File size: 42,562 Bytes
ca18b9c |
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 39 40 41 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 49 50 51 52 53 54 55 56 57 58 59 60 61 62 63 64 65 66 67 68 69 70 71 72 73 74 75 76 77 78 79 80 81 82 83 84 85 86 87 88 89 90 91 92 93 94 95 96 97 98 99 100 101 102 103 104 105 106 107 108 109 110 111 112 113 114 115 116 117 118 119 120 121 122 123 124 125 126 127 128 129 130 131 132 133 134 135 136 137 138 139 140 141 142 143 144 145 146 147 148 149 150 151 152 153 154 155 156 157 158 159 160 161 162 163 164 165 166 167 168 169 170 171 172 173 174 175 176 177 178 179 180 181 182 183 184 185 186 187 188 189 190 191 192 193 194 195 196 197 198 199 200 201 202 203 204 205 206 207 208 209 210 211 212 213 214 215 216 217 218 219 220 221 222 223 224 225 226 227 228 229 230 231 232 233 234 235 236 237 238 239 240 241 242 243 244 245 246 247 248 249 250 251 252 253 254 255 256 257 258 259 260 261 262 263 264 265 266 267 268 269 270 271 272 273 274 275 276 277 278 279 280 281 282 283 284 285 286 287 288 289 290 291 292 293 294 295 296 297 298 299 300 301 302 303 304 305 306 307 308 309 310 311 312 313 314 315 316 317 318 319 320 321 322 323 324 325 326 327 328 329 330 331 332 333 334 335 336 337 338 339 340 341 342 343 344 345 346 347 348 349 350 351 352 353 354 355 356 357 358 359 360 361 362 363 364 365 366 367 368 369 370 371 372 373 374 375 376 377 378 379 380 381 382 383 384 385 386 387 388 389 390 391 392 393 394 395 396 397 398 399 400 401 402 403 404 405 406 407 408 409 410 411 412 413 414 415 416 417 418 419 420 421 422 423 424 425 426 427 428 429 430 431 432 433 434 435 436 437 438 439 440 441 442 443 444 445 446 447 448 449 450 451 452 453 454 455 456 457 458 459 460 461 462 463 464 465 466 467 468 469 470 471 472 473 474 475 476 477 478 479 480 481 482 483 484 485 486 487 488 489 490 491 492 493 494 495 496 497 498 499 500 501 502 503 504 505 506 507 508 509 510 511 512 513 514 515 516 517 518 519 520 521 522 523 524 525 526 527 528 529 530 531 532 533 534 535 536 537 538 539 540 541 542 543 544 545 546 547 548 549 550 551 552 553 554 555 556 557 558 559 560 561 562 563 564 565 566 567 568 569 570 571 572 573 574 575 576 577 578 579 580 581 582 583 584 585 586 587 588 589 590 591 592 593 594 595 596 597 598 599 600 601 602 603 604 605 606 607 608 609 610 611 612 613 614 615 616 617 618 619 620 621 622 623 624 625 626 627 628 629 630 631 632 633 634 635 636 637 638 639 640 641 642 643 644 645 646 647 648 649 650 651 652 653 654 655 656 657 658 659 660 661 662 663 664 665 666 667 668 669 670 671 672 673 674 675 676 677 678 679 680 681 682 683 684 685 686 687 688 689 690 691 692 693 694 695 696 697 698 699 700 701 702 703 704 705 706 707 708 709 710 711 712 713 714 715 716 717 718 719 720 721 722 723 724 725 726 727 728 729 730 731 732 733 734 735 736 737 738 739 740 741 742 743 744 745 746 747 748 749 750 751 752 753 754 755 756 757 758 759 760 761 762 763 764 765 766 767 768 769 770 771 772 773 774 775 776 777 778 779 780 781 782 783 784 785 786 787 788 789 790 791 792 793 794 795 796 797 798 799 800 801 802 803 804 805 806 807 808 809 810 811 812 813 814 815 816 817 818 819 820 821 822 823 824 825 826 827 828 829 830 831 832 833 834 835 836 837 838 839 840 841 842 843 844 845 846 847 848 849 850 851 852 853 854 855 856 857 858 859 860 861 862 863 864 865 866 867 868 869 870 871 872 873 874 875 876 877 878 879 880 881 882 883 884 885 886 887 888 889 890 891 892 893 894 895 896 897 898 899 900 901 902 903 904 905 906 907 908 909 910 911 912 913 914 915 916 917 918 919 920 921 922 923 924 925 926 927 928 929 930 931 932 933 934 935 936 937 938 939 940 941 942 943 944 945 946 947 948 949 950 951 952 953 954 955 956 957 958 959 960 961 962 963 964 965 966 967 968 969 970 971 972 973 974 975 976 977 978 979 980 981 982 983 984 985 986 987 988 989 990 991 992 993 994 995 996 997 998 999 1000 1001 1002 1003 1004 1005 1006 1007 1008 1009 1010 1011 1012 1013 1014 1015 1016 1017 1018 1019 1020 1021 1022 1023 1024 1025 1026 1027 1028 1029 1030 1031 1032 1033 1034 1035 1036 1037 1038 1039 1040 1041 1042 1043 1044 1045 1046 1047 1048 1049 1050 1051 1052 1053 1054 1055 1056 1057 1058 1059 1060 1061 1062 1063 1064 1065 1066 1067 1068 1069 1070 1071 1072 1073 1074 1075 1076 1077 1078 1079 1080 1081 1082 1083 1084 1085 1086 1087 1088 1089 1090 1091 1092 1093 1094 1095 1096 1097 1098 1099 1100 1101 1102 1103 1104 1105 1106 1107 1108 1109 1110 1111 1112 1113 1114 1115 1116 1117 1118 1119 1120 1121 1122 1123 1124 1125 1126 1127 1128 1129 1130 1131 1132 |
{
"title": "African_Greeks",
"url": "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/African_Greeks",
"summary": "African Greeks are ethnic Greek people in Africa. Greek communities have existed in Africa since antiquity.",
"content": [
{
"section_title": "Ancient Egypt",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Greeks have been present in Egypt since at least the 7th century BC",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Herodotus visited ancient Egypt in the 5th century BC and claimed that the Greeks were one of the first groups of foreigners that ever lived there",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Diodorus Siculus claimed that Rhodian Actis, one of the Heliadae, built the city of Heliopolis before the cataclysm; likewise the Athenians built Sais",
"refs": [
"http://web.ana-mpa.gr/afieromata/omogeneia/africa/part_a.html"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Siculus reports that all the Greek cities were destroyed during the cataclysm, but the Egyptian cities including Heliopolis and Sais survived",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "First historical colonies",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "According to Herodotus (ii",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "154), King Psammetichus I (664\u2013610 BC) established a garrison of foreign mercenaries at Daphnae, mostly Carians and Ionian Greeks.",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "In 7th century BC, after the Greek Dark Ages from 1100 to 750 BC, the city of Naucratis was founded in Ancient Egypt",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It was located on the Canopic branch of the Nile river, 45\u00a0mi (72\u00a0km) from the open sea",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It was the first and, for much of its early history, the only permanent Greek colony in Egypt; acting as a symbiotic nexus for the interchange of Greek and Egyptian art and culture.",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "At about the same time, the city of Heracleion, the closest to the sea, became an important port for Greek trade",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It had a famous temple of Heracles",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The city later sank into the sea, only to be rediscovered recently.",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "From the time of Psammetichus I onwards, Greek mercenary armies played an important role in some of the Egyptian wars",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "One such army was led by Mentor of Rhodes",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Another such personage was Phanes of Halicarnassus.",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
},
{
"section_title": "Hellenistic times",
"section_content": [],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "Rule of Alexander the Great (332\u2013323 BC)",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Alexander the Great conquered Egypt at an early stage of his conquests",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "He respected the pharaonic religions and customs and he was proclaimed Pharaoh of Egypt",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "He established the city of Alexandria",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "After his death, in 323 BC, his empire was divided among his generals",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Egypt was given to Ptolemy I Soter, whose descendants would give Egypt her final royal dynasty \u2013 a glittering one",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The dynasty was composed solely by ethnic Greeks and produced dynasts such as the famous Cleopatra",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Its capital was Alexandria",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Ptolemy added legitimacy to his rule in Egypt by acquiring Alexander's body",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "He intercepted the embalmed corpse on its way to burial, brought it to Egypt, and placed it in a golden coffin in Alexandria",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It would remain one of the famous sights of the town for many years, until probably destroyed in riots in the 3rd century AD",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
},
{
"section_title": "The Ptolemaic Empire (323\u201330 BC)",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "The initial objective of Ptolemy's reign was to establish firm and broad boundaries to his newly acquired kingdom",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "That led to almost continuous warfare against other leading members of Alexander's circle",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "At times he held Cyprus and even parts of mainland Greece",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "When these conflicts were over, he was firmly in control of Egypt and had strong claims (disputed by the Seleucid dynasty) to Palestine",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "He called himself king of Egypt from 306 BC",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "By the time he abdicated in 285 BC, in favour of one of his sons, the Ptolemaic dynasty was secure",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Ptolemy and his descendants showed respect to Egypt's most cherished traditions \u2013 those of religion \u2013 and turned them to their own advantage.",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Alexandria became the centre of the Greek and Hellenistic world and the centre of international commerce, art and science",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Lighthouse of Alexandria was one of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World while during the reign of Ptolemy II Philadelphus, the Library of Alexandria was the biggest library in the world until it was destroyed",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The last Pharaoh was a Greek princess, Cleopatra VII, who took her own life in 30 BC, a year after the battle of Actium",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
}
]
},
{
"section_title": "Roman and Byzantine Egypt",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Under Greco-Roman rule, Egypt hosted several Greek settlements, mostly concentrated in Alexandria, but also in a few other cities, where Greek settlers lived alongside some seven to ten million native Egyptians",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Faiyum's earliest Greek inhabitants were soldier-veterans and cleruchs (elite military officials) who were settled by the Ptolemaic kings on reclaimed lands",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Native Egyptians also came to settle in Faiyum from all over the country, notably the Nile Delta, Upper Egypt, Oxyrhynchus and Memphis, to undertake the labor involved in the land reclamation process, as attested by personal names, local cults and recovered papyri",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
}
],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "Coptic Greeks",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "It is estimated that as much as 30 percent of the population of Faiyum was Greek during the Ptolemaic period, with the rest being native Egyptians; the Faiyum mummy portraits reflect the complex synthesis of the predominant Egyptian culture and that of the elite Egyptian Greek minority in Faiyum",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "By the Roman period, much of the \"Greek\" population of Faiyum was made up of either Hellenized Egyptians or people of mixed Egyptian-Greek origins, and by the time of Roman emperor Caracalla in the 2nd century AD, ethnic Egyptians could be distinguished from Egyptian Greeks only by their speech",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Egyptian Greek is the variety of Greek spoken in Egypt from antiquity until the Islamic conquest of Egypt in the 7th century",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Egyptian Greek adopted many loanwords from Egyptian language; there was a great deal of intracommunity bilingualism in Egypt",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The following is an example of Egyptian Greek language, used in the Coptic Church:",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "According to Walker, early Ptolemaic Greek colonists married local women and adopted Egyptian religious beliefs, and by Roman times, their descendants were viewed as Egyptians by the Roman rulers, despite their own self-perception of being Greek",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The dental morphology of the Roman-period Faiyum mummies was also compared with that of earlier Egyptian populations, and was found to be \"much more closely akin\" to that of ancient Egyptians than to Greeks or other European populations",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Victor J",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Katz notes that \"research in papyri dating from the early centuries of the common era demonstrates that a significant amount of intermarriage took place between the Greek and Egyptian communities\"",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
}
]
}
]
},
{
"section_title": "Ancient Ethiopia",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "The name Ethiopia itself is Greek and means \"of burned face\"",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It is first attested in the Homeric epics but it is unlikely to have referred to any particular nation, but rather, to people of African descent in general",
"refs": [
"https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%232329"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Beginning in the Hellenistic age around the third century BC, Greek culture permeated the regions of ancient Ethiopia",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Greeks established colonies in Ethiopia, with Ptolemais Theron and Axum becoming major capitals of Ethiopian Greek culture",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "In the second century BC, Ptolemy III Euergetes annexed several northern Ethiopian cities such as Tigray and the port of Adulis, which became major trading hubs for Ethiopian Greeks",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "Axumites of Ethiopia",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "After the Romans annexed the Ptolemaic Empire, the Axumite king Zoskales (Ancient Greek: \u0396\u03c9\u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2) established the Axumite Empire (Ancient Greek: \u1f08\u03be\u03c9\u03bc\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2) (c",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "100 AD\u2013c",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "960 AD), which maintained Ethiopian Greek culture and used Greek as its lingua franca",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "In the city of Axum, many obelisks, statues, and architecture made in Egyptian Greek style still mark the landscape",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "As the Islamic conquest of North Africa severed Axum's link with the Greek world in the 7th century, Greek culture and knowledge waned; Muslim presence in the Red Sea also caused Axum to suffer economically and it declined in power",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Axum's final three centuries are considered a dark age, in which Ethiopian Greek culture disappeared; the Axumite Empire finally collapsed around 960 AD",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Despite its position as one of the foremost empires of late antiquity, Axum fell into obscurity as Ethiopia remained isolated throughout the Middle Ages",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-90-04-41958-2"
]
}
],
"subsections": []
},
{
"section_title": "Abyssinian Greeks",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Later Abyssinian Greeks were attested in the 1700s, largely descending from Greek craftsmen and sailors residing in Abyssinia, who facilitated commerce between Abyssinia and Europe",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The explorer James Bruce reported that a number of Greek refugees from Smyrna had also arrived in Gondar during the reign of Emperor Iyasu II",
"refs": [
"https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8152015",
"ISBN: 90-04-07680-8"
]
},
{
"sentence": "The Smyrniot refugees included twelve silversmiths, whom the emperor put to work producing a variety of items for both his court and the churches of Gondar",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Abyssinian Greeks held many of the highest positions in the Abyssinian Empire; the principal Abyssinian Greek community stayed with the Abyssinian Emperor in the capital, Gondar",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Emperor Theodore II specifically made known that he favored the Abyssinian Greeks, because of their virility and integrity of character",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
}
],
"subsections": []
}
]
},
{
"section_title": "Ancient Libya",
"section_content": [],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "Libyan Greeks of Cyrenaica",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Cyrenaica was colonized by Greeks beginning in the 7th century BC",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The first and most important colony was that of Cyrene, established in about 631 BC by colonists from the Greek island of Thera, which they had abandoned because of a severe famine",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Their commander, Aristoteles, took the Libyan name Battos",
"refs": [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=2aOpeBnbxvsC&pg=PA194"
]
},
{
"sentence": "His descendants, known as the Battiad dynasty, persisted in spite of severe conflict with Greeks in neighboring cities.",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "The eastern portion of the province, with no major population centers, was called Marmarica; the more important western portion was known as the Pentapolis, as it comprised five cities: Cyrene (near the modern village of Shahat) with its port of Apollonia (Marsa Susa), Arsinoe or Taucheira (Tocra), Euesperides or Berenice (near modern Benghazi), Balagrae (Bayda) and Barce (Marj)\u00a0\u2013 of which the chief was the eponymous Cyrene",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The term \"Pentapolis\" continued to be used as a synonym for Cyrenaica",
"refs": [
"https://books.google.com/books?id=2aOpeBnbxvsC&pg=PA194"
]
},
{
"sentence": "In the south, the Pentapolis faded into the Saharan tribal areas, including the pharaonic oracle of Ammonium.",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The region produced barley, wheat, olive oil, wine, figs, apples, wool, sheep, cattle and silphium, a herb that grew only in Cyrenaica and was regarded as a medicinal cure and aphrodisiac",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Cyrene became one of the greatest intellectual and artistic centers of the Greek world, famous for its medical school, learned academies and architecture, which included some of the finest examples of the Hellenistic style",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "The Cyrenaics, a school of thinkers who expounded a doctrine of moral cheerfulness that defined happiness as the sum of human pleasures, were founded by Aristippus of Cyrene",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Other notable natives of Cyrene were the poet Callimachus and the mathematicians Theodorus and Eratosthenes",
"refs": [
"http://workmall.com/wfb2001/libya/libya_history_cyrenaica_and_the_greeks.html"
]
}
],
"subsections": []
},
{
"section_title": "Libyan Greek culture",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "The most influential of the Libyan Greeks were the Cyreneans",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Cyreneans invited Greek colonists from all over the Greek world to settle in Cyrene",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Cyrenean government was originally an absolute monarchy, but under Demonax, it became a constitutional monarchy with a senate",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Demonax divided the Cyreneans into three groups to elect senators: first, the original Theran colonists and ethnic Libyans, second, Peloponnesians and Cretans, and third, Aegean islanders",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Under the Cyrenean constitution, the king only had the authority to grant land to citizens, and held the role of chief priest, in charge of religious duties",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Libyan Greek religion was directly influenced by Ancient Egyptian religion",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Cyreneans assimilated the Egyptian god Amun with Zeus as \"Ammon\", embodying Zeus in his style and Amun in his nature, attributing the horns of a ram to his image",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Ammon had a wife, Ammonia, and a son, Parammon (Thoth-Hermes), considered Ammon's hypostasis (incarnation)",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Parammon was also the secretary of Osiris, one of the sons of Ammon",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
}
]
},
{
"section_title": "Ancient Nubia",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Intercultural exchange between the Hellenic and Nubian civilizations started at least two and a half millennia ago",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Greek presence in the Nile Valley and its considerable impact on ancient Nubia have long been recognized by scholars",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The first recorded contact took place in 593 BC: graffiti at Abu Simbel reveal that large numbers of Greek mercenaries served under Psamtik II in his invasion of what is now Sudan",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-0-8108-6180-0"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Vice versa, ancient Nubia also had an influence on Greek culture from those early times onwards, as it was well known by scholars throughout the Hellenic world, where several of the classical writers mentioned it",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "It evidently inspired curiosity about the exotic lands South of Egypt and particularly about the sources of the Nile river",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Hence, the pioneering historian Herodotus (circa 484 \u2013 circa 425 BC) made references to Nubia as a land of \"burned faces\" (Ethiopians) and the source of the Nile",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Though he is assumed to have been personally familiar with the river only as far as Aswan, he did identify a \"city of Ethiopians\" at Mero\u00eb, apparently from reports by Psamtik II and Cambyses II",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-0-7146-1037-5"
]
},
{
"sentence": "A new era of Greek-Nubian relations began in 332 BC, when Alexander the Great conquered Egypt and soon dispatched reconnaissance expeditions into Nubia, possibly to find the sources of the Nile",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Scholars assume that the potential Ptolemaic threat contributed to the decision by the Kushitic king Nastasen to move the capital from Napata to Mero\u00eb",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Greek language and culture were introduced to the Kushitic ruling classes, which may have triggered the creation of an alphabetic Meroitic writing",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Hellenic influences are also evident from changes in art styles",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Nubian contact with the Greek world remained sporadic until Ptolemy II's Nubian campaign for Mero\u00eb in the 270s BC",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Ptolemy's interest in Nubia was to secure a source of war elephants from Mero\u00eb, and to gain access to Meroitic gold mines",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "At the same time, Ergamenes (Arkamani II), a king of one of the nine Nubian kingdoms, studied Greek language and customs at the Alexandrian court in the Ptolemaic Empire",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Eratosthenes (circa 276\u2013194 BC), the Greek geographer and librarian at Alexandria, sketched \"with fair accuracy\" the course of the Nile as far south as what is now Khartoum, based on the accounts of various travellers",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Pliny listed a number of Greeks who had travelled to Mero\u00eb and sometimes beyond: Dalion, Aristocreon, Bion, Basilis, and Simonides the Younger, who apparently lived at Meroe for five years",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-0-7146-1037-5"
]
},
{
"sentence": "Relations between Kush and Ptolemaic Egypt thereafter remained tense, but stable",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "By the time of Ptolemy VIII (170-163 BC), Greek ships regularly sailed on the Red Sea and to Meroitic ports",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "The Nubian upper class traded with Greek merchants and adopted certain Hellenic styles of life",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-0-8108-4784-2"
]
},
{
"sentence": "However, following the death of Cleopatra VII in 30 BC and an unsuccessful attempt by the Romans to conquer the kingdom, Greek influences withered in Nubia",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
},
{
"sentence": "The account of Strabo, the geographer and historian of Greek descent, in his Geographia is one of the last references to Nubia from that time",
"refs": [
"ISBN: 978-0-8108-4784-2"
]
}
],
"subsections": [
{
"section_title": "Axumite subjugation of Nubia",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "The Axumite Empire engaged in a series of invasions that culminated in the capture of the Nubian capital of Mero\u00eb in the middle of the 4th century AD, signaling the end of independent Nubian Pagan kingdoms",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Axumites then converted the Nubians to Christianity, establishing the authority of the Coptic Church in the area, and founded new Nubian Christian kingdoms, such as Nobatia, Alodia, and Makuria",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Tribal nomads like the Beja, Afar, and Saho managed to remain autonomous due to their uncentralized nomadic nature",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "These tribal peoples would sporadically inflict attacks and raids on Axumite communities",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The Beja nomads eventually Hellenized and integrated into the Nubian Greek society that had already been present in Lower Nubia for three centuries",
"refs": []
}
],
"subsections": []
},
{
"section_title": "Nubian Greeks",
"section_content": [
{
"sentence": "Nubian Greek culture followed the pattern of Egyptian Greek and Byzantine Greek civilization, expressed in Nubian Greek art and Nubian Greek literature",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The earliest attestations of Nubian Greek literature come from the 5th century; the Nubian Greek language resembles Egyptian and Byzantine Greek; it served as a lingua franca throughout the Nubian Kingdoms, and had a creolized form for trade among the different peoples in Nubia",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Nubian Greek was unique in that it adopted many words from both Coptic Egyptian and Nubian; Nubian Greek's syntax also evolved to establish a fixed word order",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "The following is an example of Nubian Greek language:",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "A plethora of frescoes created between 800\u20131200\u00a0AD in Nubian cities such as Faras depicted religious life in the courts of the Nubian Kingdoms; they were made in Byzantine art style",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Nubian Greek titles and government styles in Nubian Kingdoms were based on Byzantine models; even with Islamic encroachments and influence into Nubian territory, the Nubian Greeks saw Constantinople as their spiritual home",
"refs": []
},
{
"sentence": "Nubian Greek culture disappeared after the Muslim conquest of Nubia around 1450\u00a0AD",
"refs": [
"[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
]
}
],
"subsections": []
}
]
}
],
"references": {
"1": "http://web.ana-mpa.gr/afieromata/omogeneia/africa/part_a.html",
"2": "https://archive.org/details/bub_gb_agd-eLVNRMMC",
"3": "http://www.historyworld.net/wrldhis/PlainTextHistories.asp?groupid=260&HistoryID=aa28",
"4": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"5": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"6": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"7": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"8": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"9": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"10": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"11": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"12": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"13": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"14": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"15": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"16": "ISBN: 0-321-01618-1",
"17": "https://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.04.0057%3Aentry%3D%232329",
"18": "https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8152015",
"19": "ISBN: 90-04-07680-8",
"20": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"21": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"22": "ISBN: 978-90-04-41958-2",
"23": "ISBN: 978-90-04-41958-2",
"24": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"25": "ISBN: 978-1-58046-519-9",
"26": "https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/8152015",
"27": "ISBN: 90-04-07680-8",
"28": "https://www.jstor.org/stable/4128531",
"29": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"30": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"31": "https://books.google.com/books?id=2aOpeBnbxvsC&pg=PA194",
"32": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"33": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"34": "http://workmall.com/wfb2001/libya/libya_history_cyrenaica_and_the_greeks.html",
"35": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"36": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"37": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"38": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"39": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"40": "ISBN: 978-0-8108-6180-0",
"41": "https://doi.org/10.2307%2F4349596",
"42": "ISBN: 978-0-7146-1037-5",
"43": "ISBN: 978-0-8108-4784-2",
"44": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"45": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"46": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"47": "http://etheses.dur.ac.uk/9994/",
"48": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"49": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"50": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"51": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"52": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"53": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"54": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]",
"55": "[ERROR retrieving ref link]"
},
"spicy_entities": {
"african": "NORP",
"greek": "NORP",
"africa": "LOC",
"egypt": "GPE",
"greeks": "PERSON",
"at least the 7th century": "DATE",
"bc": "ORG",
"herodotus": "ORG",
"the 5th century": "DATE",
"one": "CARDINAL",
"first": "ORDINAL",
"diodorus siculus": "PERSON",
"rhodian actis": "NORP",
"heliadae": "GPE",
"heliopolis": "GPE",
"athenians": "NORP",
"egyptian": "NORP",
"sais": "PERSON",
"154": "CARDINAL",
"king psammetichus": "ORG",
"664\u2013610": "CARDINAL",
"daphnae": "ORG",
"carians": "NORP",
"ionian": "NORP",
"7th century": "DATE",
"the greek dark ages from": "GPE",
"1100": "DATE",
"750": "CARDINAL",
"naucratis": "GPE",
"ancient egypt": "ORG",
"canopic": "ORG",
"nile": "LOC",
"45": "CARDINAL",
"72\u00a0km": "QUANTITY",
"heracleion": "FAC",
"heracles": "GPE",
"psammetichus i": "PERSON",
"mentor of rhodes": "ORG",
"hellenistic": "NORP",
"332\u2013323 bc": "MONEY",
"pharaoh": "PERSON",
"alexandria": "GPE",
"323": "CARDINAL",
"ptolemy i soter": "ORG",
"the dynasty": "DATE",
"cleopatra": "PERSON",
"alexander": "ORG",
"many years": "DATE",
"the 3rd century ad": "DATE",
"the ptolemaic empire": "GPE",
"ptolemy": "GPE",
"greece": "GPE",
"the seleucid dynasty": "GPE",
"palestine": "GPE",
"306": "CARDINAL",
"285": "CARDINAL",
"the ptolemaic dynasty": "DATE",
"seven": "CARDINAL",
"the ancient world": "ORG",
"ptolemy ii philadelphus": "EVENT",
"30": "CARDINAL",
"a year": "DATE",
"actium": "ORG",
"roman": "NORP",
"byzantine egypt": "PERSON",
"greco-roman": "PERSON",
"some seven to ten million": "CARDINAL",
"egyptians": "NORP",
"ptolemaic": "PERSON",
"native egyptians": "NORP",
"faiyum": "GPE",
"the nile delta": "LOC",
"upper egypt": "GPE",
"oxyrhynchus": "GPE",
"coptic greeks\n\n": "WORK_OF_ART",
"as much as 30 percent": "PERCENT",
"hellenized egyptians": "PERSON",
"caracalla": "PERSON",
"the 2nd century ad": "DATE",
"islamic": "NORP",
"the 7th century": "DATE",
"the coptic church": "ORG",
"walker": "ORG",
"european": "NORP",
"victor j": "PERSON",
"katz": "PERSON",
"the early centuries": "DATE",
"ethiopia": "GPE",
"ptolemais theron": "ORG",
"axum": "PERSON",
"ethiopian greek": "NORP",
"the second century": "DATE",
"ethiopian": "NORP",
"tigray": "PERSON",
"adulis": "GPE",
"romans": "NORP",
"axumite": "NORP",
"zoskales": "PERSON",
"\u03b6\u03c9\u03c3\u03ba\u03ac\u03bb\u03b7\u03c2": "ORG",
"the axumite empire": "GPE",
"\u1f00\u03be\u03c9\u03bc\u03af\u03c4\u03b7\u03c2": "PERSON",
"960": "CARDINAL",
"north africa": "GPE",
"muslim": "NORP",
"the red sea": "LOC",
"three": "CARDINAL",
"around 960 ad": "DATE",
"the middle ages": "LOC",
"abyssinian": "NORP",
"abyssinian greeks": "PERSON",
"the 1700s": "DATE",
"abyssinia": "GPE",
"europe": "LOC",
"james bruce": "PERSON",
"smyrna": "GPE",
"gondar": "GPE",
"iyasu ii": "PERSON",
"smyrniot": "PERSON",
"twelve": "CARDINAL",
"the abyssinian empire": "GPE",
"abyssinian greek": "NORP",
"theodore ii": "PERSON",
"the abyssinian greeks": "LOC",
"libya": "GPE",
"libyan": "NORP",
"cyrenaica": "LOC",
"cyrene": "PERSON",
"about 631": "CARDINAL",
"thera": "GPE",
"aristoteles": "ORG",
"battos": "PERSON",
"battiad": "NORP",
"marmarica": "PERSON",
"pentapolis": "NORP",
"five": "CARDINAL",
"apollonia": "GPE",
"arsinoe": "PERSON",
"taucheira (tocra": "ORG",
"euesperides": "ORG",
"berenice": "WORK_OF_ART",
"benghazi": "GPE",
"balagrae (bayda": "ORG",
"barce": "ORG",
"marj": "PERSON",
"saharan": "PERSON",
"ammonium": "GPE",
"aristippus of cyrene": "PERSON",
"callimachus": "PERSON",
"theodorus": "GPE",
"eratosthenes": "GPE",
"libyan greek": "NORP",
"cyreneans": "NORP",
"cyrenean": "ORG",
"demonax": "ORG",
"senate": "ORG",
"theran": "GPE",
"libyans": "NORP",
"second": "ORDINAL",
"peloponnesians": "NORP",
"cretans": "NORP",
"third": "ORDINAL",
"aegean": "NORP",
"zeus": "PERSON",
"ammon": "PERSON",
"amun": "PERSON",
"ammonia": "GPE",
"parammon": "PERSON",
"thoth-hermes": "ORG",
"osiris": "ORG",
"ancient nubia": "ORG",
"hellenic": "NORP",
"nubian": "NORP",
"at least two and a half millennia ago": "CARDINAL",
"the nile valley": "LOC",
"nubia": "GPE",
"593": "CARDINAL",
"graffiti": "PERSON",
"abu simbel": "PERSON",
"sudan": "GPE",
"south": "LOC",
"484": "CARDINAL",
"425": "CARDINAL",
"ethiopians": "NORP",
"aswan": "GPE",
"332": "CARDINAL",
"alexander the great": "ORG",
"kushitic": "NORP",
"nastasen": "PERSON",
"napata": "ORG",
"meroitic": "NORP",
"ptolemy ii's": "ORG",
"mero\u00eb": "GPE",
"the 270s bc": "ORG",
"ergamenes": "PERSON",
"nine": "CARDINAL",
"alexandrian": "NORP",
"276\u2013194": "CARDINAL",
"khartoum": "GPE",
"aristocreon": "GPE",
"bion": "GPE",
"basilis": "LOC",
"simonides": "PERSON",
"younger": "NORP",
"meroe": "ORG",
"five years": "DATE",
"kush": "PERSON",
"170-163": "CARDINAL",
"strabo": "GPE",
"geographia": "ORG",
"axumite empire": "GPE",
"nubian pagan": "PERSON",
"axumites": "NORP",
"nubians": "NORP",
"christianity": "NORP",
"christian": "NORP",
"nobatia": "ORG",
"alodia": "ORG",
"makuria": "PERSON",
"beja": "PERSON",
"afar": "PERSON",
"saho": "ORG",
"hellenized": "GPE",
"nubian greek": "NORP",
"lower nubia": "GPE",
"three centuries": "DATE",
"byzantine greek": "NORP",
"the nubian kingdoms": "ORG",
"coptic egyptian": "NORP",
"nubian greek's": "PERSON",
"between 800\u20131200\u00a0ad": "DATE",
"faras": "ORG",
"byzantine": "NORP",
"nubian kingdoms": "GPE",
"the nubian greeks": "ORG",
"around 1450\u00a0ad": "DATE"
},
"flair_entities": [
"marj",
"nubian pagan",
"christianity",
"taucheira",
"nile river",
"muslim",
"european",
"benghazi",
"gondar",
"ethiopia",
"aristocreon",
"ptolemaic egypt",
"nubia",
"cyrenaics",
"african greeks",
"parammon",
"katz",
"greek-nubian",
"axumite",
"afar",
"nubian greek",
"red sea",
"callimachus",
"ptolemais theron",
"geographia",
"khartoum",
"alexandrian",
"sudan",
"seven wonders of the ancient world",
"pharaoh",
"ethiopian",
"walker",
"abyssinian greek",
"palestine",
"makuria",
"alexander",
"cyrenaica",
"smyrniot",
"aswan",
"demonax",
"cambyses ii",
"libya",
"victor j",
"memphis",
"egyptian greek",
"alexander the great",
"egyptian greeks",
"romans",
"actium",
"saho",
"egyptians",
"nobatia",
"greece",
"arsinoe",
"theran",
"byzantine egypt",
"tocra",
"heliadae",
"thoth-hermes",
"tigray",
"abyssinian greeks",
"seleucid",
"simonides the younger",
"nubian christian",
"cretans",
"ptolemy",
"ancient nubia intercultural",
"peloponnesians",
"hellenistic",
"marsa susa",
"caracalla",
"ammon",
"africa",
"axumites",
"carians",
"siculus",
"cleopatra vii",
"cyrenaica cyrenaica",
"meroe",
"nastasen",
"ptolemaic greek",
"nile",
"coptic church",
"abyssinia",
"berenice",
"balagrae",
"zoskales",
"mero\u00eb",
"axumite empire",
"arkamani ii",
"abyssinian",
"nubian",
"faras",
"adulis",
"abu simbel",
"alodia",
"rule of alexander the great",
"cyprus",
"coptic greeks",
"bayda",
"theodore ii",
"nubians",
"osiris",
"aegean",
"coptic",
"byzantine greek",
"ptolemy ii philadelphus",
"hellenized",
"axum",
"iyasu ii",
"cyrenean",
"canopic",
"ptolemaic empire",
"nubian greeks",
"cyrene",
"amun",
"ethiopians",
"saharan",
"athenians",
"greek",
"pliny",
"egyptian",
"heracles",
"egyptian-greek",
"europe",
"phanes of halicarnassus.",
"psammetichus i",
"ptolemy viii",
"cyreneans",
"bc",
"shahat",
"hellenic",
"bion",
"apollonia",
"zeus",
"ptolemy iii euergetes",
"cleopatra",
"libyan greek",
"ergamenes",
"ancient egyptian",
"ethiopian greeks",
"beja",
"native egyptians",
"daphnae",
"lighthouse of alexandria",
"herodotus",
"rhodes",
"upper egypt",
"ptolemaic",
"faiyum",
"african",
"pentapolis",
"nubian kingdoms",
"james bruce",
"diodorus siculus",
"homeric",
"libyan",
"aristippus",
"islamic",
"ptolemy ii",
"nile valley",
"thera",
"marmarica",
"aristoteles",
"barce",
"kushitic",
"library of alexandria",
"alexandria",
"byzantine",
"napata",
"battos",
"basilis",
"constantinople",
"sais",
"north africa",
"abyssinian empire",
"egypt",
"rhodian actis",
"heracleion",
"meroitic",
"euesperides",
"ammonia",
"eratosthenes",
"ionian greeks.",
"libyan greeks",
"psamtik ii",
"strabo",
"nile delta",
"nubia the axumite empire",
"battiad",
"ptolemy i soter",
"greeks",
"smyrna",
"lower nubia",
"ancient greek",
"greco-roman",
"oxyrhynchus",
"ammonium.",
"greek dark ages",
"roman",
"theodorus",
"dalion",
"heliopolis",
"libyans",
"naucratis",
"kush",
"ancient egypt"
]
} |