed at the district irrigation offcc, which referred it back to the organization."}]},{"head":"4.4","index":17,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Gandak West Canal System","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"The group stopped off at this system at around noon on December 09 en route from Bhairahwa to Pokhara. The Gandak West Canal System is located along the Indian border in the Nawalparasi District of Nepal. Constructed with a grant from India, the major beneficiary through the Nepal-Gandak Irrigation Development Project from Narayni River."},{"index":2,"size":83,"text":"The total design discharge of the project is 1,800 cusecs, discharging 300 cusecs in the command area of 8,700 ha. The remaining quota of water is for use in India. The length of the main canal, three branch canals and 7 minors is around 62 kms, and the length of drainage channels is around 200 kms. The National Irrigation Association V I A ) of the Philippines was responsible for institutional development. This system is physically very similar to canal systems in Pakistan."},{"index":3,"size":66,"text":"The project, initiated under a bilateral agreement between the two governments to construct a barrage, concluded during the 1940s. The canal runs towards the Indian border. The NIA attempted to encourage command area development, but met with limited success. Under government management, the system deteriorated due to livestock entry and poor maintenance. Prevalence of social diseases like conuption, political interference and anarchy among farmers were common."},{"index":4,"size":111,"text":"The Government of Nepal and USAID ratified an agreement for joint management between the Department of Irrigation and the farmers. User groups were organized following a bottom-up approach at the turnout, minor, branch and main canal levels. Asian Development Bank (ADB) and HMG presented an action plan, which was reviewed by a sub-project management committee consisting of agency and farmer representatives. The final action plan includes O&M of the canal and constructing a farmto-market road. Farmers have contributed 26% of the road construction costs in terms of labor share and provision of land. Over the last three years, one person from each minor has been represented in the Project Management Committee."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"A full year was spent for creating awareness through negotiations between farmers and government social organizers. Efforts have paid OR farmers have become organized and an adhoc committee had been appointed to provide the framework for by-laws and conduct election processes. Based on shares, a total of 171 user groups at the ditch level (uppa tolis) have been organized. Each share or khata is equivalent to 0.1875 ha of land and canies a face value of 1 rupee. Shareholders elect office bearers for the uppa tolis and one member for higher level leadership (toli). The folis in each minor / branch feed the secondary levels that in turn feed the general assembly of the WUA in proportion to their command area."},{"index":6,"size":67,"text":"The General Assembly has 35 members, of which the Chairman and Vice Chairman, Secretary and Treasurer are elected. Budgeting became inefficient as general members were only required at election time. Besides, implementing decisions also presented difficulties. During the first year office bearers were chosen on a political basis, which created many functional problems. Members now make a point of electing officer bearers known for being hard workers."},{"index":7,"size":93,"text":"The organization revised its constitution, which members approved and then registered it with the Department of Irrigation. This constitution limited the powers of major office bearers: a management board comprising the general assembly, 4 female members elected from the 4 equal sections of the canal (8 km section), and technical members hired from outside. Apart from the 4 female office bearers, there are 15 elected women in the main body of the organization. Many women work at the tofi level. Office bearers are required to work an average of 15 days each month."},{"index":8,"size":73,"text":"The Water Delivery Work Force comprises five persons, one of which is a coordinator. This team is responsible for handling technical work, discharge regulation, patrolling, supervision, etc. Due to water shortages during the summer (Wtnrij) cropping season, various branches and minors are operated under a rotational schedule. The main canal is cleaned once in a year. A silt ejector constructed a few years ago has reduced the amount of siltation in the canal."},{"index":9,"size":91,"text":"Shares have been distributed among water users at Rs 1 each. Those owning shares and paying irrigation service fees (ISF) are all members at the grassroots level entitled to receive water, as well as voting for oftice bearers in their respective uppa tolis. hior to the joint management agreement, the ISF rate was fixed at Rs 60 / ha per crop season, but a crop-based charging structure is now in force. ISF payment levels is now under discussion and will include considerations for actual labor contribution when the canal is excavated."},{"index":10,"size":59,"text":"The main committee informs the 171 nominees of the uppu folis about their respective ISF shares. The government's trust in the organization is so firm that it does not involve itself in surveying crops at all. The collector reaps one-fifth of the total collection at the tertiary level, and as this proportion is quite high, dues roll in rapidly."},{"index":11,"size":57,"text":"Though some items in the action plan are yet to be completed, the government recently turned canal responsibilities over to the WUA. Two government employees will systematically be withdrawn every successive year, and the WUA has to mobilize all necessary resources within three years to become self-sustaining. The government will monitor organizational activities until the year 2000."},{"index":12,"size":6,"text":"Lessons learned from this exercise are:"},{"index":13,"size":151,"text":"People do not feel responsible unless they are adequately aware of their rights and responsibilities, therefore adequate time should be spent to create awareness and a sense of ownership among the members; Maximum efforts should be made to create non-political organizations as politicization threatens sustainability; Members and office bearers should be \"farmers only\", as people with alternate occupations expend less interest, time and effort for common resource management; A relationship of trust between agency and organization is a major ingredient; Governments' enabling role is one of the key factors for success; Adequate time should be spent to collect required physical information about the system, as it will be necessary for many activities; and Women's involvement helps to improve discipline within the organization, promotes interaction, problem sharing, and awareness among all the users, which also helps to solve other water-related problems such as sewerage and drainage. The WUA experiences the following benefits:"},{"index":14,"size":25,"text":"Command area and membership has increased; Low cost and effective O&M; Reliable and timely water supply; and Timely maintenance prevents physical deterioration of the system."}]},{"head":"4.5","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Begnas Irrigation System","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"The Begnas Irrigation System is the first hill irrigation system visited in Nepal, comprising a lake connected to a large canal, which the group visited on the morning of December 11, 1997. Discussions with the project incharge and the President of the WUA took place before lunch."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Constructed at a cost of Rs 51 million from 1984 to 1989,83% was provided by the ADB and 17% from HMG. The lake is 540 m long, 32 m wide at the base and initially covered an area of about 266 ha, which has since been extended to 300 ha. The average depth is about 6.8 m. and the storage capacity is about 2,450 ha-meters. The total catchment area is about 19 sq. kms."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"The main canal is 3.55 kms long with a command area of 580 ha and a capacity of about 8 cumecs water discharge. This canal caters to three branches equal to about 9.8 kms with a design discharge of 3.55 cumecs, as well as to an escape channel off-take from the main canal. After the escape, the water reduces to 4 cumecs. A unit water requirement for the rice crop is 5 liters/s/ha. Cropping intensities have increased from 129 % prior, to 200 % after project implementation. Average yields for major crops register at around 1.3, 1, and 1.1 tones / ha for paddy, maize and wheat, respectively."},{"index":4,"size":71,"text":"The basic objective of the project was to increase rice production in the area. Since the soil from the area is formed from the debris of the mountains, the structure is very coarse and highly porous in nature, with low organic matter. This demands high water use for crop production as the soil drains quickly. Water availability to the older command area has declined due to the canal's change of route."},{"index":5,"size":35,"text":"Fanners had been managing the canal system informally before the project was initiated. Though a WUA for the canal system exists, the organization is very weak because roles and responsibilities have not been clearly defined."},{"index":6,"size":78,"text":"The Village Development Council (VDC) appropriated the investment for the project in association with local politicians. Farmers were not consulted about planning and construction, with the result that several complaints about the design and route of the system were lodged. Project staff later informed the local Panchayat through the VDC that the system needed farmer participation. At the request of the VDC Chairman, fanners selected their leaders for each branch, who form the membership of the main committee."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"The organization meets once each quarter. The government provides funds for maintenance; the organization prioritizes maintenance activities; and the organization supervises maintenance activities. No clear definition of roles within the organization exists, and maintenance work other than excavation is completed by contractors."},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"Beneficiaries undertake the excavation of the channel through labor shares, and project staff checks the quality of work done and ensures that payments to contractors are honored. Beneficiaries are not required to pay a water tax to the government."},{"index":9,"size":2,"text":"Achievements include:"},{"index":10,"size":32,"text":"collecting Rs 53,000 to maintain a bank account under the line of credit scheme; construction of the service road along the canal by farmers; and equitable distribution of water along branch canals."},{"index":11,"size":38,"text":"Allocation rules and membership criterion, however, remain undefined. Water flows quite freely into the primary, secondary and tertiary canals, making it easy for anyone to take water at any time. A formal office is yet to be established."},{"index":12,"size":27,"text":"Conflict resolution is entrusted to the agency. The WUA reports the conflicts to the agency, which, in turn, resolves these according to its own laid down procedures."},{"index":13,"size":44,"text":"The irrigation system appears to be an AMIS with limited farmer participation. The involvement of a weakly organized WUA is limited to the satisfaction of the donor requirements and has not been internalized in the project philosophy. The main reasons for limited success include:"},{"index":14,"size":33,"text":"relative abundance of water resources (command area is not yet fully developed); unclear definition of roles and responsibilities for agency and WUA; unclear water and membership rights; and lack of a systematic approach."}]},{"head":"5.","index":21,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"GROUP INTERACTION","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"Mr. Rajan Subedi, Managing Director of CMS and Dr. Yameen Memon, IIMI's sociologist, facilitated group discussions among the Nepalese and visiting Pakistani farmers. Since the two countries share similar roots to their mother tongues, translations were hardly ever needed, and direct dialogue among farmers improved with the passage of time."}]},{"head":"5.1","index":23,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Pithuwa Irrigation System","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Pakistani farmers confidently sought clarification about topics related to water adequacy and reliability, social organization processes, construction and maintenance, water allocation, water distribution, flexibility in water rotation schedule, conveyance losses and method for adjustments i n water turn, cropping intensity, irrigation service fee, land tax, arrangements with downstream systems, trnancy and land settlement, etc."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"During the one-and-a-half-hour walk-througl (long the system, 5 -6 Pakistanis grouped with one Nepali committee member, enthus: iically interacting about the design, slope, structure, length, maintenance and all other topics related to O&M and general agriculture, instilling in them a \"feeling\" for the system."}]},{"head":"Bhairahwa-Lumbini Groundwater Project","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Farmers were taken to this tubewell scheme immediately after being introduced to the WUA and project staff. They were impressed by the similarity to those of the LBOD in Sindh and SCARF'S in Punjab. Their questions related to installation cost, farmer contributions, social organization process and problems faced, responsibility of major and minor O&M of the tubewells, groundwater quality, water taxation, income from crops and impact of the project upon farmers income."},{"index":2,"size":62,"text":"Water allocation and distribution, capacity-building, by-laws, arrangements for water tax among tenants and landowners, average crop yields and intensities, memberships, penalties for defaulters, women groups and their roles, dispute resolution, social impact of the Organization, family and farm sizes, cost of water compared to governmentmanaged tubewells, and free riding and theft, etc. were other interesting topics of open discussion for the participants."},{"index":3,"size":45,"text":"Participants zealously drank water from the many free-flow pipes continuously discharging water without any pumpage from a high-pressure water layer somewhere in the ground. They even explored the possibility of acquiring free water by installing similar pipes, but with larger diameters to meet community requirements."}]},{"head":"5.3","index":26,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Sorah-Chhatis Mauja","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"This was one of the most interesting sites for participants as the organization was a completely \"home-grown\" model. People had organized themselves out of their own initiative. Water allocation and distribution among various tiers, organizational structures, by-laws, penalties and the government's role, were the most interesting topics."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"Other questions related to equity, reliability, adequacy and a range of activities outside irrigation, such as cooperation from contesting candidates in O&M, groundwater availability, frequency of meetings, nature and resolution of common disputes, arrangements for emergency maintenance, upward and downward communication system, marketing and farming systems, technical assistance and capacity-building, yiclds and income from crops, and by-laws. This formal discussion lasted for about an hour-and-a-half, continuing informally while the walk-through was conducted afterwards."}]},{"head":"5.4","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Gandak West Canal System Topics under discussion here ranged from membership criterion to dispute settlement; tenure of the office bearers to the role of women in the organization. Clarifications were sought about the organizational structure, action and responsibilities. Visiting fanners' questions reflected that they were thinking at a generic level by asking questions such as:"},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"What was the most prominent mistake during the process of joint management? What are the most important points to manage an FMIS and be successful? What were the problems and constraints in social organization processes? What has the impact on the water supply situation and water productivity been?"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Although a walk-through visit to the system was impossible due to heavy rain, participants expressed their confidence about an FMIS after visiting the organization."}]},{"head":"INITIAL EVALUATION OF THE STUDY TOUR","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":78,"text":"On December 10, 1997, when the group had completed four of five planned visits, an initial evaluation was conducted in a participatory mode. With the objective of brainstorming with respect to similarities and differences between irrigation systems in Pakistan and Nepal, it was also intended to identify the applicability of lessons learned when converted into the Pakistan context. The facilitators' consultation with participants about the suitability of the evaluation meeting time was welcomed with high spirits and enthusiasm."},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"The whole group participated in the evaluation. Dr. Yameen Memon explained the objective and modus operundi of the proceedings, and also facilitated discussions."},{"index":3,"size":17,"text":"Fanners displayed encouraging enthusiasm, with all, bar one, expressing their opinions about various systems, as listed below."}]},{"head":"6.1","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":7,"text":"The Pithuwa Irrigation System a) Physical system"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"The physical system in Nepal has sufficient capacity for the required amount of water; Pakistanis have to curtail their requirements in view of the design constraints."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Fanners are controlling the main canals also because they are closer to the . main river, therefore are able to take water on demand. In Pakistan, our distributory systems are situated far from water sources and also are supplybased."},{"index":4,"size":8,"text":"The Nepali systems have more water than ours."},{"index":5,"size":93,"text":"Since our system was constructed without our involvement, we do not \"own\" the system. A great similarity exists, only th size being a physical exception. With some initial difficulties and the passa .e of time, we will also be able to manage similar systems. Their maintenance problems increase at flooding times and abundant water is relative, but usually scarce. Scarcity creates the need to become organized. Conflicts and water stress are reduced due to an organized system. Sustainability comes into question when considering whether they would be able to repair a lined canal."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"Pipe outlets are better than APM / OF / OFRB outlets, as these are not easily tampered with by the users. b)"}]},{"head":"Social system","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"There are not too many big landlords to hinder. They have self-esteem. The social interactions in Nepal are devoid of unnecessary bickering. These farmers are cooperative by nature. In our culture, we create problems to draw attention to ourselves. People are sincere with each other as they are aware of and care about each others' rights."},{"index":2,"size":24,"text":"The organization has emerged out of peoples' initiatives and not from outside pressure. We should also learn to organize ourselves to solve common problems."},{"index":3,"size":105,"text":"The nature of attitude is different. In our case, it is difficult to mobilize people despite several attempts. The executive members other than office bearers are not selected merely to satisfy people, but to assist the board in technical matters. The office bearers are selected on the basis of merit, and the farmers and office bearers are more knowledgeable than ours. Since they do not have alternate employment, they are compelled to help themselves in a manner they are familiar with. We can learn from them how to strengthen our organizations. If we will acknowledge each other's rights like they do, conflicts will eventually diminish."}]},{"head":"c) Role of the government","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The Nepali government only has to maintain the system, but we have a hard time getting water into the system. The canal systems belong to them and the Irrigation Department is supportive even though it took them 30 -35 years to reach this level. We constantly strive hard to get access to canals from the irrigation departments."}]},{"head":"d) Water Users Organizations","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"These are apolitical, so that union becomes strength. They have institutionalized the solutions and efficient budgeting assists the proper use of their resources and requirements."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"They have followed a process approach and not a blue print."}]},{"head":"e) Conflicts","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":18,"text":"Conflicts in our case emerge because of land, lady or wealth; fortunately, they do not argue about these."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"An indicator for success is lack of conflict. They have literally had no conflict for the last five years, thus their functioning can be regarded as successful."}]},{"head":"Bhairahwa-Lumbini Groundwater Project a) Physical system","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"User participation from inception allows a sense of ownership of the physical system."},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"This project is largely similar to LBOD and SCARP in Pakistan."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Tubewell schemes are not replicable due to high construction costs and the W A S are unable to bear heavy maintenance burdens. They have sweet groundwater; our areas are waterlogged and saline."},{"index":4,"size":34,"text":"The integrated approaches to issues such as technical assistance, knowledge and access roads are very good. The free-flowing pipe is a gift of nature to them; they should popularize its use for small-scale irrigation."},{"index":5,"size":64,"text":"We should erect a community tubewell at the head of each watercourse to augment water in the watercourse: mixing saline water in canal water will be less detrimental for crops and adequacy will increase. (This comment attracted a lot of support from participants.) Theirs is a need-based system. As it fulfills the demand for their water needs, they pay land tax and O&M charges."}]},{"head":"b) Social system","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":8,"text":"The social organization has only been recently created."},{"index":2,"size":19,"text":"Corruption, for electricity bills for example, is non-existent. In our case, WAPDA demands money to even correct erroneous bills."}]},{"head":"c)","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Role of the government A fixed electricity charge in our case is imperative. Backstopping, support to W A S , women groups, etc. may make this project sustainable."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Government subsidy for heavy maintenance is essential, therefore, the sustainability is doubtful. Much scope for technical training in water measurements exists. We need this type of training."}]},{"head":"d) Water Users Organizations","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":9,"text":"Organized O&M tubewells deliver cheaper water than government-managed tubewells."},{"index":2,"size":13,"text":"Site selection and the community's contribution during construction encourages a sense of ownership."},{"index":3,"size":34,"text":"The flexibility of the hchchi wurabandi they have made is helpful. If we attempt something similar now, we should be able to undertake it successfully as we are already organized. Women's participation is good."},{"index":4,"size":20,"text":"Project is proving to be successful as cropping intensities have increased and cropping patterns changed. The yields are also high."}]},{"head":"Sorah-Chhatis Mauja System a) Physical system","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Farmers use water improperly in Pakistan; otherwise, no other shortcoming is evident."}]},{"head":"b) Social system","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"Organizational structures are built around social boundaries. People work hard and despite their lower holdings, have a higher standard of living than their Pakistani counterparts. The high participation of females is encouraging. Corruption in our case is the major problem, drenching the national resources. They are managers and beneficiaries with necessary powers, thus experience a lower incidence of political interference or corruption."}]},{"head":"c)","index":41,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Role of the government","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"The government supports their efforts. The government does not collect irrigation tax; Pakistani farmers have to pay a multitude of government taxes. Agencies provide technical assistance. Nepali officials are sincere to their nation."}]},{"head":"d) Water Users Organizations","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Theirs is a true economic organization represented in the share system. Collective maintenance is performed by all; those who cannot participate, pay cash contributions."},{"index":2,"size":8,"text":"The organization inspects the quality of maintenance work."},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"Progressive system of imposing penalties and fines induces low crime rates. Internal resource mobilization is positive for the organization. Lower tier communication system is efficient. Office bearers are paid for their time."},{"index":4,"size":18,"text":"Our organizations can leam to cooperate with opposing / conflicting parties; we should take firm initiatives on by-laws."},{"index":5,"size":20,"text":"Lower tiers have a wide network of organizational systems. They are very well focused and have divided responsibility among themselves."}]},{"head":"Gandak West Canal System a) Physical system","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"The hierarchy is similar in both Pakistani and Nepali imgation systems. Drainage should also become an integral part of our organizations."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"The system at Gandak is long, but smaller than ours. We may face more problems than they have. Only members get water. The users in our case should also be registered so that the members are bound to obey rules. W A leaders knew their system well. rn The project followed a systematic and gradual approach."},{"index":3,"size":39,"text":"Ofice bearers are more dedicated workers as they have no alternate occupations. Pakistani W O leaders are confident that they will reach successful levels, although it may take some time. a The concept of \"work force\" should be copied."},{"index":4,"size":38,"text":"WUA and agency had good relations. Office bearers are active and knowledgeable; they decide and follow up their decisions. Participation in regular meetings is full. The West Gandak people should now move to village development and cooperative marketing."}]},{"head":"EXPERIENCE-SHARING MEETING","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"A half-day experience-sharing meeting was conducted in Kathmandu after the group had visited all the intended imgation systems. Mr. Krishna Gautam, CMS President and Mr. "}]},{"head":"7.3","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Weaknesses Identified in Farmer-managed Irrigation in Nepal Despite excellent irrigation management, an abundance of water-focused organizations may be conducive to failure because of tax and tariff structures, pricing and trade policies, absence of good markets, etc. which are unfavorable to the agricultural environment. Absence of regular financing sources (e.g. when emergencies occur) may challenge sustainability; a single crop failure will disable users from paying for water."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Irrigation systems management i s too indigenous: no scope or planning for technology application or adoption exists. Scope for collective marketing exists, but remains unexploited. Small / uneconomic holdings induce inefficient agriculture. Lack of initiative for private sector involvement."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Poor dissemination and adoption of modem technology. Low female participation in organizations despite their sizable contribution. The potential of irrigation systems is not fully exploited as command areas have not been fully developed."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"With special reference to Gandak West Canal System, four issues need to be addressed, i. acknowledge that their participation is useful."},{"index":5,"size":6,"text":"management as it affects their livelihood."},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"convince the government to hand distributories over to the WUFs."},{"index":7,"size":4,"text":"transferred to the WUFs.    "}]},{"head":"8.1","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":5,"text":"Of the participants who responded:"},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Utility of the Background Information Provided to Participants 1. Three of four (74%) were of the opinion that the introductory briefing given by CMS and prior information about each visit were highly useful. The rest regarded it useful."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"2. Similarly, two of every three (65%) regarded background material such as maps, documentation, handouts, etc. to be highly useful. Another 31% regarded it to be useful. Only 4% regarded the background information to be less useful."}]},{"head":"Discussions with Relevant Agency Staff","index":48,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"8.2","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"There were mixed responses regarding the discussion with the Director General of Irrigation."},{"index":2,"size":73,"text":"1. While 4% declared it to be irrelevant to the program, 44% regarded it to be less useful. Another 30% considered it useful. One of every three, nevertheless, regarded it highly useful. (A reason for this mixed response could be that the real value of the discussion would have been understood by participants in a meeting with him after the visit, which, due to his absence at the experience-sharing meeting, did not materialize.)"},{"index":3,"size":40,"text":"2. The majority (65%) declared the discussion with the Project Manager of the West Gandak Irrigation System as highly useful. To another 26%, it was useful. About one of every ten either did not respond, or regarded it less useful."},{"index":4,"size":40,"text":"3. Roughly half (48%) viewed discussions with the local B L G W consultant as highly useful. Another 30% regarded it to be useful. Only 18% and 4%, respectively, regarded the discussion to be less useful or did not respond."},{"index":5,"size":33,"text":"4. Discussions with the Project Incharge of the Begnas Lake System were regarded to be highly useful and useful by 13 and 65%, respectively. Twenty two percent declared the discussion as less useful."},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Meetings with Water Users Organizations 8.3"},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"The exposure to the WUOs of each of the systems visited, were expressed through the following results:"},{"index":8,"size":39,"text":"1. The relevance of discussions with the WUOs of Pithuwa Irrigation System and Groundwater Project were regarded nearly equally, where 44 and 52%, respectively, declared the discussions highly useful and useful. Only 4% regarded these to be less useful."},{"index":9,"size":48,"text":"2. Almost three-fourths and one-fourth, respectively, viewed discussions with the Sorah-Chhatis Mauja Irrigation System WUA to be highly useful and useful. (The reason for this high appreciation is that the farmers of this system have organized themselves out of their own initiative. No government catalyst had been deployed.)"},{"index":10,"size":47,"text":"3. The WUA of the Gandak West Canal Irrigation System won high praises as an overwhelming majority (87%) regarded the discussion to be highly useful. The rest declared these to be useful. This appreciation stems from several reasons: WUA ofice bearers were highly knowledgeable about their system."},{"index":11,"size":58,"text":"Until recently this system had been jointly managed, but the government has now decided to turn the system over to the Association owing to their success. The WUA had prepared their own action plan to undertake the O&M of the system. Participants were already familiar with Joint Management Action Plans from their own experience at their respective distributories."},{"index":12,"size":1,"text":"c)"},{"index":13,"size":86,"text":"The physical design of the system is very similar to that of Pakistani distributories which participants intend to manage in the future. They could easily equate the system to be either larger or at least equal in size to the four distributories they were familiar with. Its management would have posed many challenges similar to those being faced by those at their respective distributories. Thus, inherently, they liked the system and could practically see the implementation of joint management between the Irrigation Department and Farmers' Organization."},{"index":14,"size":38,"text":"Discussions with the Begnas Irrigation System WUA were viewed to be useful only by 22%. The rest evaluated it as less useful or irrelevant, as the Chairman of the WUA could not respond to several queries very well."}]},{"head":"4.","index":50,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"8.4","index":51,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Field Programs","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"Participants opinions about the effectiveness of field programs were as follows:"},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"1. The majority of the participants, around three of four for Pithuwa and Chhatis Mauja and roughly six of ten for West Gandak irrigation systems regarded the visits to be highly useful for learning. Another 26%, 22% and 26%, respectively, declared these visits useful."},{"index":3,"size":57,"text":"2. The majority (61%) regarded the visit to Begnas less useful for learning. Only 4% regarded the visit to be highly useful, while another 31% declared it useful. Another 4% of the respondents declared the visit to Begnas irrelevant, probably because Begnas is a lake system, with little similarity to canal systems in the Punjab and Sindh."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"3. In the case o f West Gandak, 13% did not evaluate the field visit. In fact, they perceived the \"field visit\" to be a visit to the physical system, which could not take place due to heavy rain on the day."}]},{"head":"Program Organization and Coordination (Table 8.2)","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":1,"text":"8.5"},{"index":2,"size":23,"text":"Participants were also requested to evaluate the program organization, facilities provided, and coordination. All considered the coordination by Mr. Rajan Subedi as excellent."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"1. The majority regarded transport facilities, accommodation and time observance (83%, 78% and 52%, respectively) to be excellent."}]},{"head":"2.","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Almost half (48%) regarded food and communication among themselves as excellent. Nobody regarded any of the above services to be dissatisfactory."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"3. At the worst, only 5% regarded accommodation as okay, and 9% regarded food, time observance by participants, and communication among themselves to be okay."}]},{"head":"Services","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Coordination by Rajan Subedi Transportation Accommodation  not participate in order to communicate the lessons learned;"}]},{"head":"8.7","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"In as far as experiences which gained participants' nod of approval is concerned, the following were included:"},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"1. Participants liked the fact that more time was devoted to field programs and discussions with W A S , and warmed to frequent consultations held with them during the course of the visit. The fact that the field program was systematically organized and necessary background information was provided before actual visits, helped to create more interest and fostered quick understanding and learning. The sense of responsibility demonstrated among themselves was of high appreciation."},{"index":3,"size":31,"text":"2. The Government's enabling role in Nepali irrigation systems was highly appreciated, as Pakistani farmers are experiencing several institutional barriers to enable their organizations to operate and maintain their irrigation systems."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"3. They especially liked the direct exchange of views between farmers of both countries, made easier by the fact that their respective languages were easily understood with little help."}]},{"head":"4.","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"According to their views, the similarity of irrigation systems helped largely in learning."}]},{"head":".","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"The well-versed leadership of Gandak West were especially appreciated as ofice bearers were very knowledgeable about their system. The collective ideas, farmer actions and the WUA's objective methodologies were also appreciated as these helped in creating a sense of ownership."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"6. The WUA office bearers' (OB) sense of responsibility, coupled with excellent management of scarce resources, and Nepali farmers' acknowledgment of each others' rights were also appreciated."}]},{"head":"7.","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Initiatives for self-organization among the Nepali farmers were especially mentioned and noticed by participants. The involvement of female users was viewed as a positive contribution to organizational strength."},{"index":2,"size":29,"text":"8. Nepal farmers' selection of OBs on the bases of merit and apolitical leadership was praised very much. 9. Participants also warmed to the participatory evaluation and experience-sharing meetings."},{"index":3,"size":15,"text":"10.Mr. Rajan Subedi's facilitation during the visit earned high praises from all of the participants."},{"index":4,"size":6,"text":"Participants' Suggestions for Future Programs: 8.8"},{"index":5,"size":15,"text":"Participants suggested various ways in which to conduct visits of this nature in the future."},{"index":6,"size":23,"text":"1. They suggested that the group size should be relatively smaller so that more intimate contact and interactions among participants could take place."},{"index":7,"size":24,"text":"2. They recommended that group members' expectations should be recorded before the actual start of each visit, then evaluation meetings should be conducted daily."}]},{"head":"3.","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"They were of the opinion that the group should only comprise literate farmers so that they are able to absorb much of the program."}]},{"head":"4.","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Involvement of fanners when planning visits of this nature were considered to be useful. They expressed that fanners should themselves contribute to travel costs (roughly 25%) so that learning could be maximized. They expressed that the tour duration should be no less than one month and that Pakistani Irrigation Officials should also be invited along as most of the Irrigation Department's staff are cynical about the farmers capacity to manage irrigation systems. Another suggestion was that visits to various WUOs within the country should be arranged, as the context would be similar. One group of participants suggested that \"Halal\" food should be ensured before start of the visit."}]},{"head":"CONCLUSIONS","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":67,"text":"The Social Organization Field Teams of the International Irrigation Management Institute, Pakistan, have been interacting with the farmers of three pilot distributories in Sindh and one in the Punjab provinces since 1995. The prime purpose of these interactions has been to create awareness among the farmers about the benefits of organizing themselves into Water Users Organizations and facilitate the organizational processes to manage distributory level irrigation systems."},{"index":2,"size":105,"text":"During most of these interactions, some of the farmers and most of the agencies involved have been skeptical about the farmers managing irrigation systems. Some of those were even cynical about Pakistani farmers' ability to organize themselves at the distributory canal level for any collective cause. This belief was shaken when the farmers of IIMI's four pilot distributories I minors took initiatives to organize themselves into W A S and WUFs with catalystic assistance from IIMI. The farmers have also been successhlly organized at some other distributories in the Punjab and NWFP by other agencies. Thus, the WUFs have proved themselves socially acceptable and viable."},{"index":3,"size":90,"text":"Since leadership patterns in rural areas is already established, the choice of leadership by the water users depended on the existing socio-cultural milieu in rural areas. Some of the chosen leaders themselves were thus skeptical about their ability to manage irrigation systems. Unfortunately, there exists a lack of precedence for farmers to manage secondary level irrigation systems. Nevertheless, this visit was extremely valuable in helping farmers to witness farmer-managed systems so that they could be inspired and encouraged. The visit was proposed to donors in this context, who happily agreed."},{"index":4,"size":113,"text":"The presence of thousands of farmer-managed irrigation systems in Nepal influenced the decision to take participants there. The selection of the five sites to be visited was undertaken with care so that participants could experience at least one of each agencymanaged, farmer-managed and jointly-managed systems. In this way, the participants could compare the performance of various management modes based on their own indicators. The fact that farmers of both countries could speak and understand the other's language was of great significance to direct communication, lending an empathetic quality to the visit. The similarity of the social structure of the two countries added to the value of the visit and was helpful for leaming."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"Although participants were of the view that Nepali irrigation systems were in general physically smaller than those in Pakistan, they expressed that the physical hierarchies were alike. Besides, two of the canal systems were quite comparable to the irrigation systems from which the visiting farmers came. The favorable policy environment and the enabling role of the irrigation bureaucracy in Nepal was greatly appreciated, and was considered essential for the success of farmer-managed irrigation systems. Participants also understood the usefulness of appropriate organizational structures and by-laws. They also acquired insights about the necessity for office bearers to be chosen on merit, as their knowledgability means greater success for the organizations as a whole."},{"index":6,"size":103,"text":"The impact of the visit, as revealed by the final evaluation conducted by the participants, was that the farmer leaders from the pilot sites became highly motivated and enthusiastic about managing their irrigation systems themselves, with necessary technical assistance from the support agencies. They expressed hopes that the government shall turn over the distributories and minors to farmer organizations for self-management. The farmer leaders were optimistic about removing initial social barriers as the organizations start managing their systems and improve their functioning with gaining experience. The institutional barriers were perceived to be the only obstacle in the way of successful farmer-managed irrigation systems."}]}],"figures":[{"text":"8 . POST VISIT EVALUATION ............................................................................................................. "},{"text":"FIELDPROGRAM ................................................... .......................................... PARTICIPANTS' VIEWS ABOUT DISSEMINATION AND APPLICATION OF LESSONS LEARNED .......... "},{"text":"8. 7 WllhT PARTICIPANTS LIKED ABOUT THE PROGRAM .......... ............. "},{"text":"1 .PHOTOGRAPH 2 . PHOTOGRAPHS "},{"text":"PHOTOGRAPH 4 .PHOTOGRAPH 6 .PHOTOGRAPH 7 .. 1 TABLE 8. 2 POST PHOTOGRAPH 4. A WUA OFFICE-BEARER INITIATING THE VISITORS ABOUT HIS ORGANIZATION ................ "},{"text":" Mehmood U1 Hassan and Yameen MenionFOREWORD The value of study tours for those involved in introducing change to existing institutional arrangements is well illustrated by the outcome of this study tour to Nepal by a group of farmer leaders from Pakistan. The resultant changes in their attitudes and behavioral expectations could not have been achieved by any training or instructions. Considering the value of this event, IIMI's Pakistan National Program decided to document the main features of the experiences gained through this study tour. The report is compiled by two senior staff members of IIMI, who along with four other colleagues accompanied the twenty farmer leaders to Nepal. The participants were from two pilot projects conducted by IIMI. Fifteen farmer leaders were from the pilot project in the Sindh Province, \"The Farmer-Managed Irrigated Agriculture under the Left Bank Outfall Drain (LBOD) Stage-I Project Area\", co-funded by the World Bank and the Swiss Development Cooperation, and five farmer leaders were from the pilot project in the Punjab, funded by the Royal Netherlands Government. The 20 farmer leaders are all office bearers of four Water Users Federations, representing a total of 6,200 water users. "},{"text":"- Topographically and climatically, the potentially productive land is as follows: "},{"text":"1 . 2 . . Prachanda Pradhan, a former IIMI employee in Nepal and Nigeria and consultant on institutional development for IIMI-Pakistan, suggested Consolidated Management Services (CMS), a Nepal-based research and consultancy concern, suitable for conducting a visitor's program for Pakistani farmers in the process of implementing the aforesaid visit. CMS has a vast experience in organizing study tours for irrigation systems and social forestry within Nepal. Intensive communication between IIMI and CMS led to a final program, which is presented as Annex A.The itinct-ai-y facilitated visiting live irrigation systems in Nepal, viz., Canal system of Pithuwa Irrigation Projcct; Bhariahwa Lumbini Groundwater Project;3. Sorah-Chhatis Mauja Canal System; 4. Gandak Wcst Canal Irrigation System; and 5 . Begnas Irrigation Project. "},{"text":" Photograph 1. Expressing his high expectations to participants.the D.G. Irrigation welcomes the group. "},{"text":"4 . 1 Pithuwa Irrigation ProjectPithuwa Irrigation System, to the east of Bharatpur / Chitwan Town and located in the Pithuwa Village Development Committee (VDC) area of the Chitwan District, was visited on December 06. 1997.Here the soil is alluvial sandy loam, with the water table depth registering at around 70 feet below the ground surface. The canal originatcs from the Kaier River, 18 knis east of Bharatpur and 2 kms north of Bharatpur-Hetauda Highway. Construction work was initiated by His Majesty's Government (HMG) in 1970 under the Minor Irrigation Project and completed in 1973. Fanners are responsible for maintenance, who undertake labor sharing to meet this end. "},{"text":"Photograph 2 . Photograph 2. Fanner-maintained water channel of thePithuwa Irrigation System. "},{"text":"4 . 2 Bhairahwa-Lumbini Groundwater Project (BLGWP) The Manpagri Village Development Council of the Rupendehi District was the next stop on the itineraryto visit a tubewell managed by users in Madanganj village. Financial support from the World Bank and HMG enabled this deep groundwater project undertaken by Tahal Consulting Engineers of Israel in 3 stages. The first stage was initiated in 1978 when 64 tubewells were installed, 58 of which have already been handed over to users. Covering a command area of 13,200 ha, the project encompasses a total of 181 deep tubewells to be installed into 1998. Each tubewell covers around 120 ha. This is an integrated project which includes deep well drilling, pump installation, pumping shed construction, open canal and PVC pipeline water distribution systems, access service road construction, and electricity to provide power for tubewells. The estimated cost is around Rs 12 million (or US$ 2.6 million) per tubewell. The project design incorporates several training modules pertaining to tuben.el1 operation and agriculture extension through on-site lectures and field demonstration plots for staff and farmers. Farmers are organized into a WUA during the construction phase, when the A 0 facilitates formation, registration and training as all of the schemes would ultimately be operated and maintained by the users. Stage 1 project area's cropping intensity has increased from 118 % to 209 %. "},{"text":"Photograph 4 .Photopaph 5 . Photograph 4. A WUA offic-bearer initiating the visitors about his organization one of the briefing sessions held at each of the sites visited. "},{"text":"Photograph 6 .Photograph 7 .I Photograph 6. Pakistani farmers pay rapt attention t o this presentationabout the Gandak West Canal System. "},{"text":"a Pakistanis have become luxury-orientated and the Nepalis are work-orientated. Pakistani farmers should develop useful information-gathering initiatives and their organizations should be devoid of political interference. Nepali farmers are unafraid of responsibilities. Pakistan has the physical irrigation system although it lacks the software. W A S have started inducing it, and with dedication and hard work they should be successful. For Pakistani farmers to remain idle now would be a crime. They should capitalize on solid principles like the Nepalese in order to be successful. Pakistani farmers should not blame government for their lack of success because they also contribute towards its corruption; in our case, fanners and agencies are equally responsible for corruption. a Agencies should trust farmers in Pakistan. d) Water Users Organizations a Meeting attendance should be made compulsory; those who do not attend should be fined. a If farmers manage canals, ventures will be more successful. a The farmers in Pakistan have politicized the imgation system; after farmers own the system, they will become more responsible. rn Institutional Development Units, technical assistance and complete handovers are ideal. a The West Gandak W A S have planned well in the form of action steps and rotation schedules. "},{"text":" Photograph 9, Participants keenly offer their views and experiences at the Initial Evaluation. "},{"text":"7 . 4 1 . 2 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . be paid as they invest half their time in WUA activities; More sophisticated training is needed; Traincd staff should be hired from the market; and Transport to patrol and monitor activities should be provided. Participants raised the following points pertaining to the adoption of their experiences back home: How Lessons Learned Could be Applied in the Pakistani Context a) Policy The government should recognize the contribution of the farmers and All farmers are not corrupt and most have an innate desire to improve irrigation Alternative strategies should be identified and implemented in order to Necessary powers and legal cover to successfully undertake O&M should be More farmers, represented as the real leaders, should be involved in PIDAs. Government should undertake lahd reforms to de-politicize agriculture, as big landowners, who are not agriculturists, are the major threat to imgated agriculture in Pakistan. "},{"text":"1 . 3 . 4 . 5 . 6 . 7 . 3 . WUFs should DC strengthened to encompass strong links and coordination with grassroots communities. 2. WUFs need to create awareness, instill a sense of ownership and responsibility, and develop mutual trust among members so that systems are protected and properly cared for. WUFs should abstain from discriminating on the bases of religion, caste, creed, or size of holding and tenancy. Organizations should be introvert so that every fanner gets his share and pays accordingly. WUFs should implement decisions and apply sanctions strictly. Organizations should develop practical and realistic by-laws and frame appropriate systems, including systematic water charge collection. Office bearers should maximize and strengthen their knowledge base. 8. They need to be more responsible to the organizations and their community. 9. They should keep close contact with the Irrigation Department.Water Users 1. Farmers should learn to respect each others rights and make sacrifices for the 2. They need to evolve methods for eliminating water loss as it is like gold for They need to select appropriate leadership which is also apolitical. "},{"text":"4 .Facilitators (IIMI) 1 . 2 . 3 . They should stand united against outside catastrophic elements. IIMI should enhance further awareness among masses. High frequency contact with grassroots communities is vitally necessary. Extending assistance to WUOs to adopt formal and systematic approaches will disadvantaged. agriculture. ensure sustainable development.POST VISIT EVALUATIONParticipants' feelings, views and opinions came under scrutiny in a sample questionnaire provided to each when the visit concluded. This enabled an evaluation as to assess usefulness of various parts of their itinerary. The focus of the evaluation concentrated on: utility of the program organization; discussions held with the staff of the Department of Irrigation; exposure to various W A S ; and field visits.The result of this evaluation is presented in Table8.1. "},{"text":"1 . 2 . 4 . 5 . 1 . Participants expressed that they would make strenuous efforts to apply and disseminate the lessons learned to other members of their organizations. They intend to do this by taking the following steps:Participants' Views about Dissemination and Application of Lessons Learned Arranging special meetings within different tiers of the organization for communication and dissemination; Creating a sense of ownership and responsibility among the member farmers by creating awareness about rights and obligations, as well as ensuring regular meetings and placing an onus on full member participation; 3. Striving to eliminate conuption among themselves; if they stopped paying, Ensuring equal representation to all users and de-politicizing the organizations; Ensuring effective and more regular interaction between WUFs and water 6. Caring more for the small farmers by inducing equity, justice and harmony; 7. Making water distribution more transparent and equitable; 8. Respecting the rights of all; 9. Starting conflict resolution at local levels; 10.Helping participants of the four systems in Pakistan to meet those who could 1 Initiating work on a self-help basis; and 12,Starting efforts for community tubewells O&M by farmers in their areas. What Participants Liked about the Program who would force them to pay bribes? users; "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 8 .1. Post-visit Evaluation of the Program by the Participants (n=23).  ~    ~ Program Item Highly Useful  Program ItemHighlyUseful  Useful (%)   Useful (%) Initial Briefing by CMS 74 26  Initial Briefing by CMS7426 Background Material 65 31  Background Material6531 Provision of fore-hand 74 26  Provision of fore-hand7426 Information    Information Discussions with Relevant Irrigation Omc   Discussions with RelevantIrrigation Omc DG Imgation 22 4 - DG Imgation224- Project Manager, 48   Project Manager,48 Groundwater    Groundwater Project In-Charge, Begnas 13   Project In-Charge, Begnas13 Project Manager, Gandak 65   Project Manager, Gandak65 West Canal    West Canal Pithuwa Imgation System 44 52  Pithuwa Imgation System4452 Groundwater Project 44 52  Groundwater Project4452 Begnas Imgation System - 22  Begnas Imgation System-22 Gandak West Canal System 87   Gandak West Canal System 87  "},{"text":"Table 8 .2. Evaluation of the program organization and related conveniences (n=23).  Excellent Good 0.K Bad No Response. ExcellentGood 0.KBadNo Response.  "}],"sieverID":"f2916c16-e829-405b-b3db-7bc31599e7ef","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d5a4b0e90b8d8b719f9d8a37449de4d","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/cc87821d-3c9d-45da-9df0-116e6f75b81d/retrieve"},"pageCount":75,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":61,"text":"O serviço de perguntas-e-respostas da Agromisa recebe com frequência perguntas de agricultores que encaram um problema de decréscimo da fertilidade dos seus solos. Devido a problemas com a fertilidade do solo, assiste-se, muitas das vezes, a uma baixa dos rendimentos da produção agrícola e as culturas tornam-se mais susceptíveis a pragas e a doenças, visto que a sua condição é má."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"Com o objectivo de se aumentar, a curto prazo, a fertilidade do solo, é necessário acrescentar-lhe nutrientes. Tal acontece, frequentemente, através da aplicação de fertilizantes químicos. Contudo, os fertilizantes químicos são caros, o que constitui um problema para a maioria dos pequenos produtores agrícolas. A preparação e a utilização de composto pode fornecer uma solução para esse problema."},{"index":3,"size":55,"text":"Para se obter um melhoramento significativo da fertilidade do solo, a longo prazo, é necessário melhorar a estrutura do solo e aumentar o seu conteúdo de matéria orgânica. O composto é um bom fertilizante na medida em que contém tanto nutrientes como matéria orgânica. No Capítulo 2 explica-se, mais minuciosamente, o papel da matéria orgânica."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"É possível utilizar composto como único meio de manutenção da fertilidade do solo, mas, nesse caso, é necessária uma grande quantidade de composto. Aconselhamos a aplicar, simultaneamente, várias práticas, visando a manutenção/conservação da fertilidade do solo, a longo prazo."},{"index":5,"size":43,"text":"Alguns dos métodos que visam o melhoramento da fertilidade do solo são: ? Métodos de produção agrícola, como sejam: mulche, (cobertura morta) adubação verde, agrossilvicultura e melhoria de pousios. ? Aplicação de estrumes orgânicos tais como: composto de estrume líquido e estrume animal."},{"index":6,"size":33,"text":"Caso se aplique estrume animal deve-se proceder à sua maturação durante algum tempo, pois de outra maneira poderá causar danos às plantas. A compostagem do estrume animal transforma-o num fertilizante de óptima qualidade."},{"index":7,"size":26,"text":"Estes métodos para melhoramento da fertilidade do solo são extensivamente descritos no Agrodok no. 2:\" Maneio da fertilidade do solo' e no Agrodok no. 16: 'Agrossilvicultura''."},{"index":8,"size":7,"text":"Figura 1: Revolvendo o composto (Fonte: KIOF)"}]},{"head":"Conteúdo deste Agrodok","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Este Agrodok centra-se na preparação e utilização de composto. O capítulo 8 fornece uma receita/protocolo de como preparar estrume líquido e chá de composto. Estes são fertilizantes orgânicos que se preparam de modo fácil, de modo a poder fornecer rapidamente nutrientes às plantas. O bokashi é um outro tipo de fertilizante orgânico, preparado através da fermentação da matéria orgânica. No capítulo 9 explica-se, minuciosamente, esta prática."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"Este Agrodok foi escrito tendo como grupo-alvo as pessoas que trabalham com pequenos agricultores, nos países em desenvolvimento e para todos aqueles que têm interesse pela compostagem e por fertilizantes orgânicos."}]},{"head":"Fertilização: o papel da matéria orgânica e do composto","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"A presença de matéria orgânica no solo é fundamental no que concerne à manutenção da fertilidade do solo e ao decréscimo da perda de nutrientes. O composto é um fertilizante orgânico; adiciona matéria orgânica e nutrientes ao solo."},{"index":2,"size":56,"text":"Com o objectivo de se fornecer às culturas, de maneira rápida, os nutrientes requeridos, pode ser que seja necessária a utilização de um adubo. Contrariamente aos adubos orgânicos, os adubos químicos ajudam as plantas imediatamente; os adubos orgânicos têm, primeiramente, que ser decompostos em nutrientes (pelos organismos do solo) antes de poderem ser utilizados pelas plantas."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"Não obstante, os adubos químicos apenas se usam numa campanha agrícola, enquanto a matéria orgânica continua a aumentar a fertilidade do solo, a estrutura do solo e a capacidade de retenção de água."},{"index":4,"size":74,"text":"Para além disso, a presença de material orgânico assegura que o adubo químico seja utilizado de maneira mais eficiente pela cultura. A matéria orgânica retém os nutrientes da planta, evitando, desse modo, que o adubo seja lixiviado. De facto, a aplicação de adubos químicos num solo que é pobre em matéria orgânica constitui desperdício de dinheiro, se tal não for feito em combinação com medidas para aumentar o teor de matéria orgânica no solo."}]},{"head":"Matéria orgânica e processos do solo","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A matéria orgânica no solo é composta por material orgânico fresco e por húmus. O material orgânico fresco é constituído por materiais vegetais (mortos), excrementos e cadáveres de animais, etc. Os materiais orgânicos frescos são transformados em matéria orgânica fina e em húmus pelos organismos do solo."},{"index":2,"size":31,"text":"O húmus confere uma cor escura ao solo e retém nutrientes e água. Não pode, praticamente, decompor-se mais. A matéria orgânica fina, e o húmus em particular, possui as seguintes propriedades:"},{"index":3,"size":6,"text":"? melhora a estrutura do solo."},{"index":4,"size":78,"text":"? melhora a resistência do solo contra a acção erosiva da chuva e do vento. ? retém a água e liberta-a lentamente, de modo que esta se encontra disponível para as plantas (capacidade de armazenamento de água) durante um período mais longo. ? retém nutrientes e liberta-os para as plantas, lentamente, durante um período mais longo. ? contém os nutrientes principais: azoto (N), fósforo (P) e potássio (K), que ficam à disposição das plantas depois da sua decomposição."},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Figura 2: Exemplos de organismos do solo, alguns dos quais não podem ser vistos a olho nu."},{"index":6,"size":36,"text":"Os microorganismos são principalmente responsáveis pela decomposição subsequente do húmus em dióxido de carbono, água e nutrientes para as plantas. A este processo chama-se mineralização: libertam-se nutrientes que podem ser directamente absorvidos/assimilados pelas raízes da planta."},{"index":7,"size":64,"text":"A taxa de produção de húmus e de mineralização no solo depende duma série de factores. Num clima quente os microorganismos são mais activos e a matéria orgânica decompor-se-á mais rapidamente que num clima frio. O grau de acidez do solo, a composição da maté-ria orgânica, a humidade e a disponibilidade de oxigénio, tudo isto exerce uma forte influência sobre a taxa de decomposição."}]},{"head":"Composto","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"O processo natural de decomposição no solo pode ser regulado e acelerado pelo homem. Recolhe-se o material orgânico que, de preferência, é empilhado num montículo. O processo de decomposição é mais intensivo e as condições mais favoráveis na medida que esta pilha é, quase exclusivamente, constituída por matéria orgânica. O produto final obtido compõe-se de matéria orgânica em elevado grau de decomposição, contendo húmus e nutrientes. A isto se chama composto. O composto é utilizado como fertilizante/adubo orgânico que pode ser incorporado no solo."},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"A utilização de composto como fertilizante permite, para além de fertilizar as plantas, utilizar as boas propriedades da matéria orgânica, que já foram mencionadas anteriormente."},{"index":3,"size":38,"text":"A adição de composto a solos arenosos aumenta a capacidade de retenção da água, o que permite que a água permaneça durante mais tempo no solo, ficando, portanto, mais tempo disponível para as plantas em períodos de seca."},{"index":4,"size":53,"text":"Qualquer material orgânico, não tóxico, pode ser utilizado na preparação de composto. Utilizam-se, frequentemente, materiais supérfluos e/ou detritos (dejectos) que, dessa maneira, poderão ser reutilizados. É necessário verificar se os materiais utilizados na preparação de composto não poderão ser utilizados duma melhor maneira, para outros fins, como por exemplo, forragem para o gado."}]},{"head":"O processo de compostagem","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"Tal como foi descrito na secção sobre a matéria orgânica nos processos do solo, o processo de compostagem realiza-se devido à actividade de microorganismos (bactérias) e outros organismos um pouco maiores, como sejam minhocas e insectos. Estes organismos necessitam de determinadas condições para viverem, que incluem humidade e ar. Para se preparar/fabricar o melhor composto possível, é preciso que os microorganismos possam trabalhar de modo óptimo. De modo a se obter os melhores resultados possíveis é necessário que se verifique uma combinação favorável dos quatro factores seguintes: ? tipo de material orgânico ? ar ? humidade ? temperatura O grau de acidez (pH) também é considerado por alguns como sendo um factor importante. A acidez depende dos fluxos de ar e de humidade. É muito raro que uma pilha de composto bem preparada se torne demasiado ácida."},{"index":2,"size":55,"text":"O processo de compostagem decorrerá em condições óptimas se: ? existir uma combinação de vários materiais, com diferentes taxas de decomposição; ? os diferentes materiais estiverem bem misturados; ? o tamanho da pilha variar entre 1 x 1 metro e 3 x 3 metros. Tal possibilita que a temperatura permaneça constante no interior da pilha."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Um bom processo de compostagem, passa por três fases consecutivas, a saber: ? uma fase de aquecimento (fermentação) ? uma fase de arrefecimento ? uma fase de maturação Não é fácil estabelecer-se uma separação nítida entre estas fases. O processo realiza-se de modo muito gradual e o material orgânico converte-se em composto com a ajuda de microorganismos, em mutação contínua."}]},{"head":"Fase de aquecimento","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Durante a primeira fase do processo de compostagem, a pilha de composto começa a aquecer consideravelmente. Este efeito é conhecido por fermentação e é o resultado da decomposição das fibras duras e complexas da matéria orgânica. Este processo de fermentação (decomposição) é mais intenso no centro da pilha."},{"index":2,"size":36,"text":"Existe uma série de factores importantes para que a fermentação se efectue de uma forma mais rápida e eficaz. Em primeiro lugar, a pilha de composto deve ser feita de todos os tipos de materiais orgânicos."},{"index":3,"size":52,"text":"Em segundo lugar, é necessário que estejam presentes os microorganismos apropriados. E, em terceiro lugar, é muito importante que haja uma quantidade suficiente de oxigénio e de água. Caso estas três condições estejam reunidas, o calor é gerado rapidamente. No próximo capítulo explicar-se-á como satisfazer estas condições para a preparação de composto."},{"index":4,"size":48,"text":"Durante o processo de fermentação os microorganismos multiplicamse e transformam-se rapidamente, o que aumenta a produção de calor. Desta maneira, inicia-se um processo que se acelera a si mesmo. A fase de fermentação normalmente começa após 4 a 5 dias e pode levar até 1 a 2 semanas."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"A fermentação máxima tem lugar quando a temperatura na pilha de composto é de 60-70 o C. Temperaturas demasiado elevadas podem destruir os microorganismos úteis e parar o processo de decomposição."},{"index":6,"size":99,"text":"Devido à temperatura a que se dá, a fermentação tem igualmente uma acção higiénica. É destruído um certo número de germes patogénicos que se encontram no material orgânico e que constituem uma ameaça para os seres humanos, animais e plantas. É frequentemente sugerido que a fermentação também destrói as sementes e as raízes das infestantes (ervas daninhas). No entanto, na prática tal não é assim e muitas das sementes não são destruídas numa pilha normal de composto na medida em que a temperatura não é suficientemente elevada. Em alguns casos, a capacidade germinativa das sementes das infestantes até aumenta."},{"index":7,"size":55,"text":"Teste/ensaio de temperatura Para se saber, de um modo fácil, se o processo de fermentação já teve o seu início, procede-se da seguinte maneira: espete um pau no centro da pilha de composto cinco dias após ter feito a pilha ou quando a remexeu pela última vez. Deixe o pau durante 5 a 10 minutos."},{"index":8,"size":57,"text":"Depois de ter retirado o pau, sinta a sua temperatura que deve ser consideravelmente mais elevada (60 a 70 o . C ) que a temperatura do corpo. Se tal não se verificar, isto constitui uma indicação de que algo está errado, talvez o material usado não seja o adequado ou haja algum problema com o arejamento."}]},{"head":"Fase de arrefecimento","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":27,"text":"A fase de fermentação passa, gradualmente, para uma fase de arrefecimento. A decomposição tem lugar sem muita libertação de calor, de forma que a temperatura baixa lentamente."},{"index":2,"size":77,"text":"Durante esta fase, há novas espécies de microorganismos que convertem/transformam os compostos orgânicos em húmus. A pilha permanece húmida, pegajosa e quente no seu interior e regista-se uma descida de temperatura de 50 o C para 30 o C. Se se regular a temperatura, o ar e a água, pode-se acelerar ou retardar o processo. A duração desta fase de arrefecimento depende do tipo de pilha, dos materiais utilizados, dos cuidados dados à pilha, do clima, etc."},{"index":3,"size":19,"text":"Normalmente a fase de arrefecimento dura alguns meses, mas se as condições forem desfavoráveis, pode até durar um ano."}]},{"head":"Fase de maturação","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Nesta fase final do processo de decomposição, a temperatura baixa até atingir a mesma temperatura do solo, entre 15-25 o C, dependendo do clima."},{"index":2,"size":39,"text":"Além dos microorganismos já mencionados, nesta fase também intervêm animais um pouco maiores que vivem no solo. Nas regiões temperadas são sobretudo as minhocas que se alimentam do material orgânico, muito decomposto, contribuindo assim para o processo de decomposição."},{"index":3,"size":69,"text":"Nas regiões tropicais até às semi-áridas são sobretudo as térmitas que desempenham um papel importante, se bem que também possam causar muitos problemas Na verdade nunca se pode dizer que esta fase está terminada; o processo de decomposição pode continuar indefinidamente a um ritmo muito lento. O composto está pronto para ser utilizado quando se esfarela e tem o aspecto de uma terra orgânica escura, castanha/preta de boa qualidade."}]},{"head":"A prática da compostagem","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":43,"text":"Neste capítulo explicam-se os aspectos importantes do fabrico/preparação do composto. Deve-se prestar atenção à composição do material orgânico e à localização da pilha de composto (aonde a pilha de composto vai ser colocada). As medidas e a construção da pilha são descritas separadamente."},{"index":2,"size":12,"text":"No próximo capítulo são descritos diferentes métodos específicos de preparação de composto."}]},{"head":"Material orgânico","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"De um modo geral pode-se utilizar qualquer tipo de material orgânico proveniente de plantas ou de animais. É essencial que se misture materiais duros e velhos, cuja decomposição é difícil (resíduos de culturas, galhos pequenos) com materiais jovens, tenros e cheios de seiva, que entram em decomposição mais facilmente (frutos, peles/cascas de legumes, folhas novas e tenras)."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"Isto porque tipos diferentes de matéria orgânica contêm proporções diferentes de carbono (C) e de azoto (N). Os microorganismos que decompõem a matéria orgânica necessitam tanto do carbono (dióxido de carbono) como do azoto para funcionarem bem."},{"index":3,"size":77,"text":"Em geral, os materiais jovens e vivos que se decompõem rapidamente, contêm níveis baixos de carbono, mas níveis elevados de azoto. Os materiais mortos, duros, decompõem-se lentamente e contêm grandes quantidades de carbono, mas pequenas quantidades de azoto. Se houver poucos materiais ricos em azoto, tal implica que o processo de decomposição irá ser lento; por outro lado, a presença de demasiados materiais ricos em azoto resulta numa pilha que se torna ácida e com mau odor."},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"A razão ideal de carbono:azoto (C:N) para se iniciar uma pilha de composto é :"},{"index":5,"size":8,"text":"Razão C : N = 25-30 : 1"},{"index":6,"size":19,"text":"Ver Apêndice 1 em relação à composição dos principais materiais de compostagem Exemplos de materiais ricos em azoto são:"},{"index":7,"size":15,"text":"Folhas tenras, todos os tipos de estrume, comida de peixe, restos de peixe, urina, leguminosas."}]},{"head":"Exemplos de materiais ricos em carbono são:","index":12,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"Folhas secas, resíduos das culturas do milho, cana de açúcar, arroz, etc. galhos, aparas de madeira, polpa de café, cartão, etc."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Quadro 1: A razão C:N de alguns materiais (Fonte: KIOF). Tenha atenção para não usar materiais tóxicos. Por exemplo, partes de plantas que tenham sido pulverizadas com adubos químicos podem ter efeitos adversos na decomposição e qualidade do composto. Deve-se evitar, tanto quanto possível, materiais infectados com ferrugens ou vírus."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Muitos dos germes patogénicos não são destruídos durante a fermentação e assim o ciclo de doenças continuaria se misturasse o composto na terra como adubo."},{"index":4,"size":56,"text":"A razão que subjaz a uma conversão/transformação lenta na pilha de composto reside, muitas das vezes, numa carência de materiais de fácil decomposição. Até pode acontecer que a pilha se torne completamente inactiva. Uma indicação de que tal se passa, é a descida de temperatura durante a fase de aquecimento/fermentação, aproximadamente ao fim de dois dias."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"Uma pilha de composto fabricada com material vegetal jovem (de fácil decomposição) decompõe-se lentamente e em pouco tempo tornase demasiado ácida. Uma pilha de composto ácida começa a apodrecer e a destilar mau cheiro. A decomposição dá-se a um ritmo muito lento e a qualidade do composto deteriora-se. A combinação de restos de folhas jovens ou de estrume/excrementos (de fácil decomposição) com partes lenhosas da planta (difíceis de decompor) proporcionam o melhor composto, dentro de um período de tempo mais curto."},{"index":6,"size":22,"text":"No Apêndice 1 encontra-se uma lista que mostra a composição de vários tipos de material orgânico que pode ser usado para compostagem."}]},{"head":"Microorganismos","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"O processo de compostagem verifica-se devido à actividade de microorganismos e outros organismos um pouco maiores, como sejam minhocas /vermes e insectos. Ver figura 2 na secção 2.1."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"A primeira condição para se realizar a compostagem é a presença de organismos de compostagem. Estes organismos podem ser incorporados na pilha de composto misturando-se composto que já está pronto com materiais orgânicos. Caso não se disponha de composto, pode-se juntar terra/solo. Esta terra deve ser recolhida de um lugar húmido e à sombra, por exemplo, debaixo de árvores."},{"index":3,"size":25,"text":"Um solo em que há humidade, contém microorganismos. Normalmente um solo que está seco devido à exposição ao sol, já não contém muitos organismos vivos."}]},{"head":"Ar","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":84,"text":"Os microorganismos dentro da pilha de composto necessitam de oxigénio para sobreviverem e para a conversão/transformação do material orgânico. O dióxido de carbono que é produzido pelos microorganismos como resultado da sua actividade, necessita de ser liberto por meio de um fluxo de ar. Caso o ar que se encontra no interior dentro da pilha, não seja suficiente, os microorganismos úteis não sobreviverão. Por seu lado, os outros microorganismos que não necessitam de oxigénio multiplicar-se-ão/desenvolver-se-ão e verificar-se-á um abrandamento da decomposição do material orgânico."},{"index":2,"size":61,"text":"Para que no interior da pilha haja uma quantidade suficiente de ar, não se deve encostar a pilha de composto directamente a uma parede/muro. Ao se fabricar a pilha, começar por uma camada de material duro (ramos/galhos) na base, para que, desse modo, o ar possa entrar na pilha. Ver, também, a Secção 4.6 onde se fala de condutas de arejamento."}]},{"head":"Humidade","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Os microorganismos necessitam de humidade para viver e se espalhar através da pilha. A actividade dos microorganismos abrandará se a pilha estiver demasiado seca. Por outro lado, se a pilha ficar demasiado húmida, nesse caso o ar não é suficiente e os organismos de compostagem morrerão. O processo será mais de fermentação do que de compostagem. Para se avaliar qual será a quantidade correcta de água, deve-se realizar uma pequena experiência."}]},{"head":"Teste de humidade","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Pode-se, muito facilmente, fazer um teste para se avaliar o teor de humidade existente na pilha de composto, introduzindo nesta um pequeno feixe de palha. Se ao fim de 5 minutos a palha estiver pegajosa, o teor de humidade é bom, se após 5 minutos ainda permanecer seca, isso quer dizer que o teor de humidade é muito baixo."},{"index":2,"size":40,"text":"Tem que se borrifar uniformemente uma pilha que se encontra seca com um regador ou uma lata perfurada. Pode-se usar simplesmente água ou uma mistura de urina e água à razão de 1:4. A urina promove o crescimento dos microorganismos."},{"index":3,"size":73,"text":"Se na pilha aparecerem gotículas de água, isso é um sinal que está muito húmida e deve ser aberta/desfeita imediatamente. Pode-se espalhar o material ao sol, para secá-lo e também se pode misturá-lo com outros materiais secos. Passado algum tempo, poder-se-á refazer de novo a pilha. Se, devido a chuva, a pilha se encontrar demasiado húmida, é melhor tapá-la. Em ambos os casos, depois de alguns dias repita o teste que mencionámos anteriormente."}]},{"head":"Localização da pilha de composto","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"O lugar onde a pilha de composto vai ficar é muito importante. É preciso ter em consideração os seguintes aspectos:"}]},{"head":"Clima","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":56,"text":"No caso de condições climáticas muito secas, deve-se proteger a pilha de composto contra dessecação. O ideal é escolher-se um local à sombra, abrigado do vento, por exemplo, atrás de uma construção ou de uma fila de árvores. Deste modo, a evaporação da humidade na pilha será menos rápida, embora a ventilação continue a ser suficiente."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Uma localização ao abrigo do vento tem a vantagem suplementar de evitar que os materiais esvoacem e de flutuações de temperatura mais reduzidas (que a temperatura seja mais estável). Também é prático que exista água na proximidade da pilha de composto para poder regá-la no caso de estar muito seca."},{"index":3,"size":86,"text":"Se as condições climáticas forem húmidas, é preciso proteger a pilha de composto contra o excesso de água. Deve-se escolher um lugar abrigado e bem drenado, localizado numa parte mais elevada do terreno. Se a pilha de composto for colocada debaixo de uma árvore com sombra/frondosa (por exemplo, uma mangueira ou um cajueiro) esta-rá, normalmente, melhor protegida contra chuvas em excesso. Estes dois tipos de condições climáticas desempenham, sem dúvida, um papel importante quanto à determinação dum lugar adequado para a preparação da pilha de composto."},{"index":4,"size":98,"text":"Se se colocar um telhado simples por cima do local onde se fez a pilha de composto, esta fica protegida contra o sol e a chuva. A protecção contra estas influências climáticas melhorará o processo de compostagem, na medida em que a temperatura e o teor de humidade permanecerão mais constantes. Espaço em redor da pilha de composto Deve haver espaço suficiente em redor da pilha de composto de forma a possibilitar remexer/revolver e examinar o composto. O mais prático é contar com um espaço com uma superfície aproximadamente 2 a 3 vezes maior do que a pilha."},{"index":5,"size":63,"text":"Parasitas/animais nocivos Uma pilha de composto deve ser sempre feita ao ar livre, e não demasiado próximo de habitações ou estábulos. A pilha pode, muito provavelmente, atrair animais nocivos como sejam ratos, ratazanas, térmitas, e outros insectos prejudiciais. Estes animais são focos de transmissão de doenças para os seres humanos e animais e atraem animais ainda mais perigosos, como o caso de cobras."}]},{"head":"Dimensões e construção de uma pilha de composto","index":19,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Dimensões","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":107,"text":"As dimensões duma pilha de composto não são arbitrárias, quer dizer devem satisfazer certos requisitos -no caso de ser demasiado larga ou demasiado alta, o arejamento/ventilação será deficiente. As dimensões básicas são de 2 a 2,5 metros de largura por 1,5 metro a 2 metros de altura. O comprimento depende da quantidade de material orgânico disponível, mas é melhor fazer-se uma pequena pilha de composto, num espaço de tempo curto, que levar muito tempo para fazer uma grande pilha. Aconselha-se, vivamente, a iniciar-se com uma pilha de, pelo menos, 1 metro cúbico, senão a temperatura da pilha permanecerá muito baixa e a decomposição será deficiente e incompleta."},{"index":2,"size":15,"text":"Durante a fase de maturação, o volume da pilha diminui, quer dizer, a pilha abate."}]},{"head":"Construção da pilha","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":49,"text":"Pode-se fazer a pilha de composto sobre o solo ou debaixo deste, num fosso/cova ou numa vala/rego. No Capítulo 5 descrevem-se vários métodos de construção da pilha. Qualquer que seja o método que vai ser utilizado, a pilha de material orgânico tem que ser erigida de uma maneira específica."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"A decomposição é mais fácil caso se corte o material em pedaços pequenos e se misturem materiais que se decompõem facilmente com outros cuja decomposição é mais difícil."}]},{"head":"Figura 4: Corte do material em pedaços pequenos","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"Uma sugestão útil é de começar a pilha por uma base de material vegetal rijo, tal como ramos/galhos e canas de cana de açúcar. O ar exterior pode circular mais facilmente sob a pilha, podendo, deste modo, escoar mais rapidamente qualquer água em excesso. Se a pilha é construída em camadas, cada camada de material vegetal não deve ultrapassar os 10 cm de espessura, e cada camada de estrume não deve exceder 2 cm de espessura. Para além do material orgânico que se pode obter, a maneira segundo a qual se faz a pilha depende, também, da experiência e resultados individuais."},{"index":2,"size":139,"text":"A cobertura da pilha Em regiões em que as chuvas são abundantes, a pilha deve ser protegida contra o excesso de água. O melhor é mantê-la seca, colocandose um telhado simples por cima (ver figura 3) ou, de uma maneira ainda mais simples, cobri-la com uma camada de folhas, com um pedaço de tecido de juta ou de plástico. No caso de se utilizar plástico, cobrir unicamente a parte de cima, de forma que o ar possa penetrar à vontade através dos lados. Se houver regos/valas em volta da pilha isto facilita o escoamento do excesso de água da chuva. Nas regiões com clima muito seco, a cobertura da parte de cima da pilha com os materiais que mencionámos, também pode constituir uma vantagem, na medida que impede uma evaporação excessiva da humidade da pilha e seca menos rapidamente."}]},{"head":"Canais de arejamento","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"É aconselhável dotar a pilha com canais de arejamento. A maneira mais eficaz é colocar na pilha, verticalmente, no decurso da construção, pauzinhos/estacas ou feixes de raminhos, molhos de palha ou outros materiais sólidos. Os feixes podem permanecer na pilha, pois não impedem o arejamento, mas os paus/estacas têm que ser retirados, assim que a pilha de composto esteja concluída."},{"index":2,"size":54,"text":"Estas condutas de ar devem ter um diâmetro de cerca de 12 cm e estar separadas umas das outras cerca de 1 metro. Ao fim de 4 a 5 dias têm que se tapar estas condutas. Um excesso de ventilação pode ter como consequência nefasta transformar o processo de fermentação num processo de combustão."}]},{"head":"Métodos para a fabricação de composto","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"Existem muitos métodos para fazer composto. Neste Capítulo são apresentados vários desses métodos. Queremos expressar os nossos agradecimentos à HDRA e ao KIOF pela amabilidade em nos facilitar a utilização dos seus materiais, possibilitando-nos apresentar diversos métodos de fabrico de composto."},{"index":2,"size":28,"text":"Ao se optar por um destes métodos, deve-se tomar em consideração os factores que já mencionámos anteriormente, como sejam a disponibilidade de materiais orgânicos e as condições atmosféricas."},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"A longo prazo o mais adequado será encontrar um método que se possa adaptar às condições concretas de cada caso. Por isso, recomendamos que se procedam a experiências/ensaios para encontrar o método que é mais propício para a sua situação específica. É claro que sempre se poderá contactar a Agromisa, a HDRA ou o KIOF com vista à obtenção de informação específica. Na secção de Endereços Úteis encontrará os endereços destas organizações/instituições."}]},{"head":"Método Indore","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":11,"text":"O método Indore é muito utilizado para a compostagem em camadas."}]},{"head":"Construção da pilha","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"A pilha deve ser construída sobre uma base de ramos e canas. Sobre esta base empilham-se, sucessivamente: ? Uma camada de material vegetal duro, de difícil decomposição, de cerca de 10 cm; ? Uma camada de material orgânico fresco, que se decompõe facilmente, igualmente de 10 cm; ? Uma camada de 2 cm de estrume animal, composto ou lodo proveniente de um tanque de biogás ? Uma camada fina de terra, que deve ser recolhida na camada superficial do solo (de cerca de 10cm) limpa e húmida (por exemplo, o solo que se encontra por debaixo de árvores), pois dessa maneira a pilha será dotada dos microorganismos necessários para o processo de compostagem."},{"index":2,"size":44,"text":"Repete-se esta sequência de camadas até que a pilha de composto tenha atingido uma altura de 1,5 a 2 metros. Construiu-se, assim, uma pilha \"em camadas\". Toda esta operação deve ser feita num espaço de tempo rápido, digamos numa semana. Ver a Figura 5."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"Figura 5: Exemplo de uma pilha de composto Indore"}]},{"head":"Revolver a pilha","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"Durante o processo de decomposição a pilha tem que ser revolvida regularmente, o que lhe assegura um bom arejamento e, desse modo, todos os materiais são transformados em composto."},{"index":2,"size":120,"text":"Geralmente revolve-se a pilha pela primeira vez após 2 a 3 semanas. Nessa altura desmancha-se a pilha e volta-se a construi-la ao lado donde estava a pilha original. Misturam-se as camadas e a pilha é invertida (de baixo para cima) e virada, do interior para o exterior. Novamente se começa por uma base de materiais vegetais grosseiros. A seguir põem-se os materiais mais secos e menos decompostos da pilha que estavam na parte de fora da pilha que se desfez e colocam-se agora no interior, no centro, da pilha nova. Antes de se continuar a fazer a pilha, regam-se estes materiais secos. Esta parte central então é coberta com os materiais restantes deixando de haver a estrutura inicial, em camadas."},{"index":3,"size":46,"text":"Ao fim de três semanas revolve-se de novo, pela segunda vez, a pilha, e até pode ser que seja necessário revolvê-la uma terceira vez. Cada vez que se revolve a pilha é preciso repetir, após alguns dias, o teste de humidade e o teste de temperatura."},{"index":4,"size":70,"text":"Tempo necessário para a decomposição O processo de decomposição na pilha está concluído quando os materiais vegetais ficam transformados, de forma irreconhecível, numa massa escura que se esfarela. Os ramos e os talos grossos não se decompõem completamente e ainda se podem reconhecer. Se as circunstâncias forem favoráveis, o processo de decomposição do método Indore leva 3 meses. Se as condições forem adversas pode durar até mais de seis meses."},{"index":5,"size":104,"text":"Algumas substâncias, como sejam a urina humana e as cinzas da madeira, favorecem o desenvolvimento de microorganismos. É necessária apenas uma pequena quantidade destas substâncias na pilha para acelerar o desenvolvimento dos microorganismos. Se desejar acelerar o processo, espalhe um pouco de urina ou cinza de madeira sobre as camadas finas de terra. Mas deve-se utilizar apenas pequenas quantidades, pois cinza em demasia diminui a actividade dos microorganismos. A urina deve ser diluída em água à razão de 1:4 (em 4 vezes o seu volume de água) e borrifada sobre a pilha, por meio de um regador. O método Indore dá, frequentemente, bons resultados."},{"index":6,"size":39,"text":"As vantagens deste método são as seguintes: ? é fácil de manter o processo sob controlo e não apresenta muitas dificuldades, na medida em que se revolve a pilha regularmente várias vezes; ? obtém-se composto dentro de pouco tempo."},{"index":7,"size":17,"text":"Os inconvenientes deste método são os seguintes: ? exige muita água; ? exige muito tempo de trabalho."}]},{"head":"Método Bangalore","index":28,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":33,"text":"O método Bangalore é outro método muito utilizado para preparação de composto em que a construção da pilha, tal como no método Indore, é feita numa semana e é constituída por várias camadas."},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"O método Bangalore difere do método Indore nos seguintes aspectos:"},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"Alguns dias após a sua conclusão cobre-se completamente a pilha com lama ou torrões de relva, ficando, deste modo, hermeticamente protegida do ar exterior. O processo de decomposição do material orgânico prossegue, mas é provocado por outras espécies de microorganismos. Estes microorganismos decompõem o material de maneira muito mais lenta e por isso leva mais tempo para se obter composto que pelo método Indore, embora a sua qualidade seja praticamente a mesma."},{"index":4,"size":29,"text":"As principais vantagens do método Bangalore são: ? economia de água; ? exige menos trabalho porque não há necessidade de se revolver a pilha durante o processo de decomposição."},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Os inconvenientes do método Bangalore são: ? há um maior número de germes patogénicos e de sementes de ervas daninhas/infestantes que sobrevivem porque a temperatura durante a decomposição é mais baixa;"},{"index":6,"size":32,"text":"? o processo de decomposição é mais difícil de controlar porque a pilha tem que se manter continuamente coberta; ? este método é menos apropriado para pessoas sem ou com pouca experiência."}]},{"head":"Processo de aquecimento ou método de blocos","index":29,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"Este método é parecido com o método Bangalore. No entanto o tratamento é diferente o que permite proceder à compostagem de grandes quantidades de material orgânico."},{"index":2,"size":38,"text":"Um sistema contínuo de pilhas O método de processo de aquecimento baseiase num sistema contínuo de pilha/blocos, quer dizer, que se fabrica sempre novos blocos/pilhas de material orgânico que são amontoados e tratados da seguinte maneira (figura 6):"},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"No primeiro dia fabrica-se uma pilha/bloco com os materiais disponíveis. Um bloco tem uma superfície no solo de 1 m x 1 m, no mínimo e de 3 m x 3 m no máximo e uma altura de cerca de 1 metro."},{"index":4,"size":9,"text":"Deixa-se o bloco dois dias sem se lhe tocar."},{"index":5,"size":81,"text":"No centro (dentro) do bloco/pilha o processo de decomposição inicia-se por si mesmo. Ao fim destes dois dias (3 o dia), calca-se o bloco, andando por cima dele para expulsar o ar. A pilha tem, então, tão pouco ar que se encontra numa situação quase comparável à da pilha coberta do Método Bangalore, de que já falámos. No 4 o dia constrói-se uma nova pilha sobre a primeira. Esta nova pilha impede completamente que o ar exterior entre na primeira pilha."},{"index":6,"size":86,"text":"O Método de Processo de Aquecimento consiste, pois, na construção diária de uma nova pilha. A descrição apresentada só foi feita para um bloco, mas, na realidade, no segundo e terceiro dias construiu-se uma nova pilha/bloco ao lado do primeiro. Apenas no 4 o dia é que se coloca uma pilha/bloco por cima do primeiro já existente. No 5 o dia constrói-se um novo bloco sobre o que já lá estava e assim sucessivamente. Para uma melhor compreensão deste método de trabalho, ver a figura 6."},{"index":7,"size":20,"text":"Vantagens: ? é um método simples para a utilização de grandes quantidades de material orgânico; ? trata-se dum método contínuo."}]},{"head":"Inconvenientes:","index":30,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"? só pode ser aplicado com grandes quantidades de materiais; ? exige muito (tempo de) trabalho e materiais; ? devido ao processo de decomposição se efectuar a temperaturas mais baixas, há mais riscos que os germes patogénicos e as sementes das infestantes não sejam destruídos/sobrevivam; ? o processo é mais difícil de ser controlado; ? requer muita experiência e conhecimento sobre compostagem."}]},{"head":"Compostagem em fossos/covas","index":31,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":156,"text":"Este é um método que consiste em fazer o composto em fossos/covas que foram cavados no solo. A profundidade adequada para essa cova varia de acordo com as condições locais do solo e a profundidade do lençol freático. As medidas dum fosso/cova típico deveriam ser as seguintes: uma largura de 1,5 a 2 metros, 50 cm de profundidade, não importando o seu comprimento. Poder-se-á revestir o fosso com uma camada fina de argila de modo a reduzir-se a perda de água. Escavamse, frequentemente, vários fossos uns ao lado dos outros, de modo a permitir que se passe de um fosso para o seguinte. O material deve ser colocado no fosso em camadas, tal como se passa a descrever. Para um fosso de grandes dimensões, com 2m de largura 2m de comprimento e 1 m de altura, deve-se despejar 1 a 1,5 litros de água antes de se aplicar a camada de terra, que sela o fosso."},{"index":2,"size":41,"text":"A colocação das camadas de materiais é a seguinte: 1 10 cm de material de difícil decomposição (ramos, caules/talos) 2 10 cm de material de fácil decomposição (verde e fresco) 3 2 cm de estrume animal (caso se possa obter) 4"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Uma camada fina de solo proveniente da camada superficial arável, de modo a se obter os microorganismos necessários para o processo de compostagem 5"},{"index":4,"size":15,"text":"Repetir estas camadas até a pilha atingir 1 m a 1,5 m de altura. 6"},{"index":5,"size":14,"text":"Cobrir com ervas ou folhas (p.ex. folhas de bananeira) para evitar perdas de água."},{"index":6,"size":71,"text":"Ao fim de 2 a 3 semanas, todo o conteúdo do fosso deverá ter passado (sido revolvido) para o segundo fosso e depois de 2 a 3 semanas este deve ser transferido para o terceiro fosso. Quando o material em decomposição do fosso 1 é transferido para o fosso 2 , pode-se pôr novo material, que está pronto para ser decomposto no fosso 1, criando-se, assim, um processo contínuo de compostagem."}]},{"head":"Vantagens:","index":32,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":30,"text":"A compostagem em fossos/covas é rápida, fácil e barata na medida em que não requer investimentos em materiais. Este processo necessita de menos água sendo, portanto, adequado para áreas secas."}]},{"head":"Inconvenientes:","index":33,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"É mais difícil fazer-se um seguimento do processo de decomposição que no caso de uma pilha de composto que se encontra em cima do solo."}]},{"head":"Compostagem em valas/regos","index":34,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":125,"text":"A compostagem em valas/regos é similar à compostagem em fossos/covas, à excepção que as plantas se cultivam directamente nas valas, não se retirando, portanto, o composto da vala para que posteriormente seja espalhado sobre a terra. Tem que se escavar, primeiramente, a vala, dependendo o seu tamanho da quantidade de material disponível e de quantas plantas se irão plantar na vala. A largura pode variar entre 50 cm até vários metros, a profundidade 1 m ou menos e o comprimento pode ser qualquer. Poder-se-á, então, proceder ao enchimento da vala, da seguinte maneira: 1 10 cm de material que é de difícil decomposição (caules/talos ou resíduos de culturas) 2 10 cm de material que é de fácil decomposição (restos de fruta e de legumes) 3"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Adicionar 2 cm de estrume animal (caso se possa obter) 4"},{"index":3,"size":24,"text":"Uma camada fina de solo, proveniente da camada superficial, arável, de modo a se obter os microorganismos necessários para o processo de compostagem. 5"},{"index":4,"size":19,"text":"Repetir estas camadas até que a pilha tenha uma altura de cerca de 50 cm, acima da terra. 6"},{"index":5,"size":31,"text":"Cobrir com terra, ervas ou folhas (p. ex. folhas de bananeira) para evitar perda de água e de nutrientes e deixar a assentar durante cerca de um mês antes de plantar."}]},{"head":"Vantagens:","index":35,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"A compostagem em valas é especialmente útil contra os ataques de térmitas, na medida em que a maioria das espécies vive acima do solo."}]},{"head":"Compostagem em \"cestos\"","index":36,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Figura 8: \"Cestos\" com composto e plântulas plantadas ao redor desses \"cestos\" (HDRA)"},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"Caso os materiais para compostagem sejam escassos, mesmo assim se poderá aproveitá-los bem, utilizando o método de compostagem em \"cestos\". Este método é especialmente propício para produção alimentar em hortas. Procede-se da seguinte maneira: 1 Escavar buracos circulares de 60 cm de diâmetro e de 60 cm de profundidade 2"},{"index":3,"size":14,"text":"Revestir o fundo dos buracos com materiais que se decompõem dificilmente (ramos, talos) 3"},{"index":4,"size":7,"text":"Adicionar 8 cm de estrume animal 4"},{"index":5,"size":17,"text":"Adicionar 15 cm de vegetação verde (folhas tenras, novas, que têm um teor elevado de água) 5"},{"index":6,"size":6,"text":"Adicionar 0,5 cm de cinzas 6"},{"index":7,"size":14,"text":"Repetir as etapas 3 a 5 até que o buraco se encontre cheio 7"},{"index":8,"size":15,"text":"Cobrir com erva ou com folhas para evitar perdas de água e de nutrientes 8"},{"index":9,"size":22,"text":"Utilizando pauzinhos pequenos e entrelaçando-os, marque a linha circular da parte exterior da cova com um \"cesto\" redondo de 10cm de altura."},{"index":10,"size":18,"text":"Em redor da estrutura do cesto podem plantar-se sementes ou plântulas. As plantas utilizarão os nutrientes do composto."},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"Caso construa vários \"cestos\" de composto na sua horta, coloque-os, sempre que o faça, em diferentes locais para que toda a horta se torne mais fértil."}]},{"head":"Vantagens:","index":37,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":31,"text":"A compostagem feita com a utilização de \"cestos\" emprega bem os nutrientes quando se pretende fazer uma pequena horta. Este método também é eficaz para aproveitar pequenas quantidades de lixo doméstico."}]},{"head":"Compostagem em currais/bomas","index":38,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"Figura 9: Boma/curral com cama para o gado para fabrico de composto (Fonte: Muller-Samann & Kotschi, 1994) Quando um agricultor cria animais, normalmente tem um curral/boma na exploração agrícola (recinto onde se mantêm os animais, quer durante todo o tempo, quer apenas durante a noite). Para que os animais se mantenham limpos, é necessário que no curral haja uma cama para o gado."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"É aconselhável acrescentar novo material para a cama do gado, todas as semanas, de modo que a urina possa ser completamente absorvida. Para as camas do gado pode-se utilizar qualquer tipo de material orgânico seco, como sejam, caules de milho, ervas daninhas, relva ou folhas secas, serradura, etc."},{"index":3,"size":61,"text":"O melhor é utilizar-se uma mistura de materiais. A cama do gado absorve a urina e os excrementos dos animais que constituem um alimento muito rico para as plantas e evita que haja perdas devido ao escoamento ou secagem do estrume. O agricultor que acrescente regularmente uma nova cama para o gado obterá uma grande quantidade de composto de alta qualidade."},{"index":4,"size":54,"text":"O estrume bem misturado pode ser retirado diariamente ou uma vez por semana. Caso esta mistura seja retirada todos os dias, deve ser colocada numa pilha sobre a qual se espalha, diariamente, uma pequena quantidade de terra. Deve-se repetir o procedimento até que haja bastante material suficiente para se fazer o composto da boma."},{"index":5,"size":115,"text":"O KIOF descreveu o seguinte método para se fabricar composto proveniente da boma: de cada vez que se retira o estrume da boma este deve ser imediatamente compostado. O estrume proveniente dos carneiros, cabras, coelhos e galinhas é, todo ele, sem excepção, estrume rico. Na medida em que a cama do gado é feita de material vegetal não é necessário acrescentar mais material verde. É prático fazer o composto ao lado da boma pois assim poupar-se-á trabalho da remoção do estrume e da cama do gado usada. 1 Tal como se vê no desenho, escava-se uma vala de 30 cm de profundidade atrás da boma (1). A terra é colocada ao lado da vala (5)."},{"index":6,"size":15,"text":"Revolve-se/solta-se o solo do fundo da vala onde se coloca uma camada de vegetação seca."},{"index":7,"size":21,"text":"2 Depois deita-se na vala uma camada de cerca de 10 cm de estrume e da cama usada, proveniente da boma."},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"3 Cobre-se com cerca de 5 cm de terra."},{"index":9,"size":31,"text":"4 Acrescenta-se, de novo, uma camada de cerca de 10 cm de estrume, a qual se cobre, igualmente, com terra. Este processo continua até que a pilha de composto esteja terminada."},{"index":10,"size":50,"text":"5 Na estação seca é necessário regar o estrume. No decurso da estação das chuvas, o estrume ficará muito molhado. Quando tal for o caso, mantenha a pilha baixa (cerca de um metro de altura). No caso do estrume seco, este pode ser empilhado a uma altura de 1,5 metro."},{"index":11,"size":26,"text":"6 Quando terminar o trabalho, cubra toda a pilha com terra e, finalmente, com erva, caules de milho ou folhas de bananeira, para evitar que seque."},{"index":12,"size":29,"text":"7 Utilize paus para controlar a temperatura da pilha porque o estrume proveniente da boma fica muito quente. Acrescente água no caso do pau estar seco ou ficar branco."},{"index":13,"size":28,"text":"8 Depois de dois ou três semanas a pilha é removida para a segunda vala (2) e após mais duas ou três semanas para a terceira vala (3)."},{"index":14,"size":19,"text":"9 Guarda-se o composto até à altura do plantio, numa pilha grande, coberta, ao lado da terceira vala (4)."},{"index":15,"size":45,"text":"Nota: Se o curral/boma não tiver telhado, quando chove o estrume molha-se. Para evitar que escoe, deve-se retirar todo o estrume, o mais frequentemente possível, e esse deve ser imediatamente compostado e coberto. Ter em mente que o composto deve ser húmido mas não molhado."}]},{"head":"A compostagem de materiais específicos","index":39,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":66,"text":"Se se proceder à compostagem duma mistura de resíduos orgânicos, o processo de decomposição será mais fácil e produzir-se-á um produto final mais balanceado. Por vezes existe uma grande quantidade de um tipo de material e as possibilidades de que este seja misturado com outros materiais são escassas. Contudo, caso estes materiais sejam tratados de maneira apropriada, pode-se fazer composto de boa qualidade a partir deles."}]},{"head":"Compostagem de plantas aquáticas","index":40,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":53,"text":"As plantas daninhas aquáticas podem constituir um problema considerável em lagos e canais, criando cada vez mais um desequilíbrio e perturbação no meio ambiente. Tais problemas surgem muitas vezes quando a superfície da água fica enriquecida com nutrientes e com a introdução de plantas exóticas, por exemplo, o jacinto de água, Eichnornia crassipes."},{"index":2,"size":37,"text":"O controle destas plantas daninhas aquáticas com herbicidas é prejudicial para o meio ambiente, é caro e um desperdício, na medida em que pode constituir uma melhoria valiosa para o solo se se proceder da seguinte maneira:"},{"index":3,"size":100,"text":"1 Colha as plantas daninhas e espalhe-as durante alguns dias ao longo das margens da água para secarem até que o seu peso se tenha reduzido mais ou menos a metade. 2 Pode-se fazer uma pilha de composto utilizando plantas murchas, terra, cinzas, estrume animal e lixos caseiros (restos provenientes da cozinha). 3 Utilize o método Indore (Secção 5.1) de compostagem, em que se forma uma pilha, consistindo na colocação de ramos no fundo e diferentes camadas sobre estes ramos. Tal evitará que a pilha se torne demasiado molhada. 4 Remexa/ revolva a pilha regularmente, de duas em duas semanas."},{"index":4,"size":28,"text":"O composto que é feito apenas com jacintos de água pode, em alguns casos, reduzir os rendimentos. Experimente o composto em pequenas quantidades antes do aplicar numa cultura."}]},{"head":"Compostagem de algas","index":41,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":51,"text":"Figura 12: Uma planta adulta de Giant Kelp (Macrocystis) Desde tempos imemoráveis que as algas marinhas/sargaços têm sido utilizadas como fertilizante. No caso dos agricultores que se encontram na proximidade do mar, as algas podem ser muito úteis. São diversas as espécies conhecidas que podem ser encontradas na maioria dos mares."},{"index":2,"size":33,"text":"As algas marinhas constituem um fertilizante potencial que apenas está à espera de ser \"recolhido\". As algas contêm muitos elementos traço e substâncias reguladoras do crescimento, que são extremamente benéficas para as culturas."}]},{"head":"Remoção do sal","index":42,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":50,"text":"A principal exigência quando se procede à compostagem das algas marinhas é a remoção da maior parte do sal. Tal pode ser efectuado de uma maneira simples: recolhem-se as algas marinhas na estação das chuvas e espalham-se ou agrupam-se em pequenas pilhas. Pouco tempo depois a chuva remove o sal."}]},{"head":"Uso directo das algas marinhas como fertilizante","index":43,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"O método mais simples de aplicação de algas marinhas como fertilizante inicia-se com a secagem das algas, a qual se tritura. O pó que dessa maneira é obtido pode ser utilizado directamente como fertilizante."}]},{"head":"Compostagem","index":44,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"A outra aplicação das algas marinhas é a sua compostagem. Caso as algas marinhas se encontrem molhadas devem ser misturadas com uma grande quantidade de material seco, como seja palha. As algas marinhas secas podem ser usadas numa pilha normal de composto. De um modo geral a decomposição das algas marinhas é muito rápida."},{"index":2,"size":68,"text":"Em resumo: para os agricultores que se encontram nas proximidades da costa, as algas marinhas constituem uma fonte potencial de estrume. As algas marinhas têm, sempre, que ser primeiramente dessalgadas. As algas marinhas podem causar um considerável aumento de rendimento, mas não constituem um remédio miraculoso. O efeito das substâncias reguladoras de crescimento é, mais uma vez, muito dependente do tipo de solo no qual vão ser aplicadas."}]},{"head":"Compostagem da polpa do café","index":45,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"Figura 13: Uma pilha de composto elevada (Fonte: HDRA) Nas regiões produtoras de café, as grandes quantidades de polpa de café originam problemas. Os montes em fermentação exalam um cheiro desagradável, provocam moscas e poluem os canais de água. A polpa do café é um bom fertilizante na medida que é rica em matéria orgânica, azoto e potássio. Alguns dos agricultores espalha a pesada polpa molhada nas suas plantações de café, mas podem verificar-se problemas com o transporte e o espalhamento, podendo originar maus cheiros e problemas quanto ao crescimento da planta."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"É muito melhor proceder-se primeiramente à compostagem do produto de modo a que o mesmo possa ser usado mais eficazmente."}]},{"head":"Bom arejamento","index":46,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":55,"text":"Este material denso necessita de um bom arejamento e por isso é preciso construir pilhas elevadas, acima do solo. Estas pilhas elevadas têm que ter um tecto ou serem cobertas para impedir que entre demasiada água nas pilhas de composto. Este chão elevado pode ser feito de canas de bambu assentes sobre tijolos ou pedras."},{"index":2,"size":74,"text":"Antes de se proceder à compostagem, a polpa tem que ser drenada e carregada para as covas/fossos poços com uma altura aproximada de um metro. Pode-se misturar restos de hortaliças, caso se possam obter, assim como terra ou composto. Isto para que se obtenha os mi-croorganismos adequados para a decomposição dos resíduos. A pilha deve ser revolvida cada 4 a 6 semanas e o composto deverá estar pronto dentro de 4 a 6 meses."}]},{"head":"Compostagem do lixo doméstico","index":47,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":97,"text":"O lixo doméstico compreende qualquer tipo de lixo caseiro decomponível como sejam restos de comida, papel, varreduras ou cinzas de madeira. Não deverá compreender carne ou restos provenientes do abate de animais, na medida que estes atraem vermes e insectos e exalam um cheiro pestilento. Também não devem incluir excrementos humanos ou de gatos ou cães pois estes contêm toxinas que podem ser nocivas no caso da sua compostagem não ser feita de maneira correcta (ver a secção onde se trata da compostagem de excrementos humanos). Também é melhor não se usar muito material do mesmo tipo."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Ter em mente que a composição de lixo doméstico é definida cultural e regionalmente. Particularmente na Ásia a compostagem de lixo caseiro constitui uma técnica antiga."}]},{"head":"Compostagem numa pilha","index":48,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":36,"text":"A maior parte do lixo doméstico é produzida em pequenas quantidades mas em intervalos regulares. É aconselhável não pôr pequenas quantidades nessa pilha, numa base diária, mas guardá-lo antes de o colocar na pilha de composto."},{"index":2,"size":108,"text":"Como linha de orientação: acrescente uma nova camada sempre que disponha de material suficiente para ter uma camada de cerca de 30 cm de espessura. Também se pode recolher outro material adicional para se pôr na pilha, mas isso custa tempo e energia. Na medida em que a quantidade de lixo orgânico muitas das vezes é pequena, só se pode fazer uma pequena pilha de composto. O lixo orgânico (restos de e comida, cinzas de madeira) apresenta pouca estrutura. Por isso, sempre que se proceder à compostagem do refugo doméstico deve-se prestar bastante atenção à ventilação da pilha. Ver secção 4.3 e 4.6 -subsecção sobre condutas de arejamento."}]},{"head":"Compostagem num barril","index":49,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":26,"text":"No Mali, no instituto IPR/IFRA (o endereço encontra-se na secção Endereço Úteis) desenvolveu-se um método para se fabricar composto a partir de lixo doméstico, num barril."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"A utilização de barris facilita e faz com que seja mais higiénica a prática de compostagem perto da casa. O barril também regula o ar, a humidade e a temperatura durante o processo de compostagem."}]},{"head":"Preparação do barril","index":50,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":48,"text":"Pinte a parte interior do barril para evitar que enferruje. Faça três buracos (de 1 cm de diâmetro), aproximadamente a um terço da parte de cima do barril e a um terço da parte de baixo do barril, a uma distância de a 52 cm uns dos outros."},{"index":2,"size":49,"text":"Faça um outro buraco de 1 cm na base do barril. O líquido proveniente da decomposição da matéria orgânica pode escorrer por este buraco. Se ficar dentro do barril, o material no fundo do barril começará a apodrecer o que origina mau cheiro e o composto não será bom."},{"index":3,"size":42,"text":"Remova a parte de cima do barril; esta será utilizada como tampa para regular o processo de compostagem quando o barril se encontrar cheio. À medida que os materiais orgânicos se decompõem, o barril encolherá e a tampa deslizará, tapando o barril."},{"index":4,"size":93,"text":"Faça uma abertura mais ou menos 20 cm acima do fundo do barril, de 65 cm de altura e 20 cm de largura de modo a que se possa controlar o progresso da compostagem. Normalmente esta abertura deve ser mantida fechada. Coloque o barril num tripé de base de 25 cm de altura O processo pode ser melhorado caso se recolha o líquido que escoa do barril através da abertura do fundo e se o adicione de novo à matéria orgânica existente no barril. Desta maneira reduz-se ao mínimo a perda de nutrientes."}]},{"head":"Encher o barril de uma única tirada","index":51,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":68,"text":"Se encher o barril só de uma vez, a humidade da mistura dentro do barril permanecerá mais ou menos constante. O ar entrará através das aberturas do barril. Depois de 4 ou 5 dias transferir a mistura para o segundo barril, no qual ficará durante 8 a 10 dias. Ao fim deste período o composto estará, provavelmente, pronto. Evidentemente que o período de compostagem depende do clima (temperatura)."},{"index":2,"size":51,"text":"O IPR/IFRA preparou uma receita utilizando o método que acabámos de descrever. Faça a compostagem dos seguintes materiais: 52 kg de serradura 1,7 kg de estrume de aves domésticas 2,5 kg de fosfato natural Tilemsi 800 ml de urina. Depois de 45 dias a compostagem já se encontrará num estádio avançado."},{"index":3,"size":82,"text":"Encher o barril por etapas Caso se encha o barril por etapas, é necessário começar a contagem dos dias do processamento a partir do momento em que o barril se encontra cheio até acima. Então, depois de 4 a 5 dias peneira-se a mistura e o material fino pode ser colocado no segundo barril enquanto que pedaços grandes e qualquer outro material que ainda não se encontre decomposto é posto de volta no primeiro barril, que pode, de novo, ser enchido devagar."}]},{"head":"A compostagem de detritos/excrementos humanos ou despejos","index":52,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"A compostagem de detritos humanos ou de despejos constitui uma maneira útil de os eliminar e são uma fonte rica em nutrientes para as plantas. Contudo colocam-se alguns problemas quando se tem que lidar com detritos/excrementos humanos ou com despejos. Podem transmitir-se doenças através do manuseamento dos excrementos e durante o consumo das culturas em que detritos humanos foram utilizados como adubo."},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"Reveste-se de primordial importância a utilização de métodos adequados quando se lida com este aspecto e é necessário possuir-se uma experiência prévia do processo de compostagem."},{"index":3,"size":74,"text":"Os problemas mencionados não devem impedir que se utilize excrementos humanos ou despejos na pilha de composto. Nesta publicação não se explica em pormenor o modo de compostagem de excrementos humanos. Caso o leitor deseje experimentar, referimo-nos aos livros mencionados na secção \"Leitura Recomendada\". Se quiser obter mais informação, também poderá dirigir-se por escrito quer ao serviço de perguntas-e-respostas da Agromisa ou à Secção de Aconselhamento Externo da HDRA (Ver secção sobre \"Endereços Úteis\")."}]},{"head":"Possibilidades de utilização do composto","index":53,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Neste capítulo trataremos das diversas possibilidades de utilização do composto."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Eis alguns exemplos: ? fertilização; ? solo para vasos, plantas de viveiro ou para a plantação de árvores; ? prevenção contra a erosão; ? alimento para peixes."},{"index":3,"size":9,"text":"? cultura de cogumelos (não se trata neste Agrodok)."},{"index":4,"size":44,"text":"Quando o composto se encontra pronto, nem sempre pode ser utilizado imediatamente tendo, por vezes, que ser guardado durante algum tempo até que se possa utilizar. É necessário providenciar para que o composto não perca a sua fertilidade durante o tempo que está armazenado."}]},{"head":"Os cuidados a tomar com o composto armazenado","index":54,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":86,"text":"Não se deve, nunca, deixar o composto destapado, exposto à chuva ou ao sol. A chuva faz desaparecer os nutrientes e o sol pode queimar o composto, perdendo assim a sua fertilidade. Por esta razão, para reduzir estas perdas, deve-se cobrir o composto. Para tal pode-se utilizar folhas de bananeira, folhas de palmeira entrelaçadas ou pedaços de plástico. Caso o composto esteja muito tempo sem ser utilizado pode servir de local de incubação de insectos indesejáveis, como sejam as térmitas e os besouros rinoceronte (Oryctes rhinoceros)."}]},{"head":"Fertilização","index":55,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"A vantagem da utilização do composto como fertilizante reside no facto que, a longo prazo, melhora a fertilidade do solo, na medida que melhora a estrutura do solo. A matéria orgânica constitui o factor chave no que respeita ao melhoramento da estrutura do solo. A matéria orgânica contém grandes quantidades de micro-elementos essenciais para o crescimento da planta e melhora a capacidade de retenção de água do solo Um outro aspecto é que o composto liberta os nutrientes de modo lento, o que implica que o efeito do composto se faz sentir a longo prazo."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"Os fertilizantes artificiais apenas contêm alguns nutrientes (azoto, fósforo e potássio), mas a sua concentração de nutrientes é muito mais elevada do que a existente no composto."},{"index":3,"size":28,"text":"Os nutrientes dos fertilizantes artificiais são libertados rapidamente, o que significa que os fertilizantes artificiais constituem um abastecimento único, rápido, de nutrientes para satisfazer as necessidades duma cultura."},{"index":4,"size":95,"text":"O simples facto de se-utilizar fertilizante artificial não basta para reter um nível suficiente de fertilidade do solo. É necessário que haja matéria orgânica para reter a água e os nutrientes. Num solo degradado, desprovido de matéria orgânica, os rendimentos ainda diminuirão, mesmo quando se adiciona fertilizante artificial, o que implica que quando se utiliza fertilizante artificial é necessário cuidar do teor de matéria orgânica do solo. Quando uma cultura necessita rapidamente de nutrientes, uma boa estratégia é a constituída por uma abordagem integrada, combinando a aplicação de composto com a aplicação de fertilizantes artificiais."},{"index":5,"size":54,"text":"A longo prazo a utilização de fertilizantes artificiais pode até mesmo ter um efeito nefasto no solo na medida em que o solo pode ficar exausto e degradado caso não se lhe adicione matéria orgânica e pode tornar-se ácido devido à composição química do fertilizante. Ver, também, Agrodok 2 \"Maneio da fertilidade do solo'."}]},{"head":"Aplicação no local onde são necessários","index":56,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":35,"text":"No caso de se pretender usar o composto para fertilização directa de um talhão cultivado numa superfície grande de terreno, terá que aplicar-se uma quantidade muito grande. Isto constitui um inconveniente quando se utiliza composto."},{"index":2,"size":32,"text":"O composto é muito apropriado para ser utilizado numa horta ou num talhão de pequenas dimensões. É importante tratar de aplicar o composto localmente nos lugares específicos onde é necessário, tal como:"},{"index":3,"size":32,"text":"? Quando se prepara a cama para a semente o composto pode ser misturado com a camada superficial do solo. O composto fértil estará, desse modo, mais facilmente disponível para as plântulas."},{"index":4,"size":14,"text":"? Aplicar o composto nas covas/fossos ou valas nas quais se procedem a cultivos."},{"index":5,"size":25,"text":"Este método é útil, sobretudo nas regiões secas. A cultura é plantada no composto puro ou no composto misturado com a camada superficial do solo."}]},{"head":"Solo para envasamento, plantas de viveiros e plantação de árvores","index":57,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":64,"text":"O composto é muito benéfico para as plântulas de viveiro, quer numa cama de sementes, quer num viveiro em que germinam ou em vasos e covas onde se plantam plantas ou árvores jovens. O composto retém bem a água e, deste modo, as plantinhas jovens não evidenciarão stress devido a falta de água e obterão todos os nutrientes que necessitam a partir do composto."}]},{"head":"Prevenção e controlo/luta contra a erosão","index":58,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":122,"text":"O emprego do composto na prevenção da erosão está fortemente ligado com o melhoramento da fertilidade do solo. Um solo fértil é geralmente menos susceptível à erosão, na medida em que a matéria orgânica mantém o solo coeso. Para além disso, o composto usado como cobertura do solo contraria a erosão causada pela chuva. Ver o Agrodok no 11: 'Luta anti-erosiva nas regiões tropicais', para mais informação sobre o papel da matéria orgânica quanto à redução da erosão do solo.  Recolha da água que se escoa Uma medida para lutar contra a erosão com o auxílio do composto é de cavar regos bem drenados, paralelos às curvas de nível do terreno e enchê-los de composto para recolher a água de escoamento superficial."}]},{"head":"Composto destinado a alimentos para peixes","index":59,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"O composto que se utiliza na fertilização do tanque constitui um bom alimento para os peixes."},{"index":2,"size":20,"text":"A alimentação natural que ocorre no tanque de peixes compreende plantas minúsculas (algas ou fitoplâncton) e animais também minúsculos (zooplâncton)."},{"index":3,"size":60,"text":"Deita-se o composto (ou estrume) no tanque como uma alimentação indirecta para os peixes, o que acelera o crescimento de plâncton na água. Muitas das espécies de peixes, como sejam a Tilapia sp. e a Carpa sp. (Cyprinidae) alimentam-se de plâncton. De um modo geral os peixes reagem bem à adição de fertilizante e o seu número pode aumentar consideravelmente."}]},{"head":"Maneio do tanque","index":60,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":47,"text":"A água no tanque deve ser de boa qualidade para que os peixes possam ser saudáveis e cresçam bem. Para tal os peixes necessitam de oxigénio que é produzido, sobretudo, pelas algas que flutuam na água. Se houver muitas algas na água esta apresentará uma cor verde."},{"index":2,"size":101,"text":"É importante utilizar-se uma boa prática de fertilização de forma a se manter a qualidade da água e uma boa quantidade de alimentação para os peixes que ocorre naturalmente na água. A quantidade de fertilizante que se deve acrescentar à água depende do número de peixes existentes no tanque. Caso se acrescente uma pequena quantidade de fertilizante, crescerá pouca alimentação e a produção de peixe também será pequena. Ao contrário, se o fertilizante utilizado for demasiado ou aplicado irregularmente, tal pode originar uma carência de oxigénio (as algas e o plâncton usam o oxigénio durante a noite) e o peixe morrerá."},{"index":3,"size":49,"text":"Aplicação de composto no tanque de peixes Deve-se aplicar o composto pelo menos uma vez por semana, mas o melhor seria fazê-lo todos os dias. É importante espalhar o composto uniformemente sobre o tanque para assegurar um uso óptimo pelas algas e plâncton para que estas se possam multiplicar."},{"index":4,"size":39,"text":"Na prática nos tanques de peixes utiliza-se, frequentemente, material orgânico grosseiro. Muitos destes materiais começam a decompor-se, usando grandes quantidades de oxigénio da água. Neste caso é muito provável que os peixes não possam obter oxigénio suficiente e sufocarão."},{"index":5,"size":112,"text":"A utilização de composto em vez de materiais residuais orgânicos grosseiros é vantajosa visto que o composto é um material que já está decomposto. Quando se acrescenta composto num tanque de peixes o conteúdo de oxigénio não baixa muito. Existem duas razões que explicam isso: o composto apenas utiliza uma pequena quantidade de oxigénio e acrescentar composto conduz a um substancial crescimento de fitoplâncton que produz oxigénio. Devido a estes efeitos positivos, pode-se acrescentar à água, sem dificuldades, muito mais composto do que resíduos orgânicos frescos e poder-se-á produzir mais peixe. O composto também pode ser directamente consumido por alguns tipos de peixe, o que não se passa em relação aos fertilizantes."},{"index":6,"size":34,"text":"Concluindo: o composto parece ser um dos alimentos ideais para a criação intensiva de peixes em tanques. Não se verificará falta de oxigénio e, deste modo, pode-se acrescentar mais alimento, podendo obter-se maiores rendimentos."},{"index":7,"size":30,"text":"Um tanque com um bom maneio e fertilização pode suster 3 kg de peixe por 100 m² por dia. Se bem que na prática esta quantidade seja normalmente mais baixa."},{"index":8,"size":67,"text":"Em alguns lugares a compostagem é feita num canto do tanque. Este método é menos eficaz do que preparar o composto em terra firme e espalhá-lo, então, posteriormente em todo o tanque. A utilização deste último método garante uma produção piscícola mais elevada, provavelmente porque os nutrientes constantes numa pilha de composto que se encontra num canto do tanque não ficam bem espalhados por todo o tanque."},{"index":9,"size":60,"text":"Alimentação para peixes obtida a partir da compostagem de jacintos de água Alimentos para peixes obtidos a partir da compostagem de jacintos de água, (ver secção 6.1), excrementos de animais e de palha de arroz e dados à Tilápia do Nilo podem resultar numa produção de 360 kg por 100 m². Utiliza-se a seguinte receita para se preparar o composto:"},{"index":10,"size":73,"text":"? Seque ao sol 1.000 kg de jacintos de água até que o seu peso se reduza aproximadamente a 400 kg. Em seguida misture bem o jacinto de água seco e espalhe-o sobre uma camada de palha de arroz de 3 x 3 m. Faça uma pilha de composto com cerca de um metro de altura e espete nela as canas de bambu de modo que o ar possa circular dentro da pilha."},{"index":11,"size":47,"text":"? Remexa/revolva bem a pilha de composto cada duas semanas, para virar a posição do material da pilha: o material do fundo passa para cima e o de cima para baixo. Depois de dois meses o composto estará pronto para ser espalhado sobre o tanque de peixes."},{"index":12,"size":50,"text":"Para se poder colher 25 kg de Tilápia do Nilo num tanque de cerca de 100 m2 é necessário alimentar o peixe diariamente com 2 kg de composto, durante um período de seis meses. Para se obter essa quantidades serão necessárias quatro pilhas de composto com as medidas já indicadas."},{"index":13,"size":49,"text":"Ver igualmente: Agrodok no 15: 'Piscicultura feita em pequena escala na água doce' para uma informação mais geral sobre criação de peixes em tanques e, Agrodok no 21: 'A piscicultura dentro de um sistema de produção integrado' para uma informação mais pormenorizada sobre formas integradas de alimentação de peixes."}]},{"head":"Estrume líquido e chás de plantas","index":61,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":63,"text":"O objectivo do fabrico de estrume líquido e de chás de plantas é de poder fornecer à cultura, de modo rápido, uma alimentação natural adequada, durante a época de crescimento. O estrume líquido e os chás de plantas estão prontos a ser usados depois de duas a três semanas, enquanto que em relação ao composto este período é de mais de seis semanas."},{"index":2,"size":59,"text":"O estrume líquido e os chás de plantas podem parecer desnecessários num sistema orgânico aonde a ênfase se coloca na alimentação do solo e não das plantas. Contudo, há ocasiões em que a única resposta é o uso de estrume líquido, como no caso de haver danos nas raízes e que estas não possam absorver nutrientes em quantidades suficientes."},{"index":3,"size":18,"text":"Alimentos líquidos provenientes de estrume animal ou uma planta como consolda/solda ou confrei (Symphytum spp.) fornecem rapidamente nutrientes."},{"index":4,"size":21,"text":"Um alimento líquido também é essencial quando as plantas crescem num ambiente restrito de um vaso ou de um saco plástico."}]},{"head":"Como fazer estrume líquido e chás de plantas","index":62,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Nota: as instruções para os chás de plantas começam no número 3."}]},{"head":"Materiais e equipamento necessários:","index":63,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":95,"text":"? Estrume -de galinha ou de coelho ou uma mistura de ambos ? Um recipiente -um tambor ou metade de um tambor (balde) se se trata de pequenas quantidades ? Um saco resistente ou um saco de juta ? Uma estaca e corda Ponha o estrume de galinha ou o estrume de coelho (ou uma mistura de ambos) num saco resistente ou num saco de juta com uma quantidade de 50 kg de estrume para um tambor de água. Encha-o de tal maneira que seja possível atar muito bem a parte de cima do saco."},{"index":2,"size":67,"text":"Pendure o saco que contém o estrume num recipiente cheio de água limpa. O saco deve estar muito bem atado com a corda e pendurado num pau forte colocado na parte de cima do tambor. Depois de 15 dias a água tem uma aparência escura e a maioria dos alimentos da planta (nutrientes) que se encontram no estrume terão sido dissolvidos na água. Retire, então, o saco."},{"index":3,"size":37,"text":"Dilua o conteúdo do tambor numa proporção de 1:2 (a uma parte de estrume líquido ou de chás de plantas acrescente duas partes de água limpa). Espalhe sobre o caule da cultura e não sobre as folhas."},{"index":4,"size":96,"text":"Regue a cultura com este estrume líquido ou o chá de plantas durante duas ou três semanas. Tem um efeito eficaz como adubação de cobertura após o plantio da cultura em que se usou composto. Faz-se bokashi fermentando material orgânico quer ao ar livre, quer num espaço fechado. Ao ar livre a mistura entra em contacto com o oxigénio existente no ar, chamando-se a isto uma situação aeróbia. Pode-se comparar com um processo normal de compostagem. Quando a mistura de fermentação se encontra isolada do ar (por exemplo, em sacos plásticos) é chamada uma situação anaeróbia."},{"index":5,"size":40,"text":"A matéria orgânica para a fermentação do bokashi necessita de ingredientes especialmente seleccionados (farelo de arroz, farelo de trigo, farinha de peixe, etc.), a que se juntam materiais residuais orgânicos. O bokashi foi desenvolvido no Japão pelo Prof. Teruo Higa."},{"index":6,"size":61,"text":"O bokashi comparado com o composto O processo de fermentação do bokashi conserva melhor os nutrientes existentes no material orgânico que o processo de decomposição que se efectua durante a compostagem. A razão pela qual os nutrientes se conservam melhor é que durante o processo de fermentação as temperaturas não se tornam tão elevadas como durante o processo normal de compostagem."},{"index":7,"size":81,"text":"No processo anaeróbio de fermentação do bokashi as temperaturas sobem até aproximadamente 40 o C , enquanto que no processo aeróbio e durante o processo normal de compostagem, as temperaturas podem elevar-se até cerca de 70 o C e, possivelmente ainda mais altas. Isto implica que no processo anaeróbio, a conservação ainda é melhor do que no processo aeróbio. Contudo, quando se utiliza o processo anaeróbio é difícil preparar grandes quantidades de bokashi, sendo, portanto, mais fácil utilizar o processo aeróbio."},{"index":8,"size":44,"text":"Pode-se preparar bokashi num período curto: 6-8 dias num clima tropical e 2-3 semanas num clima mais temperado. Pode ser aplicado directamente no solo depois de ser preparado, ainda que seja melhor esperar 14 dias antes de se proceder ao plantio ou à sementeira."}]},{"head":"Microorganismos Eficazes","index":64,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":60,"text":"O aspecto mais importante da preparação do bokashi é a adição de Microorganismos Eficazes (ME), quer dizer, uma misturada preparada artificialmente a partir de microorganismos do solo, úteis. Quando são aplicados estes microorganismos eficazes assentam no solo e expulsam os microorganismos prejudiciais. Tal melhora a eficácia da matéria orgânica no solo, alcançando-se, deste modo, uma melhoria da fertilidade do solo."},{"index":2,"size":84,"text":"Os Microorganismos Eficazes podem ser comprados aos institutos onde se prepara e investiga o bokashi. Na secção \"Endereços úteis\" poderá obter os endereços dessas instituições. Caso não possa obter uma mistura de ME também é possível utilizar terra, de preferência solo fresco e húmido, proveniente de uma floresta. Este solo contém uma grande quantidade de microorganismos e muito provavelmente não se encontra poluído com produtos químicos. Embora este solo não seja tão eficaz como os ME seleccionados artificialmente, também poderá proporcionar um resultado adequado."}]},{"head":"Os materiais orgânicos","index":65,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":77,"text":"Na preparação do bokashi pode ser utilizado qualquer tipo de matéria orgânica. Utilize pelo menos três materiais diferentes de modo a estimular a diversidade de microorganismos. É importante dispor-se de uma combinação de materiais que ou bem têm uma grande quantidade de azoto (uma razão C:N baixa) ou de carbono (uma razão C:N alta). Pode-se melhorar a qualidade do bokashi acrescentando-se-lhe con-chas do mar, finamente trituradas (farinha de cal) e minerais de bentonite argilosa à mistura fermentada."}]},{"head":"Fontes de Azoto (N)","index":66,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"O estrume de galinhas constitui uma boa fonte de N (azoto). Também se podem usar outros tipos de estrume animal (estrume de gado bovino, estrume de gado asinino, estrume de pombos, etc.), embora a quantidade tenha que ser multiplicada por 1½ ."},{"index":2,"size":48,"text":"A farinha de peixe, farinha de ossos, ou plantas que fixam o azoto, (plantas leguminosas) como sejam mucuna, crotalária e folhas de leucaena, etc. constituem fontes alternativas de azoto. Estas plantas têm que ser secas e cortadas em pedacinhos antes de serem usadas. Também contêm outros nutrientes importantes."}]},{"head":"Fontes de Carbono (C)","index":67,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":101,"text":"O farelo de arroz é uma boa fonte de carbono. Também contém hidrato de carbono e fósforo. O farelo de arroz é um elemento importante porque é um bom estimulante para a fermentação e alimenta bem os microorganismos. Em vez de farelo de arroz pode-se utilizar outros tipos de farelo como seja farelo de trigo e farelo de milho ou culturas de raízes/tubérculos como sejam a mandioca, inhame ou batata. É necessário cortá-las em pedacinhos pequenos, antes de as utilizar. Como alternativa também se pode usar frutas como, por exemplo, banana. Palha, ervas daninhas e serradura também são fontes de C."}]},{"head":"Carvão","index":68,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":58,"text":"O carvão é um material poroso que aumenta a capacidade de retenção de nutrientes e melhora a estrutura do solo. Também actua como um \"porto de abrigo\" para os microorganismos. Caso não se possa obter carvão poderá utilizar palha, laminária (alga/sargaço seco) ou as cascas dos feijões. Como alternativa também se podem utilizar as cascas de arroz torradas."}]},{"head":"Não utilize cinzas, pois estas diminuem a actividade dos microorganismos.","index":69,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":59,"text":"Resíduos de cana de açúcar Se se acrescentar resíduos de cana de açúcar (bagaço) ao bokashi assegura-se um bom fornecimento de ar e retenção de água durante o processo de fermentação. Também retém os nutrientes, como sejam o azoto. Como materiais alternativos podem-se empregar palhas de arroz, cascas de café, aparas de madeira, sabugos de milho e erva seca."}]},{"head":"Microorganismos Eficazes","index":70,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":62,"text":"O bokashi antigo contém uma grande quantidade de microorganismos, sendo estes microorganismos que iniciam o processo de fermentação. A mistura de Microorganismos Eficazes preparada artificialmente pode ser comprada nos institutos cujo endereço se encontra na secção \"Endereços Úteis\". Caso prepare bokashi pela primeira vez e não consiga comprar a mistura de ME, utilize solo limpo e húmido, de preferência de uma floresta."}]},{"head":"Melaço","index":71,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":41,"text":"O melaço é um produto secundário da produção açucareira. Contém uma grande quantidade de energia e estimula o processo de fermentação ao alimentar os microorganismos. Como alternativa pode-se usar açúcar ou mel, mas, evidentemente, que estes produtos são muito mais caros."}]},{"head":"Humidade","index":72,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":42,"text":"A produção de bokashi requer pouca água. Se o bokashi estiver muito húmido exala mau cheiro. Para a receita que é dada na próxima secção necessita-se de 20 litros de água. A quantidade necessária também depende do teor de humidade dos materiais."},{"index":2,"size":50,"text":"O teor de humidade deve situar-se entre os 30-40%. É possível controlar o teor de humidade ao espremer um punhado da mistura. Não deve escorrer água quando se aperta a mistura, mas esta deve manter-se como uma unidade simples, sem se esfarelar. Contudo, caso se lhe toque, deve esfarelar-se facilmente "}]},{"head":"Preparação de bokashi","index":73,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":71,"text":"Se necessitar de preparar grandes quantidades é mais fácil usar o processo aeróbio. Para a preparação de pequenas quantidades é aconselhável usar o processo anaeróbio, pois desta maneira são retidos mais nutrientes. Na receita que a seguir apresentamos, especificam-se as matérias orgânicas. Fazendo uso da informação que se encontra contida na última secção poderá variar estes materiais e experimentar até encontrar a melhor maneira de preparar bokashi na sua situação específica."}]},{"head":"Método aeróbio","index":74,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":13,"text":"Eis uma receita para a preparação aeróbia de bokashi (proveniente da Costa Rica):"}]},{"head":"Materiais necessários:","index":75,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":372,"text":"? 1 saco de estrume de galinha (material rico em azoto) ? 1 saco de farelo de arroz (material rico em carbono) ? 1 saco de carvão, pedaços pequenos 1-2 cm) ? 1 saco com resíduos de cana de açúcar ? 2 litros de melaço ? ½ saco de bokashi ou de composto (contendo ME) ? 2 sacos de solo limpo ? água Mistura dos materiais: Ë importante mexer-se bem os materiais. Uma boa maneira de fazê-lo é: ? Corte todos os materiais em pedacinhos pequenos e ponha-os em pilhas. ? Dissolva o melaço em água (20 l); se o aquecer pode dissolvê-lo mais facilmente. ? Espalhe uma camada de um dos materiais: use um terço da quantidade da receita para uma camada. ? Regue com um regador a camada com a solução de melaço. ? Ponha uma outra camada com um material diferente (1/3 da quantidade) por cima da primeira camada. ? Regue igualmente esta camada com a solução de melaço. ? Continue este processo até que já não haja mais materiais. ? Quando tiver uma pilha de materiais húmidos, revolva de novo a pilha, para que os materiais fiquem bem misturados. ? Por fim faça uma pilha de cerca de 50 cm de altura. Em áreas mais frias isto pode ser um pouco mais alto para se conseguir obter temperaturas suficientemente elevadas na pilha (nas áreas mais quentes a pilha pode ser um pouco mais baixa, para se obter um efeito oposto). ? Cubra a pilha com sacos de juta ou esteiras. Não use sacos plásticos, pois o ar não pode passar. ? Revolva a pilha cada 12 horas. Revolva-a de tal maneira que o material que se encontrava na parte de fora fique no seu interior e viceversa. Se a pilha estiver muito quente, revolva-a várias vezes para baixar a temperatura. Depois de um dia a mistura apresentará uma cor castanha e se a destapar provavelmente verá que tem fungos. ? Depois do terceiro dia destape a pilha para permitir que a mistura seque. A cor mudará nessa altura de castanho para amarelada. A pilha terá um cheiro agri-doce. ? Continue a revolver a pilha cada 12 horas, para permitir que seque mais rapidamente. Seque muito bem o bokashi."}]},{"head":"Tempo de preparação","index":76,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":40,"text":"Nas áreas tropicais o bokashi preparado de forma aeróbia está pronto depois de 5-7 dias. Nos climas temperados levará mais tempo, possivelmente entre 2 a 3 semanas. A cor que apresenta é cinzenta e a textura é fina e pulverulenta."}]},{"head":"Armazenamento","index":77,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":25,"text":"Deve-se utilizar imediatamente, de preferência, mas também pode ser guardado em sacos durante, aproximadamente, 3 meses, num lugar seco e bem ventilado, fora do sol."}]},{"head":"Preparação anaeróbia","index":78,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":12,"text":"Se necessitar de preparar apenas pequenas quantidades recomenda-se usar o processo anaeróbio."},{"index":2,"size":46,"text":"O início da preparação, a mistura e a rega são iguais aos do processo aeróbio. Depois de se fazer a mistura, é necessário empacotá-la num grande saco plástico negro ou num recipiente/contentor que tem que ser fechado hermeticamente. Não o coloque directamente à luz do sol."},{"index":3,"size":41,"text":"O bokashi está pronto quando exala um cheiro doce de material fermentado (cheiro a cerveja ou a vinho) e quando nele crescerem fungos. Se o bokashi tiver um mau cheiro, a podre, não está bem fermentado e não deve ser usado."}]},{"head":"Tempo de preparação","index":79,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":21,"text":"O tempo necessário para a fermentação é de 3 -4 dias nos climas tropicais e de 7-8 dias nos climas temperados."},{"index":2,"size":17,"text":"Caso a produção de bokashi não for bem sucedida experimente vários tipos de materiais e diferentes quantidades."}]},{"head":"Aplicação do bokashi","index":80,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":34,"text":"O bokashi é usado da mesma forma que os fertilizantes artificiais. Pode ser aplicado no solo imediatamente após a sua preparação, ainda que se deva esperar 14 dias antes de se plantar ou semear."},{"index":2,"size":30,"text":"Aplique o bokashi no solo a uma profundidade de 5-10 cm. É importante cobrir o bokashi com solo na medida em que os microrganismos não sobrevivem aos raios do sol."},{"index":3,"size":108,"text":"? Em relação à maioria das hortícolas é suficiente aplicar bokashi três vezes durante a época de crescimento. Aplique um punhado (30 gramas) no solo, 15 -20 cm afastado das raízes das plantas. ? Para além da utilização de bokashi nas hortaliças, o seu uso também é benéfico nas plantações de café, tabaco e bananas. ? Para as culturas nos campos é suficiente uma média de 100 -200 gramas de bokashi por metro quadrado. Se o solo tiver um baixo teor de matéria orgânica, adicione mais bokashi. A aplicação máxima é de 1 kg por metro quadrado. ? O bokashi também pode ser aplicado nos covachos de plantação."},{"index":4,"size":10,"text":"Cubra o bokashi com solo antes de plantar as plântulas."},{"index":5,"size":30,"text":"O bokashi não deve nunca estar em contacto directo com os caules ou raízes das plantas: depois de o aplicar no solo, aguarde 14 dias antes de plantar ou semear."}]},{"head":"O seu próprio fertilizante orgânico","index":81,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":54,"text":"Este capítulo aborda as vantagens e inconvenientes de preparar o seu próprio fertilizante orgânico. Nem sempre as vantagens e inconvenientes são evidentes: o que pode ser um inconveniente numa situação, é uma vantagem numa outra situação. No fim deste capítulo, apresentase uma lista de controlo para servir de guião para poder tomar uma decisão."}]},{"head":"Vantagens e inconvenientes","index":82,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":124,"text":"Vantagens ? Preparar o seu próprio fertilizante é muito mais barato do que ter que comprá-lo. ? Reutilizam-se os resíduos orgânicos contendo nutrientes, que de outra forma ficariam a apodrecer e não se aproveitariam os nutrientes. ? A aplicação de fertilizante orgânico melhora a estrutura do solo; ? A longo prazo melhora-se a fertilidade do solo: libertam-se, gradualmente, durante um período longo, os nutrientes provenientes do fertilizante orgânico. ? A capacidade do solo para retenção de água é melhorada devido ao aumento da matéria orgânica. ? O fertilizante orgânico contém muitos elementos traço que normalmente não se encontram nos fertilizantes químicos. ? As plantas que crescem num solo organicamente fertilizado podem ser mais resistentes às doenças que nos solos adubados apenas com fertilizantes químicos/artificiais."}]},{"head":"Inconvenientes","index":83,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"? A preparação de composto, estrume líquido ou bokashi exige muito trabalho e consome muito tempo."},{"index":2,"size":78,"text":"? Não é em qualquer lado que é possível preparar fertilizante orgânico, tal depende da disponibilidade de espaço e materiais, das condições locais e de outros factores. ? A aplicação de composto pode aumentar o crescimento de ervas daninhas e de doenças na cultura. ? Uma pilha de composto atrai animais nocivos como seja, insectos, ratazanas, ratos e até mesmo cobras! ? A concentração dos nutrientes disponíveis nos fertilizantes orgânicos é consideravelmente mais baixa que nos fertilizantes químicos."}]},{"head":"Prós e contras da preparação de fertilizantes orgânicos","index":84,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":28,"text":"Antes de iniciar a produção de fertilizantes orgânicos é importante verificar alguns pontos de modo a aumentar as possibilidades de ser bem sucedido e de se evitar desilusões."},{"index":2,"size":27,"text":"? Quais são as disponibilidades de tempo e energia para investir na produção/preparação de fertilizante orgânico? ? Quais serão as vantagens de se dedicar a este trabalho?"},{"index":3,"size":72,"text":"(Compare preços de fertilizantes artificiais, veja o estado da fertilidade do solo, etc.). ? Qual é a disponibilidade de material orgânico para preparar fertilizante orgânico? (Considere as possibilidades de procurar activamente restos orgânicos ou de arbustos dos quais se podem cortar folhas) ? No caso de trabalhar com agricultores, será que eles estão motivados para aplicar um novo método? ? Existem alternativas mais fáceis e mais baratas como seja a adubação verde?"},{"index":4,"size":25,"text":"Todos estes aspectos, e outros mais, têm que ser considerados. Portanto, recomenda-se vigorosamente que se discuta estes assuntos antes de se iniciar com esta actividade."}]},{"head":"Questões práticas servindo de guião","index":85,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":16,"text":"As seguintes questões práticas podem servir de guião quando se inicia a preparação de fertilizantes orgânicos:"},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"? O que é necessário aprender sobre a preparação destes fertilizantes? ? Onde se deve colocar a pilha de composto? ? Qual o tamanho que a pilha pode/dever ter? ? Qual a quantidade de material disponível e de que tipo? ? Existe um fornecimento regular de material orgânico ? ? Qual é a qualidade do material orgânico? ? Quem é que se encarregará de fazer o trabalho? ? Quanto tempo se pode despender nesta actividade? ? Durante períodos em que há uma grande quantidade de material orgânico, existe tempo para usá-lo? ? Qual a quantidade de fertilizante orgânico que pode ou deve ser produzido? ? Como/de que maneira se poderá utilizar o fertilizante orgânico? ? Existem quaisquer tabus ou outros aspectos sócio-económicos que dificultem a utilização de certos tipos de material orgânico?"},{"index":3,"size":22,"text":"Quando iniciar a preparação do seu próprio fertilizante orgânico, dedique tempo a fazer experimentações e também conceda tempo ao primeiro processo experimental."},{"index":4,"size":36,"text":"A primeira vez pode ser que as coisas não se passem do modo que deviam, mas desta maneira é possível experimentar e descobrir o método mais conveniente na sua situação específica. Não espere milagres de imediato! "}]}],"figures":[{"text":" um fertilizante orgânico que pode ser fabricado na exploração agrícola a um custo bastante baixo. O insumo mais importante é o trabalho do agricultor. O composto é material orgânico em decomposição, tal como sejam resíduos de culturas e/ou estrume animal. A maior parte destes componentes/ingredientes pode ser facilmente obtida dentro da própria exploração. "},{"text":"Figura 3 : Figura 3: Telhado simples por cima de três pilhas de composto(Mira Louis)     "},{"text":"Figura 6 : Figura 6: O processo de aquecimento ou Método deBlocos (Fonte: HDRA)     "},{"text":"Figura 7 : Figura 7: Processo de compostagem em fossos "},{"text":"Figura 10 : Figura 10: Boma/curral e um local com composto (Fonte: KIOF e HDRA) "},{"text":"Figura 11 : Figura 11: Jacinto de água "},{"text":"Figura 14 : Figura 14: Barril adaptado para fabricação de composto "},{"text":"Figura 17 : Figura 17: Plantação de árvores: o composto é posto no buraco/cova no qual a árvore é plantada. Cubra o composto de novo com o solo proveniente do fundo da cova, para evitar que o composto resseque. Ver, também o Agrodok no. 19: Propagação e plantio de árvores. "},{"text":"Figura 15 : Figura 15: Um viveiro de plantas feito com composto "},{"text":"Figura 18 : Figura 18: Preparação de estrume líquido (Fonte: KIOF) "},{"text":"Figura 19 : Figura 19: Preparação de chás de plantas (Fonte: KIOF) "},{"text":"Figura 20 : Figura 20: Controlando o teor de humidade "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "}],"sieverID":"9df97d40-f487-43bf-93db-4528ee6b304a","abstract":"Esta publicação foi compilada com o objectivo de fornecer informação de como o composto pode ser aplicado nas regiões tropicais e subtropicais. Fornece-se uma descrição simples dos processos que têm lugar no solo e durante a compostagem e são dadas sugestões práticas de como fabricar uma pilha de composto. São apresentados vários métodos e aplicações de compostagem e também se agrega uma lista bibliográfica com informação suplementar.Aconselhamos o leitor a ler, primeiramente, todo o Agrodok para obter uma impressão geral antes de procurar informação específica. Teremos muita satisfação em receber quaisquer observações, informação complementar/comentários ou questões sobre esta publicação ou assuntos com ela relacionados.Agradecemos a Mira Louis por ter preparado materiais para esta 5a. edição revista. Estendemos os nossos agradecimentos ao KIOF, Instituto Queniano de Agricultura Orgânica em Nairobi, e à Associação de Investigação Henry Doubleday Research Association (HDRA) em Coventry, UK, pois ambas as instituições nos proporcionaram informação valiosa para melhorar este Agrodok. Os seus endereços encontram-se na contracapa deste livro. Esperamos que a informação aqui fornecida seja de grande utilidade para um elevado número de pessoas."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d61844f57f3b3783b42528f2aa1b84f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/5a41e70e-7104-416e-80ec-79aa9441261c/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"Barriers to successful climate change policy implementation in Tanzania Findings from a desk review and exploratory studies in Lushoto, Kilolo and Bagamoyo Districts, Tanzania","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The agricultural sector is central to Tanzania's economy, natural resources and livelihoods. Climate change and climate variability presents adverse effects to the growth of the agriculture sector and the livelihoods of 80 percent of Tanzanians (MAFC, 2014). Owing to this, the Tanzania government has ratified several climate-resilient strategies, policies and plans geared towards climate adaptation and mitigation. This Info Note assesses how and to what extent climate change concerns have been mainstreamed in the existing and most recent national strategies, policies, plans and legal legislations of Tanzania. Furthermore, the Info Note focuses on the climate change formulation levels from national to local, and implications on policy implementation in Tanzania."}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"The findings presented in this Info Note are based on a desk review of national level documents that include seven strategies, five policies, two development plans and a legal legislation (see details in Table 1). Special attention has been paid to the inclusion gaps of climate change in policy formulation and implementation processes, and budget provisions for climate change. In addition, twenty semi-structured interviews were conducted with agricultural extension officers in Lushoto and Kilolo districts, which are CCAFS research sites. The interviews explored (i) how the officials perceived climate change, (ii) the activities being done in response to climate change impacts, (iii) the policies that support climate change, and (iv) whether the activities were related to any particular policies. Poor communication and information sharing networks in Tanzania can limit the benefits to be derived from REDD+"}]},{"head":"National Guidelines for Mainstreaming Gender into Climate Change Related Policies, Plans and Strategies (2012) Inclusion of gender considerations into climate change-related policies, plans and strategies","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"Provide climate change agents with a systematic approach to mainstream gender in climate change related policies and programs Failed to take into consideration that the effects of climate change will not only vary between men and women, it will also vary across different groups owing to their socio-economic status, such as education levels, income and asset status, religion and age No social inclusion of youth and persons with disabilities in the mainstreaming process"}]},{"head":"Guidelines for Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into National Sectorial Policies, Plans and Programmes of Tanzania (2012) Incorporation of climate change adaptation strategies into national development policies and plans","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Provide practical guidance on how institutions and sectors integrate climate change adaptation into sectorial policies, plans and programmes","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":221,"text":"Budget directed to implementation of the guidelines is not sufficient and more resources are expected to be mobilized from international and regional funds, however there is no indication or plans on how to mobilize funds The National Environmental Policy of 1997 and Environment Management Act of 2004 are the overarching policy documents responsible for creating and maintaining the institutional structures and mandates through which government entities are positioned and mandated to respond to climate change concerns (Daly et al., 2015). According to the 2004 Environmental Management Act, the Ministry in charge of the Environment (which is currently under the Vice President's Office takes on the national leadership role on climate change, thus setting the course of subsequent action on climate change in Tanzania (Yanda et al., 2013;Daly et al., 2015). Consequently, climate change issues are addressed using the existing environmental institutional framework. At the national level, the National Climate Change Steering Committee ensures coordinated actions and participation of various actors, sectors and institutions in addressing climate change concerns. While at the local level, there are officially appointed Environmental Management Officers and established Environmental Committees responsible for climate change adaptation. Although the Tanzania government has put in place several strategies, policies, plans and has legal legislation to tackle climate change issues, there are existing barriers to policy implementation that are identified below."}]},{"head":"National Plan and objective Climate Change Provisions Climate Change Mainstreaming Gaps","index":6,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Climate change capacity and knowledge gaps","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":185,"text":"Climate change institutional capacity and knowledge at national and local levels among various officials is still very weak. According to the interviews conducted with officials, adaptation responses are considerably low owing to limited knowledge and skills to deal with climate change impacts. For example, one key informant stated, \"We need people with capacity on how to address climate change and more so we need people who really understand and can explain in a very simple language to the farmers what climate change is and also we require The existing climate change policy information and communication dissemination methods should be more user-friendly. One respondent elaborated this point well when asked whether they understood what climate change was: \"for example if we say climate change issues, it's a book with almost 100 pages, so not many people would read about that. If there is a soft or a small version of that, people can read\". Further, interviews revealed that most of the local people do not understand climate change policies because the information provided is in English and majority of the local people are proficient in Kiswahili."}]},{"head":"Mainstreaming climate change concerns","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":168,"text":"Currently all climate change concerns are mainstreamed within the context of the 1997 National Environmental Policy and the 2004 Environmental Management Act. According to a key informant, \"We don't have a clear climate change policy in our country, but we have the Environ-mental Management Act under section 75 which gives power to the minister responsible for environment to take measures to address the issue of climate change\". It is only until recently (2012), that the Tanzanian Government launched the National Climate Change Strategy, in response to the growing concern of the negative impacts of climate change. This is the main strategy document that ensures effective implementation of climate change in Tanzania and also acts as a guide to other sector strategies. The formulation and implementation process of the National Climate Change Strategy is also based on the National Environmental ACT of 2004. The Strategy is yet to develop a standalone monitoring and evaluation framework and therefore relies on the current government standard monitoring and evaluation processes and procedures."},{"index":2,"size":104,"text":"However, residing the power to deal with climate change with the minister of environment and housing climate change issues in the Vice President's Office implies a disconnect from the Ministry of Agriculture, which has the most vulnerable sector affecting livelihoods of the majority of Tanzanians. Ministry of Agriculture, Livestock and Fisheries, seeing the need to address climate change issues in the sector developed the Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan in 2014, which aims to improve agricultural land and water management; accelerate uptake of climate smart agriculture; reduce impacts of climate-related shocks through risk management; and strengthen knowledge and systems to target climate action (MAFC, 2014)."},{"index":3,"size":128,"text":"A few of the national policies have failed to explicitly address the concerns pertaining to climate change and its adverse impacts on various economic sectors. The national policy documents reviewed were drafted in the late 1990s and early 2000s and climate change concerns were not recognized as a critical challenge to national development. These policies include: National Land Policy of 1995, National Forest Policy of 1998, National fisheries Policy of 1998 and National Water Policy of 2002. According to one key informant official, \"Climate change issues were acknowledged in the 90s and only gained precedence in Tanzania a few years after that and that is why the National Environment Policy of 1997 focused more on environmental issues and missed an opportunity to incorporate plans for climate change adaptation\"."},{"index":4,"size":121,"text":"Discussions with district level officials revealed that they lack guidelines that are helpful in implementing climate change policies. Policies are not easily enforceable as one official said when asked about the challenges faced with policy implementation, \"Yes we have the National Water Policy of 2002; actually the policy is here but enforcement is the problem. That is what we still need, to enforce the implementation\". Successful implementation of climate change policy also depends on inclusion of the local people who have indigenous knowledge on climate change adaption measures. The interviews revealed that there is minimal consultation at the district and ward levels between the local people and national officials yet the policy formulation process is said to be participatory and inclusive."}]},{"head":"Budget allocation considerations","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":175,"text":"Climate change budget allocation relies on financial support from bilateral and multilateral donor arrangements, public and private sector funds. Most of climate financing in Tanzania is highly dependent on the international community. One of the key hindrances to achieving climate change adaptation is the lack of an effective and sustainable financing mechanism to direct funds for implementation of climate change action plans (Trujillo e al., 2014). The 2012 National Climate Change Strategy highlights the need for an integrated approach and coordinated working system to ensure funds made available specifically achieve the strategy objectives. To ensure effective resource and financial mobilization, the strategy will follow the government financial management guidelines and systems established under the Ministry of Finance. The strategy proposes the establishment of a National Climate Change Fund to ensure resources availability and also a special climate change window under Basket Fund to finance its implementation (MAFC, 2014). Unfortunately, the absence of an effective tracking system may make it difficult for the Tanzania government to effectively track expenditures for climate change actions (World Bank, 2015)."},{"index":2,"size":157,"text":"The 2012 National Climate Change Strategy and the 2014-2019 Agriculture Climate Resilience have failed to stipulate their actual budget costs and also explicitly indicate the expected source of the funding, hindering the effectiveness of their implementation. The 2012 National Climate Change Strategy argues that it is difficult to cost the necessary strategic actions needed to address climatic changes owing to uncertainty of climate change. The 2014-2019 Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan recognizes that with competition for the limited funds and the uncertainty of outside funding, a flexible tool is needed to build resilience and safeguard growth in the sector. An interview with a key informant in Lushoto district highlighted that the district's preparedness to address climate change or adapt to climate change was hindered by limited financial resources. According to the informant, \"Financial constraint is a big challenge because we actually need to create awareness of climate change adaptation for people all over and this requires financial support\"."},{"index":3,"size":119,"text":"According to the National Adaptation Programme of Action 2007 one of the potential barriers to its successful implementation is the limited capacity to fund adaptation objectives. It further identifies agriculture as the most vulnerable economic sector to impacts of climate change and develops climate change adaptation actions; however, implementation is curtailed because its proposed action plans have not been included in budgets by the institutions responsible for each sector. The 2012 Guidelines for Integrating Climate Change Adaptation into National Sectorial Policies, Plans and Programmes of Tanzania for financial support is through the General Budget Support, but this is not sufficient for implementation and therefore the guideline seeks to mobilize more international and regional funds, and from foundations and individuals."}]},{"head":"Inadequate institutional coordination","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":159,"text":"In accordance with the 2004 Environmental Management Act, not only is the Vice President's Office tasked with the coordination of all environmental activities, but it is also charged with coordination of all climate change activities because of the link between climate change and environmental-related concerns. The lack of clear distinction between environmental and climate change issues has understated the challenges of climate change which are considered to be broader than environment challenges. This current institutional coordination may therefore be inadequate to ensure effective implementation of climate change issues. The reliance on an institutional architecture developed to address environmental issues may not be sufficient to integrate climate change issues in the plans and programs of all the relevant sectors (Yanda et al., 2013;Trujillo et al., 2014). The 2012 National Climate Change Strategy for example, implementation process follows the institutional arrangement as provided by the National Environmental ACT of 2004 and therefore the strategy is coordinated by the Vice President's Office."},{"index":2,"size":132,"text":"Structural issues such as limited financial support, lack of technical capacity, overlapping sectorial objectives and lack of synergy between the diverse sectors has impeded efficient coordination and consequently implementation of climate change agenda. For example, the Five Year Development Plan of 2011/2012-2015/2016 recognizes that the responses towards climate change are not as effective because of the lack of an effective national climate change institutional framework to coordinate Tanzania's efforts to seek climate change finance. Poor coordination of climate change activities from the national level to the local level remains a challenge according to a key informant: \"Because there is a gap between policy formulation and implementation especially for the National Water Policy of 2002. Many things they have been told are there but on the ground, they are not very well implemented\". "}]},{"head":"Conclusions and policy recommendations","index":11,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Agriculture Climate Resilience Plan (2014-2019) Identify and respond the most urgent impacts of climate change and variability Provides a roadmap for adaptation and mitigation of climate change impacts Plan prepared with no specification of the financial re-sources availability for its implementation Five Year National Development Plan of 2011/2012-2015/2016 Aims to at transform Tanzania into a middleincome country by 2025 Creation of an institutional framework to identify, mobilize and monitor global climate finance through earmarked funding for climate adaptation and mitigation activities An institutional framework is yet to be created Policy and institutional framework for climate change The Tanzania government has and continues to undertake various efforts towards addressing the adverse impacts of climate change at the international, national and local levels. Efforts at the national level include the development of effective strategic and institutional frameworks such as the National Climate Change Strategy of 2012 and Zanzibar Climate Change Strategy of 2014 that are crucial for the enhancement of the country's climate change adaptation and mitigation agenda. The two climate change strategies aim to, among other objectives, build capacity to climate change; enhance institutional and coordination arrangements to adequately address climate change; enhance participation in climate change mitigation activities; and mobilize financial support to tackle climate change. In 2015, the Tanzania government demonstrated its commitment to climate adaptation and mitigation goals by submitting the country's Intended Nationally Determined Contributions (INDCs) to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The new climate change action plan is expected to enhance long-term resilience to the adverse impacts of climate change to sustainably secure Tanzania's productive and economic sectors. "},{"text":" new knowledge on how to tackle climate change issues\". The 2007 National Adaptation Programme of Action highlighted the limited analytical capability of local personnel to effectively analyze the threats and potential impacts of climate change to develop viable adaptation solutions, as an important potential barrier to its implementation. Interviews held with a key informant indicated that Kilolo district was not well prepared to adapt to climate change, citing lack of awareness of climate change issues, including practitioners in the district and farming communities. Similarly, a key informant from Lushoto reiterated the need for awareness creation on climate change and building capacity to address its impacts. The low level of awareness on climate change issues among key stakeholders including central government, local government authorities, civil society and private sector can be evidenced by how climate change is effectively articulated or not in the existing policy documents. According to the 2012 National Climate Change Communication Strategy, the low level of awareness is due to the absence of a national climate change communication mechanism for effective communication of climate change knowledge. "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"  "},{"text":"Table 1 : Climate change-related strategies, policies, plans and legal legislations reviewed National Policy and Objective Climate Change Provisions Climate Change Mainstreaming Gaps National Environment Policy (1997) To provide a national framework for guiding harmonized and coordinated environmental management for the improvement of the welfare of present and future generations Climate change is adequately addressed as the policy aims to enhance early warning and response systems, improve climate change capacity and strengthen the implementation of the National Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan Although this policy was at an advanced draft stage at the time of the document review, policy statements for climate change were not sufficient. There is also need to include clear implementation steps, time frames to achieve outputs, roles of implementers and budget allocation for planned climate change actions.  Advocates for an assessment of impacts of Fails to incorporate clear steps for climate Advocates for an assessment of impacts ofFails to incorporate clear steps for climate Mainstream environmental concerns into climate change and climate variations to come adaptation and mitigation action plans Mainstream environmental concerns intoclimate change and climate variations to comeadaptation and mitigation action plans decision making processes up with adaptation and mitigation options  decision making processesup with adaptation and mitigation options National Environment Policy (2016)   National Environment Policy (2016) National Land Policy (1997) Land-based management responses such as Climate change concerns are not addressed National Land Policy (1997)Land-based management responses such asClimate change concerns are not addressed Secure land tenure system for sustainable protecting land resources that include forests, among the key policy issues Secure land tenure system for sustainableprotecting land resources that include forests,among the key policy issues management of land resources rivers and water catchment areas and raising  management of land resourcesrivers and water catchment areas and raising  community awareness and understanding on  community awareness and understanding on  land and resource management can reflect  land and resource management can reflect  concerns of climate adaptation and mitigation  concerns of climate adaptation and mitigation  goals  goals National Water Policy (2002) Acknowledges that effective water No direct reference to the adverse impact of National Water Policy (2002)Acknowledges that effective waterNo direct reference to the adverse impact of Sustainable management of water resources management can address climate change climate change on water resources Sustainable management of water resourcesmanagement can address climate changeclimate change on water resources  issues  issues National Forest Policy (1998) Acknowledges that forest conservation and Climate adaptation and mitigation actions are not National Forest Policy (1998)Acknowledges that forest conservation andClimate adaptation and mitigation actions are not Sustainable management of forests management are linked to climate change addressed in the policy Sustainable management of forestsmanagement are linked to climate changeaddressed in the policy  responses  responses National Fisheries Policy (1998) Determines protection of coastal and aquatic Policy fails to take into account the severity of National Fisheries Policy (1998)Determines protection of coastal and aquaticPolicy fails to take into account the severity of Sustainable management of fisheries ecosystems to mitigate impacts of climate climate change on the fishing sector Sustainable management of fisheriesecosystems to mitigate impacts of climateclimate change on the fishing sector resources change  resourceschange National Legal Legislation Climate Change Provisions Climate Change Mainstreaming Gaps National Legal LegislationClimate Change ProvisionsClimate Change Mainstreaming Gaps Environmental Management Act (2004) All climate change concerns are directed by A stand-alone climate change coordination and Environmental Management Act (2004)All climate change concerns are directed byA stand-alone climate change coordination and Legal framework for sustainable management Section 75 of the Act implementation structure to address all aspects of Legal framework for sustainable managementSection 75 of the Actimplementation structure to address all aspects of of the environment  climate change issues separate from of the environmentclimate change issues separate from   environmental issues environmental issues National   National  "},{"text":"Strategy and Objective Climate Change Provisions Climate Change Mainstreaming Gaps National Adaptation Programme of Action (2007)  Agriculture and food security considered to be Limited budget affects implementation plans Agriculture and food security considered to beLimited budget affects implementation plans the most vulnerable sector to climate change Limited technical capability of local personnel to the most vulnerable sector to climate changeLimited technical capability of local personnel to Identify and prioritize climate change effectively analyze the threats and potential Identify and prioritize climate changeeffectively analyze the threats and potential adaptation actions impacts of climate change, to develop viable adaptation actionsimpacts of climate change, to develop viable  adaptation solutions adaptation solutions National  National  "},{"text":"Climate Change Strategy (2012)   Enhance the technical, institutional and indi- The actual cost and the source of funding to im- Enhance the technical, institutional and indi-The actual cost and the source of funding to im- Framework for climate change adaptation vidual capacity to effectively address climate plement the strategy have not been determined Framework for climate change adaptationvidual capacity to effectively address climateplement the strategy have not been determined efforts change and its impacts Lacks a monitoring and evaluation framework effortschange and its impactsLacks a monitoring and evaluation framework  "},{"text":"Zanzibar Climate Change Strategy (2014)   Provides a response framework for address- Additional financial support is needed from inter- Provides a response framework for address-Additional financial support is needed from inter- Build a climate resilient and sustainable ing vulnerability, impacts and adaptation for national, domestic, public and private to imple- Build a climate resilient and sustainableing vulnerability, impacts and adaptation fornational, domestic, public and private to imple- Zanzibar by 2030 current climate variability and future climate ment and realize priorities such as enhancing low- Zanzibar by 2030current climate variability and future climatement and realize priorities such as enhancing low-  change carbon sustainable development of Zanzibar changecarbon sustainable development of Zanzibar  "},{"text":"National Climate Change Communication Strategy (2012-2017) Effective communication of climate change in- formation at all levels  Provides a framework for delivering key An evaluation of the information and Provides a framework for delivering keyAn evaluation of the information and messages on climate change issues using communication shared has messages on climate change issues usingcommunication shared has systematic and effective approaches  systematic and effective approaches  "},{"text":"not been done to determine the effectiveness of meeting needs of target audience National Strategy for Reduced Emissions from Deforestation and Forest Degradation (REDD+ 2012) Framework for climate change mitigation in the forest sector  Facilitate effective and coordinated Facilitate effective and coordinated implementation of REDD+ related policies, implementation of REDD+ related policies, processes and activities to achieve climate processes and activities to achieve climate change goals change goals  "},{"text":" Limited institutional capacity and knowledge gaps on climate change are considered important bottlenecks. Tanzania needs to move beyond women and men and move more towards gender and social inclusion and this involves taking all the different social groups into the mainstream process and making their needs integral as well. The lack of a viable financing plan for the recent climate change strategies and plans has not only slowed down implementation plans but affected donor funding commitments. Establishment of a financial mechanism for climate change that comprehensively stipulates set budget costs and expected source of funding is imperative because it will not only attract and secure more funds but it will also ensure adaptations plans are implemented. The establishment of a national climate change finance mechanism is currently being developed.  Significant funding for climate change interventions is donor-driven which in itself is not sustainable to implement all climate change adaptation goals. Moreover, the current mobilized funds for implementation of climate change action plans are still insufficient. To boost climate change implementation plans, Tanzania will need to continue leveraging more financial support from not only the international community but also from public funds in the national budget, private sector as well as nongovernmental agencies. The establishment of a National Climate Change Fund as proposed by the government should be operationalized to ensure resources for different climate change initiatives are made available in a timely manner.  Weak institutional coordination slows down climate change adaptation plans. Strengthening institution coordination, by connecting sectoral objectives coherently and better coordination of climate change activities between national and local levels can ensure climate change actions are effectively implemented.  The majority of the policies analyzed in this research has existed for more than a decade and should be due for review. The government and other non-state actors should plan to sufficiently integrate climate change in the next review processes. Effective implementation of climate change policies Effective implementation of climate change policies will demand identification of specific capacity needs will demand identification of specific capacity needs and implementation of capacity building activities for and implementation of capacity building activities for different actor groups. Moreover, providing relevant different actor groups. Moreover, providing relevant and user-friendly information products that specifically and user-friendly information products that specifically target the needs of different users is crucial for target the needs of different users is crucial for awareness creation on climate change adaptation. awareness creation on climate change adaptation.  Social inclusion agenda in climate change policies  Social inclusion agenda in climate change policies matters. Failure to make a clear distinction of how matters. Failure to make a clear distinction of how climate change affects different social groups can climate change affects different social groups can have debilitating effect on climate adaptation and have debilitating effect on climate adaptation and resilience efforts. For effective adaptation and resilience efforts. For effective adaptation and resilience building to climate change impacts, resilience building to climate change impacts,  "}],"sieverID":"3121e5d9-bcca-4273-a494-a7e59a0102df","abstract":"The development of climate change policies, strategies and plans is a reflection of Tanzania's commitment to support resilience building actions on climate especially in the agriculture sector. However, there are still barriers that impede the implementation processes of climate change actions.  With considerably low adaptation responses to climate change issues among stakeholders, owing to limited climate change knowledge across levels, effective implementation of climate change policies will require enhancing country-level institutional capacities to strengthen the process to tackle climate change issues.  The lack of an effective national finance mechanism to direct climate funds slows down implementation of climate change policies. The national climate change strategy of Tanzania lacks a comprehensive financing plan that highlights the strategy's budgeted costs and expected source for funding to implement its climate change agenda.  Poor coordination of climate change actions from the national level to the local level remains a challenge; this disconnection between national and local governments will hinder implementation of climate change actions."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0d7c69d1fa1de6f4e9e9ff7ae447c19f","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f8ba84fd-bb70-47a3-82cd-3008e5d6f141/retrieve"},"pageCount":1,"title":"","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":134,"text":"The Honduran Rio Blanco landscape was forested until the 1980s when the landscape underwent a massive conversion to livestock production. Pockets of remnant forest exist along waterways. The landscape is nestled between several protected areas (e.g. Patuca, Sierra de Agalta and Tawahka National Parks). The Rio Platano landscape in northeastern Honduras is within the Rio Platano Biosphere Reserve, which is also home to several indigenous groups. This is landscape is dominated by broadleaf evergreen forests, bordered by agropastoral systems. The El Tuma landscape in Nicaragua has diverse land uses including coffee and cacao agroforestry systems, basic grain production and cattle ranching. Farm sizes vary from smallholders with ~5 ha to large-scale farms with 300 to 3000 ha. The Columbus Mine site in northern Nicaragua falls within an indigenous reserve and still has remaining forest."}]},{"head":"Forests, Trees and Agroforestry","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":3,"text":"Sentinel Landscapes Theme"}]},{"head":"Four LDSF sites to sample in the Nicaraguan-Honduran Sentinel Landscape","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Nicaragua team in a coffee and cacao AF plot in cluster 12 of the El Tuma landscape, about 30 km from Matagalpa."}]},{"head":"Biophysical Baseline Surveys in the Nicaragua-Honduras Sentinel Landscape by Leigh Winowiecki (CIAT) and Tor-Gunnar Vågen (ICRAF) June -July 2013","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":72,"text":"Four 100 km 2 LDSF sites were selected by local partners within the Nicaragua-Honduras sentinel landscape, based on an initial set of 13 sites representing areas with varying land cover trend trajectories (see map on the right). The sites were selected to represent forested and forest-transition landscapes and currently include protected forest reserves, indigenous reserves, forestpasture mosaics and forest-agroforestry mosaics. This is the first sentinel landscape to implement activities on the ground."},{"index":2,"size":35,"text":"Formal presentations on the CRP6 Sentinel Landscape Theme and the LDSF were given at the National Agricultural University (UNA) in Honduras and to CATIE and CIAT staff in Nicaragua. The Rio Blanco landscape in Honduras."}]},{"head":"Working with Local","index":5,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":" Partners -CATIE, National Agricultural University (UNA) in Catacamas, Foundation of Madera Verde (FMV) in La Ceiba, Institute of Forest Conservation (ICF) in Tegulcigalpa Assessing Landscape Variability Honduran team in the Brachiaria-dominated Rio Blanco landscape. UNA students were also included in the training! Tor Vagen training a participant on soil augering at the El Tuma landscape in Nicaragua. "}],"sieverID":"b4c87701-722d-4c30-bb9c-b45e7d1a2e91","abstract":"The Nicaragua team, led by Dr. Norvin Sepulveda and Dra. Jenny Ordonez of CATIE, will sample both LDSF sites in Nicaragua. The Honduran teams are led by Dr. Juan Carlos Flores of CATIE working together with Dr. Kenny Najera of UNA and Jaime Enrique Peralta of FMV. The UNA team will sample the Rio Blanco site near Catacamas and the FMV team will sample the remote Rio Platano site in the north. Field training was extended to students, local farmers, NGOs, CGIAR centres and others. Participants were trained in navigation with the GPS units to locate the randomly generated LDSF plots (160 per site); all aspects of the LDSF, including soil sample collection, tree and shrub measurements, erosion observations, among other variables; and electronic data entry. Preliminary data analysis was conducted on the newly collected data, including infiltration capacity curves and tree density estimates. Students from UNA will use the LDSF data for undergraduate theses."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e0a91e39bd05ca308ae54a4231ea9be","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/b2446283-99bf-4ad9-998e-b964bd4a697c/retrieve"},"pageCount":11,"title":"Evolution of Milk Production Systems in the tropics of Latin America and its interrelationship with markets: An analysis of the Colombian case","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"•","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":17,"text":"the investment in greater number of grazing paddocks to improve rotational systems generated higher productivity and profits"}]},{"head":"•","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"The most profitable production system in the lowlands was the dual-purpose system whereas in the highlands was the specialized dairy"},{"index":2,"size":18,"text":"• Large farms produced milk at lower costs and had higher net incomes than medium and small farms"}]},{"head":"•","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":29,"text":"During this decade, dairy farms in Colombia increased productivity and reduced production costs, but net incomes were reduced due to decreases in real terms in the price of milk"},{"index":2,"size":26,"text":"• Increasing market concentration in the hands of a few supermarket chains has changed the way milk price is determined with small farmers losing market access"}]},{"head":"Rationale","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":105,"text":"Dairying in Colombia has been a dynamic activity during the last 30 years. During the 70's grew at an annual rate of 4.7%, then it had a sustained exceptional growth of 6.5% during the 80's, and in the 90's the production of milk grew at 3.8%/yr, producing in 2000 approximately 5,486 million liters of fluid milk. This growth allowed the population to increase milk consumption from 57 liters per capita in 1970 to 130 liters in 2000, a 128% increase. The high growth in milk production obtained during the 80's was due mainly to the incorporation of thousands of herds into the dual-purpose production system."},{"index":2,"size":87,"text":"With regards to trade, Colombia is basically self-sufficient in milk production. During the 90's the country imported an average of 2% of its annual production. On the other side, Colombia has been a net exporter of beef during the last two decades, but with a clear loss of relative importance since the beginning of the 90's. In 1991 only 5% of the domestic production was exported. From then on, exports have been decreasing and since 1996 the country exports less than 1% of its total beef production."},{"index":3,"size":115,"text":"Colombia has a proven capacity to increase its milk production, and socioeconomic reasons to expand the sector. However, there is internal discussion concerning the most suitable technologies to achieve its development, and if these will be sufficient to make the livestock sector competitive within and outside the region under a scheme of open and unsubsidized economies. Available technologies vary largely with regard to their social, economic, and environmental impact, in the short and long-term. In addition, the information available in different disciplines is scattered and it is not always adequate. It is necessary to systematize it, integrate it, and interpret it so that it facilitates the decision-making process in accordance with the priorities of Colombia."},{"index":4,"size":42,"text":"Objectives of this study were to: (1) identify and quantify the effect of technologies on the increase in milk productivity in dual purpose and specialized dairy systems in different regions of Colombia;and (2) analyze the relationship between productivity, technological level, and profitability."}]},{"head":"Materials and Methods","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":108,"text":"Data came from a survey to 545 farms during the period February to November of 2000 in five regions distributed in the following way: (a) 145 farms in the lowlands of the Savannas piedmont (states of Arauca, Casanare, and Meta), (b) 116 in the lowlands of the Caribbean region (Atlantico, Guajira, Magdalena, César, Bolivar, and Córdoba states), (c) 105 in the midland of the coffee growing area (Quindío, Valle, Caldas, and Risaralda), (d) 97 in the mountain highlands of Antioquia, and (e) 82 farms in the Highlands of the Savanna Cundiboyacense (states of Cundinamarca and Boyacá). These five regions produce more than 80% of milk of the country."},{"index":2,"size":60,"text":"The survey was designed to quantify inputs and products in order to determine costs and prices at the farm level that were then utilized to (1) calculate the variable costs of feeding, labor, health, reproduction, fertilization, and irrigation; (2) calculate the gross income from milk and beef sales, and (3) characterize farms according to levels of productivity and management practices."},{"index":3,"size":67,"text":"The surveys were executed through the coordination of the faculties of animal production of the Universidad de los Llanos in the lowlands of the savannas piedmont, of Fundación San Martín in the Caribbean Region, of the Universidad de Caldas in the midland coffee growing area, and of Universidad Nacional (headquarters Medellín and Bogotá) in the mountain highlands of Antioquia and the savanna highlands of Cundinamarca and Boyacá."}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":136,"text":"Regardless of the production system utilized or the region where farms were located, the increase in competitiveness was in direct relationship with herd size. Therefore, as herd size increased, the production cost per unit of milk and beef decreased, net income per cow increased, and the annual return to capital invested improved. However, when the increase in competitiveness with associated with productivity, this trend was not observed, which suggested those highly productive farms may not necessarily be profitable (Table 1). In addition, these results confirm the fact that economies of scale exists, which has large implications for the livestock sector in Colombia because 70% of dairy farmers produce less than 100 kg of milk/day. Thus, smaller herds producing milk at higher costs have greater disadvantages to stay competitive given the scale size in which they operate."},{"index":2,"size":58,"text":"The most profitable production system in the tropical lowlands (Lanes and Caribbean regions) was the dual-purpose system whereas in the highlands (Coffee, Antique and the Cundiboyacense savannas) was the specialized dairy. As a result, Colombia should have different strategies for research and technology transfer in order to exploit more efficiently the comparative advantages of each region (Table 2)."},{"index":3,"size":138,"text":"With regards to technological change, the adoption of improved pastures generated higher profits (Table 2) as well as higher productivity (Table 3) in all five regions. In addition, the investment in greater number of grazing paddocks for a more efficient use of improved pastures to increase the quality and quantity of biomass generated higher higher productivity (Table 3) in all five regions and higher profits in all regions except the Caribbean (Table 2). The use of strategic supplementation to the basal (forage) diet had mixed effects. The best economic response to supplementation in the lowlands (ie., Llanos and Caribbean) was by offering small quantities to milking cows (ie., < 0.5 kg MS/cow/day) while in the highland regions (ie., Coffee, Antioquia and Cundiboyacense savannas) it was supplementing milking cows with moderate quantities (ie., between 0.5 and 2 kg MS/cow/day)."},{"index":4,"size":144,"text":"The use of the fertilization and irrigation increased productivity but not income, except in the Cundiboyacense savannas, which suggested the need for investing resources in research to determine the economic response at various levels of N 2 and irrigation methods based on grass species utilized (Tables 2 and 3). A management practice which increased both productivity and profitability was milking twice a day. However, it is necessary to have electricity as well as cooling equipment installed to store milk. Farms, which treated against external parasites and dewormed cattle with low frequency, increased net profits but not productivity when compared to farms that practiced these with high frequency. In addition, farms with more years of experience at producing milk had higher incomes but were not more productive (Tables 2 and 3). This suggest that investing in training could have a large impact on farmer's incomes."},{"index":5,"size":121,"text":"Comparing the evolution of the dairy sector with results from 12 years ago (Table 4), it was observed that milk productivity per hectare increased by 44% in dual purpose systems and by 14% in specialized dairy systems. This increase reduced the cost of milk production by 16% and 10% in dual purpose and specialized dairy systems, respectively, due to an increase in the stocking rate of 15% and 17% in dual purpose and specialized dairy systems, respectively, as well as to the increase in the investment in infrastructure and equipment (ie., adoption of improved pastures, greater number of grazing paddocks, mechanical grass-cutters, irrigation equipment, and other facilities), which increased by 258% in dual purpose systems and by 37% in specialized systems."},{"index":6,"size":322,"text":"However, net income per hectare during this period decreased 27% in dual purpose systems and 69% in specialized dairies due to a reduction in the producer price of milk of 22% in dual purpose systems and of 41% in specialized dairies because adjustments in the milk price were always below the inflation rate (Figure 1). On the other hand, the reduction in the price of milk to the producer was never translated in lower consumer prices because the adjustments in the consumer price were above the inflation rate (Figure 1). Thus, if producers were receiving a lower price and the consumers were paying more, who benefited? Figure 2 shows the percentage of the milk price paid by the consumer that milk producers retained. As shown, this percentage went from 70% in 1989 down to 37% in 2001. The largest portion of this difference was retained in the hands of a sector whose growth has been dramatic in the last decade: the supermarkets. Through informal interviews with managers of milk processing plants and supermarkets in the city of Cali it was determined that supermarkets request from milk plants that: (a) the first two deliveries of dairy products be free; (b) all expenses in advertising and marketing must be paid by the milk plants whose products are on sale; (c) a permanent discount of 5% compared with the price offered to small (ie., neighborhood or \"mom and pop\") stores; (d) pay leasing space inside the supermarket at USD 400/lineal meter; (e) pay an annual quota equivalent to 1.8% of estimated annual sales at the supermarket. The strategy of the milk plants has been to translate these marketing costs down to the producer. Likewise, and as a reaction to low profit margins, milk plants begun in the mid-90's to promote the installation of milk cooling tanks in farms to reduce transport and milk collection costs, favoring large and medium producers in detriment of small farms."},{"index":7,"size":78,"text":"Public and private development agencies in Colombia should internalize the fact that policies oriented to markets will increasingly be \"oriented towards supermarkets.\" If one adds that in Colombia three or four chains command up to 50% or more of the supermarket sector the conclusion is that development programs and policies will need to learn how to deal with just a handful of giant companies. This in a huge challenge, and demands an urgent review of ideas and strategies."},{"index":8,"size":93,"text":"Organizations such as FEDEGAN, the most affected by the structural change of the increase in supermarket's control of retail food, have the responsibility to monitor these price relationships and to influence in a proactive manner within the milk agroindustrial chain to facilitate negotiations with public and private entities and to present the appropriate documentation of the impact of these market practices on the livestock sector in Colombia. Otherwise, the new rules of the game could induce a massive exodus of producers in the short term and in a relatively short period of time.   "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Figure 1 . Figure 1. Trend in inflation rate and annual increments in the consumer and producer price of milk "},{"text":"Figure 2 . Figure 2. Percentage of the milk price paid by the consumer that the Colombia milk producer retains "},{"text":"Table 1 . Multivariate analysis containing the production cost of milk, net income, annual return on capital invested, and productivity of milk and beef by production system and region based on herd size. Multivariate     Annual   MultivariateAnnual analysis group Number Herd size Milk Net income return to Milk Beef analysis groupNumberHerd sizeMilkNet incomereturn toMilkBeef by production of farms (# cows) production ($/cow/yr.) capital productivity productivity by productionof farms(# cows)production($/cow/yr.)capitalproductivityproductivity system and per group  cost  invested (kg/ha/yr.) (kg/ha/yr.) system andper groupcostinvested(kg/ha/yr.)(kg/ha/yr.) region   ($/kg)  (%)   region($/kg)(%) Dual Purpose        Dual Purpose 1 108 20 0.24 -66 -0.7 894 140 1108200.24-66-0.7894140 2 21 35 0.21 58 1.3 2193 247 221350.21581.32193247 3 136 83 0.16 106 2.8 734 134 3136830.161062.8734134 4 17 78 0.20 87 2.6 5472 173 417780.20872.65472173 5 13 337 0.13 164 6.0 636 140 5133370.131646.0636140 6 5 730 0.13 82 6.1 226 78 657300.13826.122678 Specialized        Specialized dairy        dairy 1 54 17 0.25 -152 -2.9 9100 360 154170.25-152-2.99100360 2 52 24 0.26 -163 -3.7 2976 128 252240.26-163-3.72976128 3 35 37 0.20 180 4.6 15760 262 335370.201804.615760262 4 24 62 0.18 227 6.0 7970 130 424620.182276.07970130 5 31 105 0.20 57 1.7 3090 79 5311050.20571.7309079 6 13 159 0.16 413 6.2 14358 245 6131590.164136.214358245 Llanos        Llanos 1 59 19 0.19 12 0.2 1099 178 159190.19120.21099178 2 30 23 0.30 -184 -1.9 742 75 230230.30-184-1.974275 3 9 45 0.08 463 8.5 662 392 39450.084638.5662392 4 29 56 0.16 61 1.0 728 109 429560.16611.0728109 5 5 56 0.28 -182 -1.7 1463 84 55560.28-182-1.7146384 6 8 108 0.17 23 0.3 326 109 681080.17230.3326109 Caribbean        Caribbean 1 9 48 0.32 -130 -1.8 377 56 19480.32-130-1.837756 2 27 73 0.19 25 0.4 750 112 227730.19250.4750112 3 35 111 0.14 140 4.8 1028 151 3351110.141404.81028151 4 17 175 0.11 253 8.8 758 152 4171750.112538.8758152 5 10 528 0.15 84 2.9 410 116 5105280.15842.9410116 6 1 926 0.10 280 9.0 108 80 619260.102809.010880 Coffee area        Coffee area 1 13 8 0.30 -341 -3.6 9300 378 11380.30-341-3.69300378 2 28 19 0.24 -55 -0.8 1460 186 228190.24-55-0.81460186 3 18 28 0.24 -70 -0.8 10100 291 318280.24-70-0.810100291 4 13 76 0.15 115 2.8 600 157 413760.151152.8600157 5 29 85 0.19 179 2.8 3800 99 529850.191792.8380099 6 1 265 0.15 210 3.1 6400 114 612650.152103.16400114 Antioquia        Antioquia 1 14 13 0.29 -361 -9.6 8500 428 114130.29-361-9.68500428 2 14 18 0.27 -195 -4.8 2370 105 214180.27-195-4.82370105 3 36 26 0.25 48 2.7 20200 385 336260.25482.720200385 4 12 34 0.23 21 1.5 6090 153 412340.23211.56090153 5 10 113 0.20 90 1.7 2800 80 5101130.20901.7280080 6 10 117 0.20 255 5.6 14600 197 6101170.202555.614600197 Cundiboyacense        Cundiboyacense Savanas        Savanas 1 10 10 0.25 -178 -4.7 4900 197 110100.25-178-4.74900197 2 14 21 0.22 -86 -0.6 10600 263 214210.22-86-0.610600263 3 18 38 0.19 25 0.5 2100 126 318380.19250.52100126 4 25 72 0.16 278 5.4 9400 183 425720.162785.49400183 5 7 170 0.15 567 7.9 15800 279 571700.155677.915800279  "},{"text":"Table 2 . Observed variability in profitability, expressed as net income per cow per year, as a function of technological change in different regions of Colombia. Region Region  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Observed variability in productivity, expressed as milk production per cow per day, as a function of technological change in different regions of Colombia. Region Region  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Evolution of productivity costs of production, investment, profitability, and product prices in dual purpose and specialized dairy systems in Colombia between 1988 and 2000. Adapted fromAldana (1990). Currency figures from 1988 were inflated to constant Colombian pesos of 2000 and then expressed in US dollars at the average exchange rate of the year 2000 of 2,084 pesos to the dollar. Productivity figures were estimated from a weighted averaged of both improved and intensive dual purpose and specialized dairy systems.   Milk production System  Milk production System Parameter Dual Purpose Specialized Dairy ParameterDual PurposeSpecialized Dairy  1988 a 2000 1988 a 2000 1988 a20001988 a2000 Productivity     Productivity -Milk production (kg/ha/yr.) 453 654 4,132 4,708 -Milk production (kg/ha/yr.)4536544,1324,708 -Beef production (kg/ha/yr.) 115 107 212 114 -Beef production (kg/ha/yr.)115107212114 -Stocking rate (AU/ha) 1.3 1.5 2.3 2.7 -Stocking rate (AU/ha)1.31.52.32.7 Production cost     Production cost -Milk (US$/kg) 0.19 0.16 0.21 0.19 -Milk (US$/kg)0.190.160.210.19 -Beef (US$/kg) 0.73 0.57 0.98 0.60 -Beef (US$/kg)0.730.570.980.60 -Both (US$/ha) 172 174 1,098 903 -Both (US$/ha)1721741,098903 Profitability     Profitability -Gross income (US$/ha/yr.) 239 223 1,906 1,153 -Gross income (US$/ha/yr.)2392231,9061,153 -Net income 67 49 806 250 -Net income6749806250 Investment (US$/ha)     Investment (US$/ha) -Land 1,828 2,479 7,120 5,201 -Land1,8282,4797,1205,201 -Livestock 688 461 2,868 1,042 -Livestock6884612,8681,042 -Facilities & Equipment 117 419 1,126 1,544 -Facilities & Equipment1174191,1261,544 -Total 2,632 3,359 11,114 7,786 -Total2,6323,35911,1147,786 Annual return on capital investment 4.2 2.7 6.8 2.8 Annual return on capital investment4.22.76.82.8 (%)     (%) Product prices (US$/kg)     Product prices (US$/kg) -Milk 0.27 0.21 0.37 0.22 -Milk0.270.210.370.22 -Beef 1.02 0.82 1.71 1.24 -Beef1.020.821.711.24  "}],"sieverID":"69618c55-ccb7-463a-970d-3a3a9d303f5e","abstract":""}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e60391cedbec14ddaca55afe5d7a9d1","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/f57c7ce3-6278-4fff-bd8e-b287a16a7ef4/retrieve"},"pageCount":6,"title":"LA PRODUCCION DE SEMILLA GENETICA DE FRIJOL","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"t. INTRODUCCION.","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":24,"text":"Uno de los pasos mas importantes en los procesos de mejoramiento de frijol es el mantenimiento y distribucibn de semilla de las variedades liberadas."},{"index":2,"size":102,"text":"Para la liberación de nuevas variedades cada institución o empresa de semillas tiene su propio sistema de regulaciones, por lo que no entraremos en detalles sobre dichos procedimientos. Una vez que una variedad ha sido nombrada y liberada, es responsabilidad del mejorador mantener la variedad. En el caso de una variedad desarrollada como una linea pura, no hay mucha dificultad en describir la variedad y mantener el tipo de planta deseado. La mayorla de las variedades utilizadas en los paises centroamericanos conservan un grado de heterogeneidad, por ser desarrolladas a partir de selecciones masales en las ultimas etapas del proceso de mejoramiento."},{"index":3,"size":21,"text":"En tales casos el mantenimiento de la ,¡ariedad, debe conservar el tipo original de la variedad, pero conservando la heterogeneidad original."},{"index":4,"size":30,"text":"La produccibn de semilla genetica no presenta problemas muy La semilla genetica debe ser producida en terrenos libres de residuos de plantas de frijol, bajo riego durante las épocas secas."},{"index":5,"size":19,"text":"Para el mantenimiento de una variedad de frijol, que conserva cierta homogeneidad, se puede proceder de la manera siguiente:"},{"index":6,"size":2,"text":"Paso 1."},{"index":7,"size":28,"text":"Durante la epoca mas importante de produccibn, y en una localidad representativa de las zonas de adaptacibn de la variedad, se siembra un lote de reselección de-la variedad."},{"index":8,"size":35,"text":"Se procede Es aconsejable, separar la semilla de cada planta, para generar progenies que se siembran en la siguiente epoca apropiada, para visualizar caracteristicas que son mejor apreciadas en surcos completos que en plantas individuales."},{"index":9,"size":67,"text":"Caracteres como arquitectura, ancho y altura de copa, floración y madurez, se aprecian mejor en dicha forma. En esta etapa se deben descartar todas las progenies que se sospeche que no se conforman con el tipo de planta, ti pico de la variedad. La semilla de los surcos conservados se cosecha en masa, formando la base de semilla genetica. Esta semilla se puede incrementar si se desea."}]},{"head":"RECOI'IENDACIDNES FINALES.","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":20,"text":"Finalmente, es necesario insistir.en que la produccibn. de semilla genética es re,;;ponsabilidad del mejorador o programa  La semilla se debe"},{"index":2,"size":1,"text":"escasez."}]}],"figures":[{"text":" El ｭ ｡ ｮ ｴ ･ ｮ ･ ｾ ＠ un flujo continuo de semilla genética es ｰ ｡ ｾ ｴ ･ ＠ de la ｬ ｡ ｢ ｯ ｾ ＠ del ｭ ･ ｪ ｯ ｾ ｡ ､ ｯ ｾ en la ｰ ｾ ｯ ､ ｵ ｣ ｣ ｩ ｮ ＠ de semilla se debe a que los ｳ ･ ｭ ｩ ｬ ｬ ｡ ｾ ｩ ｳ ｴ ｡ ｳ ＠ no le ponen mucho ｩ ｮ ｴ ･ ｾ ￩ ｳ ＠a la sanidad de la semilla. "}],"sieverID":"36aa96c2-4739-4671-8e89-2bbe8955e2bf","abstract":""}

data/part_1/0e75ad2371ecb16a4d01c36368f8ceb2.json

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0e75ad2371ecb16a4d01c36368f8ceb2","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://cgspace.cgiar.org/rest/bitstreams/0b457171-47c4-48c1-9d6b-13118d7b8e35/retrieve"},"pageCount":15,"title":"A model to examine farm household trade-offs and synergies with an application to smallholders in Vietnam","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":162,"text":"Family-run farms are key agents in global food production, particularly those with landholdings ≤50 ha (Graeub et al., 2016;Herrero et al., 2017). In less-developed countries where gains in food production are acutely needed, up to 70% of food calories are produced by farmers with landholdings < 5 ha, who are classified as 'smallholders' (Samberg et al., 2016). Despite their contribution to food production, many of these smallholders are nutritionally vulnerable and score poorly on health indicators related to nutrition and dietary diversity (IFPRI, 2016;Pandey et al., 2016;Pingali, 2015). The paradox that these smallholders play a vital role in global food provisioning while simultaneously falling short of meeting their own nutritional needs grounds the argument that these smallholders should be the primary target of innovations to sustainably increase production, improve diets, and improve livelihoods (IFAD and UNEP, 2013;Tittonell et al., 2016). Increasingly, it is recognized that a household-level approach is needed for the analysis of such innovations 1 (Van Wijk et al., 2014)."},{"index":2,"size":186,"text":"For many smallholders, the farm enterprise is tightly intertwined with household dynamics, since these households rely largely on family labor to manage the farm and play dual roles as both producers and consumers of agricultural outputs (Altieri et al., 2012;Stephens et al., 2018). Additionally, daily farm management decisions may be influenced by factors such as resource endowment, gender distribution, and power structures, among others (Michalscheck et al., 2018). These decisions are further shaped by competing farm and household needs across spatial and temporal scales (Rufino et al., 2011;Zingore et al., 2010), and may have radiating impacts on other farm household concerns. For example, the choice or necessity to pursue off-farm employment activities 2 may play an important role not only in farm household economics but also in farm production and nutritional status (Babatunde and Qaim, 2010;Pfeiffer et al., 2009;Reardon et al., 1998). Similarly, the choice of where to source food for household consumption (from the market, the wild, or from on-farm production) may have implications for both the economic and nutritional status of the farm household (Bellon et al., 2016;Paumgarten et al., 2018;Sibhatu et al., 2015)."},{"index":3,"size":210,"text":"In agricultural systems research, whole-farm models have been widely adopted to explore new management options, technologies, and farming systems innovations, and to conduct scenario analyses (Janssen and van Ittersum, 2007;Jones et al., 2017a;Le Gal et al., 2011;Robertson et al., 2012;Thornton and Herrero, 2001). Iterative cycles of model application and improvement are considered necessary to ensure that modeling tools stay relevant within evolving research priorities and societal concerns (Antle et al., 2017;Jones et al., 2017b). Although the development and testing of agricultural technologies and farming systems innovations by researchers often occurs at the field scale, smallholders evaluate them and encounter constraints to their adoption at the farm, household, and market scales (Giller et al., 2011). Moreover, relationships among farm concerns and livelihood options frequently extend beyond the farm enterprise (Frelat et al., 2016;Reardon et al., 2007) and result in trade-offs between farm and household priorities (Klapwijk et al., 2014). As key factors in household decision making, there is scope for improvement to better capture cash and labor constraints within whole-farm models (Kanter et al., 2018). This has already been done in economic models of agricultural systems, for example MIDAS (Kingwell and Pannell, 1987) and utility maximization models that account for leisure (Komarek and Ahmadi-Esfahani, 2011;Singh et al., 1986;Tiberti and Tiberti, 2015)."},{"index":4,"size":204,"text":"Our study complements the longstanding literature on whole-farm modeling and responds to the demand for up-to-date modeling tools by embedding cash, labor, and dietary decisions into a bio-economic whole-farm model. We present three new modules 3 which were designed and added to the already-existing FarmDESIGN model (Groot et al., 2012). The new modules ('Household budget', 'Household labor', and 'Household nutrition') were designed to reflect the different roles a farm enterprise can play for a farm household, depending on its production objectives and livelihood strategy (Barrett et al., 2010;Frelat et al., 2016). Earlier versions of FarmDESIGN included budget and labor modules for the farming enterprise, but the conceptual delineation of the farm household was not explicit. This enabled the model to capture profit and labor balances from the farm enterprise only, as factors such as off-farm employment and leisure activities were not accounted for. The expanded model now positions the farming enterprise within the farm household, and includes productive, economic, environmental, social, and nutrition related indicators at the farm-household level. These changes increase the scope of FarmDESIGN's applicability for modeling farming systems where resources (namely cash, labor, and food) flow between the farm enterprise and the farm household, as well as beyond the farm gate."},{"index":5,"size":152,"text":"In the following section (Section 2) we present the FarmDESIGN model and document the new budget, labor, and nutrition modules. We then introduce two case-study farm households in Northwest Vietnam to which we applied the new model (Section 3). For these farm households, we explored trade-offs and synergies between social, economic, and environmental indicators at the farm-household scale. This was done by executing a multi-objective optimization with the objectives of simultaneously maximizing soil organic matter (OM) balance, household free budget, leisure time, and dietary energy sufficiency. The simulation results from the optimization are presented in Section 4, where we focus on interactions between objectives and household decisions regarding cash and labor allocation. Following is a discussion of how our results connect to earlier studies and provide scope for evaluating the new model (Section 5), and conclusions about both the case study specifically and the applicability of the new model generally (Section 6)."}]},{"head":"Model description","index":2,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Previous version of the FarmDESIGN model","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":90,"text":"FarmDESIGN is a bio-economic whole-farm model developed for the analysis and redesign of mixed crop-livestock farm systems (Groot et al., 2012). It is a static and exploratory model that quantifies the productive, economic, and environmental performance of a farm system on an annual basis (Cortez-Arriola et al., 2016). The model is configured to facilitate the 'DEED' research approach to farming systems analysis and scenario evaluation, which follows four consecutive phases (Describe, Explain, Explore, Design) that are meant to be executed in iterative cycles (Giller et al., 2008;Giller et al., 2011)."},{"index":2,"size":234,"text":"In the Describe phase, data are used to describe the state of the farm system under study, that is, the model is parameterized according to local conditions. The model quantifies the current performance of the farm system in terms of annual resource flows and balances that are grouped into modules (Explain phase; Fig. 1). For details on how these balances are calculated, see Groot et al. (2012). Farm performance can be evaluated considering various objectives by looking at resource balances as proxy indicators. In the Explore phase, options to adjust farm management to meet specific objectives can be explored through a multi-objective optimization. The objectives and decision variables are selected and configured by the model user, and the optimization involves an evolutionary algorithm which generates a set of alternative farm configurations within given resources and constraints (Groot et al., 2012). The set of alternative farm configurations generated by the model represent a solution space within which solutions can be ranked based on Pareto-optimality (see Groot and Rossing, 2011). Thus, tradeoffs and synergies between different production, environmental, and economic objectives may be visualized and analyzed. Finally, feasible alternative farm configurations may be selected and implemented together with farmers or other stakeholders (Design phase). In this study, we forgo the Design phase because our objective was to illustrate the operation of the new modules, and not to simulate interventions or implement the results of modeling exercises."}]},{"head":"New FarmDESIGN modules","index":4,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":115,"text":"We improved FarmDESIGN by including two new entity types: 'Household' and 'Household member', and three new modules: 'Household budget', 'Household labor', and 'Household nutrition' (Fig. 1). Each farm is associated with a household, and the household can have multiple members. Per household member the model user can specify the age, sex and physiological state (either 'standard', or, for women two additional states: 'pregnant' or 'lactating'), which determine the dietary requirements. Moreover, the total stock of time (in hours) can be entered as a parameter for each household member, and it is used to provide an upper bound on the time available for household activities including leisure to be allocated to different uses (see Section 2.2.2)."},{"index":2,"size":75,"text":"Earlier work with FarmDESIGN considered farm operating profit (defined as the revenue from agricultural activities minus incurred costs) as the main indicator for economic performance, and farm labor 2 In our study, off-farm activities refer to all activities away from one's own property, regardless of sectoral or functional classification (Barrett et al., 2001). These off-farm activities can include working for wages or self-employment and can be in the agriculture or non-agriculture sectors of the economy."},{"index":3,"size":33,"text":"3 In our study, 'module' refers to a sub-component of the full FarmDESIGN model. A module organizes information related to one specific component of the farm household, for example, labor, budget, or nutrition."},{"index":4,"size":166,"text":"balance (calculated as the difference between the total available labor and the labor required for agricultural activities) as a key social indicator (Cortez-Arriola et al., 2016;Flores-Sanchez et al., 2015;Groot et al., 2012;Mandryk et al., 2014). The new modules expand the scope of FarmDESIGN to conduct multi-objective optimization from the perspective of the farm household, rather than just the farm enterprise. The new 'Household budget' module includes economic indicators for offfarm activities and the value of consumable food, in addition to the total value of on-farm production, to calculate the new economic indicator household free budget. The new 'Household labor' module accounts for off-farm work and hired labor, in addition to on-farm work conducted by the farm family, to calculate the new social indicator leisure time. In the new 'Household nutrition' module several indicators related to dietary diversity, nutrient adequacy, and dietary patterns were included to assess the diet quality of the household (Groot et al., 2017); the nutrition indicator dietary energy deviation is one of them."}]},{"head":"'Household budget' module","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":57,"text":"The 'Household budget' module is based on the theory of the agricultural household, outlined in Singh et al. (1986), where a specific household maximizes its utility subject to a cash and labor constraint. Eq. (1) was modified from Singh et al. (1986) and captures the cash constraint, which we express in United States dollars (USD) per year:"},{"index":2,"size":6,"text":"In Eq. (1), decision variables include:"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"• X m is a vector of quantities of market-purchased goods;"},{"index":4,"size":16,"text":"• Q a is the production of an agricultural staple such as a cereal crop (kg);"},{"index":5,"size":22,"text":"• X a is the quantity consumed of the agricultural staple (kg) (so that Q a -X a is its marketed surplus);"},{"index":6,"size":17,"text":"• L is total labor input into on-farm activities by the family or by hired-in laborers (hours);"},{"index":7,"size":18,"text":"• H is the hired-in laborers for on-farm activities (hours), and is the on-family labor part of L;"},{"index":8,"size":12,"text":"• F is total family labor input working on-farm and off-farm (hours);"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"• V is a vector of variable inputs (for example, fertilizer);"},{"index":10,"size":8,"text":"• E is any non-labor, non-farm income (USD)."},{"index":11,"size":6,"text":"In Eq. ( 1), parameters include:"},{"index":12,"size":22,"text":"• p m is a vector of prices for the market-purchased goods (which can include food) (USD per unit of quantity purchased);"},{"index":13,"size":55,"text":"• p a is the price of the agricultural staple (USD kg −1 ); • p w is the market wage for labor (USD hour −1 ); • p h is the price of hired labor (USD hour −1 ); • p v is the variable input's market price (USD per unit of quantity purchased)."},{"index":14,"size":36,"text":"The decision variables are presented in Tables A2 and A3 of the Appendix, while parameter values are listed in Table A4. A complete overview of model parameters and settings can be found in the Supplementary material."},{"index":15,"size":58,"text":"In Eq. (1) all decision variables and parameters are non-negative, and the following constraints hold: (L -H -F) ≤ 0 and H ≤ L, and if (L -H -F) < 0 then labor time of household members is used for off-farm activities or is spent on leisure (see Section 2.2.2). We further disaggregate L into three labor categories:"},{"index":16,"size":12,"text":"• General farm management (e.g. maintenance, trading, and accounting, L G );"},{"index":17,"size":12,"text":"• Crop management (L C ); • Livestock management (L A )."},{"index":18,"size":55,"text":"Transaction costs in the labor market may mean that for the same agricultural activity, the purchasing price of labor (hired labor wage paid, p h ) may exceed the selling price of labor (off-farm wage earned, p w ), so that p h > p w . These prices can be specified as model parameters."},{"index":19,"size":159,"text":"The indicator household free budget reflects the cash constraint from Eq. (1), which relates to two farm household decisions associated with working time allocation and food choices. First, household members can allocate their income-generating work time to either on-or off-farm activities. This decision will affect the proportion of farm income in the total household income. Second, household members can make decisions around how much of their food is sourced from the market versus produced on-farm. This decision affects the cost of supplying foodbased nutrients to the household due to differences between the sale and purchase prices of food. We capture these two decisions in the 'Household budget' module with the addition of three variables, offfarm income, food costs, and other expenditures, which supplement the already-existing variable operating profit to make the 'Household budget' module distinct from FarmDESIGN's previous 'Farm profit' module. The primary indicator of interest calculated in the 'Household budget' module is household free budget Eq. ( 2):"},{"index":20,"size":1,"text":"where:"},{"index":21,"size":83,"text":"• B H is household free budget (USD year −1 ). In Eq. ( 1) there is no surplus cash as expenditures equal earnings. This surplus cash of zero is equivalent to B H implicitly equaling zero, even though not all cash income generated by the household is necessarily spent as some can be saved. In Eq. ( 2), if B H exceeds zero the household has surplus cash, and if B H equals zero the household has spent all its cash income."},{"index":22,"size":79,"text":"• I F is farm income (USD year −1 ), and is calculated as the gross value generated from crop and livestock production minus the sum of all variable costs (such as hired labor, fertilizer, seed, and purchased livestock feeds) and fixed costs (such as land and machinery). The variable I F in Eq. ( 2) is similar to p a (Q a ) − p h H − p v V using the notation in Eq. ( 1)."},{"index":23,"size":69,"text":"• I O is off-farm income (USD year −1 ), and is the sum of all family members' earnings from off-farm activities, including salary, income from working on other farms or other part-time jobs, pensions, and remittances. In Eq. ( 1) if (L -H -F) < 0, the household earns offfarm income (see Section 2.2.2), and in our study the household earns off-farm income if I O > 0."},{"index":24,"size":41,"text":"• C F is food costs (USD year −1 ), and refers to the value of all food consumed by the household, obtained either from the market or from on-farm production, accounting for differences in sales and purchase prices for food."},{"index":25,"size":35,"text":"• C E is other expenditures (USD year −1 ), i.e. expenditures not related to agriculture (such as electricity, housing, and health care), and is the sum of such expenditures incurred by all family members."}]},{"head":"'Household labor' module","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":173,"text":"How farm households use their labor time affects multiple livelihood components, including agricultural productivity, on-and off-farm income, and the ability to conduct activities that are not incomeearning. The original FarmDESIGN indicator farm labor balance did not include off-farm labor conducted by household members. Our study amended FarmDESIGN with a 'Household labor' module to make explicit competing uses of labor for on-and off-farm activities and leisure, as well as the existence of labor markets which facilitate hiring labor onto the farm (Singh et al., 1986;Taylor and Adelman, 2003). We based the 'Household labor' module on the theoretical foundations of the agricultural household (Singh et al., 1986), where the household encounters a time constraint in addition to the cash constraint documented in Eq. (1). In this approach, the household may allocate their total stock of available time (T T ) to on-farm activities related to agricultural production (L FA ), off-farm activities (L OF , where L FA + L OF = F from Eq. ( 1)), or leisure time (T L ), so that:"},{"index":2,"size":209,"text":"All variables in Eq. ( 3) are calculated in the 'Household labor' module on a yearly basis (hours year −1 ) as a sum for all household members. This equation is subject to the constraint that (T T -L FA -L OF ) ≥ 0, so that T L ≥ 0. Leisure refers to all activities that are not captured in L FA and L OF , such as participating in family or community events and holidays. It also can include activities often labelled as nonearning but nevertheless important, including maintaining the home, food preparation, child care, and household and family chores. These activities do not directly contribute to cash income but may affect household wellbeing. The interaction between labor and budget constraints is common in the rural livelihoods literature as a factor shaping farm household decisions (Ellis, 2000). In our study, the 'Household budget' and 'Household labor' modules interact with each other to influence the activities the farm household may undertake given household resources and objectives. If income objectives are important, the household may make resource allocation decisions based on comparing the economic returns to allocate time to on-farm vs. off-farm work, with factors such as agricultural product prices, agricultural productivity, and wage rates all influencing these returns."},{"index":3,"size":107,"text":"An important benefit of the 'Household labor' module compared to the previous 'Farm labor' module used in earlier FarmDESIGN applications is that the competing use of time between on-farm, off-farm, and leisure activities can be included as an objective in the optimization. With output from the new 'Household labor' module, the Labor Use Efficiency (LUE) of different production activities (e.g. cropping patterns) may be also calculated. Here, we calculate LUE as the net USD earned per hectare per hour of input labor, with net USD earned equal to the total value of production minus associated financial costs, following Affholder et al. (2010) and Komarek et al. (2015)."}]},{"head":"'Household nutrition' module","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":137,"text":"The new 'Household nutrition' module facilitates diet quality assessment through proxy indicators for diet diversity, nutrient adequacy, and food availability. Diet quality indicators are recommended for nutrition-sensitive agriculture interventions as a proxy of nutrition, rather than nutrition status indicators (such as stunting and wasting), as diet quality can be directly attributed to agriculture activities via improving the access and consumption of food (McDermott et al., 2015;Herforth & Ballard, 2016). The diet quality indicators in the 'Household nutrition' module are calculated by incorporating availability and consumption of food from both on-farm production and other sources (e.g. purchased, gifts, wild foods). In this study we present and asses only one proxy indicator of dietary quality, dietary energy deviation. For a full description of FarmDESIGN's new 'Household nutrition' module and all the metrics it uses, see Groot et al. (2017)."},{"index":2,"size":158,"text":"Nutrient deviation metrics calculated in the model compare the theoretical household demand for nutrients to the available nutrient supply from household food production and purchase; actual household dietary intake data is not utilized. Nutritional demands are determined according to standard requirements for healthy individuals, and vary according to age group, sex, and physical state (Institute of Medicine, 2006). The indicator dietary energy deviation indicates if the household obtains sufficient energy from its own production and food purchases to meet its energy needs. Here, we estimated the household's dietary energy demand using the recommended dietary allowances (RDA) for the Vietnamese population, assuming a moderate work category (Khan and Hoan, 2008). The dietary energy supply of farm produce allocated to household consumption and purchased foods was calculated based on the energy content for raw foods using a Vietnamese food composition table (SMILING D.5-a, 2013). Dietary energy deviation (E D , expressed as a percentage) is calculated on an annual basis:"},{"index":3,"size":121,"text":"where E I is the household dietary energy intake (kcal) estimated as the total energy supply or contribution from allocations of produced or purchased food to household consumption (household dietary energy supply) and E R is the household dietary energy requirement (kcal) estimated from the accumulated household RDA (household dietary energy demand). If the value of the indicator dietary energy deviation is positive, the modeled farm household exceeds its dietary energy demands by consuming its own production and/or purchased foods. It is important to note that dietary energy deviation provides only one dimension (energy) of human nutrition and food security; multiple other aspects of dietary adequacy may be assessed using the full range of metrics in FarmDESIGN's new 'Household nutrition' module."}]},{"head":"Case study","index":8,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Case study area","index":9,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":161,"text":"Part of the larger Central Mekong Area action site, Northwest Vietnam has been the focus of research for development aimed at improving the lives of rural poor through poverty reduction, increased food security, improved nutrition and health, and sustainable natural resource management (ILRI, 2014). Since the beginning of the 21st century, Vietnam has made steady progress towards raising its gross domestic product and reducing poverty at the national scale, yet the incomes of rural households lag behind those in urban areas (Kozel, 2014). Furthermore, Vietnam's malnutrition rate is high among Asian countries despite substantial reduction in the 2000s (GSO, 2016). Northwest Vietnam is a largely rural area where low total farm income, malnutrition, and increased vulnerability of rural poor due to environmental degradation associated with intensified farming practices are prevalent (ILRI, 2014). Within the region, the CGIAR Research Program \"Integrated Systems for the Humidtropics\" identified the Son La province (Fig. 2) as a high-priority area for addressing these concerns (ILRI, 2014)."}]},{"head":"Model farm characterization","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":203,"text":"The two farms modeled in this study were located in the Doan Ket (21.1444°N, 104.0259°E) and Na Phuong (21.1455°N, 104.0820°E) villages, both in the Mai Son district of Son La province (Fig. 2). A total of 17 farm households were surveyed in Doan Ket and Na Phuong in 2014-2015 as part of the CGIAR Humidtropics project, using the IM-PACTLite survey tool (Rufino et al., 2013). This tool was developed to provide a comprehensive yet generic and efficient approach for collecting complex farm characterization data; Rufino et al. (2013) and Silvestri et al. (2014) give a full description of the survey tool and its use, and Douxchamps et al. (2016) provide an example of its application with a link to a complete survey dataset. In Doan Ket and Na Phuong, the survey tool was used to collect baseline data on the biophysical, socio-economic, food intake, and managerial aspects of each of the surveyed farm households during semi-structured interviews. As a supplement to the survey, focus group discussions were held to collect data on food consumption at the household level using food frequency questionnaires and 24-h recalls; these data were used primarily to determine the quantity and cost of food purchased by the household offfarm."},{"index":2,"size":125,"text":"From the 17 surveyed farm households, we selected one from each village with which to conduct the modeling exercise. These were purposefully chosen because their farm lay-out, cropping patterns, primary cash crops, livestock holdings, and market orientation differed notably from one another, thereby providing an opportunity to investigate potential differences in how the improved model would optimize various objectives. Using the survey data, we built a model version of each farm household in FarmDESIGN (Fig. 3). It is important to note that the modeled farms are not spatially explicit. FarmDESIGN cannot reflect, for example, that fruit trees are scattered around a farm; instead, it groups the trees together and treats them as a single production activity, as represented in the farm schematics in Fig. 3."},{"index":3,"size":235,"text":"The farm household selected in Doan Ket (DK) practiced a diverse array of agricultural land uses, cultivating vegetables, mixed fruit trees, coffee, and maize. This household also maintained an aquaculture pond, a home garden, and raised pigs for meat. Close to a main highway, DK had good access to markets for selling commercial crops (primarily vegetables) directly to consumers and wholesalers. In addition to their own production, DK purchased a wide variety of foods from the market, including meat, milk, eggs, fruits, vegetables, rice, and legumes. DK achieved relatively high yields but also incurred large farm input (e.g. seeds, agrochemicals) and household food costs. The farm household selected in Na Phuong (NP) was less diverse in its production strategy, cultivating two main crops: upland maize (one crop per year) and lowland rice (two crops per year). Maize was the chief cash crop, sold primarily to wholesalers as animal feed. Rice, a priority staple food, was kept exclusively for household consumption. NP also kept a variety of livestock, cultivated a small area of coffee and fruit trees, and maintained a home garden. The NP farm household purchased fewer food items from the market, mainly supplementing their own production with purchased rice and meat. Details on the destination (i.e. to home consumption, livestock, or market) of each crop produced on both farms are in the Appendix, Table A1. L. Ditzler, et al. Agricultural Systems 173 (2019) 49-63"}]},{"head":"Model exploration","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":113,"text":"Before conducting the optimization, we evaluated the current performance of the case study farm households by assessing environmental, social, nutritional, and economic indicators calculated by FarmDESIGN (Table 1). We then used the original configurations of the two farm households as the starting point for the optimization. We examined the model's response to simultaneously optimizing four indicators: maximizing (i) soil OM balance, 4 (ii) household free budget, (iii) leisure time, and (iv) dietary energy deviation (Table 1). These objectives were selected on the basis of farm diagnoses conducted during the aforementioned household surveys, and correspond to generally accepted pillars of sustainable development that focus on the environment, society, and economy (Griggs et al., 2013)."},{"index":2,"size":148,"text":"We ran the optimization for 1000 iterations on each farm household to ensure stable outcomes, using a mutation probability and mutation amplitude of 0.85 and 0.15, respectively, as parameters for the Differential Evolution algorithm employed in the optimization, as recommended by Groot et al. (2007). The decision variables and constraints set for the multi-objective optimization can be viewed in the Appendix (Tables A2 and A3). Other parameters were set according to the survey data (see Appendix, Table A4), and those unavailable locally were set according to similar studies (Cortez-Arriola et al., 2016;Flores-Sanchez et al., 2015;Groot et al., 2012). When analyzing the model results, we examined trends in how the model allocated crop land, labor, and cash to approach the different objectives, as well as the trade-offs and synergies between objectives (Groot and Rossing, 2011;Groot et al., 2009), rather than the absolute values of the indicators of specific solutions."},{"index":3,"size":275,"text":"Allowing the model to expand and contract the areas of different cropping patterns on each farm by setting these areas as decision variables is a key driver of the alternative farm configurations generated by the model during the optimization. Ideally, the area a certain cropping pattern may be expanded should be constrained by the actual area of suitable land available. For example, in both Doan Ket and Na Phuong, rice is customarily grown in the lowlands where fields are flat and can be flooded, whereas maize is usually grown in the uplands and sown directly into the slope. Consequently, it is not always feasible to treat rice and maize fields as interchangeable in the model. Similarly, coffee is usually grown on hilly land, whereas vegetable crops are more often sown on flat fields, so these two crop areas are also not necessarily interchangeable. In this study we modeled actual farms which did have rice growing in the uplands (NP) and coffee growing on flat fields (DK) due to the specifics of these farmers' land holdings and resources, however this is not necessarily the norm. It should therefore be kept in mind that the model results presented here are not necessarily generalizeable to the study area as a whole. 4 Soil OM balance is quantified in FarmDESIGN as the difference between OM accumulation and loss (Groot et al., 2012). Additions of OM are generated by roots and stubble that remain on the field after harvest, green manures and mulches (incorporated into the soil), livestock feed losses (dependent on the feeding system and type of feed supplied), and manure (produced on-farm or imported from an external source)."}]},{"head":"Results","index":12,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Current farm household performance","index":13,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":234,"text":"Based on current configurations, DK outperformed NP on two of the indicators of interest, dietary energy deviation and household free budget (Table 1). NP, however, had more leisure time. For both farms, the amount of leisure time was relatively low; when spread over a year and assuming an 8-h work day, it ranged from 9.5 days without farm or offfarm work for DK and 14.5 days for NP. On farm DK, the maize-French bean-maize rotation (crop pattern DK4) had the highest LUE, and the home garden (DK5) had the lowest (Table 2); this was because the home garden required daily labor for maintenance and harvesting, while the value of produce was similar to that of pattern DK4. For NP, the highest LUE was achieved in the fruit trees area (NP6), and it was lowest for coffee (NP4). Although both fruit trees and coffee are perennial cropping systems, the NP household reported that managing fruit trees required substantially less labor compared to coffee, provided relatively high value products, and had minimal maintenance costs, making fruit trees the more profitable investment with a high return to labor. Comparing the LUE of double cropped maize (NP1) to double cropped rice (NP3) on NP, the model simulation suggested that growing maize was more efficient than rice in terms of returns to labor. Despite lower cultivation costs, rice required more labor and was of lower cash value than maize."}]},{"head":"Optimization results","index":14,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":109,"text":"The results of the multi-objective optimization revealed similar trade-offs on both farms: (i) between OM balance and household free budget (Fig. 4a), (ii) between leisure time and household free budget (Fig. 4b), (iii) between leisure time and OM balance (Fig. 4c), and (iv) between dietary energy deviation and leisure time (Fig. 4f). The relationship between dietary energy deviation and household free budget differed on the two farms, with a trade-off apparent on NP and a less clear association on DK (Fig. 4d). One synergy was observed, between dietary energy deviation and OM balance on NP, but there was no apparent synergy between the same objectives on DK (Fig. 4e)."}]},{"head":"OM balance vs. household free budget","index":15,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":288,"text":"Although the slope of the solution frontier differed for the two farms, the trade-off observed between OM balance and household free budget (Fig. 4a) could primarily be explained by a shift in the dominant cropping patterns for both farms. For farm DK, higher OM balances were achieved in solutions where more cropland was allocated to coffee + fruit trees (DK1) and maize-spring onion-French bean (DK3), and where the area of maize-French bean-maize (DK4) was substantially reduced (Fig. 5a). The solutions approaching higher OM balances for DK were also characterized by lower hired labor inputs (Fig. 5e), and therefore less of the household budget allocated to the cost of hired labor (Fig. 5i). Despite lower labor costs, the actual monetary value of sales from crop pattern DK1 is less than that of pattern DK4 (Table 2), as the fruit produced in DK1 is consumed primarily on-farm, whereas all French beans (and some maize) are sold to market. Furthermore, the costs of cultivation increase with the expansion of DK1 (Fig. 5i). Combined, these factors result in a situation where the cropping patterns chosen by the model to increase OM balance were also those patterns with lower cash inflow and higher expenditures due to cultivation costs. On farm NP, solutions with higher OM balances were approached by reducing the areas of maize (NP1 and NP2) and increasing the area of double crop rice (NP3) (Fig. 6a). While this shift did not notably increase farm-scale cultivation costs and in fact lowered household expenditures overall by reducing the need to purchase rice from the market (Fig. 6i), it was offset by the fact that the maize areas collectively bring in more cash, whereas rice is used for home consumption and earns no profit."}]},{"head":"Table 1","index":16,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":38,"text":"Modeled current environmental, social, nutritional, and economic indicators for farms DK and NP from Doan Ket and Na Phuong villages, respectively. The farm household performance indicators shaded in grey were selected as objectives to maximize during the optimization."}]},{"head":"Category","index":17,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":15,"text":"Indicators DK NP Environmental Soil OM balance (kg ha -1 year -1 ) 0 0"},{"index":2,"size":11,"text":"Nitrogen soil losses (kg ha -1 year -1 ) 237 333"},{"index":3,"size":11,"text":"Phosphorus soil losses (kg ha -1 year -1 ) 74 27"},{"index":4,"size":11,"text":"Potassium soil losses (kg ha -1 year -1 ) 145 490"}]},{"head":"Social","index":18,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":10,"text":"Total on-farm labor required (hr year -1 ) 5377 5830"},{"index":2,"size":10,"text":"Total off-farm labor performed (hr year -1 ) 320 400"},{"index":3,"size":8,"text":"Hired labor (hr year -1 ) 0 0"},{"index":4,"size":12,"text":"Leisure time (hr year Off-farm income (USD year -1 ) 242 332"},{"index":5,"size":9,"text":"Costs for food (USD year -1 ) 1988 3356"},{"index":6,"size":10,"text":"Costs for hired labor (USD year -1 ) 0 0"},{"index":7,"size":8,"text":"Other expenditures (USD year -1 ) 831 438"},{"index":8,"size":9,"text":"Household free budget (USD year -1 ) 2725 1750"},{"index":9,"size":11,"text":"Notes: 1 USD = 22,712.13 Vietnamese Dong (VND) (November 21, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Leisure time vs. household free budget","index":19,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":128,"text":"The main factor explaining the trade-off apparent on both farms between the objectives leisure time and household free budget (Fig. 4b) was the hired labor input. In their original configurations, neither DK nor NP hired any off-farm laborers (Table 1). To approach the objective of increasing leisure time, the model shifted the labor burden from the household to paid off-farm laborers (Figs. 5g and 6g), subsequently causing an increase in the expenditure for hired labor (Figs. 5k and 6k) and an associated decrease in household free budget (Fig. 4b). Conversely, in the alternative configurations with the largest household free budget improvement, the model allocated the labor needed for managing crops to the farm household members (Figs. 5f and 6f), thus reducing leisure time to almost zero (Fig. 4b)."}]},{"head":"Leisure time vs. OM balance","index":20,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":73,"text":"There was a trade-off between leisure time and OM balance on both farms (Fig. 4c). It was more clearly observed for NP, where it could be explained by the characteristics of the cropping patterns selected during the model optimization. The cropping patterns selected to increase OM-double crop rice (NP3) and coffee (NP4)-also had the largest labor requirements, indicating that farmers may have to choose between meeting farm-scale ecological goals and household labor constraints."}]},{"head":"Dietary energy deviation vs. household free budget","index":21,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":228,"text":"A trade-off between dietary energy deviation and household free budget (Fig. 4d) could result from clear associations between the two objectives, which were most apparent for NP. No rice was grown on farm DK, so on-farm rice production could not contribute to meeting dietary energy demands based on the RDA for dietary energy demand in a moderate work category. Therefore, to increase dietary energy deviation on DK, the model allocated more budget to rice purchased from the market (Fig. 5l). With more of the household's income spent on procuring food, less cash would be made available in the household free budget, although this relationship was not clearly illumnated in the model results (Fig. 4d). As rice was grown on farm NP, the area of double crop rice (NP3) was expanded by the model to approach the objective of increasing dietary energy deviation (Fig. 6d). To expand the area of rice, the model reduced the area of double cropped maize (NP1), which is a cash crop. By replacing an income-generating crop with a crop grown solely for home consumption, the model results highlight the trade-off between allocating land to crops that increase cash flow versus crops that directly support household dietary energy needs. However, the extra cash brought in by marketable crops could theoretically be used to buy more food, a secondary decision not reflected in the modeled results."}]},{"head":"Dietary energy deviation vs. OM balance","index":22,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":126,"text":"The synergy observed between dietary energy deviation and OM balance on farm NP (Fig. 4e) resulted from the model expanding the area of double crop rice (NP3) at the expense of double crop maize (NP1) to approach both objectives (Fig. 6a and d). While the effective OM contribution of the two crops to the soil is relatively similar, rice straw is used as feed for livestock and therefore stays within the system when manure is returned to the field. Maize residues, on the other hand, are commonly burned and therefore 'lost' from the system. Rice thus serves a dual purpose, being a crop which contributes more to soil OM while also producing a staple food. The relationship between the two objectives was unclear on farm DK."}]},{"head":"Dietary energy deviation vs. leisure time","index":23,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":244,"text":"The trade-offs between dietary energy deviation and leisure time on both farms (Fig. 4f) appeared to be linked through the variable of hired labor. Since no rice was grown on DK, rice would have to be sourced solely via the market to improve dietary energy deviation. While there were no clear associations between cropland allocation and either objective for farm DK (Fig. 5c and d), the solutions with more leisure time were those in which the model allocated more of the required farm labor to hired workers (Fig. 5g). By allocating more household budget to cover the cost of hired labor, the farm household essentially funds their leisure and routes cash out of the reserve that could be used for buying food. On farm NP, solutions with higher dietary energy deviation were reached by expanding the area of rice (NP3) (Fig. 6d). Rice contributes directly to the household's dietary energy needs, but also requires more labor than maize, the crop it replaced, resulting in less leisure time. Conversely, solutions with more leisure time were characterized by a decreased area of rice (NP3) and an expanded area of maize (NP1) (Fig. 6c). However, looking at the association between labor allocation and lesiure time for the same model-generated solutions (Fig. 6g), it is apparent that the gain in leisure time had less to do with the reduction of maize area and more to do with the fact that the model transfered more labor to hired workers."}]},{"head":"Discussion","index":24,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":202,"text":"New priorities have emerged to ensure that the analyses of agricultural systems continue to be relevant to the realities encountered by agricultural households across the globe. These priorities include an emphasis on better understanding the interactions between agriculture and human nutrition, a renewed interest in farm household equity concerns including the importance of competing demands for labor and cash, and unravelling agriculture's role in helping countries attain the Sustainable Development Goals (Antle et al., 2017;Jones et al., 2017aJones et al., , 2017b;;Kanter et al., 2018;Stephens et al., 2018), especially related to the goals of no poverty, zero hunger, and life on the land. The emergence of new priorities has increased the need for integration among disciplines (for example, human nutrition, economics, and agricultural science), and for the use of case studies employing a systems approach to address the well-being of family farms in terms of income and nutrition while also accounting for competing uses of labor and cash (Antle et al., 2017;Jones et al., 2017aJones et al., , 2017b)). Our study introduces new modules for labor, budget, and nutrition of households in the whole-farm model FarmDESIGN and demonstrates the utility of such a model through an application with two case-study farm households."},{"index":2,"size":113,"text":"Using the expanded FarmDESIGN model with two farm households in Vietnam, we found that the household budget, labor, and nutrition modules extended the model's usefulness by allowing us to identify and explain trade-offs and synergies between resource allocation and farm household objectives. Our results indicated that several trade-offs exist between different household objectives on the two modeled farms, providing a micro-scale perspective into the insights of Kanter et al. (2018), who synthesized trade-offs at multiple spatial scales. These results suggest specific nuances that need considering when examining trade-offs and synergies at the farm-household scale. They also show that interactions between different components of the farm household may affect labor requirements and food availability."},{"index":3,"size":180,"text":"Regarding labor, results suggest trade-offs between OM balance and both leisure time and household free budget. In the case study, some cropping patterns that improved OM balance and increased household free budget were also those patterns that required more labor. For the NP farm household, replacing maize acreage with rice improved OM balance, however maize requires less labor and has a higher LUE (Table 2),  and as a result on-farm labor allocated to cropping increased as soil organic matter improved. Hiring labor is one option for households to obtain the benefits from the modeled cropping patterns without increasing their labor burden. However, hiring in labor counteracts the financial benefit of expanding the areas of these crops as more of the household free budget is allocated to hired labor. Another option to obtain the benefits from these cropping patterns is working more hours off-farm and hiring in labor to compensate; here wage differences between cash earned off-farm and cash paid to laborers may alter the overall household free budget, in addition to any search and supervision costs associated with hired labor."},{"index":4,"size":129,"text":"Regarding food availability, trade-offs existed between dietary energy deviation, household free budget, and leisure time. Growing rice to improve dietary energy deviation is labor intensive for the NP farm household. Farms that do not grow rice (such as farm household DK) must expand areas of other labor-demanding cash crops to generate sufficient cash to buy rice. This added labor burden must then be taken up by the household, otherwise the increased cash goes to hiring labor instead of buying food, potentially creating a lock-in where an increased labor demand is required to increase food availability. Ultimately, household choices depend on household objectives, preferences, and resource endowments, for example long-term soil quality, reducing the labor burden, or cash flow, each of which may affect quality of life in different ways."},{"index":5,"size":192,"text":"Given that only two specific farm households were modeled, the trends illuminated by the model in this case study are not necessarily representative of farmers' realities throughout the study region and therefore the optimization results should not be treated as directly transferable. As noted in Section 3.3, it may not be realistic to treat all crop areas as interchangeable. In this study we modeled actual farms which did have rice growing in the uplands (NP) and coffee growing on flat fields (DK), due to the farmers' specific landholdings, resources, and innovations, although this was not the norm in the study region. Adopting the cropping configurations suggested by the model to optimize different objectives (for example replacing a maize area with rice) would for most farmers mean taking on the potentially costly and laborintensive endeavor of transforming less-suitable land to accomodate crops not traditionally grown there. In further studies of this kind, and if extension or policy recommendations are to be designed for the region as a whole based on model results, more generally applicable decision variables and constraints should be set based on farm household typologies, agro-ecological zones, and observed cropping patterns."},{"index":6,"size":219,"text":"Debates exist if trade-offs are ubiquitous in agricultural systems or if win-win situations are possible (Giller et al., 2011). Our results suggest both trade-offs and synergies can occur in agricultural systems, and their nature often depends on household resources and objectives. A similar trade-off to that shown here between social and environmental indicators has been seen in Northern Vietnam (Affholder et al., 2010), where introducing conservation agriculture improved environmental indicators but initially reduced LUE. In Kenya, applying extra mineral fertilizer increased LUE in home gardens but also increased greenhouse gas emissions (Kurgat et al., 2018), highlighting the common occurrence of trade-offs. However, the simulated synergy between dietary energy deviation and OM balance for the NP farm household growing rice supports arguments that trade-offs between environmental sustainability and human nutrition are not always universal (Fan and Brzeska, 2016). Furthermore, reducing labor demand is not always desirable when viewed from a broader scale. For example, the System of Rice Intensification can improve environmental and economic performance, but the reduced labor demand (compared with conventional rice systems) can reduce wages earned by landless laborers (Gathorne-Hardy et al., 2016). Similarly, a greater allocation of time to leisure can have a negative effect on farm profits because labor is an input into the production process (Taylor and Adelman, 2003), which is also shown here."},{"index":7,"size":42,"text":"Our study complements earlier studies, such as Giller et al. (2011), in reinforcing the message that no silver bullets exist in improving farm household livelihoods, rather the analysis of farm-households with modeling tools can help identify baskets of options and best bets."},{"index":8,"size":115,"text":"Our study focused on the Describe, Explain, and Explore phases of the DEED approach. Differences between the structure of the modeled farm households were reflected in the distinct ways the model responded to optimizing different objectives, illustrating that the new modules follow logic and intuition. A more formal model evaluation would strengthen the research. For the FarmDESIGN model the evaluation of its performance in terms of model accuracy and output evaluation is to a large degree straightforward (Groot et al., 2012), since resource flows are derived from measured or estimated quantities of material accumulated in farm components or imported into or exported from the farm. The economic calculations only use reported costs, prices and expenditures."},{"index":9,"size":172,"text":"For the new modules it is crucial to collect accurate data on the household composition and for each of the household members their availability for labor and allocation of time to various activities on the farm, off-farm and the household, and associated revenues. Such data are often hard to obtain in particular for a complete representative year, hence we rely on intensive interactions with farmers in participatory settings and on-farm activities to complement data obtained through surveys. Similar difficulties of data acquisition are faced with respect to food quality and household nutrition. The main uncertainties in the accuracy of model simulations reside in the quality of the input data and in the calculations of feed balance, manure degradation, nutrient losses from manure, and soil organic matter breakdown. These processes are difficult to parameterize, in particular in an on-farm setting. As a consequence, for these process-based aspects of the model output evaluation is dependent on assessments based on farmer and expert knowledge, and comparison of trends with experimental findings (Groot et al., 2012)."},{"index":10,"size":129,"text":"A potential future use of the expanded FarmDESIGN model is to consider what specific interventions can help farm households improve their livelihoods within the context of changing market prices, farm family size, and indirect or direct household demands for nutritious foods. A focus here could be on increasing the technical efficiencies of cropping systems in Vietnam, which have scope for improvement (Nguyen, 2017). Increasing technical efficiencies may also entail tradeoffs and synergies and the expanded FarmDESIGN model has the potential to better capture these. Examining interventions related to nutrient-rich crops is also relevant, and could take advantage of Farm-DESIGN's nutrition module. Implementing these future uses would contribute to the final phase of the DEED cycle (Design) and allow for more generalizable recommendations to be deduced from localized modeling efforts."}]},{"head":"Conclusions","index":25,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":158,"text":"Family farming households play an important role in global food production. Due to their heavy reliance on family labor, as well as their status as both a producer and consumer, decision-making regarding resource allocation and income distribution should also be considered when seeking to optimize these systems and move towards sustainability goals. Our study introduced and illustrated the application of three new modules ('Household budget', 'Household labor', and 'Household nutrition'), which were added to the FarmDESIGN model. These expand the model's capacity to capture trade-offs and synergies between performance indicators at the farm-household level. This was shown by exploring optimization scenarios for two actual farms in Northwest Vietnam, where we found both ubiquitous trade-offs (e.g. between leisure time and household free budget) and a potential synergy between environmental and human nutrition indicators. In addition to the specifics of this case study, the expanded model has general appeal for exploring such trade-offs and synergies for other resource-constrained farm households."},{"index":2,"size":94,"text":"The expanded FarmDESIGN model now more closely reflects the centrality of the household in farm management, and therefore serves as a starting point for researchers to simultaneously, and more thoroughly, evaluate the economic, environmental, nutritional, and social performance of farming systems by considering the household perspective. With its improved capabilities, the model may be used to investigate the impact of numerous relevant global change scenarios that directly influence farm households, for example population growth, market price fluctuations, or nutritional security, as well as the impact of interventions targeted to improve livelihoods within such scenarios."},{"index":3,"size":58,"text":"Table A3 Decision variables and constraints set for the optimization routine on farm NP. Decision variables tell the model which parameters may be adjusted with the evolutionary algorithm, and constraints limit farm reconfigurations so that specific indicator values fall between the minimum and maximum. Notes: HH = household. 1 USD = 22,712.13 Vietnamese Dong (VND) (November 21, 2017)."}]},{"head":"Table A4","index":26,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":22,"text":"Model parameters relating to the sale and purchase prices of farm goods, set to the local conditions of the Vietnam case study."}]},{"head":"Model parameter DK NP","index":27,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":45,"text":"Labor (USD hr −1 ) Hired labor wage paid; parameter p w in Eq. (1) 0.66 0.66 Off-farm wage earned; parameter p h in Eq. (1) 0.76 0.83 Crops sold (sale price, fresh weight) (USD kg −1 ); vector p a in Eq. ( 1 "}]}],"figures":[{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Schematic representation of the FarmDESIGN model showing farm resource flows, and original modules (black boxes) and new modules (white boxes) added to calculate diverse farm household performance indicators. The black and grey arrows indicate resource flows within the farm-household system. Blue arrows represent inflows, while other arrows denote outflows of products (green) or losses (red). OM = organic matter; GHG = greenhouse gases; \"Product use\" = allocation of crop and animal products produced on-farm or imported from outside. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 2 . Fig. 2. Location of the case study farms: Doan Ket and Na Phuong villages, Mai Son District, Son La Province, Northwest Vietnam. "},{"text":"Fig. 3 . Fig. 3. Stylized representation of the farm households DK and NP modeled in FarmDESIGN. Here we have visualized the modeled version of farm layout as relative crop areas-these are not actual farm field maps, and the schematic is not to scale. "},{"text":"Fig. 4 .Fig. 5 . Fig. 4. Relationships between the objectives OM balance, leisure time, household free budget, and dietary energy deviation for farms DK (blue) and NP (green) from Doan Ket and Na Phuong villages, respectively. Each dot indicates an alternative farm configuration. The red symbols (square for DK and triangle for NP) mark the performance of the original farm configuration. (For interpretation of the references to colour in this figure legend, the reader is referred to the web version of this article.) "},{"text":"Fig. 6 . Fig. 6. Modeled allocation of resources (land, labor, money; y axis) in each alternative farm configuration generated to meet the objectives of maximizing organic matter (OM) balance, household free budget, leisure time, and dietary energy deviation (x axis) on farm NP in Na Phuong village, moving from the lowest performing solutions (left) towards the maximum value achieved by the model (right) for each objective. "},{"text":"Table 2 Labor-use efficiency (LUE, net USD earned per hectare per hour of input labor) of current cropping patterns on farms DK and NP from Doan Ket and Na Phuong villages, respectively.  Crop pattern Crop labor (hr ha −1 year −1 ) Total value (USD ha −1 ) Total cost (USD ha −1 ) Net profit (USD ha −1 ) LUE Crop patternCrop labor (hr ha −1 year −1 )Total value (USD ha −1 )Total cost (USD ha −1 )Net profit (USD ha −1 )LUE  Doan Ket      Doan Ket DK1 Coffee and fruit trees 547 933 623 310 0.57 DK1Coffee and fruit trees5479336233100.57 DK2 Maize-onion rotation 8626 3879 722 3157 0.37 DK2Maize-onion rotation8626387972231570.37 DK3 Maize-spring onion-French bean rotation 8731 3880 646 3233 0.37 DK3Maize-spring onion-French bean rotation8731388064632330.37 DK4 Maize-French bean-maize rotation 5417 4815 1277 3538 0.65 DK4Maize-French bean-maize rotation54174815127735380.65 DK5 Home garden 73,000 5107 0 5107 0.07 DK5Home garden73,0005107051070.07  Na Phuong      Na Phuong NP1 Double crop maize 5914 5411 1128 4283 0.72 NP1Double crop maize59145411112842830.72 NP2 Single crop maize 2624 2721 712 2008 0.77 NP2Single crop maize2624272171220080.77 NP3 Double crop rice 6933 2740 496 2243 0.32 NP3Double crop rice6933274049622430.32 NP4 Coffee 8000 2642 1277 1365 0.17 NP4Coffee80002642127713650.17 NP5 Home garden 60,833 14,100 0 14,100 0.23 NP5Home garden60,83314,100014,1000.23 NP6 Fruit trees 1309 4843 0 4843 3.70 NP6Fruit trees13094843048433.70  "}],"sieverID":"cbce470b-b8c4-4aac-a980-dc88ae2a6b34","abstract":"Farm models have the potential to describe farming systems and livelihoods, identify trade-offs and synergies, and provide ex-ante assessments of agricultural technologies and policies. We developed three new modules related to budget, labor, and human nutrition for the bio-economic whole-farm model 'FarmDESIGN'. The expanded model positions the farming enterprise within the farm household. We illustrate the model's new capabilities for farm households in two villages in Northwest Vietnam, where we conducted multi-objective optimization to identify options for improving the farm households' current performance on key sustainability and livelihood indicators. Modeling results suggest trade-offs between environmental, economic, and social objectives are common, although not universal. The new modules increase the scope for modeling flows of resources (namely cash, labor, and food) between the farm enterprise and the farm household, as well as beyond the farm gate. This allows conducting modeling explorations, optimization routines, and scenario analyses in farming systems research."}

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+{"metadata":{"id":"0f354f19e50a3e372cf4b9bb8bfeb46b","source":"gardian_index","url":"https://publications.iwmi.org/pdf/H042722.pdf"},"pageCount":12,"title":"Nutrient Recovery from Human Excreta for urban and peri-urban Agriculture 1","keywords":[],"chapters":[{"head":"Introduction","index":1,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":179,"text":"The accelerated growth in global urban population implies an increasing demand for sanitation services which many developing countries especially in sub-Saharan Africa (SSA) are unable to meet As municipal authorities face major challenges in managing both solid and liquid waste, recycling has the potential to provide a win-win situation by reducing waste flows, ensuring environmental health, enhancing soil properties and creating livelihoods. Urban wastes especially human excreta consist of nutrients and organic matter that can be recycled for use for agriculture in and around cities where the challenge of urban food security has facilitated the development of urban and peri-urban agriculture (UPA). Small farms are established on idle lands, along road frontages, and in valleys which are prone to degradation and nutrient depletion due to continuous cropping.This consequently leads to low crop yield. Sole use of inorganic fertilizers in UPA is not sustainable in such continuously cultivated land. It is important to aim at improving the organic matter (OM) in addition to nutrient levels for improved and sustained crop production. For this, recycling of excreta provides a good opportunity."},{"index":2,"size":170,"text":"Research projects have been conducted by IWMI and partners since 2001 to provide information on the utilization of excreta and wastewater in agriculture. Excreta are rich source of essential plant nutrients such as nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium. Each day, humans excrete in the order of 30 g of carbon (90 g of organic matter), 10-12 g of nitrogen, 2 g of phosphorus and 3 g of potassium. Most of the organic matter is contained in the faeces, while most of the nitrogen (70-80 %) and potassium are contained in urine. The organic matter and nutrients contained in excreta can be recycled and reused as fertilisercum-soil conditioner -an effect not shared by chemical fertilisers and of dare need in tropical soils. Decomposed excreta improve soil structure; increases water holding capacity, reduce pests and diseases and neutralize soil toxins and heavy metals (Esrey et al., 2001). In this paper, lessons have been drawn from farmers' practice of excreta recycling and results from research studies conducted in West Africa (see list of references)."},{"index":3,"size":165,"text":"The excreta described here are those collected from on-site sanitation systems (OSS) comprising of non-sewered household latrines, public toilets, VIPs and septic tanks etc which are described as faecal sludge (FS). In urban areas of low and middle income countries, OSS predominates over water-borne, sewered ones. In sub-Saharan Africa, more than 75 % of houses with toilet facilities in large cities and up to 100 % in towns are served by on-site sanitation facilities. FS management remains a serious problem that causes contamination of soil and water bodies and endangers human health and the environment. The recovery approach can reduce the negative impact on the environment and have positive public health impact if safely treated before reuse in agriculture. The type of storage/collection and treatment determine how much of these resources can be recovered and harnessed, and at the same time, how safe the final product is for the end user. Tested options for FS recycling under different climatic environment and related recommendations are discussed."}]},{"head":"Study Background and Data Collection","index":2,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":510,"text":"The data highlighted in this paper were collected under different conditions. Brief description of the different study background is given below Land application of FS in Ghana Although large quantities of FS are dumped into depressions or watercourses but in many areas in Ghana, some farmers like to empty septic trucks into their farms. Investigations were carried out among selected farming communities in two urban agglomerations (Tamale and Bolgatanga) in the North and one district, Manya Krobo in the southern part of Ghana. In all 150 farmers were interviewed through focus group discussion and questionnaire survey between year 2003 and 2006. The adoption of FS as an alternative to inorganic fertilizer in crop production was investigated. The study also identified factors that influence its use, the constraints as well as the agronomic and economic benefits. Data collected were analysed through the use of descriptive statistics, budgetary analysis and the probit model. Details have been described in Cofie et al 2005Cofie et al , 2009 Storage of FS In Teshi community within Accra, Ghana a FS treatment plant consisting of two settlingthickening tanks for solids-liquid separation and a series of three ponds to treat FS supernatant was constructed close to a landfill. The aim of the municipality was to mix dried settled sludge with composted solid waste (SW) for use in agriculture. However, the composting section has not been functioning well due to breakdown of sophisticated machinery and lack of proper maintenance. A study was carried out to focus mainly on the FS recycling. Usually, desludging of FS from the ponds takes place concurrently with mixing with sawdust, which is acquired from local timber markets. Significant amount of sawdust is mixed with one full pond of sediments which is about 70 tons each time the pond is desludged. Then the sludge is dumped close to the tanks and allowed to dry until reuse. In the trial, heaps consisting of settled sludge and sawdust mixture were made and the pathogen concentration was monitored over time to find out how long to store the mix to ensure hygienic safety for use in agriculture. Among the pathogens causing gastrointestinal infections, helminth eggs were chosen as indicators to determine hygienic quality of the sludge. More details in Cofie et al (2008) Co-composting of FS with organic solid waste In Kumasi, Ghana, a low-cost decentralized co-composting plant was set up to test technical options for producing compost form FS and organic solid waste (SW). Given the high water content of FS from OSS, unplanted drying bed was designed and used as solid-liquid separation unit to dewater the FS. Fresh public toilet sludge and septage mixed in a ratio of 1:2 were dewatered on the drying bed. The dewatered FS was then mixed with organic solid waste in a volume ratio of 1:2 for co-composting. Samples of SW, FS and the mixture were collected before, during and after composting and characterised for nutrient and pathogen concentrations. The agronomic effect of composted FS and FS/SW compost were investigated on cabbage and Maize (Cofie et al, Adamtey et al)"}]},{"head":"Enrichment of excreta based compost with minimal fertilizer","index":3,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":110,"text":"To enhance the use of excreta based compost in crop production, a study was conducted in Ghana (from 2005Ghana (from -2008) ) to blend co-compost produced from human excreta and municipal solid waste with minimal amount of inorganic nitrogenous fertilizers. The purpose was for crops to benefit from the complimentary effect of such mixture viz: fast release of nitrogen especially for short duration crops in the urban areas, long term effect of organic matter from the compost fraction, and reduction in the required volume of compost for use in peri-urban areas. The mix, termed Comlizer was then characterised and tested on the soil and crop performance. (Adamtey et al 2009)"}]},{"head":"Methodology","index":4,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"Laboratory analysis","index":5,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":94,"text":"Data reported have been generated using standard laboratory and field procedures for the various sample types. For analysis of FS samples, Standard Methods for the Examination of Water and Wastewater (1992) was used. The concentration method outlined by Schwartzbrod (1998) based on modified US-EPA method, was used to quantify helminth egg concentration while the viability was determined using the Safranine dying method developed by de Victorica and Galvan (2003). For the analysis of composted FS, soil and plant samples, the methods outlined by TMECC, ( 2002) and Okalebo et al. (2002) were used accordingly."}]},{"head":"Investigation in farmers' field","index":6,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":329,"text":"Farmers applied about 56 m 3 per hectare of partially stabilized FS in three different locations in northern Ghana. The FS was spread on the soil surface in December. The volume applied supplied an estimated amount of N, P, K and carbon in the order of 455, 61, 121, and 1,183 kg/ha respectively to the soil. The discharged excreta was incorporated into the soil at the onset of dry season in April following year. Maize (Zea mays, L var. Obatampa,) and Sorghum (S. bicolor local, unimproved red variety) were intercropped which is the usual practice and planted on ridges,. Maize was first planted at the spacing of 30-cm x 30-cm and after its emergence (1-2 days), sorghum was planted at a spacing of 40-cm-x 40-cm. Two weedings were carried out during the period, the first one was 3 weeks after planting. During the first weeding, the thinning out was carried out where there were more than 2 plants per stand. The second weeding was carried out 6 weeks after planting.. An area of 50-m x 50-m was demarcated for monitoring of plant growth. Fifteen plants each of maize and sorghum were specifically marked for monitoring during the growth period. At maturity the marked plants were carefully harvested and grain weight was recorded before and after oven drying at 105o C for 24 hours To investigate the effect of FS on soil over the growing period, soil samples were collected at different times during the year. Samples were taken with the aid of soil auger diagonally, across each selected field and at two different soil depths (0-20 and 20-40cm) in December. Second sampling was done in the following April (i.e. after soil incorporation of excreta), while final sampling was after harvesting (i.e. October). Samples were collected in triplicate, 72 samples were taken from every location, with the total number of samples being 216 at each sampling time. The samples were air-dried and crushed to pass through a 2mm and analysed."}]},{"head":"Design of Experimental Plots and data collection","index":7,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":92,"text":"The rates of FS and FS based compost applied were calculated based on the Nitrogen content and crop requirement as recommended by FAO, and the Grain and Legume development board of the Crop Research Institute Ghana. According to the reports maize requires a minimum of 91 kg N /ha and a maximum of 210 kg N/ha while cabbage requires a minimum of 73.5kgN /ha and a maximum of 121 kg N/ha (Sinnadurai,1979) for successful growth and development in Ghana. Three application rates between the two limits were tried out in the field."}]},{"head":"Cabbage","index":8,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":80,"text":"Nursery and field experiment Cabbage was nursed in a soil sterilized with hot water at a temperature of 100ºC. Uniform seedlings were transplanted unto the permanent field (Plate 8). The design was split plot design. Each experimental plot was replicated three times. The total plot size was 21.5m by 21.5 m and each experimental unit was 2.4m x 4.5 m consisting of four rows of 40 plants. Planting distance was 60cm by 45cm. The following field operation was carried out:"},{"index":2,"size":25,"text":"o Watering was done twice a day. o Weeds were controlled when ever necessary. o Insecticides were sprayed whenever necessary to control insects and pest."},{"index":3,"size":264,"text":"o Growth and yield data were collected for analysis o Plant nutrients and heavy metals uptake as well as pathogen concentration under the different treatments were assessed and analysed Maize The experiment was based on a split plot design. The treatments served as the main plots and the different rates of application based on N content (i.e. 91 kg N ha-1, 150 kg N ha-1 and 210 kg N ha-1) served as the sub-plots. Each experimental plot consisted of 26 poly bags of size 43.2 x 35.6 cm flat, and spaced at a distance of 30 cm by 80 cm and replicated three times. This experiment was done under controlled irrigation as the water use efficiency was to be investigated. This study prior a bigger field study Maize cv. Abelehii was grown in poly bag was filled with 15 kg sandy loamy soil, Ferric Lixisol, which has been sieved through 5 mm mesh size. Three seeds per poly bag were sown and thinned to one seedling, five days after emergence. Through out the growing period the moisture content of the soil was adjusted to 60% field capacity using Time Domain Reflectometer (TDR 300) ®. To prevent runoff and soil water evaporation, water was gently added to the soil in each poly bag and the surface was immediately covered with black polythene sheet. Weeds were removed with hands and spraying against stem borers was done whenever necessary. Water-use efficiency (WUEcwu) was determined according to Howell (2001) by dividing the economic yield (i.e. maize grain at a moisture content of 13%) by the cumulative water use."},{"index":4,"size":229,"text":"Eight plants per treatment were used for agronomic data collection. The chlorophyll content of the fifth leaf (from the base of the selected plants) was measured using Chlorophyll Meter (model, Minolta SPAD-502®). Leaf area was measured using Leaf Area Meter (model CI-202, CID INC®). Leaf area index (LAI) was calculated as the total leaf area per plant divided by the ground area in the poly bags. Percent leaf senescence was determined on the ninth week by counting the number of senescent leaves and expressing it as a percentage over the total number of leaves per plant. Two plants were selected randomly from each treatment plot, and oven dried at 70ºC for 72 hours and the dry weight taken. Eight plants per treatment plot were randomly harvested at physiological maturity and the grains dried to 13% moisture content and the weight taken. The mean grain yield was expressed as kg plant-1. The harvest index was calculated by expressing the grain yield over the final total dry matter yield. The root volume was estimated by the water displacement method after the roots were carefully removed from the soil and washed with water. This paper used mean data of growth parameters, yield and nutrient uptake across treatments. The effect of the rate of application of the treatments on growth, yield and nutrient uptake has been discussed in Adamtey et al. (under review) "}]},{"head":"Results and Discussion","index":9,"paragraphs":[]},{"head":"FS Treatments for Recycling","index":10,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":39,"text":"Options for FS recycling vary depending on climatic environment and socio cultural context. Recommendations for applying different options are presented in box 1. Co-compost quality should meet established standards. For Helminth eggs, concentration should not be more than1/g TS"}]},{"head":"Characteristics of FS and FS Based Compost","index":11,"paragraphs":[{"index":1,"size":14,"text":"The chemical and biological characteristics of FS are presented in  ---------------Sheshigu---------------- ----------------Zujung - -----------------    "}]},{"head":"Co-composting of FS and SW","index":12,"paragraphs":[]}],"figures":[{"text":"Box 1 . Options for recycling FS for urban and peri urban agriculture Recycling feasible under hot climate e.g above 35 o C for up to 4 months in the year. Also appropriate where there is demand for FS use.o FS type -septage stored for long e.g over a year are better than fresh one as they are partially stabilised and hence contain less pathogen than public toile sludge which is usally store for few weeks or months before desludging. o Spread the FS on the fields over a relatively large area to give a thin layer o Drying of FS till it forms a cracked layer Above 37 O C, this can be achieved from4 months onwards o Use of protective covering such as gloves and boots adviced Extended Storage FS type: settled sludge from stabilization ponds or settling tanks o Heaped under shade or in the open o Need to be stored for more than 3 months Cocomposting Basic Requirement: primary treatment followed by aerobic composting Primary treatment FS characteristics: o Partly stabilised septage (or mixture septage/public toilet sludge with ≤ 30 % share of public toilet sludge) Drying bed: o Unplanted drying bed: 15 days drying cycle o 25-30 cm sludge layer on beds o 100-200 kg TS/m 2 y Sand characteristics o Sand particles do not crumble o Sand easily available locally o Sand thoroughly washed prior to application unto the gravel base Protection of filter layers o Reduce pressure flow via: o Splitting chamber, inlet channel, and splash plates Biosolids o 0.1m3 /m3 fresh FS o Hygienisation necessary prior to use in agriculture as biosolids Percolate o 50-80 % of raw FS volume o Quality fairly comparable to tropical wastewater o Salinity too high for irrigation Composting Feedstock: dewatered FS or source separated feaces and sorted organic solid waste (SW) Mixing ratio: 2:1 of FS to SW by volume. Minimum size 3m 3 Composting Temperature: uniform windrow temperature between 50 o C and 65 o C Composting period: 3 months Turning Frequency: Every 10 days Moisture: 50-60% (active phase); 40-50% (maturation phase) C/N ratio: 20-30 (initial material) "},{"text":"Fig. 1 . Fig. 1. Yield of Maize and Sorghum in farms with and without FS application at two sites in Tamale. (A, B, and C = farms with FS applied; Control = no FS). Twothreefold higher yields of crops grown on FS-treated soils as compared to untreated soils. "},{"text":"Table 1 Table 1 . Characteristics of FS Parameters Unit FS ParametersUnitFS pH  6.21 ± 0.99 pH6.21 ± 0.99 Acidity cmol/kg 2.30 ± 1.61 Aciditycmol/kg2.30 ± 1.61 Carbon © % 11.39 ± 7.70 Carbon ©%11.39 ± 7.70 Nitrogen (N) % 2.06 ± 0.24 Nitrogen (N)%2.06 ± 0.24 Potassium (K) % 0.39 ± 0.41 Potassium (K)%0.39 ± 0.41 Calcium (Ca) % 0.76 ± 0.54 Calcium (Ca)%0.76 ± 0.54 Magnesium (Mg) % 3.29 ± 3.07 Magnesium (Mg)%3.29 ± 3.07 Phosphorus (P) % 2.44 ± 0.09 Phosphorus (P)%2.44 ± 0.09 Copper (Cu) mg/kg 97.50 ± 6.05 Copper (Cu)mg/kg97.50 ± 6.05 Manganese (Mn) mg/kg 195.33 ± 1.69 Manganese (Mn)mg/kg195.33 ± 1.69 Zinc (Zn) mg/kg 515.0 ± 15.04 Zinc (Zn)mg/kg515.0 ± 15.04 Iron (Fe) mg/kg 938.4 ± 25.39 Iron (Fe)mg/kg938.4 ± 25.39 Lead (Pb) mg/kg 156.67 ± 34.0 Lead (Pb)mg/kg156.67 ± 34.0 Cadmium (Cd) mg/kg trace Cadmium (Cd)mg/kgtrace Mercury (Hg) mg/kg trace Mercury (Hg)mg/kgtrace  "},{"text":"Table 3 . Effect of FS and FS based compost on the growth characteristics of Maize  Application Plant No Chlorophyll ApplicationPlantNoChlorophyll Treatment rate 2 height 3 leaves content 3 Treatmentrate 2height 3leavescontent 3   cm   cm Soil (S) alone NA 135.68 12 35.18 Soil (S) aloneNA135.681235.18 S + DFS 7.3 t ha -1 223.45 16 48.68 S + DFS7.3 t ha -1223.451648.68 S + FS Cocompost 1 14 t ha -1 204.10 14 46.94 S + FS Cocompost 114 t ha -1204.101446.94  450 kg NPK +    450 kg NPK +  399 kg    399 kg S + NPK + (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 165.73 14 47.13 S + NPK + (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4(NH 4 ) 2 SO 4165.731447.13 1 FS Co-compost: i.e solid waste + FS    1 FS Co-compost: i.e solid waste + FS 2 Application rate was based on the recommendation of Adamtey et al. (2009) 2 Application rate was based on the recommendation of Adamtey et al. (2009) 3 Plant height and leaf area measured at 10th week   3 Plant height and leaf area measured at 10th week 4 Leaf chlorophyll content was measured at 8 week   4 Leaf chlorophyll content was measured at 8 week  "},{"text":"Table 4 . Effect of FS and FS co-compost on the Yield of Maize (Zea mays L.)   Yield Yield Treatment Application rate* (kg/ha) TreatmentApplication rate*(kg/ha) Soil (S) alone NA 3336.72 Soil (S) aloneNA3336.72 S + FS Cocompost 14 t ha -1 5071.35 S + FS Cocompost14 t ha -15071.35 S + FS 7.3 t ha -1 6180.48 S + FS7.3 t ha -16180.48 S + NPK + (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 450 kg NPK + 399 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 5630.56 S + NPK + (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4450 kg NPK + 399 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 45630.56 * Application rate was based on the recommendation of Adamtey et * Application rate was based on the recommendation of Adamtey et al. (2009)   al. (2009)  "},{"text":"Table 5 . Effect of FS and FS based compost on the Nutrient uptake of Maize crop (Zea mays L.) at final harvest (mg/plant in parenthesis)  "},{"text":"Table 6 Effect of FS on the growth and Yield of Cabbage  Application rate No. of Leaf length Leaf Yield Application rate No. ofLeaf lengthLeafYield Treatment  leaves (cm) canopy(cm) t /ha Treatmentleaves(cm)canopy(cm)t /ha Soil (S)  9 29 55.4 19.47 Soil (S)92955.419.47  4.4 t ha -1     4.4 t ha -1 S + FS (121kg N ha -1 ) 12 29.2 60.1 39.67 S + FS(121kg N ha -1 )1229.260.139.67 S + NPK + 450 kg NPK     S + NPK +450 kg NPK (NH4)2SO4 (73.5 Kg N/ha) 11 31.1 65.8 37.58 (NH4)2SO4(73.5 Kg N/ha)1131.165.837.58  "},{"text":"Table 7 . Concentration of heavy metals in Cabbage grown with FS Treatment Mn Cu Zn Fe Pb Cd Hg TreatmentMnCuZnFePbCdHg  mg/ plant mg/ plant mg/ plant mg/ mg/ mg/ plant mg/ plant mg/ plant mg/ plant mg/ plantmg/mg/mg/ plant mg/ plant     plant plant   plantplant Soil (S) 8.29 1.13 13.7 66.59 Trace Trace Trace Soil (S)8.291.1313.766.59TraceTraceTrace S + FS 9.39 3.12 19.26 53.12 Trace Trace Trace S + FS9.393.1219.2653.12TraceTraceTrace S + NPK +        S + NPK + (NH4)2SO4 5.09 1.09 8.14 35.04 Trace Trace Trace (NH4)2SO45.091.098.1435.04TraceTraceTrace  "},{"text":"Table 8 Nutrient uptake by Cabbage grown with FS and FS based-composed (mg/plant) Maize FS Only: 7.3 t ha -1 ≈ 210 kg N ha-1 FS co-compost: 14 t ha -1 ≈ 210 kg N ha-1 Mode of application: Incorporation into the surface soil Good demand for FS use in agriculture due to generally positive perception o FS based compost produced bigger girth of maize cobs compared to inorganic fertiliser or soil without amendment. o Yield from FS plots was 10% higher than that for chemical fertilizer. o More than 50% of maize crops from FS plots tassel, form silk and matured one week earlier than crops on fertilizer treated plots.Fresh grains from treatment S + DFS were sweeter than those from inorganic fertilisers. Treatment N P K TreatmentNPK Soil (S) 780.76 137.08 119.20 Soil (S)780.76137.08119.20 S + FS 1470.95 446.03 275.21 S + FS1470.95446.03275.21 S + NPK +    S + NPK + (NH 4 ) 2 SO 4 1442.56 340.48 224.00 (NH 4 ) 2 SO 41442.56340.48224.00 Application recommendations  Application recommendations Cabbage    Cabbage FS only: 4.4 t ha -1 ≈ 121 kg N ha-1  FS only: 4.4 t ha -1 ≈ 121 kg N ha-1 FS cocompost: 10 t ha -1 ≈ 121 kg N ha-1 FS cocompost: 10 t ha -1 ≈ 121 kg N ha-1 General Observations    General Observations o    o  "}],"sieverID":"b0b68683-326d-4fdb-801b-efa896dc8b7d","abstract":""}