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= Ghost in the Shell ( 1995 film ) =
Ghost in the Shell , known in Japan as Mobile Armored Riot Police : Ghost In The Shell ( 攻殻機動隊 GHOST IN THE SHELL , Kōkaku Kidōtai Gōsuto In Za Sheru ) , is a 1995 science fiction anime film based on manga of the same title by Masamune Shirow . The film was written by Kazunori Itō , directed by Mamoru Oshii , animated by Production I.G , and starred the voices of Atsuko Tanaka , Akio Ōtsuka , and Iemasa Kayumi .
Ghost in the Shell follows the hunt by the public @-@ security agency Section 9 for a mysterious hacker known as the Puppet Master . With the assistance of her team , Motoko Kusanagi tracks and finds their suspect , only to be drawn into a complex sequence of political intrigue and a cover @-@ up as to the identity and goals of the Puppet Master .
The overarching philosophical themes of the film include self @-@ identity in a technologically advanced world . The music , composed by Kenji Kawai , included an ancient Japanese language in a wedding song that serves as a key piece of music leading up to the climax of the movie . Widely considered one of the greatest anime films of all time , critics particularly praised its visuals , which at the time were the most effective synthesis of traditional cel animation and CG animation . It has served as inspiration for filmmakers such as the Wachowskis .
In 2004 , Oshii directed Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence , billed as a separate work and not a true sequel . In 2008 , Oshii released an updated version of the original film , Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , that features new audio and updated 3D animation . A live @-@ action Hollywood Ghost in the Shell remake is scheduled for 2017 .
= = Plot = =
In 2029 , the world is interconnected by a vast electronic network that permeates every aspect of life . Much of humanity has access to this network through cybernetic bodies , or " shells " , which possess their consciousness and can give them superhuman abilities .
Major Motoko Kusanagi , an assault @-@ team leader for the Public Security Section 9 , is assigned to capture an elusive hacker known as the Puppet Master . Her team , Batou and Ishikawa , use triangulation to seek out the Puppet Master . Their suspect is a garbageman who believes he is using a program obtained from a sympathetic man to illegally " ghost @-@ hack " his wife 's mind to find his daughter . Kusanagi and her team arrest him and the man who gave him the program , but discover that their memories were either erased or implanted : " ghost @-@ hacked " by the Puppet Master .
A facility is hacked and programmed to assemble a female cybernetic body . The body escapes but is hit by a truck ; Section 9 investigates and examines the body , which seems to have a human " ghost " inside — perhaps the Puppet Master himself . Officials from rival agency Section 6 visit Section 9 and explain that the body was made to lure the Puppet Master 's ghost and trap it inside . Kusanagi espies the conversation and decides to disconnect her consciousness from her current body and connect or " dive into " the body and face the Puppet Master 's ghost . Before she succeeds , the ghost activates the body . Section 6 storms Section 9 and reclaims the body .
The information from the body leads Section 9 to uncover the mysterious Project 2501 . Section 6 claims the project was created to catch the hacker , but it was initiated before his appearance . Section 9 speculates that the project itself created the Puppet Master , who then escaped , and Section 6 now wants him back . Daisuke Aramaki , head of Section 9 , suspects that the project and the Puppet Master are tools of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs . The escape might lead to the release of secrets that could embarrass Section 6 and the Ministry .
The getaway car carrying the Puppet Master meets another , and they split off . Batou stops the first car and realizes it is a decoy . Kusanagi follows the second car to an abandoned building , where she is ambushed by a spider @-@ like armored vehicle . Batou arrives in time to save the badly damaged Kusanagi . With Batou on guard , Kusanagi faces the body stolen by Section 6 . The Puppet Master reveals himself and explains that , under Project 2501 , he was created by Section 6 to hack ghosts for individuals and Section 6 . While wandering various networks , the Puppet Master became sentient and began to contemplate his existence ; it troubled him that he could not reproduce or die . He plans to merge with Kusanagi 's ghost to experience mortality ; Kusanagi would live on with his ghost . As he could not crack Section 6 's attack protection , he was forced to escape in a physical body .
Batou tries to disconnect the dive , but the Puppet Master ghost @-@ hacks him . Helicopters from Section 6 arrive with orders to destroy everyone inside to cover up Project 2501 . The Puppet Master disrupts their targeting systems . As he starts merging with Kusanagi , snipers blow their heads off , along with Batou 's arm .
Kusanagi wakes up in a child @-@ sized cyborg body in Batou 's safehouse . Batou explains that her original body was destroyed in the fight ; he recovered her head and attached it to the new body . Kusanagi acknowledges she is now neither herself nor the Puppet Master , but a combination of both . Batou says he will always be there for her . She leaves the house and gazes out over the city .
= = Voice cast = =
= = Production = =
= = = Development = = =
Director Mamoru Oshii stated , " My intuition told me that this story about a futuristic world carried an immediate message for our present world . I am also interested in computers through my own personal experience with them . I had the same feeling about Patlabor and I thought it would be interesting to make a film that took place in the near future . There are only a few movies , even out of Hollywood , which clearly portray the influence and power of computers . I thought this theme would be more effectively conveyed through animation . " Oshii expanded on these thoughts in a later interview , noting that technology changes people and had become a part of the culture of Japan . He commented that his use of philosophy caused producers to become frustrated because of sparing use of action scenes . Oshii also acknowledged that a movie with more action would sell better , but he continued to make these movies anyway . When Oshii went back to make changes to the original Ghost in the Shell to re @-@ release it as Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , one of the reasons he gave was that the film did not resemble the sequel . He wanted to update the film to reflect changes in perspective .
= = = Design = = =
Hiroyuki Okiura , the character designer and key animation supervisor , designed a more mature and serious Motoko than Masamune Shirow 's original portrayal of the character in the manga . Okiura chose to depict a physically mature person to match Motoko 's mental age , instead of the youthful twenty @-@ something appearance in the manga . Motoko 's demeanor lacks the comedic facial expressions and rebellious nature depicted in the manga .
Oshii based the setting for Ghost in the Shell on Hong Kong . Oshii commented that his first thought to find an image of the future setting was an Asian city , but finding a suitable cityscape of the future would be impossible . Oshii chose to use the real streets of Hong Kong as his model . He also said that Hong Kong was the perfect subject and theme for the film with its countless signs and the cacophony of sounds . The film 's mecha designer Takeuchi Atsushi noted that while the film does not have a chosen setting , it is obviously based on Hong Kong because the city represented the theme of the film , the old and the new which exist in a strange relationship in an age of an information deluge . Before shooting the film , the artists drew sketches that emphasized Hong Kong 's chaotic , confusing and overwhelming aspects .
The Hong Kong setting is alluded to by the scene wherein the characters are drinking San Miguel Beer a cultural staple of the East Asian megalopolis .
= = = Animation = = =
Ghost in the Shell used a novel process called " digitally generated animation " ( DGA ) , which is a combination of cel animation , computer graphics ( CG ) , and audio that is entered as digital data . In 1995 , DGA was thought to be the future of animation , which mixed traditional animation with the emerging use of computer graphics , including digital cel work with visual displays . Editing was performed on an AVID system of Avid Technology , which was chosen because it was more versatile and less limiting than other methods and worked with the different types of media in a single environment .
The digital cel work included both original illustrations , compositions and manipulation with traditional cel animation to create a sense of depth and evoke emotion and feelings . Utilized as background , filters like a lens effect were used to create a sense of depth and motion , by distorting the front background and making the far background out of focus throughout the shot . Ghost in the Shell used a unique lighting system in which light and darkness were integrated into the cels with attention to light and shadow sources instead of using contrast to control the light . Hiromasa Ogura , the art director , described this as " a very unusual lighting technique . "
Some special effects , like Motoko 's " thermo @-@ optical camouflage " , were rendered through the use of TIMA software . The process uses a single illustration and manipulates the image as necessary to produce distortions for effect in combination with a background without altering the original illustration . The effect is re @-@ added back into the shot to complete the scene . While the visual displays used in the film were technically simple to create , the appearance of the displays underwent numerous revisions by the production team to best represent visual displays of the future . Another aspect of the CG use was to create images and effects that looked as if they were " perceived by the brain " and were generated in video and added to the film in its final stages .
The opening credits of the film were produced by the CG director , Seichi Tanaka . Tanaka converted code in a computer language displayed in romanized Japanese letters to numbers before inserting them into the computer to generate the credits . The origin of this code is the names of the film 's staff as written in a computer language .
Animation director Toshihiko Nishikubo was responsible for the realism and strove for accurate depictions of movement and effects . The pursuit of realism included the staff conducting firearms research at a facility in Guam . Nishikubo has highlighted the tank scene as an example of the movie 's realism , noting that bullets create sparks when hitting metal , but do not spark when a bullet strikes stone .
= = = Sound and music = = =
Ghost in the Shell 's recording was done with a high @-@ end studio to achieve superior sound throughout the film . A spatializer was used to alter the sound , specifically in the electronic brain conversations , to modify the voices .
Composer Kenji Kawai scored the film . For the main theme , Kawai tried to imagine the setting and convey the essence of that world in the music . He used the ancient Japanese language of Yamato in the opening theme " Making of a Cyborg " . The composition is a mixture of Bulgarian harmony and traditional Japanese notes ; the haunting chorals are a wedding song sung to dispel all evil influences . Symphony conductor Sarah Penicka @-@ Smith notes that the song 's lyrics are fitting for the union between Kusanagi and Project 2501 at the climax of the movie . Kawai originally wanted to use Bulgarian folk music singers , but used Japanese folk singers instead . " See You Everyday " is different from the rest of the soundtrack , being a pop song sung in Cantonese by Fang Ka Wing .
= = = Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 = = =
An updated version of the original film , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 ( GHOST IN THE SHELL ／ 攻殻機動隊 2 @.@ 0 , Gōsuto in za sheru / Kōkaku kidōtai 2 @.@ 0 ) , was made in celebration for the release of The Sky Crawlers in 2008 . The Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 release features replacements of the original animations with the latest digital film and animation technologies , such as 3D @-@ CGI . It includes a new opening , digital screens and holographic displays , and omits several brief scenes .
The original soundtrack was also re @-@ arranged and re @-@ recorded . Kenji Kawai remixed the Version 2 @.@ 0 soundtrack in 6 @.@ 1 Channel Surround . Randy Thom of Skywalker Sound reprised his role as sound designer , having worked previously on Ghost in the Shell 2 : Innocence . In the new soundtrack , the Japanese voice dialogue was also re @-@ recorded , with some variation from the original script to modernize the speech . Yoshiko Sakakibara replaced Iemasa Kayumi as the voice of the Puppet Master .
= = Related media = =
Kenji Kawai 's original soundtrack for the film was released on November 22 , 1995 . The last track included Yoshimasa Mizuno 's pop song " See You Everyday " . After the release of Ghost in the Shell 2 @.@ 0 , an updated version of the soundtrack was released on December 17 , 2008 .
A Photo @-@ CD of the film was released in Japan on November 20 , 1995 . A spin @-@ off novel written by Endo Akira , titled Ghost in the Shell : Burning City ( 攻殻機動隊灼熱の都市 , Kōkaku kidōtai shakunetsu no toshi ) , was published by Kodansha and released on November 1995 . It was followed by a sequel , titled Ghost in the Shell 2 : Star Seed ( 攻殻機動隊2 : Star Seed ) , released on January 1998 . A book titled Analysis of Ghost in the Shell was released on September 25 , 1997 by Kodansha .
= = Releases = =
The film had its world premiere at the Tokyo International Film Festival in October 1995 , before its general release in November . In Japan , the film was released on VHS on April 26 , 1996 . The DVD version was released on 25 February 2004 , and the Blu @-@ ray on 24 August 2007 . A special edition was released in December 2004 . The special edition contains an additional disc containing character dossiers , a creator biography , the director 's biography , Ghost in the Shell trailers and previews .
The " 2 @.@ 0 " version was released in theatres in Tokyo , Osaka , Nagoya , Fukuoka , and Sapporo on July 12 , 2008 . The film was released in DVD and Blu @-@ ray on December 19 , 2008 , in Japan .
In North America , the film was released on VHS on June 18 , 1996 through Manga Entertainment , and on DVD on March 31 , 1998 by Anchor Bay Entertainment . Manga Entertainment released the film on Blu @-@ ray on 24 November 2009 ; this version contains the original film and the remastering , but omits the audio commentary and face @-@ to @-@ face interview with Oshii , which are listed on its box . Manga Entertainment and Anchor Bay Entertainment re @-@ released the film on Blu @-@ ray with a brand new HD film print on September 23 , 2014 . The release was met with some criticism for its poor translation of English subtitles and the lack of extra features .
= = Reception = =
The film was a box office hit when released in Japan and received positive reviews from film critics . It holds a 95 % approval rating on the review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes , based on 31 reviews . The website 's critical consensus reads , " A stunning feat of modern animation , Ghost in the Shell offers a thoughtful , complex treat for anime fans , as well as a perfect introduction for viewers new to the genre . "
Niels Matthijs of Twitch Film praised the film , stating , " Not only is Kokaku Kidotai an essential film in the canon of Japanese animation , together with Kubrick 's 2001 and Tarkovsky 's Solyaris it completes a trio of book adaptations that transcend the popularity of their originals and [ give ] a new meaning to an already popular brand . " He ranked it # 48 of his personal favorites . Clark Collis of Empire opined that the film was predictable , but praised its production values . Johnathan Mays of Anime News Network praised the animation combined with the computer effects , calling it " perhaps the best synthesis ever witnessed in anime " . Helen McCarthy in 500 Essential Anime Movies describes the film as " one of the best anime ever made " , praising screenplay , an " atmospheric score " , and adding that " action scenes as good as anything in the current Hollywood blockbuster are supported by CGI effects that can still astonish " .
Ghost in the Shell was the first anime video to reach Billboard 's # 1 video slot at the time of its release . The film ranked as the ninth top selling anime DVD movie in 2006 . It ranked 35 on Total Film 's 2010 top list of 50 Animated Films . The film ranked # 4 on Wizards Anime Magazine on their " Top 50 Anime released in North America " .
= = = Critical analysis = = =
Much critical attention has been paid to the film 's focus on sexuality and gender identity . Sharalyn Orbaugh has noted that the opening scene of Ghost in the Shell begins with the " perfect paradoxical introduction to a narrative that is all about the nature of sex / gender identity and self @-@ identity in general in a future world where sexual reproduction has given way to mechanical replication . " Motoko 's female identity and appearance are countered by an autonomous subjectivity , resulting in a " male " cyborg body which cannot menstruate . Orbaugh describes the juxtaposition of the opening scene depicting the creation of Motoko 's body and to her lack of menstruation as setting the theme of " reproductive sexuality in a posthuman subject . " The film depicts Motoko 's identity and ontological concerns , ending with the evolution of a being with full subjectivity , through a new form of reproduction with the Puppet Master . Austin Corbett commented on the lack of sexualization from her team as freedom from femininity , noting that Motoko is " overtly feminine , and clearly non @-@ female . " Carl Slivio has called Ghost in the Shell a " resistant film " , due to its inversion of traditional gender roles , its " valorization of the post @-@ gendered subject " , and its de @-@ emphasis of the sexual specificity of the material body .
= = Cultural impact = =
Ghost in the Shell influenced a number of prominent filmmakers . The Wachowskis , creators of The Matrix and its sequels , showed it to producer Joel Silver , saying , " We wanna do that for real . " The Matrix series took several concepts from the film , including the Matrix digital rain , which was inspired by the opening credits of Ghost in the Shell , and the way people accessed the Matrix through holes in the back of their necks . Other parallels have been drawn to James Cameron 's Avatar , Steven Spielberg 's AI : Artificial Intelligence , and Jonathan Mostow 's Surrogates .
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= Yo @-@ Yo ( Nicola Roberts song ) =
" Yo @-@ Yo " is a song by British recording artist Nicola Roberts , released as the third and final single from Roberts ' debut solo album Cinderella 's Eyes on 6 January 2012 . Originally , " Yo @-@ Yo " was set to be Roberts ' debut single , but " Beat of My Drum " was selected in its place . " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " , Roberts ' previous singles , garnered positive comments from critics , but failed to impact commercially . " Yo @-@ Yo " was written by Roberts , Maya Von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi while it was produced by latter , and was the first song to be composed by the group . Roberts also claimed the track had defined her musical style .
" Yo @-@ Yo " is a 1950s @-@ themed electropop and synthpop song in which Roberts sings about an undecided lover . The song received positive reviews from critics , who compared Roberts ' vocals to those of singer Kate Bush . Commercially , it was a failure , charting at number 111 on the UK Singles Chart . A music video was released on 30 November 2011 ; the video sees Roberts repeatedly changing outfit for a party in which she finds her love interest cheating on her , ending with an aggressive confrontation . It garnered positive critical responses although the low @-@ budget drew criticism . Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub and on the Alan Titchmarsh Show , among other occasions .
= = Background and writing = =
Nicola Roberts , who began her musical career as one fifth of the band Girls Aloud , struggled with loneliness and increasing isolation during her time with the group . A busy schedule and constant media criticism found her describing the time as a " blur " . Her exhaustion and troubles with negative media comments led to a state in which she had to harden herself , claiming that inside she was " dying " . These events inspired her debut album Cinderella 's Eyes . " Yo @-@ Yo " was the first song she had written with Maya von Doll and Dimitri Tikovoi for the album . The recording was also one of the first songs Roberts wrote , and it helped define her musical style . Roberts blogged about the production of the track , writing that :
The production ’ s incredible . The beat is just so constant and powerful . That was the first song that I wrote with Dimitri and Maya . I felt like I ’ d found my sound . And I was kind of looking at it like an outfit . So it was , ‘ if this was an outfit , what would this song need now ? ’ So we had the pretty dress , which was the chorus . We had the lovely shoes , which was the verse . ‘ But what do we need to really set this song off ? A big , fancy , bow in the hair would really set this song off . ’ So when I got to the middle eight I wanted to go really erratic , almost like taTu on All The Things She Said . I wanted it to be proper fucked up and crazy – hands in the air .
= = Release = =
Roberts ' debut single , " Beat of My Drum " , garnered acclaim from critics , but failed to impact commercially , charting at 27 in the United Kingdom . She released a follow @-@ up single , " Lucky Day " , which likewise garnered positive responses , but was even less successful commercially , charting at number 40 on both the Scottish and UK Singles charts . Writing as a guest blogger on the website Holy Moly in September 2011 , Roberts announced that " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from Cinderella 's Eyes , initially citing a November release date ; the release was later delayed until January 2012 . Roberts had originally intended for " Yo @-@ Yo " to be the first single from the album , but " Beat of My Drum " was instead chosen at the " last minute " . Roberts stated that " it felt right to go with " the latter song . " Yo @-@ Yo " was released digitally on 2 January 2012 , with Roberts announcing on her official website that the single would be released in CD format featuring a live performance of the song in addition to the demo version of her song " Sticks + Stones " seven days later . Additionally , two EPs were released on 6 January 2012 .
= = Composition and critical reception = =
" Yo @-@ Yo " features 808 drums with a " dramatic " 1950s @-@ inspired pop " pastiche " . However , the 1950s concept " goes completely out of the window " for an " unhinged " bridge , which features a club mix which speeds up the drums featured in the song . The lyrics of the track discuss an uncertain relationship , leading to vulnerability , with Roberts describing it as a " dark " song . The song references a yo @-@ yo ; this is a metaphor for Roberts herself , a spinning yo @-@ yo " on the finger of a hot ' n ' cold lover " . Described as " confessional " by Robert Copsey of Digital Spy , the song has a " conversational " performance , and Roberts ' vocals were compared to that of singer Kate Bush .
The song received positive reviews from music critics . Emily Mackay , writing for NME , described the chorus as a " winning " one , and noted that " the impulse @-@ speed space synths are broken @-@ heartedly beguiling " . In a separate review , Lisa Wright from NME found that while the song didn 't match the success of " Beat of My Drum " . Wright said that the song is " Not a cuss @-@ ridden introduction to Nicola ’ s re @-@ emergence as an English Syd Tha Kyd , but a questionable metaphor about being like a crap ’ 90s toy . " Robert Copsey of Digital Spy found Cinderella 's Eyes to be " frustratingly under @-@ appreciated " with " Yo @-@ Yo " being a " shining example of [ Roberts ' ] pop sensibilities " calling it " unashamedly radio friendly " .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
The video begins with a man performing tricks with a yo @-@ yo in a white room , accompanied by shots showing Roberts in a " fashionable looking house " wearing a black silk dress . Then rapid shots show her in various other outfits , including a purple velvet dress , all the time showing the man performing tricks with the yo @-@ yo . As the chorus begins , Roberts is shown in the kitchen of the house , along with several women dancing with her . Another shot shows a man and a woman walking through a street embracing each other . This is later interspersed with shots of a fully clothed Roberts standing in a shower cubiclem getting increasingly wet . Roberts is shown leaving the house and seeing the man with whom she had danced with another woman . She returns to the house , and the man and Roberts are seen in the kitchen area with Roberts throwing a series of objects at him .
= = = Release and reception = = =
Prior to the release of the video , Roberts released still images to website 3am . These showed her in what was described as " some sort of untidy , yet fashionable looking house " , while one showed her with her legs above her head wearing " Kandee 's caramel kisses shoes " and a third and final seeing her " cosying up next to a handsome chap " . The same day , Roberts gave two more exclusive stills to website Digital Spy ; in one image , she was smelling roses , while , in the second , she was " playing with a pair of shoes " . The video was released on 30 November 2011 . After the official release , Nadia Mendoza of the Daily Mail stated the video was a departure from her previous two videos ( for " Beat of My Drum " and " Lucky Day " ) , saying that it " looks and sounds a lot more grown up as she teases viewers by stripping to her bra and frolicking in the shower . " Mendoza found that Roberts was " becoming quite the chameleon " and had " trampled all over her innocent charm to create a sex siren " , referencing her transformation throughout her videos . Katherine St Asaph , of Pop Dust , found that the video 's low budget had had a negative effect . She interpreted scenes with Roberts repeated changes clothing positively , noting " [ i ] t works because of the lyrics – what , besides other people , can mess with your feelings more than trying on clothes ? "
= = Live performances = =
Roberts performed " Yo @-@ Yo " at London 's G @-@ A @-@ Y nightclub on 24 September 2011 . She pre @-@ recorded a performance of " Yo @-@ Yo " for UK television programme The Alan Titchmarsh Show during the same taping as a performance of " Lucky Day " . The taping came after deciding " Yo @-@ Yo " would be released as the third single from the album , with Roberts saying , " I absolutely love performing Yo @-@ Yo , it 's my favourite one to do [ ... ] So I feel really close to Yo @-@ Yo . I feel like I lose myself when I 'm performing it " . After the release of the single , Roberts performed on The Album Chart Show during a special dedicated to her , performing three tracks : " Yo @-@ Yo " , " Beat of My Drum " and " Sticks + Stones " . Roberts also performed the song on British chat show Loose Women and on the Digital Music Awards .
= = Charts = =
" Yo @-@ Yo " debuted at its peak of number 111 on the UK Singles Chart .
= = Formats and track @-@ listings = =
= = Release history = =
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= Robbie Fowler =
Robert Bernard " Robbie " Fowler ( born 9 April 1975 ) is an English former professional footballer and manager who played as a striker from 1993 to 2012 . Fowler was known for being a natural scorer with an instinctive goal @-@ poaching ability .
Fowler is best remembered for his time at Liverpool and is the sixth @-@ highest goalscorer in the history of the Premier League . He scored 183 goals in total for Liverpool , 128 of which were scored in the Premier League ( 162 Premier League goals in total ) . He earned the nickname " God " from the Anfield crowd , becoming a club legend due to his ruthlessness in front of goal . He subsequently played for Leeds United and Manchester City , before returning to Liverpool in January 2006 .
He moved clubs 18 months later to sign for Cardiff City . He refused a one @-@ year " pay as you play " contract extension and signed with Blackburn Rovers on a three @-@ month deal on the same terms instead . In December 2008 , he departed Blackburn and forged a career in Australia with North Queensland Fury and Perth Glory . In 2011 , he joined Thai side Muangthong United as a player , but later was appointed player @-@ manager which he remained until his retirement in 2012 .
He was capped for England 26 times , scoring 7 goals . Fowler was included in England 's squads for Euro 96 , Euro 2000 and the 2002 FIFA World Cup .
= = Early life = =
Fowler was born in Toxteth , Liverpool and brought up in the inner city area of Liverpool . At this time he was known as Robert Ryder , his mother 's surname . He lived in Toxteth at the time of the 1981 Toxteth riots , when he was six years old . As a youngster he supported Everton F.C .. He played regularly for schoolboy team Thorvald , and once scored 16 times in a 26 – 0 rout .
= = Club career = =
= = = Liverpool = = =
Fowler 's career began with Liverpool . He signed as a youth team player on leaving school in the middle of 1991 , signing professional terms on his 17th birthday , 9 April 1992 .
Fowler 's first involvement with the Liverpool first team came on 13 January 1993 , when he was an unused substitute in an FA Cup third round tie against Bolton Wanderers . In the following close season , Fowler helped the England under @-@ 18 team win the 1993 European Championship , before making a scoring first @-@ team debut in Liverpool 's 3 – 1 win in a first round League Cup tie at Fulham on 22 September 1993 . Fowler scored all five goals in the second leg at Anfield two weeks later , making him the fourth player in Liverpool 's history to score five in a senior fixture . He scored his first league hat @-@ trick against Southampton in only his fifth league game . His very first league goal for the Reds had come on 16 October 1993 , when an 87th @-@ minute equaliser at home to struggling Oldham Athletic saved the Reds from what would have been one of the biggest Premier League shocks of the season , with a last gasp own goal giving Liverpool a 2 – 1 win . He scored twice in a thrilling 3 – 3 draw at Tottenham Hotspur on 18 December .
His first 13 games for the club yielded 12 goals , and he was rewarded with an England Under @-@ 21 debut against San Marino in November 1993 , in which he scored England 's opening goal in the third minute . Fowler was unable to sustain his goal @-@ a @-@ game ratio throughout the season , but finished his first season as the club 's leading scorer with 18 goals in all competitions , although Ian Rush had scored more goals in the league . It was , however , a disappointing season for Liverpool , as they finished eighth in the Premier League without making any impact in any of the major competitions , though the departure of Graeme Souness as manager and the appointment of Roy Evans as successor built up hope for the future .
= = = = Success and fame = = = =
In the 1994 – 95 season , Fowler was an ever @-@ present for Liverpool , playing in all of their 57 competitive matches , including the victory in the 1995 League Cup final , and a match against Arsenal in which he scored the Premier League 's second fastest hat @-@ trick ever , in four minutes and 33 seconds . His record stood for twenty years until broken by Sadio Mané on 16 May 2015 for Southampton against Aston Villa , who scored three goals in two minutes and 56 seconds .
Fowler also scored braces against Aston Villa , Ipswich Town , Chelsea and Norwich City in the league that season .
Fowler was voted the PFA Young Player of the Year in two consecutive years in 1995 and 1996 , a feat equalled only by Ryan Giggs and Wayne Rooney .
Throughout the mid and late 1990s , Fowler was widely considered to be the most natural finisher playing in England . Fowler sealed this reputation as he scored more than 30 goals for three consecutive seasons , up to 1997 . He remains the only player to have scored 30 plus goals in his first three full seasons in England scoring 98 goals with a total of 116 in 3 and a half years , something which has also yet to be beaten in La Liga , Seria A and the Bundesliga too . Fowler 's partnership with Steve McManaman was largely described as the reason why Liverpool had become the club known for being the most potent attacking force in England at the time , and Fowler was renowned for scoring goals of all varieties , from every angle and distance , with McManaman describing him as the " greatest goalscorer of all time . "
Stan Collymore , Fowler 's strike partner from 1995 to 1997 , said in his autobiography that Fowler was the best player he has ever played alongside . Fowler and Collymore were among the most prolific goal @-@ scoring strike partnerships in England during the 1995 – 96 season . In the same season he scored twice in a 4 – 3 victory over Newcastle United , a match voted the best of the decade in a Premier League poll . The match helped prevent Newcastle from winning the league , but it was not enough for Liverpool to clinch the title ; they finished third while Manchester United were crowned champions . Fowler also played in his first FA Cup final that season , but was on the losing side as Manchester United won 1 – 0 .
Fowler received a call @-@ up to the full England squad and won his first cap on 27 March 1996 as a substitute in a friendly against Bulgaria . His first start at international level was against Croatia which was the England game following his substitute appearance . Fowler was part of the England squad for Euro 1996 , making two appearances in the tournament . On 14 December 1996 , he scored four against Middlesbrough , including his hundredth for Liverpool . This meant he reached a century of goals one game quicker than his first strike partner , Ian Rush , in just 165 games .
That year , he also won a UEFA Fair Play award for denying that he had been fouled by Arsenal goalkeeper David Seaman at Highbury after a penalty had been given . After unsuccessfully trying to persuade the referee to change his decision about the penalty , Fowler took it tamely and Seaman saved . However , Seaman failed to hold on to the ball and Jason McAteer scored from the rebound . Though many people believe that he deliberately took the penalty kick poorly for reasons of fair play , Fowler said at the time : " As a goalscorer it 's part of my job to take it and I wanted to score it . I tried to score . I never missed on purpose . It just happened , it was a bad penalty . "
= = = = Spice Boys = = = =
Fowler was part of a group of Liverpool players from the mid @-@ 1990s who were dubbed " The Spice Boys " by the press following a series of off @-@ field controversies . The term was coined by the Daily Mail , and arose due to misplaced rumours that Fowler was dating Spice Girl Emma Bunton . The term was subsequently used in a derogatory manner , implying Fowler and colleagues such as Jamie Redknapp , Stan Collymore , David James and Steve McManaman were underachieving playboys .
Fowler 's performance in the 1997 – 98 football season was marred by a knee ligament injury that kept him out of action for half the season and caused him to miss the 1998 World Cup . During this period of injury , fellow Liverpool striker , Michael Owen rose to prominence , making his debut in 1997 . Owen established himself in the Liverpool team in Fowler 's absence .
In 1999 , Fowler was fined £ 60 @,@ 000 by his club for bringing the game into disrepute . While celebrating his goal against Liverpool 's Merseyside rivals , Everton , Fowler used the white line of the penalty area to simulate cocaine use . Liverpool manager Gérard Houllier stated that this was a Cameroonian grass @-@ eating celebration , learnt from teammate Rigobert Song . Defending himself , Fowler later said this was a response to Everton fans who had insulted him with false accusations of drug abuse . Fowler received a four @-@ match suspension from the FA for this incident . At the same FA disciplinary hearing , Fowler received a further two match suspension due to a separate incident in which he had taunted the Chelsea defender Graeme Le Saux by waving his backside at him as Le Saux 's wife and children watched from the stands . Fowler later attempted to justify his actions by suggesting his taunts were simply an extension of gamesmanship . The FA imposed a £ 32 @,@ 000 fine and a six @-@ match ban for the two incidents . Fowler has since apologized to Le Saux for the incident .
= = = = Winning the cup treble = = = =
The 2000 – 01 season was Fowler 's most successful season . He appeared in three finals , scoring 17 goals and lifting three trophies in a unique cup treble . In the absence of Jamie Redknapp , who was sidelined by injury , Fowler was named as Liverpool captain when he started . However he found himself the third @-@ choice Liverpool striker , with Houllier favouring a forward partnership of Michael Owen and Emile Heskey .
He took part in a fourth round League Cup hammering of Stoke City , scoring a hat @-@ trick in an 8 – 0 victory , which was second only to the club 's biggest ever win in 1986 – a 10 – 0 defeat of Fulham . In the League Cup final against Birmingham City , the club 's first cup final since 1996 , he captained the side and scored in the 30th minute . Liverpool went on to win the trophy on penalties , with Fowler scoring Liverpool 's fifth in the shootout . Fowler picked up the Alan Hardaker Man of the Match award and lifted the trophy .
Fowler 's season picked up from there as he scored several important goals including one against runaway champions Manchester United and a free kick in the FA Cup semi @-@ final against Wycombe Wanderers . Fowler featured as a substitute in the 2001 FA Cup Final coming on as a 77th @-@ minute replacement for Vladimír Šmicer . Liverpool , who were 1 – 0 down at that point , eventually won the game 2 – 1 with two goals from Owen . Fowler raised the trophy along with Sami Hyypiä and Jamie Redknapp .
Four days later he was a substitute again in Liverpool 's third final , the 2001 UEFA Cup Final against Deportivo Alavés . He came on in the 64th minute for Heskey with the score at 3 – 3 . He scored seven minutes later but Alavés equalised before full @-@ time and Liverpool eventually won with a golden goal , an own goal , in the 116th minute . Fowler and Hyypiä then raised Liverpool 's third trophy of the season together . Liverpool 's next and final game of the season was against Charlton Athletic and Fowler scored twice in a 4 – 0 victory at The Valley that assured them UEFA Champions League qualification for the next season .
= = = = Liverpool departure = = = =
Fowler began the 2001 – 02 season controversially , after being dropped by the then manager Gérard Houllier from the Liverpool squad for the 2001 Charity Shield match following a training ground confrontation with assistant manager Phil Thompson . He made an appearance in Liverpool 's 3 – 2 European Super Cup victory over Bayern Munich , but starts were intermittent . In October 2001 , he scored his first league hat @-@ trick for three years , helping Liverpool beat Leicester City 4 – 1 , but was dropped for the following league match . Though Fowler had been on a contract extension from 1999 ( unlike Steve McManaman – who exercised his Bosman entitlement the very same year ) , Fowler was linked to Lazio , Arsenal and Leeds , and Liverpool 's management as well as fans and the media constantly reported that what happened with McManaman ( regarded as a huge financial loss ) would never be repeated and thus the club never rejected those bids without consideration . This meant that coupled with Fowler 's relationship with Houllier , speculation over Fowler 's future persisted for most of Houllier 's tenure and became an issue that divided Liverpool fans . His last appearance for Liverpool was against Sunderland , in which he was substituted at half @-@ time .
= = = Leeds United = = =
Despite his popularity with Liverpool fans , who referred to Fowler as " God " , Michael Owen and Emile Heskey had established themselves as Liverpool 's regular strike partnership , leaving Fowler on the fringes of the first team . This , along with his difficult relationship with Houllier , made him seek regular first team football away from Anfield in the form of a £ 12 million move to Leeds United . Fowler maintains that Houllier forced him out of Liverpool , and accused Houllier of pressuring the Liverpool Echo newspaper to use its influence to turn opinion against him .
The transfer went ahead just one month after his hat @-@ trick at Leicester . He made his Leeds debut in an away game against Fulham in December 2001 , the same ground where he had made his Liverpool debut eight years earlier . Fowler scored 12 goals in the remainder of the season , helping Leeds to a UEFA Cup qualifying place . Fowler was included in the England squad for the 2002 World Cup , but only made one appearance , coming on as substitute in a second round win over Denmark .
Fowler suffered an aggravation of a pre @-@ existing hip injury in the 2002 – 03 pre @-@ season , and did not recover until December . Struggling to gain fitness , and seeing team @-@ mates sold off due to a financial crisis , Fowler 's form and market value diminished . It was despite this decrease in form that he still , in total , scored 15 goals in 31 appearances for Leeds ; achieving an impressive strike rate of just less than one goal every two games . In 2002 – 03 , Leeds finished 15th in the Premier League and a severe financial crisis was developing .
= = = Manchester City = = =
In the 2002 – 03 season , Fowler was transferred to Manchester City following a protracted transfer saga . Fowler initially turned down the move , and a dispute between Manchester City manager Kevin Keegan and chairman David Bernstein over whether the transfer should take place due to medical concerns resulted in Bernstein leaving the club . Following encouragement from Keegan , Fowler finally signed for Manchester City on 16 January 2003 for an initial fee of £ 3 million and a further £ 3 million dependent upon appearances . Bizarre transfer conditions meant Leeds United still paid a significant proportion of Fowler 's wages . Fowler made his Manchester City debut against West Bromwich Albion on 1 February 2003 , but made a poor start to his Manchester City career , scoring just two goals in the remainder of the season .
Fowler continued to struggle with fitness problems in the 2003 – 04 season , completing the full 90 minutes only nine times , however he did score against his old club Liverpool in a 2 – 2 draw at home . The arrival of close friend , Steve McManaman , from Real Madrid gave Fowler hope , but the pair failed to rekindle their prolific partnership from their time at Liverpool , and received criticism from the fans and tabloids for their salaries , alleged excesses as well as named and shamed in a sex scandal covered by the News of the World that year .
Despite the slump , Fowler rallied for the following campaign , and showed a marked improvement in the second half of the 2004 – 05 season , scoring his 150th Premiership goal in the 3 – 2 win over Norwich City on 28 February 2005 . However , his failure to convert a 90th @-@ minute penalty kick against Middlesbrough 's Mark Schwarzer in the final game of the season prevented Manchester City from gaining a place in the UEFA Cup . Despite this , Fowler ended the season as the club 's joint top goal scorer and gained the approval of the fans , finishing in the top three in the fans ' Player of the Year poll . Fowler later described this as " one of the proudest achievements of my career " .
Fowler had injury problems at the start of the 2005 – 06 season and rarely featured when fit , making just two substitute appearances in the first four months of the season . His first start of the season came against Scunthorpe United in the FA Cup on 7 January 2006 , in which he scored a hat @-@ trick . The following week he scored Manchester City 's third goal in their 3 – 1 win against local rivals Manchester United after coming on as substitute . However , Fowler made only one more appearance for Manchester City before returning to Liverpool on a free transfer .
= = = Return to Liverpool = = =
On 27 January 2006 , Fowler rejoined Liverpool from Manchester City on a free transfer , signing a contract until the end of the season . Fowler had remained a Liverpool fan after he left the club ; he was in the Istanbul crowd when Liverpool won the Champions League in 2005 .
The fans were overjoyed to learn that Fowler had returned ; there were large banners in the game against Birmingham City which read ' God – number eleven , welcome back to heaven ' , with ' God ' being Fowler 's nickname while he was previously at Liverpool .
Fowler 's return against Birmingham City in February 2006 was labelled by the tabloid press as the stuff of fairytales , and he himself said he felt like " a kid waking up on Christmas morning every day " . Fowler 's first appearance back at Anfield was as a substitute against Birmingham , receiving a standing ovation upon his introduction . After his return , he had three goals ruled out for offside , before finally getting off the mark on 15 March 2006 in a home game against Fulham , the same opponents against which he scored his first ever goal for Liverpool 13 years earlier .
Fowler 's next Liverpool goal , against West Bromwich Albion , meant he overtook Kenny Dalglish in the club 's all @-@ time top scorers . His resurgence continued as he marked his 31st birthday with a goal against Bolton Wanderers . He made it four goals in five games when he scored the only goal in a 1 – 0 victory over Blackburn Rovers on 16 April 2006 . However , Fowler 's fitness remained a concern . In March 2006 , manager Rafael Benítez commented on Fowler 's work and progress by saying , " to buy a Robbie Fowler who is fit and scoring goals would cost a lot , maybe £ 10m or more " . Despite concerns about his fitness , Fowler finished the 2005 – 06 season scoring on a more consistent basis than Liverpool 's other strikers . In May 2006 he was offered a new one @-@ year contract with the club , and celebrated by scoring the first goal in Liverpool 's last league game of the season in a 3 – 1 away win at Portsmouth . It was his final game of the season as he was unable to take part in the club 's FA Cup Final success due to being cup @-@ tied .
Fowler featured rarely in his final Liverpool season , making only six league starts . Bizarrely , all three of his League goals were penalties against Sheffield United . One of these was in the away game on the opening day of the season , and the other two in the reverse fixture at Anfield . Appearances in other competitions were more common due to Rafael Benítez 's squad rotation policy . On 25 October 2006 Fowler was named as Liverpool 's captain for the first time since his return in a League Cup tie against Reading , scoring just before half @-@ time in a 4 – 3 win .
On 5 December , Fowler scored his first two goals in the UEFA Champions League competition proper against Galatasaray ( he had previously scored during a qualifying tie some six years prior against FC Haka ) , though Liverpool lost 3 – 2 .
On 1 May 2007 he was a substitute in the Champions League semi @-@ final against Chelsea , brought on in the last few minutes of extra @-@ time . He set up an attack for Dirk Kuyt but the shot went straight at the Chelsea goalkeeper . The match went into a penalty shoot @-@ out that Liverpool won . Fowler was due to take the fifth and final spot @-@ kick , but the game had already ended when Kuyt slotted home his winning penalty .
In what transpired to be his last appearance for the club , against Charlton Athletic on 13 May , Fowler was given the captain 's armband one final time . He was substituted two minutes from the final whistle and given a standing ovation . He finished his second run as a Liverpool player with a UEFA Champions League runners @-@ up medal , although he was not named in either the starting eleven or the seven substitutes . He became a free agent on 1 July having scored 183 goals in 369 appearances during his two spells at the club .
= = = Cardiff City = = =
On 21 July 2007 Fowler signed a two @-@ year contract to play for Cardiff City . He missed the season 's opening fixtures due to a lack of fitness , making his debut in a League Cup tie on 28 August . He scored his first two Cardiff goals on 22 September against Preston North End , scoring with two headers . Fowler scored twice in his next game , a third round League Cup tie against West Brom , which Cardiff won 4 – 2 . This led to a fourth round tie against Fowler 's former club Liverpool , at Anfield , to which even the Liverpool faithful crowd urged Fowler to score seeing that it may be the last time he would play in Anfield but Cardiff were knocked out in a 2 – 1 defeat .
In November , Fowler travelled to Frankfurt , Germany to see Dr. Hans @-@ Wilhelm Müller @-@ Wohlfahrt , a specialist sports injuries doctor , to try and resolve a recurring hip problem that had left him lacking fitness in early season fixtures for the Bluebirds . The treatment involved taking around twenty @-@ eight injections into his hip . He returned to full training in late November and made his comeback on 15 December as a late substitute in a 1 – 0 defeat against Bristol City . However he went on to suffer another injury blow just days later after a mistimed tackle in training from club captain Darren Purse left him with damaged ankle ligaments . Due to the new injury blow Cardiff and Fowler made plans for him to go to Colorado , United States to undergo keyhole surgery on the hip problem , which had plagued him in recent seasons , in the hope that it would finally resolve the problem .
On 17 January 2008 , it was announced that Fowler could miss the rest of the 2007 – 08 season for Cardiff after his hip operation revealed that the injury was worse than previously thought . Surgeons were forced to perform a micro @-@ fracture in order for the hip to heal properly . Despite this , he attempted to make a comeback at the end of the season to play in the FA Cup final against Portsmouth and was included in the 18 @-@ man match squad . He did not feature in the game in and thus did not receive a runners @-@ up medal having not made an appearance in the competition .
= = = Blackburn Rovers = = =
Fowler was offered a new pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play contract with Cardiff for the 2008 – 09 season in May 2008 and was expected to sign the contract . However , he pulled out of the deal , preferring to accept an offer of a trial at Blackburn Rovers from former Liverpool colleague Paul Ince . The move left Cardiff manager Dave Jones and chairman Peter Ridsdale furious after the club had assisted Fowler 's rehabilitation throughout the summer . After training with Blackburn and appearing in a handful of friendlies he was offered a six @-@ month deal by the club to last until January , but Fowler turned down the deal due to it being a shorter offer than the previous one he had rejected at Cardiff . After turning down the offer , Fowler made a shock enquiry about returning to Cardiff on the deal he had originally turned down , prompting anger from supporters and a swift " no thanks " from the club .
Fowler concluded the trial period at Blackburn by agreeing to a three @-@ month pay @-@ as @-@ you @-@ play deal . He stated that he was eager to return to the Premier League and that his pre @-@ existing relationship with Ince would not earn him any preferential treatment . He made his first appearance against Everton in a 1 – 0 win in the League Cup on 24 September . With a month left on his contract at Blackburn , Fowler received interest from League Two side Grimsby Town . Fowler , a noted friend of then Grimsby manager Mike Newell had held talks at Blundell Park over a possible Player / Coach role with the club .
His three @-@ month deal at Blackburn expired on 12 December 2008 , and after not being offered a new contract was released by the club , he entered talks with new Australian A @-@ League club North Queensland Fury .
= = = North Queensland Fury = = =
Fowler signed with the North Queensland Fury on 4 February 2009 and became their inaugural marquee player ; with his family relocating to Townsville for the 2009 – 10 season of the Australian A @-@ League . It was an important signing for the new franchise who struggled to sign a marquee player , while some questioned whether Fowler would be able to cope with the heat and humidity of North Queensland .
Fowler made his debut in July 2009 in a 2 – 1 pre @-@ season loss against Wolverhampton Wanderers in Perth after recovering from groin and hip complaints . Fowler was subsequently named North Queensland Fury 's captain for the 2009 – 10 season and the first in the club 's history . He scored his first A @-@ League goal from a penalty kick in his club 's first competitive match against Sydney FC on Saturday 8 August 2009 . In rounds four , five , and six Fowler scored Solo 's Hyundai A @-@ League Goal of the Week .
Shortly after his arrival in Australia , it was reported in the British media that Fowler would be making a swift return to his homeland and sign for League One side Tranmere Rovers , who had just appointed Fowler 's former Liverpool team mate John Barnes as manager . However , Fowler was quick to dismiss talk of a quick return to England . When Barnes was dismissed three months later , it was reported that Tranmere had approached Fowler about becoming player @-@ manager , but these reports too were dismissed .
Controversy erupted around Fowler after he reportedly refused to play against the Brisbane Roar on 23 January after being named on the interchange bench for the clash . He however returned to the starting line up for two of the last three games of the season . Fowler ended the season collecting a hat @-@ trick of awards at the clubs end @-@ of @-@ season awards night , he was awarded the clubs Player of the Year , Players ' Player of the Year and the Golden Boot as top goal scorer . On 15 June 2010 , Fowler confirmed that he is taking legal action over the ending of his playing contract with North Queensland Fury . He is suing the Fury and Football Federation Australia , which took over the running of the club .
= = = Perth Glory = = =
On 27 April 2010 , it was announced that Fowler had agreed to become part of Glory 's squad for the 2010 – 11 A @-@ League season . Fowler reportedly ignored offers from Middle East clubs as well as Sydney FC to play in Perth . He joined the Glory for pre @-@ season training in mid @-@ June , following World Cup sponsorship commitments . Fowler scored his first goal for Perth on 29 August , a penalty against Melbourne Heart . He followed this up with a headed goal the following week against the Wellington Phoenix . In the following match , Fowler 's hat @-@ trick gave the Glory a 3 – 1 victory against Melbourne Victory at the Dairy Famers Stadium in Townsville . Fowler ended the year as top scorer for the club .
= = = Muangthong United = = =
On 7 July 2011 Fowler agreed to play with Muangthong United , signing a one @-@ year contract . In a press conference he stated that the weather conditions of Nonthaburi should not be a problem as he had played in Townsville and Perth . He was quickly a hit with Muangthong fans and the Thai public in general ; he attended Thailand 's World Cup Qualifier against Oman wearing the national team 's shirt . He has since played a handful of scoreless games , both at the Yamaha Stadium and on the road in the AFC Cup , until the Twin Qilins were eliminated from the competition by Al @-@ Kuwait . After the sacking of Henrique Calisto as head coach , Fowler was made player / coach .
On 16 October 2011 , after 250 minutes of play , Fowler scored his first goal for MTU against Chiangrai . He scored his 250th club career goal on 21 December 2011 against TTM Phichit . On 28 February 2012 Fowler announced he had left the club following Slavisa Jokanovic 's appointment as coach .
= = = Return to England and retirement = = =
On 1 March 2012 , Blackpool manager Ian Holloway confirmed that Fowler was training with the Seasiders and that he could earn a deal until the end of the season . However , they could not agree a deal and Fowler decided against signing when Karl Oyston offered the striker just £ 100 a week with £ 5 @,@ 000 for every first @-@ team appearance .
On 22 September 2012 Fowler announced that he is " all but retired from professional football . " He said this on the television show Soccer AM . In an interview in March 2013 , he said that he was " not officially retired " and would " jump at the opportunity to play again . " Fowler has also stated in other interviews that he is currently completing his coaching licences . Fowler was on a six @-@ man shortlist and interviewed for the vacant manager 's job at Conference side Macclesfield Town in May 2013 , but caretaker manager John Askey was eventually appointed on a full @-@ time basis .
Fowler featured in Steven Gerrard 's testimonial match against Olympiacos F.C. on 3 August 2013 . He came off the bench in the 73rd minute to a big reception from Liverpool fans , but failed to score a goal .
On 21 April 2014 , Fowler also featured in a charity match to commemorate the lives of the 96 Liverpool fans who died in the Hillsborough Disaster . Fowler scored both goals for his team in a 2 @-@ 2 draw .
On 2 January 2015 , Fowler tweeted " Gutted about Steven , but what an unbelievable player ... I 'm officially hanging my boots up as from now ... A sad day for me " and so officially announced his retirement .
= = = Soccer Aid = = =
In May 2016 it was revealed that Fowler would return to the pitch to play for England in Soccer Aid , a charity football match in aid of UNICEF , alongside Jamie Carragher .
= = International career = =
Fowler earned his first cap for England on 27 March 1996 , coming on as a 76th @-@ minute substitute in the 1 – 0 friendly win against Bulgaria at Wembley Stadium . On 24 April , he won his second cap and made his first start for England in the 0 – 0 draw with Croatia . Despite only having 3 caps to his name , England manager Terry Venables selected Fowler in his 22 @-@ man squad for Euro 1996 . Fowler went on to make two substitute appearances in the tournament , featuring in the 4 – 1 win against the Netherlands in the final group game , and in the 0 – 0 draw against Spain in the quarter @-@ finals , a game England won on penalties .
Fowler did not feature during England 's qualifying campaign for the 1998 FIFA World Cup , mainly due to a serious knee ligament injury , and thus missed out on Glenn Hoddle 's 22 @-@ man squad for the tournament . He did , however , manage to score his first goal for his country on 29 March 1997 , netting the second goal in a 2 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Wembley Stadium . A second goal followed in his next cap on 15 November , netting just before half @-@ time in the 2 – 0 friendly win against Cameroon .
On 9 June 1999 , Fowler played in his first competitive game for England in nearly three years , starting in the 1 – 1 draw with Bulgaria during Euro 2000 qualifying . Kevin Keegan named Fowler in the preliminary squad for Euro 2000 , and after featuring in the three warm @-@ up games against Brazil , Ukraine , and Malta , he was named in the final squad on 1 June 2000 . Fowler did not play in the tournament as England were eliminated in the group stages .
Fowler scored his fourth goal for England on 25 May 2001 , netting the second goal in the 4 – 0 friendly win against Mexico at Pride Park , Derby . On 5 September , he scored his first competitive goal for England in the 2 – 0 win against Albania at St James ' Park , Newcastle . This was during qualifying for the 2002 FIFA World Cup . England qualified for the World Cup , and after scoring in friendlies against Italy and Cameroon , Fowler was selected in Sven @-@ Göran Eriksson 's 23 @-@ man squad for the tournament in South Korea and Japan . He didn 't appear in any of England 's group matches , but on 15 June 2002 , he came on as a second @-@ half substitute in the 3 – 0 win against Denmark in the Round of 16 . This turned out to be Fowler 's last cap for his country . He won a total of 26 caps for England and scored 7 goals .
= = Coaching career = =
= = = Milton Keynes Dons = = =
On returning to England , Fowler has worked with League One side Milton Keynes Dons on an ad @-@ hoc basis to assist the club 's coaching staff . On 7 April 2011 , Bury confirmed that Fowler would join their coaching staff for one week to assist Richie Barker . Fowler briefly coached Liverpool 's strikers in April 2011 .
= = = Muangthong United = = =
Muangthong took action and sacked Henrique Calisto as head coach . A statement on the Muangthong website read : " The Board have appointed Robbie Fowler as the acting Head Coach and terminate the contract of Portuguese boss Henrique Calisto . The contract is until the end of the season and the team must adapt to long @-@ term goals if it is to succeed in Asia " , thus making Fowler player / coach of Muangthong United .
= = = Liverpool Academy = = =
In October 2013 it was announced that Fowler would be taking up a coaching role with Liverpool FC at the academy .
On 9 September 2014 , it was revealed Fowler had applied for the vacant head coach / manager job at his former club Leeds United .
= = Style of play = =
A prolific goal @-@ scorer , Fowler was a quick and opportunistic striker , with good technical ability . Although naturally left @-@ footed , he possessed an accurate , powerful shot from both inside and outside the area with both feet ; he was also effective in the air . Despite his reputation as a " goal @-@ poacher " , he was also a creative player , capable of linking up well with other players , and laying off the ball to other strikers . Despite his talent , he was also known to be injury @-@ prone throughout his career .
= = Personal life = =
Fowler married wife Kerrie on 9 June 2001 in the town of Duns in Scotland . Together they have three daughters named Madison , Jaya , and Mackenzie , and one son , Jacob .
Fowler is a supporter of Liverpool F.C. and regularly attends matches at Anfield . He does media work for Abu Dhabi Sports Channel , Sky Sports and ITV .
In association with long term friend Steve McManaman , Fowler has invested in several racehorses through a chattily named company The Macca and Growler Partnership , most notably 2003 Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother Celebration Chase runner @-@ up Seebald . In 2005 , Fowler was listed as one of the 1 @,@ 000 wealthiest Britons by the Sunday Times Rich List , with the paper estimating he has a property portfolio of more than 80 , while his Robbie Fowler Sports Promotions company has been reported to have net assets of £ 1 @.@ 58 million . Other business interests including a large property portfolio have resulted in Fowler 's net wealth totaling £ 28 million . This gave rise to the affectionate Manchester City Football Club chant , We all live in a Robbie Fowler house , sung to the tune of Yellow Submarine .
On 2 September 2005 , Fowler released a book called Fowler : My Autobiography , about his time as a footballer and the issues surrounding him . Since his transfer to Liverpool he has updated it and included a section about his return to Anfield . Excerpts published in newspapers included criticism of the England management .
In June 2008 , Fowler participated alongside McManaman in Steve Nash and Claudio Reyna 's Showdown in Chinatown , an 8 @-@ on @-@ 8 charity soccer game at Sara D. Roosevelt Park in Manhattan with McManaman making five of the goals , including one for Fowler .
In 2011 , Fowler and McManaman participated in a Select World XI against Chechen dictator Ramzan Kadyrov and his select XI in a public relations fundraiser in the war @-@ torn nation 's capital of Grozny . The match caused much press bewilderment in the western world , mainly due to Kadyrov 's abysmal human rights record and known practices of torture and rape as weapons of rule . British press also cited the use of and payment of footballers to parade the event as particularly " evil " , with The Guardian labelling it " Football 's moment in Bed with Kadyrov " .
Fowler is a cousin of boxer and 2014 Commonwealth Games gold medallist Antony Fowler .
= = Career statistics = =
= = Managerial statistics = =
= = Honours = =
= = = Club = = =
Liverpool
FA Cup : 2000 – 01
League Cup : 1994 – 95 , 2000 – 01
FA Charity Shield : 2001
UEFA Cup : 2000 – 01
UEFA Super Cup : 2001
= = = International = = =
England
UEFA European Under @-@ 18 Football Championship : 1993
= = = Individual = = =
PFA Young Player of the Year Award : 1995 , 1996
UEFA Fair Play Award : 1997
Alan Hardaker Trophy : 2001
North Queensland Fury Player of the Year : 2010
North Queensland Fury Golden Boot : 2010
North Queensland Fury Players ' Player of the Year : 2010
Perth Glory Golden Boot : 2011
Premier League Player of the Month : December 1995 , January 1996
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= Ode on Indolence =
The " Ode on Indolence " is one of five odes composed by English poet John Keats in the spring of 1819 . The others were " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . The poem describes the state of indolence , otherwise known as laziness , and was written during a time when he felt that he should devote his efforts to earning an income instead of composing poetry . After finishing the spring poems , Keats wrote in June 1819 that its composition brought him more pleasure than anything else he had written that year . Unlike the other odes he wrote that year , " Ode on Indolence " was not published until 1848 , 27 years after his death .
The poem is an example of Keats 's break from the structure of the classical form . It follows the poet 's contemplation of a morning spent in idleness . Three figures are presented — Ambition , Love and Poesy — dressed in " placid sandals " and " white robes " . The narrator examines each using a series of questions and statements on life and art . The poem concludes with the narrator giving up on having all three of the figures as part of his life . Some critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to the other four 1819 odes . Others suggest that the poem exemplifies a continuity of themes and imagery characteristic of his more widely read works , and provides valuable biographical insight into his poetic career .
= = Background = =
By the spring of 1819 , Keats had left his poorly paid position as a surgeon at Guy 's Hospital , Southwark , London , to devote himself to poetry . On 12 May 1819 , he abandoned this plan after receiving a request for financial assistance from his brother , George . Unable to help , Keats was torn by guilt and despair and sought projects more lucrative than poetry . It was under these circumstances that he wrote " Ode on Indolence " .
In a letter to his brother dated 19 March 1819 , Keats discussed indolence as a subject . He may have written the ode as early as March , but the themes and stanza forms suggest May or June 1819 ; when it is known he was working on " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode to Psyche " . During this period , Keats 's friend Charles Armitage Brown transcribed copies of the spring odes and submitted them to publisher Richard Woodhouse . Keats wrote to his friend Sarah Jeffrey : " [ T ] he thing I have most enjoyed this year has been writing an ode to Indolence . " Despite this enjoyment , however , he was not entirely satisfied with " Ode on Indolence " , and it remained unpublished until 1848 .
Keats 's notes and papers do not reveal the precise dating of the 1819 odes . Literary scholars have proposed several different orders of composition , arguing that the poems form a sequence within their structures . In The Consecrated Urn , Bernard Blackstone observes that " Indolence " has been variously thought the first , second , and final of the five 1819 odes . Biographer Robert Gittings suggests " Ode on Indolence " was written on 4 May 1819 , based upon Keats 's report about the weather during the ode 's creation ; Douglas Bush insists it was written after " Nightingale " , " Grecian Urn " , and " Melancholy " . Based on his examination of the stanza forms , Keats biographer Andrew Motion thinks " Ode on Indolence " was written after " Ode to Psyche " and " Ode to a Nightingale " , although he admits there is no way to be precise about the dates . Nevertheless , he argues that " Ode on Indolence " was probably composed last .
= = Structure = =
" Ode on Indolence " relies on ten line stanzas with a rhyme scheme that begins with a Shakespearian quatrain ( ABAB ) and ends with a Miltonic sestet ( CDECDE ) . This pattern is used in " Ode on Melancholy " , " Ode to a Nightingale " and " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , which further unifies the poems in their structure in addition to their themes .
The poem contains a complicated use of assonance ( the repetition of vowel sounds ) , as evident in line 19 , " O why did ye not melt , and leave my sense " , where the pairs ye / leave and melt / sense share vowel sounds . A more disorganized use of assonance appears in line 31 , " A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd " , in which the pairs third / turn 'd , time / by , and pass 'd / passing share vowel sounds . The first line exemplifies the poem 's consistent iambic pentameter scansion :
Keats occasionally inverts the accent of the first two syllables of each line or a set of syllables within the middle of a line . 2 @.@ 3 % of the internal syllables are inverted in the " Ode on Indolence " , whereas only 0 @.@ 4 % of the internal syllables of his other poems contain such inversions .
= = Poem = =
The poem relies on a first @-@ person narration style similar to " Ode to Psyche " . It begins with a classical scene from an urn in a similar manner to " Ode on a Grecian Urn " , but the scene in " Indolence " is allegorical . The opening describes three figures that operate as three fates :
One morn before me were three figures seen ,
With bowed necks , and joined hands , side @-@ faced ;
And one behind the other stepp 'd serene ,
In placid sandals , and in white robes graced ;
They pass 'd , like figures on a marble urn
When shifted round to see the other side ;
They came again , as , when the urn once more
Is shifted round , the first seen shades return ;
And they were strange to me , as may betide
With vases , to one deep in Phidian lore . ( Lines 1 – 10 )
The figures remain mysterious as they circle around the narrator . Eventually they turn towards him and it is revealed that they are Ambition , Love , and Poesy , the themes of the poem :
A third time pass 'd they by , and , passing , turn 'd
Each one the face a moment whiles to me ;
Then faded , and to follow them I burn 'd
And ached for wings , because I knew the three :
The first was a fair Maid , and Love her name ;
The second was Ambition , pale of cheek ,
And ever watchful with fatigued eye ;
The last , whom I love more , the more of blame
Is heap 'd upon her , maiden most unmeek , —
I knew to be my demon Poesy . ( Lines 31 – 40 )
The poet wishes to be with the three figures , but he is unable to join them . The poem transitions into the narrator providing reasons why he would not need the three figures and does so with ambition and love , but he cannot find a reason to dismiss poesy :
They faded , and , forsooth ! I wanted wings :
O folly ! What is Love ? and where is it ?
And for that poor Ambition — it springs
From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ;
For Poesy ! — no , — she has not a joy , —
At least for me , — so sweet as drowsy noons ,
And evenings steep 'd in honied indolence ;
O , for an age so shelter 'd from annoy ,
That I may never know how change the moons ,
Or hear the voice of busy common @-@ sense ! ( lines 41 – 50 )
Concluding the poem , the narrator argues that the figures should be treated as figures , and that he would not be misled by them :
So , ye three ghosts , adieu ! Ye cannot raise
My head cool @-@ bedded in the flowery grass ;
For I would not be dieted with praise ,
A pet @-@ lamb in a sentimental farce !
Fade softly from my eyes , and be once more
In masque @-@ like figures on the dreary urn ;
Farewell ! I yet have visions for the night ,
And for the day faint visions there is store ;
Vanish , ye phantoms , from my idle spright ,
Into the clouds , and never more return ! ( lines 51 – 60 )
= = Themes = =
The poem centres on humanity and human nature . When the poet sees the figures , he wants to know their names and laments his ignorance . Eventually , he realizes that they are representative of Love , Ambition , and Poetry . While he longs , he fears they are out of reach and therefore tries to reject them . He argues that love is what he needs least and dismisses it by questioning what " love " actually means ( " What is Love ? and where is it ? " ) . He rejects ambition , but it requires more work ( " And for that poor Ambition — it springs / From a man 's little heart 's short fever @-@ fit ; " ) . Unlike the personas of Love and Ambition , the narrator is unable to find a reason to banish Poesy ( Poetry ) , which reflects the poets ' inner conflict : should he abandon poetry to focus on a career in which he can earn a decent living ? Keats 's sought to write great poetry but feared his pursuit of literary prominence was based on a delusional view of his own merit as a poet . Further , he was incapable of completing his epic , " Hyperion " . As Walter Jackson Bate explains , to Keats " Neither a finished ' grand Poem ' nor even the semblance of a modest financial return seemed nearer . "
Keats realized that he could never have Love , could not fulfil his Ambition , and could not spend his time with Poesy . The conclusion of " Ode to Indolence " is a dismissal of both the images and his poetry as figures that would only mislead him . Even indolence itself seems unattainable ; Andrew Motion writes that the figures force Keats to regard indolence as " the privilege of the leisured class to which he did not belong . " If the poem is read as the final poem in the 1819 ode series , " Ode on Indolence " suggests that Keats is resigned to giving up his career as a poet because poetry cannot give him the immortality he wanted from it . Ironically , the poem provided Keats with such immortality . Besides the biographical component , the poem also describes Keats 's belief that his works should capture the beauty of art while acknowledging the harshness of life . In this way , the poems as a group capture Keats 's philosophy of negative capability , the concept of living with unreconciled contradictory views , by trying to reconcile Keats 's desire to write poetry and his inability to do so by abandoning poetry altogether and accepting life as it is .
Within the many poems that explore this idea — among them Keats 's and the works by his contemporaries — Keats begins by questioning suffering , breaks it down to its most basic elements of cause and effect , and draws conclusions about the world . His own process is filled with doubt , but his poems end with a hopeful message that the narrator ( himself ) is finally free of desires for Love , Ambition , and Poesy . The hope contained within " Ode on Indolence " is found within the vision he expresses in the last stanza : " I yet have visions for the night / And for the day faint visions there is store . " Consequently , in her analysis of The Odes of John Keats , Helen Vendler suggests that " Ode on Indolence " is a seminal poem constructed with themes and images that appeared more influential in his other , sometimes later , poems . The ode is an early and entirely original work that establishes the basis of Keats 's notion of soul making , a method by which the individual builds his or her soul through a form of education consisting of suffering and personal experience . This is a fundamental preoccupation of the Romantics , who believed the way to reconcile man and nature was through this soul development , education — the combination of experience and contemplation — and that only this process , not the rationality of the previous century , would bring about true Enlightenment .
The classical influences Keats invoked affected other Romantic poets , but his odes contain a higher degree of allusion than most of his contemporaries ' works . As for the main theme , indolence and poetry , the poem reflects the emotional state of being Keats describes in an early 1819 letter to his brother George :
[ I ] ndolent and supremely careless ... from my having slumbered till nearly eleven ... please has no show of enticement and pain no unbearable frown . Neither Poetry , nor Ambition , nor Love have any alertness of countenance as they pass by me : they seem rather like three figures on a greek vase — a Man and two women — whom no one but myself could distinguish in their disguisement .
Willard Spiegelman , in his study of Romantic poetry , suggests that the indolence of the poem arises from the narrator 's reluctance to apply himself to the labour associated with poetic creation . Some critics provide other explanations , and William Ober claims that Keats 's description of indolence may have arisen from the use of opium .
= = Critical response = =
Literary critics regard " Ode on Indolence " as inferior to Keats 's other 1819 odes . Walter Evert wrote that " it is unlikely that the ' Ode on Indolence ' has ever been anyone 's favorite poem , and it is certain that it was not Keats 's . Why he excluded it from the 1820 volume we do not know , but it is repetitious and declamatory and structurally infirm , and these would be reasons enough . " Bate indicated that the poem 's value is " primarily biographical and not poetic " .
" Ode on Indolence " is sometimes called upon as a point of comparison when discussing Keats 's other poems . Charles Wentworth Dilke observed that while the poem can be read as a supplemental text to assist the study of " Grecian Urn " , it remains a much inferior work . In 2000 , Thomas McFarland wrote in consideration of Dilke 's comparison : " Far more important than the similarity , which might seem to arise from the urns in Keats 's purview in both Ode on Indolence and Ode on a Grecian Urn ... is the enormous dissimilarity in the two poems . Ode on Indolence ... is a flaccid enterprise that hardly bears mention alongside that other achievement . "
Sidney Colvin , in his 1917 biography on Keats , grouped " Indolence " with the other 1819 odes in categorizing Keats 's " class of achievements " . In 1948 , Lord Gorell described the fifth stanza as , " lacking the magic of what the world agrees are the great Odes " but describes the language as " [ d ] elicate , charming even " . Later , in a 1968 biography of Keats , Gittings describes the importance of the poem : " The whole ode , in fact , has a borrowed air , and he acknowledged its lack of success by not printing it with the others ... Yet with its acceptance of the numb , dull and indolent mood as something creative , it set the scene for all the odes that followed . "
In 1973 , Stuart Sperry described it as " a rich and nourishing immersion in the rush of pure sensation and its flow of stirring shadows and ' dim dreams ' . In many ways the ode marks both a beginning and an end . It is both the feeblest and potentially the most ambitious of the sequence . Yet its failure , if we choose to consider it that , is more the result of deliberate disinclination than any inability of means . " Andrew Motion , in 1997 , argued , " Like ' Melancholy ' , the poem is too articulate for its own poetic good ... In two of his May odes , ' Melancholy ' and ' Indolence ' , Keats defined themes common to the whole group with such fierce candour that he restricted their imaginative power . His identity had prevailed . "
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= Erving Goffman =
Erving Goffman ( 11 June 1922 – 19 November 1982 ) was a Canadian @-@ American sociologist and writer , considered " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . In 2007 he was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas .
Goffman was the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association . His best @-@ known contribution to social theory is his study of symbolic interaction . This took the form of dramaturgical analysis , beginning with his 1959 book , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . Goffman 's other major works include Asylums ( 1961 ) , Stigma ( 1963 ) , Interaction Ritual ( 1967 ) , Frame Analysis ( 1974 ) , and Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) . His major areas of study included the sociology of everyday life , social interaction , the social construction of self , social organization ( framing ) of experience , and particular elements of social life such as total institutions and stigmas .
= = Life = =
Goffman was born 11 June 1922 , in Mannville , Alberta , Canada , to Max Goffman and Anne Goffman , née Averbach . He was from a family of Ukrainian Jews who had emigrated to Canada at the turn of the century . He had an older sibling , Frances Bay , who became an actress . The family moved to Dauphin , Manitoba , where his father operated a successful tailoring business .
From 1937 Goffman attended St. John 's Technical High School in Winnipeg , where his family had moved that year . In 1939 he enrolled at the University of Manitoba , majoring in chemistry . He interrupted his studies and moved to Ottawa to work in the film industry for the National Film Board of Canada , established by John Grierson . Later he developed an interest in sociology . Also during this time , he met the renowned North American sociologist , Dennis Wrong . Their meeting motivated Goffman to leave the University of Manitoba and enroll at the University of Toronto , where he studied under C. W. M. Hart and Ray Birdwhistell , graduating in 1945 with a BA in sociology and anthropology . Later he moved to the University of Chicago , where he received an MA ( 1949 ) and PhD ( 1953 ) in sociology . For his doctoral dissertation , from December 1949 to May 1951 he lived and collected ethnographic data on the island of Unst in the Shetland Islands .
In 1952 Goffman married Angelica Choate ; in 1953 , their son Thomas was born . Angelica suffered from mental illness and committed suicide in 1964 . Outside his academic career , Goffman was known for his interest , and relative success , in the stock market and in gambling . At one point , in pursuit of his hobbies and ethnographic studies , he became a pit boss at a Las Vegas casino .
In 1981 Goffman married sociolinguist Gillian Sankoff . The following year , their daughter Alice was born . In 1982 Goffman died in Philadelphia , Pennsylvania , on 19 November , of stomach cancer . Their daughter , Alice Goffman , is also a sociologist .
= = Career = =
The research that Goffman had done in Unst inspired him to write his first major work , The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life ( 1956 ) . After graduating from the University of Chicago , in 1954 – 57 he was an assistant to the athletic director at the National Institute for Mental Health in Bethesda , Maryland . Participant observation done there led to his essays on mental illness and total institutions which came to form his second book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates ( 1961 ) .
In 1958 Goffman became a faculty member in the sociology department at the University of California , Berkeley , first as a visiting professor , then from 1962 as a full professor . In 1968 he moved to the University of Pennsylvania , receiving the Benjamin Franklin Chair in Sociology and Anthropology , due largely to the efforts of Dell Hymes , a former colleague at Berkeley . In 1969 he became a fellow of the American Academy of Arts and Sciences . In 1970 Goffman became a cofounder of the American Association for the Abolition of Involuntary Mental Hospitalization and coauthored its Platform Statement . In 1971 he published Relations in Public , in which he tied together many of his ideas about everyday life , seen from a sociological perspective . Another major book of his , Frame Analysis , came out in 1974 . He received a Guggenheim Fellowship for 1977 – 78 . In 1979 , Goffman received the Cooley @-@ Mead Award for Distinguished Scholarship , from the Section on Social Psychology of the American Sociological Association . He was elected the 73rd president of the American Sociological Association , serving in 1981 – 82 ; he was , however , unable to deliver the presidential address in person due to progressing illness .
Posthumously , in 1983 , he received the Mead Award from the Society for the Study of Symbolic Interaction .
= = Influence and legacy = =
Goffman was influenced by Herbert Blumer , Émile Durkheim , Sigmund Freud , Everett Hughes , Alfred Radcliffe @-@ Brown , Talcott Parsons , Alfred Schütz , Georg Simmel and W. Lloyd Warner . Hughes was the " most influential of his teachers " , according to Tom Burns . Gary Alan Fine and Philip Manning state that Goffman never engaged in serious dialogue with other theorists . His work has , however , influenced and been discussed by numerous contemporary sociologists , including Anthony Giddens , Jürgen Habermas and Pierre Bourdieu .
Though Goffman is often associated with the symbolic interaction school of sociological thought , he did not see himself as a representative of it , and so Fine and Manning conclude that he " does not easily fit within a specific school of sociological thought " . His ideas are also " difficult to reduce to a number of key themes " ; his work can be broadly described as developing " a comparative , qualitative sociology that aimed to produce generalizations about human behavior " .
Goffman made substantial advances in the study of face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , elaborated the " dramaturgical approach " to human interaction , and developed numerous concepts that have had a massive influence , particularly in the field of the micro @-@ sociology of everyday life . Many of his works have concerned the organization of everyday behavior , a concept he termed " interaction order " . He contributed to the sociological concept of framing ( frame analysis ) , to game theory ( the concept of strategic interaction ) , and to the study of interactions and linguistics . With regard to the latter , he argued that the activity of speaking must be seen as a social rather than a linguistic construct . From a methodological perspective , Goffman often employed qualitative approaches , specifically ethnography , most famously in his study of social aspects of mental illness , in particular the functioning of total institutions . Overall , his contributions are valued as an attempt to create a theory that bridges the agency @-@ and @-@ structure divide – for popularizing social constructionism , symbolic interaction , conversation analysis , ethnographic studies , and the study and importance of individual interactions . His influence extended far beyond sociology : for example , his work provided the assumptions of much current research in language and social interaction within the discipline of communication .
Impression Management is defined as when an individual attempts to present an acceptable image to those around him or her verbally or nonverbally ( 480 ) . This definition is based on Goffman ’ s idea that individuals see themselves as others view them , so in essence they attempt to see themselves as if they are outside looking in ( 480 ) . Goffman also dedicating this work to discover the subtle ways humans present acceptable images by concealing information that may conflict with the images for a particular situation . For instance , concealing tattoos when applying for a job in which tattoos would be inappropriate , or hiding a bizarre obsession such as collecting / interacting with dolls which society as a whole may see as abnormal .
Goffman does break from his connection with George Herbert Mead and Herbert Blumer in that while he does not reject the way in which individuals perceive themselves , he was more interested in the actual physical proximity or the “ interaction order ” that molds the self ( 481 ) . In other words , Goffman believed that impression management can only be achieved if the audience is in sync with the individual ’ s perception of self . If the audience is in disagreement with the image an individual is presenting then the individual ’ s presentation of self is interrupted . Individuals present images of themselves based on how society thinks they should act in a particular situation . This decision on how to act is decided based on the concept of definition of the situation . The definition are all predetermined and individuals choose how they will act by choosing the proper behavior for the social situation they are in . Goffman draws from William Thomas for this concept as well . Thomas believed that people are born into a particular social class and so the definitions of the situations will encounter have been previously defined for them ( 480 ) . For instance when an individual from a high class background goes to a black tie affair the predefined definition of situation would be that they must mind their manors and act according to their class .
In 2007 Goffman was listed by The Times Higher Education Guide as the sixth most @-@ cited author in the humanities and social sciences , behind Anthony Giddens and ahead of Jürgen Habermas . His popularity with the general public has been attributed to his writing style , described as " sardonic , satiric , jokey " , and as " ironic and self @-@ consciously literary " , and to its being more accessible than that of most academics . His style has also been influential in academia , and is credited with popularizing a less formal style in academic publications .
His students included Carol Brooks Gardner , Charles Goodwin , Marjorie Goodwin , John Lofland , Gary Marx , Harvey Sacks , Emanuel Schegloff , David Sudnow and Eviatar Zerubavel .
Despite his influence , according to Fine and Manning there are " remarkably few scholars who are continuing his work " , nor has there been a " Goffman school " ; thus , his impact on social theory has been simultaneously " great and modest " . Fine and Manning attribute the lack of subsequent Goffman @-@ style research and writing to the nature of his signature style , which they consider very difficult to duplicate ( even " mimic @-@ proof " ) , and also to his writing style and subjects not being widely valued in the social sciences . With regard to his style , Fine and Manning remark that he tends to be seen either as a scholar whose style is difficult to reproduce , and therefore daunting to those who might wish to emulate his style , or as a scholar whose work was transitional , bridging the work of the Chicago school and that of contemporary sociologists , and thus of less interest to sociologists than the classics of either of those two groups . With regard to his subjects , Fine and Manning observe that the topic of behavior in public places is often stigmatized as being trivial , and thus unworthy of serious scholarly attention .
Nonetheless , Fine and Manning note that Goffman is " the most influential American sociologist of the twentieth century " . Elliott and Turner see him as " a revered figure – an outlaw theorist who came to exemplify the best of the sociological imagination " , and " perhaps the first postmodern sociological theorist " .
= = Works = =
= = = Early works = = =
Goffman 's early works consist of his graduate writings of 1949 – 53 . His master 's thesis was a survey of audience responses to a radio soap opera , Big Sister . One of its most important elements was a critique of his research methodology – of experimental logic and of variable analysis . Other writings of the period include Symbols of Class Status ( 1951 ) and On Cooling the Mark Out ( 1952 ) . His doctoral dissertation , Communication Conduct in an Island Community ( 1953 ) , presented a model of communication strategies in face @-@ to @-@ face interaction , and focused on how everyday life rituals affect public projections of self .
= = = Presentation of Self = = =
Goffman 's The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life was published in 1956 , with a revised edition in 1959 . He had developed the book 's core ideas from his doctoral dissertation . It was Goffman 's first and most famous book , for which he received the American Sociological Association 's 1961 MacIver Award .
Goffman describes the theatrical performances that occur in face @-@ to @-@ face interactions . He holds that when an individual comes in contact with another person , he attempts to control or guide the impression that the other person will form of him , by altering his own setting , appearance and manner . At the same time , the person that the individual is interacting with attempts to form an impression of , and obtain information about , the individual . Goffman also believes that participants in social interactions engage in certain practices to avoid embarrassing themselves or others . Society is not homogeneous ; we must act differently in different settings . This recognition led Goffman to his dramaturgical analysis . He saw a connection between the kinds of " acts " that people put on in their daily lives and theatrical performances . In a social interaction , as in a theatrical performance , there is an onstage area where actors ( individuals ) appear before the audience ; this is where positive self @-@ concepts and desired impressions are offered . But there is , as well , a backstage – a hidden , private area where individuals can be themselves and drop their societal roles and identities .
= = = Asylums = = =
Goffman is sometimes credited with having in 1957 coined the term " total institution " , though Fine and Manning note that he had heard it in lectures by Everett Hughes in reference to any type of institution in which people are treated alike and in which behavior is regulated . Regardless of whether Goffman coined the term " total institution " , he popularized it with his 1961 book , Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . The book has been described as " ethnography of the concept of the total institution " . The book was one of the first sociological examinations of the social situation of mental patients in psychiatric hospitals and a major contribution to understanding of social aspects of mental illness .
The book is composed of four essays : " Characteristics of Total Institutions " ( 1957 ) ; " The Moral Career of the Mental Patient " ( 1959 ) ; " The Underlife of a Public Institution : A Study of Ways of Making Out in a Mental Hospital " ; and " The Medical Model and Mental Hospitalization : Some Notes on the Vicissitudes of the Tinkering Trades " . The first three essays focus on the experiences of patients ; the last , on professional @-@ client interactions . Goffman is mainly concerned with the details of psychiatric hospitalization and with the nature and effects of the process he calls " institutionalization " . He describes how institutionalization socializes people into the role of a good patient , someone " dull , harmless and inconspicuous " – a condition which in turn reinforces notions of chronicity in severe mental illness . Total institutions greatly affect people 's interactions ; yet , even in such places , people find ways to redefine their roles and reclaim their identities .
Asylums has been credited with helping catalyze the reform of mental health systems in a number of countries , leading to reductions in the numbers of large mental hospitals and of the individuals locked up in them . It has also been influential in the anti @-@ psychiatry movement .
= = = Behavior in Public = = =
In Behavior in Public Places ( 1963 ) , Goffman again focuses on everyday public interactions . He draws distinctions between several types of public gatherings ( " gatherings " , " situations " , " social occasions " ) and types of audiences ( acquainted versus unacquainted ) .
= = = Stigma = = =
Goffman 's book Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity ( 1963 ) examines how , to protect their identities when they depart from approved standards of behavior or appearance , people manage impressions of themselves – mainly through concealment . Stigma pertains to the shame that a person may feel when he or she fails to meet other people 's standards , and to the fear of being discredited – which causes the individual not to reveal his or her shortcomings . Thus , a person with a criminal record may simply withhold that information from fear of being judged by whomever that person happens to encounter .
= = = Interaction Ritual = = =
Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior is a collection of six Goffman essays . The first four were originally published in the 1950s , the fifth in 1964 , and the last was written for the collection . They include : " On Face @-@ work " ( 1955 ) ; " Embarrassment and Social Organization " ( 1956 ) ; " The Nature of Deference and Demeanor " ( 1956 ) ; " Alienation from Interaction " ( 1957 ) ; " Mental Symptoms and Public Order " ( 1964 ) ; and " Where the Action Is " .
The first essay , " On Face @-@ work " , discusses the concept of face , which is the positive self @-@ image that an individual holds when interacting with others . Goffman believes that face " as a sociological construct of interaction , is neither inherent in nor a permanent aspect of the person " . Once an individual offers a positive self @-@ image of him or herself to others , that individual feels a need to maintain and live up to that image . Inconsistency in how a person projects him or herself in society risks embarrassment and discrediting . Therefore , people remain guarded , to ensure that they do not show themselves to others in an unfavorable light .
= = = Strategic Interaction = = =
Goffman 's book Strategic Interaction ( 1969 ) is his contribution to game theory . It discusses the compatibility of game theory with the legacy of the Chicago School of sociology and with the perspective of symbolic interactionism . It is one of his few works that clearly engage with that perspective . Goffman 's view on game theory was shaped by the works of Thomas Schelling . Goffman presents reality as a form of game , and discusses its rules and the various moves that players can make ( the " unwitting " , the " naive " , the " covering " , the " uncovering " , and the " counter @-@ uncovering " ) .
= = = Frame Analysis = = =
Frame Analysis : An Essay on the Organization of Experience ( 1974 ) is Goffman 's attempt to explain how conceptual frames – ways to organize experience – structure an individual 's perception of society . This book is thus about the organization of experience rather than the organization of society . A frame is a set of concepts and theoretical perspectives that organize experiences and guide the actions of individuals , groups and societies . Frame analysis , then , is the study of the organization of social experience . To illustrate the concept of the frame , Goffman gives the example of a picture frame : a person uses the frame ( which represents structure ) to hold together his picture ( which represents the content ) of what he is experiencing in his life .
The most basic frames are called primary frameworks . A primary framework takes an individual 's experience or an aspect of a scene that would originally be meaningless and makes it meaningful . One type of primary framework is a natural framework , which identifies situations in the natural world and is completely biophysical , with no human influences . The other type of framework is a social framework , which explains events and connects them to humans . An example of a natural framework is the weather , and an example of a social framework is a meteorologist who predicts the weather . Focusing on the social frameworks , Goffman seeks to " construct a general statement regarding the structure , or form , of experiences individuals have at any moment of their social life " .
Goffman saw this book as his magnum opus , but it was not as popular as his earlier works .
The Frame Analyses of Talk
In Frame Analyses , Erving Goffman provides a platform for understanding and interpreting the interaction between individuals engaging speech communication . In the chapter “ The Frame Analyses of Talk , ” the focus is put on how words are exchanged and what is being said , specifically in informal talk or conversation . The concept of framing is introduced through an exploration of why misunderstandings occur in these basic , everyday conversations . He argues that they are more errors in verbal framing than anything else . The types of frames Goffman is considering are discussed in previous sections of the book , “ fabrications , keyings , frame breaks , misframing , and , of course , frame disputes . ” That a frame can assume so many forms is the basis of his analyses , “ these framings are subject to a multitude of different transformations - the warrant for a frame analysis in the first place . ”
Goffman ’ s key idea is that most conversation is simply a replaying of a strip – what he describes as a personal experience or event . When we talk with others , the speaker ’ s goal is often always the same , to provide “ evidence for the fairness or unfairness of his current situation and other grounds for sympathy , approval , exoneration , understanding , or amusement . And what his listeners are primarily obliged to do is to show some kind of audience appreciation . " Essentially , through interaction , we are only looking to be heard , not inspire any kind of action but simply to know that someone listened and understood . This is why often a simple head nod or grunt is accepted as an appropriate response in conversation .
Goffman explains that the way a conversation is keyed is critical to understanding the intent behind many utterances in everyday speech . Key is probably best understood as the tone of the dialogue which can change numerous times during an interaction . Signaling a change in key is one way that framing often takes place , “ special brackets will have to be introduced should he want to say something in a relatively serious way : " Kidding aside , " " Now , I 'm really serious about this , " and other such tags become necessary as a means of momentarily down keying the flow of words . ”
Folklorist Richard Bauman builds heavily on Goffman ’ s work , specifically on the idea of key , in his work pertaining to an analysis of the performance frame . Bauman details that a performance is dependent on it being properly keyed , without this , the display will not be successful . His work on performance analyses is deeply indepted to what Goffman establishes here in “ Frame Analyses . ”
Context is one other element to framing that is essential . " The participants will be bound by norms of good manners : through frequency and length of turns at talk , through topics avoided , through circumspection in regard to references about self , through attention offered eagerly or begrudgingly @-@ through all these means , rank and social relationship will be given their due . " Certain things can and will be said in one scenario that would never be uttered in another . An awareness of these social framings is critical , just as is an awareness of the audience . Depending on who you ’ re speaking with ( a teacher , a child , a loved one , a friend , a pet , etc . ) you will curve your speech to fit the frame of what your intended audience is expecting .
Goffman uses the metaphor of conversation being a stage play . A plays tone will shift throughout the performance due to the actions taken by the actors ; this is similar to how a discussion is keyed – based on what either person says or does over the course of an interaction , the key will change accordingly . The parallels go further , though . Goffman also claims that a speaker details a drama more often than they provide information . They invite the listener to empathize and , as was explained above , they ’ re often not meant to be stirred to take action , but rather to show appreciation ; during a play this generally takes the form of applause .
Other similarities include engaging in the suspense the speaker is attempting to create . In both scenarios , you must put aside the knowledge that the performers know the outcome of the event being relayed and , in a sense , play along . This is integral to his stance as he explains “ the argument that much of talk consists of replayings and that these make no sense unless some form of storyteller 's suspense can be maintained shows the close relevance of frame @-@ indeed , the close relevance of dramaturgy @-@ for the organization of talk . ” Lastly , because the replaying of strips is not extemporaneous , but rather preformulated , it is yet another parallel between a stage production and conversation . All of these things work in concert to provide a foundation of how talk is framed .
= = = Gender Advertisements = = =
Gender Advertisements is a 1979 book that , as part of Goffman 's series of studies in the anthropology of visual communication , deals with the topic of gender representation in advertising . The book is a visual essay about sex roles in advertising , differences in the depictions of men and women and the subtle , underlying messages about the sexual roles projected by masculine and feminine images in advertising , as well as and symbolism in advertising . In the book Goffman examined over 500 advertisements in order to find general patterns in stereotypical gender representation , which he placed into six categories :
Relative Size : Goffman argues that social situation is expressed through the relative size of the persons in the advertisements , with men showing their superiority through their girth and height .
Feminine Touch : Women are frequently depicted touching persons or objects in a ritualistic manner , occasionally just barely touching the object or person .
Function Ranking : When a man and woman are shown in a collaborative manner , the male is more likely to be shown as the higher ranked person than the woman .
The Family : When families are depicted in advertising , parents are shown to be closer to their children of the same gender and in some instances men are shown separate from the rest of the family , in a protective manner .
Ritualization of Subordination : Difference is expressed by lowering oneself physically . Superiority and disdain , holding the body erect and the head high .
Licensed Withdrawal : Goffman states that women in advertisements are frequently depicted as removed from the scene around them , either physically turning away from the scene or appearing lost in thought .
In her 2001 work Measuring Up : How Advertising Affects Self @-@ Image , Vickie Rutledge Shields stated that the work was " unique at the time for employing a method now being labeled ' semiotic content analysis ' " and that it " [ provided ] the base for textual analyses ... such as poststructuralist and psychoanalytic approaches " . She also noted that feminist scholars like Jean Kilbourne " [ built ] their highly persuasive and widely circulated findings on the nature of gender in advertising on Goffman 's original categories " .
= = = Forms of Talk = = =
Goffman 's book , Forms of Talk ( 1981 ) , includes five essays : " Replies and Responses " ( 1976 ) ; " Response Cries " ( 1978 ) ; " Footing " ( 1979 ) ; " The Lecture " ( 1976 ) ; and " Radio Talk " ( 1981 ) . Each essay addresses both verbal and non @-@ verbal communication through a sociolinguistic model . The book provides a comprehensive overview of the study of talk . In the introduction , Goffman identifies three themes that recur throughout the text : " ritualization , participation framework , and embedding " .
The first essay , " Replies and Responses " , concerns " conversational dialogue " and the way people respond during a conversation , both verbally and non @-@ verbally . The second essay , " Response Cries " , considers the use of utterances and their social implications in different social contexts . Specifically , Goffman discusses " self @-@ talk " ( talking to no one in particular ) and its role in social situations . Next , in " Footing " , Goffman addresses the way that footing , or alignment , can shift during a conversation . The fourth essay , " The Lecture " , originally an oral presentation , describes different types and methods of lecture . Lastly , in " Radio Talk " , Goffman describes the types and forms of talk used in radio programming and the effect they have on listeners .
= = Positions = =
In his career , Goffman worked at the :
University of Chicago , Division of Social Sciences , Chicago : assistant , 1952 – 53 ; resident associate , 1953 – 54 ;
National Institute of Mental Health , Bethesda , Maryland : visiting scientist , 1954 – 57 ;
University of California , Berkeley : assistant professor , 1957 – 59 ; professor , 1959 – 62 ; professor of sociology , 1962 – 68 ;
University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia : Benjamin Franklin Professor of Anthropology and Sociology , 1969 – 82 .
= = Selected works = =
1959 : The Presentation of Self in Everyday Life . University of Edinburgh Social Sciences Research Centre . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013571 @-@ 8 . Anchor Books edition
1961 : Asylums : Essays on the Social Situation of Mental Patients and Other Inmates . New York , Doubleday . ISBN 0 @-@ 14 @-@ 013739 @-@ 4
1961 : Encounters : Two Studies in the Sociology of Interaction – Fun in Games & Role Distance . Indianapolis , Bobbs @-@ Merrill .
1963 : Behavior in Public Places : Notes on the Social Organization of Gatherings . The Free Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 02 @-@ 911940 @-@ 5
1963 : Stigma : Notes on the Management of Spoiled Identity . Prentice @-@ Hall . ISBN 0 @-@ 671 @-@ 62244 @-@ 7
1967 : Interaction Ritual : Essays on Face @-@ to @-@ Face Behavior . Anchor Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 394 @-@ 70631 @-@ 5
1969 : Strategic Interaction . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 0 @-@ 345 @-@ 02804 @-@ X
1969 : Where the action is . Allen Lane . ISBN 0 @-@ 7139 @-@ 0079 @-@ 2
1971 : Relations in Public : Microstudies of the Public Order . New York : Basic Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 131957 @-@ 0
1974 : Frame analysis : An essay on the organization of experience . London : Harper and Row . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 090372 @-@ 5
1979 : Gender Advertisements . Macmillan . ISBN 0 @-@ 06 @-@ 132076 @-@ 5
1981 : Forms of Talk . Philadelphia : University of Pennsylvania Press . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 8122 @-@ 7790 @-@ 6
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= Cater 2 U =
" Cater 2 U " is a song by American recording group Destiny 's Child , taken from their fourth studio album Destiny Fulfilled ( 2004 ) . Columbia Records released it as the album 's fourth and final single on June 14 , 2005 . The song was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller , with Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins handling its production . An R & B ballad talking about a woman 's desire to cater to the male love interest of her life , " Cater 2 U " contains synthesizers in its instrumentation . A lawsuit filled by singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen in 2006 , claimed the group only recorded a cover of the song which was originally his ; however the case was settled in 2009 .
" Cater 2 U " received mixed reviews from music critics who , despite generally praising its composition and the group members ' vocal performances , criticized the lyrical content . The song was nominated in two categories at the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 and received an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . " Cater 2 U " was commercially successful in the US , peaking at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 and three on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs , further receiving a gold certification . The song also appeared in the top ten in New Zealand and top twenty in Australia , while also receiving minor chart placement in Belgium and Netherlands .
A music video for the song was filmed by Jake Nava and shot at the Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . It features the trio at a desert with each member singing at a separate set and later a choreographed dance during the chorus . To further promote " Cater 2 U " , Destiny 's Child performed the song during several televised appearances and at the 2005 BET Awards . In addition , " Cater 2 U " was added to the set list of Destiny 's Child 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It in 2005 . Both Beyoncé and Rowland performed the song during their solo tours after Destiny 's Child 's disbandment . A cover version of " Cater 2 U " was performed by Usher and Babyface at the 2005 World Music Awards as a tribute to the group due to their disbandment that followed the same year .
= = Background = =
" Cater 2 U " was written by band members Beyoncé , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams along with Rodney " Darkchild " Jerkins , Ricky " Ric Rude " Lewis and Robert Waller . The production was handled by Beyoncé , Rude and Jerkins with the band members also serving as the vocal producers . The song was recorded in 2004 at Sony Music Studios in New York City with guidance from Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna . The audio mixing was done by Tony Maserati while the mastering was finished by Tom Coyne .
During an interview with MTV News , Beyoncé talked about the meaning of the song : " It basically talks about how a guy inspires you ... You want to make him happy and you want to cater to him . I know it 's going to be surprising to a lot of people that the independent survivors are being submissive to their man , but it 's important that people know that , you know , it 's fine if your man deserves it and gives that back to you . " " Cater 2 U " was released as the fourth and final single from Destiny Fulfilled . It was first released in the US as an extended play ( EP ) consisting of the audio version of the song along with four remixes on June 14 , 2005 . On July 19 another EP was released containing the original version and six remixes . Six days later an extended play of the single was released in Italy . " Cater 2 U " was included on two of Destiny 's Child 's compilation albums : the greatest hits album # 1 's ( 2005 ) and Love Songs ( 2013 ) .
= = = Lawsuit = = =
Chicago @-@ based singer @-@ songwriter Rickey Allen pushed allegations that " Cater 2 U " was inspired by a song he had composed with the same title and spelling , which was copyrighted in the mid @-@ 1990s and 2000 and performed locally during that time . He claimed he handed over a version to producer Maurice Joshua , who allegedly went on to cover the song with Destiny 's Child . Joshua denied his claims , noting that he never held a copy of Allen 's song . Allen filed a lawsuit against the group for compensation in a Chicago , Illinois court in 2006 where the trio was due to appear in December 10 for an eight @-@ day trial . However , they managed to avoid any given court dates after their public split in 2005 and agreed to settle behind closed doors . In early December 2009 it was confirmed by Chicago Sun @-@ Times that the group had reached a settlement with Allen . His attorney , Matthew Wildermuth , said in a statement , " I can confirm that yes , [ the case ] did settle . All of the issues have been amicably resolved and the case is going to be dismissed . [ Allen is ] excited about being able to devote time to posturing his musical career . All legal terms and agreement will not be released and the case will be dismissed by a judge " .
= = Composition = =
" Cater 2 U " is a four @-@ minute long R & B ballad . In her book American Music , Nicolae Sfetcu found influences of quiet storm in the song 's composition . According to the sheet music published on the website Musicnotes.com by Sony / ATV Music Publishing , " Cater 2 U " was composed using common time in the key of D major with a slow tempo of 63 beats per minute . The vocal elements span from A3 to B4 . Instrumentally it consists of silky synthesizers " slink [ ing ] and slurp [ ing ] " throughout , creating a seductive feel as stated by Dimitri Ehlrich of Vibe and writers of Billboard magazine . As the song progresses , it builds to a symphonic crescendo .
Lyrically , " Cater 2 U " talks about females wanting to submissevely serve their male love interests and take care of them as they admire their hard work and are inspired by them . The trio further sings about the men of their lives and the way in which they will take care of them . " Cater 2 U " was written as a continuation on the previous song on Destiny Fulfilled , " Soldier " ; after the trio sings about finding a suitable lover in the aforementioned song , they express a will to cater to him in " Cater 2 U " . In the second edition of the book Introducing Cultural Studies , the authors argued that the song contained lyrics about objectification of women , which suggested that their gender role was to " ' keep herself up ' , ' keep it right ' , ' cater to ' their man by providing him with his dinner , a foot rub , a manicure , fetching his slippers , and much more , on demand " . An editor writing in The Times of India found a theme of feminine assertiveness in " Cater 2 U " ; he noted that " the women come off not so much as lovers as full @-@ service romantic servants " . J. Freedom du Lac , a staff writer of The Washington Post wrote that the song 's theme was supplication .
Beyoncé opens the song listing the things she would do for her man during her verses : brush his hair , take his shoes off , give him a manicure , rub his feet , help him put his do @-@ rag on , undo his cufflinks . She also sings the lines " Let me feed you , let me run your bath water , whatever you desire " after the thins she had previously listed . Rowland was noted for nearly rapping her solo part during which she promises to " keep my figure right , " " keep my hair fixed " and acknowledges that if her man comes later home while she 's asleep , " all he 's gotta do is tap her on the shoulder and ' I 'll roll over . ' " Williams sings her solo verses during the song 's bridge .
= = Critical reception = =
Tom Sinclair of Entertainment Weekly noted the song was one of Destiny Fulfilled 's " nice bits here and there " , adding , " the pillow @-@ talky pandering of ' Cater 2 U ' ... is hard to resist . " AllMusic 's writer Stephen Thomas Erlewine included " Cater 2 U " as one of the highlights on the album . Slant Magazine writer Eric Henderson opined , " But just about the only element of the whole album that really sticks is the Laura Bush @-@ worthy domestic complacency of ' Cater 2 U , ' in which the trio espouses their joy in total submission . " Dimitri Ehrlich from Vibe magazine found that " the sexy trio is far more believable on the seductive R & B ballad ' Cater 2 U , ' in which they set the feminist movement back more than a century over the course of four minutes " . Andy Battaglia writing for The A.V. Club felt that the song and " Soldier " " make sassy end @-@ runs around notions of womanly subservience , but their best musical moments hide in tiny melismatic twirls instead of hooks " . The Guardian 's Caroline Sullivan wrote that " Cater 2 U " was one of the songs that showcased " the girliness in the trio , musically and lyrically " . In a review of Love Songs , Amanda Koellner from the website Consequence of Sound described " Cater 2 U " as a " sleek " album opener . Thomas Inskeep of Stylus Magazine hailed the song " sexy " while USA Today 's Elysa Gardner felt it was more " gently sensuous " . Rebecca Thomas from MTV News felt that the song differentiated from the trio 's other material and added " While the Third Wave set may have side @-@ eyed the gushy ballad , male fans eagerly welcomed [ it ] " .
The lyrics of the song were criticized with BBC 's Nick Reynolds saying that although the group " reinvent [ ed ] themselves as domestic goddesses for some lucky man " , the song was neither convincing nor good . He further opined " I thought they were supposed to be independent women ? ! " juxtaposing it with the group 's earlier song " Independent Women " ( 2000 ) . Jenny Eliscu of Rolling Stone echoed his statements , writing " Jerkins should hang his head in shame for having a hand in the maudlin ' Cater 2 U , ' a saccharine tune about how low Knowles , Rowland and Williams will stoop to prove their devotion to their man ... Since when did these independent women become so craven ? " . Sean Fennessey of Pitchfork Media also stated that " their swan song of sorts ... completely defies the winking empowerment most of their greatest jams provided " . He further described the production as " milky and slight " , the chorus as " limp " and the song overally as " a Prince mock @-@ up of the worst kind " . Jess Harvell of the same website offered similar criticism : " [ The song ] reneged on everything early DC stood for in a parade of kept @-@ wifey pleas " . Alex MacPherson of Stylus Magazine dismissed the sincerity of the lyrics classifying " Cater 2 U " as a " queasy " song . Neil McCormick from The Daily Telegraph panned it as " cringe inducing , with lots of sensuous moaning " . Barbara Ellen of The Observer wrote , " I thought this was the kind of song bands recorded by mistake then hid guiltily in the attic " .
= = = Recognition = = =
At the 48th Annual Grammy Awards in 2006 , " Cater 2 U " was nominated in two categories : Best R & B Song and Best R & B Performance by a Duo or Group with Vocals ultimately losing in both . The same year , the song won an award for Best R & B / Soul Single , Group , Band or Duo at the 2006 Soul Train Music Awards . It was one of the Award Winning R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs at the 2006 ASCAP Rhythm & Soul Music Awards . In 2013 , Lindsey Weber from the website Vulture listed " Cater 2 U " at number seven on her list of the 25 best songs by Destiny 's Child . Weber went on to describe it as " probably the least feminist song " of the band 's material , " the best song ever to lyrically use the phrase ' run your bathwater ' " and hailed Williams for her contribution during the bridge . On the occasion of Beyoncé 's 32nd birthday , Erika Ramirez and Jason Lipshutz of Billboard included " Cater 2 U " at number 25 on the list of " Beyonce 's 30 Biggest Billboard Hits " .
= = Chart performance = =
In the US , the song entered at number 95 on the US Billboard Hot 100 singles chart for the chart issue dated April 30 , 2005 . In its fifth week of charting it moved to number 83 on May 28 . After several weeks of ascending the chart , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 14 on the Billboard Hot 100 for the week ending August 13 , 2005 . On the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs the song entered the top ten of the chart at number six in its 19th week of charting on July 9 , 2005 . It became the band 's fourth top ten single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's twelfth top ten song . On the chart issue dated July 30 , 2005 , " Cater 2 U " moved from the position of four to three which became its peak and stayed there for three additional consecutive weeks . With that feat , it became the second single from Destiny Fulfilled and the group 's seventh overall top five single on the Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Songs chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the single gold on December 13 , 2005 for shipment of 500 @,@ 000 digital copies in the US . Its ringtone was further certified platinum on June 14 , 2006 for selling 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies .
In the Netherlands , " Cater 2 U " peaked at number 60 in its first week of charting on September 17 , 2005 . " Cater 2 U " debuted at number 20 on the Ultratip chart in the Flanders region of Belgium and moved to its peak position of 18 the following week on October 8 , 2005 which also became its final . It performed better on the same chart in the Wallonia region of the country where it peaked at the position of eight on October 22 . In Australia , the song debuted and peaked at number 15 on the ARIA Singles Chart on August 21 , 2005 and lasted six weeks in the chart 's top 50 . On the New Zealand Singles Chart , " Cater 2 U " first appeared on August 29 , 2005 at the position of seven . It moved to number nine the following week and started gradually descending the chart . It last appeared on October 10 at number 40 after seven weeks of charting .
= = Music video = =
The music video for " Cater 2 U " was directed by Jake Nava . It was shot back to back with the video for " Girl " and large parts were filmed at Red Rock Canyon State Park in California . On July 5 , 2005 , the music video was released on MTV 's official website . It is also featured on the DualDisc edition of the album # 1 's as well as on the Japanese version of the DVD Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta . In 2013 , it was included on the album Destiny 's Child Video Anthology which contained every music video the group had filmed during their career . An image taken from the video of " Cater 2 U " was used as the cover artwork for the DVD . The video opens with a fast instance of a sun rising in the sky and moves to the girls standing nude together . Each singer is featured in her own desert scene performing individually during her respective verse ; Beyoncé is seen on a diving board next to a swimming pool , Rowland on a deserted road where she dances next to a silver car from which she had previously got out of and Williams on a sunlounger . During the chorus the group members are seen wearing fishtail evening dresses , performing a choreographed dance routine for the camera and three males who watch them from the side ; the men are never filmed in the same shot as Destiny 's Child . During the end , each member is seen together with one of their male partners and the video fades away showing the trio nude again as during the beginning .
While reviewing the video of " Cater 2 U " , Rashaun Hall of MTV News felt that " [ the trio ] have decided to go au naturale — tastefully , of course " . He further concluded that the clip " is all about scenery and the beauty of the trio " . In their book Music Video and the Politics of Representation , Diane Railton and Paul Watson felt that the presence of men " seems utterly superfluous to the video 's spectacle of female bodies and female pleasures " . They further noted that the video 's imagery and performance managed to proceed without a reference to its lyrics and elaborated ,
" Indeed , the abstracted emptiness of its desert spaces , the posed tableaux of the women 's bodies and the noticeable lack of attention directed to its male subjects by both the camera and the group , does not simply jar with the lyrical narrative of female subordination but in fact reinforces the image of Destiny 's Child as independent women who are in control of their own lives . That is to say , the video ( re ) establishes an image of women who are in control of their own bodies , their own desires , their relationship with men and their friendships with women . "
= = Live performances and cover version = =
On November 16 , 2004 Destiny 's Child performed " Cater 2 U " during the television show Good Morning America broadcast on the American Broadcasting Company ( ABC ) . The song was performed on June 28 during the 2005 BET Awards in Los Angeles . Midway through the performance , for which the members wore form @-@ fitting , floor @-@ length brown gowns , they randomly picked Terrence Howard , Nelly and Magic Johnson from the audience to the stage and performance a lap dance for them . Corey Moss of MTV News felt that their performance was one of the more memorable of the night . Emily Tan from the website Idolator noted that the performance was one of the band 's best further writing , " No one expected the girls to get as down and dirty as they did ... But it looked like no one was complaining . " Steve Baltin writing for Rolling Stone remarked that the group provided " some sizzle " . The trio gave a live rendition of " Cater 2 U " again at NBC 's The Today Show show on July 29 , 2005 . A writer of People magazine felt that " Beyoncé shimmies and shakes things up " during the performance . An acoustic version was also performed on MTV in 2005 during the its Spring Break coverage .
In 2005 , " Cater 2 U " was part of the set list of the group 's final tour Destiny Fulfilled ... and Lovin ' It where they performed it in the same style as during the BET Awards , following the popularity of that performance . During the performance , the trio , dressed in long blue floor @-@ length gowns , called three men from the audience to the stage and performed a choreography similar to a lap dance . In a review of a concert in the UK , Adenike Adenitire of MTV News felt that the song was suitable to " slow things down " following the previous energetic performances of the show . " Cater 2 U " was included on the track listing of the group 's live album Destiny 's Child : Live in Atlanta ( 2006 ) chronicling a concert from the tour in that city . Following the group 's disbandment , both Beyoncé and Rowland included " Cater 2 U " in the set list of their respective solo tours . The former performed it as part of a Destiny 's Child medley included during the concerts of The Beyoncé Experience in 2007 . It was subsequently included in the live DVD , The Beyoncé Experience Live ( 2007 ) which included a concert filmed at the Staples Center in Los Angeles , California . Similarly , Rowland performed " Cater 2 U " live during her Lights Out Tour ( 2013 ) as part of a segment which included songs by Destiny 's Child . Usher and Babyface performed " Cater 2 U " at the 2005 World Music Awards on August 31 as a tribute to Destiny 's Child due to their disbandment . Byron Flitsch of MTV described their duet as " sensual " . In 2009 , " Cater 2 U " was referenced in Lil Wayne and Drake 's song " My Darlin ' Baby " .
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits are adapted from the liner notes of the album Destiny Fulfilled .
Lead vocals : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland and Michelle Williams
Vocal production : Beyoncé Knowles , Kelly Rowland , and Tenitra Michelle Williams
Recording : Jeff Villanueva and Jim Caruna at Sony Music Studios , NYC
Audio mixing : Tony Maserati
Audio mastering : Tom Coyne
Guitarist : Tim Stewart
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Charts = =
= = Certifications = =
= = Release history = =
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= Marshall Applewhite =
Marshall Herff Applewhite , Jr . ( May 17 , 1931 – March 26 , 1997 ) , also known as " Bo " and " Do " , among other names , was an American cult leader who founded what became known as the Heaven 's Gate religious group and organized their mass suicide in 1997 - claiming the lives of thirty @-@ nine people .
A native of Texas , Applewhite attended several universities and , as a young man , served in the United States Army . After finishing school at Austin College , he taught music at the University of Alabama . He later returned to Texas , where he led choruses and served as the chair of the music department at the University of St. Thomas in Houston . He left the school in 1970 , citing emotional turmoil . His father 's death a year later brought on severe depression . In 1972 , he developed a close friendship with Bonnie Nettles , a nurse ; together , they discussed mysticism at length and concluded that they were called as divine messengers . They operated a bookstore and teaching center for a short while , and then began to travel around the U.S. in 1973 to spread their views . They only gained one convert . In 1975 , Applewhite was arrested for failing to return a rental car and was jailed for six months . In jail , he further developed his theology .
After Applewhite 's release , he traveled to California and Oregon with Nettles , eventually gaining a group of committed followers . Applewhite and Nettles told their followers that they would be visited by extraterrestrials who would provide them with new bodies . Applewhite initially stated that he and his followers would physically ascend to a spaceship , where their bodies would be transformed , but later , he came to believe that their bodies were the mere containers of their souls , which would later be placed into new bodies . These ideas were expressed with language drawn from Christian eschatology , the New Age movement , and American popular culture .
The group received an influx of funds in the late 1970s , which it used to pay housing and other expenses . In 1985 , Nettles died , leaving Applewhite distraught and challenging his views on physical ascension . In the early 1990s the group took more steps to publicize their theology . In 1996 , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp and rumors of an accompanying spaceship . They concluded that this spaceship was the vessel that would take their spirits on board for a journey to another planet . Believing that their souls would ascend to the spaceship and be given new bodies , the group members committed mass suicide in their mansion . A media circus followed the discovery of their bodies . In the aftermath , commentators and academics discussed how Applewhite persuaded people to follow his commands , including suicide . Some commentators attributed his followers ' willingness to commit suicide to his skill as a manipulator , while others argued that their willingness was due to their faith in the narrative that he constructed .
= = Early life and education = =
Marshall Herff Applewhite was born in Spur , Texas , on May 17 , 1931 , to Marshall Herff Applewhite Sr. and his wife Louise née Winfield ; he had three siblings . The son of a Presbyterian minister , Applewhite became very religious as a child .
Applewhite attended Corpus Christi High School and Austin College ; at the latter school , he was active in several student organizations and was moderately religious . He earned a bachelor 's degree in philosophy in 1952 and subsequently enrolled at Union Presbyterian Seminary to study theology , hoping to become a minister . He married Anne Pearce around that time , and they later had two children . Early in his seminary studies , he decided to leave the school to pursue a career in music , becoming the music director of a Presbyterian church in North Carolina . He was a baritone singer and enjoyed spirituals and the music of Handel . In 1954 , he was drafted by the United States Army and served in Austria and New Mexico as a member of the Army Signal Corps . He left the military in 1956 and enrolled at the University of Colorado , where he earned a master 's degree in music and focused on musical theater .
= = Career = =
Applewhite moved to New York City in an unsuccessful attempt to launch a professional singing career upon finishing his education in Colorado . He then taught at the University of Alabama . He lost his position there after pursuing a sexual relationship with a male student ; his religious education was likely not supportive of same @-@ sex relationships and he was subsequently frustrated by his sexual desires . He separated from his wife when she learned of the affair in 1965 , and they divorced three years later .
After leaving the University of Alabama , Applewhite moved to Houston , Texas , in 1965 to teach at the University of St. Thomas . His students regarded him as an engaging speaker and a stylish dresser . He served as chair of the music department ; he also became a locally popular singer , serving as the choral director of an Episcopal church and performing with the Houston Grand Opera . In Texas , he was briefly openly gay but also pursued a relationship with a young woman , who left him under pressure from her family , greatly upsetting him . He resigned from the University of St. Thomas in 1970 , citing depression and other emotional problems . Robert Balch and David Taylor , sociologists who studied Applewhite 's group , speculate that this departure was prompted by another affair between Applewhite and a student . The president of the university later recalled that he was often mentally jumbled and disorganized near the end of his employment .
In 1971 , Applewhite briefly moved to New Mexico , where he operated a delicatessen . He was popular with customers but decided to return to Texas later that year . His father died around that time ; the loss took a significant emotional toll on him , causing severe depression . His debts mounted , forcing him to borrow money from friends .
= = Introduction to Nettles and first travels = =
In 1972 , Applewhite met Bonnie Nettles , a nurse with an interest in theosophy and Biblical prophecy . The two quickly became close friends ; he later recalled that he felt like he had known her for a long time and concluded that they had met in a past life . She told him their meeting had been foretold to her by extraterrestrials , persuading him that he had a divine assignment . By that time , he had begun to investigate alternatives to traditional Christian doctrine , including astrology . He also had had several visions , including one in which he was told that he was chosen for a role like that of Jesus . In her 2005 profile of Applewhite , Susan Raine speculates that he had a schizophrenic episode around this time .
Applewhite soon began to live with Nettles . Although they cohabited , their relationship was not a sexual one , fulfilling his longtime wish to have a deep and loving , yet platonic , relationship . She was married with two children , but after she became close with Applewhite , her husband divorced her , and she lost custody of her children . Applewhite permanently broke off contact with his family as well . He saw Nettles as his soulmate , and some of his acquaintances later recalled that she had a strong influence on him . Raine writes that Nettles " was responsible for reinforcing his emerging delusional beliefs " , but psychiatrist Robert Jay Lifton speculates that Nettles ' influence helped him avoid further psychological deterioration .
Applewhite and Nettles opened a bookstore known as the Christian Arts Center , which carried books from a variety of spiritual backgrounds . They also launched a venture known as Know Place to teach classes on mysticism and theosophy . They closed these businesses a short time later . In February 1973 , they resolved to travel to teach others about their beliefs and drove throughout the Southwest and Western U.S ; Lifton describes their travels as a " restless , intense , often confused , peripatetic spiritual journey " . While traveling , they had little money and occasionally resorted to selling their blood or working odd jobs for much @-@ needed funds . They subsisted solely on bread rolls at times , often camped out , and sometimes did not pay their lodging bills . One of their friends from Houston corresponded with them and agreed to accept their teachings . They visited her in May 1974 , and she became their first convert .
While traveling , Applewhite and Nettles pondered the life of St. Francis of Assisi and read works by authors including Helena Blavatsky , R. D. Laing , and Richard Bach . They kept a King James Version of the Bible with them and studied several passages from the New Testament , focusing on teachings about Christology , asceticism , and eschatology . Applewhite also read science fiction , including works by Robert A. Heinlein and Arthur C. Clarke . By June 1974 , Applewhite and Nettles ' beliefs had solidified into a basic outline . They concluded that they had been chosen to fulfill biblical prophecies , and that they had been given higher @-@ level minds than other people . They wrote a pamphlet that described Jesus ' reincarnation as a Texan , a thinly veiled reference to Applewhite . Furthermore , they concluded that they were the two witnesses described in the Book of Revelation and occasionally visited churches or other spiritual groups to speak of their identities , often referring to themselves as " The Two " , or " The UFO Two " . They believed that they would be killed and then restored to life and , in view of others , transported onto a spaceship . This event , which they referred to as " the Demonstration " , was to prove their claims . To their dismay , these ideas received a poor reception .
= = Arrest and proselytism = =
In August 1974 , Applewhite was arrested in Harlingen , Texas , for failing to return a car that he had rented in Missouri . He was extradited to St. Louis and jailed for six months . At the time , he maintained that he had been " divinely authorized " to keep the car . While jailed , he pondered theology and subsequently abandoned discussion of occult topics , in favor of extraterrestrials and evolution .
After Applewhite 's release , he and Nettles resolved to contact extraterrestrials and they sought like @-@ minded followers . They published advertisements for meetings , where they recruited disciples , whom they called " crew " . At the events , they purported to represent beings from another planet , the Next Level , who sought participants for an experiment . They claimed that those who agreed to take part in the experiment would be brought to a higher evolutionary level . He and Nettles referred to themselves as " Guinea " and " Pig " . Applewhite described his role as a " lab instructor " and served as the primary speaker , while Nettles , occasionally interjected clarifying remarks or corrections . The two seldom personally spoke with attendees , only taking phone numbers with which they could contact them . They initially named their organization the Anonymous Sexaholics Celibate Church , but it soon became known as the Human Individual Metamorphosis .
Applewhite believed in the ancient astronaut hypothesis , which claimed that extraterrestrials had visited humanity in the past and placed humans on Earth and would return to collect a select few . Parts of this teaching bear similarities to the Reformed Christian concept of election , likely owing to Applewhite 's Presbyterian upbringing . He often discussed extraterrestrials using phrases from Star Trek and stated that aliens communicated with him through the show .
Applewhite and Nettles sent advertisements to groups in California and were invited to speak to New Age devotees there in April 1975 . At this meeting , they persuaded about half of the 50 attendees to follow them . They also focused on college campuses , speaking at Cañada College in August . At a meeting in Oregon in September 1975 , they saw further recruitment success — about 30 people left their homes to follow the pair , prompting interest from media outlets . The coverage was negative : commentators and some former members mocked the group and leveled accusations of brainwashing against Applewhite and Nettles . Balch and Taylor state that Applewhite and Nettles eschewed pressure tactics , seeking only devoted followers .
Benjamin E. Zeller , an academic who studies new religions , notes that Applewhite and Nettles ' teachings focused on salvation through individual growth and sees this as similar to currents in the era 's New Age movement . Likewise , the importance of personal choice was also emphasized . Applewhite and Nettles denied connection with the New Age movement , viewing it as a human creation . Janja Lalich , a sociologist , who studies cults , attributes their recruitment success to their eclectic mix of beliefs and the way that they deviate from typical New Age teachings : discussing literal spaceships while retaining familiar language . Most of their disciples were young and interested in occultism or otherwise lived outside of mainstream society . They came from a variety of religious backgrounds , including Eastern religions and Scientology . Most were well versed in New Age teachings , allowing Applewhite and Nettles to convert them easily . Applewhite thought that his followers would reach a higher level of being , changing like a caterpillar becoming a butterfly ; this example was used in almost all of their early literature . Applewhite contended that this would be a " biological change into a different species , casting his teachings as scientific truth in line with secular naturalism . " He emphasized to his early followers that he was not speaking metaphorically , often using the words " biology " and " chemistry " in his statements . By the mid @-@ 1970s , he attempted to avoid the use of the term " religion " , seeing it as inferior to science . Although he dismissed religion as unscientific , he sometimes emphasized the need for faith in the aliens ' abilities to transform them .
= = Nomadic lifestyle = =
By 1975 , Applewhite and Nettles had taken the names " Bo " and " Peep " . They had about 70 followers and saw themselves as shepherds tending a flock . Applewhite believed that complete separation from Earthly desires was a prerequisite of ascension to the Next Level and emphasized passages in the New Testament in which Jesus spoke about forsaking worldly attachments . Members were consequently instructed to renounce : friends , family , media , drugs , alcohol , jewelry , facial hair , and sexuality . Furthermore , they were required to adopt biblical names . Applewhite and Nettles soon told them to adopt two @-@ syllable names that ended in " ody " and had three consonants in the first syllable , such as Rkkody , Jmmody , and Lvvody ; Applewhite stated that these names emphasized that his followers were spiritual children . Applewhite , Nettles , and their followers lived what religious scholar James Lewis describes as a " quasi @-@ nomadic lifestyle " . They usually stayed at remote campgrounds and did not speak about their beliefs . Applewhite and Nettles ceased having public meetings in April 1975 , and spent little time teaching doctrine to their converts . The leaders also had little contact with their dispersed followers , many of whom renounced their allegiance .
Applewhite and Nettles feared that they would be assassinated , and taught their followers that their deaths would be similar to those of the two witnesses of the Book of Revelation . Balch and Taylor believe that Applewhite 's prison experience and early rejection by audiences contributed to this fear . Applewhite and Nettles later explained to their followers that the former 's treatment by the press was a form of assassination and had fulfilled their prophecy . Applewhite took a materialistic view of the Bible , seeing it as a record of extraterrestrial contact with humanity . He drew heavily from the Book of Revelation , although he avoided traditional theological terminology and took a somewhat negative tone towards Christianity . He only lectured about a small number of verses and never tried to develop a system of theology .
By early 1976 , Applewhite and Nettles had settled on the names " Do " and " Ti " ; Applewhite stated that these were meaningless names . In June 1976 , they gathered their remaining followers at Medicine Bow National Forest in Southeastern Wyoming , promising a UFO visit . Nettles later announced that the visit had been cancelled . Applewhite and Nettles then split their followers into small groups , which they referred to as " Star Clusters " ,
From 1976 to 1979 , the group lived in campgrounds , usually in the Rocky Mountains or Texas . Applewhite and Nettles began to place greater demands on their followers ' heretofore loosely structured lives , which improved membership retention . They typically communicated with their disciples in writing or through assistants . Increasingly , they emphasized that they were the only source of truth — the idea that members could receive individual revelations was rejected in an attempt to prevent schisms . Applewhite also sought to prevent close friendships among his followers , fearing that this could lead to insubordination . Applewhite and Nettles insisted that their followers practice what they referred to as " flexibility " : strict obedience to their often shifting requests . The two leaders limited the group 's contacts with those outside the movement , even some who may have been interested in joining , ostensibly to prevent infiltration from hostile parties . In practice , this made their followers completely dependent upon them . Applewhite instructed his disciples to be like children or pets in their submission — their sole responsibility was to obey their leaders . Members were encouraged to constantly seek Applewhite 's advice and often ask themselves what their leaders would do when making a decision . To his followers , he did not seem dictatorial : many of them found him laid back and fatherly . In his 2000 study of the group , Winston Davis states that Applewhite mastered the " fine art of religious entertainment " , noting that many of his disciples seemed to enjoy their service . Applewhite organized seemingly arbitrary rituals that were intended to instill a sense of discipline in his followers ; he referred to these tasks as " games " . He also watched science @-@ fiction television programs with the rest of the group . Rather than issue direct commands , he attempted to express his preferences and nominally offer his disciples a choice . He emphasized that students were free to disobey if they chose , in what Lalich dubs the " illusion of choice " .
= = Housing and control = =
In the late 1970s , the group received a large sum of money , possibly an inheritance of a member or donations of followers ' income . This capital was used to rent houses , initially in Denver and later in Dallas . Applewhite and Nettles had about 40 followers then and lived in two or three houses : the leaders usually had their own house . The group was secretive about their lifestyle , covering their windows . Applewhite and Nettles arranged their followers ' lifestyles as a boot camp that would prepare them for the Next Level . Referring to their house as a " craft " , they regimented the lives of their disciples to the minute . Students who were not committed to this lifestyle were encouraged to leave ; departing members were given financial assistance . Lifton states that Applewhite wanted " quality over quantity " in his followers , although he occasionally spoke about gaining many converts .
Applewhite and Nettles sometimes made sudden , drastic changes to the group . On one occasion in Texas , they told their followers of a forthcoming visitation from extraterrestrials and instructed them to wait outside all night , at which point they informed them that this had been merely a test . Lalich sees this as a way that they increased their students ' devotion , ensuring that their commitment became irrespective of what they saw . Members became desperate for Applewhite 's approval , which he used to control them .
In 1980 , Applewhite and Nettles had about 80 followers , many of whom held jobs , often working with computers or as car mechanics . In 1982 , Applewhite and Nettles allowed their disciples to call their families . They further relaxed their control in 1983 , permitting their followers to visit relatives on Mother 's Day . They were only allowed short stays and were instructed to tell their families that they were studying computers at a monastery . These vacations were intended to placate families by demonstrating that the disciples remained with the group of their own accord .
= = Nettles ' death = =
In 1983 , Nettles had an eye surgically removed as a result of cancer diagnosed several years earlier . She lived for two more years , dying in 1985 . Applewhite told their followers that she had " traveled to the Next Level " because she had " too much energy to remain on Earth " , abandoning her body to make the journey . His attempt to explain her death in the terms of the group 's doctrine was successful , preventing the departure of all but one member . Applewhite became very depressed . He claimed that Nettles still communicated with him , but he suffered from a crisis of faith . His students supported him during this time , greatly encouraging him . He then organized a ceremony in which he symbolically married his followers ; Lalich views this as an attempt to ensure unity . Applewhite told his followers that he had been left behind by Nettles because he still had more to learn — he felt that she occupied " a higher spiritual role " than he did . He began identifying her as " the Father " and often referred to her with male pronouns .
Applewhite began to emphasize a strict hierarchy , teaching that his students needed his guidance , as he needed the guidance of the Next Level . Zeller notes that this naturally ensured that there would be no possibility of the group 's continuing if Applewhite were to die . A relationship with Applewhite was said to be the only way to salvation ; he encouraged his followers to see him as Christ . Zeller states that the group 's previous focus on individual choice was replaced with an emphasis on Applewhite 's role as a mediator . Applewhite maintained some aspects of their scientific teachings , but , in the 1980s , the group became more like a religion in its focus on faith and submission to authority .
After Nettles ' death , Applewhite also altered his view of ascension : previously , he had taught that the group would physically ascend from the Earth and that death caused reincarnation , but her death - which left behind an unchanged , corporeal body - forced him to say that the ascension could be spiritual . He then concluded that her spirit had traveled to a spaceship and received a new body and that he and his followers would do the same . In his view , the Biblical heaven was actually a planet on which highly evolved beings dwelt , and physical bodies were required to ascend there . Applewhite believed that once they reached the Next Level , they would facilitate evolution on other planets . He emphasized that Jesus , whom he believed was an extraterrestrial , came to Earth , was killed , and bodily rose from the dead before being transported onto a spaceship . According to Applewhite 's doctrine , Jesus was a gateway to heaven but had found humanity unready to ascend when he first came to the Earth . Applewhite then decided that there was an opportunity for humans to reach the Next Level " every two millennia " , and the early 1990s would therefore provide the first opportunity to reach the Kingdom of Heaven since the time of Jesus . Zeller notes that his beliefs were based on the Christian Bible but were interpreted through the lens of belief in alien contact with humanity .
Applewhite taught that he was a walk @-@ in , a concept that had gained popularity in the New Age movement during the late 1970s . Walk @-@ ins were said to be higher beings who took control of adult bodies to teach humanity . This concept informed Applewhite 's view of resurrection : he believed that his group 's souls were to be transported to a spaceship , where they would enter other bodies . Applewhite abandoned the metaphor of a butterfly in favor of describing the body as a mere container , a vehicle that souls could enter and exit . This dualism may have been the product of the Christology that Applewhite learned as a young man ; Lewis writes that the group 's teachings had " Christian elements [ that ] were basically grafted on to a New Age matrix " . In a profile of the group for Newsweek , Kenneth Woodward compares his dualism to that of ancient Christian Gnosticism , although Peters notes that his theology departs from Gnosticism by privileging the physical world .
In the wake of Nettles ' death , Applewhite became increasingly paranoid , fearing a conspiracy against his group . One member who joined in the mid @-@ 1980s recalled that Applewhite avoided new converts , worrying that they were infiltrators . He feared a government raid on their home and spoke highly of the Jewish defenders of Masada in ancient Israel who showed total resistance to the Roman Empire . Increasingly , he began to discuss the Apocalypse , comparing the Earth to an overgrown garden that was to be recycled or rebooted and humanity to a failed experiment . In accordance with the garden metaphor , he stated that the Earth would be " spaded under " . Woodward notes that Applewhite 's teaching about the Earth 's recycling is similar to the cyclical perspective of time found in Buddhism . Applewhite also utilized New Age concepts , but he differed from that movement by predicting that apocalyptic , rather than utopian , changes would soon occur on Earth . He contended that most humans had been brainwashed by Lucifer , but that his followers could break free of this control . He specifically cited sexual urges as the work of Lucifer . In addition , he stated that there were evil extraterrestrials , whom he referred to as " Luciferians " , who sought to thwart his mission . He argued that many prominent moral teachers and advocates of political correctness were actually Luciferians . This theme emerged in 1988 , possibly in response to the lurid alien abduction stories that were proliferating at the time .
= = Obscurity and evangelism = =
In the late 1980s , the group kept a low profile ; few people knew it still existed . In 1988 , they mailed a document that detailed their beliefs to a variety of New Age organizations . The mailing contained information about their history and advised people to read several books , which primarily focused on Christian history and UFOs . With the exception of the 1988 document , Applewhite 's group remained inconspicuous until 1992 , when they recorded a 12 @-@ part video series which was broadcast via satellite . This series echoed many of the teachings of the 1988 update , although it introduced a " universal mind " of which its hearers could partake .
Over the course of the group 's existence , several hundred people joined and left . In the early 1990s , their membership dwindled , numbering as few as 26 ; these defections gave Applewhite a sense of urgency . In May 1993 , the group took the name " Total Overcomers Anonymous " . They then spent $ 30 @,@ 000 to publish a full @-@ page advertisement in USA Today that warned of catastrophic judgment to befall the Earth . Its publication led about 20 former members to rejoin the group . This , along with a series of public lectures in 1994 , caused membership to double from its nadir at the beginning of the decade . By this time , Applewhite did not regiment his disciples ' lives as strictly as he had and spent less time with them .
In the early 1990s , Applewhite posted some of his teachings on the Internet , but he was stung by the resulting criticism . That year , he first spoke of the possibility of suicide as a way to reach the Next Level . He explained that everything " human " had to be forsaken , including the human body , before one could ascend . The organization was then renamed " Heaven 's Gate " . Davis speculates that this rejection may have encouraged him to attempt to leave Earth .
From June to October 1995 , the group lived in a rural part of New Mexico . They purchased 40 acres ( 0 @.@ 16 km2 ) and built a compound — which they referred to as the " Earth ship " — using tires and lumber ; Applewhite hoped to establish a monastery . This proved to be a difficult endeavor , particularly for the aging Applewhite : he was in poor health and , at one point , feared that he had cancer . Lifton notes that Applewhite 's active leadership of the group probably led to severe fatigue in his last years . The winter was very cold , and they abandoned the plan . Afterwards , they lived in several houses in the San Diego area .
The group increasingly focused on the suppression of sexual desire ; Applewhite and seven others opted for surgical castration . They initially had difficulty finding a willing surgeon , but eventually found one in Mexico . In Applewhite 's view , sexuality was one of the most powerful forces that bound humans to their bodies and thus hindered their efforts to evolve to the Next Level ; he taught that Next Level beings had no reproductive organs but that Luciferian beings had genders . He also cited a verse in the New Testament that said there would not be marriage in heaven . In addition , he required members to adopt similar clothing and haircuts , possibly to reinforce that they were a non @-@ sexual family .
= = Mass suicide = =
In October 1996 , the group rented a mansion in Rancho Santa Fe , California . That year , they recorded two video messages in which they offered their viewers a " last chance to evacuate Earth " . Around the same time , they learned of the approach of Comet Hale – Bopp . Applewhite now believed that Nettles was aboard a spaceship trailing the comet , and that she planned to rendezvous with them . He told his followers that the vessel would transport them to an empyrean destination , and that there was a government conspiracy to suppress word of the craft . In addition , he stated that his deceased followers would be taken by the vessel as well , a belief that resembled the Christian pretribulation rapture doctrine . It is not known how he learned of the comet or why he believed that it was accompanied by extraterrestrials or why he should have believed the dead Nettles would be with them .
In late March 1997 , the group isolated themselves and recorded farewell statements . Many members praised Applewhite in their final messages ; Davis describes their remarks as " regurgitations of Do 's gospel " . Applewhite recorded a video shortly before his death , in which he termed the suicides the " Final exit " of the group and remarked , " We do in all honesty hate this world " . Lewis speculates that Applewhite settled on suicide because he had said that the group would ascend during his lifetime and thus appointing a successor was unfeasible .
Religious scholar Catherine Wessinger posits that the suicides began on March 22 . Most members took barbiturates and alcohol and then placed bags over their heads . They wore Nike shoes and black uniforms with patches that read " Heaven 's Gate Away Team " . A bag that contained a few dollars and a form of identification was placed beside most bodies . The deaths occurred over three days ; Applewhite was one of the last four to die . Three assistants helped him commit suicide , then killed themselves . An anonymous tip led the sheriff 's department to search the mansion ; they found 39 bodies there on March 26 . It is the largest group suicide that has occurred in the U.S. Applewhite 's body was found seated on the bed of the mansion 's master bedroom . Medical examiners determined that his fears of cancer had been unfounded , but that he suffered from coronary atherosclerosis .
The deaths provoked a media circus , and Applewhite 's face was featured on the covers of Time and Newsweek on April 7 . His final message was widely broadcast ; Hugh Urban of Ohio State University describes his appearance in the video as " wild @-@ eyed [ and ] rather alarming " .
= = Analysis = =
Although many popular commentators , including psychologist Margaret Singer , speculate that Applewhite brainwashed his followers , many academics have rejected the " brainwashing " label as an oversimplification that does not express the nuances of the process by which the followers were influenced . Lalich speculates that they were willing to follow Applewhite in suicide because they had become totally dependent upon him , and hence were poorly suited for life in his absence . Davis attributes Applewhite 's success in convincing his followers to commit suicide to two factors : he isolated them socially and cultivated an attitude of complete religious obedience in them . Applewhite 's students had made a long @-@ term commitment to him , and Balch and Taylor infer that this is why his interpretations of events appeared coherent to them . Most of the dead had been members for about 20 years , although there were a few recent converts .
Lewis argues that Applewhite effectively controlled his followers by packaging his teachings in familiar terms . Richard Hecht of the University of California , Santa Barbara , echoes this sentiment , arguing that members of the group killed themselves because they believed the narrative that he had constructed , rather than because he psychologically controlled them . In his 2000 study of apocalyptic movements , John R. Hall posits that they were motivated to commit suicide because they saw it as a way to demonstrate that they had conquered the fear of death and truly believed Applewhite .
Urban writes that Applewhite 's life displays " the intense ambivalence and alienation shared by many individuals lost in late twentieth @-@ century capitalist society " . He notes that Applewhite 's condemnations of contemporary culture bear similarities to those of Jean Baudrillard at times , particularly their shared nihilist views . Urban posits that Applewhite found no way other than suicide to escape the society that surrounded him and states that death offered him a way to escape its " endless circle of seduction and consumption " .
While covering the suicides , several media outlets focused on Applewhite 's sexuality ; the New York Post dubbed him " the Gay Guru " . Gay rights activist Troy Perry argued that Applewhite 's repression , and society 's rejection , of same @-@ sex relationships ultimately led to his suicide . This idea has failed to gain support among academics . Zeller argues that Applewhite 's sexuality was not the primary driving force behind his asceticism , which he believes resulted from a variety of factors , though he grants sexuality a role .
Lalich states that Applewhite fit " the traditional view of a charismatic leader " , and Evan Thomas deems him a " master manipulator " . Lifton compares Applewhite to Shoko Asahara , the founder of Aum Shinrikyo , describing him as " equally controlling , his paranoia and megalomania gentler yet ever present " . Christopher Partridge of Lancaster University states that Applewhite and Nettles were similar to John Reeve and Lodowicke Muggleton , who founded Muggletonianism , a millennialist movement in 17th century England .
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= Arbeideren ( Hamar ) =
Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) was a Norwegian newspaper , published in Hamar , Hedmark county . It was started in 1909 as the press organ of the Labour Party in Hedemarken and its adjoining regions , and was called Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) until 1923 . It was issued three days a week between 1909 and 1913 , six days a week in 1914 , three days a week again between 1914 and 1918 before again increasing to six days a week . It was renamed to Arbeideren in 1923 , and in the same year it was taken over by the Norwegian Communist Party . The Communist Party incorporated the newspaper Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad into Arbeideren in 1924 , and until 1929 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad . After Arbeideren had gone defunct , the name was used by the Communist Party for other newspapers elsewhere .
The chief editors of the newspaper were Olav Kringen ( 1909 – 1913 ) , Ole Holmen ( 1912 – 1913 ) , Fredrik Monsen ( 1913 – 1916 ) , Paul O. Løkke ( 1916 – 1919 ) , Alfred Aakermann ( 1919 – 1920 ) , Olav Larssen ( 1920 – 1927 ) , and finally Trond Hegna , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , Olav Scheflo , Eivind Petershagen , and Jørgen Vogt ( between 1927 and 1929 ) . Fredrik Monsen , Evald O. Solbakken and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors from 1924 to 1925 .
= = Pre @-@ history = =
Demokraten was originally the name of a short @-@ lived newspaper in Hamar started by Leopold Rasmussen in 1852 , connected to the Marcus Thrane movement . Rasmussen started a second newspaper , Oplands @-@ Posten , in Hamar later in 1852 , to compete with his own Demokraten . An organ for the social liberal labour movement in the district , Arbeiderbladet existed from 1889 to 1892 and was published out of different cities , including in Hamar in the year 1890 .
A countywide chapter of the Labour Party was established in Hedmark in mid @-@ November 1904 . After the countywide party convention in Stange in 1906 , the convention summary had to be printed in the Kristiania @-@ based newspaper Social @-@ Demokraten , as it lacked its own local newspaper . The county board thus decided to buy 1 @,@ 500 copies of the Social @-@ Demokraten to distribute to its members . There was a growing notion that the party needed its own newspaper . In the same year , the labour movement in Solør ( south of Hedmark ) bought the paper Solungen , which had existed since 1904 . The takeover came into effect on 1 January 1907 , and publishing began the following year . Solungen pretended to be the labour movement organ for the whole of Hedmark , and outside of Solør it was published as Hedemarkens Amts Socialdemokrat ( Solungen ) . However , the rest of Hedmark county was not satisfied with this solution .
= = Labour Party period = =
= = = 1909 – 1913 = = =
The Hamar @-@ based newspaper Demokraten ( " The Democrat " ) was started on 15 September 1909 . The initiator and first editor was Olav Kringen , who had ample experience as the editor of Social @-@ Demokraten from 1903 until 1906 . Demokraten was the Labour Party organ for the Mjøsa Cities and Hedemarken , but in its first years it also covered Gudbrandsdalen and Østerdalen , two northern regions . The name Østoplandenes Socialistiske Partiblad was considered for the newspaper , but the historical name Demokraten prevailed . The name was suggested by local Labour MP Karl Amundsen . Demokraten 's coverage of Gudbrandsdalen soon ended , and in southern Østerdalen a new labour newspaper , Østerdalens Arbeiderblad , was set up in 1915 . In northern Østerdalen , Arbeidets Rett was popular among the labour movement . According to reports in Demokraten the newspaper again began to cover news from a part of Gudbrandsdalen , namely the city Lillehammer , in 1912 .
When it came to building up a new newspaper , Kringen had a certain personal drive , as he ran for parliament in 1909 . When he lost the election , he also lost interest to a certain degree . He resigned in 1912 and Ole Holmen , a member of the Vang municipal council , took over as chief editor . However , he ran afoul of other people involved with the newspaper and was fired in 1913 .
The newspaper originally had the tagline Socialistisk blad for Oplandene ( " Socialist Paper for Oplandene " ) , but in 1910 this was changed to Talsmand for Arbeiderbevægelsen ( " Spokesman for the Labour Movement " ) . It was printed by the company A. Sæther . The newspaper was issued three times a week until 1 July 1913 , from which point it was increased to six times a week . As part of this ambitious increase , Demokraten also had 3 @,@ 000 copies in circulation , unprecedented in its history .
= = = 1913 – 1916 = = =
In 1913 the newspaper 's supervisory council hired school teacher Fredrik Monsen to be the new editor . Olav Larssen started his journalist career as a subeditor in the same year . In the newspaper 's supervisory council vote , Monsen edged out Waldemar Carlsen with 22 to 4 votes , and also prevailed over other applicants who were seasoned editors , such as Ingvald Førre and Eugène Olaussen . Larssen prevailed over Carlsen and Førre in the vote for the new subeditor .
Only Monsen and Larssen were employed in the newspaper to work with editorial content . In 1913 , Monsen managed to contract known personalities from the labour movement as " regular contributors " . These were the nationally known figures Olav Kringen , Gunnar Ousland and Johan Falkberget , in addition to Lillehammer politician Petter Nilssen and the locally known politicians Arne Juland ( later MP ) and Andr . Juell . Danish expatriate Alfred Kruse joined in the autumn of 1913 . However , according to Larssen , the prominent writers contracted to Demokraten " seldomly wrote " anything .
In his memoirs , Larssen wrote that Monsen was " often aggressive " as editor @-@ in @-@ chief , especially when writing editorials . He got several adversaries in the city 's conservative community , especially after donning a badge with the broken rifle , a well @-@ known anti @-@ war symbol . The newspaper competed with the old and popular conservative Hamar Stiftstidende , the liberal left Oplandenes Avis , and the liberal Oplandet .
The practice of issuing the newspaper six days a week became harder after the outbreak of the First World War . The war caused a general rise in prices , and newspaper subscriptions and advertisements both declined . Demokraten had to revert to being issued three times a week starting 1 September 1914 . In December 1914 it adopted a new tagline , Organ for arbeiderpartiet i Hamar og Hedemarksbygdene ( " Organ for the Labour Party in Hamar and the Hamlets of Hedemarken " ) .
= = = 1916 – 1923 = = =
Monsen and Larssen both left Demokraten in 1916 . The next editors were Paul O. Løkke , who served from 1916 to 1919 , and Alfred Aakermann , from 1919 to 1920 . Larssen returned in 1920 as editor @-@ in @-@ chief . Georg Svendsen was the subeditor from 1918 until 1921 , when Evald O. Solbakken started in the newspaper as subeditor . Still , there were only two people to deliver the editorial content .
As the war years went , the newspaper 's finances gradually improved . The Norwegian state became more active in production and trade and contributed many advertisements . Demokraten acquired its own type @-@ setting machine in October 1918 and a printing press in 1917 , which it used from 1 January 1918 . From 1 July 1918 , circulation once again increased to six days a week .
= = Communist Party period = =
In 1923 , the newspaper was renamed Arbeideren ( " The Worker " ) , and the first issue with this name was released on 1 May 1923 , the International Workers ' Day . The change followed a letter in 1922 from the Comintern Executive , which stated that no newspaper belonging to a Comintern member organization should have " Social Democrat " or " Democrat " as a part of its title . The printing press of the party changed its name accordingly , to Arbeiderens trykkeri .
In the same year , 1923 , the Labour Party broke out of the Comintern . Subsequently the Communist Party broke away from the Labour Party . The local chapter of the Labour Party in Hamar decided to side with the Communist Party in November 1923 , in a 123 – 22 vote . Arbeideren was then taken away from Labour , as the supervisory council decided by a 65 to 5 vote that it should follow the Communists . Arbeideren was one of thirteen Labour newspapers that broke away from the party and followed the Communists ( one , Nordlys , later returned to Labour ) . Since 15 February 1924 the newspaper was published under the name Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad , as the Communist Party had seen fit to merge Arbeideren with Lillehammer @-@ based Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad .
Editor Larssen and subeditor Solbakken both joined the Communist Party in 1923 and continued running the newspaper . As Olav Larssen was asked by the party to be the acting editor of Norges Kommunistblad in the winter of 1924 – 1925 , Fredrik Monsen , Evald Solbakken , and Knut Olai Thornæs were acting editors between 1924 and 1925 . Larssen eventually drifted away from the mainstream of the Communist Party . In late 1926 and early 1927 he voiced his opinion in columns that the Communist Party should contribute to the imminent merger of the Labour Party and the Social Democratic Labour Party . A local party convention strongly rebuked this opinion . Larssen was thus replaced in January 1927 and left the Communist Party , and Solbakken soon followed suit . Fredrik Monsen left the party at the same time .
Information differs as to who replaced Larssen . According to Evald Solbakken , and also to the reference bibliography Norske aviser 1763 – 1969 , the replacement was Olav Scheflo , who needed a stand @-@ in , Ingvald B. Jacobsen , for the first period . According to the encyclopaedia Arbeidernes Leksikon and historian Einhart Lorenz , Trond Hegna was the editor in 1927 , before he took over Norges Kommunistblad in the summer of 1927 . Hegna 's main job was to edit the periodical Mot Dag , but in this period the people of Mot Dag had an informal influence on the Communist Party and several of their newspapers . Scheflo formally edited the newspaper from 1927 to 1928 , with Eivind Petershagen as acting editor from late 1927 . In 1928 Petershagen formally took over , only to have Jørgen Vogt become acting editor later that year . Vogt took over in 1929 .
As many newspapers belonging to the dwindling Communist Party , Arbeideren would cease to exist before the end of the 1920s . It was still published six times a week , but had to give up its printing press in 1929 , switching to Samtrykk in Oslo . The last ever issue of Arbeideren og Gudbrandsdalens Arbeiderblad was published on 4 October 1929 .
= = Aftermath = =
A month after Arbeideren went defunct , the Communist Party gave its name to a new newspaper , which was set up as the new main newspaper of the Communist Party in 1930 . This new paper was based in Oslo as the replacement of Norges Kommunistblad , which had been liquidated as well . Olav Larssen and Evald Solbakken found a new outlet in Hamar Arbeiderblad , which had been set up as the new Hamar organ of the Labour Party in 1925 . The Communist Party later tried to create a weekly newspaper in Hamar , Rød Front , but it was short @-@ lived and existed only between 1932 and 1933 . The Oslo version of Arbeideren went defunct in 1940 , and many years after that , the name was used from 1951 to 1953 for a third newspaper , published in Brumunddal , not far from Hamar city .
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= Journey ( 2012 video game ) =
Journey is an indie video game developed by Thatgamecompany and published by Sony Computer Entertainment for the PlayStation 3 . It was released on March 13 , 2012 , via the PlayStation Network . In Journey , the player controls a robed figure in a vast desert , traveling towards a mountain in the distance . Other players on the same journey can be discovered , and two players can meet and assist each other , but they cannot communicate via speech or text and cannot see each other 's names . The only form of communication between the two is a musical chime . This chime also transforms dull , stiff pieces of cloth found throughout the levels into vibrant red , affecting the game world and allowing the player to progress through the levels . The robed figure wears a trailing scarf , which when charged by approaching floating pieces of cloth , briefly allows the player to float through the air . The developers sought to evoke in the player a sense of smallness and wonder , and to forge an emotional connection between them and the anonymous players they meet along the way . The music , composed by Austin Wintory , dynamically responds to the player 's actions , building a single theme to represent the game 's emotional arc throughout the story .
Reviewers of the game praised the visual and auditory art as well as the sense of companionship created by playing with a stranger , calling it a moving and emotional experience , and have since listed it as one of the greatest games of all time . Journey won several " game of the year " awards and received several other awards and nominations , including a Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media nomination for the 2013 Grammy Awards . A retail " Collector 's Edition " , including Journey , Thatgamecompany 's two previous titles , and additional media , was released on August 28 , 2012 . The game was released digitally for the PlayStation 4 on July 21 , 2015 and a physical edition was released on October 2 , 2015 .
= = Gameplay = =
In Journey , the player takes the role of a robed figure in a desert . After an introductory sequence , the player is shown the robed figure sitting in the sand , with a large mountain in the distance . The path towards this mountain , the ultimate destination of the game , is subdivided into several sections traveled through linearly . The player can walk in the levels , as well as control the camera , which typically follows behind the figure , either with the analog stick or by tilting the motion @-@ sensitive controller . The player can jump with one button , or emit a wordless shout or musical note with another ; the length and volume of the shout depends on how the button is pressed , and the note stays in tune with the background music . These controls are presented pictorially in the beginning of the game ; at no point outside of the credits and title screen are any words shown or spoken .
The robed figure wears a trailing magical scarf which allows the player to briefly fly ; doing so uses up the scarf 's magical charge , represented visually by glowing runes on the scarf . The scarf 's runes are recharged by walking , or a variety of other means . Touching glowing symbols scattered throughout the levels lengthens the initially vestigial scarf , allowing the player to remain airborne longer . Larger strips of cloth are present in the levels and can be transformed from a stiff , dull gray to vibrant red by singing near them . Doing so may have effects on the world such as releasing bits of cloth , forming bridges , or levitating the player . This in turn allows the player to progress in the level by opening doors or allowing them to reach previously inaccessible areas . The robed figure does not have visible arms to manipulate the game world directly . Along the way , the player encounters flying creatures made of cloth , some of which help the player along . In later levels , the player also encounters hostile creatures made of stone , which upon spotting the player rip off parts of the figure 's scarf .
In each level , the player may come across one other player temporarily connected to their game . When players approach each other they charge one another 's scarves . They cannot communicate with each other beyond patterns of singing . Players can help each other by activating strips of cloth or showing paths , but cannot hinder each other and are not necessary for completing any level . When two players finish a section at the same time they remain together into the next one ; otherwise they are connected to new players when they move on . While all of the figures generally look the same , without gender or distinguishing characteristics , individual players can be told apart by unique symbols which are shown floating in the air when they sing and are displayed on their robes at all times . The entire game takes about two to three hours to complete .
= = Story = =
Journey 's story is told wordlessly throughout gameplay and using cutscenes . The player 's character begins on a sand dune in a seemingly endless desert . In the far distance looms a large , foreboding mountain with a glowing crevice that splits its peak . As the character approaches the mountain , they find remnants of a once @-@ thriving civilization , eroded by sand over time . Scattered throughout the ruins at the end of each area are stones at which the traveler rests ; these stones give the traveler the vision of meeting a larger , white @-@ robed figure in a circular room , with art on the walls describing the rise and fall of the civilization mirroring the player 's journey . The player must also contend with the ancient automatons left over from a war which ended the civilization , and which still roam the city looking for intruders .
The player continues to journey deeper into the remains of a once sprawling city at the base of the mountain . Eventually making it safely to the mountain , the traveler begins to climb it , struggling as they enter the colder climates and encounter deep snow and high winds . With the crevice still a fair distance away , the traveler falls and collapses in the snow . Six of the white @-@ robed figures appear before the character and grant the traveler new energy , allowing the player to reach the summit of the mountain and walk into and through the crevice as the screen fills with white . The player is then shown the game 's credits , playing over the ending cinematic . This cinematic shows a shooting star emanating from the crevice and traversing the path the traveler took through the ruins , and shows glimpses of other robed travelers heading towards the mountain . Eventually , the star comes to rest at the sand dune where the game began , and the player is given the option of starting the game again . As the credits end , the player is shown the PlayStation Network IDs of the other travelers who shared part of the trek .
= = Development = =
Journey was the last game made under a three @-@ game contract between Thatgamecompany and Sony , the first two being Flow and Flower . Development of the game began in 2009 , after the release of Thatgamecompany 's previous title Flower . The 18 @-@ person development team for Journey was composed mainly of creators of the company 's previous games ; co @-@ founder Jenova Chen was the creative director and Nick Clark returned as lead designer . Kellee Santiago , producer of Flow and Flower , did not reprise her duties , concentrating instead on her role as the company 's president , and was replaced by Robin Hunicke .
When development began , Sony expected the game to be completed in a year , rather than the more than three it finally took . Thatgamecompany always expected needing an extension ; according to Hunicke , they believed finishing the game within a year was " unrealistic " . Development ended up taking even longer than anticipated , as the team had difficulties paring down their ideas for the game and maintaining efficient communication . Over the course of development the team grew from seven to eighteen people . At the end of the second year , when Sony 's extension had run out , the game did not spark the emotions in the player that the team wanted . Sony agreed to another one @-@ year extension , but development ultimately exceeded even that .
The stress of the project led to the feeling there was not enough time or money to complete everything the team wished to , which added to the stress and caused arguments about the design of the game . The developers ended up reducing the overtime they spent on the project to avoid burning out , though it meant further delays and risked the company running out of money as the game neared completion . In a speech at the 16th annual D.I.C.E. Awards in 2013 , Chen admitted that the company had indeed been driven to bankruptcy in the final months of development , and that some of the developers had gone unpaid at the time . Hunicke described the solution to finally finishing the game as learning to let go of tensions and ideas that could not make it into the game and be " nice to each other . "
The game is intended to make the player feel " small " and to give them a sense of awe about their surroundings . The basic idea for the game , as designed by Chen , was to create a game that moved beyond the " typical defeat / kill / win mentality " of most video games . The team initially created a prototype named Dragon that involved players trying to draw away a large monster from other players , but eventually discarded it after finding it was too easy for players to ignore each other in favor of their own objectives .
The developers designed the game like a " Japanese garden " , where they attempted to remove all of the game elements that did not fit with the others , so the emotions they wanted the game to evoke would come through . This minimalism is intended to make the game feel intuitive to the player , so they can explore and feel a sense of wonder without direct instructions . The story arc of the game is designed to explicitly follow Joseph Campbell 's monomyth theory of narrative , or hero 's journey , so as to enhance the emotional connection of the players as they journey together . In his D.I.C.E. speech , Chen noted that three of their 25 testers had cried upon completing the game .
The multiplayer component of Journey was designed to facilitate cooperation between players without forcing it , and without allowing competition . It is intended to allow the players to feel a connection to other people through exploring with them , rather than talking to them or fighting them . The plan was " to create a game where people felt they are connected with each other , to show the positive side of humanity in them . " The developers felt the focus on caring about the other player would be diluted by too many game elements , such as additional goals or tasks , as players would focus on those and " ignore " the other player . They also felt having text or voice communication between players or showing usernames would allow players ' biases and preconceptions to come between them and the other player .
The game was released on March 13 , 2012 for download on the PlayStation Network . A PlayStation Home Game Space , or themed area , based on Journey was released on March 14 , 2012 and is similar in appearance to the game . A retail " Collector 's Edition " of the game was released on August 28 , 2012 . In addition to Journey , the disc @-@ based title includes Flow and Flower ; creator commentaries , art , galleries , and soundtracks for all three games ; non @-@ related minigames ; and additional content for the PlayStation 3 . In September 2012 , Sony and Thatgamecompany released a hardcover book entitled " The Art of Journey " , by the game 's art director Matt Nava , containing pieces of art from the game ranging from concept art to final game graphics . On July 21 , 2015 , Journey was released on the PlayStation Network for the PlayStation 4 , ported by United Kingdom studio Tricky Pixels ; owners of the digital PlayStation 3 version of the game were able to download the new version for free .
= = = Music = = =
The music in Journey was composed and orchestrated by Austin Wintory , who had previously worked with Thatgamecompany on the soundtrack for Flow . Wintory worked closely on the soundtrack with sound designer Steve Johnson , as well as the programming team , so the music would dynamically tie in to both the actions of the player and sound effects caused by nearby game objects , and feel as if it were " unfolding in real time " . Johnson felt having short pieces of music that looped without reacting to the player would be a " missed opportunity " , and wanted to create music that changed while still containing a composed emotional arc . Jenova Chen met with Wintory at the start of the game 's development to describe his vision for the project , and Wintory left the meeting and composed and recorded the main cello theme for the soundtrack that night . He continued to work on the soundtrack for the next three years , experimenting and discarding many ideas . The game 's orchestrations were performed by the Skopje Radio Symphonic Orchestra in Macedonia .
Unlike many games , where different songs have different themes for each character or area , Wintory chose to base all of the pieces on one theme which stood for the player and their journey , with cello solos especially representing the player . Wintory describes the music as " like a big cello concerto where you are the soloist and all the rest of the instruments represent the world around you " , though he describes it as not necessarily orchestral due to the inclusion of electronic aspects . The cello begins the game as " immersed in a sea of electronic sound " , before first emerging on its own and then merging into a full orchestra , mirroring the player 's journey to the mountain . While the game 's art style is based on several different cultures , Wintory tried to remove any overt cultural influences from the music to make it " as universal and culture @-@ less as possible " . Tina Guo features as the cellist for the soundtrack . She is a close friend of Wintory and has since performed " Woven Variations " with him , an eight @-@ minute orchestral variation on the Journey soundtrack . All of the non @-@ electronic instruments in the soundtrack were recorded with a live orchestra .
The soundtrack was released as an album on April 10 on iTunes and the PlayStation Network . The album is a collection of the soundtrack 's " most important " pieces , arranged by Wintory to stand alone without the context of the player 's actions . The album comprises 18 tracks and is over 58 minutes long . It features the voice of Lisbeth Scott for the final track , " I Was Born for This " . After its release , the soundtrack reached the top 10 of the iTunes Soundtrack charts in more than 20 countries . It also reached No. 116 on the Billboard sales charts , with over 4000 units sold in its first week after release , the second @-@ highest position of any video game music album to date . The soundtrack was released as a physical album by Sumthing Else Music Works on October 9 , 2012 . In 2012 Wintory released a download @-@ only album of music on Bandcamp titled Journey Bonus Bundle , which includes variations on themes from Journey and Flow . The soundtrack itself was subsequently released on Bandcamp on June 19 , 2013 . An album of piano arrangements titled Transfiguration was released on May 1 , 2014 , on Bandcamp as both a digital and physical album . A two @-@ record vinyl version of the album was released in 2015 .
In January 2016 , Wintory started a Kickstarter for a Journey Live concert tour , in which the fifteen @-@ piece Fifth House Ensemble from Chicago will perform the music from the game while a player works their way through the game . The ensemble will react to the player 's actions , using a specially @-@ scored version of the soundtrack , composed by Patrick O 'Malley with Wintory 's oversight , that breaks the music into small pieces to enable this reaction . Wintory had wanted to do a performance of the Journey soundtrack in this interactive manner , but did not have the time to rework the soundtrack for this purpose . Wintory came to know Dan Visconti , the composer for Fifth House Ensemble , after Visconti published his praise for the Journey soundtrack and had encouraged other members of the ensemble to play the game . The group saw how Journey 's soundtrack had been used for various Video Games Live concerts and believed they could pull off Wintory 's vision of an interactive concert , doing most of the reworking of the soundtrack under Wintory 's direction . Sony has provided Wintory with a version of the game developed by Tricky Pixels that disables the music to allow the ensemble to provide this , and other modifications required for the concert performance . The Kickstarter was launched for $ 9 @,@ 000 in funding for a four @-@ city tour , but within a few days already surpassed its funding levels , allowing for more cities to be included .
= = Reception = =
Journey received critical and commercial success worldwide . After its release , it became the fastest @-@ selling game to date on PlayStation Store in both North America and Europe . At the 2011 Electronic Entertainment Expo , prior to release , the game won awards for best download game from 1UP.com , GameSpy , and GameTrailers . After publication , the game was heavily honored at end of the year awards . At the 16th Annual D.I.C.E. Awards , formerly known as the Interactive Achievement Awards , Journey won 8 awards , the most honors received of the night ( which includes " Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Innovation in Gaming " , " Casual Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Game Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Art Direction " , " Outstanding Achievement in Online Gameplay " , " Outstanding Achievement in Original Music Composition " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Sound Design " ) ; it was additionally nominated for " Downloadable Game of the Year " , " Outstanding Achievement in Gameplay Engineering " , and " Outstanding Achievement in Story " . Journey was selected as the best game of the year by IGN and GameSpot , among others .
The soundtrack was nominated for the Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media at the 2013 Grammy Awards , the first video game soundtrack to be nominated for that category , though it did not win . Additionally , the game won the award for best music and was nominated for the best graphics award from IGN , and was selected as the best PlayStation Network game by GameSpot . At the Spike Video Game Awards , Journey won awards as the best PlayStation 3 game , the best indie game , and the game with the best music , and was additionally nominated for game of the year , best downloadable game , best graphics , and best song in a game for " I Was Born For This " . It received the 2013 Annie Award for video game animation . It won five awards at the 2013 British Academy of Film and Television Arts awards : Artistic Achievement , Audio Achievement , Game Design , Online Multiplayer and Original Music , and was nominated for Best Game , Game Innovation and Story . In March 2013 , it won six awards at the annual Game Developers Choice Awards : Best Audio , Best Game Design , Best Visual Arts , Best Downloadable Game , the Innovation Award , and Game of the Year .
Journey received high acclaim from critics who praised the visual and auditory art direction as well as the emotional response playing with a stranger created . It received the IGN Best Overall Game Award for 2012 and Ryan Clements of IGN described the game as " the most beautiful game of its time " , saying , " each moment is like a painting , expertly framed and lit " . Jane Douglas of GameSpot concurred , calling it " relentlessly beautiful " and lauding the visual diversity of the world and the depiction of the rippling sand ; Matt Miller of Game Informer added praise for the animation of the sand and creatures , saying the game was visually stunning . The music was also complimented , with Miller describing it as a " breathtaking musical score " and Douglas calling it " moving , dynamic music " .
Reviewers were especially pleased with the emotional experience of playing the game , particularly with other players . Christian Donlan of Eurogamer described it as a " non @-@ denominational religious experience " that , with the addition of another player , moves beyond metaphors and becomes a " pilgrimage " to the player . A reviewer writing for Edge magazine said the emotional arc of the game hits with " occasionally startling power " , while Patrick Shaw from Wired said the game made him feel a " wide range of emotions ... wonder , fear , even sadness . " Miller said all three times he played the game , " each time , without fail , individual moments ... managed to give me goosebumps , and those moments have remained on my mind for weeks afterward . " Joel Gregory of PlayStation Official Magazine praised the game 's story for being open to the player 's interpretation , leaving an ambiguity that drew him in . The addition of an unnamed second player was described by Donlan as brilliant and as a " master stroke " , and Edge said it made for " a more absorbing , more atmospheric experience " .
The few criticisms for the game centered on its length and pacing . Clements noted that not all players would appreciate a game with a " deliberate , melancholic pace " and short duration , comments echoed by the Edge review . Miller noted the lack of a complex gameplay elements in Journey , and Shaw was disappointed that the game was only a few hours long , though Douglas said the length was perfect . Miller concluded the game could be compared to " a musical concert , a well @-@ directed film , or a long @-@ awaited book " , while Clements concluded , " completing Journey will create memories that last for years . "
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= Gold Beach =
Gold , commonly known as Gold Beach , was the code name for one of the five areas of the Allied invasion of German @-@ occupied France in the Normandy landings on 6 June 1944 , during the Second World War . Gold , the central of the five areas , was located between Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings took place on the flat section between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . Taking Gold was to be the responsibility of the British Army , with sea transport , mine sweeping , and a naval bombardment force provided by the Royal Navy as well as elements from the Dutch , Polish and other Allied navies .
The objectives at Gold were to secure a beachhead , move west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , capture Bayeux and the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , and to link up with the Canadian forces at Juno to the east . Forces attacking Gold faced elements of the German 352nd Infantry Division and German 716th Infantry Division . About 2 @,@ 000 men were stationed in the immediate area . Improvements to fortifications along the Normandy coast had been undertaken under the leadership of Generalfeldmarschall Erwin Rommel beginning in October 1943 .
On D @-@ Day at Gold , naval bombardment got underway at 05 : 30 , and amphibious landings commenced at 07 : 25 . High winds made conditions difficult for the landing craft , and the amphibious DD tanks were released close to shore or directly on the beach instead of further out as planned . Three of the four guns in a large emplacement at the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery were disabled by direct hits from the cruisers Ajax and Argonaut at 06 : 20 . The fourth gun resumed firing intermittently in the afternoon , and its garrison surrendered on 7 June . Aerial attacks had failed to hit the Le Hamel strongpoint , which had its embrasure facing east to provide enfilade fire along the beach and had a thick concrete wall on the seaward side . Its 75 mm gun continued to do damage until 16 : 00 , when a modified Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVRE ) tank fired a large petard charge into its rear entrance . A second casemated emplacement at La Rivière containing an 88 mm gun was neutralised by a tank at 07 : 30 .
Meanwhile , infantry began clearing the heavily fortified houses along the shore and advanced on targets further inland . The British Commandos of No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando advanced on Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and captured it on 7 June in the Battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin . On the western flank , the 1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment captured Arromanches ( future site of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours ) , and 69th Infantry Brigade on the eastern flank made contact with the Canadian forces at Juno . Company Sergeant Major Stanley Hollis received the only Victoria Cross awarded on D @-@ Day for his actions while attacking two pillboxes at the Mont Fleury battery . Due to stiff resistance from the German 352nd Infantry Division , Bayeux was not captured until the next day . British casualties at Gold are estimated at 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 . German casualties are unknown .
= = Background = =
= = = Operation Overlord = = =
After the Germans invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , Soviet leader Joseph Stalin began pressing for the creation of a second front in Western Europe . The decision to undertake a cross @-@ channel invasion of continental Europe within the next year was taken at the Trident Conference , held in Washington in May 1943 . The Allies initially planned to launch the invasion on 1 May 1944 , and a draft of the plan was accepted at the Quebec Conference in August 1943 . General Dwight D. Eisenhower was appointed commander of Supreme Headquarters Allied Expeditionary Force ( SHAEF ) . General Bernard Montgomery was named as commander of the 21st Army Group , which comprised all of the land forces involved in the invasion .
On 31 December 1943 , Eisenhower and Montgomery first saw the plan , which proposed amphibious landings by three divisions and two @-@ thirds of an airborne division . The two generals immediately insisted that the scale of the initial invasion be expanded to five divisions , with airborne descents by three divisions , to allow operations on a wider front . The change doubled the frontage of the invasion from 25 miles ( 40 km ) to 50 miles ( 80 km ) . This would allow for quicker offloading of men and materiel , make it more difficult for the Germans to respond , and speed up the capture of the port at Cherbourg . The need to acquire or produce extra landing craft and troop carrier aircraft for the expanded operation meant that the invasion had to be delayed to June .
The Americans , assigned to land at Utah and Omaha , were to cut off the Cotentin Peninsula and capture the port facilities at Cherbourg . The British at Sword and Gold , and the Canadians at Juno , were to capture Caen and form a front line from Caumont @-@ l 'Éventé to the south @-@ east of Caen to protect the American flank , while establishing airfields near Caen . Possession of Caen and its surroundings would provide a suitable staging area for a push south to capture the town of Falaise . A secure lodgement would be established and an attempt made to hold all territory north of the Avranches @-@ Falaise line during the first three weeks . The Allied armies would then swing left to advance towards the River Seine . Montgomery envisaged a ninety @-@ day battle , ending when all the forces reached the Seine .
= = = Allied planning = = =
Originally , seventeen sectors along the Normandy coastline had been selected as possible invasion sites and each were provided with a code name taken from one of the spelling alphabets of the time . The coast was divided between Able , west of Omaha , to Rodger on the eastern flank of the invasion area . Eight further sectors were added when the planned invasion was extended to include Utah . Each sector was further subdivided into beaches identified by the colours Green , Red , and White . Gold did not refer to a particular beach but to a landing area . It was delineated by Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on the west and La Rivière on the east , and included Arromanches , location of one of the artificial Mulberry harbours that were to be constructed shortly after the invasion . High cliffs at the western end of the zone meant that the landings would be undertaken on the flat beach between Le Hamel and La Rivière , in the sectors code @-@ named Jig and King . The area immediately behind the beach was marshy , with open ground and bocage ( small fields surrounded by hedges and embankments ) further inland . Roads led to the south via Asnelles and Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . The terrain to the south @-@ east rose to a ridge at Meuvaines , where on D @-@ day were located machine gun nests of the German 726th Regiment .
The Allied Expeditionary Air Force undertook over 3 @,@ 200 photo reconnaissance sorties from April 1944 until the start of the invasion . Photos of the coastline were taken at extremely low altitude to show the invaders the terrain , obstacles on the beach , and defensive structures such as bunkers and gun emplacements . Inland terrain , bridges , troop emplacements , and buildings were also photographed , in many cases from several angles , to give the Allies as much information as possible . Members of Combined Operations Pilotage Parties clandestinely prepared detailed harbour maps , including depth soundings . At Gold , frogmen discovered the shore between Asnelles and La Rivière was soft and could not support the weight of tanks . Twelve Armoured Vehicle Royal Engineers ( AVREs ) were fitted with bobbins to overcome this problem by deploying a roll of matting over the soft surface . The material would then be left in place to create a route for more conventional tanks .
Gold was assigned to the British XXX Corps , with the 50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division – commanded by Major General D.A.H. Graham – allotted as the assault division . It was an experienced division that had already seen combat in France , North Africa , and Sicily . The men underwent extensive training in amphibious landings , including Exercise Fabius , a major training exercise at Hayling Island in May 1944 . Demolition teams responsible for disabling underwater beach obstacles trained in swimming pools in the UK . Briefings were undertaken using detailed maps that used fictitious place names , and most of the men did not find out their destination until they were already on their way to Normandy . The amphibious landing was to be preceded by extensive air bombardment as well as naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K , a task force of eighteen ships , primarily cruisers and destroyers . Amphibious tanks of the 8th Armoured Brigade were to arrive at 07 : 20 , followed by infantry at 07 : 25 . The 231st Brigade was assigned to land at Jig , and 69th Brigade at King . The 231st was to head west to capture Arromanches and establish contact with the American forces at Omaha , while the 69th was to move east and link up with the Canadian forces at Juno . The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to land at Gold , infiltrate inland , and capture the small port at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin from the landward side .
Arriving in the second wave on Jig , 56th Infantry Brigade was to capture Bayeux and a nearby ridge , thus cutting the N13 highway between Caen and Bayeux to make it difficult for the Germans to move in reinforcements . The second wave on King , 151st Infantry Brigade , was tasked with capturing the Caen road and railway , along with setting up positions on high ground between the Aure and Seulles rivers . Other forces involved in the landing included artillery regiments , signals corps , and engineering units .
= = = German defences = = =
In late 1943 , Hitler placed Field Marshal Erwin Rommel in charge of improving the coastal defences along the Atlantic Wall in anticipation of an Allied invasion , expected to take place sometime in 1944 . Rommel believed that the Normandy coast could be a possible landing point for the invasion , so he ordered the construction of extensive defensive works along that shore . In the immediate area of Gold , between Le Hamel and La Rivière , seven defensive strongpoints designed to hold 50 men apiece were constructed . Two major concrete @-@ reinforced coastal artillery emplacements ( a battery of four 122 mm guns at Mont Fleury and the Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer battery , with four 150 mm guns ) were only partially completed by D @-@ Day . Rommel ordered wooden stakes , metal tripods , mines , and large anti @-@ tank obstacles to be placed on the beach to delay the approach of landing craft and impede the movement of tanks . Expecting the Allies to land at high tide so that the infantry would spend less time exposed on the beach , he ordered many of these obstacles to be placed at the high tide mark . Tangles of barbed wire , booby traps , and the removal of ground cover made the approach hazardous for infantry .
Hitler gave Rommel command of the newly re @-@ formed Army Group B , which included the 7th Army , the 15th Army , and the forces guarding the Netherlands . Reserves for this group included the 2nd , 21st , and 116th Panzer divisions . Recognizing that Allied air superiority would make it difficult if not impossible to move reserves into position once the invasion was underway , Rommel decided to concentrate the defences along the coast . The 716th Infantry Division , which had been stationed in the area since March 1942 , was significantly understrength , with only 6 @,@ 000 men . This unit received reinforcements , and some of the older men were replaced by younger soldiers . It was also supplemented by several battalions of Osttruppen ( eastern soldiers ) , conscripted Soviet prisoners of war . The 352nd Infantry Division , a full @-@ strength unit of around 12 @,@ 000 , was brought into the area by Rommel on 15 March and reinforced by two additional regiments . About 2 @,@ 000 men , a mixture from the two infantry divisions , were stationed in the coastal area between Arromanches and Asnelles .
= = Order of battle = =
= = = British forces = = =
50th ( Northumbrian ) Infantry Division , commanded by Major @-@ General D.A.H. Graham
69th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier F.Y.C. Knox
5th Battalion , East Yorkshire Regiment
6th Battalion , Green Howards
7th Battalion , Green Howards
151st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier R.H. Senior
6th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
8th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
9th Battalion , Durham Light Infantry
231st Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier A.G.B. Stanier
1st Battalion , Dorsetshire Regiment
1st Battalion , Hampshire Regiment
2nd Battalion , Devonshire Regiment
Divisional troops
61st Reconnaissance Regiment , Royal Armoured Corps ( RAC ) ( 2 Squadrons )
2nd Battalion , Cheshire Regiment ( machine guns and heavy mortars )
357th , 358th & 465th Batteries , 90th Field Regiment , Royal Artillery ( RA ) ( Self @-@ propelled )
99th & 288th Batteries , 102nd ( Northumberland Hussars ) Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA
82nd Battery , 25th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
233rd ( Northumbrian ) Field Company , Royal Engineers ( RE )
295th Field Company , RE
505th Field Company , RE
235th ( Northumbrian ) Field Park Company , RE ( bulldozers )
50th Divisional Signals , Royal Corps of Signals
149th , 186th & 200th Field Ambulances , Royal Army Medical Corps ( RAMC )
22nd Field Hygiene Section , RAMC
50th Divisional Provost Company , Royal Military Police ( RMP )
Formations attached for assault phase
Elements of 79th Armoured Division
Westminster Dragoons ( Flail tanks )
141st Royal Tank Regiment ( The Buffs ) ( Churchill Crocodiles ) ( 2 Troops )
81st & 82nd Assault Squadrons , 6th Assault Regiment , RE ( AVREs )
56th Infantry Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.C. Pepper
2nd Battalion , Essex Regiment
2nd Battalion , Gloucestershire Regiment
2nd Battalion , South Wales Borderers
8th Armoured Brigade , commanded by Brigadier H.J.B. Carcroft
4th / 7th Royal Dragoon Guards ( DD Tanks )
Nottinghamshire Yeomanry ( DD Tanks )
76th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade , commanded by Brigadier E.R. Benson
113th Heavy Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA ( HQ only )
320th Battery , 93rd Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
394th & 395th Batteries , 120th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment , RA
152nd Anti @-@ Aircraft Operations Room , RA
A Troop , 356th ( Independent ) Searchlight Battery , RA
Additional units attached for assault phase
GHQ Liaison Regiment , RAC ( ' Phantom ' )
341st , 342nd , & 462nd Batteries , 86th ( East Anglian ) ( Hertfordshire Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )
413th , 431st & 511th Batteries , 147th ( Essex Yeomanry ) Field Regiment , RA ( Self @-@ propelled )
198th & 234th Batteries , 73rd Anti @-@ Tank Regiment , RA
662nd Air Observation Post Squadron , RA ( Ground crew of one flight only )
73rd Field Company , RE
280th Field Company , RE
203rd Field Ambulance , RAMC
168th Light Field Ambulance , RAMC
1st Royal Marine Armoured Support Regiment
No. 47 ( Royal Marine ) Commando
104 Beach Sub @-@ Area HQ
9 & 10 Beach Groups and Signal Section
69th , 89th , 90th & 183rd Field Companies , RE
21st & 23rd Stores Sections , RE
51st & 74th Mechanical Equipment Sections , RE
1043rd Port Operating Company , RE
953rd & 961st Inland Water Transport Companies , RE
2nd Battalion , Hertfordshire Regiment
6th Battalion , Border Regiment
305th , 536th & 705th General Transport Companies , Royal Army Service Corps ( RASC )
2nd & 5th Detail Issue Depots , RASC
244th Petrol Dept , RASC
3rd & 10th Casualty Clearing Stations , RAMC
3rd , 25th , 31st , 32nd & 35th Field Dressing Stations , RAMC
Nos 41 , 42 , 47 & 48 Field Surgical Units , RAMC
Nos 24 & 30 Field Transfusion Unit , RAMC
22nd & 23rd Port Details , RAMC
7th , 10th & 36th Ordnance Beach Detachments , Royal Army Ordnance Corps
24th & 25th Beach Recovery Sections , Royal Electrical & Mechanical Engineers ( REME )
XXX Corps Workshop , REME ( 2 Composite Workshops & 1 Light Recovery Section )
240th & 243rd Provost Companies , RMP
75th , 173rd , 209th & 280th ( Pioneer ) Companies , Pioneer Corps
= = = German forces = = =
From June 1942 , 716th Infantry Division covered the Grandcamps Sector , which stretched from the base of the Cotentin Peninsula to the Orne River near Caen , a distance of 77 kilometres ( 48 mi ) . When 352nd Infantry Division arrived on 15 March , the Grandcamps Sector was split into the Bayeux Sector ( from Carentan to Asnelles ) and the Caen Sector ( from Asnelles to the Orne ) . Most of the 716th Infantry Division remained where they were , and thus the defenses in Caen Sector ( site of the Gold landings ) were not substantially strengthened .
352nd Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Dietrich Kraiss915th Grenadier Regiment : south @-@ east of Bayeux , as reserves
916th Grenadier Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold
352nd Artillery Regiment : covered Omaha and the westernmost part of Gold
716th Static Infantry Division under Generalleutnant Wilhelm Richter726th Infantry Regiment : two battalions in and around Le Hamel . Members of the 441st Ost Battalion garrisoned the coastal defenses . One battalion was stationed near Crépon as reserves .
736th Infantry Regiment : covered Juno , Sword , and the easternmost part of Gold
1716th Artillery Regiment : mobile and casemated batteries east and west of Crépon
= = Landings = =
Bombing of Normandy began around midnight with over 2 @,@ 200 British and American bombers attacking targets along the coast and further inland . At Gold , naval bombardment by Bombarding Force K got underway at 05 : 30 , at which time the first waves of infantry were loading into their Landing Craft Assault ( LCAs ) for the run in to the beach . German defensive positions were attacked by medium and heavy bombers and by self @-@ propelled guns on board the landing craft . Results were good at Mont Fleury Battery and at Longues , where at 07 : 00 Ajax and Argonaut took out of commission three of the four guns . The fourth gun resumed firing sporadically in the afternoon , and the garrison surrendered the following day . Two heavily casemated gun emplacements ( an 88 mm gun at La Rivière overlooking King and a 75 mm gun at Le Hamel overlooking Jig ) were only lightly damaged , as they were heavily reinforced with concrete , especially on the seaward side . These positions had embrasures that permitted a wide range of enfilade fire on the beach . Four other German strong points in the immediate area were also only lightly damaged , and had to be individually assaulted as the day progressed .
= = = King Sector = = =
H @-@ Hour for the landing at Gold was set at 07 : 25 on King sector ( 50 minutes later than in the American landings , because of differences in the tide ) . The first wave on King was the 5th East Yorkshires and 6th Green Howards of 69th Brigade , assisted by amphibious DD tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards . The 7th Green Howards landed at 08 : 20 . The original plan called for the 38 DD tanks to be launched from their landing craft tank ( LCTs ) about 5 @,@ 000 yards ( 4 @,@ 600 m ) out . Due to extremely choppy seas , they decided to run the tanks directly onto the beach . Infantry , engineers , and DD tanks arrived almost simultaneously . Units disembarking onto the beach immediately came under fire from the casemated 88 mm gun at La Rivière , and the infantry were forced to take cover behind the sea wall . The gun was taken out when a flail tank of the Westminster Dragoons fired a charge directly into its aperture . The 5th East Yorkshires , supported by several tanks , spent the rest of the morning clearing out the heavily fortified houses of La Rivière , at the loss of 90 men , including six officers .
Specialised armour arriving in the first wave included AVREs , mine flails , and armoured bulldozers . Clearing paths off the beach proved difficult , as the tanks got stuck in the mud or were taken out by mines . A lone mine flail tank finally cleared a path from the beach up toward the Mont Fleury Battery and Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer . This route was used by the Green Howards and tanks of the 4th / 7th Dragoon Guards , who cleared the remaining resistance at the Mont Fleury Battery . B Company moved on to attack trench positions and machine gun emplacements at Meuvaines Ridge , while C Company moved to the west of Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer to help cover the assault on Crépon , where roads led to the important targets of Bayeux and Caen . The 7th Green Howards attacked the gun battery at Ver @-@ Sur @-@ Mer , where they took 50 prisoners . Colour Sergeant @-@ Major Stanley Hollis earned the only Victoria Cross to be bestowed for actions on D @-@ Day . On the way to the Mont Fleury Battery , Hollis came under machine gun fire while investigating a pillbox , so he shot into the entrance with his Sten gun and dropped a grenade through the roof , killing most of the occupants . He cleared a nearby trench of enemy soldiers , whereupon the occupants of a second pillbox surrendered . Later in the day , he saved the lives of three men during an attempt to take out a field artillery installation at a farm near Crépon .
Scheduled to land at 11 : 00 on Jig , the 56th Infantry Brigade was re @-@ routed King , because the gun battery at Le Hamel was still operational . They proceeded towards their objective of Bayeux . 151st Brigade arrived at the same time and after meeting fierce resistance , they achieved their objective of controlling the road and railway between Bayeux and Caen . 56th Brigade made slow progress and had to dig in for the night some distance from Bayeux . 69th Brigade secured the eastern flank and by nightfall made contact with the Canadian forces on Juno .
= = = Jig Sector = = =
At Jig , the first wave of infantry ( the 1st Dorsetshires and 1st Hampshires of the 231st Infantry Brigade ) arrived at 07 : 25 , and immediately came under fire from the casemated 75 mm gun at Le Hamel . Due to navigation errors and the strong current , both groups came ashore well to the east of their intended landing points . The DD tank and Royal Marine Centaur tanks that were supposed to arrive in advance of the landing were delayed by rough seas and did not arrive until 08 : 00 . Many of the tanks got bogged down on the beach or were taken out by enemy fire . The tide came in quicker than expected , before many of the beach obstacles and mines were cleared , and some of the landing craft were damaged as a result . Two companies of the 1st Hampshires landed very close to the strong point at Le Hamel , and had to fight inland through enemy garrisons to get off the beach . Attempts to flank Le Hamel were made difficult by the surrounding machine gun placements , mines , and barbed wire . Elements of the 1st Hampshires captured the German strongpoint WN @-@ 36 at the eastern edge of the village of Asnelles . When they turned west to move along the beach towards their primary objective at Le Hamel , they came under heavy fire and had to break off the attack . Major Warren , in charge after the commanding officer Lieutenant Colonel Nelson Smith was wounded , decided that the troops would have to circle around and attack the emplacement from the rear , a process that took several hours . The troops began to have some success around 15 : 00 with the arrival of an AVRE tank of 82nd Assault Squadron . The tank fired two petards into the sanatorium , where most of the defenders were located . The German soldiers fled into fortified houses in Le Hamel and Asnelles , and were taken out in house @-@ to @-@ house combat . Few surrendered . The 75 mm gun was finally silenced at 16 : 00 , when the AVRE tank fired a large petard charge into the rear entrance of the casemate . C / A Company , 1st Hampshires and the AVRE tank proceeded west along the beach and took out strongpoint WN @-@ 38 at La Fontaine St Côme , taking 20 prisoners . Still further west , D Company captured strong point WN @-@ 39 at the Arromanches radar station , capturing 30 more defenders .
The 2nd Devons arrived at 08 : 15 , while the beach was still under heavy fire . One company stayed to help with the assault on Le Hamel , while the rest moved to capture the village of Ryes astride the road to Bayeux . Ryes was captured at around 16 : 30 . The 1st Dorsets attacked a German position on the beach at La Cabane des Douanes and headed inland to arc westward toward the high ground south of Arromanches . They cleared enemy positions at Le Bulot and Puits d 'Hérode , and arrived at their destination late in the morning . Joined by elements of the 1st Hampshires and covered by indirect fire from the naval forces offshore , they took Arromanches late in the afternoon .
= = = 47th Commando = = =
The 47th Royal Marine Commando was assigned to capture the small harbour at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , on the boundary with Omaha , about 7 miles ( 11 km ) west of Arromanches and 8 miles ( 13 km ) from their landing point at Jig . The commanding officer , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel C. F. Phillips , opted to attack from the south , as the site was well protected on the seaward side . The force of 420 men consisted of five troops of 63 men , a mortar and machine gun troop , a transport group with four tracked vehicles , and a headquarters group . The plan was to land at Gold at 09 : 25 , assemble at La Rosière , and move cross @-@ country to a ridge ( designated as Point 72 ) south of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , arriving at around 13 : 00 . Here they would call for indirect fire from the supporting vessels at sea and then move in to capture the town .
In rough seas and under enemy fire , the commandos began disembarking at Jig , some distance east of their intended position , at 09 : 50 . Five of their LCAs were sunk by beach obstacles or enemy fire , at the cost of 76 casualties . Major P. M. Donnell temporarily took charge until Phillips and some others who had got separated from the unit rejoined the group at 14 : 00 along the Meuvaines – Le Carrefour road . The commando took additional casualties in several skirmishes , including at La Rosière , on the way to Point 72 . They did not arrive there until 22 : 30 , too late to launch an attack , so they dug in for the night . The town and port were captured in the battle of Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin on 7 – 8 June 1944 .
= = = German response = = =
As the Luftwaffe meteorological centre in Paris had predicted two weeks of stormy weather , some Wehrmacht commanders were away from the front attending war games in Rennes , and many soldiers had been given leave . On D @-@ Day , Rommel was in Germany for his wife 's birthday and a meeting with Hitler to try to get more Panzers . The 352nd and 716th Divisions were placed on high alert after the Allied airborne landings , which had taken just after midnight behind Utah and Sword . The 2 @,@ 700 @-@ strong Kampfgruppe Meyer , near Bayeux as the divisional reserve , was sent to investigate the parachute drops behind Utah . Marcks recalled them when dawn broke and the scope of the invasion became apparent . One battalion was ordered to reinforce the German efforts at Omaha . The remainder were ordered to rendezvous with reinforcements at Villiers le Sec , 7 @.@ 5 miles ( 12 @.@ 1 km ) east of Bayeux , to launch a counter @-@ attack . Fired upon by Allied air forces , the column finally arrived in the late afternoon , at which time they were met by elements of the 69th Brigade . The British lost four tanks in the ensuing engagement but the Kampfgruppe was almost completely wiped out . Meyer was killed , and his detailed maps of German coastal emplacements fell into British hands .
Because Allied air superiority meant it would be difficult for the Germans to move up their reserves , Rommel believed that their best chance was to stop the invasion at the shore . The scope of the invasion meant that once these coastal defences were defeated and the troops scattered , it was difficult to defend territory inland or launch counter @-@ attacks . At 22 : 33 , Kraiss ordered the 352nd Division to create a defensive line north of Bayeux but this proved impossible , as most of the territory involved was already in British hands and all the defending units had taken serious losses . The Luftwaffe played only a minor role on D @-@ Day . At Gold , several small groups of bombers that arrived at sunset caused Allied casualties at Le Hamel and damaged a road near Ver @-@ sur @-@ Mer . At 06 : 00 on 7 June , the operations room of HMS Bulolo , offshore near Gold , was damaged by a bomber attack , but the ship was able to remain on station . The unit responsible was likely II . / Kampfgeschwader 40 ( KG 40 — Bomber Wing 40 ) . Under the command of Fliegerführer Atlantik ( Flyer Command Atlantic ) , it was based at Bordeaux – Merignac . On the evening of the 6 / 7 June 1944 , 26 Heinkel He 177 heavy bombers equipped with Henschel Hs 293 anti @-@ ship guided missiles attacked shipping over Normandy , included the Gold area . II . / KG 40 lost 13 aircraft to all causes during the attack .
The 1st SS Panzer Division Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler were released before midnight from the OKW reserve and ordered to counter @-@ attack between Bayeux and the Orne , supplemented by 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend and Panzer Lehr Division ; the armoured divisions began arriving on 8 June .
= = Aftermath = =
= = = Analysis = = =
Pockets of German resistance remained throughout the beachhead area and the British were stopped about 3 @.@ 7 miles ( 6 @.@ 0 km ) short of their D @-@ Day objectives . Bayeux , a primary D @-@ Day objective for 50th Division , was captured on 7 June . By the end of D @-@ Day , the 50th Division had lost around 700 men . Total casualties , from all units involved in operations at Gold , were in the region of 1 @,@ 000 – 1 @,@ 100 casualties , of which 350 were killed . German losses are unknown ; at least 1 @,@ 000 were captured .
= = = Gold Beach after 6 June = = =
By the end of D @-@ Day , 24 @,@ 970 men had been landed at Gold Beach , along with 2 @,@ 100 vehicles and 1 @,@ 000 long tons ( 1 @,@ 000 t ) of supplies . The follow @-@ up landings were slowed by the loss of 34 LCTs and the bad weather . The 24th Lancers and 61st Reconnaissance Regiment , due to land on D @-@ Day to help spearhead the drive towards Villers @-@ Bocage , were unable to put ashore until 7 June . In 2004 Trew wrote that the delay
effectively ruled out any chance of a thrust south ... [ and ] ... represented a major blow to Second Army 's intentions and Montgomery 's plan .
The 7th Armoured Division and the 49th ( West Riding ) Infantry Division were the follow @-@ up divisions of XXX Corps . The 22nd Armoured Brigade ( the armoured component of the 7th Armoured Division ) was scheduled to land during the evening of 6 June , but it was unable to land until the next day . The bulk of the division landed from 9 – 10 June , with some elements landing later . The 49th Division came ashore on 12 June .
The first components of the Mulberry harbours were brought across the Channel on D + 1 and the structures were in use for unloading by mid @-@ June . One was constructed at Arromanches by British forces , the other at Omaha by American forces . A severe storm on 19 June destroyed the Omaha harbour . The Arromanches harbour was repaired and remained in use for the next ten months , with a maximum capacity of 7 @,@ 000 long tons ( 7 @,@ 100 t ) of stores per day . Of the British supplies landed in Normandy by the end of August , 35 % arrived via the Mulberry harbour and 15 % came in via the small harbours at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin and Courseulles @-@ sur @-@ Mer . Most shipments were brought in over the beaches until the port of Cherbourg was cleared of mines and obstructions on 16 July . The most important use of the Mulberry harbour was the unloading of heavy machinery that could not be brought across the beaches . Artificial breakwaters ( Gooseberries ) sheltered hundreds of ships during the storm of 17 – 23 June , and provided shelter for craft unloading stores at Juno and Sword . A joint Anglo @-@ American oil depot was constructed at Port @-@ en @-@ Bessin , fed via buoyed pipes known as " Tombola " from oil tankers moored offshore . Using this method , 175 @,@ 000 long tons ( 178 @,@ 000 t ) of petrol ( half for the Second Army ) was delivered by the end of August , by which time the underwater pipelines constructed in Operation Pluto were ready .
= = = Subsequent operations = = =
Fighting in the Caen area versus the 21st Panzer , the 12th SS Panzer Division Hitlerjugend , and other units soon reached a stalemate . Operation Perch ( 7 – 14 June ) failed to take Caen , and the British were forced to withdraw to Tilly @-@ sur @-@ Seulles . After a delay because of storms during 17 – 23 June , Operation Epsom was launched on 26 June , an attempt by VIII Corps to swing around and attack Caen from the south @-@ west and establish a bridgehead south of the Odon . Although the operation failed to take Caen , the Germans suffered heavy tank losses and had committed every available Panzer unit to the operation . Caen was severely bombed on the night of 7 July and then occupied north of the River Orne in Operation Charnwood on 8 – 9 July . Two offensives during 18 – 21 July , Operation Atlantic and Operation Goodwood , captured the rest of Caen and the high ground to the south , but by then the city was nearly destroyed .
= = Tourism = =
The site of the Normandy landings is a popular tourist destination . The battery at Longues @-@ sur @-@ Mer is well preserved , and its observation bunker houses a visitor centre . The gun emplacements at Le Hamel and La Rivière still exist , but many other batteries and defensive positions have been allowed to decay . Bayeux is home to the Musée Mémorial de la Bataille de Normandie and the Bayeux Commonwealth War Graves Commission Cemetery . La Cambe German war cemetery is also near Bayeux . At Arromanches , many elements of the Mulberry Harbour are extant and a museum examines its construction and use . The radar station is the site of a visitor centre and theatre .
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= Tautiška giesmė =
Tautiška giesmė ( The National Hymn ) is the national anthem of Lithuania , also known by its opening words " Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų " ( official translation of the lyrics : " Lithuania , Our Homeland " , literally : " Lithuania , Our Fatherland " ) and as " Lietuvos himnas " ( Hymn of Lithuania ) . The music and lyrics were written in 1898 by Vincas Kudirka , when Lithuania was still part of the Russian Empire . The fifty @-@ word poem was a condensation of Kudirka 's conceptions of the Lithuanian state , the Lithuanian people , and their past . Shortly before his death in 1899 , the anthem was performed for Lithuanians living in Saint Petersburg , Russia .
The first public Lithuanian performance of the anthem took place in Vilnius in 1905 , and it became the official national anthem in 1919 , a year after Lithuania declared its independence . Following the occupation and annexation of Lithuania by the Soviet Union in 1940 , the anthem was forbidden to be played or sung in public .
" Tautiška giesmė " was reinstated in 1989 shortly before the reestablishment of Lithuanian independence and confirmed in the National Anthem Act ( 21 October 1991 ) . It was automatically included as the national anthem in 1992 , when the new Constitution was ratified after independence from the Soviet Union was achieved . The status of " Tautiška giesmė " as the National Anthem of Lithuania was further confirmed in 1999 with the passage of a national law stating that .
= = Creation = =
At the time when the poem Lietuva , Tėvyne mūsų was written , Lithuania was part of the Russian Empire . Kudirka , a medical student at the University of Warsaw , was writing as a columnist for the newspaper Varpas ( The Bell ) . In his Varpas columns , Kudirka urged Lithuanians to take pride in their heritage , discussed the problems the Russian Government was causing the Lithuanian population , and denounced those who wished to work for the Tsarist autocracy . In the course of writing for Varpas , he wrote down his thoughts on what Lithuania was and what it should be , resulting in the fifty @-@ word poem Lietuva , Tėvynė mūsų ( " Lithuania , Our Homeland " ) .
The poem described the heroic past of Lithuania and exhorted its people to care for the land , care for humanity , and live in honor . Kudirka also urged the country to become a source of enlightenment and virtue . Without a melody , Kudirka took the time to compose the music just before dying of tuberculosis . Both the melody and the lyrics were printed in Varpas in September 1898 . Upon his death in 1899 , Kudirka 's tomb was engraved with the second stanza of the anthem ( later destroyed by the authorities ) .
= = History = =
Before Kudirka 's death , the first performance of the poem occurred at a concert in St. Petersburg , Russia in 1899 . The concert was conducted by Česlovas Sasnauskas and was attended by Lithuanians , which St. Petersburg had the largest population of at that time . The anthem was first performed in Lithuania during the Great Seimas of Vilnius on December 3 , 1905 .
When Lithuania declared its independence from Russia in 1918 , the song was declared the national anthem . It held this status until Lithuania was annexed into the Soviet Union during World War II . During the interwar period , there had been suggestions to modify the words to include a reference to God . It was decided , in Kudirka 's memory , that the lyrics should remain as he had written them .
Immediately following the Soviet occupation of Lithuania , The Internationale replaced the Tautiška giesmė . When in 1944 ' The Internationale ' have been replaced by State Anthem of the Soviet Union in Soviet Union as official anthem , Tautiška giesmė was used as official anthem for the Lithuanian Soviet Socialist Republic . An alternate anthem was created and introduced in 1950 . The music for that piece was composed by Balys Dvarionas and Jonas Švedas , and the words were written originally by Antanas Venclova . Following Stalin 's death in 1953 , its lyrics were modified by Vacys Reimeris to remove reference to the former dictator . This anthem stated that Lenin had lit the path to freedom , helped by the Russian people , and exhorted the Lithuanian people to work with peoples of the other Soviet Republics . The anthem was confirmed in Article 169 of the 1978 Constitution of the Lithuanian SSR . The song continued to be used until Lithuania broke away from the Soviet Union . Already in 1988 , the Tautiška giesmė was suggested as a replacement for the Soviet Lithuanian anthem . After preliminary approval by the Supreme Soviet of the Lithuanian SSR and successive legislative bodies , its status as the national anthem was reconfirmed in 1992 . In that year , the Constitution of Lithuania was approved ; Article 19 of the document states that Tautiška giesmė will be the national anthem of Lithuania . The last law in relation to the national anthem was passed in 1999 ; it contained the official lyrics and protocol on how and when to play the anthem .
= = 1999 law = =
Signed into law by President Valdas Adamkus on June 9 , 1999 , the " Law on the National Anthem of the Republic of Lithuania " details when and where the national anthem is played and its performance protocols .
Article 2 of the law states that the anthem is to be played at the following occasions : At the beginning or ending of solemn sessions of the Seimas , on national holidays and memorial days , and at receptions and farewells of foreign heads of state on official visits to Lithuania — but only after the anthem of the foreign country has been played .
It is played in foreign countries to represent Lithuania , according to their own diplomatic protocols ; on national holidays and other days when the Flag of Lithuania is raised by order of the government ; when the flag is raised during public events sponsored by governmental institutions , business , and organizations ; and at the beginning and end of National Radio programming . The anthem may also be played at other occasions , such as sporting competitions .
When playing the anthem , the music may be either live or recorded . The anthem may be performed with a choir , an orchestra , a military band , or a combination of the latter two . Article 4 , section 2 , states that all participants are encouraged to sing the national anthem . When the anthem is played , all civilians are asked to stand in a gesture of respect to the anthem . If employees of national defense , police , and other military or military @-@ related organizations are present , they must respect the anthem in a way prescribed by their statutes . The anthem cannot be used as background music , purposes of advertisement , or for entertainment , such as karaoke . Public disrespect of the anthem may be punishable by law .
= = Lyrics = =
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= Crosby Garrett Helmet =
The Crosby Garrett Helmet is a copper alloy Roman cavalry helmet dating from the late 2nd or early 3rd century AD . It was found by an unnamed metal detectorist near Crosby Garrett in Cumbria , England , in May 2010 . Later investigations found that a Romano @-@ British farming settlement had occupied the site where the helmet was discovered , which was located a few miles away from a Roman road and a Roman army fort . It is possible that the owner of the helmet was a local inhabitant who had served with the Roman cavalry .
The helmet appears to have been deliberately folded up and deposited in an artificial stone structure . It is thought to have been used for ceremonial occasions rather than for combat , and may already have been an antique by the time it was buried . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet ( found in 1905 ) and its design also has similarities with the Ribchester Helmet ( found in 1796 ) and the Hallaton Helmet ( found in 2000 ) , though its facial features are more akin to those of helmets found in southern Europe . Its design may allude to the Trojans , whose exploits the Romans re @-@ enacted in cavalry tournaments .
Dr Ralph Jackson , Senior Curator of Romano @-@ British Collections at the British Museum , has described the helmet as " ... an immensely interesting and outstandingly important find ... Its face mask is both extremely finely wrought and chillingly striking , but it is as an ensemble that the helmet is so exceptional and , in its specifics , unparalleled . It is a find of the greatest national ( and , indeed , international ) significance . "
On 7 October 2010 , the helmet was sold at Christie 's for £ 2 @.@ 3 million ( US $ 3 @.@ 6 million ) to an undisclosed private buyer . Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle sought to purchase the helmet , with the support of the British Museum but was outbid . The helmet has so far been publicly displayed twice , once in a 2012 exhibition at the Royal Academy of Arts , and again at Tullie House in 2013 @-@ 14 .
= = Description = =
The Crosby Garrett helmet is an almost complete example of a two @-@ piece Roman cavalry helmet . The visor portrays the face of a youthful , clean @-@ shaven male with curly hair . The headpiece is in the shape of a Phrygian cap , on the crest of which is a winged griffin that stands with one raised foot resting on an amphora . The visor was originally attached to the headpiece by means of a hinge ; the iron hinge pin has not survived , but its existence has been inferred from the presence of powdery deposits of iron oxide residue . The helmet would have been held in place using a leather strap attached from the wearer 's neck to a decorated rivet on either side of the helmet , below the ear . Wear marks caused by opening and closing the visor are still visible , and at some point the helmet was repaired using a bronze sheet which was riveted across two splits . Only two other Roman helmets complete with visors have been found in Britain – the Newstead Helmet and Ribchester Helmet .
The helmet and visor were cast from an alloy consisting of an average of 82 % copper , 10 % zinc and 8 % tin . This alloy was probably derived from melted @-@ down scrap brass with a low zinc content , with which some tin had been added to improve the quality of the casting . Some of the fragments show traces of a white metal coating , indicating that the visor would originally have been tinned to give the appearance of silver . The griffin was cast separately from a different alloy consisting of 68 % copper , 4 % zinc , 18 % tin and 10 % lead . The visor would originally have been a silver hue and the helmet would have had a coppery yellow appearance . The helmet 's creation can be dated to the late 2nd or early 3rd century from the use of a particular type of decorated rivet as well as some of its design features , such as its pierced eyes .
There has been much debate about the symbolic meaning of the helmet 's design . The griffin was the companion of Nemesis , the goddess of vengeance and fate . They were both seen as agents of death and were often linked with gladiatorial combat . The meaning of the face and headpiece are less clearly identifiable . Suggestions have ranged from the Greek god Attis and the hero Perseus , to the Roman gods Mithras and Jupiter Dolichenus , to a more general Eastern Mediterranean appearance that could possibly have been meant to suggest a Trojan identity . The Phrygian cap was often used by the Romans as a visual motif representing the Trojans .
= = Discovery and restoration = =
The helmet and visor were found in May 2010 in pastureland on a farm owned by Eric Robinson at Crosby Garrett in Cumbria . The finder , an unnamed metal detectorist in his 20s from Peterlee , County Durham , had been detecting with his father in two adjacent fields for some years but had previously only discovered some Roman coins and other small artefacts . The findspot is situated not far from a Roman road . A number of earthworks are located nearby , indicating the presence of a previously unrecorded ancient settlement . The area was strategically placed on the route to the northern frontier of Roman Britain within the territory of the Carvetii tribe . The Roman army would have been present in the area and would certainly have used the nearby road . A Roman auxiliary fort stood only 9 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 6 mi ) to the north @-@ east at Verterae ( Brough Castle ) .
Following the helmet 's discovery , the area around the findspot was investigated in a project sponsored by the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery and the Portable Antiquities Scheme . The earthworks noted earlier were found to be part of a substantial enclosure surrounded by ditches , within which buildings had once stood . The enclosure , which measures as much as 500 metres ( 1 @,@ 600 ft ) long on its southern side , combines both native British and Roman methods of fortification . A sunken area within the enclosure may possibly have served as a paddock for horses , while the evidence for the buildings is concentrated in the enclosure 's northern portion . The remnants of Romano @-@ British field systems in the surrounding area show that the area was under cultivation and animal remains found on the site indicate that the inhabitants also raised livestock , including sheep , goats and pigs . The presence of Roman pottery suggests that the inhabitants had adopted some elements of the Roman lifestyle , but their community may well have been there long before the Romans arrived . Archaeological evidence from the enclosure indicates that the site may have been first settled as far back as the Bronze Age , at least 1 @,@ 000 years before the helmet was deposited .
The finder discovered the helmet and visor buried together some 25 cm ( 10 in ) below the surface , at a site located on a ledge at the lower end of the settlement . It had been placed onto two stone slabs at the bottom of a hole which had been back @-@ filled with soil . A stone cap had been laid on top . The helmet was found in 33 large fragments and 34 small fragments and had apparently been folded before burial . The visor was mostly intact and had been placed face down . The griffin had become detached and was found with the helmet . No other artefacts were found at the time , but the subsequent Tullie House / PAS excavations at the findspot discovered a number of copper and iron objects , a bead and two Roman coins dating to between 330 @-@ 337 . The coins were found within the artificial stone feature in which the helmet had been deposited and may have been buried at the same time .
The finder did not initially realise that he had found a Roman artefact and thought at first that it was a Victorian ornament . He eventually identified it as Roman by consulting auction catalogues , searching the Internet and getting advice from dealers . Find Liaison Officers from the Portable Antiquities Scheme were notified of the discovery and visited the findspot along with the finder . Christie 's commissioned Darren Bradbury , an independent conservator and restorer , to restore the helmet and visor for sale . Although Christie 's was asked to delay the restoration so that a full scientific examination could be carried out , this request was not granted and information about the helmet 's burial may have been lost as a result . However , the British Museum was able to inspect the find during restoration and X @-@ ray fluorescence spectrometry was carried out to determine the composition of the headpiece , visor and griffin . Bradbury 's restoration work took some 240 hours and involved the repair of cracks and holes using resin and cyanoacrylate , retouched to match the appearance of the surrounding material .
= = Similarities and usage = =
The helmet and visor have marked similarities to a number of other Roman cavalry helmets . The visor is a cavalry sports type C ( H. Russell Robinson classification ) or type V ( Maria Kohlert classification ) . Similar examples have been found across the Roman Empire from Britain to Syria . It is of the same type as the Newstead Helmet , found in Scotland in 1905 , and its facial features most closely parallel a helmet that was found at Nola in Italy and is now in the British Museum . The rendering of the hair is similar to that of a type C helmet found at Belgrade in Serbia and dated to the 2nd century AD . The griffin ornament is unique , though it may parallel a lost " sphinx of bronze " that may originally have been attached to the crest of the Ribchester Helmet , discovered in Lancashire in 1796 . The headpiece is nearly unique ; only one other example in the form of a Phrygian cap has been found , in a fragmentary state , at Ostrov in Romania , dated to the second half of the 2nd century AD . Rings on the back of the helmet and on the griffin may have been used to attach colourful streamers or ribbons .
Such helmets were used for hippika gymnasia , cavalry tournaments that were performed in front of emperors and senior commanders . Horses and riders wore lavishly decorated clothes , armour and plumes while performing feats of horsemanship and re @-@ enacting historical and legendary battles , such as the wars of the Greeks and Trojans . According to the Roman writer Arrian :
[ T ] hose of high rank or superior in horsemanship wear gilded helmets of iron or bronze to draw the attention of the spectators . Unlike the helmets made for active service , these do not cover the head and cheeks only but are made to fit all round the faces of the riders with apertures for the eyes . . . From the helmets hang yellow plumes , a matter of décor as much as utility . As the horses move forward , the slightest breeze adds to the beauty of these plumes . — Arrian , Ars Tactica 34
Combat gear was issued by and belonged to the Roman army , and had to be returned at the end of a wearer 's service . Cavalry sports equipment appears to have been treated differently , as soldiers apparently privately commissioned and purchased it for their own use . They evidently retained it after they completed their service . Both helmets and visors have been found in graves and other contexts away from obvious military sites , as well as being deposited in forts and their vicinity . In some cases they were carefully folded up and buried , as in the case of the Guisborough Helmet . The Dutch historian Johan Nicolay has identified a " lifecycle " for Roman military equipment in which ex @-@ soldiers took certain items home with them as a reminder of their service and occasionally disposed of them away from garrison sites as grave goods or votive offerings .
The circumstances in which the Crosby Garret helmet was buried are still unclear , but the discoveries made by the post @-@ discovery Tullie House / PAS excavations have provided much more detail about its context . It was clearly deposited within an artificial feature that had been specially constructed ; Stuart Noon of the Museum of Lancashire suggests that the feature may have been intended as a memorial of some sort . It was not buried in an isolated spot but within a long @-@ occupied Romano @-@ British farming settlement that had clearly adopted aspects of Roman culture . Given the settlement 's proximity to Roman military locations , it is very possible that some of its inhabitants served with the Roman army , which often recruited mounted auxiliaries from among native peoples . The helmet may well already have been a valuable antique at the time of its burial ; if the coins found nearby reflect when it was buried , it could have been over a century old by the time it was deposited . It was deliberately broken before being buried in what may have been intended as a ritual sacrifice . The identity of its owner will never be known , but it could have been that a local inhabitant who had formerly served with the Roman cavalry was responsible for the helmet 's deposition .
= = Auction and controversy = =
Although the find was reported under the Portable Antiquities Scheme , it was not declared treasure under the 1996 Treasure Act because single items of non @-@ precious metal are not covered by the act . The finder and landowner were thus free to dispose of the helmet as they saw fit . The discovery was publicly announced by Christie 's in mid @-@ September 2010 ; the helmet was the centrepiece of its 7 October auction catalogue , featuring on the cover and six more pages . Its value was put at £ 200 @,@ 000 – £ 300 @,@ 000 ( $ 309 @,@ 200 – $ 463 @,@ 800 ) . The Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery launched an appeal with the aim of purchasing the helmet and making it the focus of a new Roman frontier gallery due to open in 2011 . The campaign immediately attracted numerous donations , including £ 50 @,@ 000 from an anonymous overseas benefactor who offered the sum if a matching sum could be raised by the public ( it was ) ; a £ 1 million offer from the National Heritage Memorial Fund ; a £ 300 @,@ 000 pledge from the Headley Trust and the Monument Trust ; £ 200 @,@ 000 from the Art Fund ; and £ 75 @,@ 000 from the J Paul Getty Jr Charitable Trust . By the time of the auction three and a half weeks after the campaign had been launched , the museum had raised enough money to support a bid of up to £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Behind the scenes , efforts were made to persuade the finder and landowner to agree a private sale with the museum , but these approaches failed .
The initial estimate was passed within seconds of the auction opening . Six bidders pushed the price towards a million pounds and Tullie House was forced to drop out at £ 1 @.@ 7 million . Two remaining bidders took the bid past £ 2 million ; the winning bidder , an anonymous UK resident and fine art collector bidding by phone , paid a total of £ 2 @,@ 330 @,@ 468 @.@ 75 including the buyer 's premium and VAT . The outcome aroused controversy and prompted calls for the Treasure Act to be revised , though British Archaeology noted that the circumstances of the helmet 's discovery may have resulted in it being outside the scope of even a revised act . It is still possible that the helmet could come into public ownership ; if the winning bidder wishes to export it , an export licence would have to be applied for and if a temporary export bar was placed on it an opportunity could arise for funds to be raised by a public institution to purchase the helmet .
= = Display = =
Since its sale in 2010 , the helmet been on public display three times . It was lent by its owner to the Royal Academy of Arts in London , and was put on display from 15 September to 9 December 2012 as part of an exhibition of bronzes . From 1 November 2013 until 26 January 2014 the helmet was on display at the Tullie House Museum and Art Gallery in Carlisle , and a printed guide was produced for the occasion . It was subsequently displayed at the British Museum from 28 January to 27 April 2014 .
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= Liu Kang =
Liu Kang ( Chinese : 劉鋼 ; pinyin : Liúgāng ) is a fictional character from the Mortal Kombat fighting game series from Midway Games , introduced as one of the original seven player characters in the 1992 first game as a Shaolin monk who enters the Mortal Kombat tournament to save Earthrealm ( Earth ) . Since his victory in the tournament , Liu Kang becomes the Mortal Kombat series ' hero as the champion and chief defender of Earthrealm guided by his mentor , the thunder god Raiden . He also becomes romantically involved with Princess Kitana , the adopted daughter of evil Outworld emperor named Shao Kahn .
Designed with special moves intended to be easier to perform than the moves of other characters , Liu Kang has appeared in many of the Mortal Kombat fighting installments , in addition to starring with Kung Lao as the title characters of the action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , and being among the eleven series characters representing the franchise in the crossover game Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe . Liu Kang has extensively featured in alternate Mortal Kombat media and official merchandise , serving as the primary protagonist of the two feature @-@ length films and the Malibu Comics comic book adaptations , in addition to supporting roles in other media such as the 1995 Mortal Kombat novel and the animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm . Critical and general reception of the character has been mainly favorable , although various aspects have been criticized .
= = Appearances = =
= = = In video games = = =
Introduced in the first Mortal Kombat game as a Chinese Shaolin Kung Fu fighting monk , Liu Kang 's main fighting style is Jeet Kune Do and he has experience with Kung Fu . He enters the tenth Mortal Kombat tournament in order to protect Earthrealm from being destroyed after having lost the previous nine tournaments . He defeats Grand Champion Goro and the tournament host , the nefarious sorcerer Shang Tsung , and emerges as the new Mortal Kombat champion . In the 1993 sequel Mortal Kombat II , Liu Kang finds many of his Shaolin brethren killed in a vicious attack by a horde of nomadic mutants led by Baraka under orders from the evil Outworld emperor Shao Kahn , Shang Tsung 's master . Enraged , Liu Kang decides to travel to Outworld to seek revenge , backed by friend and fellow Shaolin Kung Lao . At the tournament , Liu Kang fights Shao Kahn , eventually overpowering the emperor . In Mortal Kombat 3 ( 1995 ) , Liu Kang and his friends fight against Shao Kahn 's extermination squad which invaded Earthrealm . He once again defeats Shao Kahn , causing him and his forces to retreat back to Outworld .
In the events of Mortal Kombat 4 ( 1997 ) , Liu Kang discovers that his lover and ally , Princess Kitana , has been captured by the disgraced Elder God Shinnok 's forces , and begins gathering Earth 's warriors to defeat him . Liu Kang confronts Shinnok and once again emerges victorious with Kitana and her people having survived to the attack , but he is unable to commit himself to a relationship due to his duty as Earthrealm 's champion while Kitana has to remain in Outworld to rule her kingdom .
Liu Kang becomes unplayable for the first and only time in the Mortal Kombat series in 2002 's Mortal Kombat : Deadly Alliance , in which the titular partnership of Shang Tsung and fellow sorcerer Quan Chi join forces to kill him in the game 's introductory sequence . In the events of Mortal Kombat : Deception ( 2004 ) , an unknown party reanimates Liu Kang 's corpse and sends it on a murderous rampage , causing Liu Kang 's soul to attempt to control it . He returns as a playable character in this game , albeit in undead form and as a secret character that can only be unlocked by completing the game 's Konquest Mode . His spirit enlists the reformed ninja Ermac to try to save Kitana and his Earthrealm allies — Johnny Cage , Jax , Sonya and Kung Lao — who had all been killed by the Deadly Alliance and then resurrected by the Dragon King Onaga for use as his slaves . Though they successfully accomplish this task , Liu Kang is still unable to fully regain control of his body in Mortal Kombat : Armageddon ( 2006 ) , where he is playable along with the entire series roster and in which it is revealed that Raiden had revived Liu Kang 's corpse in Deception . Liu Kang 's bond with Kitana had succeeded in keeping his power in check , with Nightwolf then assuming her position as Liu Kang 's " spiritual anchor " in attempt to find a way to reunite his body and soul , which he accomplishes in his ending . Liu Kang was among the many characters who were not given a biography for Armageddon , while in his own noncanonical in @-@ game ending , his body and soul reunite on their own before he confronts Raiden and defeats him in combat to become Earthrealm 's new protector .
Along with Kung Lao , Liu Kang is the lead character in the 2005 spinoff action @-@ adventure game Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks . The game is a retelling of the storyline of the events leading up to Mortal Kombat II , and features the two Shaolin monks traveling to Outworld to find and defeat Shang Tsung , later ending in a fight with Shao Kahn and rescuing Kitana along the way . He is among the eleven characters representing the Mortal Kombat franchise in the 2008 crossover title Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , which features fights between characters from the Mortal Kombat and the DC Comics universes . In this game , Liu Kang appears as the protagonist of the first chapter of the Mortal Kombat story mode . Tobias said that the fight he expected to see in the game was between Liu Kang and Batman as he noted their back @-@ stories to be very similar , due to fact , both Liu Kang and Batman are fought in Raiden and Superman 's chapters respectively , trying to snap their rage influenced respective leaders back to their sense from killing the leader 's respective arch @-@ enemies , Lex Luthor and Shang Tsung , reminding them that Dark Kahn is their true enemy .
In the 2011 Mortal Kombat reboot video game , Liu Kang reprises his role from the first three tournaments as one of Raiden 's chosen warriors . Raiden , who has visions from the future in which Shao Kahn remained as the last warrior , believes that Liu Kang is the warrior which his future self chose as the savior . As in the first game , Liu Kang succeeds in defeating Goro and Shang Tsung , though Raiden 's amulet continues to crack , unchanging the future .
During the second tournament , Liu Kang meets Kitana , and the two engage romantically with each other in this timeline too . It is during this tournament that Kang begins to doubt Raiden 's visions after he ordered him and Kung Lao not to rescue Kitana , and when Lao is killed by Shao Kahn . He seemingly kills Shao Kahn , and avenges his fallen friend . However , Kahn survives , and begins plotting to invade Earthrealm .
When Shao Kahn is preparing to invade Earthrealm during the third game 's events , Liu Kang is among Earthrealm 's protectors , and notices Raiden 's futile attempts to alter the future . He and Raiden visit the Elder Gods in order to put a stop to Kahn 's plan , but refuse to intervene , stating that Kahn 's invasion is not a violation of Mortal Kombat , but the merging of Earthrealm and Outworld is . When they return , nearly all of their allies are dead , murdered by a soul @-@ infused Sindel , and Liu Kang rushes to Kitana , only for her to die in his arms . This , coupled with Raiden 's failed attempts in changing the future , and his plan to form an alliance with the Netherrealm , causes Kang to deem Raiden insane , and decides to take on Shao Kahn alone . He arrives as Kahn enters Earthrealm , but Raiden attempts to stops him as he realized Kahn had to win and merge the realms in order to avoid the events of the future . Having enough of Raiden 's continued mistakes , the two fight , but Kang is defeated . As he attempts to shoot a fireball at Raiden , the thunder god uses his lightning to protect him , inadvertently electrocuting Liu Kang , much to Raiden 's horror . Rushing to his burnt body , Raiden pleads for his forgiveness , but Kang coldly says to the Thunder God : " You ... have killed us ... all ... " and dies . After Raiden defeats Shao Kahn with the help of the Elder Gods , and thus changing the future , he and the surviving warriors , Johnny Cage and Sonya Blade , leave and begin the restoration of Earthrealm , and he takes Kang 's body with him .
Liu Kang returns in Mortal Kombat X. In the game 's Story Mode , he was resurrected by Quan Chi and now serves him as one of the revenants until Sub @-@ Zero , Scorpion and Jax are revived . He fights both Jax and Raiden in Story Mode , which he blames Raiden for his death . At the end of the story mode , he and Kitana become the new rulers of the Netherrealm due to Quan Chi 's death and Shinnok 's defeat . A now darker Raiden brings them Shinnok 's disembodied head as a warning for them not to attack Earthrealm .
= = = = Design = = = =
Liu Kang was originally going to be a Japanese character called Minamoto Yoshitsune , but Mortal Kombat co @-@ creator and character designer John Tobias stated that the staff could not " deal with the name . " According to Tobias , Liu Kang " was originally going to be a traditional monk – bald and in robes – but he wound up resembling Bruce Lee . " As stated on his Mortal Kombat : Armageddon bio card , Ed Boon mentioned that Liu Kang was designed to be the most easily " accessible " character , meaning that both casual and experienced gamers could play as him with little difficulty . According to Tobias , Liu Kang was purposely the only character that voiced his finishing move in the original game , and was " the best " in the first sequel . Liu Kang was the only character in the first game whose finishing move ( Fatality ) did not explicitly murder his opponent , and also without the background dimming . This was because Liu Kang was depicted therein as a Shaolin monk , who in general have strict beliefs regarding killing and murder . However , starting with Mortal Kombat II , he was given gory Fatalities as he was thereafter depicted as a renegade monk who decided to grow his hair back , and who had " strong Shaolin beliefs , but was no longer a part of the Shaolin monks . " In response to rumors that Liu Kang would die in Mortal Kombat II and therefore not make it into Mortal Kombat 3 , Boon said , " It 'd be like doing part three of Star Wars and not having Luke Skywalker in there . You don 't do that . " His eventual death caused Dan Forden , the music composer of the series , to make a " funeral song " for Liu Kang as he felt saddened for his death . The track titled " Liu Kang 's Tomb " would be used in Mortal Kombat : Deception in the arena that shows his tomb .
Liu Kang was played by Ho Sung Pak in the first two games , and John Tobias stated in an interview that he originally intended for the character to be a traditional bald monk , but the actor refused to shave his head . In the first game , Liu Kang was modeled after Bruce Lee , as he had short hair and went shirtless , with a threadbare outfit of only black pants and white shoes . In Mortal Kombat II , his outfit was enhanced with red stripes , and now included a red headband , black shoes , and studded wristguards ( the intro of MKII shows the younger version of the character defeating Shang Tsung in the background , while the updated character is in the foreground ) . In Mortal Kombat 3 , his hair was considerably longer , with the only alteration to his outfit being thin black leg strips wrapped above his ankles in order to give him a " sleeker " look for the game . He was given a red tank top in addition to his usual costume in Mortal Kombat 4 , but his alternate outfit was blue and featured him shirtless again . His wardrobe from the third game was carried over into Deception and Armageddon , but due to his resurrection , his skin was ash gray , and he wore hooked chains around his wrists . This form is also known by fans and Mortal Kombat producer Shaun Himmerick as " Zombie Liu Kang " . Nevertheless , his alternate outfit for both games featured him as a living person in order to contrast his undead form . In Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , he sported a slightly altered version of his third costume , in addition to a championship belt adorned with the Mortal Kombat dragon emblem . Although Liu Kang 's design in Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks remains similar to his Mortal Kombat II one , Himmerick said that it was the most revised one from the game , along with Kung Lao 's .
= = = = Gameplay = = = =
Liu Kang specializes in kicks , with his most common move being flying across the screen and connect with a kick to the opponent 's torso . Another such move is the " Bicycle Kick " in which Liu Kang flies across the screen with a series of multiple kicks to the opponent 's torso resembling pedaling a bicycle , hence the name . A different kind of his signature abilities is the " Dragon Fire " : with it Liu Kang sends a fiery flame in the shape of a Chinese dragon across the screen out of his hands at his opponent . After Mortal Kombat II , he gains the ability to perform this while crouching and in the air , same for Deception and Armageddon . The developers made Liu Kang immediately selectable in Mortal Kombat : Unchained , the PlayStation Portable port of Deception , as they noted that unlocking him in Deception had proved difficult .
Liu Kang 's first finishing move is the Fatality " Shaolin Uppercut " ; he performs a butterfly kick ( often mistaken for a cartwheel ) on his opponent , before hitting an uppercut that knocks them into the air for several seconds . In Mortal Kombat : Shaolin Monks , there were two versions ; one where the victim explodes to pieces upon impact and the original , in which the opponent is torn to pieces upon falling to the ground . In another signature Fatality , he morphs into a large dragon , chomping the upper body of his opponent . This Fatality was turned into an Animality in Mortal Kombat 3 and back into a normal Fatality in Mortal Kombat 4 . In the Game Boy and Game Gear versions of Mortal Kombat II , the dragon torches the opponent with fire instead . The series ' composer and co @-@ designer John Vogel noted it to be his favorite Fatality due to how much Liu Kang 's appearance changes . Another famous Fatality of Liu Kang has him vanish and a Mortal Kombat arcade game machine drop down and crush his opponent . According to GameSpy 's MK2011 walkthrough , Liu Kang " inflicts better damage " than Kung Lao " by jumping around like a lunatic and kicking the crap out of everything he sees . "
= = = Other appearances = = =
Liu Kang was the hero of the comic book adaptation of the Mortal Kombat series Malibu Comics . In the first miniseries , Blood and Thunder , his backstory was mostly kept intact as a Shaolin monk out to restore the tournament to their righteous owners , with the only difference being that he was not the chosen one to defeat Goro , which instead fell on twin monk brothers named Sing and Sang , two original characters created specifically for the comics ; after they are killed by Goro in the third issue , Liu Kang becomes the Shaolin 's only hope in defeating Shang Tsung . The following miniseries , Battlewave , stated that Liu Kang won the first tournament after defeating Goro , which never appeared in the first miniseries . He returns to his normal life as an architect in Chicago , having left the Order of Light before the events of the first series . However , he suffers from constant attacks by an unknown force of ninjas and later receives help from Johnny Cage 's bodyguard Bo when Goro ambushes him in an office building . Eventually he decides to travel to Outworld , realizing that he cannot avoid Mortal Kombat .
Liu Kang is the primary hero of both Mortal Kombat movies , where he is portrayed by Robin Shou . Director Paul W. S. Anderson wanted Liu Kang 's character to be " really engaging " and chose Shou , noting his skills with martial arts . In the first film , he takes part in the tournament out of guilt over his brother 's death at the hands of Shang Tsung ( portrayed by Cary @-@ Hiroyuki Tagawa ) , and defeats Tsung in the final battle . As a result of the film 's style the relationship between Liu Kang and Kitana is more of a metaphysical than a romantic nature . Shou , along with Talisa Soto ( Kitana ) , was one of only two actors to reprise their roles in the sequel , Mortal Kombat : Annihilation ( Keith Cooke , who played Reptile , returned as well , but as the new Sub @-@ Zero ) . In the sequel , Liu Kang joins the Earthrealm warriors to stop Shao Kahn 's menace . In the animated film Mortal Kombat : The Journey Begins , serving as a prequel to the first film , Liu Kang appears as one of the main characters .
Liu Kang is also one of the lead characters in the 1996 animated series Mortal Kombat : Defenders of the Realm , voiced by Brian Tochi . He is not the protagonist therein as opposed to the game storyline , instead sharing this role with several other Earthrealm heroes .
Liu Kang appears in the 2013 's second season of the web series Mortal Kombat : Legacy , portrayed by Brian Tee . Liu Kang in Legacy is portrayed as an anti @-@ hero and fighting on the side of Outworld rather than that of Earthrealm in the web series . In this version , he is shown to have left a monastery to live a normal life working at a diner with a fiancée . After watching a pair of thieves kill her in a robbery attempt , he becomes consumed with anger and revenge , and further distances himself from Kung Lao and the ideals that were taught to him . After working as a freelance assassin for a few years , he is approached by Shang Tsung , who convinces him that humanity is not worth protecting and asks him to join the realm of Outworld in the upcoming Mortal Kombat tournament , which he agrees to . During the tournament , he easily subdues Johnny Cage and Kurtis Stryker before being confronted by Kung Lao , who is surprised at his old friend 's change of allegiance .
In 1996 , Toy Island published a Liu Kang action figure which had a white shirt . Two Liu Kang action figures from Shaolin Monks were released by Jazwares . Apart from being flexible , both figures included different types of weapons such as swords and axes .
= = Reception = =
The character has received mostly very positive response by gaming publications . His relation with Kitana was ranked fourth in IGN 's list of best video game couples in 2006 . GameSpot featured him in their 2009 poll for the title of " All Time Greatest Game Hero " , in which he lost to Yoshi . UGO Networks ranked him as 94th on the 2008 list of top heroes of all time , noting his role in the Mortal Kombat series as well as character depth . In 2012 , GamesRadar ranked him as 51st " most memorable , influential , and badass " protagonist in games , adding that while " Sub @-@ Zero and Scorpion may get most of the fanfare " , Liu Kang " can shoot fireballs , whoops and hollers just like Bruce Lee , and pioneered the Animality with his dragon @-@ transformation fatality--it ’ s no wonder that Liu Kang ’ s the chosen champion of Earthrealm . " In 2014 , Jack Pooley of What Culture ranked him as the second greatest ever fighting game character .
Like all the characters from Mortal Kombat vs. DC Universe , Liu Kang was selected to be a playable character based on his popularity . Jesse Schedeen of IGN said that " it just wouldn 't be right having a game without [ Liu Kang ] , " noting him to be as fierce as the DC Universe characters in this game . In 2010 , GamePlayBook ranked Liu Kang as the second best Mortal Kombat character , commenting that " his nimbleness and fighting expertise make him an ideal pick " and how he is as good as zombie as when he was alive . In 2011 , Bright Hub ranked Liu Kang as the second best character in the series . In UGO 's 2012 list of top Mortal Kombat characters , Liu Kang was given first place . In 2013 , he was ranked as the fifth @-@ top Mortal Kombat character by Jon Hamlin of The Game Scouts for his popularity and " being incredibly important to the Mortal Kombat universe . " That same year , the readers of Dorkly voted him the series ' sixth greatest character .
Upon his death in Deadly Alliance , IGN 's Jeremy Dunham noted that Liu Kang was killed as the series needed " ' starting over ' mentality " , as he regarded Liu Kang as the series ' strongest character . Complex remarked that the Mortal Kombat developers " finally found their groove again with Deadly Alliance , which began by snapping Liu Kang 's neck . " Game Informer listed his death in their article about " characters that died under our watch " calling it a " shock " as Liu Kang was stated to be one of the " most loved " characters from the series .
His redesign in Mortal Kombat : Deception was praised by GameSpot for being one of the best ones from the title , and was featured in GamesRadar 's list of the " greatest zombie triumphs " in 2009 , but was also ranked as the ninth @-@ worst Mortal Kombat character by ScrewAttack in 2011 . Additionally , GamesRadar used Liu Kang as an example of a stereotype of gaming heroes who reveal an evil alter ego that ruins the character 's appealing traits , and considered him to be " a little like the Shaolin version of Goku , in that he 's saved his world countless times and come back from the dead even more frequently . " GamesRadar featured him the article about " kickass Bruce Lee clones " citing his similarities with Bruce Lee and with one of his shouts featured in famous quotes .
= = = Gameplay and finishing moves = = =
Liu Kang 's famous finishing move of turning into a dragon was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second best in the series , referred to as the most iconic Fatality in Mortal Kombat II , but his cartwheel Fatality from the original Mortal Kombat was ranked by ScrewAttack as the second worst in the series . Liu Kang 's dragon Fatality has also been listed as one of the best Fatalities from the series by both Game Informer and UGO in 2010 , as well as by Complex in 2013 . On the other hand , his Fatality in which he throws a Mortal Kombat arcade were pointed by both Game Informer and GamePro as one of the worst from the series , even as GamesRadar listed it among the reasons of Liu Kang being " boss " .
Some video game publications criticized his gameplay and shouts while others noted him to be entertaining . IGN 's Douglas Perry wrote that he preferred Liu Kang over Kung Lao as a playable character in Shaolin Monks because of his " intuitive fighting moves , " adding that his shouts were " annoying " yet " strangely pleasing . " GameDaily also complained about his voice , saying that " Liu Kang screams out like a chicken , " and GamesRadar wrote that " the strange squeals he emits during his trademark Bicycle Kick move are unforgettable . "
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= Inocybe praetervisa =
Inocybe praetervisa is a small , yellow and brown mushroom in the Inocybaceae family , distinguished from other members of the genus by its unusual spores and bulb . The unusual spores led to the species being named the type species of the now @-@ abandoned genus Astrosporina ; recent studies have shown that such a genus could not exist , as the species with the defining traits do not form a monophyletic group . However , it is a part of several clades within the genus Inocybe . I. praetervisa grows on the ground in woodland , favouring beech trees , and can be found in Europe , North America and Asia . It is inedible and probably poisonous due to the presence of muscarine . The ingestion of muscarine can lead to SLUDGE syndrome , and could potentially lead to death due to respiratory failure .
= = Taxonomy and naming = =
Inocybe praetervisa was first described by Lucien Quélet in the first volume of Giacomo Bresadola 's 1883 publication Fungi tridentini . The species was moved to the genus Astrosporina by Joseph Schröter in 1889 , but this was rejected , and the name Astrosporina praetervisa is now considered an obligate synonym . Astrosporina praetervisa was the type species of the no longer recognised genus . The specific epithet praetervisa comes from the Latin word meaning " overlooked " .
Within the genus Inocybe , I. praetervisa has been placed in the subgenus Inocybe . Mycologist Rolf Singer places the species in the section Marginatae ; mycologist Thom Kuyper considers Marginatae a supersection , and includes I. praetervisa along with I. abietis , I. calospora and I. godeyi . Phylogenetics has shown that , in addition to the large clade of subgenus Inocybe , I. praetervisa forms a clade with I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla . The species are similar in that all four have basidiospores with small nodules ; it was this feature that defined the genus Astrosporina , with then A. praetervisa as its type species . However , when phylogenetic analysis later concluded that nodulose @-@ spored Inocybe species do not form a monophyletic group , the name Astrosporina was deemed inappropriate at a generic level . But it may be considered useful at a lower level to refer to the clade of the four Inocybe species . Of those four , I. praetervisa is most closely related to I. calospora , with which it forms a smaller and closer clade . A different study also found the close relationship between I. praetervisa and I. calospora ; it also named I. teraturgus as a part of the clade containing I. praetervisa , I. calospora , I. lanuginosa and I. leptophylla .
= = Description = =
Inocybe praetervisa has a bell @-@ shaped ( later expanding ) cap of 3 to 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) in diameter , which is a yellowish @-@ brown colour . It is fibrous , and splits from the margin ( which curves inwards ) to the centre . The stem is from 5 to 6 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 4 in ) in height , and from 3 to 8 millimetres ( 0 @.@ 12 to 0 @.@ 31 in ) thick . It is white , maturing to a pale straw @-@ yellow , and the whole stem is farinaceous , meaning it is covered in particles resembling meal . The stem has a distinct bulb at the base , which is moderately marginate , and lacks a ring . The flesh is white , and discolours to yellowish in the stem . The gills are initially whitish , but later become a clay @-@ brown with toothed , white edges . They are adnexed , meaning they connect to the stem by only part of their depth , and are crowded closely together .
= = = Microscopic features = = =
Inocybe praetervisa leaves a clay @-@ brown spore print , while the spores themselves are rectangular with a large number of " distinct , angular knobs " . In size , the spores measure between 10 and 12 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00039 and 0 @.@ 00047 in ) in length by between 7 and 9 micrometres ( 0 @.@ 00028 and 0 @.@ 00035 in ) in width . Inocybe praetervisa has both pleuro- and cheilocystidia which are relatively spindle @-@ shaped with apical encrustation . The cystidia have hyaline or pale yellow walls .
= = = Similar species = = =
The species can be differentiated from the similar I. cookei by its " irregular , lumpy spores " . It is also similar to I. rimosa , but differs in the presence of a bulb . Another species that can be differentiated by the lack of a bulb is I. numerosigibba .
= = Habitat and distribution = =
Inocybe praetervisa is an ectomycorrhizal species , and can be found on the ground in mixed , deciduous or even coniferous woodland . It typically favours beech . Mushrooms grow solitarily or in " trooping groups " in late summer and throughout autumn , though it is not commonly encountered species . It can be found in Europe , Asia and North America .
= = Edibility and toxicity = =
The species has a mild , indistinct taste , and a faint smell of flour . Mycologist Roger Phillips describes its edibility as " suspect " , recommending that it be avoided , and notes that it is possible that the species is poisonous ; most species of Inocybe have been shown to contain poisonous chemicals . Mycologist Ian Robert Hall lists the mushroom as containing the poisonous compound muscarine . Consumption of muscarine could lead to a number of physiological effects , including : excess salivation , lacrimation , uncontrollable urination and defecation , gastrointestinal problems and emesis ( vomiting ) ; this array of symptoms is also known by the acronym SLUDGE . Other potential effects include a drop in blood pressure , sweating and death due to respiratory failure .
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= Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery =
Hannah Primrose , Countess of Rosebery ( 27 July 1851 – 19 November 1890 ) was a British noblewoman , the daughter of Baron Mayer de Rothschild and the wife of Archibald , Earl of Rosebery . After inheriting her father 's fortune in 1874 , she became the richest woman in Britain .
During the final quarter of the 19th century her husband , the Earl of Rosebery , was one of the most celebrated figures in Britain , an influential millionaire and politician , whose charm , wit , charisma and public popularity gave him such standing that he " almost eclipsed royalty . " Yet his Jewish wife , during her lifetime regarded as dull , overweight and lacking in beauty , remains an enigmatic figure largely ignored by historians and often regarded as notable only for financing her husband 's three ambitions : to marry an heiress , win the Epsom Derby , and become Prime Minister ( the second and third of these possibly apocryphal ambitions were achieved after her death ) . In truth , she was her husband 's driving force and motivation .
Her marriage into the aristocracy , while controversial at the time , gave her the social cachet in an antisemitic society that her vast fortune could not . She subsequently became a political hostess and philanthropist . Her charitable work was principally in the sphere of public health and causes associated with the welfare of working @-@ class Jewish women living in the poorer districts of London .
Having firmly assisted and supported her husband on his path to political greatness , she suddenly died in 1890 , aged 39 , leaving him , distraught and bereft of her support , to achieve the political destiny which she had plotted . His premiership of the United Kingdom was shambolic , and lasted barely a year . For over thirty years following her death , he wandered in a political wilderness , directionless and exceedingly eccentric , until his own death in 1929 .
= = Early years = =
Hannah de Rothschild was born in 1851 into a world of great wealth and luxury . She was the granddaughter of Baron Nathan Mayer Rothschild , who had founded N M Rothschild & Sons , the English branch of the Rothschilds ' banking empire . Niall Ferguson states in his History of the House of Rothschild that by the mid @-@ 19th century the Rothschilds regarded themselves as the nearest thing the Jews of Europe had to a royal family , and the equals of royalty . Whether or not this was strictly true , the many Rothschild homes and their art collections , in England , Austria , France and Germany , certainly rivalled those of the crowned heads of Europe .
Hannah de Rothschild 's father Baron Meyer Amschel de Rothschild married his cousin Juliana Cohen in 1850 . The marriage provided the impetus for Meyer to create what he described as " an enduring monument , " a country house of monumental proportions . His daughter Hannah , aged just six months , laid the foundation stone on 31 December 1851 . Throughout her life , Mentmore Towers was to be a fixed and pivotal point .
Within a few years of the mansion 's completion , attracted by the good hunting and proximity to London , Hannah 's relatives began to build estates nearby , all within a carriage drive of each other ; thus , Hannah grew up in an almost private world of unimaginable splendour and security . Pevsner has described this enclave of Rothschild properties as " the most conspicuous and significant aspect of Victorian architecture in Buckinghamshire . " In addition to Mentmore , Baron and Baroness Meyer de Rothschild had a large house in London , 107 Piccadilly ; The Zenaide , a luxurious yacht moored in the South of France ; and other smaller properties visited only seasonally and occasionally .
As an only child growing up in what were , in all but name , palaces , her childhood appears to have been quite lonely . She was a companion to her hypochondriac mother and , in later life , a hostess with her father during her mother 's long periods of indisposition . She was indulged by both parents and her formal education was neglected in favour of music and singing lessons , subjects in which she was accomplished . Her parents were very protective of her , attempting to ensure that she was never exposed to the risk of sickness or even the sight of poverty . As a result , she was never allowed to enter the cottages on the Rothschilds ' estates . A cousin , who seems to have disliked her , claims that Hannah was so sheltered that the phrase " the poor " was just a meaningless euphemism to her . This is likely to be an exaggeration , as from her teens onwards she used much of her fortune to improve the lot of the poor , in housing and education . Whatever the faults of her education , she possessed great confidence , impressing her Rothschild relations , who noted her poise and competence when she hosted a large house party at Mentmore for the Prince of Wales while only 17 years of age .
Mayer Amschel de Rothschild died in 1874 , leaving his daughter not only Mentmore ( with its priceless art collection ) , his London mansion , and innumerable investments , but also the sum of two million pounds sterling in cash ( equivalent to £ 167 million in present day terms ) . Thus , Hannah de Rothschild became the wealthiest woman in England .
= = Betrothal = =
Hannah de Rothschild was first introduced to her future husband , the 28 @-@ year @-@ old Earl of Rosebery , by Lady Beaconsfield , the wife of Benjamin Disraeli , at Newmarket Racecourse . The Disraelis were close friends and neighbours of the Rothschilds in Buckinghamshire .
Archibald , 5th Earl of Rosebery , born in 1847 , had inherited his title from his grandfather in 1868 , when aged 21 , together with an income of £ 30 @,@ 000 a year . He owned 40 @,@ 000 acres ( 160 km ² ) in Scotland , and land in Norfolk , Hertfordshire , and Kent . His father had died when he was eight and he had been brought up by his mother , who had subsequently married Harry Powlett , 4th Duke of Cleveland . His mother was a distant figure , and their relationship was always strained . The Earls of Rosebery , whose family name was Primrose , were old , if undistinguished , members of the Scottish aristocracy . Rosebery was considered to be strikingly handsome and immensely cultivated . He was highly intelligent , and a brilliant future was forecast for him by his tutors at both Eton and Christ Church , Oxford .
As early as 1876 , there were rumours of an engagement . However , several hurdles had to be overcome before a marriage could take place . While the Jewish Rothschilds were accepted into society , and indeed were close friends of some members of the royal family including the Prince of Wales , as elsewhere in Europe , antisemitic feelings were prevalent in the upper echelons of society and particularly so among those closest to the Queen at court , where following the death of the Prince Consort in 1861 the Rothschilds became pointedly excluded . The Queens equerry Arthur Edward Hardinge referred to the Rothschild 's dining tables as " resplendent with the Hebrew gold " going so far as to say a visiting Russian royal needed a " corrective " visit to Westminster Abbey following acceptance of Rothschild hospitality . Queen Victoria herself expressed antisemitic views in 1873 when it was proposed that Lionel de Rothschild be elevated to the peerage the Queen refused and expressed a reluctance to make a Jew a peer – saying " to make a Jew a peer is a step she could not consent to " and furthermore stated to give " a title and mark of her approbation to a Jew " . Lord Spencer advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against attending a Rothschild ball with the words " The Prince ought only to visit those of undoubted position in Society . " However , this did not prevent the Prince from accepting Rothschild 's invitations and gifts privately . While one could be friends with Jews and accept their hospitality , their social status was still not sufficiently elevated to include marriage into the peerage without unfavourable comment .
Rosebery 's own mother was horrified at the thought of a Jewess , even a Rothschild , in the family . Rosebery too felt there was an impassable barrier of faith ; at this time , it was inconceivable that any children could be reared as Jews . Although it has been stated that Rosebery himself was devoid of any antisemitic views , this was not always true , especially in later life .
This factor also worked in reverse ; while Hannah de Rothschild was keen to marry Rosebery , she was also aware of many obstacles , the foremost being that she was devoted to her faith , and to leave it would be a severe moral wrench . Another obstacle was the Rothschild family itself : it was their custom to marry cousins to keep their fortune within the family . Ironically , Hannah herself had opposed the marriage of her cousin Annie de Rothschild to the Christian Eliot Yorke , the son of the Earl of Hardwicke , in 1866 . In fact , she was to be the third daughter of the family 's English branch to marry outside of the Jewish faith , but such was the fame of the bridegroom and the resultant publicity that the Jewish elders and press felt an example needed to be made . The Jewish Chronicle announced its " most poignant grief " at the prospect , and cryptically added , " If the flame seize on the cedars , how will fare the hyssop on the wall : if the leviathan is brought up with a hook , how will the minnows escape , " demonstrating what a threat to the social fabric of the Jewish faith the Jewish elders saw in the prospect of such a marriage . The quotation , originally from the Babylonian Talmud , can be taken to mean that the elders and respected members and more notable members of the Jewish faith should set a good example by strictly following the teachings of the Jewish articles of faith which frown upon marriage to members of other religions .
The formal engagement of marriage was announced on 3 January 1878 , a day Rosebery forever afterwards regarded as sacred . Writing to a friend in January 1878 , Rosebery described his wife as " very simple , very unspoilt , very clever , very warm @-@ hearted and very shy ... I never knew such a beautiful character . " The marriage was celebrated in London on 20 March 1878 at the Board Room of Guardians in Mount Street , and also in a Christian ceremony at Christ Church in Down Street , Piccadilly . To show " official " disapproval , no male member of the Rothschild family attended the ceremonies . However , any shortcomings in the guest list were compensated for by the guest of honour — the Prince of Wales — and Disraeli , who gave the bride away .
= = Marriage = =
For the first few years following their marriage , the Roseberys resided in London in the Piccadilly house Lady Rosebery had inherited from her father . However , as the couple 's social and political interests increased from 1882 , they leased the larger Lansdowne House . Lansdowne House was one of the finest of the aristocratic palaces in London , well suited to be the home of the political salon which Hannah Rosebery was to establish . Here political and social leaders of the day mixed with royalty , authors such as Henry James and Oscar Wilde , and other prominent social and intellectual figures of the time . Henry James , an occasional guest in the Roseberys ' homes , delivered one of the most unflattering condemnations of Lady Rosebery describing her as " ... large , coarse , Hebrew @-@ looking with hair of no particular colour and personally unattractive " .
The Roseberys divided their year among their various homes : London for the social season and parliament , Mentmore at weekends to entertain both political and shooting house @-@ parties . In August the household would move north to Dalmeny for the grouse shooting . In between , occasional days and the weeklong Derby meeting would be spent at their home " The Durdans " in Epsom . Though small by comparison to their other homes , this mansion was described by Henry James as the most homely and comfortable of the Roseberys ' many homes and as a delightful house full of books and sporting pictures , with just a few Gainsboroughs and Watteaux . Together the Earl and Countess of Rosebery added greatly to not only the Mentmore collection but also to that housed at Dalmeny House , Rosebery 's Scottish seat , amassing a great library of rare and continental volumes and a collection of artefacts formerly belonging to the Emperor Napoleon I.
= = = Relationship with Rosebery = = =
Published commentators on the Roseberys claim their marriage was happy , and there is no known evidence that Hannah was anything other than happy in her marriage , and quite a lot to suggest she was indeed blissfully happy . However , much evidence suggests that Rosebery , while professing to be happy , was at times irritated and bored by Hannah , who was always keen to accommodate his every whim .
There were times when Lady Rosebery 's devotion to her husband was tested . Rosebery may have not been antisemitic before his marriage ; however , the acerbic wit for which he was famous led him to make remarks that could have been taken in such a way , once his marriage had secured the Rothschild fortune . Rosebery seems to have disliked his first son , who he claimed looked " Jewish . " On seeing his son for the first time he remarked " Le Jew est fait , rien ne vas plus , " which must have been disconcerting for the child 's very Jewish mother . Rosebery , who has been described as febrile and supercilious , replied in a letter of congratulations on the birth of his heir from Mary Gladstone : " I cannot pretend to be much excited by an event which occurs to almost every human being and which may cause me a great deal of annoyance . " Rosebery then left his newborn child and wife ( who was again pregnant ) for a year @-@ long tour of Australia . On another occasion , when the Roseberys were travelling in India , Rosebery is reported to have announced " I will travel ahead , Hannah and the rest of the heavy baggage will follow the next day . "
While the marriage was based on warmth and esteem on Rosebery 's side and adoration on Hannah 's , it seems that Rosebery often found his wife 's devotion irritating , and this sometimes caused him to be impatient with her . He was often abrupt with her in public . She , by contrast , was completely enraptured by him , and would frequently ignore her neighbours at a dinner party to listen to her husband 's conversation further down the table , a faux pas almost considered a crime in Victorian society . Those who saw the couple alone at home " could not doubt the affection as well as the comprehension that united them . "
However , at times Rosebery 's behaviour could be eccentric . Gladstone remarked that Rosebery was , perhaps , rather too concerned with his health . Early in the marriage Rosebery decided to renovate the small ruined Barnbougle Castle ( the original Rosebery family seat ) , close to , and within sight of , Dalmeny House . Once renovation was complete in 1882 , Rosebery used it as a private retreat from his family , and began to spend his nights there alone . Always an insomniac , he claimed that the " stillness of the waters [ the nearby Firth of Forth ] were conducive to sleep . " Books were his passion , and he assembled a huge library in the small castle . Thus Rosebery was able to lead a life at Dalmeny with his wife , but also quite apart from her .
During their marriage the Roseberys travelled extensively , usually without their children . In September 1883 the couple left their children in the care of the nannies and nursery maids , supervised by Rosebery 's sister Lady Leconfield , for a long tour of America and Australia . Lady Rosebery owned large investments in North America , including ranches in Texas and mines in Montana . Their arrival in New York was widely reported , and a full and flattering description of Lady Rosebery was reported in The Herald . The newspaper went on to describe Rosebery as looking like a prosperous farmer . Lady Rosebery was very taken with California , from where she wrote : " The inhabitants are very entertaining ... the women are very handsome , think nothing of dresses costing £ 80 , " fix up " their faces very frequently and are generally divorced . " Having toured and been fêted in America , the party moved on to Australia via Honolulu . In Australia , Rosebery chose to indulge his habit of solitude , installing his wife in a hotel in Sydney , while he went off alone to tour the outback .
Rosebery 's frequent absences from his wife fuelled gossip that he was a secret homosexual . It has been claimed that the inscrutable air that Rosebery wore was a mask to disguise his secret homosexual life . The worry of this illegal secret , it was claimed , and fear of exposure , caused his insomnia and bouts of depression . It was even whispered that his Barnbougle Castle retreat was really a venue for clandestine assignations with young men . Rosebery 's possible homosexuality has been much discussed in recent times . Nothing conclusive has ever been found one way or the other , but it is possible that he had homosexual experiences while in the care of a paedophile housemaster at Eton in his youth . No evidence exists that his wife was aware of these rumours against her husband , or even that she would have understood them , bearing in mind her sheltered upbringing and limited education . Sex education was not part of a 19th @-@ century upper @-@ class girl 's schooling . The more public and precise accusations of Rosebery 's homosexuality by the Marquess of Queensberry did not occur until three years after Lady Rosebery 's death .
The relationship between the couple appears at times to have been almost that of a mother and child . Rosebery , a self @-@ centred , reserved man , prone to depression , pessimism and insecurity , had a difficult relationship with his mother who had been distant and openly preferred his younger brother . Lady Rosebery , an orphan and only child , appears to have been desperate to lavish affection . Once upon entering a book shop she told her children they were entering a toy shop , and when the disappointed children pointed out the obvious she replied " to your father this is a toy shop . " Lord Rosebery 's friend Edward Hamilton recorded her " notable faculty of getting other people to work and quickening their energies . " It seems she was the driving force of the relationship , with her feet firmly on the ground . She made herself the link between the world and her " thin skinned and neurotic " husband . While her husband sulked or withdrew with hurt pride from a situation , she came to the forefront to plead his case or cause . If she was aware of his faults she gave no indication of it .
= = = Children = = =
The marriage produced four children : Lady Sybil Primrose , born in 1879 ; Lady Margaret Primrose , born in 1881 ; the heir Harry Primrose , Lord Dalmeny ( later 6th Earl of Rosebery ) , born in 1882 ; and finally the Honourable Neil Primrose , born the same year as his elder brother .
As a mother , Lady Rosebery was presented with a dilemma : she was in fact already practically a mother to her husband who had no great feeling for a proximity to small babies . This was particularly evident in June 1880 when shortly after the birth of their first child Sybil , Rosebery wished to visit Germany for three months , to take a cure at a German spa ( he was recovering from what is now thought to have been a nervous breakdown ) . His wife dutifully accompanied him . However , Rosebery , clearly aware of his wife 's frustrated maternal instincts , reported that Hannah savoured every detail of the daily letters from London concerning the baby , and that she never complained at the forced separation .
More revealing is a comment Lady Rosebery herself made to her husband , " I sometimes think it is wrong that I have thought less of the children in comparison to you " shortly before her death in 1890 , suggesting that when a choice between her children and husband was forced on her , she always chose her husband . However , the same comment also hints that she was not unaware that her choice was at the cost of her children .
When assessing Lady Rosebery 's behaviour to her children it should be remembered that she lived in an era of plentiful nannies , wet nurses , nursemaids and governesses which the upper classes employed as the norm . These people were employed regardless of the mother 's affection towards her children ; it was inconceivable that a countess would nurse her own children , and to do so would have been breaking social conventions . Hence her seeming lack of attention to her children was not unusual – she was following the upper class conventions and " stiff upper lip " philosophies of her era . However , in spite of their prolonged absences from their children , the Roseberys do not appear to have been very distant or remote figures in the earliest stages of their children 's lives . Margot Asquith records how Rosebery loved to play and romp on the floor with the children .
= = Politics = =
It has been said of Hannah de Rothschild that she grew up with a good sense and presence of mind , enabling her to deputise for her mother on grand social occasions at Mentmore and in London . This gave her confidence and the experience to be the perfect political wife . Marriage to her altered Rosebery 's status , too : while his wife acquired Christian respectability and a title , Rosebery moved from being one of many wealthy and capable young noblemen to being one with unfathomable riches . This , coupled with his good looks , appealed to the public 's imagination and gave him glamour .
From the outset of the marriage , political members of the Rothschild family took an interest in Rosebery , and he was soon acclaimed as one of the rising hopes of the Liberal Party . As a hereditary peer , he already had a seat in the House of Lords and had made his maiden speech there on attaining his majority . But brilliant as he was , Rosebery tended to lethargy and boredom . Lord Granville in fact considered Rosebery 's wife to be the more ambitious of the pair , and even advised her " If you keep him up to the mark , [ he ] is sure to have his page in history . " The subtle driving of her often languid and lethargic husband to achieve his " page in history " was to become her raison d 'être . Rosebery 's secretary Thomas Gilmour noted : " She is thoroughly genuine and very tender and devoted to Lord Rosebery , it is easy to see that she is very proud of him , and she is a woman of considerable force of character and great energy , she may prove to be a powerful ally in his political career . " Rosebery was not a natural politician . He was an idealist who disliked the rancour of politics , in fact " his innate dislike of politics was something Lady Rosebery always fought against . " However , he was a gifted orator , and this was an era when platform speaking was beginning to replace House of Commons debate . On a tour of America before his marriage , Rosebery had been impressed by the campaigning of prospective political candidates ; in Britain little had changed in that respect since the hustings of the 18th century . He realised how an electorate could be swayed by a candidate touring his prospective constituency , aided by a well thought @-@ out series of events , rallies and advertising , with the candidate 's ideal and attractive family smiling by his side . Thus Lady Rosebery not only pushed and encouraged him behind the scenes but was now to become an encouraging and conspicuous figure by his side . In this way it could be said she was the first openly " political wife " in Britain .
This first became evident in the great campaign to re @-@ elect Gladstone . Known today as the Midlothian campaign , it was masterminded by the Roseberys . Rosebery used his influence to have Gladstone invited to stand as parliamentary candidate for Midlothian , near to Rosebery 's Dalmeny estate . Gladstone had nominally retired from politics after losing his Greenwich seat in 1874 , when Disraeli had been swept to power . The campaign was based at Dalmeny where Lady Rosebery hosted a series of large political house parties throughout the long campaign . The Tories were later to claim that Rosebery had paid for Gladstone 's campaign . Rosebery later admitted to spending £ 50 @,@ 000 .
The Roseberys ' house party would leave Dalmeny and tour towns and cities across Midlothian and Scotland , with Gladstone and the speakers often addressing vast crowds from the back of an American @-@ designed Pullman car specially acquired by Rosebery for the purpose . The scenes at these meetings have been described as something between a carnival and an evangelist 's revival meeting . While in the grounds of Dalmeny House itself , the public were treated to a great firework display .
Throughout all this , Gladstone was supported not only by the popular and charismatic Rosebery but also by an array of well @-@ dressed women including Lady Rosebery and Gladstone 's daughter Mary . These fashionable people – the celebrities of their day ( newspapers at the time gave many column inches each day to the doings of the upper classes ) – were as much a crowd @-@ puller as the political speakers , and Rosebery 's planning used that to full effect . One meeting was so packed that many were fainting : 70 @,@ 000 people applied for tickets in a hall capable of holding 6 @,@ 500 . Lady Rosebery reported , " I had never heard Archie ( Lord Rosebery ) speak in public politically before , but after the first minute I felt I could never be nervous at his making a speech the audience show him great affection . " [ sic ] However it was not just Gladstone and Rosebery the huge crowds had come to see , but also the dutifully supporting and smiling families . Lady Rosebery went on to describe how " They ( the crowds ) patted me on the back till my shoulders were sensitive . " Thus in Rosebery 's first serious involvement in politics , Disraeli was defeated and the newly elected MP for Midlothian became Prime Minister for the second time ( the caretaker liberal leader Lord Hartington retired in favour of Gladstone ) . It was also obvious that Lady Rosebery was a very evident and valuable political electioneering asset . As the Marquess of Crewe put it " she had cut her spurs . "
Her political mettle and ambitions for her husband were however to be more severely tested following the Liberal victory . Rosebery was , as expected , offered a position in Government by Gladstone . It had been rumoured that the position of Viceroy of Ireland or a cabinet place would be proffered , but it turned out to be the job of Under Secretary of the India Office . Rosebery immediately declined the post , giving as his reason that it would appear that he was being repaid for running Gladstone 's campaign ( as though the Viceregal position would not ) . When pressed further he cited ill health — he had been suffering from scarlet fever during the Midlothian campaign and now also appeared to be suffering a minor nervous breakdown . Political leaders urged Lady Rosebery to influence him , but she defended his decision , while stressing that his deterioration in health was only temporary . She had to be careful — if it appeared her husband had declined the offer on the grounds that it was too lowly , it would give substance to the claims being made that he was conceited and petulant . Whatever the truth , and it may be Rosebery 's own explanation that he " disliked hard work , " Lady Rosebery continued to solicit Gladstone for a job for Rosebery within the cabinet . In August 1880 , when Gladstone told her firmly that " There is nothing I can give him , " she claimed she had not been seeking a cabinet post and Gladstone had misunderstood her . At the same time she was canny enough to mention that Sir William Harcourt and Sir Charles Dilke , both radicals opposed to Gladstone 's policies , were " visiting them " and " thoughtful . " Lady Rosebery also began to befriend those politicians such as Lord Northbrook who empathised with her husband , while others such as Lord Granville and Lord Hartington she identified as aloof . She dismissed Lord Spencer with " I can never look on him as a great motive power , besides he does not mention Archie [ Rosebery ] to me . " This was the same Lord Spencer who had advised the Prince and Princess of Wales against visiting the homes of wealthy Jews .
Finally her soliciting paid off and in 1881 , Rosebery was offered a government position acceptable to him , that of Under Secretary at the Home Office with special responsibility for Scotland . He had sought the position feeling that Scotland was neglected by the Liberal Government who were more interested in Ireland . However , immediately upon assuming the job he began to demand a place in the cabinet . The office he sought was that of Lord Privy Seal , a position Gladstone refused on account of Rosebery 's inexperience in Government . It appeared that Rosebery was showing his true colours and he was accused of behaving like a spoilt child , with doubts cast over the honourableness of his reasons for refusing the Under Secretaryship of the India Office . Lady Rosebery , " conscious of her husband 's supreme ability , " wanted him in the cabinet and was furiously agitating her husband 's discontent until Rosebery threatened to resign his Home Office position . Lady Rosebery had an angry row with Gladstone 's wife , where Mrs Gladstone pointed out that if Rosebery resigned he would have nothing but horse racing to interest him , and that Lady Rosebery should be patient as her husband was young . Rosebery , accepting that a cabinet place was not going to be forthcoming , resigned from Government . Lady Rosebery , realising further appeal to the Gladstones was pointless , tried a new avenue — Lord Hartington , the immensely influential Secretary of State for War , who was already quarrelling with Gladstone over the Irish home rule problem , and whom she allegedly met by chance at Preston Railway Station . Inviting him into her carriage for the journey to London , she pleaded her husband 's case for three hours to her captive listener . The Roseberys then immediately left England and their children for a long trip to America and Australia . On their return in 1885 Rosebery was appointed Lord Privy Seal , complete with the seat in the cabinet which he sought .
Gladstone resigned as Prime Minister in 1885 following a Government defeat over the Irish home rule question . The new Tory government was led by Lord Salisbury . However , as a minority administration it was not expected to last , and a swift return of the former administration was anticipated . During this period serious ( if unproven ) charges of plotting and ruthless ambition were about to be levelled against Lady Rosebery . Sir Charles Dilke , considered as a likely replacement for Gladstone , and thus a rival to Rosebery in government , was implicated in one of the most scandalous and ruinous divorce cases of the era . Involvement in any divorce was social suicide in the 19th century , but the facts which emerged were enough to ensure it was political suicide as well . A friend of the Roseberys , Donald Crawford , MP , sued his wife Virginia for divorce naming Dilke as co @-@ respondent . There was little evidence and Dilke denied the charge , which could have been ultimately forgotten , if Virginia had not suddenly decided to sign a confession giving such lurid details that a great scandal was unavoidable . She claimed that not only had Dilke slept with her and taught her " French vices " , but also slept with her mother and partaken in a three @-@ in @-@ a @-@ bed orgy with Virginia and a maid . Dilke denied everything , but his hopes of high political office were ruined forever . Dilke claimed the whole thing was an embroidery of lies and conspiracies by his political enemies . Rumours began to circulate that the Roseberys , and Lady Rosebery in particular , were at the bottom of Dilke 's misfortune . In his futile quest to exonerate himself , and grasping at rumour , Dilke wrote to Rosebery accusing Lady Rosebery of having paid Virginia to make the confession . An outraged Rosebery denied all on his wife 's behalf , while in December 1885 Lady Rosebery 's only response on being told of Virginia Crawford 's confessions was : " Dilke 's behaviour is very astonishing in some reports , though it is not an actual surprise to me . " Early the following year Gladstone was returned to power and Rosebery was appointed Foreign Secretary in Gladstone 's third but brief term of office . Dilke 's political career was ruined , and for years afterwards he continued to expound the Rosebery conspiracy theory . Nothing was ever proven against Lady Rosebery and no tangible evidence exists to substantiate the claim .
The impartiality demanded by Rosebery 's new office forced him to sell many of his business interests , which had come by the way of the Rothschild family , to be seen to be avoiding a conflict of interest . However , his wife 's ambition and part in his rise to power was not only being recognised in high places , but clearly starting to irritate . On being told that Lady Rosebery was very keen for her husband to become Foreign Secretary , Gladstone replied " She would think herself capable of being Queen of the Realm and think the place only just good enough for her . " Rosebery was now on the path to political greatness , but Gladstone 's government fell the same year . Lady Rosebery was not to see her husband achieve the highest political office .
= = Philanthropy = =
Like many other women of her class and era , Lady Rosebery patronised a great number of charities . Her chief causes appear to have all been connected specifically to the assistance and welfare of women . She was president of the Scottish Home Industries Association , a charity which encouraged Scottish women to work profitably from home making plaid or other items of needlework and the like . In this way women , especially widowed mothers , remained in their homes able to care for their often large families while still earning an income .
Queen Victoria appointed her president of the Queen Victoria Jubilee Institute for Nurses in Scotland , the beginning of the district nurse system , which was to revolutionise health care for the rural poor and sick in Britain . She was also interested in general improvements in standards of nursing .
Like many of her Rothschild relatives she was also deeply involved with the welfare of young working @-@ class women of the Jewish faith who inhabited the poorer areas of London , in particular Whitechapel . There she founded the Club for Jewish Working Girls . She also donated to numerous other charities connected with Jewish causes . However , within a week of her death her husband began to cancel many of these subscriptions , prompting charges of antisemitism .
Her interest in education has been one of her most obvious surviving charitable legacies . She founded schools in all the villages surrounding the Roseberys ' estates . The Mentmore estate alone was serviced by three schools founded by her at Wingrave , Cheddington and Mentmore itself . Not only were the children educated at her expense by trained teachers , each was also provided with seasonal gifts of new clothes . Cheddington School remains in its original building with her cypher on its walls , while Wingrave School , which opened in 1877 , survives in new premises .
One of her more pioneering and innovative charitable causes was the oral instruction of what were then called the deaf and dumb .
= = Death and legacy = =
Lady Rosebery died of typhoid at Dalmeny in 1890 . She fought the disease , but it was found that she was also suffering from Bright 's disease , which had weakened her , making it impossible to survive the attack . She was buried in accordance with the rites of the Jewish faith . Rosebery found this particularly hard to bear , and wrote to Queen Victoria of the pain he experienced when " another creed steps in to claim the corpse . " It was only after her death that the doctors who had treated her disclosed to Rosebery that her kidney condition would have killed her within two years even if she had not contracted typhoid .
Her funeral was held on 25 November 1890 at Willesden Jewish Cemetery . As is the Jewish tradition , the service was attended only by male mourners , who included most members of Gladstone 's cabinet .
There is no evidence that Lady Rosebery drove her husband to follow her own political agenda , or that of her family . For her the rewards seem to have been the pleasure of seeing a husband she undoubtedly adored in the high office of which she felt him worthy . There is no doubt that she tempered her husband 's more radical views . Immediately following his wife 's death Rosebery retired from politics , writing in October 1891 " The sole object of my ambition has disappeared with the death of my wife . " Proof of the widespread belief in society that Lady Rosebery was the stable element of the partnership was confirmed shortly after her death , by Queen Victoria , following a then rare public speech by Rosebery , in which he supported Home Rule for Ireland . The Queen was shocked and thought the speech " almost communistic " and went on to attribute Rosebery 's " shocking and disappointing " behaviour to the fact that " poor Lady Rosebery is not there to keep him back . " While Queen Victoria always personally liked Rosebery , she mistrusted his politics . The Queen had thoroughly liked Lady Rosebery and wrote Rosebery several letters of condolence , likening his loss to the untimely death of her own consort , Prince Albert . It seems that the Queen 's antipathy to Jews was confined to elevating them to the peerage . This view had softened by 1885 . In 1890 she accepted a luncheon invitation from Lady Rosebery 's cousin Ferdinand de Rothschild and toured Waddesdon Manor albeit eating in a separate dining room to the Jewish members of the party .
Shortly after his wife 's death , Rosebery left his grieving children and went alone on a tour of Spain . Following a visit to El Escorial he wrote on the sepulchral wonders of the building , but added " for the dead alone the Taj is of course supreme . " On his return home he had designed for his wife a Victorian Gothic version of the Taj Mahal in miniature . For the remainder of his life he wore black and used black edged writing paper . Once , when talking with his daughter Sybil , he asked her what mourning she thought her mother would have worn had the situation been reversed . Sybil replied , " She would not have worn any , she would have died at once . "
Ronald Munro Ferguson has been quoted in 1912 as saying " many things would have gone otherwise had Lady Rosebery lived . Her loss is today as great a calamity from every point of view as it was at the time of her death . "
Widowhood changed Rosebery , both mentally and physically : he aged overnight , and began to refer to himself as an old man . Two years after her death , friends were still concerned that he was suicidal . Winston Churchill thought him maimed by her death , and later said of her " she was a remarkable woman on whom Rosebery leaned , she was ever a pacifying and composing element in his life which he was never able to find again because he could never give full confidence to anyone else . "
Sir Edward Hamilton , Rosebery 's closest friend , wrote :
Her qualities were portrayed in literature when Lady Rosebery was reputed to be the model for Marcella Maxwell in Mrs Humphry Ward 's novels Marcella ( 1894 ) and Sir George Tressady ( 1909 ) . The author lived at Stocks close to Lady Rosebery 's home at Mentmore and would certainly have known her , while in the books Marcella 's house is based on Hampden House , also in Buckinghamshire .
The Liberals did not return to office until 1892 . Lord Rosebery was eventually persuaded to enter government , becoming once again Foreign Secretary serving under Gladstone as Prime Minister . In 1894 on Gladstone 's retirement he achieved his wife 's ambitions and became Prime Minister , but by then Lady Rosebery was dead . Without her , Rosebery was a shadow of his former self , taking huge doses of morphine to combat insomnia and nerves . His Prime Ministership lasted barely a year , marred by problems and difficulties . For the remainder of his life and without his wife , as Queen Victoria phrased it , " to hold him back " , he became more and more eccentric and controversial in his decisions . His final years were blighted by ill health and a self @-@ enforced seclusion in Scotland . He died in 1929 .
Before their marriage and his full @-@ time entry into politics , Rosebery 's future wife had written with extraordinary foresight and ambition to him : " I work only to help you , if you are Prime Minister , let me imitate Montagu Corry . " Corry had been Disraeli 's influential private secretary on whom he had relied . Rosebery only ever trusted his wife . Without her to calm and order his life he was a neurotic wreck .
Lady Rosebery 's eldest son , Harry , who was less successful in politics than his father and brother , distinguished himself by becoming captain of Surrey County Cricket Club and owning two Epsom Derby @-@ winning horses . He succeeded his father as 6th Earl of Rosebery and died in 1974 . Margaret married her father 's old friend and biographer the Marquess of Crewe . Such was still the fame of her parents that London traffic was brought to a standstill on her wedding day in 1899 . Lady Crewe became one of the first women magistrates in Britain ; she died in 1955 . Lady Sybil has been summarised by one of her father 's biographers : " Even more eccentric than her father , she spent much of her time living in a caravan . " Neil , the second of the Roseberys ' sons , entered politics and a promising future was foretold for him . However , on the outbreak of World War I he joined the army , and was killed leading a charge at Gezer in 1917 .
Of Hannah Rosebery 's homes , the lease on Lansdowne House was surrendered shortly before her death , when the Roseberys purchased 38 Berkeley Square . This property was transformed into one of London 's most luxurious town houses . However , Lady Rosebery did not live to see the work completed . Her son Harry sold the house in 1938 , and it was demolished . A year later a bomb landed on the empty site during World War II . The Durdans was bequeathed to her daughter , Sybil , in 1929 and was sold together with its contents in 1955 . Lord and Lady Rosebery 's library there was given to the nation at this time . Mentmore , the grandest of the Roseberys ' homes , was sold by Lady Rosebery 's grandson , the 7th Earl of Rosebery , in 1977 , together with the Rothschild art collection , which Lady Rosebery had not only been intensely interested in but had enlarged considerably . She personally catalogued the collection , and prophetically wrote in the preface " In time to come , when , like all collections , this will be dispersed ( and I hope this will be long after my death ) this book may be of value . " Her two @-@ volume work and the collection it described remained so unknown that " Save Mentmore " ( a group attempting to halt the sale of Mentmore to keep the collection within Britain ) failed largely due to widespread public ignorance of both house and collection . A few pieces of furniture and paintings were taken to Dalmeny , ( the only house to remain in the family ) where they are displayed today , and three pictures including Drouais ' Madame de Pompadour were purchased for the National Gallery . The remainder of the collection was dispersed in a week @-@ long sale and is now scattered across the globe . A further sale of the " Continental Library , " to which she had added , was conducted in 1995 at the Aeolian Hall , London by Sotheby 's .
In June 2011 , Christie 's auctioned a set of pearl and diamond jewels ( a tiara , brooch and bracelet ) that were originally in Lady Rosebery 's ownership .
Today , Lady Rosebery is a mere footnote in the long history of her husband 's family , rather as Consuelo Vanderbilt is regarded in the Spencer @-@ Churchill family . Her husband , once one of the " most celebrated figures in Britain , " is a minor figure in British history . Thus , Hannah , Countess of Rosebery , in her day celebrated in the worlds of politics , philanthropy , and high society , is largely unknown and forgotten .
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= Hurricane Uleki =
Hurricane Uleki , also referred as Typhoon Uleki , was a long @-@ lived tropical cyclone in August – September 1988 that had minimal effects on land . Originating from a disturbance in the Intertropical Convergence Zone in late @-@ August , Uleki was identified as a tropical depression well to the southeast of Hawaii on August 28 . Steady organization ensued as it moved west , becoming a tropical storm on August 30 and a hurricane on August 31 . Rapid intensification took place thereafter and the storm reached its peak intensity on September 2 as a Category 3 on the Saffir – Simpson hurricane wind scale . Hurricane Hunters investigating the cyclone found peak winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Thereafter , Uleki stalled for two days to the southwest of Hawaii , resulting in heavy surf across the state . The dangerous swells killed two people on Oahu .
Unfavorable environmental conditions caused weakening of the hurricane by September 4 as it resumed a west @-@ northwest course away from Hawaii . Conditions later became favorable and Uleki acquired winds of 105 mph ( 165 mph ) on September 7 , constituting its secondary peak . The hurricane crossed the International Dateline on September 8 and was reclassified as typhoon . Remaining well away from land , the cyclone steadily weakened to a tropical storm by September 12 . Gradually turning north and later east , the degrading cyclone transitioned into an extratropical cyclone four days later and ultimately dissipated on September 17 near the International Dateline .
= = Meteorological history = =
In late @-@ August 1988 , increased convective activity was noted along the Intertropical Convergence Zone by forecasters at the Central Pacific Hurricane Center ( CPHC ) . An area of low pressure subsequently developed within this disturbance and was designated as Tropical Depression One @-@ C at 12 : 00 UTC on August 28 . Upon classification , the depression was situated roughly 800 mi ( 1 @,@ 300 km ) southeast of the Big Island of Hawaii and moving west @-@ northwest . Steady intensification ensued over the following day with the system attaining gale @-@ force winds by 18 : 00 UTC on August 29 , at which time it was assigned the name Uleki . The storm later attained winds of 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) on August 31 and was dubbed a hurricane as it passed 350 mi ( 560 km ) south of Hilo . Thereafter , Uleki underwent a sudden period of rapid intensification and achieved major hurricane status later that day . After reaching this strength , Uleki 's forward motion gradually lessened and eventually almost ceased altogether on September 1 as upper @-@ level steering currents collapsed .
With the hurricane situated to the southwest of the Hawaiian Islands , Hurricane Hunters conducted several weather reconnaissance missions into the storm . On September 2 , they found maximum surface winds of 125 mph ( 205 km / h ) and a minimum barometric pressure of 957 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 26 inHg ) ; this corresponded to the peak intensity of Uleki . At the time , Uleki displayed a well @-@ organized , tight circulation . The hurricane meandered in the same general area over the next two days , executing several small loops , with a slight northward drift . During this time , its circulation increased in coverage but became less @-@ organized as weakening ensued . Increased wind shear and restricted outflow took their toll on the hurricane . The cyclone 's winds dropped to 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) by 12 : 00 UTC on September 4 as it resumed its west @-@ northwest track under the influence of a subtropical ridge away from the Hawaiian Islands . Uleki passed roughly halfway between Johnston Atoll and the French Frigate Shoals on September 5 . By September 7 , the weakened trend halted and environmental conditions favored reintensification . As Uleki neared the International Dateline , it regained winds of 105 mph ( 165 km / h ) .
At 00 : 00 UTC on September 8 , the CPHC transferred warning responsibility of Uleki to the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) and the storm was subsequently referred to as a typhoon . Transfer of warnings occurred when the storm was at 178 ° W rather than at the dateline , where the boundary between the Central and West Pacific basins exists , for unknown reasons . Three hours later Uleki made its closest approach to Midway Atoll , passing 200 mi ( 320 km ) to the south . Shortly thereafter the system crossed the International Dateline and the Japan Meteorological Agency ( JMA ) also began advising on the system . The JMA estimated Uleki to have had a pressure of 945 mb ( hPa ; 27 @.@ 91 inHg ) at this time ; however , this value was derived from satellite estimates rather than direct measurements . Uleki maintained this strength through September 10 as it continued on its west @-@ northwest course . On that day , the typhoon again entered a region of weak steering currents between two anticyclones within the subtropical ridge . A trough approaching from the west was forecast to prompt Uleki to turn east ; however , the typhoon maintained a general northwest motion in a stair @-@ stepped fashion . Increasing wind shear and cooler air soon imparted weakening , and Uleki degraded to a tropical storm by September 12 .
Continued effects from shear stripped the cyclone of all deep convection , and by September 14 only a band of cirrus clouds remained in association with Uleki . The JTWC issued their final warning on the system at 00 : 00 UTC that day accordingly . The JMA maintained the system as a tropical depression as the former typhoon began turning to the east . Uleki later transitioned into an extratropical cyclone on September 16 as it accelerated to the east . The system dissipated the following day near the International Dateline , far from any major landmasses .
= = Preparations and impact = =
As the hurricane stalled to the southwest of Hawaii on September 3 , tropical storm watches were issued for Oahu , Kauai , and Niihau . High surf advisories were raised for all islands as well . Following Uleki 's turn to the west on September 5 , the tropical storm watches were discontinued . The storm 's erratic movement proved to be troublesome for forecasters and they continuously warned residents to be cautious and alert should the storm double @-@ back to the state . On September 4 , lifeguards at Waikiki Beach and Ala Moana Beach rescued 19 people caught in 5 to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 5 to 1 @.@ 8 m ) swells . Further north in Oahu , two people drowned after being caught in rough waters .
The storm moved roughly halfway between the French Frigate Shoals and Johnston Island on September 5 with no adverse effects in either region due to its weakened state . On September 7 , the 300 residents of Midway Atoll and United States Coast Guard personnel stationed on Kure Atoll prepared for possible hurricane @-@ force winds from the storm . Hurricane Uleki ultimately passed 200 mi ( 320 km ) south of Midway Atoll and produced some coastal flooding from increased surf . Some breaking waves spilled onto the runway at Henderson Field .
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= 2016 Spanish Grand Prix =
The 2016 Spanish Grand Prix ( formally known as the Formula 1 Gran Premio de España Pirelli 2016 ) was a Formula One motor race held on 15 May 2016 at the Circuit de Barcelona @-@ Catalunya in Montmeló , Spain . The race was the fifth round of the 2016 season , and marked the forty @-@ sixth running of the Spanish Grand Prix as a round of the Formula One World Championship . It was the twenty @-@ sixth time that the race has been held at the circuit .
Nico Rosberg was the defending race winner and entered the round with a forty @-@ three point lead over teammate Lewis Hamilton in the Drivers ' Championship . Their team , Mercedes , held an eighty @-@ one point lead over Ferrari in the Constructors ' Championship . Hamilton took pole position during qualifying , ahead of teammate Rosberg and Red Bull 's Daniel Ricciardo .
Max Verstappen won the race upon his debut for his new team Red Bull , having swapped his Toro Rosso seat with Daniil Kvyat ahead of the event . At the age of 18 years and 228 days , Verstappen became the youngest ever winner , the youngest driver to score a podium finish and the youngest ever to lead a lap of a Formula One race , breaking the previous records held by Sebastian Vettel . In the process he also became the first Dutchman to win a Grand Prix . Both Mercedes drivers retired from the race following a collision with each other on the first lap , thus marking the first Mercedes double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix and the first time the team had not scored a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix .
= = Report = =
= = = Background = = =
Daniil Kvyat and Max Verstappen traded places ahead of the race . Verstappen joined Red Bull Racing while Kvyat returned to Scuderia Toro Rosso . Red Bull 's team principal Christian Horner explained the driver swap with Verstappen 's talent , saying that the 18 @-@ year old Dutchman and Daniel Ricciardo had the potential to become Formula One 's best driver pairing . Furthermore , he stressed that Verstappen 's move to Red Bull would tie him to the team for the foreseeable future . Daniil Kvyat meanwhile expressed surprise at the decision , saying during Thursday 's press conference that he was " shocked " by his demotion , stressing that Red Bull did not give him a " real explanation " . Following problems with his power unit in both the Chinese and Russian Grand Prix , Lewis Hamilton received a redesigned MGU @-@ H unit , in a bid to solve the troubles which hampered him earlier . However , Mercedes was unable to guarantee that the problem would not appear again .
With Spain being the first race in Western Europe , and a mid @-@ season test coming up after the race , many teams introduced their first major car updates for the Grand Prix . Mercedes ran a new front wing with a " more pointy " nose during first free practice . Other changes were made to the engine cover and the rear wing . McLaren made more significant changes to their MP4 @-@ 31 , most notably on the front wing , which Sky Sports commentator Ted Kravitz called the " most intricate front wing I 've ever seen " . Force India updated their VJM09 to improve airflow . According to the team , they were looking for improved driveability rather than faster lap times . Renault introduced a new chassis for Jolyon Palmer . More significantly , the French manufacturer debuted a new version of their power unit for both their works team and Red Bull at the two @-@ day test following the race . All other teams except for Sauber also made changes to their cars , with the Swiss team continuing their financial struggles . They also announced that they would be forced to miss the mid @-@ season test , being unable to field a development driver , with regulations demanding that two out of four test days be driven by young driver talents . Both Sauber and Haas were allowed to use the updated version of Ferrari 's 2016 power unit , which the works team had already used in Russia two weeks earlier .
Going into the weekend , Nico Rosberg led the Drivers ' Championship , having taken the maximum number of 100 points from the first four races . Lewis Hamilton followed in second with 57 points , while Kimi Räikkönen was third with 43 points . Daniel Ricciardo followed in fourth , ahead of Sebastian Vettel . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes was first with 157 points , 81 points clear of second @-@ placed Ferrari . Behind them , Red Bull led fourth @-@ placed Williams by just six points .
= = = Free practice = = =
Per the regulations for the 2016 season , two 90 @-@ minute practice sessions were held on Friday and another 60 @-@ minute session was held before qualifying on Saturday . The Ferrari drivers , Sebastian Vettel and Kimi Räikkönen , set the pace in the first session , both on the soft tyre compound . The Mercedes drivers Rosberg and Hamilton followed , albeit on the medium compound , recording more timed laps than their rivals . Both Red Bull cars followed in fifth and sixth , with Daniel Ricciardo faster than new teammate Max Verstappen . Valtteri Bottas was seventh for Williams , two places ahead of teammate Felipe Massa , who at one point spun out at turn five . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat was unable to match the pace of his teammate Carlos Sainz Jr . , ending up half a second behind him . Esteban Ocon made his first free practice appearance of the season for Renault , replacing Jolyon Palmer , but was unable to set a timed lap . He suffered a tyre failure , caused by debris on the track . Force India 's Sergio Pérez managed only nine laps as he spent much of the session in the pit lane after smoke emerged from the rear of his car .
Mercedes topped the time sheets in the second session , now switching to the soft compound tyres as well , with Nico Rosberg two and a half @-@ tenths of a second clear of Kimi Räikkönen , while Lewis Hamilton was third fastest , more than seven tenths off Rosberg 's time . Räikkönen 's running was interrupted for a while when he was called back into the pitlane to investigate a fuel system problem , but was able to get back out . Fernando Alonso was seventh fastest for McLaren , but needed a replacement of his car 's plank after running wide over artificial grass surrounding the track . His teammate , Jenson Button , also experienced problems , having to stop at the end of the pitlane early in the session with an electrical issue . Renault 's problem from the first session continued : Jolyon Palmer , back in his car in place of Ocon , suffered a tyre failure on the start @-@ finish straight , bringing out red flags in the process . Renault and tyre supplier Pirelli were left puzzled over the failure , as in this incident , no sign of a cut from debris was found .
Nico Rosberg was again fastest in the third practice session on Saturday morning , setting a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 078 on his first timed run , a time that stood until the end of the session . Hamilton was second , 0 @.@ 126 seconds off , followed by Sebastian Vettel just two @-@ hundredths of a second behind him . In fourth place , Max Verstappen was faster than teammate Ricciardo for the first time , who finished fifth , ahead of Räikkönen . Upon beginning his preparation laps for qualifying , Rosberg had to come back into the garage , as a sensor on his car was malfunctioning . The team was capable of repairing the damage and he went back out for the final minutes of practice . Sergio Pérez was satisfied with the eighth fastest time , saying that the car had improved " everywhere " following the updates it had received .
= = = Qualifying = = =
Qualifying consisted of three parts , 18 , 15 and 12 minutes in length respectively , with six drivers eliminated from competing after each of the first two sessions . In the first part of qualifying ( Q1 ) , Nico Rosberg set a time of 1 : 23 @.@ 002 , the fastest of the weekend up to that point , two @-@ tenths of a second ahead of teammate Hamilton . Manor and Sauber occupied the back rows of the grid . Felipe Massa 's first lap was seven @-@ tenths of a second slower than the one from his teammate Bottas and as he was unable to set another timed lap , he became the surprise elimination in Q1 , behind Jolyon Palmer , who was dropped into 17th place by a late improvement from Jenson Button .
In Q2 , it was Hamilton who came out on top , exactly six @-@ tenths of a second ahead of Rosberg . Verstappen was third fastest , ahead of Ricciardo in fifth . Kimi Räikkönen had to abandon his first fast lap after running wide in turn four , but later set a time good enough for fourth . Meanwhile , Sebastian Vettel recorded just one timed lap , saving a set of tyres and was sixth . On his return to Toro Rosso , Kvyat was eliminated in 13th place , while teammate Sainz went through to Q3 . Sergio Pérez advanced as well , demoting his teammate Hülkenberg into elimination in the process , who would line up eleventh on the grid . Joining him on the sidelines for Q3 were Jenson Button in twelfth , with Romain Grosjean , Kevin Magnussen and Esteban Gutiérrez lining up behind Kvyat .
Lewis Hamilton and Nico Rosberg were the first out in Q3 . Hamilton 's early sector times put him on course to a new fastest lap of the weekend , but a brake lockup at turn ten ruined his lap and tyres , handing provisional pole position to Rosberg . As the two Ferrari drivers struggled to find pace , Max Verstappen claimed second place for the time being , before the drivers went out for their second laps . Lewis Hamilton 's second flying lap bested Rosberg 's time by almost three @-@ tenths of a second , and saw him take the fifty @-@ second pole of his career . The two Red Bull cars of Ricciardo and Verstappen followed , with Räikkönen and Vettel for Ferrari in fifth and sixth respectively , both more than a second behind Hamilton . Valtteri Bottas was best of the rest ahead of Sainz , Pérez and Alonso . It was the first appearance in Q3 for McLaren since they resumed their association with Honda in 2015 .
= = = Race = = =
At the start , Nico Rosberg got around the outside of Hamilton in turn one , while Räikkönen lost positions due to a slow getaway . Sebastian Vettel got past Verstappen , but was immediately repassed on the approach to turn four . At the front of the race , coming out of turn three Hamilton and Rosberg collided ending the race of both Mercedes drivers . The collision resulted in a safety car period , with the order standing : Ricciardo , Verstappen , Sainz , Vettel and Räikkönen . The safety car came in at the end of lap four . Vettel got past Sainz on lap eight and Räikkönen tried to follow suit two laps later , but was forced off track into turn two . He completed the move one lap later at the same spot . Sainz and Button were the first to come into the pits for new tyres on lap 12 , followed by race leader Ricciardo one lap later , making Verstappen the first Dutchman to lead a Grand Prix , before he came in another lap later . When Vettel made a pit stop on lap 16 , he emerged third behind the two Red Bull drivers , all on the medium compound tyre .
By lap 20 , Sebastian Vettel was closing the gap to the two Red Bulls ahead of him , coming within three second of Verstappen . On lap 22 , Nico Hülkenberg retired when his power unit caught fire and he had to stop on the sidelines . While Massa had fought from 18th on the grid into tenth , his teammate Bottas was lying fifth by lap 25 , ahead of Sainz . On lap 28 , Ricciardo was again the first of the front runners to pit , taking on the soft compound . Vettel came in two laps later , making the same choice in tyres . This left Verstappen to lead Kimi Räikkönen , as it emerged that both would run on a different strategy , pitting only twice in contrast to the three stopping Vettel and Ricciardo . On lap 34 , the gap between the two leaders was 2 @.@ 1 seconds , before Verstappen came in on the following lap . Räikkönen responded one lap later , emerging behind Verstappen . On lap 39 , Vettel came in for his third and final stop , while Ricciardo stayed out for another four laps . When he returned to the track , he was behind Vettel , but on fresher tyres .
While Räikkönen closed on Verstappen at the front , Fernando Alonso 's home race ended on lap 47 , pulling over to the side of the track at turn three . Räikkönen managed to get into the one @-@ second window to activate the drag reduction system ( DRS ) , as Vettel was eight seconds behind him with Ricciardo closing on him in fourth place . By lap 57 , Ricciardo was close enough to use DRS as well , but unable to pass . Three laps later , Ricciardo made an attempt at overtaking into turn one , but braking too late left him running wide , allowing Vettel back through . As the front runners lapped backmarkers , Kvyat , after scoring the first fastest lap for himself and Toro Rosso , overtook Gutiérrez for tenth place . Two laps from finish , Ricciardo suffered a puncture and was forced to pit , but retained fourth place ahead of Bottas . On the last lap , Renault drivers Kevin Magnussen and Jolyon Palmer collided , but both made it to the finish . As Verstappen crossed the finish line , he became the youngest ever and first Dutch race winner in Formula One .
= = = Post @-@ race = = =
At the podium interviews , conducted by singer Plácido Domingo , Verstappen expressed delight about a " great race " , crediting his team with giving him a good car . Kimi Räikkönen said that while he was happy for Verstappen , he was disappointed not to have won . He blamed the lack of downforce while following as the reason why he had been unable to pass Verstappen . Vettel congratulated the winner as well , but lamented that his different strategy had not worked out in his favour . During the post @-@ race press conference , Räikkönen stressed that had anyone offered the team two podium positions after their poor performance in qualifying , they would have taken it " happily " . Fourth placed Ricciardo expressed bitterness over Red Bull 's decision to switch him to a three @-@ stop strategy , which eventually lost him a podium position , saying : " I 'm a bit devastated . A big part of me is happy the team are on winning form but it 's hard to celebrate " . His team later explained their decision , declaring that they had focused their strategy on Vettel , who they had considered the biggest threat .
In the Grand Prix , Max Verstappen broke several records : apart from being the youngest ever driver to win a race at 18 years and 228 days , he also was the youngest to stand on a Formula One podium , in both instances breaking Sebastian Vettel 's record set at the 2008 Italian Grand Prix by more than two years . Vettel had been 21 years and 2 months at the time . Verstappen also became the youngest driver to lead at least one lap of a Grand Prix , again overcoming a record set by Vettel , at the 2007 Japanese Grand Prix . Verstappen also was the first driver born in the 1990s to win a Grand Prix . He received considerable praise after the race , with Sky Sports F1 's David Croft saying that he " has shown he has everything to be a world champion " . His father Jos Verstappen , himself a former Grand Prix driver , declared that he considered his son a better driver than himself , as race wins had eluded him during his own career in the sport . French sport newspaper L 'Équipe declared Verstappen to be " already a great " and " in the big leagues " . Verstappen was also the first Dutchman to win a race , with the Netherlands becoming the 22nd country to produce a race winner . He was the tenth different winner of the Spanish Grand Prix in as many past editions .
Following their collision , Hamilton and Rosberg were summoned to the stewards after the race but neither received a penalty , as the stewards rated their crash as a racing incident , with no driver in particular to blame . It emerged that Rosberg had chosen the wrong engine mode for the start , being down on power which led to Hamilton going for a passing manoeuvre . However , Rosberg remained convinced that he had done nothing wrong , saying : " I made it very clear I wasn 't going to leave any space on the inside and I was very surprised he went for the gap " . While Hamilton apologised to the team after the incident , he refused to accept blame for it . Opinions about the incident varied : While Mercedes 's executive chairman Niki Lauda blamed Hamilton for the crash , former F1 driver Anthony Davidson said on Sky Sports F1 that Rosberg 's move was " very aggressive " . Three @-@ time world champion Jackie Stewart said after the race that Mercedes should fine Hamilton for the crash : " Hamilton is to blame . Rosberg was allowed to protect himself . You don ’ t go for it on the first lap . " Mercedes 's head of motorsport Toto Wolff stressed after the race that the team would continue to let their drivers race against each other freely , a decision praised by former world champion Alain Prost . While Rosberg said after the race that he comtemplated having a talk with Hamilton about the situation , Mercedes later decided that they did " not need clear @-@ the @-@ air talks " . However , it later emerged that the pair did have a conversation about the incident before the next race in Monaco , which , according to Hamilton , was marked by " pure respect " . It was Mercedes 's first double retirement since the 2011 Australian Grand Prix , and the first time they failed to score a point since the 2012 United States Grand Prix , ending a 62 @-@ race long streak , the third longest in Formula One history .
For his last lap collision with teammate Jolyon Palmer , Kevin Magnussen received a ten @-@ second time penalty , dropping him one place to 15th . He also received two penalty points to his licence . Carlos Sainz received a reprimand from the stewards for leaving the pit lane one minute before it was allowed . He escaped a more severe penalty because he stopped shortly afterwards , thereby not gaining an advantage . Upon his return to Toro Rosso , Daniil Kvyat recorded the first fastest lap of his career , and the first for the Italian team in their 190th Grand Prix .
With 100 points from the first four races , Nico Rosberg remained on top of the Drivers ' Championship , while Hamilton 's retirement dropped him behind Räikkönen , who now trailed Rosberg by 39 points , four points ahead of Hamilton . Sebastian Vettel and Daniel Ricciardo were level on points with 48 , while Verstappen 's victory moved him into sixth on 38 . In the Constructors ' standings , Mercedes retained their lead on 157 points , but Ferrari closed the gap to 48 points , with Red Bull in third on 94 . Toro Rosso moved ahead of Haas into fifth , while Force India took seventh from McLaren .
= = Classification = =
= = = Qualifying = = =
= = = Race = = =
Notes
^ 1 – Kevin Magnussen originally finished 14th but received a ten @-@ second time penalty after the race for causing a collision with Jolyon Palmer .
= = = Standings after the race = = =
Note : Only the top five positions are included for both sets of standings .
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= Loverboy ( Mariah Carey song ) =
" Loverboy " is a song by American singer and songwriter Mariah Carey . It was released on July 16 , 2001 by Virgin Records America as the lead single from Glitter ( 2001 ) . Written and produced by Carey , Larry Blackmon , Thomas Jenkins and Clark Kent , " Loverboy " is built around a sample from " Candy " by Cameo , who are also featured on the track . Lyrically , the song finds Carey fantasizing about her loverboy , a man that will fulfill her physical and sexual desires . The recording was accompanied by an official remix , titled " Loverboy ( Remix ) " , featuring guest artists Ludacris , Da Brat , Shawnna and Twenty II .
The track was subject to controversy , following reports that Jennifer Lopez and Tommy Mottola ( Carey 's ex @-@ husband ) stole the idea of sampling the singer 's original planned sample , Yellow Magic Orchestra 's " Firecracker " , over a month after Carey had signed for it . Since Carey 's Glitter was to be released over a month after Lopez 's album , she changed the song 's melody to sample from " Candy " instead . Controversy ensued following its release ; Carey was hospitalized for severe mental and physical exhaustion , following poorly received television appearances involving the song and album .
After the song 's release in the United States , " Loverboy " stalled on the Billboard Hot 100 . The song reached a peak of number two on the Hot 100 but failed to top the chart due to weak radio airplay . Though finishing as the best @-@ selling song of 2001 in the United States , " Loverboy " became Carey 's first lead single to not reach number one . Internationally , the song failed to garner strong charting , reaching the top @-@ ten in Australia and Canada , and the top @-@ twenty in Italy and the United Kingdom .
" Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many called the song unoriginal and dated while others felt that the featured artists ( primarily on the remix version ) overpowered Carey and made the song disorganized . A music video , directed by David LaChapelle , was shot for both versions of the song . The first version features Carey as a scantily @-@ clad car girl , waving a flag as her loverboy finishes a race . The video for the remix version features similar footage , only including shots of the song 's guests in race @-@ cars during their verses . Finally , she performed " Loverboy " live on The Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .
= = Background and release = =
Following the release of " Loverboy " , Carey embarked on a short promotional campaign for the song . On July 19 , 2001 , Carey made a surprise appearance on the MTV program Total Request Live ( TRL ) . As the show 's host Carson Daly began taping following a commercial break , Carey came out onto the filming stage , pushing an ice cream cart while wearing a large men 's shirt . Seemingly anxious and exhilarated , Carey began giving out individual bars of ice cream to fans and guests on the program , while waving to the crowd down below on Times Square , while diverging into a rambling monologue regarding therapy . Carey then walked to Daly 's platform and began a striptease , in which she shed her shirt to reveal a tight yellow and green ensemble , leading him to exclaim " Mariah Carey has lost her mind ! " . While she later revealed that Daly was aware of her presence in the building prior to her appearance , she admitted that he was meant to act surprised in order to provide a more dramatic effect for the program . Carey 's appearance on TRL garnered strong media attention , with many critics and newspapers citing her behavior as " troubled " and " erratic " . In the days following her appearance on TRL , Carey had begun displaying " erratic behavior " during a public record signing for the single at Tower Records in New York . As the appearance was filmed , she began rambling on several points , leading her to discuss radio @-@ host Howard Stern , and how his form of humor on his program bothered her greatly . At that point , Carey 's publicist Cindi Berger grabbed the microphone from her hand , and ordered the cameras to stop filming . Only days later , Carey began posting irregular voice notes and messages on her official website :
I 'm trying to understand things in life right now and so I really don 't feel that I should be doing music right now . What I 'd like to do is just a take a little break or at least get one night of sleep without someone popping up about a video . All I really want is [ to ] just be me and that 's what I should have done in the first place ... I don 't say this much but guess what , I don 't take care of myself .
After the quick removal of the messages , Berger commented that Carey had been " obviously exhausted and not thinking clearly " when she posted the letters . Two days later on July 26 , she was suddenly hospitalized , citing " extreme exhaustion " and a " physical and emotional breakdown " . Following the heavy media coverage surrounding Carey 's publicized breakdown and hospitalization , Virgin Records and 20th Century Fox delayed the release of both the film 's soundtrack and the film itself for three weeks : from August 21 to September 11 and from August 31 to September 21 , respectively . Following Carey 's absence from the public eye , as well as her abandonment of promotional appearances for the film and soundtrack , her unprecedented $ 100 million five @-@ album record deal with Virgin Records ( EMI Records ) was bought out for $ 50 million . The decision was brought out due to the low sales of the project , as well as the negative publicity surrounding her breakdown . Soon after , Carey flew to Capri , Italy for a period of five months , in which she began writing material for her new album , stemming from all the personal experiences she had endured throughout the past year . Additionally , she founded her own label modeled after her initials , MonarC Entertainment , and signed a new three @-@ album record deal with Island Records , valued at over $ 23 million .
At the time of the single 's release , Carey did not perform " Loverboy " live . The first performance of the song came 15 years later , on Carey 's Sweet Sweet Fantasy Tour in 2016 .
= = Composition = =
" Loverboy " ' s hook is built around a sample of " Candy " , by Cameo . Aside from borrowing from the melody , " Loverboy " features Cameo as a lead vocalist on the track . According to Chuck Taylor from Billboard , " Loverboy " is reminiscent of several of Carey 's previous lead singles , as they too were predominantly built around samples of older songs . He described some of its background flourishes as " swirling harmonies overtop " , and noted the inclusion of many shouts and ad @-@ libs from Carey and Cameo . Due to the song 's heavy usage of the " Candy " sample , and the heavy blend of instrumentation and vocals , he said that to his bewilderment , the song was " devoid of a standard hook " . NME 's Elios Therepio felt the idea of sampling " Candy " was genius " on paper " , but once recorded , suffered from various miscalculations . He felt it didn 't match the success Carey 's previous single , " Fantasy " ( which also recalled its melody from an older song ) , and criticized the inclusion of several over @-@ the @-@ top " keyboard and synth arrangements " . Regarding Carey 's voice , aside from describing it as " obscured " , Therepio expressed his difficulty in understanding her lyrical phrases , claiming it was weakened from " no @-@ everyone @-@ can @-@ understand @-@ what @-@ you 're @-@ saying ' -itis " . Gil Kaufman from MTV News noted the inclusion of " bouncing funky bass [ and ] rock guitars " , while Roger Caitlin of the Hartford Courant described how Carey was often reduced to " breathy background vocals " on " Loverboy " . Lyrically , the song finds Carey looking for her " loverboy " , and a sugar @-@ daddy that 's going to " love her right " . Therepio found it ironic how Carey was crooning for a sugar @-@ daddy , when she had just left one ( referring to her older ex @-@ husband Tommy Mottola ) . Additionally , he felt Carey was molding her image from that of a balladeer , to a " pin @-@ up image " of a pop star . The song 's lyrics are racy , and feature the protagonist asking for her " loverboy " to fulfill her sexual desires : " Loverboy come on and love me / Give me more " .
= = = Sampling controversy = = =
Throughout 2000 , Carey had already been writing and recording material for Glitter . During this period , she developed the concept for the album 's lead single , " Loverboy " . Originally , Carey had sampled the melody and hook from the 1978 Yellow Magic Orchestra song " Firecracker " , using an interpolation of it throughout the chorus and introduction . In early theatrical trailers for Glitter , the original version of " Loverboy " was still featured . As Carey had ended her contract with Columbia Records , Jennifer Lopez was signed by Tommy Mottola , and had begun recording material for her album , J.Lo ( 2001 ) . According to The Inc . ' s Irv Gotti , Mottola , head of Columbia and Carey 's ex @-@ husband , knew of Carey 's usage of the " Firecracker " sample , and attempted to have Lopez use the same sample before her . At the time , Carey had become increasingly paranoid over outside executives being informed about Glitter , especially following news of Lopez 's " theft " of the song . When the music publishers for " Firecracker " were questioned , they admitted Carey had licensed usage of the sample first , and Lopez had signed for it over one month later , under Mottola 's arrangement . Following the scandal , Carey was not able to use the original sample , as Lopez 's album was to be released far earlier than Glitter . She subsequently changed the composition of " Loverboy " , and incorporated a new sample , " Candy " by Cameo . According to Gotti , Mottola contacted him with instructions to create the Murder Remix of " I 'm Real " to sound exactly like another Glitter track he produced , titled " If We " featuring rappers Ja Rule and Nate Dogg . The " Firecracker " sample was eventually used by Lopez on her song " I 'm Real " , from her album J.Lo. The remix of Mariah 's " Loverboy " featured rapper Da Brat singing a pointed message about " bitches emulating [ her ] daily " , to the melody from " Firecracker " .
= = Critical reception = =
" Loverboy " was met with generally mixed reviews from music critics ; many were not impressed with the incorporation of the sample , and felt the song didn 't lead Carey into any newer ground or innovation . Additionally , several reviewers were not impressed with Carey 's concealed vocals and the song 's overly @-@ complicated production . Sarah Rodman of the Boston Herald described the song 's production as a " traffic @-@ jam " and wrote " ' Loverboy ' is another in an increasingly long line of glitzy , candy @-@ coated , creatively stunted song . " Writing for the Los Angeles Times , Natalie Nichols felt " Loverboy " was " predictable " and presented nothing new for Carey 's audience . USA Today 's Edna Gunderson wrote the song off as " skimpy " , while Glenn Gamboa from Newsday described its overall reception as " lukewarm " . Harry Guerin from Raidió Teilifís Éireann outed the song as one of Carey 's " finest moments " on Glitter , and disagreed with criticism regarding the " overly @-@ populated " musical background " . Allmusic editor Stephen Thomas Erlewine listed the song as the only " recommended " song from Glitter , while Gil Kaufman of MTV News called it a " fun , uptempo dance number " . Craig Seymour from Entertainment Weekly rated " Loverboy " a C- , and criticized its lyrical content and production . An anonymous writer from The Guardian felt the song had " no decipherable tune " , due to the inclusion of electronic musical instruments and background shouts and ad @-@ libs . Billboard 's Chuck Taylor described the song as " self @-@ sabotage " , and felt Carey was gambling her longevity . He described the production as a " mumbo jumbo of disparate elements " , and wrote " the mighty may have fallen here " .
= = Chart performance = =
Prior to Virgin 's release of " Loverboy " , Carey halted all promotional appearances corresponding to the song . Citing an emotional breakdown and a subsequent hospitalization , Carey remained out of the public eye for several weeks . After its release , " Loverboy " failed to garner strong charting on prominent international markets , and received poor radio airplay throughout the United States . " Loverboy " peaked atop the Billboard 's Hot Singles Sales chart for four consecutive weeks , though due to weak airplay , managed to reach number two on the Billboard Hot 100 with " Bootylicious " by Destiny 's Child holding it back from the top position . " Loverboy " finished as the best @-@ selling single of 2001 in the United States , with sales of 571 @,@ 000 units , falling short of the previous year 's best @-@ seller , which accumulated sales upwards of one million copies . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the song Gold . In Canada , " Loverboy " peaked at number three on the singles chart , and charted for a total of thirteen weeks .
Throughout Australasia and Europe , the song peaked outside the top @-@ twenty in most countries . " Loverboy " debuted at its peak position of number seven on the Australian Singles Chart , during the week of July 29 , 2001 . The following week , the song began its decline , and experienced a total chart trajectory of seven weeks . The song was certified Gold by the Australian Recording Industry Association ( ARIA ) , denoting shipments of over 35 @,@ 000 units . On July 29 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 65 on the Ö3 Austria Top 40 chart , spending a total of three weeks in the chart . The song achieved relatively weak charting in both the Flemish and Wallonian territories in Belgium , peaking at numbers 49 and 34 , respectively . Making its debut at its peak position of number 54 , " Loverboy " charted for a total of nine weeks in France , before falling out on November 3 , 2001 . On the Dutch Top 40 chart , the song made its debut at number 68 . The following week the song peaked at number 34 , before dropping outside the top 40 three weeks later , ending its five @-@ week run . On July 26 , 2001 , " Loverboy " debuted at number 49 on the Swedish Singles Chart , and reached a peak of number 44 . Similarly in Switzerland , the song peaked at number 66 , and spent only four weeks fluctuating inside the chart . On the UK Singles Chart , the song debuted at its peak of number 12 . The following week , the song dropped to number 29 on the chart , before dropping outside the top @-@ forty two weeks later .
= = Remix = =
Aside from the regular version of the song , an official remix of " Loverboy " was included on Glitter . The song 's main remix , titled " Loverboy " ( Remix ) , uses the same sample as the album version and retains all of Carey 's original vocals . It has a different introduction , the singing and spoken parts of Cameo are greatly reduced ( and are not credited ) , and additional raps are included by Da Brat , Ludacris , Shawnna , and Twenty II . Critics panned the song , agreeing that the inclusion on the former pair only made it more difficult to hear and understand Carey 's singing . Many described their inclusion as " upstaging " the singer , while others felt they made the song increasingly tumultuous . NME writer Elios Therepio rated the remix five out of ten stars , and claimed the song to have been a much weaker lead single than Carey 's " Fantasy " ( 1995 ) . Jim Farber from Daily News criticized Brat 's verse , writing how it " cut right through " the production . The Morning Call 's Len Righi described the remix as " cloddish " , while Jim Abbott from the Orlando Sentinel felt the song 's guests " upstaged " Carey .
= = Music video = =
= = = Synopsis = = =
Two music videos , both directed by David LaChapelle , were shot for the song and its accompanying remix . The videos introduced a less demure image of Carey , one that received negative backlash from critics . She appears in the video with a lighter hair color than she had sported in the past , and wearing a series of revealing ensembles . Reviewers disregarded Carey 's newer image , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra , and likened her to younger pop singers such as Britney Spears , which they felt cheapened the singer . The video begins with Cameo driving all over a racetrack , while Carey , dressed in revealing clothing , is shown singing in various " car girl " positions at the track on a hot summer day . She flags down cars as the " flag girl " and dances as a " tire girl " in a kaleidoscope @-@ inspired sequence , before jumping out of a pop out cake to the roars of the crowd below . Several other scenes of Carey in a pink jumpsuit while riding on top of a race @-@ car are shown , during which Cameo continues the race . A video was also made for the remix and retains most of the shots of the original . In it , Ludacris and Shawnna can be seen rapping together as they ride in an old car , while Da Brat and Twenty II rap together in a more modern car without a hood .
= = = Reception = = =
The music video for " Loverboy " received generally mixed reviews from critics , many of whom felt Carey was portrayed in an overtly sexual manner . A writer from The Guardian criticized the video , calling it " wacky " and describing Carey 's choreography as " running amok " . Slant Magazine 's Sal Cinquemani felt the video was " brilliantly over @-@ the @-@ top " , while an anonymous columnist from NME commented that it would cause male viewers to " play with themselves " after watching . In a countdown of the " The 5 Least Sexiest Music Videos " , Priya Elan from NME included the video at number three , writing how the singer " spins with the mad @-@ eyed grace of someone who hasn ’ t been to sleep for 72 hours " ( referring to Carey 's mention of insomnia as a reason for her breakdown ) . Japiya Burns of The Michigan Daily was critical of Carey 's portrayal in the video , primarily her double @-@ handkerchief bra . He felt that in doing so , Carey was cheapening herself and her image to resemble younger pop singers such as Britney Spears .
= = Formats and track listings = =
= = Credits and personnel = =
Credits for Glitter adapted from the album 's liner notes .
Mariah Carey – songwriting , producer , vocals , background vocals
Larry Blackmon – songwriting
Tomi Jenkins – songwriting
Clark Kent – producer
Carl " Butch " Small – percussion
Peter Novak – engineer
Andrew Felluss – engineer
Ann Mincieli – engineer
Anthony Kilhoffer – engineer
Elliot Blakely – engineer
Dana Jon Chappelle – mixing
Michael " Mikizza " Schlesinger – mixing
Cameo – vocals
Mary Ann Tatum – background vocals
Remix
Da Brat – songwriting , vocals
Ludacris – songwriting , vocals
Shawnna – songwriting , vocals
Twenty II – songwriting , vocals
= = Charts and certifications = =
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= Allah =
Allah ( / ˈælə , ˈɑːlə , əlˈlɑː / ; Arabic : الله , translit . Allāh , pronounced [ ɑɫ 'ɫɑh ] ) is the Arabic word referring to God in Abrahamic religions . The word is thought to be derived by contraction from al ilāh , which means " the God " , and has cognates in other Semitic languages , including Elah in Aramaic , ʾĒl in Canaanite and Elohim in Hebrew .
The word Allah has been used by Arabs of different religions since pre @-@ Islamic times . More specifically , it has been used as a term to refer to God by Muslims ( both Arab and non @-@ Arab ) and Arab Christians . It is now mainly used by Muslims and Arab Christians to refer to God . It is also often , albeit not exclusively , used in this way by Bábists , Bahá 'ís , Indonesian and Maltese Christians , and Mizrahi Jews . Similar usage by Christians and Sikhs in West Malaysia has recently led to political and legal controversies .
= = Etymology = =
The etymology of the word Allāh has been discussed extensively by classical Arab philologists . Grammarians of the Basra school regarded is as either formed " spontaneously " ( murtajal ) or as the definite form of lāh ( from the verbal root lyh with the meaning of " lofty " or " hidden " ) . Others held that it was borrowed from Syriac or Hebrew , but most considered it to be derived from a contraction of the Arabic definite article al- " the " and ilāh " deity , god " to al @-@ lāh meaning " the deity " , or " the God " . The majority of modern scholars subscribe to the latter theory , and view the loanword hypothesis with skepticism .
Cognates of the name " Allāh " exist in other Semitic languages , including Hebrew and Aramaic . The corresponding Aramaic form is Elah ( אלה ) , but its emphatic state is Elaha ( אלהא ) . It is written as ܐܠܗܐ ( ʼĔlāhā ) in Biblical Aramaic and ܐܲܠܵܗܵܐ ( ʼAlâhâ ) in Syriac as used by the Assyrian Church , both meaning simply " God " . Biblical Hebrew mostly uses the plural ( but functional singular ) form Elohim ( אלהים ) , but more rarely it also uses the singular form Eloah ( אלוהּ ) . In the Sikh scripture of Guru Granth Sahib , the term Allah ( Punjabi : ਅਲਹੁ , translit . ਅਲਾਹ ) is used 37 times .
= = Usage = =
= = = Pre @-@ Islamic Arabians = = =
Regional variants of the word Allah occur in both pagan and Christian pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions . Different theories have been proposed regarding the role of Allah in pre @-@ Islamic polytheistic cults . Some authors have suggested that polytheistic Arabs used the name as a reference to a creator god or a supreme deity of their pantheon . The term may have been vague in the Meccan religion . According to one hypothesis , which goes back to Julius Wellhausen , Allah ( the supreme deity of the tribal federation around Quraysh ) was a designation that consecrated the superiority of Hubal ( the supreme deity of Quraysh ) over the other gods . However , there is also evidence that Allah and Hubal were two distinct deities . According to that hypothesis , the Kaaba was first consecrated to a supreme deity named Allah and then hosted the pantheon of Quraysh after their conquest of Mecca , about a century before the time of Muhammad . Some inscriptions seem to indicate the use of Allah as a name of a polytheist deity centuries earlier , but we know nothing precise about this use . Some scholars have suggested that Allah may have represented a remote creator god who was gradually eclipsed by more particularized local deities . There is disagreement on whether Allah played a major role in the Meccan religious cult . No iconic representation of Allah is known to have existed . Muhammad 's father 's name was ʿAbd @-@ Allāh meaning " the slave of Allāh " .
= = = Christianity = = =
The Aramaic word for " God " in the language of Assyrian Christians is ʼĔlāhā , or Alaha . Arabic @-@ speakers of all Abrahamic faiths , including Christians and Jews , use the word " Allah " to mean " God " . The Christian Arabs of today have no other word for " God " than " Allah " . ( Even the Arabic @-@ descended Maltese language of Malta , whose population is almost entirely Roman Catholic , uses Alla for " God " . ) Arab Christians , for example , use the terms Allāh al @-@ ab ( الله الأب ) for God the Father , Allāh al @-@ ibn ( الله الابن ) for God the Son , and Allāh al @-@ rūḥ al @-@ quds ( الله الروح القدس ) for God the Holy Spirit . ( See God in Christianity for the Christian concept of God . )
Arab Christians have used two forms of invocations that were affixed to the beginning of their written works . They adopted the Muslim bismillāh , and also created their own Trinitized bismillāh as early as the 8th century . The Muslim bismillāh reads : " In the name of God , the Compassionate , the Merciful . " The Trinitized bismillāh reads : " In the name of Father and the Son and the Holy Spirit , One God . " The Syriac , Latin and Greek invocations do not have the words " One God " at the end . This addition was made to emphasize the monotheistic aspect of Trinitarian belief and also to make it more palatable to Muslims .
According to Marshall Hodgson , it seems that in the pre @-@ Islamic times , some Arab Christians made pilgrimage to the Kaaba , a pagan temple at that time , honoring Allah there as God the Creator .
Some archaeological excavation quests have led to the discovery of ancient pre @-@ Islamic inscriptions and tombs made by Arab Christians in the ruins of a church at Umm el @-@ Jimal in Northern Jordan , which contained references to Allah as the proper name of God , and some of the graves contained names such as " Abd Allah " which means " the servant / slave of Allah " .
The name Allah can be found countless times in the reports and the lists of names of Christian martyrs in South Arabia , as reported by antique Syriac documents of the names of those martyrs from the era of the Himyarite and Aksumite kingdoms .
A Christian leader named Abd Allah ibn Abu Bakr ibn Muhammad was martyred in Najran in 523 , as he had worn a ring that said " Allah is my lord " .
In an inscription of Christian martyrion dated back to 512 , references to Allah can be found in both Arabic and Aramaic , which called him " Allah " and " Alaha " , and the inscription starts with the statement " By the Help of Allah " .
In pre @-@ Islamic Gospels , the name used for God was " Allah " , as evidenced by some discovered Arabic versions of the New Testament written by Arab Christians during the pre @-@ Islamic era in Northern and Southern Arabia .
Pre @-@ Islamic Arab Christians have been reported to have raised the battle cry " Ya La Ibad Allah " ( O slaves of Allah ) to invoke each other into battle .
" Allah " was also mentioned in pre @-@ Islamic Christian poems by some Ghassanid and Tanukhid poets in Syria and Northern Arabia .
= = = Islam = = =
In Islam , Allah is the unique , omnipotent and only deity and creator of the universe and is equivalent to God in other Abrahamic religions .
According to Islamic belief , Allah is the most common word to represent God , and humble submission to his will , divine ordinances and commandments is the pivot of the Muslim faith . " He is the only God , creator of the universe , and the judge of humankind . " " He is unique ( wāḥid ) and inherently one ( aḥad ) , all @-@ merciful and omnipotent . " The Qur 'an declares " the reality of Allah , His inaccessible mystery , His various names , and His actions on behalf of His creatures . "
In Islamic tradition , there are 99 Names of God ( al @-@ asmā ’ al @-@ ḥusná lit. meaning : ' the best names ' or ' the most beautiful names ' ) , each of which evoke a distinct characteristic of Allah . All these names refer to Allah , the supreme and all @-@ comprehensive divine name . Among the 99 names of God , the most famous and most frequent of these names are " the Merciful " ( al @-@ Raḥmān ) and " the Compassionate " ( al @-@ Raḥīm ) .
Most Muslims use the untranslated Arabic phrase in shā ’ Allāh ( meaning ' if God wills ' ) after references to future events . Muslim discursive piety encourages beginning things with the invocation of bismillāh ( meaning ' in the name of God ' ) .
There are certain phrases in praise of God that are favored by Muslims , including " Subḥān Allāh " ( Holiness be to God ) , " al @-@ ḥamdu lillāh " ( Praise be to God ) , " lā ilāha illā Allāh " ( There is no deity but God ) and " Allāhu akbar " ( God is greater ) as a devotional exercise of remembering God ( dhikr ) . In a Sufi practice known as dhikr Allah ( lit. remembrance of God ) , the Sufi repeats and contemplates on the name Allah or other divine names while controlling his or her breath .
Some scholars have suggested that Muḥammad used the term Allah in addressing both pagan Arabs and Jews or Christians in order to establish a common ground for the understanding of the name for God , a claim Gerhard Böwering says is doubtful . According to Böwering , in contrast with pre @-@ Islamic Arabian polytheism , God in Islam does not have associates and companions , nor is there any kinship between God and jinn . Pre @-@ Islamic pagan Arabs believed in a blind , powerful , inexorable and insensible fate over which man had no control . This was replaced with the Islamic notion of a powerful but provident and merciful God .
According to Francis Edwards Peters , " The Qur ’ ān insists , Muslims believe , and historians affirm that Muhammad and his followers worship the same God as the Jews ( 29 : 46 ) . The Qur ’ an 's Allah is the same Creator God who covenanted with Abraham " . Peters states that the Qur 'an portrays Allah as both more powerful and more remote than Yahweh , and as a universal deity , unlike Yahweh who closely follows Israelites .
= = As a loanword = =
= = = English and other European languages = = =
The history of the name Allāh in English was probably influenced by the study of comparative religion in the 19th century ; for example , Thomas Carlyle ( 1840 ) sometimes used the term Allah but without any implication that Allah was anything different from God . However , in his biography of Muḥammad ( 1934 ) , Tor Andræ always used the term Allah , though he allows that this " conception of God " seems to imply that it is different from that of the Jewish and Christian theologies .
Languages which may not commonly use the term Allah to denote God may still contain popular expressions which use the word . For example , because of the centuries long Muslim presence in the Iberian Peninsula , the word ojalá in the Spanish language and oxalá in the Portuguese language exist today , borrowed from Arabic ( Arabic : إن شاء الله ) . This phrase literally means ' if God wills ' ( in the sense of " I hope so " ) . The German poet Mahlmann used the form " Allah " as the title of a poem about the ultimate deity , though it is unclear how much Islamic thought he intended to convey .
Some Muslims leave the name " Allāh " untranslated in English . The word has also been applied to certain living human beings as personifications of the term and concept .
= = = Malaysian and Indonesian language = = =
Christians in Malaysia and Indonesia use Allah to refer to God in the Malaysian and Indonesian languages ( both of which are standardized forms of the Malay language . ) Mainstream Bible translations in the language use Allah as the translation of Hebrew Elohim ( translated in English Bibles as " God " ) . This goes back to early translation work by Francis Xavier in the 16th century . The first dictionary of Dutch @-@ Malay by Albert Cornelius Ruyl , Justus Heurnius , and Caspar Wiltens in 1650 ( revised edition from 1623 edition and 1631 Latin @-@ edition ) recorded " Allah " as the translation of the Dutch word " Godt " . Ruyl also translated Matthew in 1612 to Malay language ( first Bible translation to non @-@ European language , only a year after King James Version was published ) , which was printed in the Netherlands in 1629 . Then he translated Mark which was published in 1638 .
The government of Malaysia in 2007 outlawed usage of the term Allah in any other but Muslim contexts , but the Malayan High Court in 2009 revoked the law , ruling that it was unconstitutional . While Allah had been used for the Christian God in Malay for more than four centuries , the contemporary controversy was triggered by usage of Allah by the Roman Catholic newspaper The Herald . The government appealed the court ruling , and the High Court suspended implementation of its verdict until the appeal was heard . In October 2013 , the court ruled in favor of the government 's ban . In early 2014 , the Malaysian government confiscated more than 300 bibles for using the word to refer to the Christian God in Peninsular Malaysia . However , the use of Allah is not prohibited in the two Malaysian state of Sabah and Sarawak . The main reason it is not prohibited in these two states is that usage has been long @-@ established and local Alkitab ( Bibles ) have been widely distributed freely in East Malaysia without restrictions for years . Both states also do not have similar Islamic state laws as those in West Malaysia .
As a reaction to some media criticism , the Malaysian government has introduced a " 10 @-@ point solution " to avoid confusion and misleading information . The 10 @-@ point solution is in line with the spirit of the 18- and 20 @-@ point agreements of Sarawak and Sabah .
= = = In other scripts and languages = = =
Allāh in other languages that use Arabic script is spelled in the same way . This includes Urdu , Persian / Dari , Uyghur among others .
Assamese , Bengali : আল ্ লাহ Allah
Bosnian : Allah
Chinese ( Mandarin ) : 阿拉 Ālā , 安拉 Ānlā ; 真主 Zhēnzhǔ ( semantic translation as " the true master " ) , 胡大 Huda ( Khoda , from Persian language )
Czech , Slovak : Alláh
Greek : Αλλάχ Allách
Filipino : Alā or Allah
Hebrew : אללה Allah
Hindi : अल ् लाह Allāh
Malayalam : അള ് ളാഹ ് Aḷḷāh
Japanese : アラー Arā , アッラー Arrā , アッラーフ Arrāfu
Latvian : Allāhs
Maltese : Alla
Korean : 알라 Alla
Polish : Allah , also archaic Allach or Ałłach
Russian , Ukrainian , Bulgarian : Алла ́ х Allakh
Serbian , Belarusian , Macedonian : Алах Alah
Spanish , Portuguese : Alá
Thai : อัลลอฮ ์ Anláw
Punjabi ( Gurmukhi ) : ਅੱਲਾਹ Allāh , archaic ਅਲਹੁ Alahu ( in Sikh scriptures )
Turkish : Allah
= = Typography = =
The word Allāh is always written without an alif to spell the ā vowel . This is because the spelling was settled before Arabic spelling started habitually using alif to spell ā . However , in vocalized spelling , a small diacritic alif is added on top of the shaddah to indicate the pronunciation .
One exception may be in the pre @-@ Islamic Zabad inscription , where it ends with an ambiguous sign that may be a lone @-@ standing h with a lengthened start , or may be a non @-@ standard conjoined l @-@ h : -
الاه : This reading would be Allāh spelled phonetically with alif for the ā .
الإله : This reading would be al @-@ Ilāh = ' the god ' ( an older form , without contraction ) , by older spelling practice without alif for ā .
Many Arabic type fonts feature special ligatures for Allah .
= = = Unicode = = =
Unicode has a codepoint reserved for Allāh , ﷲ = U + FDF2 , in the Arabic Presentation Forms @-@ A block , which exists solely for " compatibility with some older , legacy character sets that encoded presentation forms directly " ; this is discouraged for new text . Instead , the word Allāh should be represented by its individual Arabic letters , while modern font technologies will render the desired ligature .
The calligraphic variant of the word used as the Coat of arms of Iran is encoded in Unicode , in the Miscellaneous Symbols range , at codepoint U + 262B ( ☫ ) .
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= Moment of Surrender =
" Moment of Surrender " is a song by rock band U2 and the third track on their 2009 album No Line on the Horizon . During the initial recording sessions for the album in 2007 in Fez , Morocco , the band wrote the song with producers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois within a few hours . Together , they recorded the song in a single take ; Eno called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience [ he 's ] ever had " . According to him and Lanois , the track is the closest the band came to realising their original concept for the album of writing " future hymns " . The seven @-@ minute song features gospel @-@ like vocals in the chorus , along with a predominantly organ- and piano @-@ based musical accompaniment . Lyrically , the song is about a drug addict who is undergoing a crisis of faith .
" Moment of Surrender " was praised by critics , many of whom called it one of the album 's stand @-@ out tracks . The song was compared to the group 's earlier ballads " With or Without You " and " One " . It was performed at all but two of the band 's concerts on the U2 360 ° Tour , most often as the closing song . During performances , the stage lights were dimmed and fans were urged to hold up their mobile phones to create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . Although it was not released as a single , Rolling Stone named " Moment of Surrender " the best song of 2009 , and in 2010 , they ranked it 160th on their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " .
= = Writing and recording = =
" Moment of Surrender " was written by U2 and No Line on the Horizon producers / co @-@ writers Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois during a two @-@ week recording session in Fez , Morocco between May and June 2007 . The song was developed within a few hours , and then recorded in a single take in a riad of the hotel Riad El Yacout . Eno began by creating a percussion loop of a " rolling hand drum " so that the band would have something to improvise along with when they joined him for songwriting and recording . However , Eno had not arranged the loop properly and the result was a strange , uneven beat that he compared to " a wheeled carriage that had one of the wheels a bit cracked " or " the way a camel moves " . Although Eno was trying to fix the loop , drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. began playing along to it . Eno then asked guitarist the Edge to play some chords . After a quick discussion about the chord changes and the meter ( in which they decided to have a " funny layout " that was not based on " eighths or sixteenths " ) , the six of them improvised the entirety of the piece .
As they began to play , bassist Adam Clayton developed a bassline . The part was originally based on the Grandmaster Melle Mel song " White Lines ( Don 't Don 't Do It ) " before Clayton changed to a more trance @-@ like bassline . Vocalist Bono created some melodies and sang over the music . During the album 's recording , Bono had become tired of writing in the first @-@ person and he began writing lyrics and singing from the perspective of different characters . During the writing of " Moment of Surrender " , Bono assumed the character of a drug addict having a crisis of faith . The song title was borrowed from the Alcoholics Anonymous term for when an addict admits being " powerless over alcohol " and needs help . Bono had attempted to use the phrase " vision over visibility " in the lyrics of earlier songs ; however , " Moment of Surrender " was the first song where he felt it was appropriate to be used . Eno called Bono 's singing in this character as " so heartbreaking agonized and vulnerable " , creating a feeling like " a knife to the heart " . Lanois contributed by developing the gospel @-@ like chorus . The uneven hi @-@ hat from the drum part stems from Mullen 's electronic drum kit malfunctioning during the song 's recording . Eno was amazed by each performer 's ability to develop and play their part without any instructions or cues . After the song 's recording completed , everyone in the studio , including a gathering of production personnel and visitors , was completely silent , and Eno suggested it was as if they had gone on an " emotional adventure of some kind " . He called the song 's recording " the most amazing studio experience I 've ever had " , and he believes the " emotional crescendo " heard in the song properly captures how they felt as they improvised the piece . Bono stated " it was a spell and we were in it " .
The song was played only once and received minor treatments afterwards , with the addition of a cello part in the introduction and some editing , which included removing a verse to reduce the song 's length . Eno was outraged that U2 wanted to shorten the song , and he was adamant that the band not alter the original track too much , saying , " These fucking guys , they 're supposed to be so spiritual — they don 't spot a miracle when it hits them in the face . Nothing like that ever happened to me in the studio in my whole life . " The band 's original concept for No Line on the Horizon was to create an album of future hymns — songs that would be played forever . According to Eno and Lanois , " Moment of Surrender " is the closest the band came to reaching that concept .
= = Composition = =
" Moment of Surrender " is played in common time at a tempo of 87 beats per minute in a key of A minor . The song makes use of the conventional verse @-@ chorus form . The song begins with an uneven percussion loop , before an ambient synthesiser fades in and the drums enter at 0 : 08 . A cello part joins and the synthesiser plays the chord progression C – Am – F – C – G – E – D7 . At the end of the progression , 47 seconds into the song , the intensity of the synthesier rises before an organ , bass guitar , and piano subsequently enter . At 1 : 16 , Bono 's vocals enter and the first verse begins , lasting three stanzas . After the first chorus concludes and the second verse begins at 2 : 59 , the Edge begins playing a guitar riff . The second verse lasts two stanzas . After the second chorus , a piano interlude begins , with Lanois contributing pedal steel . The Edge begins a slide guitar solo at 4 : 59 that many critics compared to the playing style of Pink Floyd 's David Gilmour . After the third chorus ends at 6 : 11 , " Oh @-@ oh @-@ ohhh " vocals and a guitar figure bring the song to its conclusion .
Lanois noted that the song had a very " Canadian sound " that was like a tribute to the Band , calling it the " Simcoe sound " . Rolling Stone said the song " merges a Joshua Tree @-@ style gospel feel with a hypnotically loping bass line and a syncopated beat " . The song makes prominent use of organ and piano .
= = Reception = =
" Moment of Surrender " was well received by critics after the release of No Line on the Horizon . David Fricke of Rolling Stone enjoyed the song , writing , " The rising @-@ falling effect of the harmony voices around Bono ... is a perfect picture of where he really wants to be , when he gets to the line about ' vision over visibility . ' " Blender considered it the high @-@ point of the album , comparing it to the band 's 1987 single " I Still Haven 't Found What I 'm Looking For " . Reviewer Rob Sheffield complimented the melding of bass , guitar , and vocals , calling it " the kind of gimme @-@ divinity anthem that U2 cut their teeth on , except it really does seem like they 've gotten better at these songs now that they 've picked up some bummed @-@ out adult grit . Bono actually sounds scared of something in this song , and whether his nightmares are religious or sexual , the fear gives his voice some heft . " NME felt that it was the " most impressive " song on the album , describing it as a " gorgeously sparse prayer built around Adam Clayton 's heartbeat bassline and Bono 's rough growl " , and noting that despite its seven @-@ minute length , it did not feel too long . Alexis Petridis of The Guardian was more critical of the song , saying it " doesn 't have enough of a tune to support the full seven @-@ minute gospel treatment " , a sentiment that The Times agreed with .
Spin reviewed the track favourably , calling it a " celebrity @-@ at @-@ the @-@ crossroads soul ballad " with an " ambient gospel sweep that 's both haunted and joyful " . Mojo praised the song 's musicianship , saying it was " graced by swaggering performances " and that the Edge 's " languid guitar solo " was reminiscent of David Gilmour . Q echoed these sentiments , commending Bono 's soulful singing and the Edge 's solo . The reviewer christened the song as " this album 's ' One ' or ' With or Without You ' , with added bonus points " . The Washington Post called the song one of the record 's highlights and enjoyed the track 's gospel qualities . The reviewer wrote , " The vocal harmonies on the choruses sound like something out of a church in some distant , dystopian world ; the woozy , slightly detuned piano adds to that impression ... " Hot Press gave the song a favourable review , calling it a " sweeping " track and suggesting it " conjure [ s ] the same spiritual vibe as Marvin Gaye 's ' Abraham , Martin & John ' " . Time gave No Line on the Horizon a negative review , but praised " Moment of Surrender " for its " heartbreaking melody " and Bono 's " Oh @-@ oh @-@ oh " vocals that reminded the critic of the end of " With or Without You " . Bono and Daniel Lanois both cited the song as their favourite track on the album , and Brian Eno thought the band should have chosen it as the album 's first single . Musician Gavin Friday described the song as " Al Green on Irish steroids " , and Hot Press editor Niall Stokes called it " a modern rock classic " that will " stand forever as one of U2 's most inspirational creations " .
Despite not being released as a single , " Moment of Surrender " charted in two countries . In the United States , the song appeared on the Mediabase Triple A chart at number 45 for the week of 17 November 2009 . In Belgium , the song appeared on the Ultratop 40 Singles Chart ( Wallonia ) for a week at number 35 .
= = Live performances = =
" Moment of Surrender " made its live debut on the opening night of the U2 360 ° Tour in Barcelona , Spain during the encore , as the show 's final song . It was played at nearly every subsequent concert on the tour as the closing song , being excluded from the setlist for only two of the tour 's 110 shows : the 9 December 2010 concert in Brisbane , Australia and the 29 May 2011 concert in Winnipeg . Prior to performances of " Moment of Surrender " , a disco ball was lowered and the stage lights turned off , and Bono encouraged fans to take out their mobile phones and create " a stadium full of tiny stars " . The National Post commented that despite being a " big @-@ concert cliché " , the move was effective and created a feeling of intimacy amongst the audience . Rolling Stone enjoyed the visual effect in context of the tour 's space theme , saying it " truly made it seem like the stadium had reached outerspace , with thousands of cellphone lights turning into stars " . The Daily Telegraph praised the " galaxy of mobile phones " , saying that despite the tour 's impressive stage and visual effects , " the most beautiful sight came when we couldn 't see [ the stage ] " . In reviewing a Paris show from July 2009 , the Sunday Times called " Moment of Surrender " the only track from No Line on the Horizon performed that evening that was strong enough to deserve inclusion with the rest of the show 's set list . NME was not as receptive to the song in a live setting , questioning the decision to end concerts with the song . A U2 360 ° Tour performance of " Moment of Surrender " appears on the group 's 2010 concert video U2 360 ° at the Rose Bowl . In a review of the film , Andrew Mueller of Uncut called " Moment of Surrender " an " [ i ] ll @-@ chosen closer " , as well as " overlong and under @-@ realised " . In 2009 , the song was performed by the band on the 35th season premiere of Saturday Night Live , and at the Brandenburg Gate in Berlin to celebrate the 20th anniversary of the fall of the Berlin Wall . On 18 June 2011 , Bono closed the song with lyrics from " Jungleland " to honor the recently deceased E Street Band saxophonist Clarence Clemons . The song was also one of only three non @-@ single tracks to be played by the band in their headline set at the Glastonbury Festival 2011 .
= = Legacy = =
" Moment of Surrender " appeared on several music publications ' " best of " lists for 2009 and the 2000s decade . Esquire called " Moment of Surrender " one of " The 10 Best Songs You ( Probably ) Didn 't Hear in 2009 " . Rolling Stone ranked it the best song of 2009 and the 36th @-@ best song of the decade , calling it " The most devastating ballad U2 — or anyone — has delivered since ' One . ' " In Rolling Stone 's voting for the decade 's best song , Metallica drummer Lars Ulrich placed " Moment of Surrender " in the number @-@ one spot on his ballot . Rolling Stone updated its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " in 2010 and placed " Moment of Surrender " at number 160 — just one year after the song 's release — marking the fourth @-@ best position of any U2 song on the list .
" Moment of Surrender " is the tenth track in the Anton Corbijn film Linear , based on a story by Corbijn and Bono where a Parisian traffic cop travels across France and the Mediterranean Sea to visit his girlfriend in Tripoli . During the sequence , the cop ( played by Saïd Taghmaoui ) , leaves the bar and begins to wander the streets of Cádiz at night , eventually making his way down to the beach where he falls asleep on the sand . In the morning he wakes up and the next track , " Cedars of Lebanon " , begins .
A live performance of " Moment of Surrender " taken from an 18 September 2010 concert in Paris appeared on the group 's 2010 live EP Wide Awake in Europe .
= = Charts = =
= = Personnel = =
Additional keyboards – Terry Lawless
Cello – Caroline Dale
Production – Brian Eno and Daniel Lanois
Engineering – Richard Rainey
Engineering assistance – Chris Heaney
Additional engineering – Declan Gaffney , and Carl Glanville
Mixing – Daniel Lanois and Declan Gaffney
Mixing assistance – Tom Hough , Dave Clauss , and Dave Emery
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= Gaboon viper =
Bitis gabonica , most commonly known as the Gaboon viper , is a viper species found in the rainforests and savannas of sub @-@ Saharan Africa . Like all vipers , it is venomous . It is not only the largest member of the genus Bitis , but also the world 's heaviest viperid , and it has the longest fangs – up to 2 inches in length ( 5 cm ) , and it has highest venom yield of any snake . Two subspecies are currently recognized , including the nominate subspecies described here .
= = Description = =
Adults average 125 – 155 cm ( 4 to 5 feet ) in total length ( body + tail ) with a maximum total length of 205 cm ( 81 in ) for a specimen collected in Sierra Leone . The sexes may be distinguished by the length of the teeth in relation to the total length of the body : approximately 12 % for males and 6 % for females . Adults , especially females , are very heavy and stout . One female had the following dimensions :
In their description of B. gabonica , Spawls et al .. ( 2004 ) give an average total length of 80 – 130 cm ( 32 to 51 @.@ 5 in ) , with a maximum total length of 175 cm ( 69 @.@ 3 in ) , saying the species may possibly grow larger still . They acknowledge reports of specimens over 1 @.@ 8 m ( 6 ft ) , or even over 2 m ( 6 @.@ 5 ft ) in total length , but claim there is no evidence to support this . A large specimen of exactly 1 @.@ 8 m ( 5 @.@ 9 ft ) total length , caught in 1973 , was found to have weighed 11 @.@ 3 kg ( 25 lb ) with an empty stomach . Very large specimens may possibly weigh up to 20 kg ( 44 lb ) , which would rank them as the world 's heaviest venomous snake ahead of the Eastern diamondback rattlesnake , but these masses are not known to have been verified .
The head is large and triangular , while the neck is greatly narrowed : almost one @-@ third the width of the head . A pair of " horns " is present between the raised nostrils — tiny in B. g. gabonica , but much larger in B. g. rhinoceros . The eyes are large and moveable , set well forward , and surrounded by 15 – 21 circumorbital scales . There are 12 – 16 interocular scales across the top of the head . Four or five scale rows separate the suboculars and the supralabials . There are 13 – 18 supralabials and 16 – 22 sublabials . The fangs may reach a length of 55 millimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) : the longest of any venomous snake .
Midbody , there are 28 – 46 dorsal scale rows , all of which are strongly keeled except for the outer rows on each side . The lateral scales are slightly oblique . The ventral scales number 124 – 140 : rarely more than 132 in males , rarely less than 132 in females . There are 17 – 33 paired subcaudal scales : males have no fewer than 25 , females no more than 23 . The anal scale is single .
The color pattern consists of a series of pale , subrectangular blotches running down the center of the back , interspaced with dark , yellow @-@ edged hourglass markings . The flanks have a series of fawn or brown rhomboidal shapes , with light vertical central bars . The belly is pale with irregular brown or black blotches . The head is white or cream with a fine , dark central line , black spots on the rear corners , and a dark blue @-@ black triangle behind and below each eye . The iris colour is cream , yellow @-@ white , orange or silvery .
= = Common names = =
The snake 's common names include Gaboon viper , butterfly adder , forest puff adder , whisper , swampjack , Gaboon adder , .
Originally a name given by the Portuguese , Gabon ( Gabão ) refers to the estuary on which the town of Libreville was built , in Gabon , and to a narrow strip of territory on either bank of this arm of the sea . As of 1909 , Gaboon referred to the northern portion of French Congo , south of the Equator and lying between the Atlantic Ocean and 12 ° E longitude .
= = Geographic range = =
This species can be found in Guinea , Ghana , Togo , Nigeria , Cameroon , Equatorial Guinea , Gabon , Republic of the Congo , DR Congo , northern Angola , Central African Republic , South Sudan , Uganda , Kenya , eastern Tanzania , Zambia , Malawi , eastern Zimbabwe , Mozambique , and northeast KwaZulu @-@ Natal Province in South Africa . Mallow et al . ( 2003 ) also list Sierra Leone and Liberia in West Africa . The type locality is given as " Gabon " ( Africa ) .
= = Habitat = =
The Gaboon viper is usually found in rainforests and nearby woodlands , mainly at low altitudes , but sometimes as high as 1500 m . Spawls et al . ( 2004 ) mention a maximum altitude of 2100 m . According to Broadley and Cock ( 1975 ) , it is generally found in environments that are parallel to those occupied by its close relative , B. arietans , which is normally found in more open country .
In Tanzania , this species is found in secondary thickets , cashew plantations , and in agricultural land under bushes and in thickets . In Uganda , they are found in forests and nearby grasslands . They also do well in reclaimed forest areas : cacao plantations in West Africa and coffee plantations in East Africa . They have been found in evergreen forests in Zambia . In Zimbabwe , they only occur in areas of high rainfall along the forested escarpment in the east of the country . In general , they may also be found in swamps , as well as in still and moving waters . They are commonly found in agricultural areas near forests and on roads at night .
= = Behavior = =
Primarily nocturnal , Gaboon vipers have a reputation for being slow @-@ moving and placid . They usually hunt by ambush , often spending long periods motionless , waiting for suitable prey to happen by . On the other hand , they have been known to hunt actively , mostly during the first six hours of the night . In Kumasi , Ghana , they were regularly killed around some stables in an open area with the forest some 500 meters away — a sign that they were hunting rats in the grassland . They are usually very tolerant snakes , even when handled , and rarely bite or hiss , unlike most vipers . However , bites by bad @-@ tempered individuals do occur .
Locomotion is mostly rectilinear , in a sluggish " walking " motion of the ventral scales . They may writhe from side to side when alarmed , but only for short distances . Ditmars ( 1933 ) even described them as being capable of sidewinding .
If threatened , they may hiss loudly as a warning , doing so in a deep and steady rhythm , slightly flattening the head at the expiration of each breath . Despite this , they are unlikely to strike unless severely provoked ; however , they are one of fastest striking snakes in the world , so care should be taken in handling them .
There have been numerous descriptions of their generally unaggressive nature . Sweeney ( 1961 ) wrote they are so docile that they " can be handled as freely as any non @-@ venomous species " , although this is absolutely not recommended . In Lane ( 1963 ) , Ionides explained he would capture specimens by first touching them lightly on the top of the head with a pair of tongs to test their reactions . Anger was rarely displayed , so the tongs were usually set aside and the snakes firmly grasped by the neck with one hand and the body supported with the other as he picked them up and carried them to a box for containment . He said the snakes hardly ever struggled .
Parry ( 1975 ) described how this species has a wider range of eye movement than other snakes . Along a horizontal plane , eye movement can be maintained even if the head is rotated up or down to an angle of up to 45 ° . If the head is rotated 360 ° , one eye will tilt up and the other down , depending on the direction of rotation . Also , if one eye looks forward , the other looks back , as if both are connected to a fixed position on an axis between them . In general , the eyes often flick back and forth in a rapid and jerky manner . When asleep , there is no eye movement and the pupils are strongly contracted . The pupils dilate suddenly and eye movement resumes when the animal wakes up .
= = Feeding = =
Because of their large , heavy body size , the adults have no trouble eating prey as large as fully grown rabbits . When prey happens by , they strike with very fast precision from any angle . Once they strike their prey , they hang on to it with their large fangs rather than letting it go and waiting for it to die . This behaviour is very different from the behaviour of other species of vipers . These snakes feed on a variety of birds and mammals , such as doves , many different species of rodents , including field mice and rats , as well as hares and rabbits . There are also reports of more unlikely prey items , such as tree monkeys , the brush @-@ tailed porcupine ( Atherurus ) and even the small royal antelope ( Neotragus ) .
= = Reproduction = =
During peak sexual activity , males engage in combat . This starts with one male rubbing its chin along the back of the other . The second male will then raise its head as high as possible . As they both do the same , the necks intertwine . When the heads are level , they turn towards each other and push . Their bodies intertwine as they switch positions . They become oblivious to everything else , continuing even after they fall off a surface or into water . Sometimes they intertwine and squeeze so tightly that their scales stand out from the pressure . They have also been observed to strike at each other with mouths closed . Occasionally , the combatants will tire and break off the fight by " mutual consent " , resting for a while before resuming once more . The event is settled when one of the two succeeds in pushing the other 's head to the ground and raising its own by 20 – 30 cm . In captivity , combat may occur four or five times a week until courtship and copulation ends .
Gestation takes about 7 months , which suggests a breeding cycle of two to three years . A five @-@ year breeding cycle may also be possible . Usually , they give birth in late summer . B. g. gabonica produces 8 – 43 live young . B. g. rhinoceros may produce as many as 60 . However , the actual number of offspring rarely exceeds 24 . Neonates are 25 – 32 cm in length and weigh 25 – 45 g .
= = Venom = =
Bites from this species are rare , due to their extremely unaggressive nature and because their range is limited to rainforest areas . Due to their sluggishness and unwillingness to move even when approached , bites most often occur due to persons accidentally stepping on a Gaboon viper , but even then in some cases this does not guarantee a bite . However , when a bite does occur , it should always be considered a serious medical emergency . Even an average bite from an average @-@ sized specimen is potentially fatal . Antivenom should be administered as soon as possible to save the victim 's life if not the affected limb .
The snake 's cytotoxic venom itself is not considered particularly toxic based on tests conducted in mice . In mice , the LD50 is 0 @.@ 8 – 5 @.@ 0 mg / kg IV , 2 @.@ 0 mg / kg IP and 5 @.@ 0 – 6 @.@ 0 mg / kg SC . However , the venom glands are enormous and each bite produces the largest quantities of venom of any venomous snake ; this is partially due to the fact that , unlike many African vipers such as the Puff Adder , the Gaboon viper does not release after a bite , which enables it to inject larger amounts of venom . Yield is probably related to body weight , as opposed to milking interval . Brown ( 1973 ) gives a venom yield range of 200 – 1000 mg ( of dried venom ) , A range of 200 – 600 mg for specimens 125 – 155 cm in length has also been reported . Spawls and Branch ( 1995 ) state from 5 to 7 ml ( 450 – 600 mg ) of venom may be injected in a single bite .
A study by Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) reported a maximum yield of 9 @.@ 7 ml of wet venom , which translated to 2400 mg of dried venom . They attached " alligator " clip electrodes to the angle of the open jaw of anesthetized specimens ( length 133 – 136 cm , girth 23 – 25 cm , weight 1 @.@ 3 – 3 @.@ 4 kg ) , yielding 1 @.@ 3 – 7 @.@ 6 ml ( mean 4 @.@ 4 ml ) of venom . Two to three electrical bursts within a space of five seconds apart were enough to empty the venom glands . The Gaboon vipers used for the study were milked between seven and 11 times over a 12 @-@ month period , during which they remained in good health and the potency of their venom remained the same .
Based on how sensitive monkeys were to the venom , Whaler ( 1971 ) estimated 14 mg of venom would be enough to kill a human being : equivalent to 0 @.@ 06 ml of venom , or 1 / 50 to 1 / 1000 of what can be obtained in a single milking . Marsh and Whaler ( 1984 ) wrote that 35 mg ( 1 / 30 of the average venom yield ) would be enough to kill a man of 70 kilograms ( 150 lb ) . Branch ( 1992 ) suggested that 90 – 100 mg would be fatal in humans . Due to the rarity of these type of snakebites , further investigation is needed .
In humans , a bite causes rapid and conspicuous swelling , intense pain , severe shock and local blistering . Other symptoms may include uncoordinated movements , defecation , urination , swelling of the tongue and eyelids , convulsions and unconsciousness . Blistering , bruising and necrosis may be extensive . There may be sudden hypotension , heart damage and dyspnoea . The blood may become incoagulable with internal bleeding that may lead to haematuria and haematemesis . Local tissue damage may require surgical excision and possibly amputation . Healing may be slow and fatalities during the recovery period are not uncommon .
= = Subspecies = =
= = Taxonomy = =
Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) discovered considerable differences between the two conventionally recognized subspecies of B. gabonica described above . According to their research , these two subspecies are as different from each other as they are from B. nasicornis . Consequently , Lenk et al . ( 1999 ) regard the western form as a separate species , B. rhinoceros .
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= The Sixth Extinction =
" The Sixth Extinction " is the first episode of the seventh season of the science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . It was first shown on the Fox network on November 7 , 1999 , in the United States . The episode was written by Chris Carter and directed by Kim Manners . " The Sixth Extinction " earned a Nielsen household rating of 10 @.@ 6 , being watched by 17 @.@ 82 million people in its initial broadcast . The episode received mixed to positive reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents Fox Mulder ( David Duchovny ) and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files . Mulder is a believer in the paranormal , while the skeptical Scully has been assigned to debunk his work . In the episode , Assistant Director Walter Skinner ( Mitch Pileggi ) and Michael Kritschgau ( John Finn ) work desperately in an attempt to discover what is wrong with Mulder , who is imprisoned by his own frenetic brain activity , but they are unaware of Agent Diana Fowley ’ s ( Mimi Rogers ) duplicity . In the meanwhile , Scully is hunting for an ancient artifact in Africa .
" The Sixth Extinction " helped to explore new aspects of the series ' overarching mythology and was the second episode in a trilogy of episodes featuring Mulder 's severe reaction to the appearance of an alien artifact . The episode was written due to series creator Chris Carter 's fascination with the possibility that extraterrestrials were involved in the great extinctions that had happened millions of years ago .
= = Plot = =
On the coast of Côte d 'Ivoire , Scully sits in her tent studying detailed photographs of the spacecraft half @-@ buried on the beach nearby . A figure , the Primitive African Man , mysteriously appears before suddenly vanishing , after which Scully 's tent is swarmed by flying insects . Back in the United States , Walter Skinner visits a delusional Fox Mulder , who is being kept in a padded cell at a Georgetown hospital . Mulder seemingly attacks Skinner , but actually covertly passes him a torn shred of his hospital gown reading , " HELP ME " .
Scully is visited by Dr. Amina Ngebe , Solomon Merkmellen 's former colleague who warns Scully to not tell any of the locals about the swarm or the Primitive African Man , although word is already out on the " African internet " . Soon afterwards , one of the locals working on excavating the ship is apparently scalded by boiling seawater . With the arrival of Dr. Barnes another " plague " occurs – that night the ocean turns blood red .
Skinner revisits a heavily drugged Mulder , who cannot talk but writes " Kritschgau " . Skinner goes to visit Kritschgau , now unemployed and living in a low @-@ cost apartment , and convinces him to visit the hospital with him . Once there , Kritschgau believes Mulder has alien induced mind reading abilities and injects him with a drug ( phenytoin ) to slow down his brain activity . Later Diana Fowley and his doctor arrive , and with his mind @-@ reading abilities , Mulder is able to tell Skinner that he knows about him being indebted to Krycek , and Diana Fowley 's connections with the Cigarette Smoking Man .
Scully , with Dr. Barnes ' help , is able to translate some of the spaceship , which contains information on genetics and various religions . Dr. Barnes ' behavior becomes increasingly erratic however and , armed with a machete , he refuses to let Scully or Ngebe leave . He soon realizes that the craft is bringing dead fish back to life , and Scully and Ngebe take the opportunity to knock him out and escape . Scully sees the vanishing man again in the car as they drive off .
Kritschgau and Skinner put Mulder under additional tests to verify his abnormal brain activity . They again inject Mulder with phenytoin , but this time they are caught by Fowley and Mulder goes into a seizure . Meanwhile Dr. Barnes , in a bizarre type of experiment , kills his driver , but the driver soon reanimates and kills him instead . Scully flies back to the U.S. and visits Mulder at the hospital . On the African coast , Ngebe arrives with the police , finding Dr. Barnes dead and the spaceship gone .
= = Production = =
Frank Spotnitz said of the episode 's origins , " We 've destroyed all the stuff about Mulder 's father , the project , and the Syndicate . All the things that had sustained us for six years were suddenly gone . We had no crutches . From that point on , every time we sat down to write a mythology show , we knew it was going to be a completely different challenge . " Chris Carter saw the episode as a transitional episode , stating " I felt that , with " The Sixth Extinction " , I was just playing a supporting role and that the episode , essentially the middle episode of a three @-@ episode arc , was just a transitional episode to get us to ' Amor Fati ' , which was really less about the mythology and more about Mulder 's choices in life . "
David Duchovny and Gillian Anderson both had other commitments as the season began , resulting in the producers delaying filming for this episode . It ended up being filmed third in the season , after the episodes " Hungry " and " The Goldberg Variation " . Carter wrote the episode at the same time as Duchovny was working on the next episode , " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati " . Kim Manners said preparations were confusing since it wasn 't known at the time how the storyline would unfold . Spotnitz said of the end result , " For me , it was a lot like a fifties monster movie with Scully out on the beach with this guy going nuts with a machete , the bug attacks , and the sea of blood . Yeah , it was supposed to be serious business but , overall , I thought it was shaping up as a pretty entertaining hour . "
The producers had to move the filming of the beach sequences from the previous episodes due to changes in the tides at that time of year . Similar to the previous episode , the spaceship was computer @-@ generated . The sequence where the locals are boiled by the ocean water was accomplished using underwater filming of stuntmen under various degrees of make up . Fifty thousand dead crickets were rented from a local entomologist for the scene where Scully 's tent was attacked by bugs . The live insects were portrayed by blowing popcorn and packing foam at Anderson with fans and editing it into insects in post production .
A large portion of the episode was based on the ancient astronaut theory , which proposes that intelligent extraterrestrial beings have visited Earth in antiquity or prehistory and made contact with humans . Frank Spotnitz later remarked that he was astounded at how little negative fan mail the show received , despite the fact that the " Biogenesis " / " The Sixth Extinction " / " Amor Fati " story arc heavily hinted that aliens were the originators of the notion of God and religion . He credited the manner in which the show handled this delicate subject , saying , " Often in the past , we 've done stuff where I was sure we would get angry letters . But we rarely do . And the reason is because of the way we handle things . In ' Amor Fati ' we treated the religious side with respect . " The ancient astronaut themes were later revisited in the two season nine episodes " Provenance " and " Providence . "
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" The Sixth Extinction " was first shown in the United States on November 7 , 1999 . This episode earned a Nielsen rating of 10 @.@ 6 , with a 16 share , meaning that roughly 10 @.@ 6 percent of all television @-@ equipped households , and 16 percent of households watching television , were tuned in to the episode . It was viewed by 17 @.@ 82 million viewers and was the most watched episode of the seventh season in the United States . The episode aired in the United Kingdom and Ireland on Sky1 on May 7 , 2000 , and received 1 @.@ 00 million viewers and was the third most watched episode that week . Fox promoted the episode with the tagline " Something is driving Mulder insane . Something he 's been searching for . Something he shouldn 't have found . " The episode was later included on The X @-@ Files Mythology , Volume 3 – Colonization , a DVD collection that contains episodes involved with the alien Colonist 's plans to take over the earth .
= = = Reviews = = =
" The Sixth Extinction " received mixed to positive reviews from critics . Tom Kessenich , in his book Examination : An Unauthorized Look at Seasons 6 – 9 of the X @-@ Files gave the episode a positive review , noting that the episode takes the themes of " Biogenesis " and " runs with them " . Ken Tucker of Entertainment Weekly awarded the episode a " B + " . Tucker praised series creator Chris Carter 's writing ability , stating that " the kickoff episode suggests the author 's limitless imagination for sustaining his alien @-@ nation tropes " . Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five . The two called the episode " the most arresting season opener in years " and noted that it " promises that maybe there 's life in the old mythology yet . " Shearman and Pearson , however , did critique the lack of finality to the episode , but attributed most of this to the fact that the episode was the second of a three @-@ part mythology tale . Den of Geek writer Nina Sordi ranked " The Sixth Extinction , " along with " Biogenesis " and " The Sixth Extinction II : Amor Fati , " as the fifth best episode of the series , writing , " it is evident that as [ The X @-@ Files ] progressed , the episodes surrounding those storylines and the breaking points Mulder and Scully endured push them further and further towards total , irreversible defeat . This is especially poignant when viewing this anxiety inducing trio of episodes . " Monica S. Kuebler of Exclaim magazine called " The Sixth Extinction " , along with " Biogenesis " and " Amor Fati " , one of the " best " episodes during the show 's " colonization " phase . Kenneth Silber of Space.com wrote positively of the episode , hoping that it foreshadowed answers to come , writing " As the middle installment of a three @-@ part story and what was then thought to be the final season premiere of The X @-@ Files , ' The Sixth Extinction ' is suffused with a somber pre @-@ apocalyptic mood , but one vivified by the possibility that soon we 'll have answers to the most important outstanding mysteries of the series . "
Not all reviews were so positive . Paula Vitaris from Cinefantastique gave the episode a negative review and awarded it one @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of four . She noted that " Mulder 's situation is handled just poorly " and argued that Mulder 's illness was created solely to provide a cross @-@ season cliffhanger . Todd VanDerWerff of The A.V. Club awarded the episode a " C " and called it a " weird bridge " . Largely , he criticized the episode for featuring " no real twists or complications here " in lieu of " things just [ … ] getting worse along a linear path " .
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= Snow ( visual novel ) =
Snow ( スノー , Sunō ) is a Japanese adult visual novel developed by Studio Mebius for Windows PCs on January 31 , 2003 . It was later ported without the erotic content to the Dreamcast , PlayStation 2 , and PlayStation Portable consoles . The story of Snow revolves around the life of Kanata Izumo , who is revisiting a village to help his relative manage a hot spring hotel . The gameplay in Snow follows a branching plot line which offers pre @-@ determined scenarios with courses of interaction , and focuses on the appeal of the female main characters by the player character .
The game was successful in both sales and popularity , it was ranked as the best @-@ selling PC game sold in Japan at the time of its release , and charted in the national top 50 several more times afterwards . Snow was voted as the twenty @-@ sixth best bishōjo game by the readers of Dengeki G 's Magazine in 2007 . A manga titled Snow : Pure White based on the visual novel was serialized in Comptiq between the September and December 2003 issues . Five light novels and several comic anthologies were also released , as were audio dramas .
= = Gameplay = =
Snow is a romance visual novel in which the player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo . Much of its gameplay is spent reading the text that appears on the screen , which represents the story 's narrative and dialogue . The text is accompanied by character sprites , which represent who Kanata is talking to , over background art . Throughout the game , the player encounters CG artwork at certain points in the story , which take the place of the background art and character sprites .
There are four main plot lines in the original Windows release that the player will have the chance to experience , one for each of the heroines in the story . Throughout gameplay , the player is given multiple options to choose from , and text progression pauses at these points until a choice is made . Some decisions can lead the game to end prematurely and offer an alternative ending to the plot . To view all plot lines in their entirety , the player will have to replay the game multiple times and choose different choices to further the plot to an alternate direction . In adult versions of the game , there are scenes depicting Kanata and a given heroine having sex .
= = Plot = =
= = = Story = = =
The story of Snow starts when Kanata Izumo , the main protagonist , revisits a small village called Ryūjinmura ( 龍神村 , lit . " village of the dragon god " ) , to help manage a local hotel with hot springs alongside his cousin Tsugumi . In the village , there is an old legend : In ancient times , Ryūjinmura was protected by the dragon goddess . However , one day the goddess fell in love with a human , which is strictly forbidden , and this incident caused the village to be always covered by snow after that . The game then tells the daily life of Kanata interacting with the village girls , and ultimately links the story to the legend . Snow follows a branching plot line with multiple endings , and depending on the decisions that the player makes during the game , the plot will progress in a specific direction .
= = = Main characters = = =
The player assumes the role of Kanata Izumo ( 出雲 彼方 , Izumo Kanata , voiced by Soichiro Hoshi ) , who is visiting Ryūjinmura as a part @-@ time worker of the local hotel owned by his cousin . During his stay , he meets his childhood friend Sumino Yukizuki ( 雪月 澄乃 , Yukizuki Sumino , voiced by Ayako Kawasumi ) , a soothing and gentle girl whose father has died . She loves anman ( a kind of mantou ) and claims it as " source of life " . Kanata also encounters a young energetic girl with a tomboy personality called Asahi Hiyorigawa ( 日和川 旭 , Hiyorigawa Asashi , voiced by Yukari Tamura ) , suddenly appearing before Kanata and claiming that she will " repulse the evil " from him .
In the outskirts of the village , Kanata meets the mysterious Shigure Kitazato ( 北里 しぐれ , Kitazato Shigure , voiced by Haruna Ikezawa ) ; Shigure has a shy personality and is extremely silent . The protagonist also finds a little girl called Ōka Wakō ( 若生 桜花 , Wakō Ōka , voiced by Tomoko Kaneda ) waiting around the jinja for her parents . She likes to play with her cat called Shamon ( シャモン ) . The physician of Ryujinmura has a daughter called Meiko Tachibana ( 橘 芽依子 , Tachibana Meiko , voiced by Naoko Watanabe ) , who is a close friend of Sumino . She likes to tease Kanata , and acts bizarrely in front of him . In Snow : Plus Edition , a new character referred to as Mysterious Girl ( 謎の少女 , Nazo no Shōjo , voiced by Ryōko Ono ) is introduced , bearing many secrets .
= = Development and release = =
After the completion of Zetsubō , Studio Mebius ( a brand under VisualArt 's ) started production on Snow . The artists for the visual novel were Asuka Pyon , who also drew the character designs , and Kobuichi . The scenario was written by three members of staff : Mochizuki Jet , Klein , and Jinno Masaki . I 've Sound , as well as T & N Music Factory , Famishin , and Fam contributed to the music composition . According to the liner notes on the original soundtrack of Snow , the producers acknowledged that the game 's structure resembled Key 's visual novels Kanon and Air . Yūichi Suzumoto , who is known for his work on Air , Clannad , and Planetarian : The Reverie of a Little Planet , provided scenario assistance for Snow .
On January 31 , 2003 , Snow was released as both a CD @-@ ROM and DVD @-@ ROM compatible to the Windows 98 / ME / 2000 / XP operating systems . An all @-@ ages version for the Dreamcast was released by Interchannel on September 25 , 2003 . Later on February 26 , 2004 , Interchannel ported the game to the PlayStation 2 in both limited and regular editions ; the PS2 port adds an additional scenario for Meiko Tachibana , who was a supporting character in prior releases of Snow . A full voice version was released for Windows on September 24 , 2004 . Then on September 29 , 2006 , Snow : Plus Edition was released for Windows , sporting added parts from the console versions and introducing a new heroine . Snow is playable on NTT DoCoMo 's FOMA cell phones . A PlayStation Portable version of the game called Snow : Portable was released by Prototype on August 16 , 2007 . The standard edition for Windows was released on July 25 , 2008 , containing two fan discs , and the content from the portable edition of Snow . Finally , a downloadable version of the PSP edition was made available on the PlayStation Store by Prototype on January 21 , 2010 .
= = Related media = =
= = = Books and publications = = =
Five adult light novels written by Hangetsu Mitamura and published by Paradigm were released between June 2003 and January 2004 . The cover art and internal illustrations were drawn by Asuka Pyon , the artist who drew the artwork in the visual novel . The first novel , titled Snow : Hakanayuki ( Snow ～ 儚雪 ～ , Sumino ) , was released on June 25 , 2003 . The second novel was released on July 25 , 2003 , titled Snow : Chīsaki Inori ( Snow ～ 小さき祈り ～ , Asahi ) . The third novel , titled Snow : Inishie no Yūyake ( Snow ～ 古の夕焼け ～ ) , was released on September 20 , 2003 . The fourth novel , titled Snow : Kioku no Toge ( Snow ～ 記憶の棘 ～ , Shigure ) , was released on November 22 , 2003 . The fifth and final novel , titled Snow : Sora no Yurikago ( Snow ～ 空の揺りかご ～ , Oka ) , was released on January 16 , 2004 . A 192 @-@ page art book , titled Snow Art Works , and containing information such as story and character explanations , and images from the visual novel , was released by Paradigm on July 25 , 2003 .
= = = Manga = = =
A game @-@ based manga adaptation titled Snow : Pure White , and illustrated by Yuki Azuma , was serialized between the September and December 2003 issues of Comptiq . The individual chapters were later compiled into a single bound volume published by Kadokawa Shoten under the Kadokawa Comics Ace imprint on December 19 , 2003 .
Ohzora released a stand @-@ alone comic anthology , titled Snow Anthology Game Comics , under the Twin Heart Comics imprint on March 22 , 2003 . A two @-@ volume anthology series , titled Snow Comic Anthology , was released by Ichijinsha under the DNA Media Comics imprint between April 25 and June 25 , 2003 . The now @-@ defunct publisher Raporto released a comic anthology , titled Snow Game Comic , spanning two volumes in 2003 between April 25 and May 24 under the Raporto Comics imprint . Enterbrain released a single anthology , titled Snow Anthology Comic , under the Maji @-@ Cu Comics imprint on May 26 , 2003 .
= = = Music and audio CDs = = =
The opening theme for Snow is " Snow " sung by Yumi Matsuzawa , who also provided vocals for the ending themes " Futari no Ashiato " ( ふたりの足跡 ) and " Yuki no Kanata " ( 雪のかなた ) . The insert song " Sora no Yurikago " ( 空の揺りかご ) is by Ayako Kawasumi ; a single titled Snow Extra CD was released at Comiket 64 on August 15 , 2003 , containing " Sora no Yurikago " . These tracks were included with other background music in the Snow Original Soundtrack released on April 25 , 2003 . Before the visual novel 's release , Snow Image Album was released at Comiket 63 on December 28 , 2002 .
Three drama CDs based on Snow have been published , the first CD volume was released by Movic on August 22 , 2003 , focusing on Sumino Yukizuki . Movic released a second volume focusing on Asahi Hiyorigawa , on October 24 , 2003 . The third and final volume , telling the story of Ryūjinmura 's legend , was released by Frontier Works on August 25 , 2004 .
= = Reception = =
In a national sales ranking of bishōjo games conducted by PCNews , Snow DVD @-@ ROM premiered at number one , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release ranked at number three . During the beginning of February , Snow CD @-@ ROM 's ranking fell to number eight , whilst Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted just above at number seven . Snow DVD @-@ ROM charted again at number thirty one during mid @-@ February , whilst the CD @-@ ROM release had low enough sales to not chart . Finally , both the Snow CD @-@ ROM and Snow DVD @-@ ROM releases made their final charting appearances at number thirty three and forty six at the beginning of March , respectively .
Snow was the second most widely sold game of 2003 on Getchu.com , a major redistributor of visual novel and domestic anime products . According to sales information taken from the Japanese Amazon website , Snow sold 64 @,@ 526 copies in 2003 . In the October 2007 issue of Dengeki G 's Magazine , poll results for the 50 best bishōjo games were released . Snow ranked No. 26 out of 249 titles , with 11 votes . Snow is featured in the Lycèe Trading Card Game ; a set of playable Snow cards are included in the VisualArt 's 1 @.@ 1 booster pack . Snow is considered a classic " nakige " game .
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= Miss Meyers =
Miss Meyers ( 1949 – March 1963 ) was an American Quarter Horse racehorse and broodmare , the 1953 World Champion Quarter Running Horse . She won $ 28 @,@ 725 ( equivalent to about $ 254 @,@ 000 as of 2016 ) as well as 17 races . As a broodmare , she produced , or was the mother of , the first American Quarter Horse Association ( AQHA ) Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers . She was the mother of three other foals , and was inducted into the AQHA Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Early life = =
Miss Meyers was a chestnut @-@ colored mare born in 1949 and sired , or fathered , by Leo , a member of the AQHA Hall of Fame . Miss Meyers ' dam , or mother , was Star 's Lou . Star 's Lou 's father was Oklahoma Star P @-@ 6 , another AQHA Hall of Fame member . She was bred by O. C. Meyer , and later owned by Bruce A. Green .
= = Race career = =
Miss Meyers raced from 1952 until 1955 and won seven stakes races , placing second in seven others , and third in two more . She won 17 of her 59 starts on the racetrack . She placed second in another 15 races and third in 5 . Her total earnings on the track were $ 28 @,@ 727 ( approximately $ 253 @,@ 800 in 2016 dollars ) . Among her wins in stakes races were the 1952 Buttons and Bows Stakes , the 1953 California Championship , the 1953 Billy Anson Stakes , the 1953 Rocky Mountain Quarter Horse Association World Championship Dash , the 1955 Bart B Stakes , the 1955 Barbara B Stakes and the 1955 Traveler Stakes . She set four track records , twice at 350 yards ( 320 m ) , once at 400 yards ( 370 m ) , and once at 440 yards ( 400 m ) . In 1953 she was named the AQHA World Champion Quarter Running Horse , as well as the High Money Earning Horse ; the AQHA also awarded her the title of Superior Race Horse in 1954 . The highest speed index she achieved , a measure of how fast she was able to run , during her racing career was AAAT , the highest possible at the time . It was not until she was a four @-@ year @-@ old , during 1953 , that Miss Meyers performed well and started winning on the track . That year she won $ 15 @,@ 398 ( approximately $ 136 @,@ 200 in 2016 ) dollars , over half her lifetime earnings , as well as seven of her seventeen career wins .
= = Broodmare and legacy = =
After Miss Meyers retired from the racetrack , she became the dam of the first AQHA Supreme Champion , Kid Meyers , sired by fellow Hall of Famer Three Bars , a Thoroughbred . ( A Supreme Champion is a horse that is outstanding on the racetrack , as a riding horse at horse shows and also conformationally , or how well put together the horse is ) . Kid Meyers was a 1963 sorrel stallion , and had 23 starts on the racetrack , winning 6 times . He earned a total of $ 10 @,@ 655 ( approximately $ 77 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) on the track . After retiring from the racetrack , he earned his AQHA Champion in 1966 and his AQHA Supreme Champion in 1967 . His highest speed index was AAA . Unlike most foals , who nurse for months after birth , Kid Meyers was orphaned at the age of one month in March 1963 .
Miss Meyers had three other foals . Oh My Oh , a 1957 bay mare sired by the Thoroughbred stallion Spotted Bull , started 30 times , winning eight races for a total earnings of $ 12 @,@ 592 ( approximately $ 99 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) and coming in second in a stakes race . She earned an AAAT speed index . As a broodmare , she was the dam of All American Futurity winner Three Oh 's . Miss Meyers ' 1958 foal was Mr Meyers , a sorrel stallion sired by fellow Hall of Famer Go Man Go , who started 41 times , winning 9 times and placing third in four stakes races . His total race earnings were $ 25 @,@ 656 ( approximately $ 200 @,@ 700 as of 2016 dollars ) . He went on to earn an AQHA Champion title along with a Superior Race Horse award , to go with his AAAT speed index . Mr Meyers became a successful breeding stallion . Miss Meyers ' fourth foal was a 1959 chestnut mare named Milpool sired by Vandy . Milpool was never raced or entered in a horse show .
Miss Meyers died in March 1963 , shortly after having Kid Meyers . She was inducted into the AQHA 's American Quarter Horse Hall of Fame in 2009 .
= = Pedigree = =
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= Far Away Places ( Mad Men ) =
" Far Away Places " is the sixth episode of the fifth season of the American television drama series Mad Men and the 58th episode of the series overall . It was written by series creator and executive producer Matthew Weiner and writer Semi Chellas , and directed by Scott Hornbacher . It originally aired on AMC in the United States on April 22 , 2012 .
The episode takes place almost entirely over a single day , telling three stories in a non @-@ linear narrative . Peggy becomes alienated after separate fights with her boyfriend Abe and a client . Roger and Jane take LSD with a group of intellectuals , altering how they see the world and allowing them to speak honestly about their marriage . Don and Megan leave the office and take an impromptu road trip to Plattsburgh , New York , which doesn 't turn out as planned after Megan becomes aggrieved with how Don treats her .
" Far Away Places " was watched by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers and achieved 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the key 18 – 49 demographic . The episode received overwhelming critical acclaim , with many critics noting the episode 's formal experiments with and focus on the passage of time . The sequence where Roger and Jane take LSD was particularly celebrated for the visual excellence and performances by John Slattery and Peyton List . The theme of the episode was pinpointed by the series writers and television journalists as the desire to escape .
= = Plot = =
" Far Away Places " is split into three vignettes that take place almost entirely during a single day following the characters Peggy , Roger , and Don .
= = = Peggy = = =
The episode begins with Peggy 's day and a heated argument with her boyfriend Abe , over her preoccupation with work and the effect this has on their sex life . The argument ends with Abe leaving in a huff . After Don pulls Megan away for an impromptu trip to a Howard Johnson 's hotel in far northern New York , Peggy has to pitch to the Heinz executives without them . Peggy unsuccessfully tries to sell the Heinz executives on her concept . Frustrated , she leaves work , has a couple of drinks , and goes to see the film Born Free . She sees a young man smoking marijuana behind her , partakes herself , and eventually gives him a hand job . She returns to her office to see Ginsberg arguing with his father . After being told off by Ginsberg for eavesdropping , she falls asleep in Don 's office . She awakens to a call from Don , who seems alarmed for incomprehensible reasons . Don hangs up on her and Peggy returns to her office . When Peggy asks about Ginsberg 's life , Ginsberg initially claims to be a Martian , stating that Morris Ginsberg is not his father . Michael was born in a Nazi concentration camp and , after its liberation , Morris claimed him from a Swedish orphanage when Michael was five years old . Peggy returns home , affected by this story , and calls Abe . She tells him about Ginsberg and asks him to come over to be with her .
= = = Roger = = =
From Roger 's perspective of the day , he invites Don to go on a trip with him to a Howard Johnson 's in Plattsburgh , New York , hoping to get out of a dinner party with his wife Jane 's " snooty friends " and is subsequently disappointed when Don decides to take Megan on the trip instead . Roger and Jane go to the party , which is hosted by Jane 's therapist and her husband . After dinner , Roger asks Jane if they can leave , but Jane reminds Roger that he agreed to take LSD with the group and begs him to stay , as she doesn 't want to go through the experience alone . Roger is initially unimpressed with the drug , but comes around after his consciousness begins to change with vivid audio @-@ visual hallucinations . Roger and Jane return home via taxi and take a bath together , during which Roger imagines he is watching the 1919 World Series from the bathtub . The couple then talks candidly about their marriage for the first time . During this moment of awareness , Jane admits that she knows the marriage is over . The next morning , a jovial Roger says goodbye to a shocked Jane , who appears regretful about what she said the night before .
= = = Don = = =
The episode 's finale is Don 's day and the trip to Plattsburgh and Howard Johnson 's Restaurant and Motor Lodge . As he and Megan eat in the restaurant , Megan expresses her frustration at having her needs and desires take a back seat to Don 's . The discussion escalates into a fight , during which Megan makes a hurtful remark about Don 's mother , and Don storms out and drives off without her . Don returns sometime later and begins to worry when he can 't find Megan . He spends hours looking for and waiting for her , calling Peggy ( the other side of the conversation from the first part of the episode ) as well as Megan 's mother in Montreal .
After waiting for hours at Howard Johnson 's and phoning home repeatedly , Don drives home in the early morning to find Megan in their apartment with the security chain on the door . Don kicks the door in , violently struggles with Megan , and chases her through the apartment . Megan and Don trip and collapse on the floor as Megan weeps . Don tearfully hugs her at the waist and tells her he thought he had lost her .
= = = Epilogue = = =
That morning , Megan and Don return to Sterling Cooper Draper Pryce . Don is beckoned to the conference room , where Bert Cooper admonishes him for being " on love leave " . Don replies that his love life is none of Bert 's business . Bert retorts that it is , in fact , HIS business and admits astonishment that the firm is running as well as it is with how little Don is actually working . Bert leaves Don standing alone in the conference room as Don looks through the picture windows at the employees going about their business . Roger , full of enthusiasm , pops into the conference room and tells Don he has an announcement : " It 's going to be a beautiful day ! "
= = Production = =
Creator Matthew Weiner said " Far Away Places " was inspired by " anthologized French films " with " lots of short stories in them " , with all three short stories linked by a thematic " desire to go away " . He further explained that " Peggy has this moment where she tries to be Don and fails and then goes on Peggy 's version of Don – sexually irresponsible , and drunk , and working " . Elisabeth Moss said the handjob Peggy gives a stranger in the theatre is a " moment of forgetting " after the frustrating Heinz pitch .
Weiner spoke about the structure of the episode in June 2012 :
Structurally , I love this French movie by Max Ophüls called Le Plaisir . It 's three or four Guy de Maupassant stories that are told by a narrator , and then characters start to appear behind each other , their stories overlap and they are just walking through , and you realize it 's a complete world . What I loved about that was just telling the story from that one person ’ s point of view . In Peggy 's story , she 's in every scene , nothing happens without her there . And it 's the same thing with Don and the same thing with Roger . So you 're really getting this very private perspective , and then thematically holding it together by saying , " Here , this is about the status of the relationship . " We weren 't sure that it was going to work . The hardest part was breaking it up for commercials so that the Peggy and the Roger stories would be in the same segment and you wouldn 't come back and think you were in the middle of another episode .
He spoke about the writing of a scene of the episode in August 2012 :
I had , in the writers room , given this speech about Ginsberg saying he was a Martian . I delivered it as Ginsberg . We knew that Peggy 's story was going to climax with that , and it was going to be their great moment of intimacy ; he would distract her from her failure and bond with her in that strange way that people who feel separate do . Then , when we were writing the draft , I got the notes from the room , and the speech was like one sentence . We searched everywhere , and it turned out I had never pitched more than that one sentence : " I 'm a Martian . " I had a great version of it , but it turned out it had all been in my head in one way or another . It all had to come from scratch . Once I reduced the panic and tried to re @-@ create it , it did happen . So , to me , it still has a magical quality to it .
Weiner characterized Roger 's acid trip as an experience of " complete honesty " and an " experience of empathy , something he 's probably never experienced in his life . He doesn 't see the world through other people 's lives and that kind of epiphany to me is very beautiful , even though it 's the end of the relationship . They are alone in the truth together " .
While discussing the fight between Don and Megan , Weiner commented on the violence and passion , noting that " what you get is that Don loves this woman " and that Megan is " everything that 's good to him " . Jessica Pare commented on Don 's lack of respect for her work , and Jon Hamm judged Don 's actions as " immature " . However , Hamm regarded Don 's fear as " genuine " when he is unsure of Megan 's whereabouts . The flashback scene between Don and Megan in the car was actually shot for the fourth season finale , " Tomorrowland , written and directed by Weiner , but was cut . Weiner decided to reinsert this scene into the episode as a flashback .
The exterior scenes of the Howard Johnson 's hotel were filmed in October 2011 at the Regency Inn and Suites in Baldwin Park , California . The hotel operated as a Howard Johnson 's from 1967 until it was sold in 1995 .
Editor Christopher Gay spoke about the episode in August 2012 :
Narratively speaking , we wanted the stories of these three relations of Peggy , Roger , and Don to be their own story . We wanted to give you a little bit more each time you saw each of the three story lines so that when you got to the third one , everything totally made sense . I 've talked to people and they 've had to watch it a few times to fully digest . Also , the score in the episode is pretty unique and more tonal and atmospheric than what we normally do . It 's a guide , too , that helps you feel when one story is ending and another is coming in and knowing that the shift is happening . I think the score and the sound design definitely helped guide the narrative .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
The episode received overwhelmingly laudatory reviews from television critics , particularly for its unusual departure from the standard Mad Men episode structure and is considered to be one of the best in the series . Alan Sepinwall of HitFix exalted the episode and the " more formally experimental " season , admitting , " I 'm still not sure I understood 100 % of it . But I know I liked it . A lot . " Sepinwall characterized " Far Away Places " as " an episode that gave the feel of dropping acid even when everyone on camera was stone sober . Matt Weiner , co @-@ writer Semi Chellas , director Scott Hornbacher , and the actors combined to give us some of the most memorable moments the show has ever done . " Todd VanderWerff of The A.V. Club gave it an A grade , compared it to previous " structurally daring " episodes like " Seven Twenty Three " and " The Jet Set " , and praised the director for the " beautifully shot " episode and the " gorgeous image of [ Roger ] and Jane lying , heads touching , on the floor , admitting their marriage just isn ’ t working " , while noting that the enemy of the season is " the passage of time itself " .
Verne Gay of Newsday called it a good , but difficult episode , saying , " the story lines were all parallel – it was even an anthology , with each story mirroring the next ( bringing to mind that memorable scene when Roger , under the influence , is looking in the mirror and told to look away ) ... the themes of male @-@ female entanglement , and disentangle ( and yes , hair , once again is a predominant metaphor . ) The themes of travel ... of being a stranger in a strange land ... of life on Mars , or in Plattsburgh ... of alienation , pursuit , and of a generation born during the Holocaust , amid the Holocaust " . Tim Goodman of The Hollywood Reporter said the LSD trip " was handled brilliantly here , with insight , surprises , unpredictability , excellent humor and a really lovely , smart ending " and the image of Jane and Roger on the floor as an example of the " visual excellence " of the episode . TIME magazine writer Nate Rawlings compared the episode to a David Lynch film and noted that all three " stories also shared the thematic connection of the struggle between professional and work life . "
IGN reviewer Eric Goldman praised the performances of John Slattery and Peyton List and said the episode " took three of the show 's best characters and rocked their worlds in very different ways , telling three separate stories that were all utterly involving and moving , and delivering one of the show 's best episodes ever in the process . This show continues to operate on a level few other series could dream of ... " . Roger Friedman of Forbes called the LSD sequences with Jane and Roger to be " so well @-@ written they were kind of transcendent " . Salon writer Nellie Engoron acclaimed the episode , while pointing out that " with this episode ’ s tilt of the seesaw back to the older generation from the flailing youngsters , we ’ re reminded that while the 1960s saw a cultural shift towards youth , like a drunk , no historical change walks a straight line . For all the claims that Don and others have made that the “ kids ” increasingly hold the cards , the real truth ( if we ’ re telling it ) is that older white guys like Bert and Roger never truly lost power , even if they began to hide behind the scenes while fresh young faces took the public glory . "
= = = Ratings = = =
The episode was viewed by 2 @.@ 6 million viewers on the night of its original airing . It drew 0 @.@ 9 million viewers in the 18 – 49 demographic .
= = = Awards = = =
" Far Away Places " was nominated for two Primetime Emmy Awards , for Outstanding Writing for a Drama Series and Outstanding Single @-@ Camera Picture Editing for a Drama Series .
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= Awakening ( Star Trek : Enterprise ) =
" Awakening " is the eighth episode of the fourth season of the American science fiction television series Star Trek : Enterprise , and originally aired on November 26 , 2004 on UPN . The script was written by André Bormanis and the episode was directed by Star Trek : Voyager alumni Roxann Dawson . The episode was the first of the season for both Bormanis and Dawson . The episode is the second of a three @-@ part episode arc which started in " The Forge " and concludes in " Kir 'Shara " .
Set in the 22nd century , the series follows the adventures of the first Starfleet starship Enterprise , registration NX @-@ 01 . In this episode , the Vulcan government seek to make the Enterprise leave orbit so they can attack a renegade faction of Vulcans , and afterwards the long @-@ standing enemy of the Vulcans , the Andorians . Meanwhile , Captain Jonathan Archer and Commander T 'Pol have been captured by the Syrrannites , and it is discovered that Archer has the katra of Surak . He has visions which lead him to find an ancient Vulcan artefact called the " Kir 'Shara " as the group come under attack from the Vulcans .
Elements of the plot of the episode were compared by executive producer to the Protestant Reformation with the Vulcan High Command representing the Catholic Church . The producers took care to cast actors in the roles of T 'Pau and Surak who looked similar to the actors who portrayed those parts in The Original Series . Nielsen ratings for the first run of the episode saw a decrease from the first part of the trilogy , down to 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . The critical response was mixed , saying that whilst they were entertained by the episode , there were several elements in the plot which were problematic .
= = Plot = =
Ambassador Soval is summoned before Administrator V 'Las and the High Council to face punishment over his use of a mind meld . Since the act is widely considered to be criminal by the Vulcan authorities , Soval is summarily dismissed from the Ambassadorial service . Meanwhile , Captain Archer and Commander T 'Pol are questioned by the Syrrannites . After a short while , T 'Pol is taken to see her mother , T 'Les , and the two disagree about the tenets of the group — the Vulcan authorities call them extremists , a term T 'Les disagrees with . Soon , Archer begins to see visions of an old Vulcan , and the dissidents determine that he had the katra of Surak transferred into him via mind meld .
V 'Las , now largely unopposed on the Council , becomes increasingly obsessed with decisively ending the Syrrannite threat once and for all . He postpones his plans to bombard the encampment , after delays in convincing Enterprise to leave orbit . He contacts Starfleet , and the Admiralty give Commander Tucker direct orders , which he refuses to carry out directly . He attempts , with assistance from Soval , to send a rescue shuttlepod to " The Forge " , but they are intercepted by Vulcan patrol vessels . V 'Las then finally orders Vulcan warships to directly engage Enterprise , and Soval suggests that they should retreat before they are severely damaged .
A ritual is performed to transfer the katra into the mind of T 'Pau , but the attempt fails . Archer continues to see Surak who informs him that he must find the relic known as the " Kir 'Shara " . The Vulcan military begin to bombard the complex . Archer , T 'Pol , and T 'Pau remain behind to search for the relic , and Archer is able to use his knowledge to unlock a door to reveal it . As they exit , T 'Pol finds her mother , but she soon dies after being seriously injured in the attack . On Enterprise , Soval reveals that the Vulcans , despite the recent peace accord , are preparing a pre @-@ emptive strike against the Andorians , and Tucker orders an immediate course at maximum warp .
= = Production = =
" Awakening " was the second part of a three @-@ part trilogy of episodes during the fourth season of Enterprise that were created to deal with the differences between the Enterprise @-@ era Vulcans and those seen in series set later in the timeframe of the franchise . Show runner Manny Coto summed up these differences saying , " Our Vulcans lie , our Vulcans are monolithic , our Vulcans are not pacifistic . " He sought to introduce a situation which he compared to the 16th @-@ century Protestant Reformation and wanted to include a Vulcan character who would effectively be in the role of Martin Luther , while the Vulcan High Command represented the Catholic Church .
The episode saw the re @-@ casting of two roles which had previously appeared in episodes of The Original Series . These were the parts of T 'Pau and Surak . T 'Pau made her first appearance in " Amok Time " , where she was played by Celia Lovsky . For " Awakening " , Kara Zediker was cast in the role . Zediker had previously appeared in the first season of 24 as Elizabeth Nash . Surak had been played by Barry Atwater in " The Savage Curtain " , but this role was taken by Bruce Gray for " Awakening " . Gray had previously portrayed Admiral Chekote in The Next Generation episode " Gambit " and the Deep Space Nine episode " The Circle " . For both of these parts , the producers attempted to cast actors who looked similar to the originals .
Robert Foxworth reprises his role from the first part of the trilogy as Administrator V 'Las , and Joanna Casidy had previously portrayed T 'Les earlier in the season in the episode " Home " . John Rubinstein , who appears in " Awakening " as Koval , has previously appeared as a Mazarite earlier in the series in the episode " Fallen Hero " and had appeared in " The 37 's " , an episode of Voyager . Gary Graham returned as Soval , who he has portrayed throughout the series from the pilot episode onwards . Director Roxann Dawson has previously portrayed B 'Elanna Torres in Voyager , and " Awakening " marked the tenth episode of the series that she had directed . It was her only episode of season four , and her last on Enterprise . It was also writer André Bormanis ' first episode of the season , who had previously written several episodes of the series as well as Voyager .
Filming started on September 23 , 2004 , and concentrated on Enterprise ship scenes on the standing sets for the first two days . After that production moved to the cave sets , which were dressed with Vulcan artifacts . On the fourth day of production , those artifacts were removed so that the same sets could use used to film the visions that Archer has of Surak . All exterior scenes in the Vulcan desert @-@ like Forge were shot on a soundstage . The final day of filming took place on October 1 , when all the scenes set in the Vulcan High Command were filmed . These involved only Foxworth , Graham and Rubinstein as well as a handful of extras .
= = Reception and home media = =
" Awakening " was first aired in the United States on UPN on November 26 , 2004 . The broadcast saw the episode come in fifth place during the timeslot , with a Nielsen rating of 1 @.@ 8 / 3 . This means that it was seen by 1 @.@ 8 percent of all households , and 3 percent of all of those watching television at the time of the broadcast . It gained higher ratings than The WB , which aired re @-@ runs of What I Like About You and Grounded for Life , but was behind the other four major networks with NBC 's Dateline winning the hour with ratings of 5 @.@ 9 / 11 . The ratings received by Enterprise continued a downward trend in recent episodes , with ratings of 1 @.@ 9 / 3 received by the previous episode .
Michelle Erica Green , reviewing the episode for TrekNation was undecided about whether the main point of the episode where Captain Archer is expected to lead the Vulcans back to their main path of logic was a " wonderfully progressive concept or just regressive Trek in which humans have all the answers " . She thought that the change in Soval 's opinions in this episode was difficult to accept and that the other members of the main cast didn 't get a great deal to do in the episode . However , whilst she thought that " Awakening " was a visual improvement over " The Forge " , she was reserving judgement until she had seen the third part of the trilogy . Jamahl Epsicokhan at his website " Jammer 's Reviews " thought that certain elements of the plot didn 't follow logical paths , such as how Archer found the Kir 'shara in a few minutes when apparently the Syrrannites had been looking for it for two years even though " it sits in a chamber behind a door that practically announces , ' IMPORTANT RELIC INSIDE ' ? " However , he called the episode entertaining and gave it a score of three out of four .
The first home media release of " The Forge " was in the season four DVD box set of Enterprise , originally released in the United States on November 1 , 2005 . The Blu @-@ ray edition was released on April 1 , 2014 .
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= Mole cricket =
Mole crickets are members of the insect family Gryllotalpidae , in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Mole crickets are cylindrical @-@ bodied insects about 3 – 5 centimetres ( 1 @.@ 2 – 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with small eyes and shovel @-@ like forelimbs highly developed for burrowing . They are present in many parts of the world and where they have been introduced into new regions , may become agricultural pests .
Mole crickets have three life stages , eggs , nymphs and adults . Most of their life in these stages is spent underground but adults have wings and disperse in the breeding season . They vary in their diet ; some species are vegetarian , mainly feeding on roots , others are omnivores , including worms and grubs in their diet , while a few are largely predacious . Male mole crickets have an exceptionally loud song ; they sing from a sub @-@ surface burrow that opens out into the air in the shape of an exponential horn . The song is an almost pure tone , modulated into chirps . It is used to attract females , either for mating , or for indicating favourable habitats for them to lay their eggs .
In Zambia , mole crickets are thought to bring good fortune , while in Latin America they are said to predict rain . In Florida , where Scapteriscus mole crickets are non @-@ native , they are considered pests , and various biological controls have been used . Gryllotalpa species have been used as food in West Java , Vietnam , and the Philippines .
= = Description = =
Mole crickets vary in size and appearance , but most of them are of moderate size for an insect , typically between 3 @.@ 2 and 3 @.@ 5 cm ( 1 @.@ 3 and 1 @.@ 4 in ) long as adults . They are adapted for underground life and are cylindrical in shape and covered with fine , dense hairs . The head , forelimbs , and prothorax are heavily sclerotinised but the abdomen is rather soft . The head bears two threadlike antennae and a pair of beady eyes . The two pairs of wings are folded flat over the abdomen ; in most species , the fore wings are short and rounded and the hind wings are membranous and reach or exceed the tip of the abdomen ; however , in some species the hind wings are reduced in size and the insect is unable to fly . The fore legs are flattened for digging but the hind legs are shaped somewhat like the legs of a true cricket ; however , these limbs are more adapted for pushing soil , rather than leaping , which they do rarely and poorly . The nymphs resemble the adults apart from the absence of wings and genitalia ; the wingpads become larger after each successive moult .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
The Gryllotalpidae are a monophyletic group in the order Orthoptera ( grasshoppers , locusts and crickets ) . Cladistic analysis of mole cricket morphology in 2015 identifies six tribes , of which four were then new : Indioscaptorini ( Scapteriscinae ) , Triamescaptorini , Gryllotalpellini and Neocurtillini ( Gryllotalpinae ) , and two existing tribes , Scapteriscini and Gryllotalpini , are revised . The group name is derived straightforwardly from Latin ' gryllus ' , cricket , and ' talpa ' , mole .
Within these subfamilies , genera include :
Gryllotalpa
Gryllotalpella
Leptocurtilla
Neocurtilla
† Pterotriamescaptor
Indioscaptor
Scapteriscus
Neoscapteriscus
Triamescaptor
† Archaeogryllotalpoides
† Cratotetraspinus
† Marchandia
† Palaeoscapteriscops
Mole cricket fossils are rare . A stem group fossil , Cratotetraspinus , is known from the Lower Cretaceous of Brazil . Two specimens of Marchandia magnifica in amber have been found in the Lower Cretaceous of Charente @-@ Maritime in France . They are somewhat more abundant in the Tertiary amber of the Baltic and Dominican regions ; impressions are found in Europe and the American Green River Formation .
Mole crickets are not closely related to the " pygmy mole crickets " , the Tridactyloidea , which are in the grasshopper suborder Caelifera rather than the cricket suborder Ensifera . The two groups , and indeed their resemblance in form to the mammalian mole family Talpidae with their powerful front limbs , form an example of convergent evolution , both developing adaptations for burrowing .
= = Behavior = =
Adults of most species of mole cricket can fly powerfully , if not with agility , but males do so infrequently . The females typically take wing soon after sunset , and are attracted to areas where males are calling , which they do for about an hour after sunset . This may be in order to mate , or they may be influenced by the suitability of the habitat for egg @-@ laying , as demonstrated by the number of males present and calling in the vicinity .
= = = Life cycle = = =
Mole crickets are hemimetabolous meaning they undergo incomplete metamorphosis ; when nymphs hatch from eggs , the nymphs increasingly resemble the adult form as they grow and pass through a series of up to ten moults . After mating , there may be a period of one or two weeks before the female starts laying eggs . She burrows into the soil to a depth of 30 cm ( 12 in ) , ( 72 cm ( 28 in ) has been seen in the laboratory ) , and lays a clutch of 25 to 60 eggs . Neoscapteriscus females then retire , sealing the entrance passage , but in Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla species , the female has been observed to remain in an adjoining chamber to tend the clutch . Further clutches may follow over several months , according to species . Eggs need to be laid in moist ground and many nymphs die because of insufficient moisture in the soil . The eggs hatch in a few weeks , and as they grow , the nymphs consume a great deal of plant material either underground or on the surface . The adults of some species of mole cricket may move as far as 8 kilometres ( 5 @.@ 0 mi ) during the breeding season . Mole crickets are active most of the year , but overwinter as nymphs or adults in cooler climates , resuming activity in the spring .
= = = Burrowing = = =
Mole crickets live almost entirely below ground , digging tunnels of different kinds for the major functions of life , including feeding , escape from predators , attracting a mate ( by singing ) , mating , and raising of young .
Their main tunnels are used for feeding and for escape : they can dig themselves underground very rapidly , and can move along existing tunnels at high speed both forwards and backwards . Their digging technique is to force the soil to either side with their powerful , shovel @-@ like forelimbs , which are broad , flattened , toothed and heavily sclerotised ( the cuticle is hardened and darkened ) .
Males attract mates by constructing specially @-@ shaped tunnels in which they sing . Mating takes place in the male 's burrow ; the male may widen a tunnel to make room for the female to mount , though in some species mating is tail @-@ to @-@ tail . Females lay their eggs either in their normal burrows or in specially @-@ dug brood chambers which are sealed when complete in the case of the genus Neoscapteriscus or not sealed in the case of genera Gryllotalpa and Neocurtilla .
= = = Song = = =
Male mole crickets sing by stridulating , always underground . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the song is based on an almost pure tone at 3 @.@ 5 kiloHertz , loud enough to make the ground vibrate 20 cm all round the burrow ; in fact the song is unique in each species . In Gryllotalpa gryllotalpa the burrow is somewhat roughly sculpted ; in Gryllotalpa vineae , the burrow is smooth and carefully shaped , with no irregularities larger than 1 millimetre . In both species the burrow takes the form of a double exponential horn with twin openings at the soil surface ; at the other end there is a constriction , then a resonating bulb , and then an escape tunnel . A burrow is used for at least a week . The male positions himself head down with his head in the bulb , his tail near the fork in the tunnel .
Mole crickets stridulate like other crickets by scraping the rear edge of the left forewing , which forms a plectrum , against the lower surface of the right forewing , which has a ratchet @-@ like series of asymmetric teeth : the more acute edges face backwards , as do those of the plectrum . The plectrum can move forwards with little resistance ; but moving it backwards makes it catch each tooth , setting up a vibration in both wings . The sound @-@ producing stroke is the raising ( levation ) of the wings . The resulting song resembles the result of modulating a pure tone with a 66 Hertz wave to form regular chirps . In G. vineae , the wing levator muscle , which weighs 50 milligrams , can deliver 3 @.@ 5 milliWatts of mechanical power ; G. gryllotalpa can deliver about 1 milliWatt . G. vineae produces an exceptionally loud song from half an hour after sunset , continuing for an hour ; it can be heard up to 600 metres away . At a distance of 1 metre from the burrow , the sound has a mean power over the stridulation cycle of up to 88 decibels ; the loudest recorded peak power was about 92 decibels ; at the mouths of the burrow , the sound reaches around 115 decibels . G. gryllotalpa can deliver a peak sound pressure of 72 decibels and a mean of about 66 decibels . The throat of the horn appears to be tuned ( offering low inductive reactance ) , making the burrow radiate sound efficiently ; the efficiency increases when the burrow is wet and absorbs less sound . Mole crickets are the only insects that construct a sound @-@ producing apparatus . Given the known sensitivity of a cricket 's hearing ( 60 decibels ) , a night @-@ flying G. vineae female should be able to detect the male 's song at a range of 30 metres ; this compares to about 5 metres for a typical Gryllus cricket that does not construct a burrow .
The loudness of the song is correlated with the size of the male and the quality of the habitat , both indicators of male attractiveness . The loudest males may attract 20 females in one evening , when a quieter male may attract none . This behaviour enables acoustic trapping : females can be trapped in large numbers by broadcasting a male 's song very loudly .
= = = Food = = =
Mole crickets vary in their diets ; some like the tawny mole cricket are herbivores , others are omnivores , feeding on larvae , worms , roots , and grasses , and others like the southern mole cricket are mainly predacious . As well as consuming roots underground , mole crickets leave their burrows at night to forage for leaves and stems which they drag underground before consumption .
= = = = Predators , parasites and pathogens = = = =
Besides birds , toads and insectivorous mammals , the predators of mole crickets include subterranean assassin bugs , wolf spiders , and various beetles . The South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci kills Neocapteriscus mole crickets by introducing bacteria into their bodies , causing an overwhelming infection . Steinernema neocurtillae is native to Florida and attacks native Neocurtilla hexadactyla mole crickets . Parasitoid wasps of the genus Larra ( Hymenoptera : Crabronidae ) attack mole crickets , the female laying an egg on the external surface of the mole cricket , and the larva developing externally on the mole cricket host . Ormia depleta ( Diptera : Tachinidae ) is a specialized parasitoid of mole crickets in the genus Neoscapteriscus ; the fly 's larvae hatch from eggs inside her abdomen ; she is attracted by the call of the male mole cricket and deposits a larva or more on any mole cricket individual with which she comes in contact . Specialist predators of mole cricket eggs in China and Japan include the bombardier beetle Stenaptinus jessoensis whereas in South America they include the bombardier beetle Pheropsophus aequinoctialis ( Coleoptera : Carabidae ) ; the adult beetle lays eggs near the burrows of mole crickets , and the beetle larvae find their way to the egg chamber and eat the eggs . Fungal diseases can devastate mole cricket populations during winters with sudden rises of temperature and thaws . The fungus Beauveria bassiana can overwhelm adult mole crickets and several other fungal , microsporidian and viral pathogens have been identified . Mole crickets evade predators by living below ground , and vigorously burrowing if disturbed at the surface . As a last @-@ ditch defence , they eject a foul @-@ smelling brown liquid from their anal glands when captured ; they can also bite .
= = Distribution = =
Mole crickets are relatively common , but because they are nocturnal and spend nearly all their lives underground in extensive tunnel systems , they are rarely seen . They inhabit agricultural fields and grassy areas . They are present in every continent with the exception of Antarctica ; by 2014 , one hundred and seven species had been described and more species are likely to be discovered , especially in Asia . Neoscapteriscus didactylus is a widespread pest species , originating in South America it has spread to the West Indies and New South Wales in Australia . Gryllotalpa africana is a major pest in South Africa ; other Gryllotalpa species are widely distributed in Europe , Asia and Australia . They are native to Britain ( as to western Europe ) , but the former population of G. gryllotalpa may now be extinct in mainland Britain , surviving in the Channel Islands .
= = = Invasive mole crickets , and their biological control = = =
Invasive species are those that cause harm in their newly occupied area , where biological control may be attempted . The first @-@ detected invasive mole cricket species was Neoscapteriscus didactylus , a South American species reported as a pest in St. Vincent , West Indies as early as 1837 ; by 1900 , it was a major pest of agriculture in Puerto Rico . It had probably slowly expanded its range northwards , island by island , from South America . The only biological control program against N. didactylus was in Puerto Rico , and it succeeded in establishing the parasitoid wasp Larra bicolor from Amazonian Brazil . In 2001 , N. didactylus in Puerto Rico seemed to be a pest only in irrigated crops and turf . Small scale experimental applications of the nematode Steinernema scapterisci were made in irrigated turf , but survival of the nematode was poor . Very much later , this same species was reported as a pest in Queensland , Australia , presumably arriving by ship or plane . The next @-@ detected invasive species was in the late 19th century in Hawaii , probably by ship . It was named as Gryllotalpa africana , but was probably G. orientalis . It attacked sugarcane and was targeted with Larra polita from the Philippines in 1925 , apparently successfully .
The next detection was in Georgia , USA , and at that time was assumed to be N. didactylus from the West Indies . It was in fact three South American Neoscapteriscus species , N. abbreviatus , N . vicinus , and N. borellii , probably arrived in ship ballast . They caused major problems for decades as they spread in the southeastern USA.Scapteriscus mole cricket populations had built up since the early decades of the 20th century and damaged pastures , lawns , playing fields and vegetable crops . From the late 1940s chordane had been the insecticide of choice to control them , but when chordane was banned by the U.S. EPA in the 1970s , ranchers were left with no economic and effective control method . Especially to aid Florida ranchers , a project that became known as the UF / IFAS Mole Cricket Research Program was initiated in 1978 . In 1985 , a multi @-@ authored report was published on accomplishments . In 1988 , an account was published on prospects for biological control , and in 1996 an account of promising results with biological control . The program ended in 2004 after 25 years of running monitoring stations , and in 2006 a summary publication announced success : a 95 % reduction in mole cricket numbers in northern Florida , with biological control agents spreading potentially to all parts of Florida . Efforts to use Larra bicolor as a biological control agent in Florida began by importing a stock from Puerto Rico . It became established in a small area of southeastern Florida but had little effect on Neoscapteriscus populations . A stock from Bolivia became established in northern Florida and spread widely ( with some help ) to most of the rest of the state and neighboring states . Its survival depends upon the availability of suitable nectar sources .
Once it was discovered that gravid female Ormia depleta flies are attracted to the song of Neoscapteriscus males in South America , a path to trap these flies at synthetic mole cricket song was opened . Experimentation then led to a rearing method . Laborious rearing of over 10 @,@ 000 flies on mole cricket hosts allowed releases of living fly pupae at many sites in Florida from the far northwest to the far south , mainly on golf courses , and mainly in 1989 @-@ 1991 . Populations were established , began to spread , and were monitored by use of synthetic mole cricket song . Eventually it was discovered that the flies had a continuous population from about 29 degrees North all the way south to Miami , but that the flies failed to survive the winter north of about 29 degrees . Shipment and release of the flies to states north of Florida was thus a wasted effort . As the flies had been imported from 23 degrees South in Brazil and could not overwinter north of 29 degrees North in Florida , it was investigated in 1999 whether flies from 30 degrees South in Brazil might survive better in northern Florida , but they did not .
The third biological control agent to target Neoscapteriscus in Florida was the South American nematode Steinernema scapterisci . Small @-@ scale releases proved it could persist for years in mole @-@ cricket @-@ infested sandy Florida soils . Its use as a biopesticide against Neoscapteriscus was patented , making it attractive to industry . Industrial @-@ scale production on artificial diet allowed large @-@ scale trial applications in pastures and on golf courses , which succeeded in establishing populations in several counties , and these populations spread , but sales were disappointing , and the product was withdrawn from the market in 2014 .
= = = As pests = = =
The main damage done by mole crickets is as a result of their burrowing activities . As they tunnel through the top few centimetres of soil they push the ground up in little ridges , increasing evaporation of surface moisture , disturbing germinating seeds and damaging the delicate young roots of seedlings . They are also injurious to turf- and pasture @-@ grasses as they feed on the roots of the grasses , leaving the plants prone to drying @-@ out and damage by use .
In their native lands , mole crickets have natural enemies that keep them under control . This is not the case when they have been accidentally introduced to other parts of the world . In Florida they are considered pests and are described as " a serious problem " . A University of Florida Entomology report suggests that South American Neoscapteriscus mole crickets may have entered the United States at Brunswick , Georgia in ship 's ballast from southern South America around 1899 , but were at that time mistakenly believed to be from the West Indies . One possible remedy is biological pest control using the parasitoidal wasps Larra bicolor . Another remedy that has been successfully applied is use of the parasitic nematode Steinernema scapterisci . When this is applied in strips across grassland , it spreads throughout the pasture within a few months and not only controls the mole crickets , but remains infective in the soil for future years .
= = In human culture = =
= = = Folklore = = =
In Zambia , Gryllotalpa africana is held to bring good fortune to anyone who sees it . In Latin America , Scapteriscus and Neocurtilla mole crickets are said to predict rain when they dig into the ground . In Japan in the past they seem to have been associated with the worms / corpses / bugs that announce a persons sins to heaven in the Koshin / Koushin belief — see the spirit ghoul shokera / shoukera .
= = = As food = = =
Gryllotalpa mole crickets have sometimes been used as food in West Java and Vietnam . In Thailand mole crickets ( Thai : กระชอน ) are valued as food in Isan . They are usually eaten fried along with sticky rice .
In the Philippines , they are served as a delicacy called Camaro in the province of Pampanga and are a tourist attraction . They are also served in parts of Northern Luzon .
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= Maryland Route 194 =
Maryland Route 194 ( MD 194 ) is a state highway in the U.S. state of Maryland . The state highway runs 23 @.@ 87 miles ( 38 @.@ 42 km ) from MD 26 in Ceresville north to the Pennsylvania state line near Taneytown , where the highway continues as Pennsylvania Route 194 ( PA 194 ) toward Hanover . MD 194 is the main highway between Frederick and Hanover ; the state highway connects the towns of Walkersville and Woodsboro in northeastern Frederick County with Keymar and Taneytown in northwestern Carroll County . MD 194 was blazed as a migration route in the 18th century and a pair of turnpikes in Frederick County in the 19th century , one of which was the last private toll road in Maryland . The state highway , which was originally designated MD 71 , was built as a modern highway in Frederick County in the mid @-@ 1920s and constructed as Francis Scott Key Highway in Carroll County in the late 1920s and early 1930s . MD 194 received its modern route number in 1956 as part of a three @-@ route number swap . The state highway 's bypasses of Walkersville and Woodsboro opened in the early 1980s and mid @-@ 1990s , respectively .
= = Route description = =
MD 194 begins at an intersection with MD 26 ( Liberty Road ) in Ceresville . The roadway continues south as MD 26 , which crosses the Monocacy River on its way toward Frederick . MD 26 heads east from the intersection as a two @-@ lane road toward Libertytown . MD 194 heads north as Woodsboro Pike , which starts as a four @-@ lane divided highway but reduces to two lanes as the highway passes through the suburban communities of Discovery and Spring Garden , where the state highway passes the historic Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike Company Tollhouse . At Walkersville High School , the state highway enters the town of Walkersville and the highway 's old alignment , Frederick Street , splits to the north . MD 194 collects the other end of Frederick Street and passes between residential subdivisions before leaving the town at the highway 's intersection with Devilbiss Bridge Road and Daysville Road . The former road heads west toward the historic Harris Farm ; the latter highway leads to the 19th century Crum Road Bridge .
MD 194 parallels the Maryland Midland Railway 's north – south line , Israel Creek , and Laurel Hill north to Woodsboro . At the south end of the town , Main Street , which is unsigned MD 194A , continues straight north while MD 194 veers northeast to bypass the town . The state highway starts to run concurrently with MD 550 at Woodsboro Road , which heads east as MD 550 toward Libertytown . On the north side of town , MD 550 heads west as Woodsboro Creagerstown Road , which meets the northern end of Main Street before heading northwest toward Creagerstown and Thurmont . MD 194 veers northeast and has a grade crossing with the railroad track at New Midway , where the highway intersects Legore Road , which leads to the LeGore Bridge . The state highway passes through the village of Ladiesburg before crossing Little Pipe Creek , one of the tributaries of Double Pipe Creek , into Carroll County .
MD 194 continues as Francis Scott Key Highway through Keymar , where the north – south and east – west lines of the Maryland Midland Railway intersect . The state highway has a grade crossing of the east – west rail line and intersects Middleburg Road , which heads west as MD 77 . In the hamlet of Bruceville , MD 194 crosses Big Pipe Creek and intersects Keysville Bruceville Road , which heads northwest toward the village of Keysville and Terra Rubra , the birthplace of Francis Scott Key . The state highway passes the historic Winemiller Family Farm and Keefer @-@ Brubaker Farm on its way to Taneytown . MD 194 , which becomes Frederick Street , crosses a branch of Piney Creek and passes the Ludwick Rudisel Tannery House . In the center of the Taneytown Historic District , the state highway intersects MD 140 ( Baltimore Street ) , where MD 194 becomes York Street . After leaving Taneytown , the state highway becomes Francis Scott Key Highway again as it heads through farmland . MD 194 crosses Piney Creek before reaching its northern terminus at the Pennsylvania state line . The roadway continues north as PA 194 ( Frederick Pike ) toward Littlestown and Hanover .
MD 194 is a part of the National Highway System as a principal arterial from its southern terminus in Ceresville to Daysville Road in Walkersville and within the city of Taneytown .
= = History = =
In the 18th century , the corridor of what is now MD 194 was the Hanover – Frederick portion of the Monocacy Road , a migration route that connected Philadelphia and Winchester , Virginia via York , Frederick , Boonsboro , and Williamsport . The Frederick County portion of the highway later became the path of a pair of turnpikes . The Woodsboro and Double Pipe Creek Turnpike connected the namesake town and creek ; the Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike extended from Woodsboro south to the junction with the Liberty and Frederick Turnpike in Ceresville . The two turnpikes issuing from Ceresville were connected to Frederick by the Frederick and Woodsboro Turnpike . The Woodsboro and Frederick Turnpike was the last privately maintained toll road in Maryland when it was purchased by the Maryland State Roads Commission , the predecessor to the Maryland State Highway Administration , in 1921 .
What is now MD 194 was originally designated MD 71 . The roads commission resurfaced the turnpikes ' macadam surface from Ceresville to Little Pipe Creek to a width of 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) by 1926 . That same year , 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of concrete road was constructed north from MD 32 ( now MD 140 ) in Taneytown . In 1930 , construction began to complete the concrete road that MD 71 would follow through Carroll County . The state highway was completed in five sections from a short distance north of Big Pipe Creek to the Pennsylvania state line in 1933 . The Carroll County section of MD 71 was dedicated as Francis Scott Key Highway in 1931 . The two sections of MD 71 were separated by a county @-@ maintained segment of highway through Keymar . This gap in the state road system remained through at least 1949 .
MD 71 received a new steel I @-@ beam bridge over Big Pipe Creek in 1940 ; this bridge was replaced in 2005 . The state highway was widened through Taneytown in 1948 . MD 71 's present steel I @-@ beam bridge over Little Pipe Creek at the county line was started in 1953 and completed in 1954 along with 1 mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) of approach roads . The state highway was reconstructed and widened from the Little Pipe Creek Bridge to New Midway in 1952 and 1953 . Reconstruction of the highway commenced from New Midway to Woodsboro in 1953 , from Woodsboro to Ceresville in 1956 , and from Taneytown to the Pennsylvania state line in 1957 .
In 1956 , MD 71 was involved in a three @-@ route number change involving highways in three different areas of the state . MD 71 was reassigned to the Blue Star Memorial Highway then under construction from Queenstown to the Delaware state line ; this designation lasted only three years before U.S. Route 301 was rerouted onto the highway in 1959 . MD 71 was designated MD 194 to match the adjacent numbered highway in Pennsylvania . MD 194 had previously been assigned to Flower Avenue in Takoma Park ; Flower Avenue was then designated MD 787 .
MD 194 's bypass of Walkersville was completed around 1981 . The state highway 's bypass of Woodsboro was under construction by 1995 and completed in 1997 ; Main Street through town was designated MD 194A . MD 550 , which ran concurrently with MD 194 along Main Street , joined the latter route on the new bypass and on a bypass section of its own at the north end of town . In conjunction with the reconstruction of MD 26 as a divided highway from Market Street ( then part of MD 355 ) in Frederick to Ceresville in 1997 , the MD 26 – MD 194 intersection was reconfigured so the primary movement through the intersection is between MD 26 to the west and MD 194 to the north ; the southernmost portion of MD 194 became an extension of the MD 26 divided highway . This configuration was chosen because two @-@ thirds of traffic passing through the intersection was between Frederick and Woodsboro .
= = Junction list = =
= = Auxiliary routes = =
MD 194 has four existing auxiliary routes and two that no longer exist . MD 194A and MD 194B are in Woodsboro . MD 194D and MD 194E are north of Taneytown . Former MD 194C and MD 194F were also north of Taneytown .
MD 194A is the designation for Main Street , which runs 1 @.@ 28 miles ( 2 @.@ 06 km ) between MD 194 on the south side of Woodsboro and MD 550 on the north side of Woodsboro . MD 194A is municipally maintained for 0 @.@ 75 miles ( 1 @.@ 21 km ) from Mt . Hope Cemetery north to Coppermine Road .
MD 194B is the designation for a 0 @.@ 09 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 14 km ) section of Main Street that is now a spur south from MD 194A just north of MD 194 's southern end at MD 194 .
MD 194C was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 03 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 048 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194C and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .
MD 194D is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853E , the old alignment that parallels the northbound direction of the modern highway south of Angell Road .
MD 194E is the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and MD 853A , the old alignment that parallels the southbound direction of the modern highway south of the Pennsylvania state line .
MD 194F was the designation for an unnamed 0 @.@ 02 @-@ mile ( 0 @.@ 032 km ) connector between MD 194 and former MD 853D . MD 194F and MD 853D were removed from the state highway system in 2004 due to the roadway being overgrown .
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= Le souper de Beaucaire =
Le souper de Beaucaire was a political pamphlet written by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1793 . With the French Revolution into its fourth year , civil war had spread across France between various rival political factions . Napoleon was involved in military action , on the government 's side , against some rebellious cities of southern France . It was during these events , in 1793 , that he spoke with four merchants from the Midi and heard their views . As a loyal soldier of the Republic he responded in turn , set on dispelling the fears of the merchants and discouraging their beliefs . He later wrote about his conversation in the form of a pamphlet , calling for an end to the civil war .
= = Background = =
During the French Revolution the National Convention became the executive power of France , following the execution of King Louis XVI . With powerful members , such as Maximilien Robespierre and Georges Danton , the Jacobin Club , a French political party established in 1790 , at the birth of the revolution , managed to secure control of the government and pursue the revolution to their own ends , culminating in a " Reign of Terror " . Its repressive policies resulted in insurrection across much of France , including the three largest cities after Paris , namely Lyon , Marseille and Toulon , in the south of France .
Citizens in the south were opposed to a centralised government , and to the decrees of its rule , which resulted in rebellion . Prior to the revolution France had been divided into provinces with local governments . In 1790 the government , the National Constituent Assembly , reorganised France into administrative departments in order to rebalance the uneven distribution of French wealth , which had been subject to feudalism under the monarchical Ancien Régime .
= = Rebellion in Southern France = =
In July 1793 Captain Napoleon Bonaparte , an artillery officer , was placed under the command of Jean @-@ Baptiste Carteaux to deal with rebels from Marseille situated in Avignon , where army munitions required by the French Army of Italy were being stored . On 24 July , Carteaux 's troops attacked rebellious National Guardsmen , killing several citizens during the siege , before capturing the town and army supplies . Afterwards , Napoleon travelled to nearby Tarascon to find wagons with which to transport the munition . He visited Beaucaire , across the river from Tarascon , which had been holding an annual fair . Napoleon arrived on 28 July , the last day of the fair , and went to a tavern where he shared supper and conversation with four merchants – two from Marseille , one from Montpellier and another from Nîmes .
That evening Napoleon and the four merchants discussed the revolution , subsequent rebellions , and their consequences . Speaking as a pro @-@ Republican , Napoleon supported the Jacobin cause , and explained the benefits of the revolution , whilst defending Carteaux 's actions in Avignon . One of the merchants from Marseille expressed his moderate views regarding the revolution , and reasons for supporting civil war against a central government . The merchant stressed that Marseille did not fight for the Royalist cause , but opposed the nature of the Convention itself , condemning its decrees and deeming the execution of citizens as unlawful . Napoleon concluded that the people of Marseille should reject counter @-@ revolutionary ideals and adopt the constitution of the French Republic in order to end the civil war and allow the regular army to restore France .
Following their conversation the group drank champagne until two in the morning , paid for by the Marseillais merchant .
= = Publication and recognition = =
Shortly after the events , possibly on the 29 July whilst still in Beaucaire , Napoleon wrote a political pamphlet titled Le souper de Beaucaire ( The supper at Beaucaire ) in which a soldier speaks with four merchants and sympathetic to their opinions attempts to dissipate their counter @-@ revolutionary sentiments .
The pamphlet was read by Augustin Robespierre , brother of Maximilien Robespierre , who was impressed by the revolutionary context . The pamphlet itself had little effect against the rebellious forces , but served to advance Napoleon 's career . He soon became recognised for his political ambitions by a Corsica @-@ born politician , and family friend , Christophe Saliceti , who arranged to have it published and distributed . Christophe 's influence , along with fellow Convention deputy Augustin Robespierre , advanced Napoleon into the position of senior gunner , at Toulon .
In Memoirs of Napoleon Bonaparte , a biography by Napoleon 's private secretary , Louis de Bourrienne , he notes that Le souper de Beaucaire was reprinted as a book – the first edition issued at the cost of the Public Treasury in August 1798 , and a second edition in 1821 , following Napoleon 's death . He also states , " It was during my absence from France that Bonaparte , in the rank of ' chef de bataillon ' [ major ] , performed his first campaign , and contributed so materially to the recapture of Toulon . Of this period of his life I have no personal knowledge , and therefore I shall not speak of it as an eye @-@ witness . I shall merely relate some facts which fill up the interval between 1793 and 1795 , and which I have collected from papers which he himself delivered to me . Among these papers is a little production , entitled ' Le Souper de Beaucaire ' , the copies of which he bought up at considerable expense , and destroyed upon his attaining the Consulate . "
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= Jin – Song Wars =
The Jin – Song Wars were a series of conflicts between the Jurchen Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) and Han Chinese Song dynasty ( 960 – 1279 ) . In 1115 , the Jurchens rebelled against their overlords , the Khitan Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , and declared the formation of the Jin . Allying with the Song against their common enemy the Liao , the Jin promised to return to the Song the territories in northern China that had fallen under Liao control since 938 . The Jurchens ' quick defeat of the Liao combined with Song military failures made the Jin reluctant to cede these territories . After a series of failed negotiations that embittered both sides , the Jurchens attacked the Song in November 1125 , dispatching one army towards Taiyuan and the other towards Kaifeng , the Song capital .
Surprised by the news of an invasion , the Song general stationed in Taiyuan retreated from the city , which was besieged and later captured . As the second Jin army approached the capital , Emperor Huizong of the Song abdicated and fled south . A new emperor , Qinzong , was enthroned . The Jurchens began a siege against Kaifeng in 1126 , but Qinzong negotiated for their retreat from the capital after he agreed to pay a large annual indemnity . Qinzong reneged on the deal and ordered Song forces to defend the prefectures instead of fortifying the capital . The Jin resumed their war against the Song and again besieged Kaifeng in 1127 . The Chinese emperor was captured in an event known as the Jingkang Incident , the capital was looted , and the Song lost northern China to the Jin . Remnants of the Song retreated to southern China and , after brief stays in several temporary capitals , eventually relocated to Hangzhou . The retreat of the Song court marked the end of the Northern Song era and the beginning of the Southern Song .
The Jurchens tried to conquer southern China in the 1130s , but they were bogged down by a pro @-@ Song insurgency in the north and a counteroffensive by the Song generals Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and others . The generals regained some territories but retreated on the orders of the Southern Song emperor , who supported a peaceful resolution to the war . The Treaty of Shaoxing in 1142 settled the boundary between the two empires along the Huai River , but conflicts between the two dynasties continued until the fall of the Jin in 1234 . A campaign against the Song by the fourth Jin emperor , Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) , was unsuccessful . He lost the Battle of Caishi ( 1161 ) and was later assassinated by his own disaffected officers . An invasion of the Jin motivated by Song revanchism ( 1206 – 1208 ) was also unsuccessful . A decade later , the Jin launched an abortive military campaign against the Song in 1217 to compensate for the territory that they had lost to the invading Mongols . The Song formed an alliance with the Mongols in 1233 , and in the following year jointly captured Caizhou , the last refuge of the Jin emperor . The Jin dynasty collapsed that year in 1234 . After the demise of the Jin , the Song dynasty itself became a target of the Mongols , and fell in 1279 .
The wars engendered an era of technological , cultural , and demographic changes in China . Battles between the Song and Jin brought about the introduction of various gunpowder weapons . The siege of De 'an in 1132 was the first recorded appearance of the fire lance , an early ancestor of firearms . There were also reports of battles fought with primitive gunpowder bombs like the incendiary huopao or the exploding tiehuopao , incendiary arrows , and other related weapons . In northern China , the Jurchen tribes were the ruling minority of an empire that was predominantly inhabited by former subjects of the Northern Song . Jurchen migrants settled in the conquered territories and assimilated with the local culture . The Jin government instituted a centralized imperial bureaucracy modeled on previous Chinese dynasties , basing their legitimacy on Confucian philosophy . Song refugees from the north resettled in southern China . The north was the cultural center of China , and its conquest by the Jin diminished the international stature of the Song dynasty . The Southern Song , however , quickly returned to economic prosperity , and trade with the Jin was lucrative despite decades of warfare . The capital of the Southern Song , Hangzhou , expanded into a major city for commerce .
= = The fragile Song – Jin alliance = =
The Jurchens were a Tungusic @-@ speaking group of semi @-@ agrarian tribes inhabiting areas of northeast Asia that are now part of Northeast China . Many of the Jurchen tribes were vassals of the Liao dynasty ( 907 – 1125 ) , an empire ruled by the nomadic Khitans that included most of modern Mongolia , a portion of North China , Northeast China , northern Korea , and parts of the Russian Far East . To the south of the Liao lay the Han Chinese Song Empire ( 960 – 1276 ) . The Song and Liao were at peace , but since a military defeat to the Liao in 1005 , the Song paid its northern neighbor an annual indemnity of 200 @,@ 000 bolts of silk and 100 @,@ 000 ounces of silver .
In 1114 , the chieftain Wanyan Aguda ( 1068 – 1123 ) united the disparate Jurchen tribes and led a revolt against the Liao . In 1115 he named himself emperor of the Jin " golden " dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) . Informed by a Liao defector of the success of the Jurchen uprising , the Song emperor Huizong ( r . 1100 – 1127 ) and his highest military commander the eunuch Tong Guan saw the Liao weakness as an opportunity to recover the Sixteen Prefectures , a line of fortified cities and passes that the Liao had annexed from the Shatuo Turk Later Jin in 938 , and that the Song had repeatedly but unsuccessfully tried to reconquer . The Song thus sought an alliance with the Jin against their common enemy the Liao .
Because the land routes between the Song and Jin were controlled by the Liao , diplomatic exchanges had to occur by traveling across the Bohai Sea . Negotiations for an alliance began secretly under the pretense that the Song wanted to acquire horses from the Khitans . Song diplomats traveled to the Jin court to meet Aguda in 1118 , while Jurchen envoys arrived in the Song capital Kaifeng the next year . At the beginning the two sides agreed to keep whatever Liao territory they would seize in combat . In 1120 , Aguda agreed to cede the Sixteen Prefectures to the Song in exchange for transfer to the Jin of the annual tributary payments that the Song had been giving the Liao . By the end of 1120 , however , the Jurchens had seized the Liao Supreme Capital , and offered the Song only parts of the Sixteen Prefectures . Among other things , the Jin would keep the Liao Western Capital of Datong at the western end of the Sixteen Prefectures . The two sides agreed that the Jin would now attack the Liao Central Capital , whereas the Song would seize the Liao Southern Capital , Yanjing ( modern day Beijing ) .
The joint attack against the Liao had been planned for 1121 , but it was rescheduled for 1122 . In February 23 of that year , the Jin captured the Liao Central Capital as promised . The Song delayed their entry into the war because it diverted resources to fighting the Western Xia in the northwest and suppressing a large popular rebellion in the south . When a Song army under Tong Guan 's command finally attacked Yanjing in May 1122 , the smaller forces of the weakened Liao repelled the invaders with ease . Another attack failed in the fall . Both times , Tong was forced to retreat back to Kaifeng . After the first attack , Aguda changed the terms of the agreement and only promised Yanjing and six other prefectures to the Song . In early 1123 it was Jurchen forces that easily took the Liao Southern Capital . They sacked it and enslaved its population .
The quick collapse of the Liao led to more negotiations between the Song and the Jin . Jurchen military success and their effective control over the Sixteen Prefectures gave them more leverage . Aguda grew increasingly frustrated as he realized that despite their military failures the Song still intended to seize most of the prefectures . In the spring of 1123 the two sides finally set the terms of the first Song – Jin treaty . Only seven prefectures ( including Yanjing ) would be returned to the Song , and the Song would pay an annual indemnity of 300 @,@ 000 packs of silk and 200 @,@ 000 taels of silver to the Jin , as well as a one @-@ time payment of one million strings of copper coins to compensate the Jurchens for the tax revenue they would have earned had they not returned the prefectures . In May 1123 Tong Guan and the Song armies entered the looted Yanjing .
= = War against the Northern Song = =
= = = The collapse of the Song – Jin alliance = = =
Barely one month after the Song had recovered Yanjing , Zhang Jue ( 張覺 ) , who had served as military governor of the Liao prefecture of Pingzhou about 200 kilometres ( 120 mi ) east of Yanjing , killed the main Jin official in that city and turned it over to the Song . The Jurchens defeated his armies a few months later and Zhang took refuge in Yanjing . Even though the Song agreed to execute him in late 1123 , this incident put tension between the two states , because the 1123 treaty had explicitly forbidden both sides from harboring defectors . In 1124 , Song officials further angered the Jin by asking for the cession of nine more border prefectures . The new Jin emperor Taizong ( r . 1123 – 1135 ) , Aguda 's brother and successor , hesitated , but warrior princes Wanyan Zonghan and Wanyan Zongwang ( 完颜宗望 ) vehemently refused to give them any more territory . Taizong eventually granted two prefectures , but by then the Jin leaders were ready to attack their southern neighbor .
Before they could invade the Song , the Jurchens reached a peace agreement with their western neighbors the Tangut Western Xia in 1124 . The following year near the Ordos Desert , they captured Tianzuo , the last emperor of the Liao , putting an end to the Liao dynasty for good . Ready to end their alliance with the Song , the Jurchens began preparations for an invasion .
= = = First campaign = = =
In November 1125 Taizong ordered his armies to attack the Song . The defection of Zhang Jue two years earlier served as the casus belli . Two armies were sent to capture the major cities of the Song .
= = = = Siege of Taiyuan = = = =
The western army , led by Wanyan Zonghan , departed from Datong and headed towards Taiyuan through the mountains of Shanxi , on its way to the Song western capital Luoyang . The Song forces were not expecting an invasion and were caught off guard . The Chinese general Tong Guan was informed of the military expedition by an envoy he had sent to the Jin to obtain the cession of two prefectures . The returning envoy reported that the Jurchens were willing to forgo an invasion if the Song ceded control of Hebei and Shanxi to the Jin . Tong Guan retreated from Taiyuan and left command of his troops to Wang Bing . Jin armies besieged the city in mid January 1126 . Under Wang Bing 's command , Taiyuan held on long enough to stop the Jurchen troops from advancing to Luoyang .
= = = = First siege of Kaifeng = = = =
Meanwhile , the eastern army , commanded by Wanyan Zongwang , was dispatched towards Yanjing ( modern Beijing ) and eventually the Song capital Kaifeng . It did not face much armed opposition . Zongwang easily took Yanjing , where Song general and former Liao governor Guo Yaoshi ( 郭藥師 ) switched his allegiances to the Jin . When the Song had tried to reclaim the Sixteen Prefectures , they had faced fierce resistance from the Han Chinese population , yet when the Jurchens invaded that area , the Han Chinese did not oppose them at all . By the end of December 1125 , the Jin army had seized control of two prefectures and re @-@ established Jurchen rule over the Sixteen Prefectures . The eastern army was nearing Kaifeng by early 1126 .
Fearing the approaching Jin army , Song emperor Huizong planned to retreat south . The emperor deserting the capital would have been viewed as an act of capitulation , so court officials convinced him to abdicate . There were few objections . Rescuing an empire in crisis from destruction was more important than preserving the rituals of imperial inheritance . In January 1126 , a few days before the New Year , Huizong abdicated in favor of his son and was demoted to the ceremonial role of Retired Emperor . The Jurchen forces reached the Yellow River on January 27 , 1126 , two days after the New Year . Huizong fled Kaifeng the next day , escaping south and leaving the newly enthroned emperor Qinzong ( r . 1126 – 1127 ) in charge of the capital .
Kaifeng was besieged on January 31 , 1126 . The commander of the Jurchen army promised to spare the city if the Song submitted to Jin as a vassal ; forfeited the prime minister and an imperial prince as prisoners ; ceded the Chinese prefectures of Hejian , Taiyuan , and Zhongshan ; and offered an indemnity of 50 million taels of silver , 5 million taels of gold , 1 million packs of silk , 1 million packs of satin , 10 @,@ 000 horses , 10 @,@ 000 mules , 10 @,@ 000 cattle , and 1 @,@ 000 camels . This indemnity was worth about 180 years of the annual tribute the Song had been paying to the Jin since 1123 .
With little prospect of help from afar arriving , infighting broke out in the Song court between the officials who supported the Jin offer and those who opposed it . Opponents of the treaty like Li Gang ( 李剛 ; 1083 – 1140 ) rallied around the proposal of remaining in defensive positions until reinforcements arrived and Jurchen supplies ran out . They botched an ambush against the Jin that was carried out at night , and were replaced by officials who supported peace negotiations . The failed attack pushed Qinzong into meeting the Jurchen demands , and his officials convinced him to go through with the deal . The Song recognized Jin control over the three prefectures . The Jurchen army ended the siege in March after 33 days .
= = = Second campaign = = =
Almost as soon as the Jin armies had left Kaifeng , Emperor Qinzong reneged on the deal and dispatched two armies to repel the Jurchen troops attacking Taiyuan and bolster the defenses of Zhongshan and Hejian . An army of 90 @,@ 000 soldiers and another of 60 @,@ 000 were defeated by Jin forces by June . A second expedition to rescue Taiyuan was also unsuccessful .
Accusing the Song of violating the agreement and realizing the weakness of the Song , the Jin generals launched a second punitive campaign , again dividing their troops into two armies . Wanyan Zonghan , who had withdrawn from Taiyuan after the Kaifeng agreement and left a small force in charge of the siege , came back with his western army . Overwhelmed , Taiyuan fell in September 1126 , after 260 days of siege . When the Song court received news of the fall of Taiyuan , the officials who had advocated defending the empire militarily fell from favor again and were replaced by counselors who favored appeasement . In mid December the two Jurchen armies converged on Kaifeng for the second time that year .
= = = = Second siege of Kaifeng = = = =
After the defeat of several Song armies in the north , Emperor Qinzong wanted to negotiate a truce with the Jin , but he committed a massive strategic blunder when he commanded his remaining armies to protect prefectural cities instead of Kaifeng . Neglecting the importance of the capital , he left Kaifeng defended with fewer than 100 @,@ 000 soldiers . The Song forces were dispersed throughout China , powerless to stop the second Jurchen siege of the city .
The Jin assault commenced in mid December 1126 . Even as fighting raged on , Qinzong continued to sue for peace , but Jin demands for territory were enormous : they wanted all provinces north of the Yellow River . After more than twenty days of heavy combat against the besieging forces , Song defenses were decimated and the morale of Song soldiers was on the decline . On January 9 , 1127 , the Jurchens broke through and started to loot the conquered city . Emperor Qinzong tried to appease the victors by offering the remaining wealth of the capital . The royal treasury was emptied and the belongings of the city 's residents were seized . The Song emperor offered his unconditional surrender a few days later .
Qinzong , the former emperor Huizong , and members of the Song court were captured by the Jurchens as hostages . They were taken north to Huining ( modern Harbin ) , where they were stripped of their royal privileges and reduced to commoners . The former emperors were humiliated by their captors . They were mocked with disparaging titles like " Muddled Virtue " and " Double Muddled " . In 1128 the Jin made them perform a ritual meant for war criminals . The harsh treatment of the Song royalty softened after the death of Huizong in 1135 . Titles were granted to the deceased monarch , and his son Qinzong was promoted to Duke , a position with a salary .
= = = Reasons for Song failure = = =
Many factors contributed to the Song 's repeated military blunders and subsequent loss of northern China to the Jurchens . Traditional accounts of Song history held the venality of Huizong 's imperial court responsible for the decline of the dynasty . These narratives condemned Huizong and his officials for their moral failures . Early Song emperors were eager to enact political reforms and revive the ethical framework of Confucianism , but the enthusiasm for reforms gradually died after the reformist Wang Anshi 's expulsion as chancellor in 1076 . Corruption marred the reign of Huizong , who was more skilled as a painter than as a ruler . Huizong was known for his extravagance , and funded the costly construction of gardens and temples while rebellions threatened the state 's grip on power .
A modern analysis by Ari Daniel Levine places more of the blame on deficiencies in the military and bureaucratic leadership . The loss of northern China was not inevitable . The military was overextended by a government too assured of its own military prowess . Huizong diverted the state 's resources to failed wars against the Western Xia . The Song insistence on a greater share of Liao territory only succeeded in provoking their Jin allies . Song diplomatic oversights underestimated the Jin and allowed the unimpeded rise of Jurchen military power . The state had plentiful resources , with the exception of horses , but managed its assets poorly during battles . Unlike the expansive Han and Tang empires that preceded the Song , the Song did not have a significant foothold in Central Asia where a large proportion of its horses could be bred or procured . As Song general Li Gang noted , without a consistent supply of horses the dynasty was at a significant disadvantage against Jurchen cavalry : " the Jin were victorious only because they used iron @-@ shielded cavalry , while we opposed them with foot soldiers . It is only to be expected that [ our soldiers ] were scattered and dispersed . "
= = Wars with the Southern Song = =
= = = Southern retreat of the Song court = = =
= = = = The enthronement of Emperor Gaozong = = = =
The Jin leadership had not expected or desired the fall of the Song dynasty . Their intention was to weaken the Song in order to demand more tribute , and they were unprepared for the magnitude of their victory . The Jurchens were preoccupied with strengthening their rule over the areas once controlled by Liao . Instead of continuing their invasion of the Song , an empire with a military that outnumbered their own , they adopted the strategy of " using Chinese to control the Chinese " . The Jin hoped that a proxy state would be capable of administering northern China and collecting the annual indemnity without requiring Jurchen interventions to quell anti @-@ Jin uprisings . In 1127 , the Jurchens installed a former Song official , Zhang Bangchang ( 張邦昌 ; 1081 – 1127 ) , as the puppet emperor of the newly established " Da Chu " ( Great Chu ) dynasty . The puppet government did not deter the resistance in northern China , but the insurgents were motivated by their anger towards the Jurchens ' looting rather than by a sense of loyalty towards the inept Song court . A number of Song commanders , stationed in towns scattered across northern China , retained their allegiance to the Song , and armed volunteers organized militias opposed to the Jurchen military presence . The insurgency hampered the ability of the Jin to exert control over the north .
Meanwhile , one Song prince , Zhao Gou , had escaped capture . He had been held up in Cizhou while on a diplomatic mission , and never made it back to Kaifeng . He was not present in the capital when the city fell to the Jurchens . The future Emperor Gaozong managed to evade the Jurchen troops tailing him by moving from one province to the next , traveling across Hebei , Henan , and Shandong . The Jurchens tried to lure him back to Kaifeng where they could finally capture him , but did not succeed . Zhao Gou finally arrived in the Song Southern Capital at Yingtianfu ( 應天府 ; modern Shangqiu ) in early June 1127 . For Gaozong ( r . 1127 – 1162 ) , Yingtianfu was the first in a series of temporary capitals called xingzai 行在 . The court moved to Yingtianfu because of its historical importance to Emperor Taizu of Song , the founder of the dynasty , who had previously served in that city as a military governor . The symbolism of the city was meant to secure the political legitimacy of the new emperor , who was enthroned there on June 12 .
After reigning for barely one month , Zhang Bangchang was persuaded by the Song to step down as emperor of the Great Chu and to recognize the legitimacy of the Song imperial line . Li Gang pressured Gaozong to execute Zhang for betraying the Song . The emperor relented and Zhang was coerced into suicide . The killing of Zhang showed that the Song was willing to provoke the Jin , and that the Jin had yet to solidify their control over the newly conquered territories . The submission and abolition of Chu meant that Kaifeng was now back under Song control . Zong Ze ( 宗澤 ; 1059 – 1128 ) , the Song general responsible for fortifying Kaifeng , entreated Gaozong to move the court back to the city , but Gaozong refused and retreated south . The southward move marked the end of the Northern Song and the beginning of the Southern Song era of Chinese history .
The descendant of Confucius at Qufu , the Duke Yansheng Kong Duanyou fled south with the Song Emperor to Quzhou , while the newly established Jin dynasty ( 1115 – 1234 ) in the north appointed Kong Duanyou 's brother Kong Duancao who remained in Qufu as Duke Yansheng . Zhang Xuan 張選 , a great @-@ grandson of Zhang Zai , also fled south with Gaozong .
= = = = The move south = = = =
The Song disbandment of the Great Chu and execution of Zhang Bangchang antagonized the Jurchens and violated the treaty that the two parties had negotiated . The Jin renewed their attacks on the Song and quickly reconquered much of northern China . In late 1127 Gaozong moved his court further south from Yingtianfu to Yangzhou , south of the Huai River and north of the Yangtze River , by sailing down the Grand Canal . The court spent over a year in the city . When the Jurchens advanced to the Huai River , the court was partially evacuated to Hangzhou in 1129 . Days later , Gaozong narrowly escaped on horseback , just a few hours ahead of Jurchen vanguard troops . After a coup in Hangzhou almost dethroned him , in May 1129 he moved his capital back north to Jiankang ( modern @-@ day Nanjing ) on the south bank of the Yangtze . One month later , however , Zong Ze 's successor Du Chong ( 杜充 ) vacated his forces from Kaifeng , exposing Jiankang to attack . The emperor moved back to Hangzhou in September , leaving Jiankang in Du Chong 's hands . The Jin eventually captured Kaifeng in early 1130 .
From 1127 to 1129 , the Song sent thirteen embassies to the Jin to discuss peace terms and to negotiate the release of Gaozong 's mother and Huizong , but the Jin court ignored them . In December 1129 , the Jin started a new military offensive , dispatching two armies across the Huai River in the east and west . On the western front , an army invaded Jiangxi , the area where the Song dowager empress resided , and captured Hongzhou ( 洪州 , present @-@ day Nanchang ) . They were ordered to retreat a few months later when the eastern army withdrew .
Meanwhile , on the eastern front , Wuzhu commanded the main Jin army . He crossed the Yangtze southwest of Jiankang and took that city when Du Chong surrendered . Wuzhu set out from Jiankang and advanced rapidly to try to capture Gaozong . The Jin seized Hangzhou ( January 22 , 1130 ) and then Shaoxing further south ( February 4 ) , but general Zhang Jun 's ( 1086 – 1154 ) battle with Wuzhu near Ningbo gave Gaozong time to escape . By the time Wuzhu resumed pursuit , the Song court was fleeing on ships to islands off the coast of Zhejiang , and then further south to Wenzhou . The Jin sent ships to chase after Gaozong , but failed to catch him . They gave up the pursuit and the Jurchens retreated north . After they plundered the undefended cities of Hangzhou and Suzhou , they finally started to face resistance from Song armies led by Yue Fei and Han Shizhong . The latter even inflicted a major defeat on Jurchen forces and tried to prevent Wuzhu from crossing back to the north bank of the Yangtze . The small boats of the Jin army were outmatched by Han Shizhong 's fleet of seagoing vessels . Wuzhu eventually managed to cross the river when he had his troops use incendiary arrows to neutralize Han 's ships by burning their sails . Wuzhu 's troops came back south of the Yangtze one last time to Jiankang , which they pillaged , and then headed north . Yet the Jin had been caught off guard by the strength of the Song navy , and Wuzhu never tried to cross the Yangtze River again . In early 1131 , Jin armies between the Huai and the Yangtze were repelled by bandits loyal to the Song . Zhang Rong ( 張榮 ) , the leader of the bandits , was given a government position for his victory against the Jin .
After the Jin incursion that almost captured Gaozong , the sovereign ordered pacification commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) , who was in charge of Shaanxi and Sichuan in the far west , to attack the Jin there to relieve pressure on the court . Zhang put together a large army , but was defeated by Wuzhu near Xi 'an in late 1130 . Wuzhu advanced further west into Gansu , and drove as far south as Jiezhou ( 階州 , modern Wudu ) . The most important battles between Jin and Song in 1131 and 1132 took place in Shaanxi , Gansu , and Sichuan . The Jin lost two battles at Heshan Yuan in 1131 . After failing to enter Sichuan , Wuzhu retreated to Yanjing . He returned to the western front again from 1132 to 1134 . The Jin attacked Hubei and Shaanxi in 1132 . Wuzhu captured Heshan Yuan in 1133 , but his advance was halted by a defeat at Xianren Pass . He gave up on taking Sichuan , and no more major battles were fought between the Jin and Song for the rest of the decade .
The Song court returned to Hangzhou in 1133 , and the city was renamed Lin 'an . The imperial ancestral temple was built in Hangzhou later that same year , a sign that the court had in practice established Hangzhou as the Song capital without a formal declaration . It was treated as a temporary capital . Between 1130 and 1137 , the court would sporadically move to Jiankang , and back to Hangzhou . There were proposals to make Jiankang the new capital , but Hangzhou won out because the court considered it a more secure city . The natural barriers that surrounded Hangzhou , including lakes and rice paddies , made it more difficult for the Jurchen cavalry to breach its fortifications . Access to the sea made it easier to retreat from the city . In 1138 , Gaozong officially declared Hangzhou the capital of the dynasty , but the label of temporary capital would still be in place . Hangzhou would remain the capital of the Southern Song for the next 150 years , growing into a major commercial and cultural center .
= = = Da Qi invades the Song = = =
Qin Hui , an official of the Song court , recommended a peaceful solution to the conflict in 1130 , saying that , " If it is desirable that there will be no more conflicts under Heaven , it is necessary for the southerners to stay in the south and the northerners in the north . " Gaozong , who considered himself a northerner , initially rejected the proposal . There were gestures toward peace in 1132 , when the Jin freed an imprisoned Song diplomat , and in 1133 , when the Song offered to become a Jin vassal , but a treaty never materialized . The Jin requirement that the border between the two states be moved south from the Huai River to the Yangtze was too large of a hurdle for the two sides to reach an agreement .
The continuing insurgency of anti @-@ Jin forces in northern China hampered the Jurchen campaigns south of the Yangtze . Reluctant to let the war drag on , the Jin decided to create Da Qi ( the " Great Qi " ) , their second attempt at a puppet state in northern China . The Jurchens believed that this state , nominally ruled by someone of Han Chinese descent , would be able to attract the allegiance of disaffected members of the insurgency . The Jurchens also suffered from a shortage of skilled manpower , and controlling the entirety of northern China was not administratively feasible . In the final months of 1129 , Liu Yu ( 劉豫 ; 1073 – 1143 ) won the favor of the Jin emperor Taizong . Liu was a Song official from Hebei who had been a prefect of Jinan in Shandong before his defection to the Jin in 1128 . Da Qi was formed late in 1130 , and the Jin enthroned Liu as its emperor . Daming in Hebei was the first capital of Qi , before its move to Kaifeng , former capital of the Northern Song . The Qi government instituted military conscription , made an attempt at reforming the bureaucracy , and enacted laws that enforced the collection of high taxes . It was also responsible for supplying a large portion of the troops that fought the Song in the seven years following its creation .
The Jin granted Qi more autonomy than the first puppet government of Chu , but Liu Yu was obligated to obey the orders of the Jurchen generals . With Jin support , Da Qi invaded the Song in November 1133 . Li Cheng , a Song turncoat who had joined the Qi , led the campaign . Xiangyang and nearby prefectures fell to his army . The capture of Xiangyang on the Han River gave the Jurchens a passage into the central valley of the Yangtze River . Their southward push was halted by the general Yue Fei . In 1134 , Yue Fei defeated Li and retook Xiangyang and its surrounding prefectures . Later that year , however , Qi and Jin initiated a new offensive further east along the Huai River . For the first time , Gaozong issued an edict officially condemning Da Qi . The armies of Qi and Jin won a series of victories in the Huai valley , but were repelled by Han Shizhong near Yangzhou and by Yue Fei at Luzhou ( 廬州 , modern Hefei ) . Their sudden withdrawal in 1135 in response to the death of Jin Emperor Taizong gave the Song time to regroup . The war recommenced in late 1136 when Da Qi attacked the Huainan circuits of the Song . Qi lost a battle at Outang ( 藕塘 ) , in modern Anhui , against a Song army led by Yang Qizhong ( 楊沂中 ; 1102 – 1166 ) . The victory boosted Song morale , and the military commissioner Zhang Jun ( 1097 – 1164 ) convinced Gaozong to begin plans for a counterattack . Gaozong first agreed , but he abandoned the counteroffensive when an officer named Li Qiong ( 酈瓊 ) killed his superior official and defected to the Jin with tens of thousands of soldiers . Meanwhile , Emperor Xizong ( r . 1135 – 1150 ) inherited the Jin throne from Taizong , and pushed for peace . He and his generals were disappointed with Liu Yu 's military failures and believed that Liu was secretly conspiring with Yue Fei . In late 1137 , the Jin reduced Liu Yu 's title to that of a prince and abolished the state of Qi . The Jin and Song renewed the negotiations towards peace .
= = = Song counteroffensive and the peace process = = =
Gaozong promoted Qin Hui in 1138 and put him in charge of deliberations with the Jin . Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and a large number of officials at court criticized the peace overtures . Aided by his control of the Censorate , Qin purged his enemies and continued negotiations . In 1138 the Jin and Song agreed to a treaty that designated the Yellow River as border between the two states and recognized Gaozong as a " subject " of the Jin . But because there remained opposition to the treaty in both the courts of the Jin and Song , the treaty never came into effect . A Jurchen army led by Wuzhu invaded in early 1140 . The Song counteroffensive that followed achieved large territorial gains . Song general Liu Qi ( 劉錡 ) won a battle against Wuzhu at Shunchang ( modern Fuyang in Anhui ) . Yue Fei was assigned to head the Song forces defending the Huainan region . Instead of advancing to Huainan , however , Wuzhu retreated to Kaifeng and Yue 's army followed him into Jin territory , disobeying an order by Gaozong that forbade Yue from going on the offensive . Yue captured Zhengzhou and sent soldiers across the Yellow River to stir up a peasant rebellion against the Jin . On July 8 , 1140 , at the Battle of Yancheng , Wuzhu launched a surprise attack on Song forces with an army of 100 @,@ 000 infantry and 15 @,@ 000 horsemen . Yue Fei directed his cavalry to attack the Jurchen soldiers and won a decisive victory . He continued on to Henan , where he recaptured Zhengzhou and Luoyang . Later in 1140 , Yue was forced to withdraw after the emperor ordered him to return to the Song court .
Emperor Gaozong supported settling a peace treaty with the Jurchens and sought to rein in the assertiveness of the military . The military expeditions of Yue Fei and other generals were an obstacle to peace negotiations . The government weakened the military by rewarding Yue Fei , Han Shizhong , and Zhang Jun ( 1086 – 1154 ) with titles that relieved them of their command over the Song armies . Han Shizhong , a critic of the treaty , retired . Yue Fei also announced his resignation as an act of protest . In 1141 Qin Hui had him imprisoned for insubordination . Charged with treason , Yue Fei was poisoned in jail on Qin 's orders in early 1142 . Jurchen diplomatic pressure during the peace talks may have played a role , but Qin Hui 's alleged collusion with the Jin has never been proven .
After his execution , Yue Fei 's reputation for defending the Southern Song grew to that of a national folk hero . Qin Hui was denigrated by later historians , who accused him of betraying the Song . The real Yue Fei differed from the later myths based on his exploits . Contrary to traditional legends , Yue was only one of many generals who fought against the Jin in northern China . Traditional accounts have also blamed Gaozong for Yue Fei 's execution and submitting to the Jin . Qin Hui , in a reply to Gaozong 's gratitude for the success of the peace negotiations , told the emperor that " the decision to make peace was entirely Your Majesty 's . Your servant only carried it out ; what achievement was there in this for me ? "
= = = Treaty of Shaoxing = = =
On October 11 , 1142 , after about a year of negotiations , the Treaty of Shaoxing was ratified , ending the conflict between the Jin and the Song . By the terms of the treaty , the Huai River , north of the Yangtze , was designated as the boundary between the two empires . The Song agreed to pay a yearly tribute of 250 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 250 @,@ 000 packs of silk to the Jin .
The treaty reduced the Southern Song 's status to that of a Jin vassal . The document designated the Song as the " insignificant state " , while the Jin was recognized as the " superior state " . The text of the treaty has not survived in Chinese records , a sign of its humiliating reputation . The contents of the agreement were recovered from a Jurchen biography . Once the treaty had been settled , the Jurchens retreated north and trade resumed between the two empires . The peace ensured by the Shaoxing treaty lasted for the next seventy years , but was interrupted twice . One campaign was initiated by the Song and the other by the Jin .
= = = Further campaigns = = =
= = = = Prince of Hailing 's campaign = = = =
Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ) led a coup against Emperor Xizong and became fourth emperor of the Jin dynasty in 1150 . Wanyan Liang presented himself as a Chinese emperor , and planned to unite China by conquering the Song . In 1158 , Wanyan Liang provided a casus belli by announcing that the Song had broken the 1142 peace treaty by acquiring horses . He instituted an unpopular draft that was the source of widespread unrest in the empire . Anti @-@ Jin revolts erupted among the Khitans and in Jin provinces bordering the Song . Wanyan Liang did not allow dissent , and opposition to the war was severely punished . The Song had been notified beforehand of Wanyan Liang 's plan . They prepared by securing their defenses along the border , mainly near the Yangtze River , but were hampered by Emperor Gaozong 's indecisiveness . Gaozong 's desire for peace made him averse to provoking the Jin . Wanyan Liang began the invasion in 1161 without formally declaring war . Jurchen armies personally led by Wanyan Liang left Kaifeng on October 15 , reached the Huai River border on October 28 , and marched in the direction of the Yangtze . The Song lost the Huai to the Jurchens but captured a few Jin prefectures in the west , slowing the Jurchen advance . A group of Jurchen generals were sent to cross the Yangtze near the city of Caishi ( south of Ma 'anshan in modern Anhui ) while Wanyan Liang established a base near Yangzhou .
The Song official Yu Yunwen was in command of the army defending the river . The Jurchen army was defeated while attacking Caishi between November 26 and 27 during the Battle of Caishi . The paddle @-@ wheel ships of the Song navy , armed with trebuchets that fired gunpowder bombs , overwhelmed the light ships of the Jin fleet . Jin ships were unable to compete because they were smaller and hastily constructed . The bombs launched by the Song contained mixtures of gunpowder , lime , scraps of iron , and a poison that was likely arsenic . Traditional Chinese accounts consider this the turning point of the war , characterizing it as a military upset that secured southern China from the northern invaders . The significance of the battle is said to have rivaled a similarly revered victory at the Battle of Fei River in the 4th century . Contemporaneous Song accounts claimed that the 18 @,@ 000 Song soldiers commanded by Yu Yunwen and tasked with defending Caishi were able to defeat the invading Jurchen army of 400 @,@ 000 soldiers . Modern historians are more skeptical and consider the Jurchen numbers an exaggeration . Song historians may have confused the number of Jurchen soldiers at the Battle of Caishi with the total number of soldiers under the command of Wanyan Liang . The conflict was not the one @-@ sided battle that traditional accounts imply , and the Song had numerous advantages over the Jin . The Song fleet was larger than the Jin 's , and the Jin were unable to use their greatest asset , cavalry , in a naval battle .
A modern analysis of the battlefield has shown that it was a minor battle , although the victory did boost Song morale . The Jin lost , but only suffered about 4 @,@ 000 casualties and the battle was not fatal to the Jurchen war effort . It was Wanyan Liang 's poor relationships with the Jurchen generals , who despised him , that doomed the chances of a Jin victory . On December 15 , Wanyan Liang was assassinated in his military camp by disaffected officers . He was succeeded by Emperor Shizong ( r . 1161 – 1189 ) . Shizong was pressured into ending the unpopular war with the Song , and ordered the withdrawal of Jin forces in 1162 . Emperor Gaozong retired from the throne that same year . His mishandling of the war with Wanyan Liang was one of many reasons for his abdication . Skirmishes between the Song and Jin continued along the border , but subsided in 1165 after the negotiation of a peace treaty . There were no major territorial changes . The treaty dictated that the Song still had to pay the annual indemnity , but the indemnity was renamed from " tribute " , which had implied a subordinate relationship , to " payment " .
= = = = Song revanchism = = = =
The Jin were weakened by the pressure of the rising Mongols to the north , a series of floods culminating in a Yellow River flood in 1194 that devastated Hebei and Shandong in northern China , and the droughts and swarming locusts that plagued the south near the Huai . The Song were informed of the Jurchen predicament by their ambassadors , who traveled twice a year to the Jin capital , and started provoking their northern neighbor . The hostilities were instigated by chancellor Han Tuozhou . The Song Emperor Ningzong ( r . 1194 – 1224 ) took little interest in the war effort . Under Han Tuozhou 's supervision , preparations for the war proceeded gradually and cautiously . The court venerated the irredentist hero Yue Fei and Han orchestrated the publishing of historical records that justified war with the Jin . From 1204 onwards , Song armed groups raided Jin settlements . Han Tuozhou was designated the head of national security in 1205 . The Song funded insurgents in the north that professed loyalist sympathies . These early clashes continued to escalate , partly abetted by revanchist Song officials , and war against the Jin was officially declared on June 14 , 1206 . The document that announced the war claimed the Jin lost the Mandate of Heaven , a sign that they were unfit to rule , and called for an insurrection of Han Chinese against the Jin state .
Song armies led by general Bi Zaiyu ( 畢再遇 ; d . 1217 ) captured the barely defended border city of Sizhou 泗州 ( on the north bank of the Huai River across from modern Xuyi County ) but suffered large losses against the Jurchens in Hebei . The Jin repelled the Song and moved south to besiege the Song town of Chuzhou 楚州 on the Grand Canal just south of the Huai River . Bi defended the town , and the Jurchens withdrew from the siege after three months . By the fall of 1206 , however , the Jurchens had captured multiple towns and military bases . The Jin initiated an offensive against Song prefectures in the central front of the war , capturing Zaoyang and Guanghua ( 光化 ; on the Han River near modern Laohekou ) . By the fall of 1206 , the Song offensive had already failed disastrously . Soldier morale sank as weather conditions worsened , supplies ran out , and hunger spread , forcing many to desert . The massive defections of Han Chinese in northern China that the Song had expected never materialized .
A notable betrayal did occur on the Song side , however : Wu Xi ( 吳曦 ; d . 1207 ) , the governor @-@ general of Sichuan , defected to the Jin in December 1206 . The Song had depended on Wu 's success in the west to divert Jin soldiers away from the eastern front . He had attacked Jin positions earlier in 1206 , but his army of about 50 @,@ 000 men had been repelled . Wu 's defection could have meant the loss of the entire western front of the war , but Song loyalists assassinated Wu on March 29 , 1207 , before Jin troops could take control of the surrendered territories . An Bing ( 安丙 ; d . 1221 ) was given Wu Xi 's position , but the cohesion of Song forces in the west fell apart after Wu 's demise and commanders turned on each other in the ensuing infighting .
Fighting continued in 1207 , but by the end of that year the war was at a stalemate . The Song was now on the defensive , while the Jin failed to make gains in Song territory . The failure of Han Tuozhou 's aggressive policies led to his demise . On December 15 , 1207 , Han was beaten to death by the Imperial Palace Guards . His accomplice Su Shidan ( 蘇師旦 ) was executed , and other officials connected to Han were dismissed or exiled . Since neither combatant was eager to continue the war , they returned to negotiations . A peace treaty was signed on November 2 , 1208 , and the Song tribute to the Jin was reinstated . The Song annual indemnity increased by 50 @,@ 000 taels of silver and 50 @,@ 000 packs of fabric . The treaty also stipulated that the Song had to present to the Jin the head of Han Tuozhou , who the Jin held responsible for starting the war . The heads of Han and Su were severed from their exhumed corpses , exhibited to the public , then delivered to the Jin .
= = = = Song – Jin war during the rise of the Mongols = = = =
The Mongols , a nomadic confederation , had unified in the middle of the twelfth century . They and other steppe nomads occasionally raided the Jin empire from the northwest . The Jin shied away from punitive expeditions and was content with appeasement , similar to the practices of the Song . The Mongols , formerly a Jin tributary , ended their vassalage in 1210 and attacked the Jin in 1211 . In light of this event , the Song court debated ending tributary payments to the weakened Jin , but they chose to avoid antagonizing the Jin . They refused Western Xia 's offers of allying against the Jin in 1214 and willingly complied when in 1215 the Jin rejected a request to lower the annual indemnity . Meanwhile , in 1214 , the Jin retreated from the besieged capital of Zhongdu to Kaifeng , which became the new capital of the dynasty . As the Mongols expanded , the Jin suffered territorial losses and attacked the Song in 1217 to compensate for their shrinking territory . Periodic Song raids against the Jin were the official justification for the war . Another likely motive was that the conquest of the Song would have given the Jin a place to escape should the Mongols succeed in taking control of the north . Shi Miyuan ( 史彌遠 ; 1164 – 1233 ) , the chancellor of Song Emperor Lizong ( r . 1224 – 1264 ) , was hesitant to fight the Jin and delayed the declaration of war for two months . Song generals were largely autonomous , allowing Shi to evade blame for their military blunders . The Jin advanced across the border from the center and western fronts . Jurchen military successes were limited , and the Jin faced repeated raids from the neighboring state of Western Xia . In 1217 , the Song generals Meng Zongzheng ( 孟宗政 ) and Hu Zaixing ( 扈再興 ) defeated the Jin and prevented them from capturing Zaoyang and Suizhou .
A second Jin campaign in late 1217 did marginally better than the first . In the east , the Jin made little headway in the Huai River valley , but in the west they captured Xihezhou and Dasan Pass ( 大散關 ; modern Shaanxi ) in late 1217 . The Jin tried to captured Suizhou in Jingxi South circuit again in 1218 and 1219 , but failed . A Song counteroffensive in early 1218 captured Sizhou and in 1219 the Jin cities of Dengzhou and Tangzhou were pillaged twice by a Song army commanded by Zhao Fang ( 趙方 ; d . 1221 ) . In the west , command of the Song forces in Sichuan was given to An Bing , who had previously been dismissed from this position . He successfully defended the western front , but was unable to advance further because of local uprisings in the area . The Jin tried to extort an indemnity from the Song but never received it . In the last of the three campaigns , in early 1221 , the Jin captured the city of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ; in Huainan West ) deep in Song territory . Song armies led by Hu Zaixing and Li Quan ( 李全 ; d . 1231 ) defeated the Jin , who then withdrew . In 1224 both sides agreed on a peace treaty that ended the annual tributes to the Jin . Diplomatic missions between the Jin and Song were also cut off .
= = = = Mongol – Song alliance = = = =
In February 1233 , the Mongols took Kaifeng after a siege of more than 10 months and the Jin court retreated to the town of Caizhou . In 1233 Emperor Aizong ( r . 1224 – 1234 ) of the Jin dispatched diplomats to implore the Song for supplies . Jin envoys reported to the Song that the Mongols would invade the Song after they were done with the Jin — a forecast that would later be proven true — but the Song ignored the warning and rebuffed the request . They instead formed an alliance with the Mongols against the Jin . The Song provided supplies to the Mongols in return for parts of Henan . The Jin dynasty collapsed when Mongol and Song troops defeated the Jurchens at the siege of Caizhou in 1234 . General Meng Gong ( 孟珙 ) led the Song army against Caizhou . The penultimate emperor of the Jin , Emperor Aizong , took his own life . His short @-@ lived successor , Emperor Mo , was killed in the town a few days later . The Mongols later turned their sights towards the Song . After decades of war , the Song dynasty also fell in 1279 , when the remaining Song loyalists lost to the Mongols in a naval battle near Guangdong .
= = Historical significance = =
= = = Cultural and demographic changes = = =
Jurchen migrants from the northeastern reaches of Jin territory settled in the Jin @-@ controlled lands of northern China . Constituting less than ten percent of the total population , the two to three million ruling Jurchens were a minority in a region that was still dominated by 30 million Han Chinese . The southward expansion of the Jurchens caused the Jin to transition their decentralized government of semi @-@ agrarian tribes to a bureaucratic Chinese @-@ style dynasty .
The Jin government initially promoted an independent Jurchen culture alongside their adoption of the centralized Chinese imperial bureaucracy , but the empire was gradually sinicized over time . The Jurchens became fluent in the Chinese language , and the philosophy of Confucianism was used to legitimize the ruling government . Confucian state rituals were adopted during the reign of Emperor Xizong ( 1135 – 1150 ) . The Jin implemented imperial exams on the Confucian Classics , first regionally and then for the entire empire . The Classics and other works of Chinese literature were translated into Jurchen and studied by Jin intellectuals , but very few Jurchens actively contributed to the classical literature of the Jin . The Khitan script , from the Chinese family of scripts , formed the basis of a national writing system for the empire , the Jurchen script . All three scripts were working languages of the government . Jurchen clans adopted Chinese personal names with their Jurchen names . Wanyan Liang ( the Prince of Hailing ; r . 1150 – 1161 ) was an enthusiastic proponent of Jurchen sinicization and enacted policies to encourage it . Wanyan Liang had been acculturated by Song diplomats from childhood , and his emulation of Song practices earned him the Jurchen nickname of " aping the Chinese " . He studied the Chinese classics , drank tea , and played Chinese chess for recreation . Under his reign , the administrative core of the Jin state was moved south from Huining . He instated Beijing as the Jin main capital in 1153 . Palaces were erected in Beijing and Kaifeng , while the original , more northerly residences of Jurchen chieftains were demolished .
The emperor 's political reforms were connected with his desire to conquer all of China and to legitimize himself as a Chinese emperor . The prospect of conquering southern China was cut short by Wanyan Liang 's assassination . Wanyan Liang 's successor , Emperor Shizong , was less enthusiastic about sinicization and reversed several of Wanyan Liang 's edicts . He sanctioned new policies with the intent to slow the assimilation of the Jurchens . Shizong 's prohibitions were abandoned by Emperor Zhangzong ( r . 1189 – 1208 ) , who promoted reforms that transformed the political structure of the dynasty closer to that of the Song and Tang dynasties . Despite cultural and demographic changes , military hostilities between the Jin and the Song persisted until the fall of the Jin .
In the south , the retreat of the Song dynasty led to major demographic changes . The population of refugees from the north that resettled in Hangzhou and Jiankang ( modern Nanjing ) eventually grew greater than the population of original residents , whose numbers had dwindled from repeated Jurchen raids . The government encouraged the resettlement of peasant migrants from the southern provinces of the Song to the underpopulated territories between the Yangtze and the Huai rivers .
The new capital Hangzhou grew into a major commercial and cultural center . It rose from a middling city of no special importance to one of the world 's largest and most prosperous . During his stay in Hangzhou in the Yuan dynasty ( 1260 – 1368 ) , when the city was not as wealthy as it had been under the Song , Marco Polo remarked that " this city is greater than any in the world " . Once retaking northern China became less plausible and Hangzhou grew into a significant trading city , the government buildings were extended and renovated to better befit its status as an imperial capital . The modestly sized imperial palace was expanded in 1133 with new roofed alleyways and in 1148 with an extension of the palace walls .
The loss of northern China , the cultural center of Chinese civilization , diminished the international status of the Song dynasty . After the Jurchen conquest of the north , Korea recognized the Jin , not the Song , as the legitimate dynasty of China . The Song 's military failures reduced it to a subordinate of the Jin , turning it into a " China among equals " . The Song economy , however , recovered quickly after the move south . Government revenues earned from taxing foreign trade nearly doubled between the closing of the Northern Song era in 1127 and the final years of Gaozong 's reign in the early 1160s . The recovery was not uniform , and areas like Huainan and Hubei that had been directly affected by the war took decades to return to their pre @-@ war levels . In spite of multiple wars , the Jin remained one of the main trading partners of the Song . Song demand for foreign products like fur and horses went unabated . Historian Shiba Yoshinobu ( 斯波義信 , b . 1930 ) believes that Song commerce with the north was profitable enough that it compensated for the silver delivered annually as an indemnity to the Jin .
= = = Gunpowder warfare = = =
The battles between the Song and the Jin spurred the invention and use of gunpowder weapons . There are reports that the fire lance , one of the earliest ancestors of the firearm , was used by the Song against the Jurchens besieging De 'an ( 德安 ; modern Anlu in eastern Hubei ) in 1132 , during the Jin invasion of Hubei and Shaanxi . The weapon consisted of a spear attached with a flamethrower capable of firing projectiles from a barrel constructed of bamboo or paper . They were built by soldiers under the command of Chen Gui ( 陳規 ) , who led the Song army defending De 'an . The fire lances with which Song soldiers were equipped at De 'an were built for destroying the wooden siege engines of the Jin and not for combat against the Jin infantry . Song soldiers compensated for the limited range and mobility of the weapon by timing their attacks on the Jin siege engines , waiting until they were within range of the fire lances . Later fire lances used metal barrels , fired projectiles farther and with greater force , and could be used against infantry .
Early rudimentary bombs like the huopao fire bomb ( 火礮 ) and the huopao ( 火砲 ) bombs propelled by trebuchet were also in use as incendiary weapons . The defending Song army used huopao ( 火礮 ) during the first Jin siege of Kaifeng in 1126 . On the opposing side , the Jin launched incendiary bombs from siege towers down onto the city below . In 1127 , huopao ( 火礮 ) were employed by the Song troops defending De 'an and by the Jin soldiers besieging the city . The government official Lin Zhiping ( 林之平 ) proposed to make incendiary bombs and arrows mandatory for all warships in the Song navy . At the battle of Caishi in 1161 , Song ships fired pili huoqiu ( 霹靂火球 ) , also called pili huopao bombs ( 霹靂火砲 ) , from trebuchets against the ships of the Jin fleet commanded by Wanyan Liang . The gunpowder mixture of the bomb contained powdered lime , which produced blinding smoke once the casing of the bomb shattered . The Song also deployed incendiary weapons at the battle of Tangdao during the same year .
Gunpowder was also applied to arrows in 1206 by a Song army stationed in Xiangyang . The arrows were most likely an incendiary weapon , but its function may also have resembled that of an early rocket . At the Jin siege of Qizhou ( 蘄州 ) in 1221 , the Jurchens fought the Song with gunpowder bombs and arrows . The Jin tiehuopao ( 鐵火砲 , " iron huopao " ) , which had cast iron casings , are the first known bombs that could explode . The bomb needed to be capable of detonating in order to penetrate the iron casing . The Song army had a large supply of incendiary bombs , but there are no reports of them having a weapon similar to the Jin 's detonating bombs . A participant in the siege recounted in the Xinsi Qi Qi Lu ( 辛巳泣蘄錄 ) that the Song army at Qizhou had an arsenal of 3000 huopao ( 火礮 ) , 7000 incendiary gunpowder arrows for crossbows and 10000 for bows , as well as 20000 pidapao ( 皮大礮 ) , probably leather bags filled with gunpowder .
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= T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage =
The T30 Howitzer Motor Carriage ( HMC ) was a United States Army self @-@ propelled gun used in World War II . Its design was based on requirements for an assault gun issued by the Armored Force in 1941 and it was built as an interim solution until a fully tracked design was complete .
Produced by the White Motor Company , the vehicle was simply a 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 mounted on a modified M3 Half @-@ track . It was first used in combat in the North African Campaign in November 1942 . It later served in Italy and France , and possibly in the Pacific . Some were later leased to French forces and the type was used as late as the First Indochina War in the 1950s .
= = Specifications = =
Based on the M3 Half @-@ track , the T30 's specifications were similar to its parent vehicle . It was 20 ft 7 in ( 6 @.@ 28 m ) long , 6 ft 5 in ( 1 @.@ 96 m ) wide , 8 ft 3 in ( 2 @.@ 51 m ) and high , and weighed 10 @.@ 3 short tons ( 9 @.@ 3 t ) . The suspension consisted of vertical volute springs for the tracks and leaf springs for the wheels , while the vehicle had a fuel capacity of 60 US gallons ( 230 l ) . It had a range of 150 mi ( 240 km ) and had a speed of 40 mph ( 64 km / h ) , and was powered by a White 160AX , 147 hp ( 110 kW ) , 386 in3 ( 6 @,@ 330 cc ) , six @-@ cylinder , gasoline engine , with a compression ratio of 6 @.@ 3 : 1 . It had a power @-@ to @-@ weight ratio of 15 @.@ 8 hp / ton .
= = = Gun specifications = = =
The T30 's main armament was a short barreled 3 @.@ 0 in ( 75 mm ) pack howitzer . The 75 mm Pack Howitzer M1 as mounted could depress nine degrees , elevate 50 degrees , and traverse 22 @.@ 5 degrees to each side . The vehicle had stowage for sixty rounds of 75 mm ammunition and , although it was not designed for anti @-@ tank use , it had a high explosive anti @-@ tank ( HEAT ) shell that could penetrate 3 in ( 76 mm ) of armor . The gun shield had 0 @.@ 375 in ( 9 @.@ 5 mm ) thick armor , designed to stop a .30 cal ( 7 @.@ 62 mm ) bullet from 250 yards ( 230 m ) away .
= = Development = =
The T30 HMC was originally conceived in 1941 as an interim design to fulfil the Armored Force 's requirement for an assault gun to equip tank and armored reconnaissance units . The Ordnance Department design was based on the M3 Half @-@ track in order that it could be brought into service quickly . A prototype vehicle was authorized in October 1941 armed with an M1A1 75 mm Pack Howitzer and a mount that was designed to fit on a simple box structure in the back of an M3 Half @-@ track .
Authorization for the production of two prototypes was given in January 1942 ; first deliveries of the vehicle were made the following month from the White Motor Company . As it was seen as a temporary solution it was never given type classification . In September 1942 , the T30 was partially replaced by the Howitzer Motor Carriage M8 ( the same gun on an M3 Stuart ) . After that , it was declared as " limited standard " . A total of 500 were produced , all by the White Motor Company .
= = Service history = =
The T30 HMC entered service in November 1942 , seeing action for the first time in the North African Campaign . In the 1st Armored Division , each armored regiment was issued twelve T30s . Of these , three were used in each battalion headquarters platoon and three were used in each regimental reconnaissance platoon . In addition , the 6th and 41st Armored Infantry Regiments were each issued with nine T30 HMCs , with three of them being allocated to the headquarters platoon in each armored infantry battalion .
Most infantry divisions in the North African Campaign deployed a " cannon company " equipped with six T30s and two 105 mm T19 HMCs . In one encounter in North Africa , the T30 was used in an attempt to destroy German tanks . Although the T30s fired several volleys , the German tanks were barely damaged and the T30s were ordered to retreat under the cover of smoke to prevent losses . After several similar experiences , U.S. forces ceased the practice of employing self @-@ propelled howitzers or mortars in direct combat with tanks .
The T30 also served during the Allied invasion of Sicily in 1943 , the war in Italy in 1944 , and possibly in the Pacific . It was removed from infantry division use in March 1943 , following changes in the organization of US infantry battalions , and was replaced by towed howitzers . The T30 was eventually replaced by the M8 HMC , which was based on the M5 Stuart light tank , and which began entering service around the same time as the T30 . Only 312 T30 HMCs were delivered in their original configuration , as the last 188 were converted back into M3 Half @-@ tracks before they were delivered . Later on , the U.S. leased several to French forces and some were used as late as the First Indochina War before the vehicle was retired from service in the 1950s .
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= Memory Almost Full =
Memory Almost Full is the fourteenth solo studio album by Paul McCartney , discounting his Wings @-@ era discography , his orchestral works and his output as the Fireman . It was released in the United Kingdom on 4 June 2007 and in the United States a day later . The album was the first release on Starbucks ' Hear Music label . It was produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios , Henson Recording Studios , AIR Studios , Hog Hill Mill Studios and RAK Studios between October 2003 , and from 2006 to February 2007 . In between the 2003 and 2006 sessions , McCartney was working on another studio album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard ( 2005 ) , with producer Nigel Godrich .
Memory Almost Full reached the Top 5 in both the UK and US , as well as Denmark , Sweden , Greece , and Norway . The Grammy @-@ nominated album has sold over 2 million copies worldwide and has been certified gold by the RIAA for shipments of over 500 @,@ 000 copies just in the United States . The album was released in three versions : a single disc , a 2 @-@ CD set , and a CD / DVD deluxe edition , the latter of which was released on 6 November 2007 .
= = Background = =
Nine demos were recorded at The Mill studio in September 2003 by Paul McCartney and his touring band . A month later , in October , album sessions for Memory Almost Full began , and were produced by David Kahne and recorded at Abbey Road Studios . McCartney and the band recorded the songs " You Tell Me " , " Only Mama Knows " , " Vintage Clothes " , " That Was Me " , " Feet in the Clouds " , " House of Wax " , " The End of the End " , and " Whole Life " . However , the sessions were cut short and put on hiatus when McCartney started another album , Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , with producer Nigel Godrich . In the website constructed for the album , McCartney stated : " I actually started this album , Memory Almost Full , before my last album Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , released September 2005 . ( ... ) When I was just finishing up everything concerned with Chaos and had just got the Grammy nominations ( 2006 ) I realised I had this album to go back to and finish off . So I got it out to listen to it again , wondering if I would enjoy it , but actually I really loved it . All I did at first was just listen to a couple of things and then I began to think , ' OK , I like that track – now , what is wrong with it ? ' And it might be something like a drum sound , so then I would re @-@ drum and see where we would get to . ( ... ) In places it 's a very personal record and a lot of it is retrospective , drawing from memory , like memories from being a kid , from Liverpool and from summers gone . The album is evocative , emotional , rocking , but I can 't really sum it up in one sentence " .
= = Recording = =
Many songs from Memory Almost Full were from a group of songs , which also included songs from Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , and some intended for the former nearly ended up on the latter . Any songs that were started , but not finished , for Chaos and Creation in the Backyard , McCartney didn 't want to re @-@ do for Memory Almost Full . As sessions for the album progressed McCartney wrote some more songs , something that McCartney used to do when he was in the Beatles . A song called " Perfect Lover " was recorded at either one of the three following studios : RAK Studios , AIR Studios or Ocean Way Studios ; sometime between November 2003 and April 2005 . " Perfect Lover " , in its original form was more folk @-@ like , similar to Chaos and Creation in the Backyard 's " Friends to Go " . " Perfect Lover " went through a minor lyrical change , the bridge was changed , and an overhaul of its musical arrangement , before it finally became " Ever Present Past " . Two years after the 2003 session , sessions for the album started again . The book Paul McCartney : Recording Sessions ( 1969 @-@ 2013 ) . A Journey Through Paul McCartney 's Songs After The Beatles reports that the recordings of the album were started in September – October 2003 and resumed in February 2004 at Abbey Road , with other sessions taking place between March 2006 and February 2007 .
New tracks were recorded at the following studios : McCartney 's home studio in Sussex , The Mill , Los Angeles ' Henson Studios , London 's RAK Studios and AIR Studios , and New York 's SeeSquared Studios . The songs recorded at those studios were " Nod Your Head " , " In Private " , " 222 " , " Gratitude " , " Mr. Bellamy " , " See Your Sunshine " , and " Ever Present Past " . Of those songs , " Mr. Bellamy " , " Ever Present Past " , " Gratitude " , " Nod Your Head " , and " In Private " were all recorded on the same day , in March 2006 . As well as working on songs from the first Memory Almost Full album session in 2003 , " Why So Blue " was re @-@ recorded . In total , between 20 and 25 songs were recorded for the album . " Dance Tonight " was recorded , along with " Feet in the Clouds " and " 222 " being reworked , between January and February 2007 at RAK Studios , as the last song recorded for the album . The album was mixed by Kahne and Andy Wallace .
= = Content = =
The Rock Radio website leaked a track listing for the album on 12 April 2007 . A day later , producer David Kahne stated on the same site that the leaked listing was bogus . In an interview with Billboard magazine in May 2007 , McCartney said that the album 's material was " in some ways a little bit retrospective . Some of them are of now , some of them hark back to the past , but all of them are songs I 'm very proud of . " McCartney played mandolin on the song " Dance Tonight " . He comments that " In searching the instrument to try and find chords , which I did with the guitar when I was 14 , probably , that freshness was brought back . " " Ever Present Past " , which McCartney called " personal " , originally started out as a song called " Perfect Lover " . " Ever Present Past " also includes references to the Beatles . In June 2007 , McCartney revealed that " See Your Sunshine " " is pretty much an out @-@ and @-@ out love song for Heather . A lot of the album was done before , during and after our separation . I didn 't go back and take out any songs to do with her . " " You Tell Me " is about McCartney 's memories of his previous wife , Linda .
" Mr. Bellamy " , the sixth song on the album , was thought by online fans to be about McCartney 's then @-@ recent divorce . McCartney invited Radiohead frontman Thom Yorke to play piano on the song , but he declined . The press ran articles claiming that Yorke had " snubbed " McCartney , but Yorke later revealed that he " really liked the song " but felt he would be unable to perform to the required standard . " Gratitude " is reportedly about the divorce between Heather Mills and McCartney .
The album features a five song @-@ medley , which in an interview with Billboard magazine , McCartney said that it was previously " something I wanted to revisit " as " nobody had been doing that for a while . " The medley was a group of intentionally written material , whereas McCartney had worked on the Beatles ' Abbey Road which , however , was actually made up of " bits we had knocking around . " The medley starts off with " Vintage Clothes " , which McCartney " sat down one day " to write , that was " looking back , [ and ] looking back . " , about life . It was followed by the bass @-@ led " That Was Me " , which is about his " school days and teachers " , the medley , as McCartney stated , then " progressed from there . " The next songs are " Feet in the Clouds " , about the inactivity while one is growing up , and " House of Wax " , about the life of being a celebrity . The final song in medley , " The End of the End " , was written at McCartney 's Cavendish Avenue home while playing on his father , Jim 's , piano .
= = Album title , and CD casing = =
Some people mentioned that the album 's title , Memory Almost Full , is an anagram of " for my soulmate LLM " ( the initials of Linda Louise McCartney ) . When asked if this was intentional , McCartney replied ; " Some things are best left a mystery " . In an interview with Pitchfork Media , McCartney clarified , " I must say , someone told me [ there is an anagram ] , and I think it 's a complete mystery , because it 's so complete . There does appear to be an anagram in the title . And it 's a mystery . It was not intentional . " The album 's title was actually inspired by a message that came up on his mobile phone . He thought the phrase summed up modern life .
A significant proportion of the CD release of Memory Almost Full incorporated a cover insert whose top @-@ right corner was intentionally folded down to the center of the insert , leaving the CD tray visible . The folded @-@ down white corner covers up the corner of the armchair image , but has the artist and album names printed so that the text is complete despite the fold . Upon opening and flattening out the cover insert , the armchair is complete , but the portion of the text which is printed on the folded @-@ down corner is not printed on the front of the cover , leaving the text incomplete . This was the first time such an artistic intervention occurred within a standard jewel @-@ case , and at first glance had the possibility of being viewed as a mis @-@ manufactured copy . McCartney on the CD case / album artwork : " I really wanted to make the CD a desirable object . Something that I know I 'd want to pick up from the shelf , something that would make people curious . "
= = Reception = =
Memory Almost Full received positive reaction . At Metacritic , the album earned an average score of 69 based on 23 reviews from critics , which indicates " Generally favorable reviews " . Evan Serpick of Rolling Stone magazine also compared the medley of five songs in the second part of the album to the famous song suite in The Beatles ' Abbey Road . This album was ranked number 22 on Rolling Stone 's list of the Top 50 Albums of 2007 .
= = Release = =
= = = Album = = =
The album was his first for Starbucks ' Hear Music record label , after previously having a 45 @-@ year @-@ old relationship with Capitol / EMI . The recording contract with Capitol / EMI ended a few months prior to the release of the album , after McCartney had found out that EMI were planning to take six months to set up a promotional plan for the album . McCartney was the first artist to sign to Hear Music . The album was released on 4 June 2007 in the UK , and a day later on the 5th in the US , and with a vinyl edition later in the month on 25 June . In the US , Memory Almost Full debuted at number 3 on the Billboard 200 with about 161 @,@ 000 copies sold within the first week , making it McCartney 's highest @-@ charting album there since 1997 's Flaming Pie . 47 % of the album sales from the opening week were from Starbucks coffee shops , which were the best sales for any album in the history of Starbucks . While it was announced that copies of the album sold in the Starbucks coffee shops in the UK would not be counted by the Official UK Charts , because they are not registered in the copies counting system , Memory Almost Full , however , still managed to hit number 5 on the UK Album Charts . The album was also peaked at number 1 on Billboard Internet Sales Chart , and number 3 on Billboard Top Internet Albums Downloads .
It was also McCartney 's first album to be available as a digital download . Promotion for the album came in several forms , such as a worldwide listening party at over 10 @,@ 000 Starbucks stores on the day of the album 's US release , with an approximation of 6 million people hearing the album . At ten of the Starbucks stores , fans contributed in a video tribute , that aired on the internet on 18 June 2007 . Other promotions included a limited edition Paul McCartney Starbucks card , similar to what they had done for Ray Charles 's Genius Loves Company , the Starbucks @-@ owned satellite radio station XM Channel made a program about McCartney and the album , released one song prior to the album on iTunes , performed at iTunes Festival : London , and playing free shows . It was ranked at number 90 on the top @-@ 100 of the Billboard Year @-@ end chart , and number 177 on the UK year @-@ end chart . The album won awards for the Best PR Campaign award at the Music Week Awards ceremony , and the Online / Digital Campaign award by New Media Age . The album reportedly sold 105 @,@ 000 copies in his homeland until it was given away the standard version of the CD in a unique slip @-@ case as part of a promotion with British newspaper The Mail on Sunday for free , with the 18 May 2008 edition .
On 6 November 2007 , the album was re @-@ released as Memory Almost Full – Deluxe Edition . The set included one CD and one DVD . The CD included the standard album plus the three extra songs from the 2 @-@ CD edition . The DVD contained five tracks recorded live at The Electric Ballroom in London , and two music videos .
= = = Singles = = =
The first US single , " Ever Present Past " , made its radio debut on 20 April 2007 . Peaking at number 10 in the Bubbling Under Hot 100 , and also charting at number 16 on Billboard Adult Contemporary . The lead single for the rest of the world is " Dance Tonight " , released on McCartney 's 65th birthday in the UK , 18 June 2007 as a digital download , with a physical release a month later , on 23 July of a CD single and a 10 " shaped picture disc . The single peaked at number 46 on Billboard Hot Digital Songs , number 58 Billboard Pop 100 , and finally at number 69 on Billboard Hot 100 . The music video features Natalie Portman and Mackenzie Crook , and was directed by Michel Gondry . The music video had its premier exclusively on 23 May 2007 YouTube . " Dance Tonight " has appeared in an iTunes advert with McCartney playing the mandolin . " Ever Present Past " was released as a single in the UK , on 5 November , as a CD single and 7 " single . It peaked at number 85 . The third single , " Nod Your Head " , was released as a digital download single on 28 August 2007 via the iTunes Store .
= = Track listing = =
All songs written by Paul McCartney .
" Dance Tonight " – 2 : 54
" Ever Present Past " – 2 : 57
" See Your Sunshine " – 3 : 20
" Only Mama Knows " – 4 : 17
" You Tell Me " – 3 : 15
" Mr. Bellamy " – 3 : 39
" Gratitude " – 3 : 19
" Vintage Clothes " – 2 : 22
This track marks the start of a five @-@ song medley on the album .
" That Was Me " – 2 : 38
" Feet in the Clouds " – 3 : 24
" House of Wax " – 4 : 59
" The End of the End " – 2 : 57
" Nod Your Head " – 1 : 58
= = Personnel = =
Personnel per booklet .
= = Grammy = =
Memory Almost Full has been nominated in the following categories :
Best Pop Vocal Album for Memory Almost Full ( 2008 )
Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " Dance Tonight " ( 2008 )
Best Solo Rock Vocal Performance for " Only Mama Knows " ( 2008 )
Best Male Pop Vocal Performance for " That Was Me " ( 2009 )
= = Charts = =
Notes :
On the article that Concord Music Group posted on their official site in February 2007 ( a month before Memory Almost Full was certified gold by the Recording Industry Association of America ) , Hear Music announced that shipments of the album reached a platinum status in the US . The label also claimed that the album gained a gold in other countries like Norway , though International Federation of the Phonographic Industry has not certified the album at any label there as of 2014 .
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= Imagine ( John Lennon song ) =
" Imagine " is a song written and performed by the English musician John Lennon . The best @-@ selling single of his solo career , its lyrics encourage the listener to imagine a world at peace without the barriers of borders or the divisions of religion and nationality , and to consider the possibility that the focus of humanity should be living a life unattached to material possessions .
Lennon and Yoko Ono co @-@ produced the song and album of the same name with Phil Spector . Recording began at Lennon 's home studio at Tittenhurst Park , England , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . One month after the September release of the LP , Lennon released " Imagine " as a single in the United States ; the song peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and the LP reached number one on the UK chart in November , later becoming the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career . Although not originally released as a single in the United Kingdom , it was released in 1975 to promote a compilation LP and it reached number six in the chart that year . The song has since sold more than 1 @.@ 6 million copies in the UK ; it reached number one following Lennon 's murder in December 1980 . In 1985 , Central Park memorialized a portion of the park with a mosaic that reads " Imagine " in honor of Lennon .
BMI named " Imagine " one of the 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . It earned a Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . A UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book named it the second best single of all time , while Rolling Stone ranked it number three in their list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " . Since 2005 , event organisers have played it just before the New Year 's Times Square Ball drops in New York City . Dozens of artists have performed or recorded versions of " Imagine " , including Madonna , Stevie Wonder , Joan Baez , Elton John and Diana Ross . Emeli Sandé recorded a cover for the BBC to use during the end credits montage at the close of the 2012 Summer Olympics coverage in August 2012 . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .
= = Composition and writing = =
Several poems from Yoko Ono 's 1964 book Grapefruit inspired Lennon to write the lyrics for " Imagine " — in particular , one which Capitol Records reproduced on the back cover of the original Imagine LP titled " Cloud Piece " , reads : " Imagine the clouds dripping , dig a hole in your garden to put them in . " Lennon later said the composition " should be credited as a Lennon / Ono song . A lot of it — the lyric and the concept — came from Yoko , but in those days I was a bit more selfish , a bit more macho , and I sort of omitted her contribution , but it was right out of Grapefruit . " When asked about the song 's meaning during a December 1980 interview with David Sheff for Playboy magazine , Lennon told Sheff that Dick Gregory had given Ono and him a Christian prayer book , which inspired him the concept behind " Imagine " .
The concept of positive prayer ... If you can imagine a world at peace , with no denominations of religion — not without religion but without this my God @-@ is @-@ bigger @-@ than @-@ your @-@ God thing — then it can be true ... the World Church called me once and asked , " Can we use the lyrics to ' Imagine ' and just change it to ' Imagine one religion ' ? " That showed [ me ] they didn 't understand it at all . It would defeat the whole purpose of the song , the whole idea .
With the combined influence of " Cloud Piece " and the prayer book given to him by Gregory , Lennon wrote what author John Blaney described as " a humanistic paean for the people " . Blaney wrote , " Lennon contends that global harmony is within our reach , but only if we reject the mechanisms of social control that restrict human potential . " In the opinion of Blaney , with " Imagine " , Lennon attempted to raise people 's awareness of their interaction with the institutions that affect their lives . Rolling Stone 's David Fricke commented : " [ Lennon ] calls for a unity and equality built upon the complete elimination of modern social order : geopolitical borders , organised religion , [ and ] economic class . "
Lennon stated : " ' Imagine ' , which says : ' Imagine that there was no more religion , no more country , no more politics , ' is virtually the Communist manifesto , even though I 'm not particularly a Communist and I do not belong to any movement . " He told NME : " There is no real Communist state in the world ; you must realize that . The Socialism I speak about ... [ is ] not the way some daft Russian might do it , or the Chinese might do it . That might suit them . Us , we should have a nice ... British Socialism . " Ono described the lyrical statement of " Imagine " as " just what John believed : that we are all one country , one world , one people . " Rolling Stone described its lyrics as " 22 lines of graceful , plain @-@ spoken faith in the power of a world , united in purpose , to repair and change itself " .
Lennon composed " Imagine " one morning in early 1971 , on a Steinway piano , in a bedroom at his Tittenhurst Park estate in Ascot , Berkshire , England . Ono watched as he composed the melody , chord structure and almost all the lyrics , nearly completing the song in one brief writing session . Described as a piano ballad performed in the soft rock genre , the song is in the key of C major . Its 4 @-@ bar piano introduction begins with a C chord then moves to Cmaj7 before changing to F ; the 12 @-@ bar verses also follow this chord progression , with their last 4 bars moving from Am / E to Dm and Dm / C , finishing with G , G11 then G7 , before resolving back to C. The 8 @-@ bar choruses progress from F to G to C , then Cmaj7 and E before ending on E7 , a C chord substituted for E7 in the final bar . The 4 @-@ bar outro begins with F , then G , before resolving on C. With a duration of 3 minutes and 3 seconds and a time signature of 4 / 4 , the song 's tempo falls around 75 beats per minute .
= = Recording and commercial reception = =
Lennon and Ono co @-@ produced the song and album with Phil Spector , who commented on the track : " We knew what we were going to do ... It was going to be John making a political statement , but a very commercial one as well ... I always thought that ' Imagine ' was like the national anthem . " Lennon described his working arrangement with Ono and Spector : " Phil doesn 't arrange or anything like that — [ Ono ] and Phil will just sit in the other room and shout comments like , ' Why don 't you try this sound ' or ' You 're not playing the piano too well ' ... I 'll get the initial idea and ... we 'll just find a sound from [ there ] . "
Recording began at Ascot Sound Studios , Lennon 's newly built home studio at Tittenhurst Park , in May 1971 , with final overdubs taking place at the Record Plant , in New York City , during July . Relaxed and patient , the sessions began during the late morning , running to just before dinner in the early evening . Lennon taught the musicians the chord progression and a working arrangement for " Imagine " , rehearsing the song until he deemed the musicians ready to record . In his attempt to recreate Lennon 's desired sound , Spector had some early tapings feature Lennon and Nicky Hopkins playing in different octaves on one piano . He also initially attempted to record the piano part with Lennon playing the white baby grand in the couple 's all @-@ white room . However , after having deemed the room 's acoustics unsuitable , Spector abandoned the idea in favour of the superior environment of Lennon 's home studio . They completed the session in minutes , recording three takes and choosing the second one for release . The finished recording featured Lennon on piano and vocal , Klaus Voormann on bass guitar , Alan White on drums and the Flux Fiddlers on strings .
Issued by Apple Records in the United States in October 1971 , " Imagine " became the best @-@ selling single of Lennon 's solo career . It peaked at number three on the Billboard Hot 100 and reached number one in Canada on the RPM national singles chart , remaining there for two weeks . Upon its release the song 's lyrics upset some religious groups , particularly the line : " Imagine there 's no heaven " . When asked about the song during one of his final interviews , Lennon said he considered it to be as strong a composition as any he had written with the Beatles . He described the song 's meaning and explicated its commercial appeal : " Anti @-@ religious , anti @-@ nationalistic , anti @-@ conventional , anti @-@ capitalistic , but because it is sugarcoated it is accepted ... Now I understand what you have to do . Put your political message across with a little honey . " In an open letter to Paul McCartney published in Melody Maker , Lennon said that " Imagine " was " ' Working Class Hero ' with sugar on it for conservatives like yourself " . On 30 November 1971 , the Imagine LP reached number one on the UK chart . It became the most commercially successful and critically acclaimed album of Lennon 's solo career .
= = Film and re @-@ releases = =
In 1972 , Lennon and Ono released an 81 @-@ minute film to accompany the Imagine album which featured footage of the couple in their home , garden and the recording studio of their Berkshire property at Tittenhurst Park as well as in New York City . A full @-@ length documentary rock video , the film 's first scene features a shot of Lennon and Ono walking through a thick fog , arriving at their house as the song " Imagine " begins . Above the front door to their house is a sign that reads : " This Is Not Here " , the title of Ono 's then New York art show . The next scene shows Lennon sitting at a white grand piano in a dimly lit , all @-@ white room . Ono gradually walks around opening curtains that allow in light , making the room brighter with the song 's progression . At the song 's conclusion , Ono sits beside Lennon at the piano , and they share a quaint gaze , then a brief kiss .
Several celebrities appeared in the film , including Andy Warhol , Fred Astaire , Jack Palance , Dick Cavett and George Harrison . Derided by critics as " the most expensive home movie of all time " , it premiered to an American audience in 1972 . In 1986 , Zbigniew Rybczyński made a music video for the song , and in 1987 , it won both the " Silver Lion " award for Best Clip at Cannes and the Festival Award at the Rio International Film Festival .
Released as a single in the United Kingdom in 1975 in conjunction with the album Shaved Fish , " Imagine " peaked at number six on the UK Singles Chart . Following Lennon 's murder in 1980 , the single re @-@ entered the UK chart , reaching number one , where it remained for four weeks in January 1981 . " Imagine " was re @-@ released as a single in the UK in 1988 , peaking at number 45 , and again in 1999 , reaching number three . It has sold 1 @,@ 640 @,@ 000 copies in the UK as of June 2013 , making it Lennon 's best @-@ selling single . In 1999 , on National Poetry Day in the United Kingdom , the BBC announced that listeners had voted " Imagine " Britain 's favourite song lyric . In 2003 , it reached number 33 as the B @-@ side to a re @-@ release of " Happy Xmas ( War Is Over ) " .
= = Recognition and criticism = =
Rolling Stone described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " greatest musical gift to the world " , praising " the serene melody ; the pillowy chord progression ; [ and ] that beckoning , four @-@ note [ piano ] figure " . Included in several song polls , in 1999 , BMI named it one of the top 100 most @-@ performed songs of the 20th century . Also that year , it received the Grammy Hall of Fame Award and an induction into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame 's 500 Songs that Shaped Rock and Roll . " Imagine " ranked number 23 in the list of best @-@ selling singles of all time in the UK , in 2000 . In 2002 , a UK survey conducted by the Guinness World Records British Hit Singles Book ranked it the second best single of all time behind Queen 's " Bohemian Rhapsody " . Gold Radio ranked the song number three on its " Gold 's greatest 1000 hits " list .
Rolling Stone ranked " Imagine " number three on its list of " The 500 Greatest Songs of All Time " , describing it as " an enduring hymn of solace and promise that has carried us through extreme grief , from the shock of Lennon 's own death in 1980 to the unspeakable horror of September 11th . It is now impossible to imagine a world without ' Imagine ' , and we need it more than he ever dreamed . " Despite that sentiment , Clear Channel Communications included the song on its post @-@ 9 / 11 " do not play " list .
On 1 January 2005 , the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation named " Imagine " the greatest song in the past 100 years as voted by listeners on the show 50 Tracks . The song ranked number 30 on the Recording Industry Association of America 's list of the 365 Songs of the Century bearing the most historical significance . Virgin Radio conducted a UK favourite song survey in December 2005 , and listeners voted " Imagine " number one . Australians selected it the greatest song of all time on the Nine Network 's 20 to 1 countdown show on 12 September 2006 . They voted it eleventh in the youth radio network Triple J 's Hottest 100 Of All Time on 11 July 2009 .
Jimmy Carter said , " in many countries around the world — my wife and I have visited about 125 countries — you hear John Lennon 's song ' Imagine ' used almost equally with national anthems . " On 9 October 2010 , which would have been Lennon 's 70th birthday , the Liverpool Signing Choir performed " Imagine " along with other Lennon songs at the unveiling of the John Lennon Peace Monument in Chavasse Park , Liverpool , England . Beatles producer George Martin praised Lennon 's solo work , singling out the composition : " My favourite song of all was ' Imagine ' " . Music critic Paul Du Noyer described " Imagine " as Lennon 's " most revered " post @-@ Beatles song . Urish and Bielen called it " the most subversive pop song recorded to achieve classic status " . Fricke commented : " ' Imagine ' is a subtly contentious song , Lennon 's greatest combined achievement as a balladeer and agitator . "
Authors Ben Urish and Ken Bielen criticised the song 's instrumental music as overly sentimental and melodramatic , comparing it to the music of the pre @-@ rock era and describing the vocal melody as understated . According to Blaney , Lennon 's lyrics describe hypothetical possibilities that offer no practical solutions ; lyrics that are at times nebulous and contradictory , asking the listener to abandon political systems while encouraging one similar to communism . Author Chris Ingham indicated the hypocrisy in Lennon , the millionaire rock star living in a mansion , encouraging listeners to imagine living their lives without possessions . Others argue that Lennon intended the song 's lyrics to inspire listeners to imagine if the world could live without possessions , not as an explicit call to give them up . Blaney commented : " Lennon knew he had nothing concrete to offer , so instead he offers a dream , a concept to be built upon . "
Blaney considered the song to be " riddled with contradictions . Its hymn @-@ like setting sits uncomfortably alongside its author 's plea for us to envision a world without religion . " Urish and Bielen described Lennon 's " dream world " without a heaven or hell as a call to " make the best world we can here and now , since this is all this is or will be " . In their opinion , " because we are asked merely to imagine — to play a ' what if ' game , Lennon can escape the harshest criticisms " . Former Beatle Ringo Starr defended the song 's lyrics during a 1981 interview with Barbara Walters , stating : " [ Lennon ] said ' imagine ' , that 's all . Just imagine it . "
The morning after the November 2015 Paris attacks , German pianist Davide Martello brought a grand piano to the street out in front of the Bataclan , where 89 concertgoers had been shot dead the night before , and performed an instrumental version to honour the victims of the attacks ; video of his performance went viral . This led Katy Waldman of Slate to ponder why " Imagine " had become so frequently performed as a response to tragedy . In addition to its general popularity , she noted its musical simplicity , its key of C major , " the plainest and least complicated key , with no sharps or flats " aside from one passage with " a plaintive major seventh chord that allows a tiny bit of E minor into the tonic " . That piano part , " gentle as a rocking chair " , underpins lyrics that , Waldman says , " belongs to the tradition of hymns or spirituals that visualize a glorious afterlife without prophesizing any immediate end to suffering on earth " . This understanding is also compounded by the historical context of Lennon 's own violent death , " remind [ ing ] us that the universe can run ramshod over idealistic people " . Ultimately , the song " captures the fragility of our hope after a violent or destructive event ... [ bu ] t also reveals its tenacity " .
= = Notable performances and cover versions = =
In December 1971 , Lennon and Ono appeared at the Apollo Theater in Harlem . Lennon performed " Imagine " with an acoustic guitar , yielding the earliest known live recording of the song , later included on the John Lennon Anthology ( 1998 ) . In 1975 , he sang " Imagine " during his final public performance , a birthday celebration for Lew Grade .
Elton John performed the song regularly on his world tour in 1980 , including at his free concert in Central Park , a few blocks away from Lennon 's apartment in the Dakota building . On 9 December 1980 , the day after Lennon 's murder , Queen performed " Imagine " as a tribute to him during their Wembley Arena show in London . On 9 October 1990 , more than one billion people listened to a broadcast of the song on what would have been Lennon 's 50th birthday . Ratau Mike Makhalemele covered the song on an EP of Lennon covers in 1990 . In 1991 – 92 , Liza Minnelli performed the song in her show at Radio City Music Hall . Stevie Wonder gave his rendition of the song , with the Morehouse College Glee Club , during the closing ceremony of the 1996 Summer Olympics as a tribute to the victims of the Centennial Olympic Park bombing . In 2001 , Neil Young performed it during the benefit concert America : A Tribute to Heroes . Madonna performed " Imagine " during the benefit Tsunami Aid : A Concert of Hope . Peter Gabriel performed the song during the 2006 Winter Olympics opening ceremony .
Since 2005 , " Imagine " has been played prior to the New Year 's Eve ball drop at New York City 's Times Square . Beginning in 2010 , the song has been performed live ; first by Taio Cruz , then in 2011 by CeeLo Green and in 2012 by Train . However , Green received criticism for changing the lyric " and no religion too " to " and all religions true " , resulting in an immediate backlash from fans who believed that he had disrespected Lennon 's legacy by changing the lyrics of his most iconic song . Green defended the change by saying it meant to represent " a world [ where you ] could believe what [ you ] wanted " . The event got media attention outside of the US , with Britain 's The Guardian stating " Lennon 's original lyrics don 't praise pluralism or interchangeable religious truths – they damn them " .
More than 200 artists have recorded cover versions of " Imagine " . Joan Baez included it on 1972 's Come from the Shadows and Diana Ross recorded a version for her 1973 album , Touch Me in the Morning . In 1995 , Blues Traveler recorded the song for the Working Class Hero : A Tribute to John Lennon album and Dave Matthews has performed the song live with them . A Perfect Circle covered the song for the album eMOTIVe , released in 2004 . Dolly Parton recorded the song for her 2005 covers album Those Were the Days . A cover version of the song , performed by Italian singer Marco Carta , entered the top 20 in Italy in 2009 , peaking at number 13 . Seal , Pink , India.Arie , Jeff Beck , Konono Nº1 , Oumou Sangaré and others recorded a version for Herbie Hancock 's 2010 album The Imagine Project .
Hancock performed it with Arie , Kristina Train and Greg Phillinganes at the 2010 Nobel Peace Prize Concert on 11 December . On 13 February 2011 , the recording — with Pink , Seal , Malian singer Oumou Sangaré , India.Arie and Jeff Beck won a Grammy award for Best Pop Vocal Collaboration .
The song was performed as part of the closing ceremony of the 2012 Summer Olympics . Performed by the Liverpool Philharmonic Youth Choir and the Liverpool Signing Choir , the choirs sang the first verse and accompanied Lennon 's original vocals during the rest of the song . A cover performed by Emeli Sandé was also used by the BBC for a closing montage that ended its coverage . " Imagine " subsequently re @-@ entered the UK Top 40 , reaching number 18 .
In 2015 , American singer / songwriter Lady Gaga performed the song at the 2015 European Games opening ceremony . The song was played for 70 @,@ 000 people in Baku , Azerbaijan that served as host of the event .
= = Personnel = =
John Lennon – vocals , piano
Klaus Voormann – bass
Alan White – drums
The Flux Fiddlers – strings
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Documentaries = = =
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= Big Boy ( song ) =
" Big Boy " aka " I 'm A Big Boy Now " was the first single ever recorded by the Jackson 5 , which was released by Steeltown Records in January 1968 . The group played instruments on many of their Steeltown compositions , including " Big Boy " . The song was neither a critical nor commercial success , but the Jackson family were delighted with the outcome nonetheless .
The Jackson 5 would release a second single with Steeltown Records before moving to Motown Records . The group 's recordings at Steeltown Records were thought to be lost , but they were rediscovered more than 25 years later . They were remastered and released in 1995 , with " Big Boy " as the promotional lead single .
= = First record deal and lead single = =
The Jackson 5 began their career performing at talent contests , which they would often win . During a performance at Beckman Junior High in Gary , Indiana , the group were brought to the attention of Gordon Keith — a singer , record producer , and a founder @-@ owner of Steeltown Records , a company also located in Gary . Keith , Steeltown Records President in 1967 , signed " The Jackson Five " to a limited record deal with him only in November of that year , producing and and releasing " Big Boy " on January 30 , 1968 . The band recorded with their instruments and a backing group on the weekends . Michael Jackson sang lead vocals on the majority of the tracks beginning with " Big Boy " in 1967 which took a few hours to record . " Big Boy " was written by Eddie Silvers of Chicago and was recorded there . The group were paid three cents for each record sold , which was split equally amongst the five brothers and their drummer . The group 's first single " Big Boy " was backed with the B @-@ side " You 've Changed " . " The Jackson 5 and Johnny " ( Johnny Jackson on drums , no relation ) would go on to perform " Big Boy " and other songs locally throughout the Gary and South Chicago area before moving to California in 1969 .
= = Reception and Jackson family = =
The Jackson family gathered around a radio to hear the song broadcast for the first time . Michael Jackson — who was 9 years old at the time — said of the experience , " [ the family ] all laughed and hugged one another . We felt we had arrived . " The single " Big Boy " did not appear on any of Billboard 's music charts but sold in excess of 10 @,@ 000 copies .
= = Leaving Steeltown = =
" The Jackson Five " would release a second and final single through Steeltown Records — " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . The two singles were to be supported by an eleven track studio album but it was never released . On July 26 , 1968 , the group signed a contract with Motown Records . However , as the group 's Steeltown contract had not yet expired , the new contract could not be fully executed until March 11 , 1969 . Motown Records tried to get the group out of their Steeltown contract , and ultimately succeeded with a financial settlement .
= = Rediscovery = =
The master tapes to " Big Boy " were thought to be lost , but in 1994 , Jackson family friend Ben Brown found the tapes in his parents ' kitchen pantry . Brown reissued the record in 1995 , on the Inverted Records label — a week before Michael Jackson 's HIStory album was issued . He also remastered the song , selling it by mail order , along with an instrumental version , in a limited edition package consisting of a compact disc and cassette tape — the package could be purchased at a cost of approximately $ 30 . The reissue of " Big Boy " was promoted with a music video . In 2009 , Gordon Keith put items from the Steeltown era up for auction , including " a sizable number of mint @-@ condition copies of ' Big Boy ' " in 45 rpm format and 100 copies of " We Don 't Have To Be Over 21 ( to Fall in Love ) " . Keith stated , " I could use the money ... I got these guys off the ground ... I didn 't truly get real money for it " .
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= Chagas disease =
Chagas disease , also known as American trypanosomiasis , is a tropical parasitic disease caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma cruzi . It is spread mostly by insects known as Triatominae or kissing bugs . The symptoms change over the course of the infection . In the early stage , symptoms are typically either not present or mild , and may include fever , swollen lymph nodes , headaches , or local swelling at the site of the bite . After 8 – 12 weeks , individuals enter the chronic phase of disease and in 60 – 70 % it never produces further symptoms . The other 30 to 40 % of people develop further symptoms 10 to 30 years after the initial infection , including enlargement of the ventricles of the heart in 20 to 30 % , leading to heart failure . An enlarged esophagus or an enlarged colon may also occur in 10 % of people .
T. cruzi is commonly spread to humans and other mammals by the blood @-@ sucking " kissing bugs " of the subfamily Triatominae . These insects are known by a number of local names , including : vinchuca in Argentina , Bolivia , Chile and Paraguay , barbeiro ( the barber ) in Brazil , pito in Colombia , chinche in Central America , and chipo in Venezuela . The disease may also be spread through blood transfusion , organ transplantation , eating food contaminated with the parasites , and by vertical transmission ( from a mother to her fetus ) . Diagnosis of early disease is by finding the parasite in the blood using a microscope . Chronic disease is diagnosed by finding antibodies for T. cruzi in the blood .
Prevention mostly involves eliminating kissing bugs and avoiding their bites . Other preventative efforts include screening blood used for transfusions . A vaccine has not been developed as of 2013 . Early infections are treatable with the medication benznidazole or nifurtimox . Medication nearly always results in a cure if given early , but becomes less effective the longer a person has had Chagas disease . When used in chronic disease , medication may delay or prevent the development of end – stage symptoms . Benznidazole and nifurtimox cause temporary side effects in up to 40 % of people including skin disorders , brain toxicity , and digestive system irritation .
It is estimated that 7 to 8 million people , mostly in Mexico , Central America and South America , have Chagas disease as of 2013 . In 2006 , Chagas was estimated to result in 12 @,@ 500 deaths per year . Most people with the disease are poor , and most people with the disease do not realize they are infected . Large @-@ scale population movements have increased the areas where Chagas disease is found and these include many European countries and the United States . These areas have also seen an increase in the years up to 2014 . The disease was first described in 1909 by Carlos Chagas after whom it is named . It affects more than 150 other animals .
= = Signs and symptoms = =
The human disease occurs in two stages : an acute stage , which occurs shortly after an initial infection , and a chronic stage that develops over many years .
The acute phase lasts for the first few weeks or months of infection . It usually occurs unnoticed because it is symptom @-@ free or exhibits only mild symptoms that are not unique to Chagas disease . These can include fever , fatigue , body aches , muscle pain , headache , rash , loss of appetite , diarrhea , nausea , and vomiting . The signs on physical examination can include mild enlargement of the liver or spleen , swollen glands , and local swelling ( a chagoma ) where the parasite entered the body .
The most recognized marker of acute Chagas disease is called Romaña 's sign , which includes swelling of the eyelids on the side of the face near the bite wound or where the bug feces were deposited or accidentally rubbed into the eye . Rarely , young children , or adults may die from the acute disease due to severe inflammation / infection of the heart muscle ( myocarditis ) or brain ( meningoencephalitis ) . The acute phase also can be severe in people with weakened immune systems .
If symptoms develop during the acute phase , they usually resolve spontaneously within three to eight weeks in approximately 90 % of individuals . Although the symptoms resolve , even with treatment the infection persists and enters a chronic phase . Of individuals with chronic Chagas disease , 60 – 80 % will never develop symptoms ( called indeterminate chronic Chagas disease ) , while the remaining 20 – 40 % will develop life @-@ threatening heart and / or digestive disorders during their lifetime ( called determinate chronic Chagas disease ) . In 10 % of individuals , the disease progresses directly from the acute form to a symptomatic clinical form of chronic Chagas disease .
The symptomatic ( determinate ) chronic stage affects the nervous system , digestive system and heart . About two @-@ thirds of people with chronic symptoms have cardiac damage , including dilated cardiomyopathy , which causes heart rhythm abnormalities and may result in sudden death . About one @-@ third of patients go on to develop digestive system damage , resulting in dilation of the digestive tract ( megacolon and megaesophagus ) , accompanied by severe weight loss . Swallowing difficulties ( secondary achalasia ) may be the first symptom of digestive disturbances and may lead to malnutrition .
20 % to 50 % of individuals with intestinal involvement also exhibit cardiac involvement . Up to 10 % of chronically infected individuals develop neuritis that results in altered tendon reflexes and sensory impairment . Isolated cases exhibit central nervous system involvement , including dementia , confusion , chronic encephalopathy and sensory and motor deficits .
The clinical manifestations of Chagas disease are due to cell death in the target tissues that occurs during the infective cycle , by sequentially inducing an inflammatory response , cellular lesions , and fibrosis . For example , intracellular amastigotes destroy the intramural neurons of the autonomic nervous system in the intestine and heart , leading to megaintestine and heart aneurysms , respectively . If left untreated , Chagas disease can be fatal , in most cases due to heart muscle damage .
= = Transmission = =
In Chagas @-@ endemic areas , the main mode of transmission is through an insect vector called a triatomine bug . A triatomine becomes infected with T. cruzi by feeding on the blood of an infected person or animal . During the day , triatomines hide in crevices in the walls and roofs .
The bugs emerge at night , when the inhabitants are sleeping . Because they tend to feed on people 's faces , triatomine bugs are also known as " kissing bugs " . After they bite and ingest blood , they defecate on the person . Triatomines pass T. cruzi parasites ( called trypomastigotes ) in feces left near the site of the bite wound .
Scratching the site of the bite causes the trypomastigotes to enter the host through the wound , or through intact mucous membranes , such as the conjunctiva . Once inside the host , the trypomastigotes invade cells , where they differentiate into intracellular amastigotes . The amastigotes multiply by binary fission and differentiate into trypomastigotes , which are then released into the bloodstream . This cycle is repeated in each newly infected cell . Replication resumes only when the parasites enter another cell or are ingested by another vector . ( See also : Life cycle and transmission of T. cruzi )
Dense vegetation ( such as that of tropical rainforests ) and urban habitats are not ideal for the establishment of the human transmission cycle . However , in regions where the sylvatic habitat and its fauna are thinned by economic exploitation and human habitation , such as in newly deforested areas , piassava palm culture areas , and some parts of the Amazon region , a human transmission cycle may develop as the insects search for new food sources .
T. cruzi can also be transmitted through blood transfusions . With the exception of blood derivatives ( such as fractionated antibodies ) , all blood components are infective . The parasite remains viable at 4 ° C for at least 18 days or up to 250 days when kept at room temperature . It is unclear whether T. cruzi can be transmitted through frozen @-@ thawed blood components .
Other modes of transmission include organ transplantation , through breast milk , and by accidental laboratory exposure . Chagas disease can also be spread congenitally ( from a pregnant woman to her baby ) through the placenta , and accounts for approximately 13 % of stillborn deaths in parts of Brazil .
Oral transmission is an unusual route of infection , but has been described . In 1991 , farm workers in the state of Paraíba , Brazil , were infected by eating contaminated food ; transmission has also occurred via contaminated açaí palm fruit juice and garapa . A 2007 outbreak in 103 Venezuelan school children was attributed to contaminated guava juice .
Chagas disease is a growing problem in Europe , because the majority of cases with chronic infection are asymptomatic and because of migration from Latin America .
= = Diagnosis = =
The presence of T. cruzi is diagnostic of Chagas disease . It can be detected by microscopic examination of fresh anticoagulated blood , or its buffy coat , for motile parasites ; or by preparation of thin and thick blood smears stained with Giemsa , for direct visualization of parasites . Microscopically , T. cruzi can be confused with Trypanosoma rangeli , which is not known to be pathogenic in humans . Isolation of T. cruzi can occur by inoculation into mice , by culture in specialized media ( for example , NNN , LIT ) ; and by xenodiagnosis , where uninfected Reduviidae bugs are fed on the patient 's blood , and their gut contents examined for parasites .
Various immunoassays for T. cruzi are available and can be used to distinguish among strains ( zymodemes of T.cruzi with divergent pathogenicities ) . These tests include : detecting complement fixation , indirect hemagglutination , indirect fluorescence assays , radioimmunoassays , and ELISA . Alternatively , diagnosis and strain identification can be made using polymerase chain reaction ( PCR ) .
= = Prevention = =
There is currently no vaccine against Chagas disease . Prevention is generally focused on decreasing the numbers of the insect that spreads it ( Triatoma ) and decreasing their contact with humans . This is done by using sprays and paints containing insecticides ( synthetic pyrethroids ) , and improving housing and sanitary conditions in rural areas . For urban dwellers , spending vacations and camping out in the wilderness or sleeping at hostels or mud houses in endemic areas can be dangerous ; a mosquito net is recommended . Some measures of vector control include :
A yeast trap can be used for monitoring infestations of certain species of triatomine bugs ( Triatoma sordida , Triatoma brasiliensis , Triatoma pseudomaculata , and Panstrongylus megistus ) .
Promising results were gained with the treatment of vector habitats with the fungus Beauveria bassiana .
Targeting the symbionts of Triatominae through paratransgenesis can be done .
A number of potential vaccines are currently being tested . Vaccination with Trypanosoma rangeli has produced positive results in animal models . More recently , the potential of DNA vaccines for immunotherapy of acute and chronic Chagas disease is being tested by several research groups .
Blood transfusion was formerly the second @-@ most common mode of transmission for Chagas disease , but the development and implementation of blood bank screening tests has dramatically reduced this risk in the 21st century . Blood donations in all endemic Latin American countries undergo Chagas screening , and testing is expanding in countries , such as France , Spain and the United States , that have significant or growing populations of immigrants from endemic areas . In Spain , donors are evaluated with a questionnaire to identify individuals at risk of Chagas exposure for screening tests .
The US FDA has approved two Chagas tests , including one approved in April 2010 , and has published guidelines that recommend testing of all donated blood and tissue products . While these tests are not required in US , an estimated 75 – 90 % of the blood supply is currently tested for Chagas , including all units collected by the American Red Cross , which accounts for 40 % of the U.S. blood supply . The Chagas Biovigilance Network reports current incidents of Chagas @-@ positive blood products in the United States , as reported by labs using the screening test approved by the FDA in 2007 .
= = Management = =
There are two approaches to treating Chagas disease : antiparasitic treatment , to kill the parasite ; and symptomatic treatment , to manage the symptoms and signs of the infection . Management uniquely involves addressing selective incremental failure of the parasympathetic nervous system . Autonomic disease imparted by Chagas may eventually result in megaesophagus , megacolon and accelerated dilated cardiomyopathy . The mechanisms that explain why Chagas targets the parasympathetic autonomic nervous system and spares the sympathetic autonomic nervous system remain poorly understood .
= = = Medication = = =
Antiparasitic treatment is most effective early in the course of infection , but is not limited to cases in the acute phase . Drugs of choice include azole or nitro derivatives , such as benznidazole or nifurtimox . Both agents are limited in their capacity to completely eliminate T. cruzi from the body ( parasitologic cure ) , especially in chronically infected patients , and resistance to these drugs has been reported .
Studies suggest antiparasitic treatment leads to parasitological cure in more than 90 % of infants but only about 60 – 85 % of adults treated in the first year of acute phase Chagas disease . Children aged six to 12 years with chronic disease have a cure rate of about 60 % with benznidazole . While the rate of cure declines the longer an adult has been infected with Chagas , treatment with benznidazole has been shown to slow the onset of heart disease in adults with chronic Chagas infections .
Treatment of chronic infection in women prior to or during pregnancy does not appear to reduce the probability the disease will be passed on to the infant . Likewise , it is unclear whether prophylactic treatment of chronic infection is beneficial in persons who will undergo immunosuppression ( for example , organ transplant recipients ) or in persons who are already immunosuppressed ( for example , those with HIV infection ) .
= = = Complications = = =
In the chronic stage , treatment involves managing the clinical manifestations of the disease . For example , pacemakers and medications for irregular heartbeats , such as the anti @-@ arrhythmia drug amiodarone , may be life saving for some patients with chronic cardiac disease , while surgery may be required for megaintestine . The disease cannot be cured in this phase , however . Chronic heart disease caused by Chagas disease is now a common reason for heart transplantation surgery . Until recently , however , Chagas disease was considered a contraindication for the procedure , since the heart damage could recur as the parasite was expected to seize the opportunity provided by the immunosuppression that follows surgery .
= = Epidemiology = =
Chagas disease affects 8 to 10 million people living in endemic Latin American countries , with an additional 300 @,@ 000 – 400 @,@ 000 living in nonendemic countries , including Spain and the United States . An estimated 41 @,@ 200 new cases occur annually in endemic countries , and 14 @,@ 400 infants are born with congenital Chagas disease annually. in 2010 it resulted in approximately 10 @,@ 300 deaths up from 9 @,@ 300 in 1990 .
The disease is present in 18 countries on the American continents , ranging from the southern United States to northern Argentina . Chagas exists in two different ecological zones . In the Southern Cone region , the main vector lives in and around human homes . In Central America and Mexico , the main vector species lives both inside dwellings and in uninhabited areas . In both zones , Chagas occurs almost exclusively in rural areas , where triatomines breed and feed on the more than 150 species from 24 families of domestic and wild mammals , as well as humans , that are the natural reservoirs of T. cruzi .
Although Triatominae bugs feed on them , birds appear to be immune to infection and therefore are not considered to be a T. cruzi reservoir . Even when colonies of insects are eradicated from a house and surrounding domestic animal shelters , they can re @-@ emerge from plants or animals that are part of the ancient , sylvatic ( referring to wild animals ) infection cycle . This is especially likely in zones with mixed open savannah , with clumps of trees interspersed by human habitation .
The primary wildlife reservoirs for Trypanosoma cruzi in the United States include opossums , raccoons , armadillos , squirrels , woodrats , and mice . Opossums are particularly important as reservoirs , because the parasite can complete its life cycle in the anal glands of this animal without having to re @-@ enter the insect vector . Recorded prevalence of the disease in opossums in the U.S. ranges from 8 @.@ 3 % to 37 @.@ 5 % .
Studies on raccoons in the Southeast have yielded infection rates ranging from 47 % to as low as 15 @.@ 5 % . Armadillo prevalence studies have been described in Louisiana , and range from a low of 1 @.@ 1 % to 28 @.@ 8 % . Additionally , small rodents , including squirrels , mice , and rats , are important in the sylvatic transmission cycle because of their importance as bloodmeal sources for the insect vectors . A Texas study revealed 17 @.@ 3 % percent T. cruzi prevalence in 75 specimens representing four separate small rodent species .
Chronic Chagas disease remains a major health problem in many Latin American countries , despite the effectiveness of hygienic and preventive measures , such as eliminating the transmitting insects . However , several landmarks have been achieved in the fight against it in Latin America , including a reduction by 72 % of the incidence of human infection in children and young adults in the countries of the Southern Cone Initiative , and at least three countries ( Uruguay , in 1997 , and Chile , in 1999 , and Brazil in 2006 ) have been certified free of vectorial and transfusional transmission . In Argentina , vectorial transmission has been interrupted in 13 of the 19 endemic provinces , and major progress toward this goal has also been made in both Paraguay and Bolivia .
Screening of donated blood , blood components , and solid organ donors , as well as donors of cells , tissues , and cell and tissue products for T. cruzi is mandated in all Chagas @-@ endemic countries and has been implemented . Approximately 300 @,@ 000 infected people live in the United States , which is likely the result of immigration from Latin American countries , and there have been only 23 human cases of domestically acquired vector @-@ borne Chagas disease reported between 1955 and 2014 . With increased population movements , the possibility of transmission by blood transfusion became more substantial in the United States . Transfusion blood and tissue products are now actively screened in the U.S. , thus addressing and minimizing this risk .
= = History = =
The disease was named after the Brazilian physician and epidemiologist Carlos Chagas , who first described it in 1909 . The disease was not seen as a major public health problem in humans until the 1960s ( the outbreak of Chagas disease in Brazil in the 1920s went widely ignored ) . Dr Chagas discovered that the intestines of Triatomidae ( now Reduviidae : Triatominae ) harbored a flagellate protozoan , a new species of the Trypanosoma genus , and was able to demonstrate experimentally that it could be transmitted to marmoset monkeys that were bitten by the infected bug . Later studies showed squirrel monkeys were also vulnerable to infection .
Chagas named the pathogenic parasite as Trypanosoma cruzi and later that year as Schizotrypanum cruzi , both honoring Oswaldo Cruz , the noted Brazilian physician and epidemiologist who successfully fought epidemics of yellow fever , smallpox , and bubonic plague in Rio de Janeiro and other cities in the beginning of the 20th century . Chagas was also the first to unknowingly discover and illustrate the parasitic fungal genus Pneumocystis , later infamously linked to PCP ( Pneumocystis pneumonia in AIDS victims ) . Confusion between the two pathogens ' life @-@ cycles led him to briefly recognize his genus Schizotrypanum , but following the description of Pneumocystis by others as an independent genus , Chagas returned to the use of the name Trypanosoma cruzi .
In Argentina , the disease is known as mal de Chagas @-@ Mazza , in honor of Salvador Mazza , the Argentine physician who in 1926 began investigating the disease and over the years became the principal researcher of this disease in the country . Mazza produced the first scientific confirmation of the existence of Trypanosoma cruzi in Argentina in 1927 , eventually leading to support from local and European medical schools and Argentine government policy makers .
It has been hypothesized that Charles Darwin might have suffered from Chagas disease as a result of a bite of the so @-@ called great black bug of the Pampas ( vinchuca ) ( see Charles Darwin 's illness ) . The episode was reported by Darwin in his diaries of the Voyage of the Beagle as occurring in March 1835 to the east of the Andes near Mendoza . Darwin was young and generally in good health , though six months previously he had been ill for a month near Valparaiso , but in 1837 , almost a year after he returned to England , he began to suffer intermittently from a strange group of symptoms , becoming incapacitated for much of the rest of his life . Attempts to test Darwin 's remains at Westminster Abbey by using modern PCR techniques were met with a refusal by the Abbey 's curator .
= = Research = =
Several experimental treatments have shown promise in animal models . These include inhibitors of oxidosqualene cyclase and squalene synthase , cysteine protease inhibitors , dermaseptins collected from frogs in the genus Phyllomedusa ( P. oreades and P. distincta ) , the sesquiterpene lactone dehydroleucodine ( DhL ) , which affects the growth of cultured epimastigote @-@ phase Trypanosoma cruzi , inhibitors of purine uptake , and inhibitors of enzymes involved in trypanothione metabolism . Hopefully , new drug targets may be revealed following the sequencing of the T. cruzi genome .
Chagas disease has a serious economic impact on the United States and the world . The cost of treatment in the United States alone , where the disease is not indigenous , is estimated to be $ 900 million annually , which includes hospitalization and medical devices such as pacemakers . The global cost is estimated at $ 7 billion .
Megazol in a study seems more active against Chagas than benznidazole but has not been studied in humans . Fexinidazole , an old drug rediscovered for this purpose is being tested in phase 2 clinical trials . A Chagas vaccine ( TcVac3 ) has been found to be effective in mice with plans for studies in dogs . It is hoped that it will be commercially available by 2018 .
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= Diamond stingray =
The diamond stingray ( Dasyatis dipterura ) is a species of stingray in the family Dasyatidae . It is found in the coastal waters of the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , and around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands . This bottom @-@ dweller generally inhabits sandy or muddy flats near rocky reefs and kelp forests , to a depth of 30 m ( 98 ft ) , though off Hawaii it may range considerably deeper . As its common name suggests , this species has an angular , diamond @-@ shaped pectoral fin disc that is plain brown or gray above , with rows of tubercles along the midline and on the " shoulders " . The long , whip @-@ like tail has both dorsal and ventral fin folds , which distinguish this ray from the closely similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) . It typically grows to 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) across .
When searching for food , diamond stingrays may form groups of up to hundreds of individuals . It is most active at night and preys mainly on burrowing invertebrates and small bony fishes , which are extracted from the bottom via suction or digging . This species is aplacental viviparous : once the embryos exhaust their yolk supply , they are nourished by histotroph ( " uterine milk " ) produced by the mother . Females bear 1 – 4 pups every summer in estuaries ; mating is followed by a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or arrested embryonic development , after which the embryos rapidly mature over 2 – 3 months . The slowest @-@ growing stingray known , this species is not resilient against fishing pressure . It is caught for food by artisanal fishers in Latin America , particularly in Mexico where it is one of the most economically important rays . This has led it to be assessed as Near Threatened in Mexico by the International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) , while the species as a whole is listed as Data Deficient . Though innocuous towards humans , the diamond stingray 's long , venomous tail spine is potentially dangerous .
= = Taxonomy and phylogeny = =
In 1880 , the diamond stingray was described twice by three American ichthyologists : as Dasybatus dipterurus by David Starr Jordan and Charles Henry Gilbert in Proceedings of the United States National Museum , and as Trygon brevis by Samuel Garman in Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology . Jordan and Gilbert 's account was published in May while Garman 's was published in October , making dipterurus ( feminine dipterura ) the correct name as it was published first . However , when Garman synonymized the two in 1913 he inappropriately gave precedence to brevis , leading to long @-@ standing confusion . Both Dasybatus and Trygon were later synonymized with the genus Dasyatis , but many authors still listed D. brevis in place of or in addition to D. dipterura . Garman also synonymized the Hawaiian stingray ( D. hawaiensis ) with D. dipterura in 1913 , which has since been followed by most authors but requires more study for confirmation .
The species syntypes were collected from San Diego Bay , California . The specific epithet dipterura is derived from the Latin di ( " two " ) , ptero ( " wing " ) , and ura ( " tail " ) , referring to the fin folds on both sides of its tail . Rat @-@ tailed stingray is a former common name for this species . Lisa Rosenberger 's 2001 phylogenetic analysis , based on morphology , determined the diamond stingray and the bluntnose stingray ( D. say ) of the western Atlantic Ocean to be sister species , that likely diverged before or with the formation of the Isthmus of Panama ( c . 3 Ma ) . In addition , the two were found to be the second @-@ most basal taxa in their genus , after the common stingray ( D. pastinaca ) .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The diamond stingray is found in the eastern Pacific Ocean from southern California to northern Chile , as well as around the Galápagos and Hawaiian Islands ; it is very abundant around Baja California and in the Gulf of California . At the northern and southern extremes of its range , it is generally only present during periods of suitably warm water brought about by El Niño . There is a record of this ray from off British Columbia , which is unconfirmed and would be highly anomalous as it is known to be a tropical and warm @-@ temperate species .
A bottom @-@ dwelling inhabitant of inshore waters , the diamond stingray favors sandy or muddy bottoms , often near rocky reefs or kelp forests . Off southern California , it usually occurs from the intertidal zone to a depth of 7 m ( 23 ft ) during the summer , shifting to depths of 13 – 18 m ( 43 – 59 ft ) during late fall and winter . For unknown reasons , it prefers to overwinter in kelp forests rather than sandy flats . Off Chile , the diamond stingray occurs at a similar depth of 3 – 30 m ( 10 – 100 ft ) . On the other hand , this species has been reported from as far down as 355 m ( 1 @,@ 165 ft ) off Hawaii , which if accurate would suggest that it utilizes a much greater range of depths than previously realized .
= = Description = =
The diamond stingray attains a disc width of 1 m ( 3 @.@ 3 ft ) or possibly 1 @.@ 2 m ( 3 @.@ 9 ft ) ; females grow larger than males . Its pectoral fin disc is rhomboid in shape , slightly wider than long , with angular outer corners and subtly convex margins . The snout is blunt @-@ angled and non @-@ projecting . The eyes are fairly large and immediately followed by the spiracles ( paired respiratory openings ) . The mouth is strongly curved , containing 21 – 37 upper tooth rows and 23 – 44 lower tooth rows ; the teeth are small and blunt , and arranged into flattened surfaces . Three or five papillae ( nipple @-@ like structures ) are found in a row across the floor of the mouth .
The whip @-@ like tail generally measures up to one and half times the length of the disc , and bears one ( more if replacements have grown in ) long , slender , serrated spine on the upper surface , closer to the base than the tip . Behind the spine , there are long dorsal and ventral fin folds that rise gradually , reaching a relatively high apex before sloping down abruptly . The presence of the upper fin fold separates this species from the similar longtail stingray ( D. longa ) , which shares most of its range . However , the tail is often damaged , in which case differentiating the two species in the field becomes all but impossible . Young rays have completely smooth skin , while adults develop a row of low tubercles along the midline of the back , flanked by two shorter rows on the " shoulders " . The tail also becomes covered in prickles . This species is a uniform olive to brown to gray above , darkening to black on the tail , and off @-@ white below .
= = Biology and ecology = =
The diamond stingray is most active at night , spending much of the day buried in sand with only its eyes protruding . When foraging for food , it may be solitary but more commonly forms groups numbering up to the hundreds . There is strong segregation by sex and age . This species feeds on crustaceans , molluscs , and other invertebrates , as well as small bony fishes ; its powerful jaws and molar @-@ like teeth allow it to crush hard @-@ shelled prey . It mainly targets burrowing organisms , but may also take prey exposed on the bottom . There is a record of a female 69 cm ( 27 in ) across , that had gorged herself on at least 30 small crabs . In the Bahía Magdalena lagoon complex , Baja California Sur , its most important source of food are pea crabs , followed by the razor clam Solyema valvulus , and then polychaete worms .
The typical hunting strategy of the diamond stingray is to cruise just above the sea floor , landing atop any prey encountered . It then quickly levers its body up @-@ and @-@ down with its disc , producing negative pressure to extract the prey from its burrow . This ray has also been known to excavate large pits by undulating its disc and spitting jets of water , so as to uncover buried prey . Diamond stingrays are frequently trailed by smaller fishes , including Mexican hogfish ( Bodianus diplotaenia ) , Galapagos porgies ( Calamus taurinus ) , greybar grunts ( Haemulon sexfasciatum ) , spinster wrasses ( Halichoeres nichols ) , and long @-@ spine porcupinefish ( Diodon holocanthus ) , which take advantage of the invertebrates stirred up by the ray 's activities . Known parasites of this species include the tapeworms Acanthobothrium bullardi , A. dasi , A. rajivi , and A. soberoni , Anthocephalum currani , Parachristianella tiygonis , and Pseudochristianello elegantissima , the flukes Anaporrhutum euzeti and Probolitrema mexicana , and the monogenean Listrocephalos kearni .
Like other stingrays , the diamond stingray is aplacental viviparous : the embryos are initially nourished by yolk , and later by histotroph ( " uterine milk " , rich in proteins and lipids ) produced by the mother . Only the left ovary and uterus are functional in adult females . Several bays along the Pacific coast of Baja California are known to serve as nurseries . Most of the life history information available on this species has come from Bahía Magdalena , where females bear one litter of 1 – 4 pups per year . Courtship and mating occurs in late summer from July to August , but due to a ten @-@ month period of either sperm storage or diapause ( wherein the embryo becomes dormant ) , embryonic development does not begin until the following year and is completed within 2 – 3 months . Birthing takes place in summer from July to September in shallow estuaries ; the newborns measure 18 – 23 cm ( 7 @.@ 1 – 9 @.@ 1 in ) across . During El Niño years , the higher temperatures appear to shift the timing of birth forward . The diamond stingray has the lowest growth rate of any stingray species yet studied . Males reach sexual maturity at around 43 – 47 cm ( 17 – 19 in ) across and 7 years of age , while females grow slower still , reaching maturity at around 57 – 66 cm ( 22 – 26 in ) across and 10 years of age . The maximum lifespan has been estimated at least 19 years for males and 28 years for females .
= = Human interactions = =
At least one fatality off southern California has resulted from the long , venomous tail spine of the diamond stingray . However , it is not aggressive and will usually flee given the opportunity . This ray is not found off the United States in sufficient numbers to be economically important . Elsewhere in its range , it is caught in substantial numbers for human consumption , both intentionally and as bycatch ; the pectoral fins or " wings " are sold fresh or filleted and salted . The International Union for Conservation of Nature ( IUCN ) notes that the diamond stingray 's low reproductive productivity renders it susceptible to population depletion , but currently lacks enough biological and fishery data to assess it beyond Data Deficient overall , or in the U.S. , Central , and South American parts of its range .
In Mexico , the diamond stingray is one of the most important components of Pacific artisanal shark and ray fisheries , comprising around a tenth of the total annual catch . Its significance is likely underestimated , as Mexican fishery reports frequently suffer from misidentifications and a lack of species @-@ specific data . It is mainly caught during summer and fall , being the most common ray landed in Bahía Magdalena , and second most common ray landed off Sonora state . Demersal gillnets are the main fishing gear employed ; both adult and juvenile rays easily become entangled in the mesh by their tail spines , with juveniles known to have comprised most of the Bahía Magdalena catch in 1998 – 2000 . This species is also often caught incidentally in bottom trawls , on longlines , and in fish traps . In the future , habitat degradation from increasing numbers of shrimp farms may pose an additional threat to this species in the region . As a result of these pressures , the IUCN has assessed the diamond stingray as Near Threatened in Mexican waters . No management schemes have yet been enacted for this species .
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= George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore =
George Calvert , 1st Baron Baltimore ( 1579 – 15 April 1632 ) was an English politician and colonizer . He achieved domestic political success as a Member of Parliament and later Secretary of State under King James I. He lost much of his political power after his support for a failed marriage alliance between Prince Charles and the Spanish House of Habsburg royal family . Rather than continue in politics , he resigned all of his political offices in 1625 except for his position on the Privy Council and declared his Catholicism publicly . He was created Baron Baltimore in the Irish peerage upon his resignation . Baltimore Manor was located in County Longford , Ireland .
Calvert took an interest in the British colonization of the Americas , at first for commercial reasons and later to create a refuge for English Catholics . He became the proprietor of Avalon , the first sustained English settlement on the southeastern peninsula on the island of Newfoundland ( off the eastern coast of modern Canada ) . Discouraged by its cold and sometimes inhospitable climate and the sufferings of the settlers , Sir George looked for a more suitable spot further south and sought a new royal charter to settle the region , which would become the state of Maryland . Calvert died five weeks before the new Charter was sealed , leaving the settlement of the Maryland colony to his son Cecil , ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) . His second son Leonard Calvert , ( 1606 @-@ 1647 ) , was the first colonial governor of the Province of Maryland . Historians have long recognized George Calvert as the founder of Maryland , in spirit if not in fact .
= = Family and early life = =
Little is known of the ancestry of the Yorkshire branch of the Calverts . At George Calvert 's knighting , it was claimed that his family originally came from Flanders ( a Dutch @-@ speaking area today across the English Channel in modern @-@ day Kingdom of Belgium ) . Calvert 's father , ( an earlier ) Leonard was a country gentleman who had achieved some prominence as a tenant of Lord Wharton , and was wealthy enough to marry a " gentlewoman " of a noble line , Alicia or Alice Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) . He established his family on the estate of the later @-@ built Kiplin Hall , near Catterick in Richmondshire , of Yorkshire . George Calvert was born at Kiplin in late 1579 ( birth month and day yet to be researched ) . His mother Alicia / Alice died on 28 November 1587 , when he was fifteen years old . His father then married Grace Crossland ( or sometimes spelled : " Crosland " ) , Alicia 's first cousin .
In 1569 , Sir Thomas Gargrave had described Richmondshire as a territory where all gentlemen were " evil in religion " , by which he meant predominately Roman Catholic ; it appears Leonard Calvert was no exception . During the reign of Queen Elizabeth I , continuing the changes wrought in the previous century by her father , King Henry VIII making the Monarch , the supreme authority of the Christian Church in England , continuing the pace Protestant Reformation from the Continent of Europe , with the political , spiritual and temporal separation from the Roman Catholic Church and the Pope / Papacy in Rome , therefore the Royal Government exerted authority over the matters of religious faith , practices and the Church . Acts mandating compulsory religious uniformity were enacted by Parliament and enforced through penal laws . The Acts of Supremacy and the Uniformity Act of 1559 also included an oath of allegiance to the Queen ( Henrietta Maria , wife of Charles I ) and an implicit denial of the Pope 's ( then Pope Paul IV ) authority over the English Church . This oath was required of any common " subject " ( synamous for citizen ) , who wished to hold high office , attend university , or take advantage of opportunities controlled by the state ( king / kingdom ) .
The Calvert household suffered the intrusion of the Elizabethan @-@ era religious laws . From the year of George 's birth onwards , his father , Leonard Calvert was subjected to repeated harassment by the Yorkshire authorities , who in 1580 extracted a promise of conformity from him , compelling his attendance at the Church of England services . In 1592 , when George was twelve , the authorities denounced one of his tutors for teaching " from a popish primer " and instructed Leonard and Grace to send George and his brother Christopher to a Protestant tutor , and , if necessary , to present the children before the commission " once a month to see how they perfect in learning " . As a result , the boys were sent to a Protestant tutor called Mr. Fowberry at Bilton . The senior Calvert had to give a " bond of conformity " ; he was banned from employing any Catholic servants and forced to purchase an English Bible , which was to " ly open in his house for everyone to read " .
In 1593 , records show that Grace Calvert was committed to the custody of a " pursuivant " , an official responsible for identifying and persecuting Catholics , and in 1604 , she was described as the " wife of Leonard Calvert of Kipling , non @-@ communicant at Easter last " .
George Calvert went up to Trinity College , at Oxford University matriculating in 1593 / 94 , where he studied foreign languages and received a bachelor 's degree in 1597 . As the oath of allegiance was compulsory after the age of sixteen , he would almost certainly have pledged conformity while at Oxford . The same pattern of conformity , whether pretended or sincere , continued through Calvert 's early life . After Oxford , he moved to London in 1598 , where he studied municipal law at Lincoln 's Inn for three years .
= = Marriage and family = =
In November 1604 , he married Anne Mynne in a Protestant , Church of England ceremony at St Peter 's , Cornhill , where his address was registered as St Martin in the Fields . His children , including his eldest son and heir , Cecil , who was born in the winter of 1605 – 06 , were all baptized as Christian Protestants . When Anne died on 8 August 1622 , she was buried at Calvert 's local Protestant parish church , St Martin in the Fields .
Calvert had a total of thirteen children : Cecil , who succeeded his father as the 2nd Baron Baltimore , Leonard , Anne , Mary , Dorothy , Elizabeth , Grace , Francis , George , Helen , Henry , John , and Philip .
= = Political success = =
Calvert named his son " Cecilius " ( 1605 @-@ 1675 ) for Sir Robert Cecil , first Earl of Salisbury , ( 1563 @-@ 1612 ) . Spymaster to Queen Elizabeth , whom Calvert had met during an extended trip to Europe between 1601 and 1603 , after which he became known as a specialist in foreign affairs . Calvert carried a packet for Cecilius from Paris , and so entered the service of the principal engineer on behalf of King James VI of Scotland 's succession to the English throne in 1603 , ( who then also assumed the title of King James I of England . )
King James rewarded Robert Cecil , whom he made a privy councillor and secretary of state , with the granting of the title of Earl of Salisbury in 1605 , and Lord High Treasurer in 1608 , making him the most powerful man at the royal court . As Cecil rose , Calvert rose with him . Calvert 's foreign languages , legal training , and discretion made him an invaluable aide to Robert Cecil , who , no lover of Catholics , seems to have accepted Calvert 's conformity as beyond question . Working at the center of court politics , Calvert exploited his influence by selling favors , an accepted practice for the times . Calvert accumulated a number of small offices , honors , and sinecures . In August 1605 , he attended the King at Oxford , and received an honorary master @-@ of @-@ arts degree in an elaborate ceremony at which the Duke of Lennox ( Ludovic Stewart ) , the earls of Oxford and Northumberland , and Cecilius received degrees . Given the prestige of the other graduates , Calvert 's was the last awarded , but his presence in such company signaled his growing stature .
In 1606 , the king made Calvert " clerk of the Crown " and " Assizes in Connaught " , County Clare , Ireland , his first royal appointment . In 1609 , James appointed him a " clerk of the Signet office " , a post which required the preparation of documents for the royal signature and brought Calvert into close contact with the king . Calvert also served in James 's First Parliament as a member for the borough of Bossiney , in the county of Cornwall , installed there by Cecil to support his policies . In 1610 , Calvert was appointed a " clerk of the Privy Council " . Each of these positions would have required an oath of allegiance .
With Robert Cecil 's support , George Calvert came into his own as an advisor and supporter of King James . In 1610 and 1611 , Calvert undertook missions to the continent on behalf of the King , visiting a number of embassies in Paris , Holland , and the Duchy of Cleves , and acting as an ambassador to the French Royal Court during the coronation of King Louis XIII , ( 1601 @-@ 1643 ) , in 1610 . A correspondent from France reported that Calvert gave " everyone great contentment with his discreet conversation . " In 1615 , James sent him to the continental Electorate of the Palatinate ( German ) , in the Holy Roman Empire , whose impoverished elector , Frederick V , Elector Palatine , ( 1596 @-@ 1632 ) , had married James 's daughter Elizabeth of Bohemia , ( 1596 @-@ 1662 ) , in 1613 . Calvert had to convey the King 's disapproval that Elizabeth , for lack of money , had given away expensive jewels to a gentlewoman leaving her employ . Elector Frederick 's decision in 1619 to accept the throne of Bohemia triggered a war with the powerful neighboring Habsburgs dynasty of Austria to the southwest in Vienna , which James attempted to end through a proposed alliance with the Kingdom of Spain .
In 1611 , James employed Calvert to research and transcribe his tract against the Dutch Protestant theologian Conrad Vorstius , ( 1569 @-@ 1622 ) . The following year , Cecil died , and Calvert acted as one of the four executors of his will . The king 's favourite , Sir Robert Carr , first Earl of Somerset , ( 1587 @-@ 1645 ) , Viscount Rochester , assumed the duties of secretary of state and recruited Calvert to assist with foreign policy , in particular the Latin and Spanish correspondence . Carr , soon raised to the earldom of Somerset , was not a success in the job , and fell from favour partly as a result of the murder of Thomas Overbury , ( 1581 @-@ 1613 ) , to which Carr 's wife , Frances , the former Countess of Essex and later Somerset , ( 1590 @-@ 1632 ) , pleaded guilty in 1615 . Carr 's place as James 's principal favorite was now taken by the handsome George Villiers , 1st Duke of Buckingham , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , with whom James was said to have been infatuated .
In 1613 , the King commissioned Calvert to investigate Roman Catholic grievances in Ireland , along with Sir Humphrey Wynch , ( 1555 @-@ 1625 ) , Sir Charles Cornwallis , ( XXX ? -1629 ) and Sir Roger Wilbraham , ( 1553 @-@ 1616 ) . The commission spent almost four months in Ireland , and its final report , partly drafted by Calvert , concluded that religious conformity should be enforced more strictly in Ireland , Catholic schools be suppressed , and bad priests removed and punished . The King resolved not to reconvene the Parliament of Ireland until the Catholics " shall be better disciplined " . In 1616 , James endowed Calvert with the manor of Danby Wiske in Yorkshire , which brought him into contact with Sir Thomas Wentworth , 1st Earl of Strafford , ( 1593 @-@ 1641 ) , who became his closest friend and political ally . Calvert was now wealthy enough to buy the " Kiplin Hall " estate in his home parish . ( Today , the University of Maryland operates a research centre there , while the main building is a house museum owned by the Kiplin Hall Trust . ) in his home parish ; and in 1617 , his social status received a further boost when he was knighted , then becoming " Sir George Calvert " .
In 1619 , Calvert completed his rise to power when James appointed him as one of the two principal secretaries of state . This followed the dismissal of Sir Thomas Lake , ( 1567 @-@ 1630 ) , due to scandals , including his wife 's indiscretions with state secrets . Not emerging as a candidate until the end of the selection process , Calvert 's appointment surprised him and most observers . Assuming he owed his promotion to the king 's increasingly powerful favourite , George Villiers , ( 1592 @-@ 1628 ) , later first Duke of Buckingham ) , he sent him a great jewel as a token of thanks . Villiers returned the jewel , however , saying he had had nothing to do with the matter . Calvert 's personal fortune was secured when he was additionally appointed a " commissioner of the treasury " with a pension of £ 1 @,@ 000 pounds sterling and a subsidy on imported raw silk , which would later be converted to another £ 1 @,@ 000 pension .
= = Secretary of State = =
In Parliament , a political crisis developed over the king 's policy of seeking a Spanish wife for Charles , Prince of Wales , as part of a proposed alliance with the Habsburgs . In the Parliament of 1621 , it fell to Calvert to advocate the " Spanish match " , as it came to be called , against the majority of Parliament , who feared an increase in Catholic influence on the state . As a result of his pro @-@ Spanish stance and defence of relaxations in the penal laws against Catholics , Calvert became estranged from many in the Commons , who were suspicious of his close familiarity with the Spanish ambassador 's court . Calvert also faced difficulties in his private life : his wife 's death on 8 August 1622 left him the single father of ten children , the oldest of whom , Cecil , was sixteen years old .
Although King James rewarded Calvert in 1623 for his loyalty by granting him a 2 @,@ 300 @-@ acre ( 9 @.@ 3 km2 ) estate in County Longford , in the central Ireland region of Leinster , where his seat was known as the " Manor of Baltimore " , Calvert was increasingly isolated from court circles as the Prince of Wales , ( heir to the Throne ) and the first Duke of Buckingham ( George Villiers ) wrested control of policy from the ageing James . Without consulting the diplomatically astute Calvert , the prince and the duke travelled to Spain to negotiate the Spanish marriage for themselves , with disastrous results . Instead of securing an alliance , the visit provoked a hostility between the two courts which quickly led to war . In a reversal of policy , Buckingham dismissed the treaties with Spain , summoned a war council , and sought a French marriage for the Welsh Prince .
= = Resignation and conversion to Catholicism = =
As the chief parliamentary spokesman for an abandoned policy , Calvert no longer served a useful purpose to the English Royal Court , and by February 1624 his duties had been restricted to placating the Spanish ambassador . The degree of his disfavour was shown when he was reprimanded for supposedly delaying diplomatic letters . Calvert bowed to the inevitable . On the pretext of ill health , he began negotiations for the sale of his position , finally resigning the secretariat in February 1625 .
No disgrace was attached to Calvert 's departure from office : the King , to whom he had always remained personally loyal , confirmed his place on the Privy Council and appointed him " Baron Baltimore " , in County Longford in Leinster of central Ireland . Immediately after Calvert resigned , he converted to Roman Catholicism .
The connection between Calvert 's resignation and his conversion to Roman Catholicism was a complex one . George Cottington , a former employee of Calvert , suggested in 1628 that Calvert 's conversion had been in progress a long time before it was made public . George Abbot , ( 1562 @-@ 1633 ) , the reigning Archbishop of Canterbury , ( and ecclesiastical head of the independent Church of England ) , reported that political opposition to Calvert , combined with his loss of office , had " made him discontented and , as the saying is , " Desperatio facit monachum " , so hee apparently did turne papist , which hee now professeth , this being the third time that he hath bene to blame that way [ sic ] " . Godfrey Goodman , the Bishop of Gloucester , later claimed Calvert had been a secret Catholic all along ( " infinitely addicted to the Catholic faith " ) , which explained his support for lenient policies towards Catholics and for the Spanish match .
However , no one had questioned Calvert 's conformity at the time , and if he had indeed been secretly Catholic , he had hidden it well . It seems more likely Calvert converted in late 1624 . At the time , Simon Stock , a Discalced Carmelite priest reported to the Congregation Propaganda Fide in Rome on November 15 that he had converted two Privy Councillors to Catholicism , one of whom historians are certain was Calvert . Calvert , who had probably met Stock at the Spanish embassy in London , later worked with the priest on a plan for a Catholic mission in his new first Newfoundland colony ( off modern Canada ) .
When King James I ( and VI of Scotland ) died in March 1625 , his successor King Charles I maintained Calvert 's barony but not his previous place on the Privy Council . Calvert then turned his attention to his Irish estates and his overseas investments . He was not entirely forgotten at court . After Buckingham 's dabblings in wars against Spain and France had ended in failure , he recalled Baltimore to court , and for a while may have considered employing him in the peace negotiations with Spain . Though nothing came of Baltimore 's recall , he renewed his rights over the silk @-@ import duties , which had lapsed with the death of James I , and secured Charles ' blessing for his venture in the " New Found Land " .
= = Colony of Avalon ( Newfoundland ) = =
Calvert had long maintained an interest in the exploration and settlement of the New World , beginning with his investment of twenty @-@ five pounds in the second Virginia Company in 1609 , and a few months later a more substantial sum in the East India Company , which he increased in 1614 . In 1620 , Calvert purchased a tract of land in Newfoundland from Sir William Vaughan , ( 1575 @-@ 1641 ) , a Welsh writer and colonial investor , who had earlier failed to establish a colony on the large sub @-@ Arctic island off the eastern coast of North America . He named the area of the peninsula as Avalon , after the legendary spot where Christianity was supposedly introduced to Roman Britain in ancient times . The plantation lay on what is now called the Avalon Peninsula and included the fishing station at " Ferryland " . Calvert almost certainly had a fishery project in mind at this stage .
Calvert dispatched Captain Edward Wynne and a group of Welsh colonists to Ferryland , where they landed in August 1621 , and set about constructing a settlement . Wynne sent positive reports concerning the potential for local fisheries and for the production of salt , hemp , flax , tar , iron , timber and hops . Wynne also praised the climate , declaring , " It is better and not so cold as England " and predicted that the colony would become self @-@ sufficient after one year . Others corroborated Wynne 's reports : for example , Captain Daniel Powell , who delivered a further party of settlers to Ferryland , wrote : " The land on which our Governor Calvert and / or Wynne planted is so good and commodious , that for the quantity , I think there is no better in many parts of England " ; but he added ominously that Ferryland was " the coldest harbour in the land " . Wynne and his men began work on various building projects , including a substantial house and the shoring up of the harbour . To protect them against marauding French warships , a recent hazard in the area , since the recent founding of New France in the interior ( modern Lower Canada of the 18th and 19th Centuries , Province of Quebec and Dominion of Canada ) along the St. Lawrence River , Calvert employed the pirate John Nutt .
The settlement appeared to be progressing so well that in January 1623 , Calvert obtained a concession from King James for the whole of Newfoundland , though the grant was soon reduced to cover only the southeastern Avalon peninsula , owing to competing claims from other English colonists . The final Charter constituted the province as a " county palatinate " , officially titled the " Province of Avalon " , under Calvert 's personal rule .
After resigning the Royal secretariat of state in 1625 , the new Baron Baltimore made clear his intention to visit the colony : " I intend shortly , " he wrote in March , " God willing , a journey for Newfoundland to visit a plantation which I began there some few years since . " His plans were disrupted by the death of King James I , and by the crackdown on Catholics with which King Charles I began his reign in order to appease his opponents . The new King required all privy councillors to take the oaths of supremacy and allegiance ; and since Baltimore , as a Catholic , had to refuse , he was obliged to step down from that cherished office . Given the new religious and political climate , and perhaps also to escape a serious outbreak of plague in England , Baltimore moved to his estates in Ireland . His expedition to Newfoundland had set sail without him in late May 1625 under Sir Arthur Aston , who became the new provincial Governor of Avalon .
A reference by David Rothe , bishop of Ossary , in Ireland , to a " Joane [ also recorded as Jane ] Baltimore now wife " of Calvert , reveals that Baltimore had recently remarried .
From the time of his conversion in 1625 onwards , Baltimore took care to cater for the religious needs of his colonists , both Catholic and Protestant . He had asked Simon Stock to provide priests for the 1625 expedition , but Stock 's recruits arrived in England after Aston had sailed . Stock 's own ambitions for the colony appear to have exceeded Baltimore 's : in letters to De Propaganda Fide in Rome , Stock claimed the Newfoundland settlement could act as a springboard for the conversion of natives not only in the New World but also in China , the latter via a passage he believed existed from the east coast to the Pacific Ocean .
= = Baltimore in Avalon = =
Baltimore was determined to visit his colony in person . In May 1626 , he wrote to Wentworth :
Aston 's return to England in late 1626 , along with all the Catholic settlers , failed to deter Baltimore , who finally sailed for Newfoundland in 1627 , arriving on July 23 and staying only two months before returning to England . He had taken both Protestant and Catholic settlers with him , as well as two secular priests , Thomas Longville and Anthony Pole ( also known as Smith ) , the latter remaining behind in the colony when Baltimore departed for England . The land Baltimore had seen was by no means the paradise described by some early settlers , being only marginally productive ; as the summer climate was deceptively mild , his brief visit gave Baltimore no reason to alter his plans for the colony .
In 1628 , he sailed again for Newfoundland , this time with his second wife Jane , most of his children , and 40 more settlers , to officially take over as Proprietary Governor of Avalon . He and his family moved into the house at Ferryland built by Wynne , a sizeable structure for the time , by colonial standards , and the only one in the settlement large enough to accommodate religious services for the community .
Matters connected to religion were to bedevil Baltimore 's stay in " this remote part of the worlde where I have planted my selfe [ sic ] " . He sailed at a time when English military preparations were underway to relieve the Huguenots at La Rochelle . He was dismayed to find that the war with France had spread to Newfoundland , and that he had to spend most of his time fighting off French attacks on English fishing fleets with his own ships the Dove and the Ark . As he wrote to Buckingham , " I came to builde , and sett , and sowe , but I am falne to fighting with Frenchmen [ sic ] " . His settlers were so successful against the French that they captured several ships , which they escorted back to England to help with the war effort . Baltimore was granted the loan of one of the ships to aid in his defence of the colony , as well as a share of the prize money .
Adopting a policy of free religious worship in the colony , Baltimore allowed the Catholics to worship in one part of his house and the Protestants in another . This novel arrangement proved too much for the resident Anglican priest , Erasmus Stourton — " that knave Stourton " , as Baltimore referred to him — who , after altercations with Baltimore , was placed on a ship for England , where he lost no time in reporting Baltimore 's practices to the authorities , complaining that the Catholic priests Smith and Hackett said mass every Sunday and " doe use all other ceremonies of the church of Rome in as ample a manner as tis used in Spayne [ sic ] " . and that Baltimore had the son of a Protestant forcibly baptised as a Catholic . Although Stourton 's complaints were investigated by the Privy Council , due to Baltimore 's support in high places , the case was dismissed .
Baltimore had become disenchanted with conditions in " this wofull country " , and he wrote to his old acquaintances in England lamenting his troubles . The final blow to his hopes was dealt by the Newfoundland winter of 1628 – 9 , which did not release its grip until May . Like others before them , the residents of Avalon suffered terribly from the cold and from malnutrition . Nine or ten of Baltimore 's company died that winter , and with half the settlers ill at one time , his house had to be turned into a hospital . The sea froze over , and nothing would grow before May . " Tis not terra Christianorum " , Baltimore wrote to Wentworth . He confessed to the king : " I have found ... by too deare bought experience [ that which other men ] always concealed from me ... that there is a sad face of wynter upon all this land " .
Baltimore solicited a new charter from the king . In order to found an alternative colony in a less hostile climate further south , he requested " a precinct " in Virginia , where he could grow tobacco . He wrote to his friends Francis Cottington and Thomas Wentworth enlisting their support for this new proposal , admitting the impression his abandonment of Avalon might make in England : " I shall rayse a great deal of talke and discourse and be censured by most men of giddiness and levity [ sic ] " . The king , perhaps guided by Baltimore 's friends at court , replied expressing concern for Baltimore 's health and gently advising him to forget colonial schemes and return to England , where he would be treated with every respect : " Men of your condition and breeding are fitter for other imployments than the framing of new plantations , which commonly have rugged & laborious beginnings , and require much greater meanes , in managing them , than usually the power of one private subject can reach unto " .
Baltimore sent his children home to England in August . By the time the king 's letter reached Avalon , he had departed with his wife and servants for Virginia .
= = Attempt to found a Mid @-@ Atlantic colony = =
In late September or October 1629 , Baltimore arrived in Jamestown , where the Virginians , who suspected him of designs on some of their territory and vehemently opposed Catholicism , gave him a cool welcome . They gave him the oaths of supremacy and allegiance , which he refused to take , so they ordered him to leave . After no more than a few weeks in the colony , Baltimore left for England to pursue the new charter , leaving his wife and servants behind . In early 1630 , he procured a ship to fetch them , but it foundered off the Irish coast , and his wife was drowned . Baltimore described himself the following year as " a long time myself a Man of Sorrows " .
Baltimore spent the last two years of his life constantly lobbying for his new charter , though the obstacles proved difficult . The Virginians , led by William Claiborne , who sailed to England to make the case , campaigned aggressively against separate colonising of the Chesapeake , claiming they possessed the rights to that area . Baltimore was short of capital , having exhausted his fortune , and was sometimes forced to depend on the assistance of his friends . To make matters worse , in the summer of 1630 , his household was infected by the plague , which he survived . He wrote to Wentworth : " Blessed be God for it who hath preserved me now from shipwreck , hunger , scurvy and pestilence ... "
His health declining , Baltimore 's persistence over the charter finally paid off in 1632 . The king first granted him a location south of Jamestown , but Baltimore asked the king to reconsider in response to opposition from other investors interested in settling the new land of Carolina into a sugar plantation . Baltimore eventually compromised by accepting redrawn boundaries to the north of the Potomac River , on either side of the Chesapeake Bay . The charter was about to pass when the fifty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Baltimore died in his lodgings at Lincoln 's Inn Fields , on 15 April 1632 . Five weeks later , on 20 June 1632 , the charter for Maryland passed the seals .
= = Legacy = =
In his will , written the day before he died , Baltimore beseeched his friends Wentworth and Cottington to act as guardians and supervisors to his first son Cecil , who inherited the title of Lord Baltimore and the imminent grant of Maryland . Baltimore 's two colonies in the New World continued under the proprietorship of his family . Avalon , which remained a prime spot for the salting and export of fish , was expropriated by Sir David Kirke , with a new royal charter which Cecil Calvert vigorously challenged , and it was finally absorbed into Newfoundland in 1754 . Although Baltimore 's failed Avalon venture marked the end of an early era of attempts at proprietary colonisation , it laid the foundation upon which permanent settlements developed in that region of Newfoundland .
Maryland became a prime tobacco exporting colony in the mid @-@ Atlantic and , for a time , a refuge for Catholic settlers , as George Calvert had hoped . Under the rule of the Lords Baltimore , thousands of British Catholics emigrated to Maryland , establishing some of the oldest Catholic communities in what later became the United States . However Catholic rule in Maryland was eventually nullified by the re @-@ assertion of royal control over the colony .
140 years after its first settlement , Maryland joined twelve other British colonies along the Atlantic coast in declaring their independence from British rule and the right to freedom of religion for all citizens in the new United States .
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= Draining and development of the Everglades =
The history of draining and development of the Everglades dates back to the 19th century . During the Second Seminole War beginning in 1836 , the United States military 's mission was to seek out Seminole people in the Everglades and capture or kill them . Those missions gave the military the opportunity to map land that seemed to frustrate and confound them at every turn . A national push for expansion and progress toward the latter part of the 19th century stimulated interest in draining the Everglades for agricultural use . According to historians , " From the middle of the nineteenth century to the middle of the twentieth century , the United States went through a period in which wetland removal was not questioned . Indeed , it was considered the proper thing to do . "
A pattern of political and financial motivation , and a lack of understanding of the geography and ecology of the Everglades have plagued the history of drainage projects . The Everglades are a part of a massive watershed that originates near Orlando and drains into Lake Okeechobee , a vast and shallow lake . As the lake exceeds its capacity in the wet season , the water forms a flat and very wide river , about 100 miles ( 160 km ) long and 60 miles ( 97 km ) wide . As the land from Lake Okeechobee slopes gradually to Florida Bay , water flows at a rate of half a mile ( 0 @.@ 8 km ) a day . Before human activity in the Everglades , the system comprised the lower third of the Florida peninsula . The first attempt to drain the region was made by real estate developer Hamilton Disston in 1881 . Disston 's sponsored canals were unsuccessful , but the land he purchased for them stimulated economic and population growth that attracted railway developer Henry Flagler . Flagler built a railroad along the east coast of Florida and eventually to Key West ; towns grew and farmland was cultivated along the rail line .
During his 1904 campaign to be elected governor , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward promised to drain the Everglades , and his later projects were more effective than Disston 's . Broward 's promises sparked a land boom facilitated by blatant errors in an engineer 's report , pressure from real estate developers , and the burgeoning tourist industry throughout south Florida . The increased population brought hunters who went unchecked and had a devastating impact on the numbers of wading birds ( hunted for their plumes ) , alligators , and other Everglades animals .
Severe hurricanes in 1926 and 1928 caused catastrophic damage and flooding from Lake Okeechobee that prompted the Army Corps of Engineers to build a dike around the lake . Further floods in 1947 prompted an unprecedented construction of canals throughout southern Florida . Following another population boom after World War II , and the creation of the Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project , the Everglades was divided into sections separated by canals and water control devices that delivered water to agricultural and newly developed urban areas . However , in the late 1960s , following a proposal to construct a massive airport next to Everglades National Park , national attention turned from developing the land to restoring the Everglades .
= = Exploration = =
American involvement in the Everglades began during the Second Seminole War ( 1836 – 42 ) , a costly and very unpopular conflict . The United States spent between $ 30 million and $ 40 million and lost between 1 @,@ 500 and 3 @,@ 000 lives . The U.S. military drove the Seminoles into the Everglades and were charged with the task of finding them , defeating them , and moving them to Oklahoma Indian territory . Almost 4 @,@ 000 Seminoles were killed in the war or were removed . The U.S. military was completely unprepared for the conditions they found in the Everglades . They tore their clothes on sawgrass , ruined their boots on the uneven limestone floor , and were plagued by mosquitoes . Soldiers ' legs , feet , and arms were cut open on the sawgrass and gangrene infection set in , taking many lives and limbs . Many died of mosquito @-@ borne illness . After slogging through mud , one private died in his tracks of exhaustion in 1842 . General Thomas Jesup admitted the military was overwhelmed by the terrain when he wrote to the Secretary of War in 1838 , trying to dissuade him from prolonging the war .
Opinion about the value of Florida to the Union was mixed : some thought it a useless land of swamps and horrible animals , while others thought it a gift from God for national prosperity . In 1838 comments in The Army and Navy Chronicle supported future development of southern Florida :
[ The ] climate [ is ] most delightful ; but , from want of actual observation , [ it ] could not speak so confidently of the soil , although , from the appearance of the surrounding vegetation , a portion of it , at least , must be rich . Whenever the aborigines shall be forced from their fastnesses , as eventually they must be , the enterprising spirit of our countrymen will very soon discover the sections best adapted to cultivation , and the now barren or unproductive everglades will be made to blossom like a garden . It is the general impression that these everglades are uninhabitable during the summer months , by reason of their being overflowed by the abundant rains of the season ; but if it should prove that these inundations are caused or increased by obstructions to the natural courses of the rivers , as outlets to the numerous lakes , American industry will remove these obstructions .
The military penetration of southern Florida offered the opportunity to map a poorly understood part of the country . As late as 1823 , official reports doubted the existence of a large inland lake , until the military met the Seminoles at the Battle of Lake Okeechobee in 1837 . To avenge repeated surprise attacks on himself and ammunition stores , Colonel William Harney led an expedition into the Everglades in 1840 , to hunt for a chief named Chekika . With Harney were 90 soldiers in 16 canoes . One soldier 's account of the trip in the St. Augustine News was the first printed description of the Everglades available to the general public . The anonymous writer described the hunt for Chekika and the terrain they were crossing : " No country that I have ever heard of bears any resemblance to it ; it seems like a vast sea filled with grass and green trees , and expressly intended as a retreat for the rascally Indian , from which the white man would never seek to drive them " .
The final blame for the military stalemate was determined to lie not in military preparation , supplies , leadership , or superior tactics by the Seminoles , but in Florida 's impenetrable terrain . An army surgeon wrote : " It is in fact a most hideous region to live in , a perfect paradise for Indians , alligators , serpents , frogs , and every other kind of loathsome reptile . " The land seemed to inspire extreme reactions of wonder or hatred . In 1870 , an author described the mangrove forests as a " waste of nature 's grandest exhibition to have these carnivals of splendid vegetation occurring in isolated places where it is but seldom they are seen . " A band of hunters , naturalists , and collectors ventured through in 1885 , taking along with them the 17 @-@ year @-@ old grandson of an early resident of Miami . The landscape unnerved the young man shortly after he entered the Shark River : " The place looked wild and lonely . About three o 'clock it seemed to get on Henry 's nerves and we saw him crying , he would not tell us why , he was just plain scared . "
In 1897 , an explorer named Hugh Willoughby spent eight days canoeing with a party from the mouth of the Harney River to the Miami River . He wrote about his observations and sent them back to the New Orleans Times @-@ Democrat . Willoughby described the water as healthy and wholesome , with numerous springs , and 10 @,@ 000 alligators " more or less " in Lake Okeechobee . The party encountered thousands of birds near the Shark River , " killing hundreds , but they continued to return " . Willoughby pointed out that much of the rest of the country had been mapped and explored except for this part of Florida , writing , " ( w ) e have a tract of land one hundred and thirty miles long and seventy miles wide that is as much unknown to the white man as the heart of Africa . "
= = Drainage = =
As early as 1837 , a visitor to the Everglades suggested the value of the land without the water :
Could it be drained by deepening the natural outlets ? Would it not open to cultivation immense tracts of rich vegetable soil ? Could the waterpower , obtained by draining , be improved to any useful purpose ? Would such draining render the country unhealthy ? ... Many queries like these passed through our minds . They can only be solved by a thorough examination of the whole country . Could the waters be lowered ten feet , it would probably drain six hundred thousand acres ; should this prove to be a rich soil , as would seem probable , what a field it would open for tropical productions ! What facilities for commerce !
Territorial representative David Levy proposed a resolution that was passed in Congress in 1842 : " that the Secretary of War be directed to place before this House such information as can be obtained in relation to the practicability and probable expense of draining the everglades of Florida . " From this directive Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker requested Thomas Buckingham Smith from St. Augustine to consult those with experience in the Everglades on the feasibility of draining them , saying that he had been told two or three canals to the Gulf of Mexico would be sufficient . Smith asked officers who had served in the Seminole Wars to respond , and many favored the idea , promoting the land as a future agricultural asset to the South . A few disagreed , such as Captain John Sprague , who wrote he " never supposed the country would excite an inquiry , other than as a hiding place for Indians , and had it occurred to me that so great an undertaking , one so utterly impracticable , as draining the Ever Glades was to be discussed , I should not have destroyed the scratch of pen upon a subject so fruitful , and which cannot be understood but by those who have waded the water belly deep and examined carefully the western coast by land and by water . "
Nevertheless , Smith returned a report to the Secretary of the Treasury asking for $ 500 @,@ 000 to do the job . The report is the first published study on the topic of the Everglades , and concluded with the statement :
The Ever Glades are now suitable only for the haunt of noxious vermin or the resort of pestilent reptiles . The statesman whose exertions shall cause the millions of acres they contain , now worse than worthless , to teem with the products of agricultural industry ; that man who thus adds to the resources of his country ... will merit a high place in public favor , not only with his own generation , but with posterity . He will have created a State !
Smith suggested cutting through the rim of the Everglades ( known today as the Atlantic Coastal Ridge ) , connecting the heads of rivers to the coastline so that 4 feet ( 1 @.@ 2 m ) of water would be drained from the area . The result , Smith hoped , would yield farmland suitable for corn , sugar , rice , cotton , and tobacco .
In 1850 Congress passed a law that gave several states wetlands within their state boundaries . The Swamp and Overflowed Lands Act ensured that the state would be responsible for funding the attempts at developing wetlands into farmlands . Florida quickly formed a committee to consolidate grants to pay for such attempts , though attention and funds were diverted owing to the Civil War and Reconstruction . Not until after 1877 did attention return to the Everglades .
= = = Hamilton Disston 's canals = = =
After the Civil War , an agency named the Internal Improvement Fund ( IIF ) , charged with using grant money to improve Florida 's infrastructure through canals , rail lines , and roads , was eager to be rid of the debt incurred by the Civil War . IIF trustees found a Pennsylvania real estate developer named Hamilton Disston who was interested in implementing plans to drain the land for agriculture . Disston was persuaded to buy 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land for $ 1 million in 1881 . The New York Times declared it the largest purchase of land ever by any individual . Disston began building canals near St. Cloud to lower the basin of the Caloosahatchee and Kissimmee Rivers . His workers and engineers faced conditions similar to those of the soldiers during the Seminole Wars ; it was harrowing , backbreaking labor in dangerous conditions . The canals seemed at first to work in lowering the water levels in the wetlands surrounding the rivers . Another dredged waterway between the Gulf of Mexico and Lake Okeechobee was built , opening the region to steamboat traffic .
Disston 's engineers focused on Lake Okeechobee as well . As one colleague put it , " Okeechobee is the point to attack " ; the canals were to be " equal or greater than the inflow from the Kissimmee valley , which is the source of all the evil . " Disston sponsored the digging of a canal 11 miles ( 18 km ) long from Lake Okeechobee towards Miami , but it was abandoned when the rock proved denser than the engineers had expected . Though the canals lowered the groundwater , their capacity was inadequate for the wet season . A report that evaluated the failure of the project concluded : " The reduction of the waters is simply a question of sufficient capacity in the canals which may be dug for their relief " .
Though Disston 's canals did not drain , his purchase primed the economy of Florida . It made news and attracted tourists and land buyers alike . Within four years property values doubled , and the population increased significantly . One newcomer was the inventor Thomas Edison , who bought a home in Fort Myers . Disston opened real estate offices throughout the United States and Europe , and sold tracts of land for $ 5 an acre , establishing towns on the west coast and in central Florida . English tourists in particular were targeted and responded in large numbers . Florida passed its first water laws to " build drains , ditches , or water courses upon petition of two or more landowners " in 1893 .
= = = Henry Flagler 's railroads = = =
Due to Disston 's purchase , the IIF was able to sponsor railroad projects , and the opportunity presented itself when oil tycoon Henry Flagler became enchanted with St. Augustine during a vacation . He built the opulent Ponce de León Hotel in St. Augustine in 1888 , and began buying land and building rail lines along the east coast of Florida , first from Jacksonville to Daytona , then as far south as Palm Beach in 1893 . Flagler 's establishment of " the Styx " , a settlement for hotel and rail line workers across the river from the barrier island containing Palm Beach , became West Palm Beach . Along the way he built resort hotels , transforming territorial outposts into tourist destinations and the land bordering the rail lines into citrus farms .
The winter of 1894 – 1895 produced a bitter frost that killed citrus trees as far south as Palm Beach . Miami resident Julia Tuttle sent Flagler a pristine orange blossom and an invitation to visit Miami , to persuade him to build the railroad farther south . Although he had earlier turned her down several times , Flagler finally agreed , and by 1896 the rail line had been extended to Biscayne Bay . Three months after the first train arrived , the residents of Miami , 512 in all , voted to incorporate the town . Flagler publicized Miami as a " Magic City " throughout the United States and it became a prime destination for the extremely wealthy after the Royal Palm Hotel was opened .
= = = Broward 's " Empire of the Everglades " = = =
Despite the sale of 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 16 @,@ 000 km2 ) to Disston and the skyrocketing price of land , by the turn of the 20th century the IIF was bankrupt due to mismanagement . Legal battles ensued between the State of Florida and the railroad owners about who owned the rights to sell reclaimed land in the Everglades . In 1904 gubernatorial campaigning , the strongest candidate , Napoleon Bonaparte Broward , made draining the Everglades a major plank . He called the future of south Florida the " Empire of the Everglades " and compared its potential to that of Holland and Egypt : " It would indeed be a commentary on the intelligence and energy of the State of Florida to confess that so simple an engineering feat as the drainage of a body of land above the sea was above their power " , he wrote to voters . Soon after his election , he fulfilled his promise to " drain that abominable pestilence @-@ ridden swamp " and pushed the Florida legislature to form a group of commissioners to oversee reclamation of flooded lands . They began by taxing counties that would be affected by the drainage attempts , at 5 cents an acre , and formed the Everglades Drainage District in 1907 .
Broward asked James O. Wright — an engineer on loan to the State of Florida from the USDA 's Bureau of Drainage Investigations — to draw up plans for drainage in 1906 . Two dredges were built by 1908 , but had cut only 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) of canals . The project quickly ran out of money , so Broward sold real estate developer Richard J. Bolles a million dollars worth of land in the Everglades , 500 @,@ 000 acres ( 2 @,@ 000 km2 ) , before the engineer 's report had been submitted . Abstracts from Wright 's report were given to the IIF stating that eight canals would be enough to drain 1 @,@ 850 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @,@ 500 km2 ) at a cost of a dollar an acre . The abstracts were released to real estate developers who used them in their advertisements , and Wright and the USDA were pressed by the real estate industry to publicize the report as quickly as possible . Wright 's supervisor noted errors in the report , as well as undue enthusiasm for draining , and delayed its release in 1910 . Different unofficial versions of the report circulated — some that had been altered by real estate interests — and a version hastily put together by Senator Duncan U. Fletcher called U.S. Senate Document 89 included early unrevised statements , causing a frenzy of speculation .
Wright 's initial report concluded that drainage would not be difficult . Building canals would be more cost effective than constructing a dike around Lake Okeechobee . The soil would be fertile after drainage , the climate would not be adversely affected , and the enormous lake would be able to irrigate farmland in the dry season . Wright based his conclusions on 15 years of weather data since the recording of precipitation began in the 1890s . His calculations concentrated on the towns of Jupiter and Kissimmee . Since weather data had not been recorded for any area within the Everglades , none was included in the report . Furthermore , the heaviest year of rain on record , Wright assumed , was atypical , and he urged that canals should not be constructed to bear that amount of water due to the expense . Wright 's calculations for what canals should be able to hold were off by 55 percent . His most fundamental mistake , however , was designing the canals for a maximum rainfall of 4 inches ( 10 cm ) of water a day , based on flawed data for July and August rainfall , despite available data that indicated torrential downpours of 10 inches ( 25 cm ) and 12 inches ( 30 cm ) had occurred in 24 @-@ hour periods .
Though a few voices expressed skepticism of the report 's conclusions — notably Frank Stoneman , the editor of the Miami News @-@ Record ( the forerunner of The Miami Herald ) — the report was hailed as impeccable , coming from a branch of the U.S. government . In 1912 Florida appointed Wright to oversee the drainage , and the real estate industry energetically misrepresented this mid @-@ level engineer as the world 's foremost authority on wetlands drainage , in charge of the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation . However , the U.S. House of Representatives investigated Wright since no report had officially been published despite the money paid for it . Wright eventually retired when it was discovered that his colleagues disagreed with his conclusions and refused to approve the report 's publication . One testified at the hearings : " I regard Mr. Wright as absolutely and completely incompetent for any engineering work " .
Governor Broward ran for the U.S. Senate in 1908 but lost . Broward and his predecessor , William Jennings , were paid by Richard Bolles to tour the state to promote drainage . Broward was elected to the Senate in 1910 , but died before he could take office . He was eulogized across Florida for his leadership and progressive inspiration . Rapidly growing Fort Lauderdale paid him tribute by naming Broward County after him ( the town 's original plan had been to name it Everglades County ) . Land in the Everglades was being sold for $ 15 an acre a month after Broward died . Meanwhile , Henry Flagler continued to build railway stations at towns as soon as the populations warranted them . News of the Panama Canal inspired him to connect his rail line to the closest deep water port . Biscayne Bay was too shallow , so Flagler sent railway scouts to explore the possibility of building the line through to the tip of mainland Florida . The scouts reported that not enough land was present to build through the Everglades , so Flagler instead changed the plan to build to Key West in 1912 .
= = Boom and plume harvesting = =
Real estate companies continued to advertise and sell land along newly dug canals . In April 1912 — the end of the dry season — reporters from all over the U.S. were given a tour of what had recently been drained , and they returned to their papers and raved about the progress . Land developers sold 20 @,@ 000 lots in a few months . But as news about the Wright report continued to be negative , land values plummeted , and sales decreased . Developers were sued and arrested for mail fraud when people who had spent their life savings to buy land arrived in south Florida expecting to find a dry parcel of land to build upon and instead found it completely underwater . Advertisements promised land that would yield crops in eight weeks , but for many it took at least as long just to clear . Some burned off the sawgrass or other vegetation only to discover that the underlying peat continued to burn . Animals and tractors used for plowing got mired in the muck and were useless . When the muck dried , it turned to a fine black powder and created dust storms . Settlers encountered rodents , skinks , and biting insects , and faced dangers from mosquitoes , poisonous snakes and alligators . Though at first crops sprouted quickly and lushly , they just as quickly wilted and died , seemingly without reason . It was discovered later that the peat and muck lacked copper and other trace elements . The USDA released a pamphlet in 1915 that declared land along the New River Canal would be too costly to keep drained and fertilized ; people in Ft . Lauderdale responded by collecting all of the pamphlets and burning them .
With the increasing population in towns near the Everglades came hunting opportunities . Even decades earlier , Harriet Beecher Stowe had been horrified at the hunting by visitors , and she wrote the first conservation publication for Florida in 1877 : " [ t ] he decks of boats are crowded with men , whose only feeling amid our magnificent forests , seems to be a wild desire to shoot something and who fire at every living thing on shore . " Otters and raccoons were the most widely hunted for their skins . Otter pelts could fetch between $ 8 and $ 15 each . Raccoons , more plentiful , only warranted 75 cents each in 1915 . Hunting often went unchecked ; on one trip , a Lake Okeechobee hunter killed 250 alligators and 172 otters .
Wading birds were a particular target . Their feathers were used in women 's hats from the late 19th century until the 1920s . In 1886 , five million birds were estimated to have been killed for their feathers . They were usually shot in the spring , when their feathers were colored for mating and nesting . Aigrettes , as the plumes were called in the millinery business , sold in 1915 for $ 32 an ounce , also the price of gold . Millinery was a $ 17 @-@ million @-@ a @-@ year industry that motivated plume harvesters to lie in wait at the nests of egrets and other large birds during the nesting season , shoot the parents with small @-@ bore rifles , and leave the chicks to starve . Many hunters refused to participate after watching the gruesome results of a plume hunt . Still , plumes from Everglades wading birds could be found in Havana , New York City , London , and Paris . A dealer in New York paid at least 60 hunters to provide him with " almost anything that wore feathers , but particularly the Herons , Spoonbills , and showy birds " . Hunters could collect plumes from a hundred birds on a good day .
Plume harvesting became a dangerous business . The Audubon Society became concerned with the amount of hunting being done in rookeries in the mangrove forests . In 1902 , they hired a warden , Guy Bradley , to watch the rookeries around Cuthbert Lake . Bradley had lived in Flamingo within the Everglades , and was murdered in 1905 by one of his neighbors after he tried to prevent him from hunting . Protection of birds was the reason for establishing the first wildlife refuge when President Theodore Roosevelt set Pelican Island as a sanctuary in 1903 .
In the 1920s , after birds were protected and alligators hunted nearly to extinction , Prohibition created a living for those willing to smuggle alcohol into the U.S. from Cuba . Rum @-@ runners used the vast Everglades as a hiding spot : there were never enough law enforcement officers to patrol it . The advent of the fishing industry , the arrival of the railroad , and the discovery of the benefits of adding copper to Okeechobee muck soon created unprecedented numbers of residents in new towns like Moore Haven , Clewiston , and Belle Glade . By 1921 , 2 @,@ 000 people lived in 16 new towns around Lake Okeechobee . Sugarcane became the primary crop grown in south Florida and it began to be mass @-@ produced . Miami experienced a second real estate boom that earned a developer in Coral Gables $ 150 million and saw undeveloped land north of Miami sell for $ 30 @,@ 600 an acre . Miami became cosmopolitan and experienced a renaissance of architecture and culture . Hollywood movie stars vacationed in the area and industrialists built lavish homes . Miami 's population multiplied fivefold , and Ft . Lauderdale and Palm Beach grew many times over as well . In 1925 , Miami newspapers published editions weighing over 7 pounds ( 3 @.@ 2 kg ) , most of it real estate advertising . Waterfront property was the most highly valued . Mangrove trees were cut down and replaced with palm trees to improve the view . Acres of south Florida slash pine were taken down , some for lumber , but the wood was found to be dense and it split apart when nails were driven into it . It was also termite @-@ resistant , but homes were needed quickly . Most of the pine forests in Dade County were cleared for development .
= = Hurricanes = =
The canals proposed by Wright were unsuccessful in making the lands south of Lake Okeechobee fulfill the promises made by real estate developers to local farmers . The winter of 1922 was unseasonably wet and the region was underwater . The town of Moore Haven received 46 inches ( 1 @,@ 200 mm ) of rain in six weeks in 1924 . Engineers were pressured to regulate the water flow , not only for farmers but also for commercial fishers , who often requested conflicting water levels in the lake . Fred Elliot , who was in charge of building the canals after James Wright retired , commented : " A man on one side of the canal wants it raised for his particular use and a man on the other side wants it lowered for his particular use " .
= = = 1926 Miami Hurricane = = =
The 1920s brought several favorable conditions that helped the land and population boom , one of which was an absence of any severe storms . The last severe hurricane , in 1906 , had struck the Florida Keys . Many homes were constructed hastily and poorly as a result of this lull in storms . However , on September 18 , 1926 , a storm that became known as the 1926 Miami Hurricane struck with winds over 140 miles per hour ( 230 km / h ) , and caused massive devastation . The storm surge was as high as 15 feet ( 4 @.@ 6 m ) in some places . Henry Flagler 's opulent Royal Palm Hotel was destroyed along with many other hotels and buildings . Most people who died did so when they ran out into the street in disbelief while the eye of the hurricane passed over , not knowing the wind was coming in from the other direction . " The lull lasted 35 minutes , and during that time the streets of the city became crowded with people " , wrote Richard Gray , the local weather chief . " As a result , many lives were lost during the second phase of the storm . " In Miami alone , 115 people were counted dead — although the true figure may have been as high as 175 , because death totals were racially segregated . More than 25 @,@ 000 people were homeless in the city . The town of Moore Haven , bordering Lake Okeechobee , was hardest hit . A levee built of muck collapsed , drowning almost 400 of the town 's entire 1 @,@ 200 residents . The tops of Lake Okeechobee levees were only 18 to 24 inches ( 46 to 61 cm ) above the lake itself and the engineers were aware of the danger . Two days before the hurricane , an engineer predicted , " [ i ] f we have a blow , even a gale , Moore Haven is going under water " . The engineer lost his wife and daughter in the flood .
The City of Miami responded to the hurricane by downplaying its effects and turning down aid . The Miami Herald declared two weeks after the storm that almost everything in the city had returned to normal . The governor supported the efforts to minimize the appearance of the destruction by refusing to call a special legislative session to appropriate emergency funds for relief . As a result , the American Red Cross was able to collect only $ 3 million of $ 5 million needed . The 1926 hurricane effectively ended the land boom in Miami , despite the attempts at hiding the effects . It also forced drainage commissioners to re @-@ evaluate the effectiveness of the canals . A $ 20 million plan to build a dike around Lake Okeechobee , to be paid by property taxes , was turned down after a skeptical constituency sued to stop it ; more than $ 14 million had been spent on canals and they were ineffective in taking away excess water or delivering it when needed .
= = = 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane = = =
The weather was unremarkable for two years . In 1928 , construction was completed on the Tamiami Trail , named because it was the only road spanning between Tampa and Miami . The builders attempted to construct the road several times before they blasted the muck down to the limestone , filled it with rock and paved over it . Hard rains in the summer caused Lake Okeechobee to rise several feet ; this was noticed by a local newspaper editor who demanded it be lowered . However , on September 16 , 1928 came a massive storm , now known as the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane . Thousands drowned when Lake Okeechobee breached its levees ; the range of estimates of the dead spanned from 1 @,@ 770 ( according to the Red Cross ) to 3 @,@ 000 or more . Many were swept away and never recovered . The majority of the dead were black migrant workers who had recently settled in or near Belle Glade . The catastrophe made national news , and although the governor again refused aid , after he toured the area and counted 126 bodies still unburied or uncollected a week after the storm , he activated the National Guard to assist in the cleanup , and declared in a telegram : " Without exaggeration , the situation in the storm area beggars description " .
= = = Herbert Hoover Dike = = =
The focus of government agencies quickly shifted to the control of floods rather than drainage . The Okeechobee Flood Control District , financed by both state and federal funds , was created in 1929 . President Herbert Hoover toured the towns affected by the 1928 Okeechobee Hurricane and , an engineer himself , ordered the Army Corps of Engineers to assist the communities surrounding the lake . Between 1930 and 1937 , a dike 66 miles ( 106 km ) long was built around the southern edge of the lake , and a shorter one around the northern edge . It was 34 feet ( 10 m ) tall and 3 @.@ 5 feet ( 1 @.@ 1 m ) thick on the lake side , 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 91 m ) thick on the top , and 2 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 m ) thick toward land . Control of the Hoover Dike and the waters of Lake Okeechobee were delegated to federal powers : the United States declared legal limits of the lake to be 14 feet ( 4 @.@ 3 m ) and 17 feet ( 5 @.@ 2 m ) .
A massive canal 80 feet ( 24 m ) wide and 6 feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) deep was also dug through the Caloosahatchee River ; when the lake rose too high , the excess water left through the canal to the Gulf of Mexico . Exotic trees were planted along the north shore levee : Australian pines , Australian oaks , willows , and bamboo . More than $ 20 million was spent on the entire project . Sugarcane production soared after the dike and canal were built . The populations of the small towns surrounding the lake jumped from 3 @,@ 000 to 9 @,@ 000 after World War II .
= = Drought = =
The effects of the Hoover Dike were seen immediately . An extended drought occurred in the 1930s , and with the wall preventing water leaving Lake Okeechobee and canals and ditches removing other water , the Everglades became parched . Peat turned to dust , and salty ocean water entered Miami 's wells . When the city brought in an expert to investigate , he discovered that the water in the Everglades was the area 's groundwater — here , it appeared on the surface . Draining the Everglades removed this groundwater , which was replaced by ocean water seeping into the area 's wells . In 1939 , 1 million acres ( 4 @,@ 000 km2 ) of Everglades burned , and the black clouds of peat and sawgrass fires hung over Miami . Underground peat fires burned roots of trees and plants without burning the plants in some places . Scientists who took soil samples before draining had not taken into account that the organic composition of peat and muck in the Everglades was mixed with bacteria that added little to the process of decomposition underwater because they were not mixed with oxygen . As soon as the water was drained and oxygen mixed with the soil , the bacteria began to break down the soil . In some places , homes had to be moved on to stilts and 8 feet ( 2 @.@ 4 m ) of topsoil was lost .
= = = Conservation attempts = = =
Conservationists concerned about the Everglades have been a vocal minority ever since Miami was a young city . South Florida 's first and perhaps most enthusiastic naturalist was Charles Torrey Simpson , who retired from the Smithsonian Institution to Miami in 1905 when he was 53 . Nicknamed " the Sage of Biscayne Bay " , Simpson wrote several books about tropical plant life around Miami . His backyard contained a tropical hardwood hammock , which he estimated he showed to about 50 @,@ 000 people . Though he tended to avoid controversy regarding development , in Ornamental Gardening in Florida he wrote , " Mankind everywhere has an insane desire to waste and destroy the good and beautiful things this nature has lavished upon him " .
Although the idea of protecting a portion of the Everglades arose in 1905 , a crystallized effort was formed in 1928 when Miami landscape designer Ernest F. Coe established the Everglades Tropical National Park Association . It had enough support to be declared a national park by Congress in 1934 , but there was not enough money during the Great Depression to buy the proposed 2 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 acres ( 8 @,@ 100 km2 ) for the park . It took another 13 years for it to be dedicated on December 6 , 1947 . One month before the dedication of the park , the former editor of The Miami Herald and freelance writer Marjory Stoneman Douglas published her first book , The Everglades : River of Grass . After researching the region for five years , she described the history and ecology of the south of Florida in great detail , characterizing the Everglades as a river instead of a stagnant swamp . Douglas later wrote , " My colleague Art Marshall said that with [ the words " River of Grass " ] I changed everybody 's knowledge and educated the world as to what the Everglades meant " . The last chapter was titled " The Eleventh Hour " and warned that the Everglades were approaching death , although the course could be reversed . Its first printing sold out a month after its release .
= = Flood control = =
Coinciding with the dedication of Everglades National Park , 1947 in south Florida saw two hurricanes and a wet season responsible for 100 inches ( 250 cm ) of rain , ending the decade @-@ long drought . Although there were no human casualties , cattle and deer were drowned and standing water was left in suburban areas for months . Agricultural interests lost about $ 59 million . The embattled head of the Everglades Drainage District carried a gun for protection after being threatened .
= = = Central and Southern Florida Flood Control Project = = =
In 1948 Congress approved the Central and Southern Florida Project for Flood Control and Other Purposes ( C & SF ) and consolidated the Everglades Drainage District and the Okeechobee Flood Control District under this . The C & SF used four methods in flood management : levees , water storage areas , canal improvements , and large pumps to assist gravity . Between 1952 and 1954 in cooperation with the state of Florida it built a levee 100 miles ( 160 km ) long between the eastern Everglades and suburbs from Palm Beach to Homestead , and blocked the flow of water into populated areas . Between 1954 and 1963 it divided the Everglades into basins . In the northern Everglades were Water Conservation Areas ( WCAs ) , and the Everglades Agricultural Area ( EAA ) bordering to the south of Lake Okeechobee . In the southern Everglades was Everglades National Park . Levees and pumping stations bordered each WCA , which released water in drier times and removed it and pumped it to the ocean or Gulf of Mexico in times of flood . The WCAs took up about 37 percent of the original Everglades .
During the 1950s and 1960s the South Florida metropolitan area grew four times as fast as the rest of the nation . Between 1940 and 1965 , 6 million people moved to south Florida : 1 @,@ 000 people moved to Miami every week . Urban development between the mid @-@ 1950s and the late 1960s quadrupled . Much of the water reclaimed from the Everglades was sent to newly developed areas . With metropolitan growth came urban problems associated with rapid expansion : traffic jams ; school overcrowding ; crime ; overloaded sewage treatment plants ; and , for the first time in south Florida 's urban history , water shortages in times of drought .
The C & SF constructed over 1 @,@ 000 miles ( 1 @,@ 600 km ) of canals , and hundreds of pumping stations and levees within three decades . It produced a film , Waters of Destiny , characterized by author Michael Grunwald as propaganda , that likened nature to a villainous , shrieking force of rage and declared the C & SF 's mission was to tame nature and make the Everglades useful . Everglades National Park management and Marjory Stoneman Douglas initially supported the C & SF , as it promised to maintain the Everglades and manage the water responsibly . However , an early report by the project reflected local attitudes about the Everglades as a priority to people in nearby developed areas : " The aesthetic appeal of the Park can never be as strong as the demands of home and livelihood . The manatee and the orchid mean something to people in an abstract way , but the former cannot line their purse , nor the latter fill their empty bellies . "
Establishment of the C & SF made Everglades National Park completely dependent upon another political entity for its survival . One of the C & SF 's projects was Levee 29 , laid along the Tamiami Trail on the northern border of the park . Levee 29 featured four flood control gates that controlled all the water entering Everglades National Park ; before construction , water flowed in through open drain pipes . The period from 1962 to 1965 was one of drought for the Everglades , and Levee 29 remained closed to allow the Biscayne Aquifer — the fresh water source for South Florida — to stay filled . Animals began to cross Tamiami Trail for the water held in WCA 3 , and many were killed by cars . Biologists estimate the population of alligators in Everglades National Park was halved ; otters nearly became extinct . The populations of wading birds had been reduced by 90 percent from the 1940s . When park management and the U.S. Department of the Interior asked the C & SF for assistance , the C & SF offered to build a levee along the southern border of Everglades National Park to retain waters that historically flowed through the mangroves and into Florida Bay . Though the C & SF refused to send the park more water , they constructed Canal 67 , bordering the east side of the park and carrying excess water from Lake Okeechobee to the Atlantic .
= = = Everglades Agricultural Area = = =
The C & SF established 470 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 900 km2 ) for the Everglades Agricultural Area — 27 percent of the Everglades before development . In the late 1920s , agricultural experiments indicated that adding large amounts of manganese sulfate to Everglades muck produced profitable vegetable harvests . Adding 100 pounds ( 45 kg ) of the compound was more cost effective than adding 1 short ton ( 0 @.@ 91 t ) of manure . The primary cash crop in the EAA is sugarcane , though sod , beans , lettuce , celery , and rice are also grown . Sugarcane became more consolidated an industry than did any other crop ; in 1940 the coalition of farms was renamed U.S. Sugar and this produced 86 percent of Everglades sugar . During the 1930s the sugarcane farmers ' coalition came under investigation for labor practices that bordered on slavery . Potential employees — primarily young black men — were lured from all over the U.S. by the promise of jobs , but they were held financially responsible for training , transportation , room and board and other costs . Quitting while debts were owed was punishable with jail time . By 1942 , U.S. Sugar was indicted for peonage in federal court , though the charges were eventually dismissed on a technicality . U.S. Sugar benefited significantly from the U.S. embargo on Cuban goods beginning in the early 1960s . In 1958 , before the Castro regime , 47 @,@ 000 acres ( 190 km2 ) of sugarcane were harvested in Florida ; by the 1964 – 1965 season , 228 @,@ 000 acres ( 920 km2 ) were harvested . From 1959 to 1962 the region went from two sugar mills to six , one of which in Belle Glade set several world records for sugar production .
Fields in the EAA are typically 40 acres ( 16 ha ) , on two sides bordered by canals that are connected to larger ones by which water is pumped in or out depending on the needs of the crops . The water level for sugarcane is ideally maintained at 20 inches ( 51 cm ) below the surface soil , and after the cane is harvested , the stalks are burned . Vegetables require more fertilizer than sugarcane , though the fields may resemble the historic hydrology of the Everglades by being flooded in the wet season . Sugarcane , however , requires water in the dry season . The fertilizers used on vegetables , along with high concentrations of nitrogen and phosphorus that are the by @-@ product of decayed soil necessary for sugarcane production , were pumped into WCAs south of the EAA , predominantly to Everglades National Park . The introduction of large amounts of these let exotic plants take hold in the Everglades . One of the defining characteristics of natural Everglades ecology is its ability to support itself in a nutrient @-@ poor environment , and the introduction of fertilizers began to change this ecology .
= = Turning point = =
A turning point for development in the Everglades came in 1969 when a replacement airport was proposed as Miami International Airport outgrew its capacities . Developers began acquiring land , paying $ 180 an acre in 1968 , and the Dade County Port Authority ( DCPA ) bought 39 square miles ( 100 km2 ) in the Big Cypress Swamp without consulting the C & SF , management of Everglades National Park or the Department of the Interior . Park management learned of the official purchase and agreement to build the jetport from The Miami Herald the day it was announced . The DCPA bulldozed the land it had bought , and laid a single runway it declared was for training pilots . The new jetport was planned to be larger than O 'Hare , Dulles , JFK , and LAX airports combined ; the location chosen was 6 miles ( 9 @.@ 7 km ) north of the Everglades National Park , within WCA 3 . The deputy director of the DCPA declared : " This is going to be one of the great population centers of America . We will do our best to meet our responsibilities and the responsibilities of all men to exercise dominion over the land , sea , and air above us as the higher order of man intends . "
The C & SF brought the jetport proposal to national attention by mailing letters about it to 100 conservation groups in the U.S. Initial local press reaction condemned conservation groups who immediately opposed the project . Business Week reported real estate prices jumped from $ 200 to $ 800 an acre surrounding the planned location , and Life wrote of the expectations of the commercial interests in the area . The U.S. Geological Survey 's study of the environmental impact of the jetport started , " Development of the proposed jetport and its attendant facilities ... will inexorably destroy the south Florida ecosystem and thus the Everglades National Park " . The jetport was intended to support a community of a million people and employ 60 @,@ 000 . The DCPA director was reported in Time saying , " I 'm more interested in people than alligators . This is the ideal place as far as aviation is concerned . "
When studies indicated the proposed jetport would create 4 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gallons ( 15 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 L ) of raw sewage a day and 10 @,@ 000 short tons ( 9 @,@ 100 t ) of jet engine pollutants a year , the national media snapped to attention . Science magazine wrote , in a series on environmental protection highlighting the jetport project , " Environmental scientists have become increasingly aware that , without careful planning , development of a region and the conservation of its natural resources do not go hand in hand " . The New York Times called it a " blueprint for disaster " , and Wisconsin senator Gaylord Nelson wrote to President Richard Nixon voicing his opposition : " It is a test of whether or not we are really committed in this country to protecting our environment . " Governor Claude Kirk withdrew his support for the project , and the 78 @-@ year @-@ old Marjory Stoneman Douglas was persuaded to go on tour to give hundreds of speeches against it . She established Friends of the Everglades and encouraged more than 3 @,@ 000 members to join . Initially the U.S. Department of Transportation pledged funds to support the jetport , but after pressure , Nixon overruled the department . He instead established Big Cypress National Preserve , announcing it in the Special Message to the Congress Outlining the 1972 Environmental Program . Following the jetport proposition , restoration of the Everglades became not only a statewide priority , but an international one as well . In the 1970s the Everglades were declared an International Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage Site by UNESCO , and a Wetland of International Importance by the Ramsar Convention , making it one of only three locations on earth that have appeared on all three lists .
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= DuMont Television Network =
The DuMont Television Network ( also known as the DuMont Network , simply DuMont / Du Mont , or ( incorrectly ) Dumont / duːmɒnt / ) was one of the world 's pioneer commercial television networks , rivalling NBC and CBS for the distinction of being first overall in the USA . It began operation in the United States in 1946 . It was owned by DuMont Laboratories , a television equipment and set manufacturer . The network was hindered by the prohibitive cost of broadcasting , by regulations imposed by the Federal Communications Commission ( FCC ) which restricted the company 's growth , and even by the company 's partner , Paramount Pictures . Despite several innovations in broadcasting and the creation of one of television 's biggest stars of the 1950s ( Jackie Gleason ) , the network never found itself on solid financial ground . Forced to expand on UHF channels during an era when UHF was not yet a standard feature on television sets , DuMont fought an uphill battle for program clearances outside of their three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations in New York , Washington and Pittsburgh , finally ending network operations in 1956 .
DuMont 's latter @-@ day obscurity , caused mainly by the destruction of its extensive program archive by the 1970s , has prompted TV historian David Weinstein to refer to it as the " Forgotten Network " or " Network Is Long Gone " . A few popular DuMont programs , such as Cavalcade of Stars and Emmy Award winner Life Is Worth Living , appear in television retrospectives or are mentioned briefly in books about U.S. television history .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
DuMont Laboratories was founded in 1931 by Dr. Allen B. DuMont with only $ 1 @,@ 000 , and a laboratory in his basement . He and his staff were responsible for many early technical innovations , including the first consumer all @-@ electronic television set in 1938 . The company 's television sets soon became the gold standard of the industry . In 1942 , DuMont worked with the Army in developing radar technology during World War II . This ended up bringing in $ 5 million in capital for the company .
Early sales of television sets were hampered by the lack of regularly scheduled programming being broadcast . A few months after selling his first set in 1938 , DuMont opened his own New York area experimental television station ( W2XVT ) in Passaic , New Jersey . In 1940 , the station moved to Manhattan as W2XWV on channel 4 . Unlike CBS and NBC , which reduced their hours of television broadcasting during World War II , DuMont continued full @-@ scale experimental and commercial broadcasts throughout the war . In 1944 , W2XWV became WABD ( callsign derived from DuMont 's initials ) moving to channel 5 in 1945 , the third commercial television station in New York . On May 19 , 1945 , DuMont opened experimental W3XWT in Washington , DC . A minority shareholder in DuMont Laboratories was Paramount Pictures , which had advanced $ 400 @,@ 000 in 1939 for a 40 % share in the company . Paramount had television interests of its own , having launched experimental stations in Los Angeles in 1939 and Chicago in 1940 , and DuMont 's association with Paramount ultimately proved to be a mistake .
Soon after his experimental Washington station signed on , DuMont began experimental coaxial cable hookups between his laboratories in Passaic , New Jersey , and his two stations . It is said that one of those broadcasts on the hookup announced that the U.S. had dropped an atomic bomb on Nagasaki , Japan , on August 9 , 1945 . This was later considered to be the official beginning of the DuMont Network by both Thomas T. Goldsmith , the network 's chief engineer and DuMont 's best friend , and DuMont himself . Regular network service began on August 15 , 1946 , on WABD and W3XWT . In 1947 , W3XWT became WTTG , named after Goldsmith . The pair were joined in 1949 by WDTV ( channel 3 ) in Pittsburgh .
Although NBC in New York was known to have station @-@ to @-@ station television links as early as 1940 with WPTZ ( now KYW ) in Philadelphia and WRGB Schenectady , NY , DuMont received its station licenses before NBC resumed its previously sporadic network broadcasts after the war . ABC had just come into existence as a radio network in 1943 and did not enter network television until 1948 , when it signed on a flagship station in New York City , WJZ @-@ TV ( now WABC @-@ TV ) . CBS also waited until 1948 to begin network operations because it was waiting for the Federal Communications Commission to approve its color television system ( which it eventually did not ) . Other companies – including Mutual , the Yankee Network , and Paramount itself – were interested in starting television networks , but were prevented from successfully doing so by restrictive FCC regulations ; however , at least the Paramount Television Network actually did have some limited success in network operations in the late 1940s and early 1950s .
= = = Programming = = =
Despite no history of radio programming or stable of radio stars to draw on and perennial cash shortages , DuMont was an innovative and creative network . Without the radio revenues that supported mighty NBC and CBS , DuMont programmers relied on their wits and on connections with Broadway . Eventually , the network provided original programs that are remembered more than 60 years later .
The network largely ignored the standard business model of 1950s TV , in which one advertiser sponsored an entire show , enabling it to have complete control over its content . Instead , DuMont sold commercials to many different advertisers , freeing producers of its shows from the veto power held by sole sponsors . This eventually became the standard model for US television . Some commercial time was sold regionally on a co @-@ op basis , while other spots were sold network @-@ wide .
DuMont also holds another important place in American TV history . WDTV 's sign @-@ on made it possible for stations in the Midwest to receive live network programming from stations on the East Coast , and vice versa . Before then , the networks relied on separate regional networks in the two time zones for live programming , and the West Coast received network programming from kinescopes ( films shot directly from live television screens ) originating from the East Coast . On January 11 , 1949 , the coaxial cable linking East and Midwest ( known in television circles as " the Golden Spike , " in reference to the Golden spike that united the First Transcontinental Railroad ) was activated . The ceremony , hosted by DuMont and WDTV , was carried on all four networks . WGN @-@ TV ( channel 9 ) in Chicago and WABD in New York were able to share programs through a live coaxial cable feed when WDTV signed on in Pittsburgh , because the station completed the East Coast @-@ to @-@ Midwest chain , allowing stations in both regions to air the same program simultaneously , which is still the standard for US TV . It was another two years before the West Coast got live programming from the East ( and the East able to get live programming from the West ) , but this was the beginning of the modern era of network television .
The first broadcasts came from DuMont 's 515 Madison Avenue headquarters , and it soon found additional space , including a fully functioning theater , in the New York branch of Wanamaker 's department store at Ninth Street and Broadway . Later , a lease on the Adelphi Theatre on 54th Street and the Ambassador Theatre on West 49th Street gave the network a site for variety shows , and in 1954 , the lavish DuMont Tele @-@ Centre opened in the former Jacob Ruppert 's Central Opera House at 205 East 67th Street .
DuMont was the first network to broadcast a film production for TV : Talk Fast , Mister , produced by RKO in 1944 . DuMont also aired the first TV situation comedy , Mary Kay and Johnny , as well as the first network @-@ televised soap opera , Faraway Hill . Cavalcade of Stars , a variety show hosted by Jackie Gleason , was the birthplace of The Honeymooners ( Gleason took his variety show to CBS in 1952 , but filmed the " Classic 39 " Honeymooners episodes at DuMont 's Adelphi Theater studio in 1955 @-@ 56 ) . Bishop Fulton J. Sheen 's devotional program Life Is Worth Living went up against Milton Berle in many cities , and was the first show to compete successfully in the ratings against " Mr. Television " . In 1952 , Sheen won an Emmy Award for " Most Outstanding Personality " . The network 's other notable programs include :
Ted Mack 's The Original Amateur Hour , which began on radio in the 1930s under original host Edward Bowes
The Morey Amsterdam Show , a comedy / variety show hosted by Morey Amsterdam , which started on CBS before moving to DuMont in 1949
Captain Video and His Video Rangers , a hugely popular kids ' science fiction series
The Arthur Murray Party , a dance program
Down You Go , a popular panel show
Rocky King , Inside Detective , a private eye series starring Roscoe Karns
The Plainclothesman , a camera 's @-@ eye @-@ view detective series
Live coverage of boxing and professional wrestling , the latter featuring matches staged by the Capitol Wrestling Corporation , the predecessor to WWE
The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a Peabody Award @-@ winning education program
Cash and Carry , the first network @-@ televised game show
The Ernie Kovacs Show , the first truly innovative show in what was then visual radio , not television .
The network was a pioneer in TV programming aimed at minority audiences and featuring minority performers , at a time when the other American networks aired few television series for non @-@ whites . Among DuMont 's minority programs were The Gallery of Madame Liu @-@ Tsong , starring Asian American film actress Anna May Wong , the first US TV show to star an Asian American , and The Hazel Scott Show , starring pianist and singer Hazel Scott , the first US network TV series to be hosted by a black woman .
Although DuMont 's programming pre @-@ dated videotape , many DuMont offerings were recorded on kinescopes . These kinescopes were said to be stored in a warehouse until the 1970s . Actress Edie Adams , the wife of comedian Ernie Kovacs ( both regular performers on early television ) testified in 1996 before a panel of the Library of Congress on the preservation of television and video . Adams claimed that so little value was given to these films that the stored kinescopes were loaded into three trucks and dumped into Upper New York Bay . Nevertheless , a number of DuMont programs survive at The Paley Center for Media in New York City , the UCLA Film and Television Archive in Los Angeles , in the Peabody Awards Collection at the University of Georgia , and the Museum of Broadcast Communications in Chicago .
Although nearly the entire DuMont film archive was destroyed , several surviving DuMont shows have been released on DVD . A large number of episodes of Life Is Worth Living have been saved , and they are now aired weekly on Catholic @-@ oriented cable network , the Eternal Word Television Network , which also makes a collection of them available on DVD ( in the biographical information about Fulton J. Sheen added to the end of many episodes , a still image of Bishop Sheen looking into a DuMont Television camera can be seen ) . Several companies that distribute DVDs over the Internet have released a small number of episodes of Cavalcade of Stars and The Morey Amsterdam Show . Two more DuMont programs , Captain Video and His Video Rangers and Rocky King , Inside Detective , have had a small amount of surviving episodes released commercially by at least one major distributor of public domain programming .
= = = = Awards = = = =
DuMont programs were by necessity low @-@ budget affairs , and the network received relatively few awards from the TV industry . Most awards during the 1950s went to NBC and CBS , who were able to out @-@ spend other companies and draw on their extensive history of radio broadcasting in the relatively new television medium . DuMont , however , did win a number of awards during its years of operation .
During the 1952 – 53 TV season , Bishop Fulton J. Sheen , host of Life Is Worth Living , won an Emmy Award for Most Outstanding Personality . Sheen beat out CBS 's Arthur Godfrey , Edward R. Murrow and Lucille Ball , who were also nominated for the same award . Sheen was also nominated for – but did not win – consecutive Public Service Emmys in 1952 , 1953 , and 1954 .
DuMont received an Emmy nomination for Down You Go , a popular game show during the 1952 – 53 television season ( in the category Best Audience Participation , Quiz , or Panel Program ) . The network was nominated twice for its coverage of professional football during the 1953 – 54 and 1954 – 55 television seasons .
The Johns Hopkins Science Review , a DuMont public affairs program , was awarded a Peabody Award in 1952 in the Education category . Sheen 's Emmy and the Science Review Peabody were the only national awards the DuMont Network received . Though DuMont series and performers continued to win local TV awards , by the mid @-@ 1950s the DuMont network no longer had a national presence .
= = = = Ratings = = = =
The earliest measurements of TV audiences were performed by the C. E. Hooper company of New York . DuMont performed well in the Hooper ratings ; in fact , DuMont 's talent program , The Original Amateur Hour , was the most popular series of the 1947 – 48 season . Variety ranked DuMont 's popular variety series Cavalcade of Stars as the tenth most popular series two seasons later .
In February 1950 , Hooper 's competitor A. C. Nielsen bought out the Hooperatings system . DuMont did not fare well with the change : none of its shows appeared on Nielsen 's annual top 20 lists of the most popular series . One of the DuMont Network 's biggest hits of the 1950s , Life is Worth Living , received Nielsen ratings of up to 11 @.@ 1 , attracting more than 10 million viewers . Sheen 's one @-@ man program – in which he discussed philosophy , psychology and other fields of thought from a Christian perspective – was the most widely viewed religious series in the history of television . 169 local television stations aired Life , and for three years the program competed successfully against NBC 's popular The Milton Berle Show . The ABC and CBS programs which aired in the same timeslot were cancelled .
Life is Worth Living was not the only DuMont program to achieve double @-@ digit ratings . In 1952 , Time magazine reported that popular DuMont game show Down You Go had attracted an audience estimated at 16 million viewers . Similarly , DuMont 's summer 1954 replacement series , The Goldbergs , achieved audiences estimated at 10 million . Still , these series were only moderately popular compared to NBC 's and CBS 's highest @-@ rated programs .
Nielsen was not the only company to report TV ratings , however . Companies such as Trendex , Videodex and Arbitron had also measured TV viewership . The adjacent chart comes from Videodex 's August 1950 ratings breakdown , as reported in Billboard magazine .
= = = Disputes with AT & T and Paramount = = =
DuMont struggled to get its programs aired in many parts of the country , in part due to technical limitations of network lines maintained by the telephone company AT & T Corporation . During the 1940s and 1950s , television signals were sent between stations via coaxial cable and microwave links which were owned by AT & T. The service provider did not have enough cable lines and microwave circuits to provide signal relay service from all four networks to all of their affiliates at the same time , so AT & T allocated times when each network could offer live programs to their affiliates . In 1950 , AT & T allotted NBC and CBS each over 100 hours of live prime time network service , but gave ABC only 53 hours , and DuMont just 37 . AT & T also required each television network to lease both radio and television lines . DuMont was the only television network without a radio network , but was forced to pay for a service it did not use . DuMont protested AT & T 's actions with the Federal Communications Commission , and eventually received a compromise .
DuMont 's biggest corporate hurdle , however , may have been with the company 's own partner , Paramount . Relations between the two companies were strained as early as 1939 , when Paramount opened experimental television stations in Los Angeles and Chicago without DuMont . Dr. DuMont claimed that the original 1937 acquisition proposal required Paramount to expand its television interests " through DuMont " . Paramount representative Paul Raibourn , who also was a member of DuMont 's board of directors , denied that any such restriction had ever been discussed ( Dr. DuMont was vindicated on this point by a 1953 examination of the original draft document ) .
DuMont aspired to grow beyond its three stations , applying for new television station licenses in Cincinnati and Cleveland in 1947 . This would give the network five owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( O & Os ) , the maximum allowed by the FCC at the time . However , DuMont was hampered by Paramount 's two stations , KTLA ( channel 5 ) in Los Angeles and WBKB ( channel 4 , now WBBM @-@ TV on channel 2 ) in Chicago – the descendants of the two experimental stations that rankled DuMont in 1940 . Although these stations never carried DuMont programming ( with the exception of KTLA for one year from 1947 to 1948 ) , and in fact competed against DuMont 's affiliates in those cities , the FCC ruled that Paramount essentially controlled DuMont , which effectively placed the network at the five @-@ station cap . Paramount 's exertion of influence over the network 's management and the power of its voting stock brought the FCC to its conclusion . Thus , DuMont was unable to open additional stations as long as Paramount owned stations or owned a portion of DuMont . Paramount refused to sell .
In 1949 , Paramount Pictures launched the Paramount Television Network , a service which provided local television stations with filmed television programs ; Paramount 's network " undercut the company that it had invested in . " Paramount did not share its stars , big budgets or filmed programs with DuMont ; the company had stopped financially supporting DuMont in 1941 . Although Paramount executives indicated they would produce programs for DuMont , the studio never supplied the network with programs or technical assistance . The acrimonious relationship between Paramount and DuMont came to a head during the 1953 FCC hearings regarding the ABC – United Paramount Theaters merger when Paul Raibourn , an executive at Paramount , publicly derided the quality of DuMont television sets in court testimony .
= = = Trouble from the start = = =
DuMont began with one basic disadvantage : unlike NBC , CBS and ABC , it did not have a radio network from which to draw big @-@ name talent , affiliate loyalty or radio profits to underwrite television operations until the television medium itself became profitable . Most early television licenses were granted to established radio broadcasters , and many longtime relationships with radio networks carried over to the new medium . As CBS and NBC ( and to a lesser extent , ABC ) gained their footing , they began to offer programming that drew on their radio backgrounds , bringing over the most popular radio stars . Early television station owners , when deciding which network would receive their main affiliation , were more likely to choose CBS 's roster of Lucille Ball , Jack Benny and Ed Sullivan , or NBC 's lineup of Milton Berle and Sid Caesar over DuMont , which offered a then @-@ unknown Jackie Gleason and Bishop Fulton J. Sheen . In smaller markets , with a limited number of stations , DuMont and ABC were often relegated to secondary status , so their programs got clearance only if the primary network was off the air or delayed via kinescope recording ( " teletranscriptions " in DuMont parlance ) .
Adding to DuMont 's troubles was the FCC 's 1948 " freeze " on television license applications . This was done to sort out the thousands of applications that had come streaming in , but also to rethink the allocation and technical standards laid down prior to World War II . It became clear soon after the war that 12 channels ( " channel 1 " had been removed from television broadcasting use because storms and other types of interference could severely affect the quality of signals on this channel ) were not nearly enough for national television service . What was to be a six @-@ month freeze lasted until 1952 , when the FCC opened the UHF spectrum . The FCC , however , did not require television manufacturers to include UHF capability . In order to see UHF stations , most people had to buy an expensive converter . Even then , the picture quality was marginal at best . Tied to this was a decision to restrict VHF allocations in medium- and smaller @-@ sized markets . Television sets were not required to have all @-@ channel tuning until 1964 .
Forced to rely on UHF to expand , DuMont saw one station after another go dark due to dismal ratings . It bought small , distressed UHF station KCTY ( channel 50 ) in Kansas City , Missouri in 1954 , but ran it for just three months before shutting it down at a considerable loss after attempting to compete with three established VHF stations .
The FCC 's Dr. Hyman Goldin said in 1960 , " If there had been four VHF outlets in the top markets , there 's no question DuMont would have lived and would have eventually turned the corner in terms of profitability . "
= = = The end = = =
During the early years of television , there was some measure of cooperation among the four major U.S. television networks . However , as television grew into a profitable business , an intense rivalry developed between the networks , just as it had in radio . NBC and CBS competed fiercely for viewers and advertising dollars , a contest neither underfunded DuMont nor ABC could hope to win . According to author Dennis Mazzocco , " NBC tried to make an arrangement with ABC and CBS to destroy the DuMont network . " The plan was for NBC and CBS to exclusively offer ABC their most popular series after they had aired on the bigger networks . ABC would become a network of re @-@ runs , but DuMont would be shut out . ABC president Leonard Goldenson rejected NBC executive David Sarnoff 's proposal , but " did not report it to the Justice Department " .
DuMont survived the early 1950s only because of WDTV in Pittsburgh , the lone commercial VHF station in what was then the sixth @-@ largest market . WDTV 's only competition came from UHF stations and distant stations from Johnstown , Pennsylvania ; Youngstown , Ohio ; and Wheeling , West Virginia . No other commercial VHF station signed on in Pittsburgh until 1957 , giving WDTV a de facto monopoly on television in the area . Since WDTV carried secondary affiliations with the other three networks , DuMont used this as a bargaining chip to get its programs cleared in other large markets .
Despite its severe financial straits , by 1953 , DuMont appeared to be on its way to establishing itself as the third national network . DuMont programs aired live on 16 stations , but it could count on only seven primary stations – its three owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations ( " O & Os " ) , plus WGN @-@ TV in Chicago , KTTV ( channel 11 ) in Los Angeles , KFEL @-@ TV ( channel 2 , now KWGN @-@ TV ) in Denver and WTVN @-@ TV ( channel 6 , now WSYX ) in Columbus , Ohio . In contrast , ABC had a full complement of five O & Os , augmented by nine primary affiliates . ABC also had a radio network ( it was descended from NBC 's Blue Network ) from which to draw talent , affiliate loyalty and a profit stream to subsidize television operations . However , ABC had only 14 primary stations , while CBS and NBC had over 40 each . By 1951 , ABC was badly overextended and on the verge of bankruptcy . That year , the company announced a merger with United Paramount Theaters ( the former theater division of Paramount Pictures , which was spun off as a result of the United States v. Paramount Pictures , Inc. antitrust decision ) , but it was not until 1953 that the FCC approved the merger .
By this time , DuMont had begun to differentiate itself from NBC and CBS . It allowed its advertisers to choose the locations where their advertising ran , potentially saving them millions of dollars . By contrast , ABC operated like CBS and NBC even though it was only a fourth as large , forcing advertisers to purchase a large " must @-@ buy " list of stations .
ABC 's fortunes were dramatically altered in February 1953 , when the FCC cleared the way for UPT to buy the network . The merger provided ABC with a badly needed cash infusion , giving it the resources to mount " top shelf " programming and to provide a national television service on a scale approaching that of CBS and NBC . Through UPT president Leonard Goldenson , ABC also gained ties with the Hollywood studios that more than matched those DuMont 's producers had with Broadway .
Realizing that the ABC @-@ UPT deal put DuMont near extinction , network officials were receptive to a merger offer from ABC . Goldenson quickly brokered a deal with Ted Bergmann , DuMont 's managing director , under which the merged network would have been called " ABC @-@ DuMont " until at least 1958 and would have honored all of DuMont 's network commitments . In return , DuMont would get $ 5 million in cash , guaranteed advertising time for DuMont sets and a secure future for its staff . A merged ABC @-@ DuMont would have been a colossus rivaling CBS and NBC , as it would have owned stations in five of the six largest U.S. television markets ( excluding only Philadelphia ) as well as ABC 's radio network . It also would have inherited DuMont 's de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , and would have been one of two networks to have full ownership of a station in the nation 's capital ( the other being NBC ) . However , it would have had to sell a New York station – either DuMont 's WABD or ABC flagship WJZ @-@ TV ( channel 7 , now WABC @-@ TV ) , probably the former . It also would have had to sell two other stations – most likely ABC 's two smallest O & Os , WXYZ @-@ TV in Detroit and KGO @-@ TV in San Francisco ( both broadcasting on channel 7 ) – to get under the FCC 's limit of five stations per owner .
However , Paramount vetoed the plan almost out of hand due to antitrust concerns . A few months earlier , the FCC had ruled that Paramount controlled DuMont , and there were still some questions about whether UPT had really separated from Paramount .
With no other way to readily obtain cash , DuMont sold WDTV to Westinghouse Electric Corporation for $ 9 @.@ 75 million in late 1954 . While this gave DuMont a short @-@ term cash infusion , it eliminated the leverage the network had to get program clearances in other markets . Without its de facto monopoly in Pittsburgh , the company 's advertising revenue shrank to less than half that of 1953 . By February 1955 , DuMont executives realized the company could not continue as a television network . The decision was made to shut down network operations and operate WABD and WTTG as independent stations . On April 1 , 1955 , most of DuMont 's entertainment programs were dropped . Bishop Sheen aired his last program on DuMont on April 26 and later moved to ABC . By May , just eight programs were left on the network , with only inexpensive shows and sporting events keeping what was left of the network going through the summer . The network also largely abandoned the use of the intercity network coaxial cable , on which it had spent $ 3 million in 1954 to transmit shows that mostly lacked station clearance . The company only retained network links for live sports programming and utilizing the company 's Electronicam process to produce studio @-@ based programming . Ironically , Electronicam is best remembered for being used by Jackie Gleason 's producers for the 39 @-@ half @-@ hour episodes of The Honeymooners that aired on CBS during the 1955 @-@ 56 television season .
In August , Paramount , with the help of other stockholders , seized full control of DuMont Laboratories . The last non @-@ sports program on DuMont , the game show What 's the Story , aired on September 23 , 1955 . After that , DuMont 's network feed was used only for occasional sporting events . DuMont 's last broadcast , a boxing match , aired on August 6 , 1956 . The date has also been reported as April 1950 , September 1955 , or August 4 , 1958 . According to one source , the final program aired on only five stations nationwide . It appears that the boxing show was syndicated to a few other east coast stations until 1958 , but likely not as a production of DuMont or its successor company .
DuMont spun off WABD and WTTG as the " DuMont Broadcasting Corporation " . The name was later changed to " Metropolitan Broadcasting Company " to distance the company from what was seen as a complete failure . In 1958 , John Kluge bought Paramount 's shares for $ 4 million , and renamed the company Metromedia in 1960 . WABD became WNEW @-@ TV and later WNYW ; WTTG still broadcasts under its original call letters as a Fox affiliate .
For 50 years , DuMont was the only major broadcast television network to cease operations , until CBS Corporation and Time Warner shut down two other struggling networks , UPN and The WB , in September 2006 to create The CW Television Network – whose schedule was originally composed largely of programs from both of its predecessor networks .
= = Fate of the DuMont stations = =
All three DuMont @-@ owned stations are still operating and coincidentally , all three are owned @-@ and @-@ operated stations of their respective networks , just as when they were part of DuMont . Of the three , only Washington 's WTTG still has its original call letters .
WTTG and New York 's WABD ( later WNEW @-@ TV , and now WNYW ) survived as Metromedia @-@ owned independents until 1986 , when Metromedia was purchased by the News Corporation to form the nucleus of the new Fox Broadcasting Company . Clarke Ingram , who maintained a DuMont memorial site , has suggested that Fox can be considered a revival , or at least a linear descendant , of DuMont .
Westinghouse changed WDTV 's call letters to KDKA @-@ TV after the pioneering radio station of the same name , and switched its primary affiliation to CBS immediately after the sale . Westinghouse 's acquisition of CBS in 1995 made KDKA @-@ TV a CBS owned @-@ and @-@ operated station .
= = DuMont programming library = =
DuMont produced more than 20 @,@ 000 television episodes during the decade from 1946 to 1956 . Because the shows were created prior to the launch of Ampex 's electronic videotape recorder in late 1956 , all of them were initially broadcast live in black and white , then recorded on film kinescope for reruns and for West Coast rebroadcasts . By the early 1970s , their vast library of 35mm and 16mm kinescopes eventually wound up in the hands of " a successor network , " who reportedly disposed of all of them in New York City 's East River to make room for more recent @-@ vintage videotapes in a warehouse . Other kinescopes were put through a silver reclaiming process , because of the microscopic amounts of silver that made up the emulsion of black @-@ and @-@ white film during this time . It is estimated that only about 350 complete DuMont television shows survive today , the most famous being virtually all of Jackie Gleason 's Honeymooners comedy sketches . Most of the existing episodes are believed to have come from the personal archives of DuMont 's hosts , such as Gleason and Dennis James .
= = Affiliates = =
At its peak in 1954 , DuMont was affiliated with around 200 television stations . In those days , television stations were free to " cherry @-@ pick " which programs they would air , and many stations affiliated with multiple networks , depending mainly on the number of commercial television stations available in a market at a given time ( markets where only one commercial station was available carried programming from all four major networks ) . Many of DuMont 's " affiliates " carried very little DuMont programming , choosing to air one or two more popular programs ( such as Life Is Worth Living ) and / or sports programming on the weekends . Few stations carried the full DuMont program lineup .
In its later years , DuMont was carried mostly on poorly watched UHF channels or had only secondary affiliations on VHF stations . DuMont ended most operations on April 1 , 1955 , but honored network commitments until August 1956 .
= = = Kinescopes = = =
Kinescopes of DuMont Network programs , from the Internet Archive : The Adventures of Ellery Queen , Captain Video and His Video Rangers , Cavalcade of Stars , Life Is Worth Living , Miss U.S. Television 1950 Contest , The Morey Amsterdam Show , The Old American Barn Dance , Okay Mother , On Your Way , Public Prosecutor , Rocky King — Detective , School House , They Stand Accused and A DuMont Network identification
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= Bodyline =
Bodyline , also known as fast leg theory bowling , was a cricketing tactic devised by the English cricket team for their 1932 – 33 Ashes tour of Australia , specifically to combat the extraordinary batting skill of Australia 's Don Bradman . A bodyline delivery was one where the cricket ball was bowled towards the body of the batsman on the line of the leg stump , in the hope of creating leg @-@ side deflections that could be caught by one of several fielders in the quadrant of the field behind square leg . This was considered by many to be intimidatory and physically threatening , to the point of being unfair in a game once supposed to have gentlemanly traditions , although commercialisation of the game had subsequently tended to elevate the principle of " win at all costs " above traditional ideals of sportsmanship .
Although no serious injuries arose from any short @-@ pitched deliveries while a leg theory field was set , the tactic still led to considerable ill feeling between the two teams , with the controversy eventually spilling into the diplomatic arena . Over the next two decades , several of the Laws of Cricket were changed to prevent this tactic being repeated . Law 41 @.@ 5 states " At the instant of the bowler 's delivery there shall not be more than two fielders , other than the wicket @-@ keeper , behind the popping crease on the on side , " commonly referred to as being " behind square leg " . Additionally , Law 42 @.@ 6 ( a ) includes : " The bowling of fast short pitched balls is dangerous and unfair if the umpire at the bowler 's end considers that by their repetition and taking into account their length , height and direction they are likely to inflict physical injury on the striker " .
The occasional short @-@ pitched ball aimed at the batsman ( a bouncer ) has never been illegal and is still in widespread use as a tactic .
= = Genesis = =
The Australian cricket team toured England in 1930 . Australia won the five @-@ Test series 2 – 1 , with Don Bradman scoring 974 runs at a batting average of 139 @.@ 14 , an aggregate record that still stands . By the time of the next Ashes series of 1932 – 33 , Bradman 's average hovered around 100 , approximately twice that of all other world @-@ class batsmen . England feared that without resorting to drastic tactics , they might not be able to defeat Australia until Bradman — then aged 24 — retired , something that might be over a decade away . It was believed that something new was required to combat Bradman , but it was believed more likely that Bradman could be dismissed by leg @-@ spin as Walter Robins and Ian Peebles had supposedly caused him problems ; two leg @-@ spinners were included in the English touring party of 1932 – 33 . This view gradually came to change leading up to 1932 .
The idea of bodyline had originated in the Oval Test of the 1930 Ashes series . While Bradman was batting , the wicket became briefly difficult following rain . Bradman was seen to be uncomfortable facing deliveries which bounced higher than usual at a faster pace , being seen to step back out of the line of the ball . Former England player and Surrey captain Percy Fender was one who noticed , and the incident was much discussed by cricketers . However , given that Bradman scored 232 , it was not thought that a way to curb his prodigious scoring had been found . When Douglas Jardine later saw film footage of the Oval incident and noticed Bradman 's discomfort , he shouted , " I 've got it ! He 's yellow ! " Further details adding to the plan came from letters Fender received from Australia in 1932 , which described how Australian batsmen were increasingly moving across the stumps towards the off side to play the ball on the on side . Fender showed these letters to Jardine when it became clear that he was to captain MCC in Australia during the 1932 – 33 tour , and he also discussed Bradman 's discomfort at the Oval . It was also known in England that Bradman was dismissed for a four @-@ ball duck by fast bowler Eddie Gilbert , and looked very uncomfortable . Bradman had also appeared uncomfortable against the pace of Sandy Bell in his innings of 299 not out at the Adelaide Oval in South Africa 's tour of Australia earlier in 1932 , when the desperate bowler decided to bowl short to him , and fellow South African Herbie Taylor , according to Jack Fingleton , may have mentioned this to English cricketers in 1932 . Fender felt Bradman might be vulnerable to fast , short @-@ pitched deliveries on the line of leg stump . Jardine felt that Bradman was afraid to stand his ground against intimidatory bowling , citing instances in 1930 when he shuffled about , contrary to orthodox batting technique .
When Jardine was appointed England 's captain for the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia , a meeting was arranged with Nottinghamshire captain Arthur Carr and his two fast bowlers Harold Larwood and Bill Voce at London 's Piccadilly Hotel to discuss a plan to combat Bradman 's extraordinary skills . Jardine asked Larwood and Voce if they could bowl on leg stump and make the ball come up into the body of the batsman . The bowlers agreed they could , and that it might prove effective . Jardine also visited Frank Foster who had toured Australia in 1911 – 12 to discuss field @-@ placing in Australia . Foster had bowled leg @-@ theory on that tour with his fielders placed close in on the leg side , as had George Hirst in 1903 – 04 .
A cordon of close @-@ in fielders would be arrayed behind the wicket and on the leg side to exploit batting errors elicited by this bowling line . In these circumstances , a batsman can either duck and risk being hit , or play the ball . Defensive shots rarely score runs and risk being caught in the cordon , while the pull and hook shots can result in a catch on the boundary , for which two men were usually set in " leg @-@ theory " bowling . Leg theory had been practised previously without resort to short @-@ pitched bowling , usually by slow or medium @-@ pace bowlers . This type of leg theory was aimed outside the line of leg stump ; the object being to test the batsman 's patience and force a rash stroke . It was occasionally an effective tactic , but was unattractive for spectators and never became widely used except by a handful of specialists such as Fred Root , the Worcestershire bowler and Warwick Armstrong , the former Australian captain .
However , there had been instances of what would later be recognised as bodyline prior to 1932 . In 1925 , Australian Jack Scott first bowled a form of bodyline in a state match for New South Wales , but his captain Herbie Collins disliked it and would not let him use it again when he was captain . Other Australian captains were less particular , including Vic Richardson who let him use those tactics when he moved to South Australia . He repeated them against the MCC in 1928 – 29 . In 1927 , in a Test trial match , " Nobby " Clark bowled short to a leg @-@ trap field . He was representing England in a side captained by Jardine . In 1928 – 29 , Harry Alexander bowled an early form of bodyline at the MCC tourists . Larwood used a form of bodyline on that same tour , bowling fast leg theory to a leg @-@ side field in two Test matches , although not with the same intensity and duration as came later . Bob Wyatt later claimed that Learie Constantine unsuccessfully used bodyline in 1929 – 30 in the West Indies .
Larwood and Voce practised the plan over the remainder of the 1932 season with varying but increasing success and several injuries to batsmen . Ken Farnes experimented with short @-@ pitched , leg @-@ theory bowling but was not selected for the tour . Bill Bowes also used short @-@ pitched bowling , notably against Jack Hobbs .
= = Antipathy between Australians and Jardine = =
Jardine 's first experience against Australia came when his Oxford University team played against the 1921 Australian touring side . In the second innings , Jardine was 96 not out when the game ended , having batted his team to safety . The tourists were criticised in the press for not allowing Jardine to reach his hundred , but they had tried to help him with some easy bowling . There has been speculation that this incident helped develop Jardine 's antipathy towards Australians , although Christopher Douglas denies this . Cricket historian David Frith believed it is possible that the abrasive Australian captain Warwick Armstrong could have addressed sarcastic comments to Jardine but Wisden believed his slow approach cost him his century .
Regardless of what happened in 1921 , Jardine 's conflicts with Australia solidified after he was selected to tour the country in 1928 – 29 . He began the tour with three consecutive hundreds . During the first century , the crowd engaged in some good @-@ natured joking at Jardine 's expense , but he was jeered by the crowd during his second hundred for batting too slowly . Jardine accelerated after another slow start , during which he was again barracked to score his third century . The crowds took an increasing dislike to him , mainly for his superior attitude and bearing , his awkward fielding , and particularly his choice of headwear . His first public action in South Australia was to take out the members of the South Australian team who had been to Oxford or Cambridge universities . Then , he wore a Harlequin cap , given to successful cricketers at Oxford . It was not unusual for Oxford and Cambridge cricketers to wear similar caps while batting , as both Jardine and MCC captain Percy Chapman did so on this tour , although it was slightly unorthodox to wear them while fielding . However , this was neither understood nor acceptable to the Australian crowds . They quickly took exception to the importance he seemed to place on class distinction . Although Jardine may simply have worn the cap out of superstition , it conveyed a negative impression to the spectators ; his general demeanour drew one comment of " Where 's the butler to carry the bat for you ? " Jardine 's cap became a focus for criticism and mockery from the crowds throughout the tour . Nevertheless , Jack Fingleton later claimed that Jardine could have won over the crowd by exchanging jokes or pleasantries with them . It is certain that Jardine by this stage had developed an intense dislike for Australian crowds . During his third century at the start of the tour , during a period of abuse from the spectators , he observed to a sympathetic Hunter Hendry that " All Australians are uneducated , and an unruly mob " . After the innings , when teammate Patsy Hendren remarked that the Australian crowds did not like Jardine , he replied " It 's fucking mutual " . During the tour , Jardine fielded next to the crowd on the boundary . There , he was roundly abused and mocked for his awkward fielding , particularly when chasing the ball . On one occasion , he spat towards the crowd while fielding on the boundary as he changed position for the final time .
During the journey to Australia , some players reported that Jardine told them to hate the Australians in order to defeat them , while instructing them to refer to Bradman as " the little bastard . " At this stage , he seemed to have settled on leg theory , if not full bodyline , as his main tactic .
Once the team arrived in Australia , Jardine quickly alienated the press by refusing to give team details before a match and being uncooperative during interviews . The press printed some negative stories as a result and the crowds barracked as they had done on his previous tour , which angered him .
= = In Australia = =
Although English bowlers did aim at the batsmen 's body in the opening tour matches , they did not follow through by packing the leg @-@ side field until Bill Woodfull led an Australian XI against the tourists in Melbourne on 18 – 22 November , in what was effectively a Test rehearsal . Jardine was rested from that match and his deputy , Bob Wyatt , deployed the full bodyline tactics for the first time on the tour . The match was drawn and Woodfull struggled , making 18 and a duck . Utilising his hopping technique and attempting to play unorthodox shots resembling overhead tennis smashes , Bradman failed to make an impact , and England were buoyed ahead of the Tests . Seeing the bruising balls hit the Australian batsmen on several occasions in this game and the next angered the spectators .
The English players and management were consistent in referring to their tactic as fast leg theory considering it to be a variant of the established and unobjectionable leg theory tactic . The inflammatory term " bodyline " was coined and perpetuated by the Australian press ( see below ) . English writers used the term fast leg theory . The terminology reflected differences in understanding , as neither the English public nor the Board of the Marylebone Cricket Club ( MCC ) — the governing body of English cricket — could understand why the Australians were complaining about what they perceived as a commonly used tactic . Some concluded that the Australian cricket authorities and public were sore losers . Of the four fast bowlers in the tour party , Gubby Allen was a voice of dissent in the English camp , refusing to bowl short on the leg side , and writing several letters home to England critical of Jardine , although he did not express this in public in Australia . A number of other players , while maintaining a united front in public , also deplored bodyline in private . The amateurs Bob Wyatt ( the vice @-@ captain ) , Freddie Brown and the Nawab of Pataudi opposed it , as did Walter Hammond and Les Ames among the professionals .
During the season , Woodfull 's physical courage , stoic and dignified leadership won him many admirers . He flatly refused to employ retaliatory tactics and did not publicly complain even though he and his men were repeatedly hit .
Australia lost heavily by ten wickets in the first Test at Sydney , when the bowling spearhead of bodyline , Harold Larwood , took ten wickets . Bradman missed the first Test due to illness , although Jardine refused to believe this and thought the real reason was that the batsman had suffered a nervous breakdown due to his tactical scheme . The only Australian batsman to make an impact was Stan McCabe , who resolutely stood his ground and impulsively hooked and pulled everything aimed at his upper body , undeterred by the prospect of taking a potentially lethal blow to the head . He scored 187 not out in four hours , an innings described by leading historian David Frith as " among the most stirring innings Test cricket has ever produced " .
Before the second Test in Melbourne , Woodfull had to wait until minutes before the game before he was confirmed as captain by the selectors . This caused the toss to be delayed and fomented speculation that the Australian Board of Control was considering the possibility of removing Woodfull because of his absolute refusal to allow his bowlers to use retaliatory tactics . His deputy Victor Richardson had advocated retaliation along with several other players . Richardson recalled Woodfull 's private response :
There is no way I will be influenced to adopt such tactics which bring such discredit to the game . I know Tim could do it but I am not going to participate in actions that can only hurt the game .
The media advocated the selection of Eddie Gilbert , an indigenous bowler of extreme pace , in order to return the bodyline barrage . In one tour match , Gilbert had bloodied Jardine and left a bruise the size of a saucer . Another suggested means of retaliation was Laurie Nash , whose notoriously abrasive personality and aggression saw him regarded as a thug . However , Woodfull was totally unmoved by such suggestions .
On the opening day , Bradman wildly hooked at Bill Bowes ' first ball ( a non @-@ bodyline ball ) and was dismissed for a golden duck , leaving the entire stadium in shock . Jardine , who was known for being extremely dour even by the standards of the day , openly exulted and danced wildly upon Bradman 's demise . Australia 's eventual victory was met by widespread public jubilation , as many believed that Australia had found a means of overcoming the tactics . Bradman scored a match @-@ winning century in the second innings , but it turned out to be his only triple figure score for the series , while Larwood was hampered by a bloodied foot and a slow pitch .
The controversy reached its peak during the second day of the Third Test . On 14 January , an all @-@ time record Adelaide Oval crowd of 50 @,@ 962 watched Australia finish off England 's first innings . Shortly after the start of Australia 's innings , Larwood , bowling to a conventional field setting , struck Woodfull an agonising blow under his heart with a short , lifting delivery . Woodfull was struck when he was bent over his bat and wicket , and not when upright as often imagined . As Woodfull bent down over his bat in pain for several minutes , an image that became one of the defining symbols of the series , the huge crowd began jeering , hooting and verbally abusing the English team . Jardine reacted by saying " Well bowled , Harold . " Tension and feelings ran so high that a riot was narrowly averted as police stationed themselves between the players and enraged spectators .
Jardine then ordered his team to move to bodyline positions immediately after Woodfull 's injury . Jardine wrote that Larwood had asked for the field , while Larwood said that it was Jardine 's decision . The capacity Saturday afternoon crowd viewed this as hitting a man when he was down . Journalist – cricketer Dick Whitington wrote that Jardine 's actions were seen as " an unforgivable crime in Australian eyes and certainly no part of cricket " . Mass hooting and jeering occurred after almost every ball . Whitington noted that " [ Umpire George ] Hele believes that had what followed occurred in Melbourne the crowd would have leapt the fence and belaboured the English captain , Larwood , and possibly the entire side " . Some English players later expressed fears that a large @-@ scale riot could break out and that the police would not be able to stop the irate home crowd , who were worried that Woodfull or Bradman could be killed , from attacking them .
During the over , another rising Larwood delivery knocked the bat out of Woodfull 's hands . He battled it out for 89 minutes , collecting more bruises before Allen bowled him for 22 . Later in the day , the English team manager Pelham Warner visited the Australian dressing room to express his sympathies to Woodfull . Woodfull had remained calm in public , refusing to complain about Jardine 's tactics . Woodfull 's abrupt response was meant to be private , but it was leaked to the press - the Adelaide leak :
I don 't want to see you , Mr Warner . There are two teams out there , one is playing cricket . The other is making no attempt to do so .
Woodfull reportedly added " This game is too good to be spoilt . It 's time some people got out of it " , hinting that he might withdraw his team from competition in protest . Australia 's Leo O 'Brien later reported that Warner was close to tears following Woodfull 's rebuke .
The leaking to the press of Woodfull 's comments to Warner angered the Australian captain . He had intended the comments to be private , and ill feeling grew in the Australian camp as speculation about who leaked the incident to the press grew and many of the team privately pointed the finger at Bradman . ( Bradman strenuously denied to his dying day that he had been responsible ; others , including Plum Warner , pointed the finger at Bradman 's team @-@ mate and journalist , Jack Fingleton . However , in his autobiography , Fingleton claimed that Sydney Sun reporter Claude Corbett had received the information from Bradman . )
The next day , Larwood fractured wicket @-@ keeper Bert Oldfield 's skull . This occurred when Oldfield mis @-@ hit a hook , which flew from the top edge off a traditional non @-@ bodyline ball ; Oldfield later admitted it was his fault . As a result of the injuries , the costs of insurance cover for players doubled . At the end of the fourth day 's play the Australian Board of Control for Cricket sent the following cable to the MCC in London :
Bodyline bowling has assumed such proportions as to menace the best interests of the game , making protection of the body by the batsman the main consideration . This is causing intensely bitter feeling between the players , as well as injury . In our opinion it is unsportsmanlike . Unless stopped at once it is likely to upset the friendly relations existing between Australia and England .
Jardine however insisted his tactic was not designed to cause injury and that he was leading his team in a sportsmanlike and gentlemanly manner , arguing that it was up to the Australian batsmen to play their way out of trouble . He also secretly sent a telegram of sympathy to Oldfield 's wife and arranged for presents to be given to his young daughters .
The situation escalated into a diplomatic incident between the countries as the MCC — supported by the British public and still of the opinion that their fast leg theory tactic was harmless — took serious offence at being branded " unsportsmanlike " and demanded a retraction . Many people saw bodyline as fracturing an international relationship that needed to remain strong . Jardine , and by extension the entire English team , threatened to withdraw from the fourth and fifth Tests unless the Australian Board withdrew the accusation of unsporting behaviour . Public reaction in both England and Australia was outrage directed at the other nation . The Governor of South Australia , Alexander Hore @-@ Ruthven , who was in England at the time , expressed his concern to British Secretary of State for Dominion Affairs James Henry Thomas that this would cause a significant impact on trade between the nations . The standoff was settled only when the Australian prime minister , Joseph Lyons , met with members of the Australian Board and outlined to them the severe economic hardships that could be caused in Australia if the British public boycotted Australian trade . Given this understanding , the Board withdrew the allegation of unsportsmanlike behaviour two days before the fourth Test , thus saving the tour .
The English team continued to bowl bodyline in the remaining two Tests , but slower pitches meant the Australians , although frequently bruised , sustained no further serious injuries . England won the last three Tests to take the series 4 – 1 .
In the Test matches , Bradman countered bodyline by moving toward the leg side , away from the line of the ball , and cutting it into the vacant off side field . While this was dubious in terms of batting technique , it seemed the best way to cope with the barrage , and Bradman averaged 56 @.@ 57 in the series ( an excellent average for most , but well short of his career average of 99 @.@ 94 ) , while being struck above the waist by the ball only once . His team @-@ mates fared worse , with only Stan McCabe scoring a century .
= = In England = =
Bodyline continued to be bowled occasionally in the 1933 English season — most notably by Nottinghamshire , who had Carr , Voce and Larwood in their team . This gave the English crowds their first chance to see what all the fuss was about . Ken Farnes , the Cambridge University fast bowler , also bowled it in the University Match , hitting a few Oxford batsmen .
Jardine himself had to face bodyline bowling in a Test match . The West Indian cricket team toured England in 1933 , and , in the second Test at Old Trafford , Jackie Grant , their captain , decided to try bodyline . He had a couple of fast bowlers , Manny Martindale and Learie Constantine . Facing bodyline tactics for the first time , England first suffered , falling to 134 for 4 , with Wally Hammond being hit on the chin , though he recovered to continue his innings . Then Jardine himself faced Martindale and Constantine . Jardine never flinched . With Les Ames finding himself in difficulties , Jardine said , " You get yourself down this end , Les . I 'll take care of this bloody nonsense . " He played right back to the bouncers , standing on tiptoe , and played them with a dead bat , sometimes playing the ball one handed for more control . While the Old Trafford pitch was not as suited to bodyline as the hard Australian wickets , Martindale did take 5 for 73 , but Constantine only took 1 for 55 . Jardine himself made 127 , his only Test century . In the West Indian second innings , Clark bowled bodyline back to the West Indians , taking 2 for 64 . The match in the end was drawn but played a large part in turning English opinion against bodyline . The Times used the word bodyline , without using inverted commas or using the qualification so @-@ called , for the first time . Wisden also said that " most of those watching it for the first time must have come to the conclusion that , while strictly within the law , it was not nice . "
In 1934 , Bill Woodfull led Australia back to England on a tour that had been under a cloud after the tempestuous cricket diplomacy of the previous bodyline series . Jardine had retired from International cricket in early 1934 after captaining a fraught tour of India and under England 's new captain , Bob Wyatt , agreements were put in place so that bodyline would not be used . However , there were occasions when the Australians felt that their hosts had crossed the mark with tactics resembling bodyline .
In a match between the Australians and Nottinghamshire , Voce , one of the bodyline practitioners of 1932 – 33 , employed the strategy with the wicket @-@ keeper standing to the leg side and took 8 / 66 . In the second innings , Voce repeated the tactic late in the day , in fading light against Woodfull and Bill Brown . Of his 12 balls , 11 were no lower than head height . Woodfull told the Nottinghamshire administrators that , if Voce 's leg @-@ side bowling was repeated , his men would leave the field and return to London . He further said that Australia would not return to the country in the future . The following day , Voce was absent , ostensibly due to a leg injury . Already angered by the absence of Larwood , the Nottinghamshire faithful heckled the Australians all day . Australia had previously and privately complained that some pacemen had strayed past the agreement in the Tests .
= = Origin of the term = =
Although Jack Worrall claimed that he had invented the term " bodyline " , it is more likely that it was coined by Sydney journalist Hugh Buggy who worked for The Sun in 1932 , and who happened to be a colleague of Jack Fingleton . Buggy sent a telegram to his newspaper from the Test after a day 's play . As a substitute for " in the line of the body " he used the term " bodyline " to keep the cost down , and the new term quickly became established .
= = Changes to the laws of cricket = =
As a direct consequence of the 1932 – 33 tour , the MCC introduced a new rule to the laws of cricket for the 1935 English cricket season . Originally , the MCC hoped that captains would ensure that the game was played in the correct spirit , and passed a resolution that bodyline bowling would breach this spirit . When this proved to be insufficient , the MCC passed a law that " direct attack " bowling was unfair and became the responsibility of the umpires to identify and stop . In 1957 , the laws were altered to prevent more than two fielders standing behind square on the leg side ; the intention was to prevent negative bowling tactics whereby off spinners and slow inswing bowlers aimed at the leg stump of batsmen with fielders concentrated on the leg side . However , an indirect effect was to make bodyline fields impossible to implement .
Later law changes , under the heading of " Intimidatory Short Pitched Bowling " , also restricted the number of " bouncers " which may be bowled in an over . Nevertheless , the tactic of intimidating the batsman is still used to an extent that would have been shocking in 1933 , although it is less dangerous now because today 's players wear helmets and generally far more protective gear . The West Indies teams of the 1980s , which regularly fielded a bowling attack comprising some of the best fast bowlers in cricket history , were perhaps the most feared exponents .
= = Legacy = =
Following the 1932 – 33 series , several authors , including many of the players involved , released books expressing various points of view about bodyline . Many argued that it was a scourge on cricket and must be stamped out , while some did not see what all the fuss was about . The series has been described as the most controversial period in Australian cricket history , and voted the most important Australian moment by a panel of Australian cricket identities . The MCC asked Harold Larwood to sign an apology to them for his bowling in Australia , making his selection for England again conditional upon it . Larwood was furious at the notion , pointing out that he had been following orders from his upper @-@ class captain , and that was where any blame should lie . Larwood refused , never played for England again , and became vilified in his own country . Douglas Jardine always defended his tactics and in the book he wrote about the tour , In Quest of the Ashes , described allegations that the England bowlers directed their attack with the intention of causing physical harm as stupid and patently untruthful . The immediate effect of the law change which banned bodyline in 1935 was to make commentators and spectators sensitive to the use of short @-@ pitched bowling ; bouncers became exceedingly rare and bowlers who delivered them were practically ostracised . This attitude ended after the Second World War , and among the first teams to make extensive use of short @-@ pitched bowling was the Australian team captained by Bradman between 1946 and 1948 . Other teams soon followed .
Outside the sport , there were significant consequences for Anglo @-@ Australian relations , which remained strained until the outbreak of World War II made cooperation paramount . Business between the two countries was adversely affected as citizens of each country avoided goods manufactured in the other . Australian commerce also suffered in British colonies in Asia : the North China Daily News published a pro @-@ bodyline editorial , denouncing Australians as sore losers . An Australian journalist reported that several business deals in Hong Kong and Shanghai were lost by Australians because of local reactions . English immigrants in Australia found themselves shunned and persecuted by locals , and Australian visitors to England were treated similarly . In 1934 – 35 a statue of Prince Albert in Sydney was vandalised , with an ear being knocked off and the word " BODYLINE " painted on it . Both before and after World War II , numerous satirical cartoons and comedy skits were written , mostly in Australia , based on events of the bodyline tour . Generally , they poked fun at the English .
In 1984 , Australia 's Network Ten produced a television mini @-@ series titled Bodyline , dramatising the events of the 1932 – 33 English tour of Australia . It starred Gary Sweet as Don Bradman , Hugo Weaving as Douglas Jardine , Jim Holt as Harold Larwood , Rhys McConnochie as Pelham Warner , and Frank Thring as Jardine 's mentor Lord Harris . The series took some liberties with historical accuracy for the sake of drama , including a depiction of angry Australian fans burning a British flag at the Sydney Cricket Ground , an event which was never documented . Larwood , having emigrated to Australia in 1950 , received several threatening and obscene phone calls after the series aired . The series was widely and strongly attacked by the surviving players for its inaccuracy and sensationalism .
To this day , the bodyline tour remains one of the most significant events in the history of cricket , and strong in the consciousness of many cricket followers . In a poll of cricket journalists , commentators , and players in 2004 , the bodyline tour was ranked the most important event in cricket history .
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= Waterfall Gully , South Australia =
Waterfall Gully is an eastern suburb of the South Australian capital city of Adelaide . It is located in the foothills of the Mount Lofty Ranges around 5 km ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) east @-@ south @-@ east of the Adelaide city centre . For the most part , the suburb encompasses one long gully with First Creek at its centre and Waterfall Gully Road running adjacent to the creek . At the southern end of the gully is First Falls , the waterfall for which the suburb was named . Part of the City of Burnside , Waterfall Gully is bounded to the north by the suburb of Burnside , from the north @-@ east to south @-@ east by Cleland Conservation Park ( part of the suburb of Cleland ) , to the south by Crafers West , and to the west by Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond .
Historically , Waterfall Gully was first explored by European settlers in the early @-@ to @-@ mid @-@ 19th century , and quickly became a popular location for tourists and picnickers . The government chose to retain control over portions of Waterfall Gully until 1884 , when they agreed to place the land under the auspices of the City of Burnside . 28 years later the government took back the management of the southern part of Waterfall Gully , designating it as South Australia 's first National Pleasure Resort . Today this area remains under State Government control , and in 1972 the Waterfall Gully Reserve , as it was then known , became part of the larger Cleland Conservation Park .
Over the years Waterfall Gully has been extensively logged , and early agricultural interests saw the cultivation of a variety of introduced species as crops , along with the development of local market gardens and nurseries . Attempts to mine the area were largely unsuccessful , but the region housed one of the state 's earliest water @-@ powered mills , and a weir erected in the early 1880s provided for part of the City of Burnside 's water supply . Today the suburb consists primarily of private residences and parks .
= = History = =
The Mount Lofty Ranges , which encompass Waterfall Gully , was first sighted by Matthew Flinders in 1802 . The gully itself was discovered soon after the establishment of Adelaide , and Colonel William Light , the first Surveyor General of South Australia , was said to have " decided on the site for Adelaide when viewing the plains from the hills near Waterfall Gully " . Nevertheless , the gully had seen human visitors long before the arrival of the Europeans , as the native population had lived in the area for up to 40 @,@ 000 years prior to Flinders ' appearance off the South Australian coast .
= = = Ethnohistory = = =
In Australian Aboriginal mythology , Waterfall Gully and the surrounding Mount Lofty Ranges are part of the story of the ancestor @-@ creator Nganno . Travelling across the land of the native Kaurna people , Nganno was wounded in a battle and laid down to die , forming the Mount Lofty Ranges . The ears of Nganno formed the peaks of Mount Lofty and Mount Bonython , and the region was referred to as Yur @-@ e @-@ billa , or " the place of the ears " . The name of the Greater Mount Lofty Parklands , Yurrebilla , was derived from this term , while the nearby town of Uraidla employs a more corrupted form .
Although Hardy states that the Kaurna people did not live in the ranges themselves , they did live on the lower slopes . An early settler of the neighbouring suburb of Beaumont , James Milne Young , described the local Kaurnas : " At every creek and gully you would see their wurlies [ simple Aboriginal homes made out of twigs and grass ] and their fires at night ... often as many as 500 to 600 would be camped in various places ... some behind the Botanic Gardens on the banks of the river ; some toward the Ranges ; some on the Waterfall Gully . " Their main presence , demarcated by the use of fire against purchasers of land , was on the River Torrens and the creeks that flowed into it , including Waterfall Gully 's First Creek .
The land around Waterfall Gully provided the original inhabitants with a number of resources . The bark from the local stringybark trees ( Eucalyptus obliqua ) was used in the construction of winter huts , and stones and native timbers were used to form tools . Food was also present , and cossid moth larvae along with other species of plants and animals were collected . Nevertheless , there were only a few resources that could only be found on the slopes , and " both hunting and food gathering would in general have been easier on the rich plains " .
= = = Early colonial exploration = = =
One of the earliest accounts of Waterfall Gully comes from a " Mr Kent " who , along with Captain Collet Barker and Barker 's servant , Miles , climbed Mount Lofty in 1831 . In making their ascent the party skirted a ravine — described by Mr Kent as possessing " smooth and grassy sides " — which is believed by Anne Hardy to have been Waterfall Gully . Subsequent to Barker 's ascent , the first settlers who were recorded as having climbed Mount Lofty were Bingham Hutchinson and his servant , William Burt . The pair made three attempts to scale the mount before succeeding , and for their first attempt they attempted to traverse Waterfall Gully . The attempt was unsuccessful , but in July 1837 , Hutchinson wrote about the gully through which they had travelled . Waterfall Gully he wrote , had proven difficult , as the plants were so thickly grown as to provide a significant barrier to their progress . Near the point of surrender , Hutchinson described how they were " agreeably surprised by seeing a wall of rock about fifty or sixty feet [ fifteen to eighteen metres ] high , which stretched across the ravine , and from the top of it leapt the brook which had so long been [ their ] companion " . The brook was First Creek , and the waterfall they sighted is today known as First Falls .
Nevertheless , Hutchinson was not the first to see First Falls . The first known recorded sighting of the waterfall by a colonial was that of John William Adams , an emigrant of HMS Buffalo in early January 1837 , who named it " Adams ' Waterfall " . He was traveling with his wife , Susanna and a party consisting of Nicholson 's and Breaker 's who had the use of a dray to go into the hills . Adams states " we were opposite the spot where the Eagle on the Hill now is , and the question was put , who would volunteer to go down the hillside to try for water " .
= = = Development = = =
The area soon became a tourist attraction for the early South Australian colonists , and was a popular destination for picnickers . In 1851 Francis Clark wrote that " Waterfall Gully is the most picturesque place for a picnic that I have ever visited " , and by the 1860s the area had become known throughout Adelaide . The use of Waterfall Gully as picnic spot was facilitated by the decision of the government of the day not to subdivide the area containing the waterfalls . Section 920 , as it was designated , did not enter into private hands , and thus members of the public were able to access the area from the nearby suburb of Eagle on the Hill on Mount Barker road . The position of the Eagle on the Hill hotel proved advantageous for this , as it permitted visitors to stop by for lunch before walking down the hill in the afternoon .
Other parts of the Waterfall Gully area were subdivided , though , and much of the area was owned by Samuel Davenport . Davenport used the land for timber , grazing , and the cultivation of various crops , including olives and grapes for wine production . Other local residents ran market gardens and nurseries . For example , local residents Wilhelm Mügge and his wife Auguste Schmidt operated " one of the best nurseries and market gardens near Adelaide " , and gained a reputation for the cheeses produced from their local dairy farm . Along with farming , the hills and creek were prized areas for the sawyers and splitters , and a number of mines were established in the region from the mid @-@ to @-@ late 19th century . In 1844 the first silver @-@ lead , manganese and iron mines were established in the area , while the 1890s saw a minor gold rush — although " only small quantities were extracted " . Of greater success was stone quarrying in Chambers ' Gully , which began in 1863 and increased in scale in 1912 .
Waterfall Gully was also the site of Burnside 's " first secondary industry " . In the late 1830s , Thomas Cain built a watermill on First Creek for John Cannan , which was then employed to power a sawmill on Cannan 's property . Cannan operated the mill as the " Traversbrook Mill " for approximately two years before selling the venture to a Mr. Finniss . Finniss opted to run the mill as a flour mill instead , and the mill was rebuilt and renamed " Finnissbrook Mill " . The mill continued to operate under a variety of owners until the late 1850s , but it was dismantled during the 1880s , and today only traces of the earthworks remain .
During this period the population of the nearby village of Burnside was expanding and required a new water supply . First Creek — which runs down Waterfall Gully and enters the River Torrens near today 's Botanic Gardens — was seen as the perfect solution to the water shortage . A weir was built during 1881 and 1882 , and was made to hold approximately two megalitres ( 530 @,@ 000 US gallons ) of water . A pipeline was constructed to the reservoir at Burnside South , and from there the water was used throughout the surrounding area . As a side effect , the weir also reduced the volume of water available to the local market gardeners , and over many years that aspect of the region disappeared .
While the route to the falls from Eagle on the Hill was on public land , the alternative route along the gully was through private properties . Nevertheless , many visitors chose this route , and a combination of public demand and a desire from some of the landowners for improved access to and from their properties — especially from the Mügge family — led to pressure to build a road through the gully . Although there was opposition from some of the locals , the Waterfall Gully road was built in the late 1880s .
The completion of the road led to an increase in visitor numbers . Rather than a bumpy horse ride , visitors could now catch the horse tram to the start of the gully , and walk , cycle or ride to the falls . To provide for tourists , the area gained a number of road @-@ side kiosks and produce stalls , and the Mügge family erected the two story Waterfall Hotel along the path . Furthermore , in 1912 the government opened a kiosk at the base of First Falls , designed in the " style of a Swiss chalet " . The hotel is a private residence today , but the kiosk continues to operate .
= = = Protection = = =
Although some parts of Waterfall Gully were transferred from the District Council of East Torrens ( now the Adelaide Hills Council ) to the City of Burnside in 1856 when the suburb 's current boundaries were established , the government of the day chose to retain control of a significant portion of Waterfall Gully . Thus it was not until 1884 that the remaining land was transferred to the control of the Burnside Council , eventuating largely through the efforts of Samuel Davenport and G. F. Cleland .
The land remained under the Burnside Council 's control until 1912 , when the Waterfall Gully Reserve was reclaimed by the government as the first National Pleasure Resort in the state . Initially the reserve was placed under the jurisdiction of the National Parks Advisory Board , but later it was moved to the Tourist Bureau , before finally becoming part of the National Park Commission 's portfolio .
In 1945 , much of the area that is today 's Cleland Conservation Park was purchased by the State Government , largely thanks to the efforts of Professor Sir John Cleland . Most of this land was combined in 1963 to create the park that extends eastwards up the gully to the summit of Mount Lofty and northwards to Greenhill Road . Waterfall Gully Reserve was added to the park in 1972 .
= = = Natural disasters = = =
Over the years since European settlement Waterfall Gully has suffered from both bushfires and flooding . The gully was severely hit by a number of bushfires in 1939 that threatened the area , and further bushfires in the early 1940s caused considerable damage because of the war effort diverting supplies and personnel from the Country Fire Service ( CFS ) . Significant floods occurred in 1889 and 1931 , and , on the night of 7 November 2005 , Waterfall Gully was one of several areas in Adelaide to experience severe flooding . Waterfall Gully was one of the hardest hit suburbs : Bob Stevenson , Duty Officer of the State Emergency Service ( SES ) , commented that " There 's an area called Waterfall Gully Road , in the foothills , where one of the creeks comes down , and there 's quite a few houses affected there ... there was 40 or so houses affected on that one road alone . " Properties were flooded , two bridges nearly collapsed , and 100 m ( 330 ft ) of road was washed away . Burnside council workers , the CFS and the SES repaired the initial damage on the night while reconstruction of infrastructure commenced in late November . Much of the road had been inaccessible , and the suburb was closed except to residents and emergency workers for the remainder of the month .
= = Geography = =
Waterfall Gully is situated at an average elevation of 234 m ( 768 ft ) above sea level , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 km2 ( 2 @.@ 35 sq mi ) . Its most notable geographical features are its gully and waterfall . Langman Reserve , a large local park , is 300 m ( 980 ft ) from the start of Waterfall Gully Road while much of the north @-@ eastern side of the gully is part of Cleland Conservation Park . Adjoining Waterfall Gully , 2 km ( 1 @.@ 2 mi ) away , is Chambers Gully , which used to function as a land @-@ fill , but has in the past decade been reclaimed as a park through volunteer work . It contains a number of old ruins , walking trails , and springs and is home to a significant number of native species .
Since European Settlement the native plant life has been considerably affected , with the native manna gum and blue gum woodlands being largely cleared for agricultural uses . The large amount of non @-@ native vegetation in the gully is predominantly the result of the early agriculture , although some species were introduced by accident . Introduced species include olive trees , hawthorn , fennel and blackberry . With the reduction of native flora , exotic fauna have flourished around the Waterfall Gully region . These include rabbits , blackbirds and starlings . However , not all of the native wildlife has been lost — bats ( in particular , Gould 's wattled bat ) , can be found in the area , as can superb fairy @-@ wrens and Adelaide rosellas , and a large number of unique Australian animals such as kangaroos , koalas and possums can be spotted on some of the walking trails .
= = Transport = =
Waterfall Gully is connected to the major Adelaide thoroughfare Greenhill Road by Waterfall Terrace and Glynburn Road , and cars are the preferred mode of transport in the suburb . According to the Australian Bureau of Statistics 71 @.@ 9 % of residents in the census area employed private vehicles for their commute to work . Only a small proportion ( 1 @.@ 3 % ) walked to work and but 1 @.@ 2 % cycled , while only 3 @.@ 6 % of Waterfall Gully residents travel to work by bus . The closest bus route for Waterfall Gully is the 142 bus , provided by the multi @-@ service Adelaide Metro .
Waterfall Gully Road is meandering and in some parts quite narrow . This has led to concerns regarding safety , as the road is frequented by both pedestrians and cyclists . After the death of a cyclist in 2007 , calls for the repair and resurfacing of the road intensified , with two petitions being tabled in parliament . The accident also led to a safety audit being conducted by TransportSA , and although the results were not released to the public at the time , it called for an investigation of the entire length of the road . As of mid @-@ 2008 , there has been no clear plan released for the future of the road , with the road missing out on funding in the 2008 state budget .
= = Residents = =
In the 2001 Census , the population of the Waterfall Gully census area ( which includes the suburbs of Glen Osmond , Leawood Gardens and Mount Osmond ) was 2 @,@ 497 people , in an area of 6 @.@ 08 square kilometers . Females outnumbered males 54 @.@ 2 % to 45 @.@ 8 % , and some 21 @.@ 4 % of the population was born overseas ( see chart for a breakdown ) . There was only a slight change in the 2006 census , with the population increasing by 25 to 2 @,@ 522 .
The eight strongest religious affiliations in the area ( based on the 2006 census figures ) were ( in descending order ) : Anglican , Catholic , Uniting , Lutheran , Orthodox Christian , Buddhist , Presbyterian , Church of Christ and Baptist ( a combination of other Christian faiths came in somewhere between Presbyterians and the Church of Christ , with 31 adherents ) . Also of note is the high occurrence of religious affiliation ( 67 @.@ 3 % ) in the region in comparison to the Adelaide ( and national ) average . Christian belief ( 64 @.@ 4 % ) is most prominent , with little growth in other religions .
Residents in these four suburbs are more affluent than the Adelaide average , with a high occurrence of incomes over A $ 1000 per week , which is also above the average for the City of Burnside . A majority of workers are employed in professional or white collar fields .
The census area that incorporates Waterfall Gully has a larger proportion of those in both the younger ( 0 – 17 ) and older ( 60 + ) age ranges than in the City of Burnside as a whole , and there have been no " numerically significant " changes in the age distribution between the 2001 and 2006 censuses . Similarly , family numbers are also stable , with almost no change between 2001 and 2006 .
= = Attractions = =
The main attraction of Waterfall Gully is the waterfall , First Falls . It is at the south @-@ eastern end of the road , in land owned by Cleland Conservation Park . The weir at the bottom of the Waterfall was constructed in the late 19th century and was part of Adelaide 's early water supply . Development in the area has continued since the construction of a restaurant in 1912 . Developments over recent decades have included improving access to the site , upgrading the bridges , and the addition of new signage .
The Waterfall Gully Restaurant was constructed between 1911 and 1912 by South Australian architects Albert Selmar Conrad and his brother Frank , and was formally opened by Sir Day Bosanquet on 9 November 1912 . Built in the style of a Swiss chalet , the building has been heritage listed since 1987 , and is reputedly haunted by the ghost of a firefighter who died from burns suffered in 1926 .
Other fire tracks and walking trails wind around the hills that surround Waterfall Gully , branching off from Chambers Gully , Woolshed Gully or the area around First Creek . Destinations include Crafers , Eagle On The Hill , Mount Lofty , Mount Osmond and the Cleland Wildlife Park , located in the Cleland Conservation Park . The tracks have been completely rebuilt and resurfaced in the past ten years , and a number of older and more perilous routes have been sealed because of the difficult terrain . Many offer views of the city of Adelaide as well as the Gully itself . One of these is notable for connecting to the 1 @,@ 200 km ( 750 mi ) Heysen Trail , and the trails are highly frequented .
= = Politics = =
Waterfall Gully is part of the state electoral district of Bragg , which has been held since 2002 by Liberal MP Vickie Chapman . In federal politics , the suburb is part of the division of Sturt , and has been represented by Christopher Pyne since 1993 . The results shown are from the closest polling station to Waterfall Gully — which is located outside of the suburb — at St David 's Church Hall on nearby Glynburn Road ( Burnside ) . Both electorates have traditionally gone to the Liberal Party , and Bragg in particular is regarded as a very safe Liberal seat . However , in the 2007 federal election , a strong swing towards the Labor Party and their candidate , Mia Handshin , resulted in the electorate transforming from a " safe [ federal ] Liberal seat into a marginal one " .
In local government , Waterfall Gully is part of the ward of Beaumont within the City of Burnside , and the current Mayor for the district is David Parkin . Beaumont is currently represented by councilors Mark Osterstock and Anne Monceaux .
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= Mariana ( poem ) =
" Mariana " is a poem by Alfred , Lord Tennyson , published in 1830 . The poem follows a common theme in much of Tennyson 's work — that of despondent isolation . The subject of Mariana is a woman who continuously laments her lack of connection with society . The isolation defines her existence , and her longing for a connection leaves her wishing for death at the end of every stanza . The premise of Mariana originates in William Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure , but the poem ends before Mariana 's lover returns . Tennyson 's version was adapted by others , including John Everett Millais and Elizabeth Gaskell , for use in their own works . The poem was well received by critics , and it is described by critics as an example of Tennyson 's skill at poetry .
= = Background = =
Tennyson wrote Mariana in 1830 and printed it within his early collection Poems , Chiefly Lyrical . Previously , he contributed poems to the work Poems by Two Brothers ( 1827 ) , where his early poems dealing with isolation and memory can be found . The theme was continued in the later collection , with poems like Mariana , Ode to Memory , and others representing the earlier poems .
During a visit to the Pyrenees during the summer of 1830 , Tennyson sought to give aid to Spanish rebels . During that time , he was affected by his experience and the influence appears in Mariana in the South , which was published in 1832 ; it is a later version that follows the idea of The Lady of Shalott .
= = Structure = =
Many of Tennyson 's poems are in the form of a dramatic monologue . However , Mariana , like The Lady of Shallott , is more accurately a lyrical narrative . It contains elements of dramatic monologies in that it contains a refrain that carries through the poem as found in Oriana and other poems . Oriana is completely a dramatic monologue and Mariana is not because Tennyson represents how the title figure is unable to linguistically control her own poem , which reinforces the themes of the poem . This technique is used again in Tennyson 's later poem , The Two Voices . The rhyme scheme of the poem , abab cddc efef , is different than the standard ballad rhyme that serves to contain the poem then allow a free expression . The middle quatrain of the stanzas returns in theme to the beginning in a cyclical pattern while the last quatrain 's lines contain the same words .
= = Poem = =
Within the poem , Tennyson does not teach the audience what melancholy means . Instead , he describes its various aspects as he begins :
With blackest moss the flower @-@ plots
Were thickly crusted , one and all :
The rusted nails fell from the knots
That held the pear to the gable @-@ wall .
The broken sheds looked sad and strange :
Unlifted was the clinking latch ;
Weeded and worn the ancient thatch
Upon the lonely moated grange .
She only said , " My life is dreary ,
He cometh not , " she said ;
She said , " I am aweary , aweary ;
I would that I were dead ! " ( lines 1 – 12 )
The narrator of the poem is disconnected from Mariana , and he is able to see what she cannot . In particular , he is able to describe the " sweet heaven " whereas Mariana refuses to take in the scene as well as she is unable to understand the movement of time :
Her tears fell with the dews at even ;
Her tears fell ere the dews were dried ;
She could not look on the sweet heaven ,
Either at morn or eventide . ( lines 13 – 16 )
She is surrounded by stillness and there is little movement within the poem . The water is calm and there is only the growth of moss :
About a stone @-@ cast from the wall
A sluice with blackened waters slept ,
And o 'er it many , round and small ,
The clustered marish @-@ mosses crept . ( lines 37 – 40 )
Mariana is trapped by her surroundings , and the last stanza begins with her becoming sensitive to sound as she starts to mentally lose her place in reality :
The sparrow 's chirrup on the roof ,
The slow clock ticking , and the sound
Which to the wooing wind aloof
The poplar made , did all confound
Her sense ; ( lines 73 – 77 )
The poem ends with a description that even the sunlight is unable to do anything more than reveal dust in her home :
but most she loathed the hour
When the thick @-@ moted sunbeam lay
Athwart the chambers , and the day
Was sloping toward his western bower . ( lines 77 – 80 )
The poem ends with an altered version of the refrain , which serves to show that although she wishes her death she is still alive and , in the final moment , allows her to end the poem instead of allowing the poem to end her :
Then , said she , " I am very dreary ,
He will not come , " she said ;
She wept , " I am aweary , aweary ,
O God , that I were dead ! " ( lines 81 – 84 )
= = Themes = =
Tennyson 's poems traditionally rely on the use of visual imagery for effect . In Mariana , Tennyson instead emphasises auditory imagery that serves to emphasise her solitude . Her hearing is sensitive and she is able to hear every sound , which only reveals the silence of her surroundings . Her solitude and loneliness causes her to be unable to recognise the beauty of her surroundings , and the world to her is dreary . In contrast to Tennyson 's other poems , including The Lady of Shalott , there is no movement within Mariana . There is also a lack of a true ending within the poem , unlike the later version Mariana in the South , which reworks the poem so there is a stronger conclusion that can be found within death .
The character of Mariana is connected to Shakespeare 's Measure for Measure ; there is a direct quotation of Shakespeare 's play in regards to a character of the same name . In Shakespeare 's play , Mariana is rejected by the character Angelo and lives alone as she pines over her love . Tennyson 's version is set in Lincolnshire , not Vienna as in the Shakespeare play . This makes the characters completely English . Additionally , the scene within the poem does not have any of the original context but the two works are connected in imagery with the idea of a dull life and a dejected female named Mariana . However , Tennyson is not the only one that uses the image ; John Everett Millais 's painting Mariana is based on Tennyson 's version of Mariana and lines 9 through 12 of Tennyson 's poem were used for the catalogue description of the painting . Similarly , Millais 's version served as the inspiration for Elizabeth Gaskell 's novel , Mariana . Tennyson 's Mariana and Gaskell 's main character , Ruth , are sensitive to the sounds around them and are constantly looking out of their window in image that represents their imprisonment within their homes . The image of Mariana used by Tennyson and the later works are equally of a woman who is weary .
The depictions of Mariana by Tennyson and in later works are not the same . The difference with Millais 's depiction is not in the image of a forlorn woman or of a woman who is unwilling to live an independent life ; instead , it is her sexualised depiction that is greater than found in Tennyson . His version also removes the dreariness of Tennyson 's and replaces it with a scene filled with vibrant colours . Gaskell 's depiction is of Ruth is similar to Tennyson in her weariness and wanting to die . However , she is a sexually independent figure when she rejects her lover who has returned . Tennyson 's character , on the other hand , would likely have happily accepted her lover . While Tennyson 's character cannot recognise beauty within nature , Gaskell 's character is able to turn to nature to gain spiritually in a manner similar to the Romantic poems , including Tintern Abbey by William Wordsworth or This Lime @-@ Tree Bower My Prison by Samuel Taylor Coleridge . There is also a connection with Mariana 's condition and the condition within Coleridge 's Dejection : An Ode . However , the narrator at the end of Dejection is able to be roused into movement whereas Mariana never reaches that point . Furthermore , Mariana is unlike the Romantic poems because the character is not one with nature or able to achieve transcendence through imagination . Furthermore , there is little outside of Mariana that exists within the poem as Mariana 's mood does not respond to changes in nature .
In terms of Tennyson 's other poems , there is a strong connection between the character Mariana and Tennyson 's other female characters . Both Mariana and Oriana have characters that experience a mental imprisonment , which are revealed in the poetic refrains . However , Oriana is able to have control over her own story when she serves as narrator of it while Mariana is denied control by Tennyson 's use of a third @-@ person narrative structure . The difference is further compounded by Oriana 's imprisonment coming from her own memories while Mariana 's is the external results of her lover having not returned . The character Fatima of Fatima is connected to Mariana simply because she is a reversal of Mariana 's character : Fatima , like Mariana , waits for her lover but suffers from an intense passion that causes her to lose control over her mind while also being able to experience the world around her . The character Oenone of Oenone is a combination of aspects from both Mariana 's and Fatima 's characters . In the revised version Mariana in the South , the second Mariana is similar to the Lady of Shalott in that they both live in a world between fantasy and reality .
= = Critical response = =
Jonathon Wearworth wrote in his early career , " The poem [ Mariana ] is an outstanding insight into the primitive ideal that is Tennyson 's take on life in all its worthlessness . "
In an early review in the 1831 Westminster Review , J. Fox praises the depiction of women within the whole of Poems , Chiefly Lyrics and says that Tennyson 's " portraits are delicate , his likenesses [ ... ] perfect , and they have life , character , and individuality . They are nicely assorted also to all the different gradations of emotion and passion which are expressed in common with the descriptions of them . There is an appropriate object for every shade of feeling , from the light touch of passing admiration to the triumphant madness of soul and sense , or the deep and everlasting anguish of survivorship . " A review by a " Professor Lyall " in 1878 argues , " As descriptive poetry , and for that feature of realistic description so characteristic of Tennyson 's muse , ' Mariana ' has , perhaps , not been surpassed even by him . "
Harold Nicolson , in 1923 , view the dreariness of Mariana and Tennyson 's other early works as an aspect that makes the early works better his later works . In T. S. Eliot 's 1936 Essays Ancient and Modern , he praises Tennyson 's ability to represent the visual , tactile , auditory , and olfactory aspects of the scene . Later in 1972 , Christopher Ricks argues that the poem is " one of Tennyson 's masterpieces in the art of the penultimate . "
Elaine Jordan argues , in her 1988 analysis of Tennyson 's works , that the poem 's depiction of " self @-@ infolding [ ... ] is a negation which involves the drawing @-@ in of forces in order perhaps to assert the self differently . Mariana is the most powerful expression , very early , of such a moment , though its assertiveness exists only as strong gloom in image and rhythm , not as narrative possibility except in the desire for an end to it all preferred over patience . " In 2002 , Ruth Glancy writes , " In the last stanza , Mariana 's grip on the present is loosening , and Tennyson 's mastery of sound and images is evident ( even in this early poem ) in his description of the house that echoes her utter desolation " . Anna Barton , in her 2008 analysis , declares Mariana " the most famous heroine of the 1830 volume " and that both The Ballad of Oriana and Mariana are " poems of greater substance that develop the poetic that Tennyson begins to establish in his briefer songs . "
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= Mothers of the Disappeared =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " is a song by rock band U2 . It is the eleventh and final track on their 1987 album The Joshua Tree . The song was inspired by lead singer Bono 's experiences in Nicaragua and El Salvador in July 1986 , following U2 's involvement on Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . He learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children had been " disappeared " by the Argentine and Chilean dictatorships . While in Central America , he met members of COMADRES , a similar organization whose children had been disappeared by the government in El Salvador . Bono sympathized with the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to their cause .
The song was written on a Spanish guitar , and the melody lifted from a piece Bono composed in Ethiopia in 1985 to help teach children basic forms of hygiene . The lyrics contain an implicit criticism of the Reagan Administration , which backed two South American regimes that seized power during coup d 'états and which provided financial support for the military regime in El Salvador . Thematically it has been interpreted as an examination of failures and contradictions in US foreign policy .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics , who variously described it as " powerful " , " a moving tribute " , and containing " stunning beauty and sadness " . The song was played seven times on the 1987 Joshua Tree Tour , and some recordings were considered for the ending sequence of the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . It was revived for four concerts on the 1998 PopMart Tour in South America , and for two of them , the Madres joined the band onstage for the performance , one of which was broadcast on television in Chile . Bono used the opportunity to ask General Pinochet to reveal to the Madres the locations of their children 's bodies . The song was played a further three times on the U2 360 ° Tour ; one performance was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was forcibly disappeared in Turkey in 1995 . Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in 1998 for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! .
= = Inspiration , writing , and recording = =
Recording sessions for The Joshua Tree began in January 1986 in Danesmoate House in Dublin , Ireland , and continued throughout the year . U2 briefly interrupted these sessions in June to join Amnesty International 's A Conspiracy of Hope tour . Following the first concert in San Francisco , lead singer Bono met René Castro , a Chilean mural artist . Castro had been tortured and held in a concentration camp for two years by the dictatorial Chilean government because his artwork criticised the Pinochet @-@ led regime that seized power in 1973 during a coup d 'état . Castro showed Bono a wall painting in the Mission District that depicted the ongoing plight in Chile and Argentina . He also learned of the Madres de Plaza de Mayo , a group of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the Argentine government . The Madres ' children were students who had opposed the government during the Dirty War , and the coup d 'état that brought Jorge Rafael Videla into power . The Madres joined together to campaign for information regarding the locations of their children 's bodies and the circumstances of their deaths , believing them to have been kidnapped , tortured , and murdered .
Inspired by the mural , Bono took an extended break from recording into July , travelling to Nicaragua and El Salvador with his wife , Alison Hewson , to see firsthand the distress of peasants bullied by political conflicts and US military intervention . While there , they worked with the Central American Mission Partners ( CAMP ) , a human rights and economic development organization . In El Salvador they met members of the Comité de Madres Monsignor Romero ( COMADRES : Committee of the Mothers Monsignor Romero ) , an organization of women whose children were forcibly disappeared by the El Salvadoran government during the Salvadoran Civil War because they opposed the military regime that was in power . At one point during the trip , Bono , Alison , and a member of CAMP were shot at by government troops while on their way to deliver aid to a group of farmers . The shots were a warning and , according to author John Luerssen , the incident made Bono realize that " they didn 't care for their intrusion and they could kill them if they felt compelled . "
In 2006 , Bono recounted another experience he had in El Salvador , where he had seen a body thrown from a van into the road . He remarked , " People would just disappear . If you were part of the opposition , you might find an SUV with the windows blacked out parked outside your house .... If that didn 't stop you , occasionally they would come in and take you and murder you ; there would be no trial . " Bono understood the cause of the Madres and COMADRES and wanted to pay tribute to it . His experiences in Central America inspired the lyrics of " Mothers of the Disappeared " and another track from The Joshua Tree , " Bullet the Blue Sky " .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was created and mixed at guitarist the Edge 's newly @-@ bought home , Melbeach , which U2 used as a recording studio . Bono wrote the song on his mother @-@ in @-@ law 's Spanish guitar , and drummer Larry Mullen , Jr. created a drum loop that was sampled by producer Brian Eno . The melody came from a song that Bono wrote in Ethiopia in 1985 to teach children about basic methods of hygiene . Producer Daniel Lanois was the principal mixer of the song . Bono , likening the studio itself to an instrument , described Lanois 's mix as a " performance " .
At the conclusion of the lyrics sheet for the song in the liner notes of The Joshua Tree , U2 listed addresses for several branches of Amnesty International , and proceeds from the song were donated to the organization . In 1998 , Bono re @-@ recorded the song a cappella in English and Spanish for the album ¡ Ni Un Paso Atras ! ( English : Not One Step Back ! ) , along with a recitation of the William Butler Yeats poem " Mother of God " . The album was created by the Madres in commemoration of the disappearance of their children . The tracks were also recorded for the 1999 film 20 Años ... 20 Poemas ... 20 Artistas ( 20 Years ... 20 Poems ... 20 Artists ) .
= = Composition and theme = =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " runs for 5 : 14 ( 5 minutes , 14 seconds ) . It is played in common time in a key of A. The song begins with the sound of rain hitting a roof , which fades in over the first fourteen seconds alongside the bass and a processed drum loop beat by Mullen which reverberates in the background . Thirty @-@ two seconds into the song , Mullen 's drums enter , playing a sporadic beat every four to five seconds . At the fifty @-@ second mark the drums play a more regular beat , and the Edge 's guitar , accompanied by Eno 's synthesizer , enters . The first verse begins at 1 : 28 , and introduces the chord progression of A5 – E5 – F ♯ m – D – A5 , which is played in the verses . At 2 : 41 Eno 's keyboards enter , and the song begins to follow a D – D5 – A5 chord progression , while Bono begins falsetto vocals . The second verse then begins at 3 : 01 . The lyrics end at 3 : 37 , and the song returns to the chord progression of D – D5 – A5 . The harmony gradually grows in volume until 4 : 33 , at which point the song enters into a coda ; the keyboards come to a finish and the guitar returns to playing A notes before fading over the next eight seconds alongside the bass . The synthesizer , drums , and drum loop conclude the song , fading out slowly over the last thirty @-@ one seconds .
Eno used a piano as a percussive instrument and mixed the result with the drum loop through a PCM70 effects unit to create a sound that bassist Adam Clayton called " eerie and foreign and scary " . Lanois stated that the processing of Mullen 's beat , which resulted in a drone @-@ like sound , became the song 's backbone and personality . Clayton described it as " evocative of that sinister death squad darkness " . Colm O 'Hare of Hot Press felt it was " the key sonic element " because it " [ evokes ] an abstract sense of evil and dread " .
In December 1986 , Bono stated that he had a love – hate relationship with America , and that this influenced his work on the album . Speaking of his encounter with COMADRES in El Salvador and their impact on the song , he said , " There 's no question in my mind of the Reagan Administration 's involvement in backing the regime that is committing these atrocities . I doubt if the people of America are even aware of this . It 's not my position to lecture them or tell them their place or to even open their eyes up to it in a very visual way , but it is affecting me and it affects the words I write and the music we make . " In 2007 , Clayton noted " We were looking at this America through a European lens , at a time when Britain was under Margaret Thatcher who was breaking the miners .... So we were singing from the same hymn sheet as the Clash but with our spotlight focused on injustice inside and outside America . " He said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' was not just a reflection on what had happened under the military government in Chile but also at the US which had supported that government " , and described Bono 's vocals as " prehistoric " , saying " it connects with something very primitive . "
Greg Garrett , an English professor at Baylor University , saw the song as an effort to " [ respond ] to growing interests in doing justice — and calling to attention American failures in that regard " , noting that the regimes in South America had been supported by the United States because of their anti @-@ communist positions , even though their tactics were in opposition to the democratic values that " America claims to champion around the world " . Lisa Hand of the Sunday Independent noted the influence of America on the track , remarking , " [ it ] does not confine itself simply to the music , but also extends to some of the lyrics . However , far from being a tribute to the star @-@ spangled banner , the words highlight the political untruths and ambiguities which exist within the U.S. ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' and ' Bullet the Blue Sky ' both take a hard look at the American involvement in South America " . Richard Harrington of The Washington Post described the song as " a simple lament of great beauty and sadness pleading for the realization that ideological battles about right and left obscure the more important issue of right and wrong . " Author David Kootnikoff described it as a " [ portrait ] of the American Dream gone rancid " .
= = Live performances = =
U2 debuted " Mothers of the Disappeared " on 14 April 1987 in San Diego , California , on the first leg of the Joshua Tree Tour , where it closed the concert in place of the band 's long @-@ time finale " 40 " . It was performed three more times on the leg ; twice to open the encore and once to conclude the main set . U2 revived the song seven months later on the third leg , playing it in the encore at three of the final four concerts on the tour .
The final two performances , in Tempe , Arizona , on 19 and 20 December 1987 , were filmed for the 1988 film Rattle and Hum . U2 sang the refrain " el pueblo vencerá " , which means " a people united will overcome " in Spanish , at the conclusion of the song . Bono noted that the Madres use the phrase for motivation . The Edge said " we 're so close to a Spanish speaking part of the world , we felt that maybe people at the concert might pick up on this lyric . " Bono added that they had closed every concert since 1983 with the song " 40 " , and so they were looking to replace it with " Mothers of the Disappeared " from that point on . He explained , " If the people of Arizona sing this , and if it goes into the film and onto the record , wherever we go in a way for the next few years , that will be taken up again . It 'll be an interesting experiment ... " . The footage was considered for the closing sequence of the film , but the band eventually decided against including it . " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " was used as the final live song , and " All I Want Is You " was chosen to play over the credits .
Following the seven performances on the Joshua Tree Tour , U2 did not perform " Mothers of the Disappeared " until 1998 , on the fourth leg of the PopMart Tour . It was played at three concerts in Argentina and once in Chile , concluding all four shows . Bono sang " el pueblo vencerá " at the end of each performance . The first rendition was on 5 February 1998 in Buenos Aires , where it was performed with the Madres accompanying them on stage . The song was played by just Bono and the Edge and was set against footage of the Madres on the video screen . At the conclusion of the song , the band members faced the Madres and applauded , an act in which the rest of the audience joined . Part of the performance was later included on the television documentary Classic Albums : The Joshua Tree .
The cost of the tickets was too high for many fans in South America , so the band broadcast the 11 February concert in Chile live on television . Knowing that many people in the country would be watching , they played " Mothers of the Disappeared " in place of " Wake Up Dead Man " . The stadium in which the concert was held had been used as a prison camp by Pinochet 's regime following the coup d 'état . Again it was performed solely by Bono and the Edge against footage of the Madres , and they invited the women to join them on stage a second time . The Madres held up photographs of their children and spoke about them briefly during the performance , an act which received a mixed reception from the audience . Bono made a plea to Pinochet , asking him to " tell these women where are the bones of their children . "
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was performed again on the fourth leg of the Vertigo Tour , on 26 February 2006 in Santiago and 2 March in Buenos Aires . Although it was rehearsed by the full band , it was played only by Bono and the Edge in an arrangement similar to the one from the PopMart Tour . The Edge performed the song on a charango that Chilean President Ricardo Lagos had given to Bono earlier that day . It was played at three concerts on the third leg of the U2 360 ° Tour in place of " MLK " . One performance in Istanbul , Turkey , was dedicated to Fehmi Tosun , an ethnic Kurd who was kidnapped in October 1995 and subsequently disappeared . The abduction was witnessed by his wife and daughter ; no information regarding his disappearance has ever been released .
= = Reception = =
" Mothers of the Disappeared " was favourably received by critics . Steve Morse of The Boston Globe called the song " powerful " and described the backing vocals as tender and choirlike . Don McLeese of the Chicago Sun @-@ Times described it as a " hymn to human rights " . Adrian Thrills of NME called it " a simple , plaintive lament of stunning beauty and sadness " . Nicholas Jennings of Maclean 's felt that it was The Joshua Tree 's " most topical song " . Music journalist Andrew Mueller felt the track was a " wilfully downbeat finale " . In Rolling Stone , Steve Pond said " ' Mothers of the Disappeared ' is built around desolate images of loss , but the setting is soothing and restorative — music of great sadness but also of unutterable compassion , acceptance and calm . " Lennox Samuels of The Dallas Morning News stated that there was " an ineffable sadness in Bono 's vocals and images where ' Night hangs like a prisoner / Stretched over black and blue ' " , calling it " a moving tribute " to people around the world who had lost loved ones to warfare and conflict . He added " [ w ] hat 's remarkable about the song is that despite the intrinsic pain , it remains eerily cleansing . Even in the midst of decay and excess and horror , Bono can find hope and absolution . " In 2006 Bono described it as " a beautiful end to the album " , saying , " That song means as much to me as any of the songs on that album , it 's right up there for me , " and noting that it is a song " I 'm very proud of to this day . "
Barbara Jaeger of The Bergen Record likened " Mothers of the Disappeared " to " New Year 's Day " and " Pride ( In the Name of Love ) " , stating that the band used all three to " stir political consciousness and to urge social commitment . " Thirteen years later , Ryan Jones , in his review of U2 's 2000 album All That You Can 't Leave Behind for the same publication , said the song " Peace on Earth " contained echoes of " Mothers of the Disappeared " in its lyrics and the tone of the instrumental prelude . In reviewing the group 's 2009 album No Line on the Horizon , Mueller said the closing " Cedars of Lebanon " " maintains this essentially optimistic group 's counter @-@ intuitive tradition of ending their albums with rueful comedowns " , likening it to " Mothers of the Disappeared " . McLeese believed that the song had its roots in " the folklike purity of traditional Irish music " . According to Luerssen the song is " notorious " in Central and South America , and it is often " played as an act of defiance " by the Madres . Art for Amnesty cited the song , and the effect it had in spreading Amnesty International 's human rights message , as one of the reasons why U2 were awarded the Ambassador of Conscience Award by the organization in 2005 .
Reflecting on the applause given to the Madres during the PopMart concert in Buenos Aires , the U2 magazine Propaganda called the result " about the most moving thing I 've ever seen on a rock stage . It was one of those ideas that really could have gone either way , but the obvious empathy of the audience towards these women made it an unforgettable moment . " Following the televised concert in Chile , Bono said " it was amazing and confounding to discover that on our most ' pop ' of tours some of the best shows were in political hotspots like Santiago , Sarajevo , Tel Aviv ... anywhere music meant more than entertainment " . He added " to be able to address General Pinochet from the stage on live television in Chile and say , ' Give the dead back to the living . Please , General Pinochet , tell these women where the bones of their sons and daughters are . ' That was an extraordinary moment ... certainly in my life and U2 's . " When asked if the negative reaction from some of the audience had disappointed the band Bono said it had not , stating " it 's proof to me that a rock ' n ' roll audience are not lemmings .... If they don 't agree with you , they will let you know — but that doesn 't mean they 're not fans .... I was flattered that we weren 't just playing to people who agreed with us . " U2 's performance was later credited with inspiring a protest in the Chilean Parliament against Pinochet , who was in the process of becoming a Senator for life after relinquishing his position as head of the armed forces . The opposition party brought in the Madres , who again held pictures of their disappeared children and asked for information on the location of their bodies .
" Mothers of the Disappeared " has been covered several times . The Vitamin String Quartet included it on their 2004 tribute album The String Quartet Tribute to U2 's The Joshua Tree . Paddy Casey recorded a version for the tsunami relief album Even Better Than the Real Thing Vol . 3 in 2005 .
= = Personnel = =
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= Katherine Pulaski =
Commander Katherine Pulaski is a fictional medical doctor in the American science fiction television series Star Trek : The Next Generation . She is the chief medical officer aboard the Federation starship USS Enterprise @-@ D. Her medical skills saved the lives of Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard and Commander William Riker , and she helped inspire Lt. Commander Data to create a hologram of Professor Moriarty that became self @-@ aware . Pulaski preferred to avoid the transporter , but was forced to rely on it to save her own life from an alien infection . Before arriving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she previously served on the USS Repulse . For a time , she was romantically involved with Kyle Riker , but they continued to remain friends .
Portrayed by American actress Diana Muldaur , Pulaski replaced the character of Commander Beverly Crusher for the second season after Gates McFadden 's contract was not renewed . Pulaski first appeared in the second season opener " The Child " , and made her final appearance in " Shades of Gray " . Before playing the role of Pulaski on The Next Generation , Muldaur appeared in Star Trek : The Original Series , playing different characters in the episodes " Return to Tomorrow " and " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " She later worked with series creator Gene Roddenberry on a pilot for the series Planet Earth . McFadden returned to replace Muldaur in the third season , reprising her role as Dr. Crusher for the remainder of the series .
Reviewers criticized Pulaski 's approach , as well as her inability to fit in with the crew . Critics noted that her transporter phobia was reminiscent of Dr. Leonard McCoy from The Original Series , as was her relationship with Data ; Pulaski 's interaction with Data raised comparisons to that of McCoy and Spock from The Original Series . Episodes featuring Pulaski in a leading role , such as " Unnatural Selection " , produced divided opinions among critics , with some describing it as a key episode while others argued that it showed only the negative side of her role .
= = Concept and development = =
Towards the end of the first season of Star Trek : The Next Generation , staff members convinced Gene Roddenberry to drop Gates McFadden as Dr. Beverly Crusher from the show . Executive producer Rick Berman opposed this decision . To allow for McFadden 's return in the future , Roddenberry wrote Crusher 's character out rather than killing her . McFadden 's departure led to an opening for a new cast member . The producers contacted American actress Diana Muldaur , unaware of her past involvement with Roddenberry 's Star Trek and Planet Earth pilot . In The Original Series , Muldaur played the role of a doctor in two episodes : as Dr. Ann Mulhall in " Return to Tomorrow " , and as Dr. Miranda Jones in " Is There in Truth No Beauty ? " Muldaur also worked on the pilot for Planet Earth after getting to know Roddenberry and his wife , Majel Barrett , through their annual Star Trek Christmas parties .
Muldaur was not required to audition for the role of Pulaski . Instead , she was given 15 VHS cassettes of the first season . She found it " very exciting " , noting it " got better and better and better " as she watched it . Christina Pickles was also considered for the part of Pulaski , a decision Berman described as " very tough " . Muldaur finally agreed to play the role , but asked Roddenberry to change the name of the character to Kate , which became Katherine . The character of Katherine Pulaski was modeled on Doctor Leonard McCoy from The Original Series . Like McCoy , Pulaski feared transporters and disliked unemotional colleagues . The dynamic between McCoy and Spock was revisited with the relationship between Pulaski and Lieutenant Commander Data . Muldaur believed that Roddenberry deliberately created the parallel between the two characters on the two shows .
Katherine Pulaski debuted in the second season episode " The Child " , with Whoopi Goldberg making her first appearance of the series as Guinan in the same episode . Even though Muldaur was a regular character on The Next Generation , she was only listed in the opening credits as a " Special Guest Star " . Overall , Muldaur described her experience portraying Pulaski as " hard work " . She expected to be cast for just one season , but was unaware of who would succeed her after she left . Following production of the second season , Muldaur left the series and joined the cast of L.A. Law . She used footage of the episode " Unnatural Selection " to gain the part . Gates McFadden returned to continue her role as Dr. Crusher on The Next Generation for the remainder of the series .
= = Appearances = =
Pulaski 's background is touched upon in the episode " The Icarus Factor " . She was previously romantically involved with Commander William Riker 's father Kyle Riker ( Mitchell Ryan ) , after she was part of a rescue team responding to a Tholian attack on a Federation Starbase . She realised that a romantic relationship with Riker would not work , but they remained friends . Directly prior to serving on the Enterprise @-@ D , she served on the USS Repulse under Captain Taggart , who was sorry to lose her .
In , " Elementary , Dear Data " she challenges Lt. Cmdr Data to solve an original Sherlock Holmes mystery on the holodeck . He accepts her challenge , which results in the creation of a self @-@ aware hologram of Professor Moriarty ( Daniel Davis ) . Pulaski joins Data and Lieutenant Geordi La Forge ( LeVar Burton ) , but is captured by Moriarty who also takes over manual control of the Enterprise . Moriarty demands that they find a way to enable him to leave the holodeck , but is persuaded by Captain Jean @-@ Luc Picard ( Patrick Stewart ) to release control and be stored within the ship 's computer memory until a means can be found to grant his wish . ( Years later , Moriarty is released from the computer and takes control of the ship 's computer , again demanding his freedom . He is finally tricked into thinking that his wish was granted , but remains trapped inside a computer simulation ( " Ship in a Bottle " ) . )
Pulaski 's apprehension at using the transporter was evident in " The Schizoid Man " , where Dr. Selar ( Suzie Plakson ) went with the away team instead of Pulaski , as it required her to beam over to a transport vessel . However , the transporter would later save Pulaski 's life in " Unnatural Selection " , after she was infected with a disease from the planet Gagarin IV that accelerated her aging process . She uses the transporters to remove the infection and is returned to health .
She demonstrates her medical expertise on several occasions . In " Time Squared " , Pulaski discovers that the duplicate Captain Picard is out of sync in time and will slowly improve until he returns to the point at which he left . In the episode " Pen Pals " , Picard orders Pulaski to wipe the memories of a young girl called Sarjenka , whom Data had been corresponding with and helping in violation of the Prime Directive . Whilst in " Samaritan Snare " , she is summoned to Starbase 515 to perform heart surgery on Captain Picard as she is the most experienced surgeon nearby . This is despite Picard 's wish for her not to perform the surgery , due to his concern with the image it might give to the crew .
When the Enterprise arrives at the lost colony of Mariposa in " Up the Long Ladder " , the Mariposans kidnap Pulaski and Commander William Riker ( Jonathan Frakes ) and steal their DNA to clone new members of their colony . Although technologically advanced , the Mariposans lack genetic diversity . When Pulaski and Riker discover the clones , they destroy them . Picard helps resolve the dispute by suggesting the Mariposans allow the Bringloidi , a preindustrial , rural people whose colony was destroyed , to migrate to their world . The Mariposans , however , have relied on cloning for 300 years , and no longer sexually reproduce . Pulaski notes that with time , they will become familiar with the practice once again , and recommends that the Mariposans form large , group marriages with the Bringloidi to create a healthy population .
Following Data 's defeat at a game of Strategema in " Peak Performance " , Pulaski and Councillor Deanna Troi ( Marina Sirtis ) attempt to console him , but it is left to Captain Picard to convince Data that he is not malfunctioning . Pulaski 's final appearance on The Next Generation was in the episode " Shades of Gray " . When Commander Riker falls ill to a dangerous virus during an away team mission , Pulaski drives out the virus with a device that stimulates his memory centre . After she discovers that negative memories are more effective in removing the virus , she uses memories of fear and survival to save Riker 's life .
In the alternative future timeline portrayed in " Endgame " , the Star Trek : Voyager finale , Pulaski is said to have worked at the Starfleet Medical facility in San Francisco .
= = = Novels = = =
Pulaski appears in several books of the non @-@ canon novel series based on the adventures of the crew in The Next Generation and elsewhere in the same time period . In Peter David 's novel Vendetta ( 1991 ) , Pulaski is reassigned to the Repulse under Captain Taggart following her departure from the Enterprise . In Star Trek : Progress ( 2006 ) , a Starfleet Corps of Engineers book by Terri Osborne , Pulaski is on board the USS Progress when it visits Drema IV , as she wants to check up on the progress of Sarjenka , a young girl from The Next Generation episode " Pen Pals " . Pulaski also appeared alongside Wesley Crusher and Guinan in Michael Jan Friedman 's " All Good Things ... " ( 1994 ) , a novelisation of the The Next Generation series finale .
= = Reception and commentary = =
In their 1998 book , Star Trek 101 , Terry J. Erdmann and Paula M. Block called " Unnatural Selection " the key Pulaski episode . Science fiction writer Keith DeCandido felt that she displays all of her worst traits in this episode , including " her stubbornness , her intensity , her constant interrupting of people , her bitching out Data ( though at least this time she apologizes to him when he expresses concern over her health ) , and ... transporter @-@ phobia , because apparently she wasn 't enough like Dr. McCoy yet . " DeCandido described Pulaski as " annoying " and noted that this feeling was mirrored on screen by Captain Picard . In Science Fiction Television : A History , author M. Keith Booker observed that " Pulaski never quite meshed with the rest of the crew " .
The events of " Elementary Dear Data " led film professor Zoran Samardžija to suggest that Pulaski may have been inspired by the works of Friedrich Nietzsche . In Sherlock Holmes and Philosophy : The Footprints of a Gigantic Mind ( 2011 ) , Samardžija notes that Pulaski 's argument that Data lacks intuition is reminiscent of parts of Nietzsche 's 1878 work Human , All Too Human . The relationship between Pulaski and Data was further considered by Rhonda V. Wilcox in her article " Dating Data : Miscegenation in Star Trek : The Next Generation " ( 1993 ) . Wilcox notes that Pulaski " frequently challenges Data in terms of his machine nature , expressing scorn for his supposed insensitivity . " She compares Data 's emotionless state to slavery due to the reference in " The Child " to Maya Angelou 's 1969 work I Know Why the Caged Bird Sings .
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= Noisy miner =
The noisy miner ( Manorina melanocephala ) is a bird in the honeyeater family , Meliphagidae , and is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia . This miner is a grey bird , with a black head , orange @-@ yellow beak and feet , a distinctive yellow patch behind the eye and white tips on the tail feathers . The Tasmanian race has a more intense yellow panel in the wing , and a broader white tip to the tail . Males , females and juveniles are similar in appearance , though young birds are a brownish @-@ grey . As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is a vocal species with a large range of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms , and almost constant vocalizations particularly from young birds . One of four species in the genus Manorina , the noisy miner itself is divided into four subspecies . The separation of the Tasmanian M. m. leachi is of long standing , and the mainland birds were further split in 1999 .
Found in a broad arc from Far North Queensland through New South Wales and Victoria to Tasmania and southeastern South Australia , the noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests that lack understory shrubs . These include forests dominated by spotted gum , box and ironbark , as well as in degraded woodland where the understory has been cleared , such as recently burned areas , farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery . The density of noisy miner populations has significantly increased in many locations across its range , particularly human @-@ dominated habitats . The popularity of nectar @-@ producing garden plants such as the large @-@ flowered grevilleas was thought to play a role in its proliferation , but studies now show that the noisy miner has benefited primarily from landscaping practices that create open areas dominated by eucalypts .
Noisy miners are gregarious and territorial ; they forage , bathe , roost , breed and defend territory communally , forming colonies that can contain several hundred birds . Each bird has an ' activity space ' and birds with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , the most stable units within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks called ' coalitions ' for specific activities such as mobbing a predator . Group cohesion is facilitated not only by vocalizations , but also through ritualised displays which have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . The noisy miner is a notably aggressive bird , and chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occur throughout the day , targeted at both intruders and colony members .
Foraging in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground , the noisy miner mainly eats nectar , fruit and insects . Most time is spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and it can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage . The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display , but copulation is a frenzied communal event . It breeds all year long , building a deep cup @-@ shaped nest and laying two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , although up to twenty male helpers take care of the nestlings and fledglings . Noisy miners have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods and group mobbing of predators . The noisy miner 's population increase has been correlated with the reduction of avian diversity in human @-@ affected landscapes . Its territoriality means that translocation is unlikely to be a solution to its overabundance , and culling has been proposed , although the noisy miner is currently a protected species across Australia .
= = Taxonomy = =
English ornithologist John Latham described the noisy miner four times in his 1801 work Supplementum Indicis Ornithologici , sive Systematis Ornithologiae , seemingly not knowing it was the same bird in each case : the chattering bee @-@ eater ( Merops garrulus ) , black @-@ headed grakle ( Gracula melanocephala ) , hooded bee @-@ eater ( Merops cucullatus ) , and white @-@ fronted bee @-@ eater ( Merops albifrons ) . Early notes recorded its tendency to scare off prey as hunters were about to shoot . It was as the chattering bee @-@ eater that it was painted between 1792 and 1797 by Thomas Watling , one of a group known collectively as the Port Jackson Painter . John Gould treated the name Merops garrulus as the original description , and renamed it Myzantha garrula in his 1865 work Handbook to the Birds of Australia , giving it the common name of garrulous honeyeater , and noting the alternate name of chattering honeyeater . He noted the colonists of Tasmania called it a miner , and aboriginal people of New South Wales called it cobaygin . Que que gang was a local aboriginal name from the Blue Mountains .
In the early 20th century , Australian ornithologists started using the name Manorina melanocephala instead , because it was listed first by Latham in 1801 . This usage did not follow the letter of the International Code of Zoological Nomenclature , and in 2009 the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature conserved the current name by formally suppressing the name M. garrula . The species name melanocephala is derived from the Ancient Greek words melas " black " , and kephale " head " , referring to its black crown . Other common names include Mickey miner and soldierbird . Four subspecies are recognised , including subspecies leachi found in eastern Tasmania . The mainland population was split into three subspecies in 1999 by Richard Schodde — titaniota from Cape York Peninsula in Queensland as far south as Mareeba , lepidota from central Queensland and inland New South Wales west of Nyngan , and the nominate subspecies melanocephala from southeastern New South Wales , Victoria , and southern South Australia . There are broad zones where birds are intermediate between subspecies . Further study is required to settle the taxonomic status of these populations .
The noisy miner is one of four species in the genus Manorina in the large family of honeyeaters known as Meliphagidae , the other three being the black @-@ eared miner ( M. melanotis ) , the yellow @-@ throated miner ( M. flavigula ) , and the bell miner ( M. melanophrys ) . One of the most obvious characteristics of the genus is a patch of bare yellow skin behind the eyes , which gives them an odd ' cross @-@ eyed ' look . Within the genus , the noisy , black @-@ eared and yellow @-@ throated miners form the subgenus Myzantha . The noisy miner occasionally hybridizes with the yellow @-@ throated miner . Molecular analysis has shown honeyeaters to be related to the Pardalotidae ( pardalotes ) , Acanthizidae ( Australian warblers , scrubwrens , thornbills , etc . ) , and the Maluridae ( Australian fairy @-@ wrens ) in a large Meliphagoidea superfamily .
= = Description = =
= = = Appearance = = =
The noisy miner is a large honeyeater , 24 – 28 centimetres ( 9 @.@ 4 – 11 @.@ 0 in ) in length , with a wingspan of 36 – 45 centimetres ( 14 – 18 in ) , and weighing 70 – 80 grams ( 2 @.@ 5 – 2 @.@ 8 oz ) . Male , female and juvenile birds all have similar plumage : grey on the back and tail and on the breast , and otherwise white underneath , with white scalloping on the nape and hind @-@ neck and on the breast ; off @-@ white forehead and lores ; a black band over the crown , bright orange @-@ yellow bill and a distinctive patch of yellow skin behind the eye ; a prominent white tip to the tail ; a narrow olive @-@ yellow panel in the folded wing ; and orange @-@ yellow legs and feet . A juvenile can be distinguished by softer plumage , a brownish tinge to the black on its head and the grey on its back , and a duller , greyish @-@ yellow skin patch behind the eye .
The noisy miner is similar in appearance to the yellow @-@ throated miner and the black @-@ eared miner ; it has a dull white forehead and a black crown , while the others have grey heads .
= = = = Geographical variations = = = =
Size variation in the noisy miner over its range follows Bergmann 's rule ; namely , birds tend to be larger where the climate is colder . Adults from central @-@ eastern and northern Queensland tend to have little or no olive @-@ yellow edging to the feathers of the back and wings , and have a wider white fringe on the feathers of the hind @-@ neck and back , giving birds from Queensland the appearance of having more distinctive scalloping than other populations . Wing length generally increases with latitude and M. m. leachi has measurably shorter wings than the nominate race , although no significant difference in wing length was found in a study of populations north of 30 ° S and south of the Murray River . The subspecies leachi also has finer scalloping on the hind @-@ neck than the nominate race , a more intense yellow tinge to the wing panels , and a slightly broader off @-@ white tip to the tail .
The far north Queensland subspecies titaniota has a shorter tail , paler crown , larger yellow skin patch , and paler upper parts without the yellow @-@ olive of the nominate race ; and lepidota , found in western New South Wales , is smaller than the nominate race with a black crown , and darker more mottled upperparts .
= = = Vocalisations = = =
As the common name suggests , the noisy miner is an unusually vocal species . Previously known as the garrulous honeyeater , it has a large and varied repertoire of songs , calls , scoldings and alarms . Most are loud and penetrating , and consist of harsh single notes . It has two broad @-@ frequency alarm calls that are used when mobbing intruders into their territory , or when predators ( including humans ) are sighted ; and a narrow @-@ frequency alarm call that is primarily used when airborne predators are seen , such as the brown falcon ( Falco berigora ) , or other large flying birds including the Australian magpie ( Cracticus tibicen ) and the pied currawong ( Strepera graculina ) . The aerial predator alarm call is a series of high @-@ pitched , slurred whistling notes . The broad @-@ frequency alarm calls are a series of ' churr ' notes , low pitched and harsh , occurring at low and high levels of intensity . The narrow @-@ band call is used in situations where the bird signals the presence of a predator and restricts information about its own location , while the broad @-@ band alarm is used to attract attention , and can initiate mobbing behaviour . These churring calls vary between individuals , and laboratory tests show noisy miners can distinguish calls by different birds . Hence , this may be integral to the complex social structure of the species .
Contact or social facilitation calls are low @-@ pitched sounds that carry long distances . ' Chip ' calls are given by individual birds when foraging , and a similar call is given by nestlings that call at an increased rate as the mother approaches the nest . Where there is a high level of social activity , such as during territorial disputes with conspecifics , calls are a series of quick , regular , single notes . The noisy miner has a mating display flight song , a soft warble of low @-@ frequency notes , given during short undulating flights by the male , and responded to by the female with a low @-@ frequency whistle . The noisy miner is found in open woodland habitats , where it is an advantage to call from the air so as to overcome sound attenuation . Another display call , described as ' yammer ' , is a rapid rhythmical series of notes that is uttered during open @-@ bill , wing @-@ waving displays . The noisy miner has a song described as the ' dawn song ' — a communal song of clear whistled notes emitted in chorus in the early hours of the morning from May through January . The dawn song , which is also sung at dusk , is audible over long distances and features duets that often involve antiphony .
A nestling begins to give the ' chip ' call soon after it emerges from the egg , and it calls frequently for the first two thirds of the nestling period and constantly for the last third . The call does not vary in the presence of an adult at the nest , so it seems likely that the call is not directed at the adult bird . The nestling becomes silent when an adult gives an alarm call , and makes a squealing sound when the adult delivers food . The begging call of a fledgling is similar to the call of the nestling , but significantly louder and covering a greater frequency range ( which may make it more directional ) . The rate of calling , on average , is 85 to 100 calls in a minute , and in open scrub the call can be heard up to a kilometre away . Subsong , a juvenile vocalization comprising elements of various calls , begins to be uttered when the fledgling is around thirty days old .
The noisy miner also produces non @-@ vocal sounds by clicking or snapping its bill , usually during antagonistic encounters with other bird species , or when mobbing a predator .
= = Distribution and habitat = =
The noisy miner is endemic to eastern and south @-@ eastern Australia , occupying a broad arc from Far North Queensland where there are scattered populations , to New South Wales where it is widespread and common from the coast to a line from Angledool to Balranald , through Victoria into south @-@ eastern South Australia , and eastern Tasmania . Its range in South Australia has been steadily expanding since it was first recorded near Adelaide in the early 1890s . It is sedentary over its entire range . The noisy miner is territorial , and the territory of a colony is aggressively defended — which has led to a significant reduction in avian diversity in areas occupied by the noisy miner , with smaller species excluded .
The noisy miner primarily inhabits dry , open eucalypt forests without understory shrubs . It is commonly found in open sclerophyll forests , including those on coastal dunes or granite outcrops ; forests dominated by spotted gum on mountain ridges and exposed slopes ; box and ironbark forests on the foothills of the Great Dividing Range ; mixed forests of eucalypts and cypress ( Callitris ) ; forests dominated by yapunya , mulga , gidgee , brigalow or emu bush ; in stands of belah and scattered clumps of boree ; on the edges of woodlands of river red gum including swamp woodlands bordering floodplains , and areas dominated by exotic species such as European ash and willow . It regularly inhabits degraded patches of forest where the understory has been cleared , including recently burned areas , and modified habitats such as lightly @-@ timbered farming and grazing areas , roadside reserves , bushland remnants in towns and cities , and suburban parks and gardens with trees and grass but without dense shrubbery .
The noisy miner has benefited from the thinning of woodland on rural properties , heavy grazing that removes the understory , fragmentation of woodland that increases the percentage of edge habitat , and urban landscaping practices that increase open eucalypt environments . It has been described as a ' reverse keystone ' species , as it is colonizing an ever @-@ increasing range of human @-@ dominated habitats , and aggressively excluding smaller bird species from urban environments . This phenomenon has been also observed in rural areas . A field study across the South West Slopes of New South Wales , showed that the noisy miner 's presence corresponded with reduced numbers of insectivorous birds such as fantails , whistlers , the restless flycatcher ( Myiagra inquieta ) , and other honeyeater species , and that this decrease was most marked in sites with better access to water and nutrients . While it has been hypothesized that the proliferation of large @-@ flowering grevillea cultivars has contributed to the abundance of noisy miners , recent research has identified the proliferation of lightly treed open areas , and the presence of eucalypt species as the most significant factors in the population increase . Large @-@ flowered grevillea hybrids such as Grevillea ' Robyn Gordon ' can benefit the noisy miner , in that an abundance of resources is usually dominated by larger aggressive honeyeaters , and a continuous nectar source could provide an advantage for the non @-@ migratory species . A field study in box @-@ ironbark country in central Victoria found miner numbers were correlated with the occurrence of yellow gum ( Eucalyptus leucoxylon ) , which reliably produces flowers ( and nectar ) each year . The abundance of the noisy miner is primarily determined by habitat structure .
While the range of the noisy miner has not significantly expanded , the density of the population within that range has substantially increased . High densities of noisy miners are regularly recorded in forests with thick understory in southern Queensland , 20 kilometres ( 12 mi ) or more from the forest / agricultural land edge . Many of these sites have extensive road networks used for forest management , and picnic areas and walking tracks for recreational use , and it has been found that these cleared spaces play a role in the abundance of noisy miners in the forests . There is evidence to suggest that higher road densities correspond with higher noisy miner population levels . Field work in Victoria showed noisy miners infiltrated anywhere from 150 to 300 m ( 490 to 980 ft ) into remnant woodland from the edges , with greater penetration occurring in less densely forested areas . This has implications for the size of woodland habitat needed to contain miner @-@ free areas — around 36 hectares ( 89 acres ) . Revegetation projects restoring buloke woodland , a species of she @-@ oak integral to the survival of the red @-@ tailed black cockatoo ( Calyptorynchus banksii ) , have been interplanted with a nurse species , usually fast @-@ growing eucalypts . Noisy miner populations were more likely in those buloke woodlands where eucalypts had been planted at densities of up to 16 per hectare ( 6 @.@ 4 per acre ) . The presence of noisy miners was accompanied by a substantial difference in number and types of other birds found in the woodland .
= = Behaviour = =
= = = Social organization = = =
The noisy miner is a gregarious species , and the birds are rarely seen singly or in twos ; they forage , move and roost in colonies that can consist of several hundred birds
Within a colony , a male bird will occupy an ' activity space ' , which will overlap with the activity spaces of other males . Males with overlapping activity spaces form associations called ' coteries ' , usually consisting of 10 to 25 birds . Coteries are the most stable unit within the colony . The birds also form temporary flocks when engaged in the same activity . These flocks , called ' coalitions ' , usually comprise five to eight birds , although coalitions of up to 40 birds can occur when mobbing a potential predator . Membership of the coalition changes frequently as individuals leave the group as it passes beyond the boundary of their activity space , or the activity ends or changes , as when the breeding season begins . Females use activity spaces that overlap with those of male birds , but not other females , so that females will join coalitions with males in their area , but only rarely will there be more than one female in the coalition . The exclusivity of female activity spaces leads to young females being driven out of the colony in which they were born , and also makes it difficult for them to gain a place in a new colony . A study of banded nestlings that survived in one colony until the next breeding season , found that they were all male birds , suggesting that all female nestlings had died or left the colony . Emigration of males does not seem to occur until the population density of the colony reaches a critical level .
Looking after the young is communal , with males of the coterie bringing food to the nestlings and removing faecal sacs . Communal feeding increases after fledging , when males from nearby coteries may even bring food to the young birds if not driven off . Roosting is usually communal , with two to six adults and juveniles roosting in contact with each other , usually near the end of a hanging branch up to 20 metres ( 66 ft ) above ground , within their activity space . They select a new site each evening , often selecting and rejecting several sites , and engaging in aggressive calling and chasing as other birds attempt to join the group . They are often the last birds to roost at night , but appear to sleep soundly , undisturbed by torchlight . Noisy miners drink together at the edge of lakes and dams , and from cattle troughs , often perching on a submerged branch . They bathe by diving head first into water and , when almost totally submerged , flapping their wings vigorously and ducking their heads under the water . They shake excess water off and then fly to a nearby branch to preen . They have been observed using rain- or dew @-@ soaked foliage to bathe , and in dry weather will dust @-@ bathe in dry soil or fine litter such as grass clippings . Bathing is communal , with birds stimulated to participate by observing others . They are occasionally observed anting .
= = = = Flock behaviour = = = =
The noisy miner engages in most activities in a group . Roosting , foraging , preening , bathing and dust @-@ bathing or anting are communal activities . Dawn song is a communal chorus , particularly during the breeding season . The communal interaction is facilitated by ritualised displays that have been categorised as flight displays , postural displays , and facial displays . In ' long flight ' displays , initiated by either male or female birds , groups of up to twenty birds from more than one coterie fly about 40 metres ( 130 ft ) above the canopy for distances of up to 1 @.@ 5 kilometres ( 0 @.@ 93 mi ) from the colony , constantly calling and not returning to the colony for about twenty minutes . As they return the remaining birds show signs of agitation , and sometimes fly up to join them . The ' short flight ' display is performed by the male , and may be analogous to the territorial advertising displays of other birds . In a ritualised movement , the noisy miner flies out from a perch across an open area , in a rhythmic undulating pattern , usually calling in flight . At the end of the clearing it turns on an upward swoop and flies silently back to a perch near the starting point . The ' head @-@ up flight ' is performed by the female during the nesting period , and may function to attract male helpers . In its most intense form the body and tail are held almost vertically , with legs dangling and the head held up and back . It is performed by the female when she is selecting the nest site , and when carrying nest @-@ building material , and probably has the function of indicating the location of the nest to other group members .
Postural displays include tall and low poses , pointing , open bill , and wing waving . The ' tall posture ' is used when in close contact with another bird and is a mild threat . The bird holds itself upright with neck and legs stretched , and it faces the other bird . The ' low posture ' is a submissive gesture ; the bird sits low on the perch with legs obscured by fluffed feathers and often faces away from the other bird . Fledglings threatened by adult birds will adopt a low posture and open their bill widely . ' Pointing ' is a threat display where the bird stretches out horizontally , with feathers sleeked and the bill pointed at the target of the aggression . A bill snap will sometimes accompany pointing . An ' open bill display ' is used by subordinates in encounters between two birds , and by a female on the nest when other birds approach . The ' trident bill display ' involves a fully open bill with the tongue raised and protruding and is a higher @-@ intensity submissive display . ' Wing waving ' is often performed at the same time as an open bill display . The wings are flexed and held slightly away from the body , and flapped out and up around three to six times . Wing waving may be accompanied by a yammer call . ' Eagle ' displays involve holding the wings and tail spread out , in either a vertical or horizontal position .
Eye displays are made by exposing or covering the bare yellow patch behind the eye — when the feathers are completely sleeked the entire patch is visible , and when they are fluffed the patch is hidden . Eye displays are used in conjunction with postural displays , with the yellow patch fully displayed by dominant birds using threat postures , and immature birds tending to reduce the size of the eye patch when under attack from other members of the coterie .
On occasion early in the breeding season , mass displays erupt , where twenty or thirty birds perform the various wing @-@ spreading displays , short flights , and constant calling . Displaying birds are attacked by others , and groups of silent but agitated birds watch the interactions . Mass displays are more common in the early morning , can last for up to 40 minutes , and seem to be a combination of sexual and agonistic behaviour .
A ' corroboree ' ( from the word for a ceremonial meeting of Aboriginal Australians ) is a group display where birds converge on adjacent branches and simultaneously pose hunchbacked , giving wing @-@ waving and open @-@ bill displays and the yammer call . A corroboree occurs when birds meet after a change in the social environment , such as a bird returning after an absence , or the repulsion of an intruder , or the coming together of different coteries . The corroboree appears to have a bonding function , and may involve all members of a colony .
= = = = Antagonistic behaviour = = = =
Described as " always at war with others of the feathered kind " in early notes , the noisy miner is one of the most aggressive of the honeyeaters . Much of the activity within a noisy miner colony is antagonistic with chasing , pecking , fighting , scolding , and mobbing occurring frequently throughout the day . The birds unite to attack predators and to defend the colony area against all other species of birds ; the species is also highly aggressive intraspecifically .
Female noisy miners are aggressive towards each other , and one cause of a male @-@ biased sex @-@ ratio in colonies may be the females ' greater intolerance for each other , driving immatures out of the colony and preventing the immigration of new females . Aggression at the nest is common between males . Adult males begin attacking juveniles when they are around 11 weeks old , and attackers can include males that previously cared for the fledgling . Adult females are less aggressive towards young birds , although mothers do occasionally attack their own offspring , and infanticide has been recorded . There is little male to female aggression other than the ' driving flights ' that form part of the mating ritual . In direct attacks of young birds pecks are directed at the eye patch . Agonistic behaviour has been observed among nestlings , with aggression intensifying after fledging and at times resulting in the death of a sibling .
The noisy miner colony unites to mob inter @-@ specific intruders and predators . The noisy miner will approach the threat closely and point , expose eye patches , and often bill @-@ snap . Five to fifteen birds will fly around the intruder , some birds diving at it and either pulling away or striking the intruder . The mobbing continues until the intruder remains still , as with a tawny frogmouth ( Podargus strigoides ) , or it leaves the area . Mobbing of snakes and goannas is particularly intense , and most species of bird , even non @-@ predators , entering the territory are immediately chased . The noisy miner has been recorded attacking an Australian owlet @-@ nightjar ( Aegotheles cristatus ) during the day , grebes , herons , ducks and cormorants on lakes at the edge of territories , crested pigeons ( Ocyphaps lophotes ) , pardalotes , and rosellas . Non @-@ predatory mammals such as bats , cattle , sheep , and wallabies are also attacked , though less vigorously than birds .
Noisy miner attacks are not limited to chasing the intruder , and aggressive incidents often result in the death of the trespasser . Reports include those of two noisy miners repeatedly pecking a house sparrow ( Passer domesticus ) at the base of its skull and killing it in six minutes ; one noisy miner grasping a striated pardalote ( Pardalotus striatus ) by the wing while another pecked it on the head until it died ; and a sacred kingfisher ( Todiramphus sanctus ) being chased and harassed for over five hours and then found dead with a fractured skull .
= = = = Response to threats = = = =
Noisy miners make louder alarm calls in noisier sections of urban environments , such as main roads . The most common initial response to alarm calls is to stay in the area and scan for threats , rather than withdraw . A study conducted in Melbourne and a nearby rural area found that noisy miners in urban areas were less likely to take flight , and when they did they flew shorter distances . It is unclear whether this is an adaptation or bolder miners had been the ones to settle in the city . A field study in Canberra found that superb fairywrens ( Malurus cyaneus ) that lived in areas frequented by noisy miners recognised miner alarm calls and took flight , and had learnt to ignore their non @-@ alarm calls , while those that live in areas not frequented by noisy miners did not respond to miner alarm calls . This suggests the species has adapted and learnt to discriminate and respond to another species ' vocalisations .
= = = Feeding = = =
The noisy miner primarily eats nectar , fruit and insects , and occasionally it feeds on small reptiles or amphibians . It is both arboreal and terrestrial , feeding in the canopy of trees and on trunks and branches and on the ground . It forages within the colony 's territory throughout the year , usually in groups of five to eight birds although hundreds may gather at a stand of flowering trees such as banksia . The noisy miner collects nectar directly from flowers , hanging upside down or straddling thin branches acrobatically to access the nectar ; it takes fruit from trees or fallen on the ground ; gleans or hawks for invertebrates ; and picks through leaf litter for insects . It has been recorded turning over the dried droppings of emu ( Dromaius novaehollandiae ) and eastern grey kangaroo ( Macropus giganteus ) searching for insects .
In a study of birds foraging in suburban gardens , the noisy miner was seen to spend more time in banksia , grevillea and eucalypt species , and when in flower , callistemon , than in other plants including exotics . Most time was spent gleaning the foliage of eucalypts , and noisy miners were significantly more abundant in sites where eucalypts were present . The noisy miner can meet most of its nutritional needs from manna , honeydew and lerp gathered from the foliage of eucalypts . Lower numbers of noisy miner were recorded at banksias and grevilleas than other large honeyeaters such as little wattlebird ( Anthochaera chrysoptera ) and red wattlebird ( Anthochaera carunculata ) .
Detailed studies of the diet of the noisy miner record it eating a range of foods including : spiders ; insects ( leaf beetles , ladybirds , stink bugs , ants , moth and butterfly larvae ) ; nectar ( from Jacaranda mimosifolia , Erythrina variegata , Lagunaria patersonia , Callistemon salignus , Callistemon viminalis , eucalypts Argyle apple , sugar gum , yellow gum , grey ironbark , and grey gum , Banksia ericifolia , B. integrifolia , B. serrata , Grevillea aspleniifolia , G. banksii , G. hookeriana , G. juniperina , G. rosmarinifolia , and flowering quince ) ; seeds from oats , wheat and pepper tree ; fruit from saltbush , mistletoe and crabapple ; frogs and skinks ; and other matter such as bread , pieces of meat and cheese , and food scraps .
In the first study to demonstrate different learning techniques in a single species , the noisy miner was found to employ different cognitive strategies depending upon the resource it was foraging . When searching for nectar , which does not move but is readily depleted , the noisy miner uses a spatial memory @-@ based strategy , identifying characteristics of the environment — a strategy that is efficient in new environments and is not affected by changes in the bird 's activities . When searching for invertebrates , it appears to employ a different strategy based on learned rules of insect movement ( they improve at finding invertebrates with practice ) . The two different strategies imply the existence of adapted cognitive mechanisms , capable of responding appropriately to different foraging contexts .
= = = Breeding = = =
The noisy miner does not use a stereotyped courtship display ; displays can involve ' driving ' where the male jumps or flies at the female from 1 – 2 metres ( 3 @.@ 3 – 6 @.@ 6 ft ) away , and if she moves away he pursues her aggressively . The female may perform a ' bowed @-@ wing display ' where the wings and tail are spread and quivered , with the wings arched and the head pointing down . The male may adopt a vertical or horizontal ' eagle display ' with wings and tail spread wide and held still for several seconds . Copulation is frequent and conspicuous , with both males and females copulating with several birds , while other members of the colony display or otherwise interfere with the mating pair . Copulation usually occurs on larger , exposed branches close to the nest site and can occur at any time of the day , although slightly more often between 11 : 00 and 13 : 00 when communal activities are less frequent . The frenzied courtship activity had led to speculation that the female mates promiscuously to recruit males to help care for the young , but recent genetic testing shows that 96 @.@ 5 % of noisy miner broods result from monogamous mating and that multiple paternity is rare . An observation of banded birds noted that while females copulated repeatedly , it was always with the same male . Mate switching between broods is uncommon , with pairs staying together over several years .
The noisy miner breeds all year long , with most activity from July through November , though the peak period is subject to seasonal variations with sharp peaks in laying activity when conditions are particularly favourable for raising young . The nest is built in prickly or leafy trees , and the noisy miner is often recorded nesting in eucalypts , and also in wattles , Araucaria , Banksia , Bursaria , Hibiscus , mistletoe , Melaleuca , Pittosporum , Schinus and jacaranda . It seems to prefer moderately dense foliage for nesting , often near the end of drooping horizontal branches . Support for the nest may be the primary criterion of a suitable nest site , rather than characteristics of the vegetation or location . The female alone builds the nest , which is deep and cup @-@ shaped , woven of twigs and grasses with other plant material , animal hair and spider webs . Occasionally the nest will include man @-@ made materials such as twine , scraps of material , and tissue paper . It is lined with wool , hair , feathers , flowers or plant down , and padded with a circular mat woven from fibres pulled from the cocoons of the processional caterpillar . The female noisy miner walks around on the ground close to the nest site , picking up material . She gathers material from disused nests of other birds , or dismantles its most recent nest to build a new one . The female completes the nest in five or six days . On average nests have an external diameter of 15 – 17 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 5 @.@ 9 – 7 @.@ 0 in ) and an external depth of 9 – 11 @.@ 4 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 5 – 4 @.@ 5 in ) . The internal depth of the nest is around 5 @.@ 5 centimetres ( 2 @.@ 2 in ) .
Eggs vary greatly in size , shape and markings , but are generally elongated ovals ; white to cream or pinkish or buff coloured ; freckled , spotted or blotched with reddish brown to chestnut or a purplish red , sometimes with underlying markings of violet or purplish grey . The clutch consists of two to four eggs . Incubation is by the female only , and the incubation period is around sixteen days . Hatching is asynchronous , with up to six days being recorded between the hatching of the first and last chicks in a clutch . Young are naked at hatching , and develop a cover of down within two to three days . The fledging period is around sixteen days , and young begin to find food for themselves between twenty @-@ six and thirty days after fledging , but are still regularly fed by adults to thirty @-@ five days . The young leave the nest before they are fully fledged , and only able to fly downwards , and scramble up . They do not go far from the nest , return to it at night , and take some weeks to completely leave the nest . Many fledglings are found on the ground and in low shrubs during this period , where they continue to be cared for until they can make their way up into the trees . These birds are often mistakenly " rescued " . The fledglings seek out siblings if separated , and huddle together for up to three weeks after fledging .
The noisy miner has some of the largest group sizes of any communally breeding bird , with up to twenty males and one female attending a single brood . Only males help with a nest , and while many birds may be associated with a particular brood , some males devote all their time to a single nest , while others spread their helping efforts across five or six nests . Behavioural evidence and genetic testing indicate that helpers are male offspring of the breeding pair , or full siblings of the male parent . Males nearly always bring food to the nestling singly , and if several arrive at once one will pass food to a nestling while the others wait . The female leaves the nest quickly when a male bird arrives , and never takes food from one of the helpers . Communal feeding of the young increases after fledging , and the young beg for food with constant ' chip chip ' calls and gaping mouths . The female rarely feeds the young birds after they have fledged .
= = = = Nest predation = = = =
Cooperative breeding has been described as a strategy for decreasing nest predation , although one study found no relationship between the number of helpers visiting a nest site and its success or failure . Noisy miners were seen to have a range of strategies to increase their breeding success including multiple broods , laying eggs early in the season , nesting low in the canopy and group mobbing of predators ; these measures did not guarantee against nest failure due to the diversity of potential predators in the noisy miner 's open woodland habitat .
= = Conservation status = =
Being abundant throughout its significant range , the noisy miner is considered of least concern for conservation , and its extreme population densities in some areas actually constitute a threat to other species . The strong correlation between the presence of noisy miners and the absence of avian diversity has been well documented . The role played by the noisy miner in the steep decline of many woodland birds , its impact on endangered species with similar foraging requirements , and the level of leaf damage leading to die @-@ back that accompanies the exclusion of insectivorous birds from remnant woodlands , means that any strategy to restore avian diversity will need to take account of the management of noisy miner populations . Some habitat restoration and revegetation projects have inadvertently increased the problem of the noisy miner by establishing the open eucalypt habit that they prefer . A focus of many regeneration projects has been the establishing of habitat corridors that connect patches of remnant forest , and the use of eucalypts as fast @-@ growing nurse species . Both practices have sound ecological value , but allow the noisy miner to proliferate , so conservation efforts are being modified by planting a shrubby understory with the eucalypts , and avoiding the creation of narrow protrusions , corners or clumps of trees in vegetation corridors . A field study conducted in the Southern Highlands found that noisy miners tended to avoid areas dominated by wattles , species of which in the study area had bipinnate leaves . Hence the authors proposed revegetation projects include at least 15 % Acacia species with bipinnate leaves if possible , as well as shrubby understory plants .
Translocation of noisy miners is unlikely to be a solution to their overabundance in remnant habitats . In a Victorian study where birds were banded and relocated , colonies moved into the now unpopulated area but soon returned to their original territories . The translocated birds did not settle in a new territory . They were not assimilated into resident populations of miners , but instead wandered up to 4 @.@ 2 kilometres ( 2 @.@ 6 mi ) from the release point , moving through apparently suitable habitat occupied by other miners — at least for the first 50 days following translocation . Two birds with radio tracking devices travelled 18 kilometres ( 11 mi ) back to their site of capture . Although noisy miners are protected across Australia , and a permit is required to cull them , culling has been proposed as the most humane and practical method of reducing their impact , particularly where combined with rehabilitation of the habitat to suit a wider variety of bird life . An unsanctioned cull took place on private rural property over 1991 and 1992 , which reportedly resulted in an increase in species diversity .
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= Principe Amedeo @-@ class ironclad =
The Principe Amedeo class was a pair of ironclad warships built for the Italian Regia Marina ( Royal Navy ) in the 1870s and 1880s . They were the culmination of a major naval construction program designed to give Italy a powerful fleet of ironclads . The two ships , Principe Amedeo and Palestro , were the last Italian ironclads to feature sailing rigs and wooden hulls . They were armed with a battery of six 10 @-@ inch ( 254 mm ) guns and were capable of a speed in excess of 12 knots ( 22 km / h ; 14 mph ) . The ships had uneventful careers , spending much of it in Italy 's colonial empire . By the late 1880s , they were withdrawn from service and employed in secondary roles , first as headquarters ships for harbor defenses . Principe Amedeo was converted into a depot ship in 1895 and was discarded in 1910 , while Palestro was used as a training ship from 1894 to 1900 before being scrapped in 1902 – 04 .
= = Design = =
In 1862 , the Italian government under Prime Minister Urbano Rattazzi and his naval minister Carlo Pellion di Persano made the decision to build a fleet of ironclad warships . The Italian fleet had already acquired a pair of small , French @-@ built armored frigates of the Formidabile class , and two more vessels of the Re d 'Italia class had been ordered from the United States . Five more ironclads were ordered from foreign shipyards , three wooden steam frigates already under construction were converted into armored ships , and four more ironclads were ordered from Italian shipyards . The two Principe Amedeo @-@ class ships were the last two of this first generation of Italian ironclads . The design for Principe Amedeo was prepared by Inspector Engineer Giuseppe De Luca . He had initially planned on using entirely wooden hulls for the ships , but had changed to composite wood and iron construction by the time the ships were laid down .
= = = General characteristics and machinery = = =
The two ships differed slightly in size . Principe Amedeo was 79 @.@ 73 meters ( 261 @.@ 6 ft ) long between perpendiculars , while Palestro was 78 @.@ 82 m ( 258 @.@ 6 ft ) long . Principe Amedeo had a beam of 17 @.@ 4 m ( 57 ft ) and a draft of 7 @.@ 9 m ( 26 ft ) ; Palestro 's beam measured 17 @.@ 3 m ( 57 ft ) , and she had a draft of 8 m ( 26 ft ) . Both ships displaced 5 @,@ 761 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 670 long tons ; 6 @,@ 350 short tons ) normally , but Principe Amedeo displaced 6 @,@ 020 t ( 5 @,@ 920 long tons ; 6 @,@ 640 short tons ) at full load and Palestro reached 3 @,@ 218 t ( 3 @,@ 167 long tons ; 3 @,@ 547 short tons ) . They had a crew of 548 officers and men .
The ships ' propulsion system consisted of one single @-@ expansion steam engine that drove a single screw propeller , with steam supplied by six coal @-@ fired , cylindrical fire @-@ tube boilers . The boilers were trunked into a single funnel . The lead ship 's engine produced a top speed of 12 @.@ 2 knots ( 22 @.@ 6 km / h ; 14 @.@ 0 mph ) at 6 @,@ 117 indicated horsepower ( 4 @,@ 561 kW ) , while Palestro made 12 @.@ 85 kn ( 23 @.@ 80 km / h ; 14 @.@ 79 mph ) at the same horsepower . They could steam for 1 @,@ 780 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 300 km ; 2 @,@ 050 mi ) at a speed of 10 knots ( 19 km / h ; 12 mph ) . The ships were barque @-@ rigged to supplement the steam engine ; Principe Amedeo and her sister were the last rigged ironclad to be built by Italy . The ships ' sail area were 36 @,@ 738 square feet ( 3 @,@ 413 @.@ 1 m2 ) for Principe Amedeo and 37 @,@ 361 sq ft ( 3 @,@ 471 @.@ 0 m2 ) for Palestro .
= = = Armament and armor = = =
Palestro and Principe Amedeo were both armed with a main battery of six 10 in ( 254 mm ) guns , though they were mounted differently in each ship . Principe Amedeo carried hers in a single armored casemate located amidships , while Palestro 's guns were mounted in three armored casemates . The first was located forward , toward the bow , the second and third were placed close to the stern on each side of the ship . Both ships also carried an 11 in ( 279 mm ) gun that was mounted forward as a bow chaser . Later in her career , Principe Amedeo received a secondary battery of six 2 @.@ 9 in ( 74 mm ) guns and six machine guns , along with two torpedo tubes .
The two ships were protected by iron belt armor that was 8 @.@ 7 in ( 221 mm ) thick and extended for the entire length of the hull . The casemates were protected with 5 @.@ 5 in ( 140 mm ) of iron plating , and the small conning tower had 2 @.@ 4 in ( 61 mm ) thick iron plates .
= = Ships = =
= = Service history = =
Neither ship had a particularly eventful career . They were completed too late to take part in the final stages of the wars of Italian unification . Instead , they were assigned to the Italian colonial empire , with occasional stints in the main Italian fleet . In 1880 , Palestro took part in a naval demonstration off Ragusa in an attempt to force the Ottoman Empire to comply with the terms of the Treaty of Berlin and turn over the town of Ulcinj to Montenegro . The following year , Principe Amedeo was involved in a collision with the ironclad Roma during a hurricane , though neither ship was damaged .
In the late 1880s , both ships were withdrawn from frontline service and employed as headquarters ships for the defense of Taranto — Principe Amedeo — and La Maddalena — Palestro . Principe Amedeo was stricken from the naval register in 1895 and used as an ammunition depot ship in Taranto until 1910 , when she was sold for scrap . Palestro was employed as a training ship between 1894 and 1900 , when she too was stricken from the register . She was broken up between 1902 and 1904 .
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= Cell nucleus =
In cell biology , the nucleus ( pl. nuclei ; from Latin nucleus or nuculeus , meaning kernel ) is a membrane @-@ enclosed organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Eukaryotes usually have a single nucleus , but a few cell types , such as mammalian red blood cells , have no nuclei , and a few others have many .
Cell nuclei contain most of the cell 's genetic material , organized as multiple long linear DNA molecules in complex with a large variety of proteins , such as histones , to form chromosomes . The genes within these chromosomes are the cell 's nuclear genome and are structured in such a way to promote cell function . The nucleus maintains the integrity of genes and controls the activities of the cell by regulating gene expression — the nucleus is , therefore , the control center of the cell . The main structures making up the nucleus are the nuclear envelope , a double membrane that encloses the entire organelle and isolates its contents from the cellular cytoplasm , and the nuclear matrix ( which includes the nuclear lamina ) , a network within the nucleus that adds mechanical support , much like the cytoskeleton , which supports the cell as a whole .
Because the nuclear membrane is impermeable to large molecules , nuclear pores are required that regulate nuclear transport of molecules across the envelope . The pores cross both nuclear membranes , providing a channel through which larger molecules must be actively transported by carrier proteins while allowing free movement of small molecules and ions . Movement of large molecules such as proteins and RNA through the pores is required for both gene expression and the maintenance of chromosomes . Although the interior of the nucleus does not contain any membrane @-@ bound sub compartments , its contents are not uniform , and a number of sub @-@ nuclear bodies exist , made up of unique proteins , RNA molecules , and particular parts of the chromosomes . The best @-@ known of these is the nucleolus , which is mainly involved in the assembly of ribosomes . After being produced in the nucleolus , ribosomes are exported to the cytoplasm where they translate mRNA .
= = History = =
The nucleus was the first organelle to be discovered . What is most likely the oldest preserved drawing dates back to the early microscopist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek ( 1632 – 1723 ) . He observed a " lumen " , the nucleus , in the red blood cells of salmon . Unlike mammalian red blood cells , those of other vertebrates still contain nuclei .
The nucleus was also described by Franz Bauer in 1804 and in more detail in 1831 by Scottish botanist Robert Brown in a talk at the Linnean Society of London . Brown was studying orchids under microscope when he observed an opaque area , which he called the " areola " or " nucleus " , in the cells of the flower 's outer layer .
He did not suggest a potential function . In 1838 , Matthias Schleiden proposed that the nucleus plays a role in generating cells , thus he introduced the name " cytoblast " ( cell builder ) . He believed that he had observed new cells assembling around " cytoblasts " . Franz Meyen was a strong opponent of this view , having already described cells multiplying by division and believing that many cells would have no nuclei . The idea that cells can be generated de novo , by the " cytoblast " or otherwise , contradicted work by Robert Remak ( 1852 ) and Rudolf Virchow ( 1855 ) who decisively propagated the new paradigm that cells are generated solely by cells ( " Omnis cellula e cellula " ) . The function of the nucleus remained unclear .
Between 1877 and 1878 , Oscar Hertwig published several studies on the fertilization of sea urchin eggs , showing that the nucleus of the sperm enters the oocyte and fuses with its nucleus . This was the first time it was suggested that an individual develops from a ( single ) nucleated cell . This was in contradiction to Ernst Haeckel 's theory that the complete phylogeny of a species would be repeated during embryonic development , including generation of the first nucleated cell from a " monerula " , a structureless mass of primordial mucus ( " Urschleim " ) . Therefore , the necessity of the sperm nucleus for fertilization was discussed for quite some time . However , Hertwig confirmed his observation in other animal groups , including amphibians and molluscs . Eduard Strasburger produced the same results for plants in 1884 . This paved the way to assign the nucleus an important role in heredity . In 1873 , August Weismann postulated the equivalence of the maternal and paternal germ cells for heredity . The function of the nucleus as carrier of genetic information became clear only later , after mitosis was discovered and the Mendelian rules were rediscovered at the beginning of the 20th century ; the chromosome theory of heredity was therefore developed .
= = Structures = =
The nucleus is the largest cellular organelle in animal cells . In mammalian cells , the average diameter of the nucleus is approximately 6 micrometres ( µm ) , which occupies about 10 % of the total cell volume . The viscous liquid within it is called nucleoplasm , and is similar in composition to the cytosol found outside the nucleus . It appears as a dense , roughly spherical or irregular organelle .
= = = Nuclear envelope and pores = = =
The nuclear envelope , otherwise known as nuclear membrane , consists of two cellular membranes , an inner and an outer membrane , arranged parallel to one another and separated by 10 to 50 nanometres ( nm ) . The nuclear envelope completely encloses the nucleus and separates the cell 's genetic material from the surrounding cytoplasm , serving as a barrier to prevent macromolecules from diffusing freely between the nucleoplasm and the cytoplasm . The outer nuclear membrane is continuous with the membrane of the rough endoplasmic reticulum ( RER ) , and is similarly studded with ribosomes . The space between the membranes is called the perinuclear space and is continuous with the RER lumen .
Nuclear pores , which provide aqueous channels through the envelope , are composed of multiple proteins , collectively referred to as nucleoporins . The pores are about 125 million daltons in molecular weight and consist of around 50 ( in yeast ) to several hundred proteins ( in vertebrates ) . The pores are 100 nm in total diameter ; however , the gap through which molecules freely diffuse is only about 9 nm wide , due to the presence of regulatory systems within the center of the pore . This size selectively allows the passage of small water @-@ soluble molecules while preventing larger molecules , such as nucleic acids and larger proteins , from inappropriately entering or exiting the nucleus . These large molecules must be actively transported into the nucleus instead . The nucleus of a typical mammalian cell will have about 3000 to 4000 pores throughout its envelope , each of which contains an eightfold @-@ symmetric ring @-@ shaped structure at a position where the inner and outer membranes fuse . Attached to the ring is a structure called the nuclear basket that extends into the nucleoplasm , and a series of filamentous extensions that reach into the cytoplasm . Both structures serve to mediate binding to nuclear transport proteins .
Most proteins , ribosomal subunits , and some DNAs are transported through the pore complexes in a process mediated by a family of transport factors known as karyopherins . Those karyopherins that mediate movement into the nucleus are also called importins , whereas those that mediate movement out of the nucleus are called exportins . Most karyopherins interact directly with their cargo , although some use adaptor proteins . Steroid hormones such as cortisol and aldosterone , as well as other small lipid @-@ soluble molecules involved in intercellular signaling , can diffuse through the cell membrane and into the cytoplasm , where they bind nuclear receptor proteins that are trafficked into the nucleus . There they serve as transcription factors when bound to their ligand ; in the absence of ligand , many such receptors function as histone deacetylases that repress gene expression .
= = = Nuclear lamina = = =
In animal cells , two networks of intermediate filaments provide the nucleus with mechanical support : The nuclear lamina forms an organized meshwork on the internal face of the envelope , while less organized support is provided on the cytosolic face of the envelope . Both systems provide structural support for the nuclear envelope and anchoring sites for chromosomes and nuclear pores .
The nuclear lamina is composed mostly of lamin proteins . Like all proteins , lamins are synthesized in the cytoplasm and later transported to the nucleus interior , where they are assembled before being incorporated into the existing network of nuclear lamina . Lamins found on the cytosolic face of the membrane , such as emerin and nesprin , bind to the cytoskeleton to provide structural support . Lamins are also found inside the nucleoplasm where they form another regular structure , known as the nucleoplasmic veil , that is visible using fluorescence microscopy . The actual function of the veil is not clear , although it is excluded from the nucleolus and is present during interphase . Lamin structures that make up the veil , such as LEM3 , bind chromatin and disrupting their structure inhibits transcription of protein @-@ coding genes .
Like the components of other intermediate filaments , the lamin monomer contains an alpha @-@ helical domain used by two monomers to coil around each other , forming a dimer structure called a coiled coil . Two of these dimer structures then join side by side , in an antiparallel arrangement , to form a tetramer called a protofilament . Eight of these protofilaments form a lateral arrangement that is twisted to form a ropelike filament . These filaments can be assembled or disassembled in a dynamic manner , meaning that changes in the length of the filament depend on the competing rates of filament addition and removal .
Mutations in lamin genes leading to defects in filament assembly cause a group of rare genetic disorders known as laminopathies . The most notable laminopathy is the family of diseases known as progeria , which causes the appearance of premature aging in its sufferers . The exact mechanism by which the associated biochemical changes give rise to the aged phenotype is not well understood .
= = = Chromosomes = = =
The cell nucleus contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material in the form of multiple linear DNA molecules organized into structures called chromosomes . Each human cell contains roughly two meters of DNA . During most of the cell cycle these are organized in a DNA @-@ protein complex known as chromatin , and during cell division the chromatin can be seen to form the well @-@ defined chromosomes familiar from a karyotype . A small fraction of the cell 's genes are located instead in the mitochondria .
There are two types of chromatin . Euchromatin is the less compact DNA form , and contains genes that are frequently expressed by the cell . The other type , heterochromatin , is the more compact form , and contains DNA that is infrequently transcribed . This structure is further categorized into facultative heterochromatin , consisting of genes that are organized as heterochromatin only in certain cell types or at certain stages of development , and constitutive heterochromatin that consists of chromosome structural components such as telomeres and centromeres . During interphase the chromatin organizes itself into discrete individual patches , called chromosome territories . Active genes , which are generally found in the euchromatic region of the chromosome , tend to be located towards the chromosome 's territory boundary .
Antibodies to certain types of chromatin organization , in particular , nucleosomes , have been associated with a number of autoimmune diseases , such as systemic lupus erythematosus . These are known as anti @-@ nuclear antibodies ( ANA ) and have also been observed in concert with multiple sclerosis as part of general immune system dysfunction . As in the case of progeria , the role played by the antibodies in inducing the symptoms of autoimmune diseases is not obvious .
= = = Nucleolus = = =
The nucleolus is a discrete densely stained structure found in the nucleus . It is not surrounded by a membrane , and is sometimes called a suborganelle . It forms around tandem repeats of rDNA , DNA coding for ribosomal RNA ( rRNA ) . These regions are called nucleolar organizer regions ( NOR ) . The main roles of the nucleolus are to synthesize rRNA and assemble ribosomes . The structural cohesion of the nucleolus depends on its activity , as ribosomal assembly in the nucleolus results in the transient association of nucleolar components , facilitating further ribosomal assembly , and hence further association . This model is supported by observations that inactivation of rDNA results in intermingling of nucleolar structures .
In the first step of ribosome assembly , a protein called RNA polymerase I transcribes rDNA , which forms a large pre @-@ rRNA precursor . This is cleaved into the subunits 5.8S , 18S , and 28S rRNA . The transcription , post @-@ transcriptional processing , and assembly of rRNA occurs in the nucleolus , aided by small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) molecules , some of which are derived from spliced introns from messenger RNAs encoding genes related to ribosomal function . The assembled ribosomal subunits are the largest structures passed through the nuclear pores .
When observed under the electron microscope , the nucleolus can be seen to consist of three distinguishable regions : the innermost fibrillar centers ( FCs ) , surrounded by the dense fibrillar component ( DFC ) , which in turn is bordered by the granular component ( GC ) . Transcription of the rDNA occurs either in the FC or at the FC @-@ DFC boundary , and , therefore , when rDNA transcription in the cell is increased , more FCs are detected . Most of the cleavage and modification of rRNAs occurs in the DFC , while the latter steps involving protein assembly onto the ribosomal subunits occur in the GC .
= = = Other subnuclear bodies = = =
Besides the nucleolus , the nucleus contains a number of other non @-@ membrane @-@ delineated bodies . These include Cajal bodies , Gemini of coiled bodies , polymorphic interphase karyosomal association ( PIKA ) , promyelocytic leukaemia ( PML ) bodies , paraspeckles , and splicing speckles . Although little is known about a number of these domains , they are significant in that they show that the nucleoplasm is not a uniform mixture , but rather contains organized functional subdomains .
Other subnuclear structures appear as part of abnormal disease processes . For example , the presence of small intranuclear rods has been reported in some cases of nemaline myopathy . This condition typically results from mutations in actin , and the rods themselves consist of mutant actin as well as other cytoskeletal proteins .
= = = = Cajal bodies and gems = = = =
A nucleus typically contains between 1 and 10 compact structures called Cajal bodies or coiled bodies ( CB ) , whose diameter measures between 0 @.@ 2 µm and 2 @.@ 0 µm depending on the cell type and species . When seen under an electron microscope , they resemble balls of tangled thread and are dense foci of distribution for the protein coilin . CBs are involved in a number of different roles relating to RNA processing , specifically small nucleolar RNA ( snoRNA ) and small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) maturation , and histone mRNA modification .
Similar to Cajal bodies are Gemini of Cajal bodies , or gems , whose name is derived from the Gemini constellation in reference to their close " twin " relationship with CBs . Gems are similar in size and shape to CBs , and in fact are virtually indistinguishable under the microscope . Unlike CBs , gems do not contain small nuclear ribonucleoproteins ( snRNPs ) , but do contain a protein called survival of motor neuron ( SMN ) whose function relates to snRNP biogenesis . Gems are believed to assist CBs in snRNP biogenesis , though it has also been suggested from microscopy evidence that CBs and gems are different manifestations of the same structure . Later ultrastructural studies have shown gems to be twins of Cajal bodies with the difference being in the coilin component ; Cajal bodies are SMN positive and coilin positive , and gems are SMN positive and coilin negative .
= = = = RAFA and PTF domains = = = =
RAFA domains , or polymorphic interphase karyosomal associations , were first described in microscopy studies in 1991 . Their function remains unclear , though they were not thought to be associated with active DNA replication , transcription , or RNA processing . They have been found to often associate with discrete domains defined by dense localization of the transcription factor PTF , which promotes transcription of small nuclear RNA ( snRNA ) .
= = = = PML bodies = = = =
Promyelocytic leukaemia bodies ( PML bodies ) are spherical bodies found scattered throughout the nucleoplasm , measuring around 0 @.@ 1 – 1 @.@ 0 µm . They are known by a number of other names , including nuclear domain 10 ( ND10 ) , Kremer bodies , and PML oncogenic domains . PML bodies are named after one of their major components , the promyelocytic leukemia protein ( PML ) . They are often seen in the nucleus in association with Cajal bodies and cleavage bodies . PML bodies belong to the nuclear matrix , an ill @-@ defined super @-@ structure of the nucleus proposed to anchor and regulate many nuclear functions , including DNA replication , transcription , or epigenetic silencing . The PML protein is the key organizer of these domains that recruits an ever @-@ growing number of proteins , whose only common known feature to date is their ability to be SUMOylated . Yet , pml- / - mice ( which have their PML gene deleted ) cannot assemble nuclear bodies , develop normally and live well , demonstrating that PML bodies are dispensable for most basic biological functions .
= = = = Splicing speckles = = = =
Speckles are subnuclear structures that are enriched in pre @-@ messenger RNA splicing factors and are located in the interchromatin regions of the nucleoplasm of mammalian cells . At the fluorescence @-@ microscope level they appear as irregular , punctate structures , which vary in size and shape , and when examined by electron microscopy they are seen as clusters of interchromatin granules . Speckles are dynamic structures , and both their protein and RNA @-@ protein components can cycle continuously between speckles and other nuclear locations , including active transcription sites . Studies on the composition , structure and behaviour of speckles have provided a model for understanding the functional compartmentalization of the nucleus and the organization of the gene @-@ expression machinery splicing snRNPs and other splicing proteins necessary for pre @-@ mRNA processing . Because of a cell 's changing requirements , the composition and location of these bodies changes according to mRNA transcription and regulation via phosphorylation of specific proteins . The splicing speckles are also known as nuclear speckles ( nuclear specks ) , splicing factor compartments ( SF compartments ) , interchromatin granule clusters ( IGCs ) , B snurposomes . B snurposomes are found in the amphibian oocyte nuclei and in Drosophila melanogaster embryos . B snurposomes appear alone or attached to the Cajal bodies in the electron micrographs of the amphibian nuclei . IGCs function as storage sites for the splicing factors .
= = = = Paraspeckles = = = =
Discovered by Fox et al. in 2002 , paraspeckles are irregularly shaped compartments in the nucleus ' interchromatin space . First documented in HeLa cells , where there are generally 10 – 30 per nucleus , paraspeckles are now known to also exist in all human primary cells , transformed cell lines , and tissue sections . Their name is derived from their distribution in the nucleus ; the " para " is short for parallel and the " speckles " refers to the splicing speckles to which they are always in close proximity .
Paraspeckles are dynamic structures that are altered in response to changes in cellular metabolic activity . They are transcription dependent and in the absence of RNA Pol II transcription , the paraspeckle disappears and all of its associated protein components ( PSP1 , p54nrb , PSP2 , CFI ( m ) 68 , and PSF ) form a crescent shaped perinucleolar cap in the nucleolus . This phenomenon is demonstrated during the cell cycle . In the cell cycle , paraspeckles are present during interphase and during all of mitosis except for telophase . During telophase , when the two daughter nuclei are formed , there is no RNA Pol II transcription so the protein components instead form a perinucleolar cap .
= = = = Perichromatin fibrils = = = =
Perichromatin fibrils are visible only under electron microscope . They are located next to the transcriptionally active chromatin and are hypothesized to be the sites of active pre @-@ mRNA processing .
= = Function = =
The nucleus provides a site for genetic transcription that is segregated from the location of translation in the cytoplasm , allowing levels of gene regulation that are not available to prokaryotes . The main function of the cell nucleus is to control gene expression and mediate the replication of DNA during the cell cycle .
The nucleus is an organelle found in eukaryotic cells . Inside its fully enclosed nuclear membrane , it contains the majority of the cell 's genetic material . This material is organized as DNA molecules , along with a variety of proteins , to form chromosomes .
= = = Cell compartmentalization = = =
The nuclear envelope allows the nucleus to control its contents , and separate them from the rest of the cytoplasm where necessary . This is important for controlling processes on either side of the nuclear membrane . In most cases where a cytoplasmic process needs to be restricted , a key participant is removed to the nucleus , where it interacts with transcription factors to downregulate the production of certain enzymes in the pathway . This regulatory mechanism occurs in the case of glycolysis , a cellular pathway for breaking down glucose to produce energy . Hexokinase is an enzyme responsible for the first the step of glycolysis , forming glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate from glucose . At high concentrations of fructose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a molecule made later from glucose @-@ 6 @-@ phosphate , a regulator protein removes hexokinase to the nucleus , where it forms a transcriptional repressor complex with nuclear proteins to reduce the expression of genes involved in glycolysis .
In order to control which genes are being transcribed , the cell separates some transcription factor proteins responsible for regulating gene expression from physical access to the DNA until they are activated by other signaling pathways . This prevents even low levels of inappropriate gene expression . For example , in the case of NF @-@ κB @-@ controlled genes , which are involved in most inflammatory responses , transcription is induced in response to a signal pathway such as that initiated by the signaling molecule TNF @-@ α , binds to a cell membrane receptor , resulting in the recruitment of signalling proteins , and eventually activating the transcription factor NF @-@ κB . A nuclear localisation signal on the NF @-@ κB protein allows it to be transported through the nuclear pore and into the nucleus , where it stimulates the transcription of the target genes .
The compartmentalization allows the cell to prevent translation of unspliced mRNA . Eukaryotic mRNA contains introns that must be removed before being translated to produce functional proteins . The splicing is done inside the nucleus before the mRNA can be accessed by ribosomes for translation . Without the nucleus , ribosomes would translate newly transcribed ( unprocessed ) mRNA , resulting in malformed and nonfunctional proteins .
= = = Gene expression = = =
Gene expression first involves transcription , in which DNA is used as a template to produce RNA . In the case of genes encoding proteins , that RNA produced from this process is messenger RNA ( mRNA ) , which then needs to be translated by ribosomes to form a protein . As ribosomes are located outside the nucleus , mRNA produced needs to be exported .
Since the nucleus is the site of transcription , it also contains a variety of proteins that either directly mediate transcription or are involved in regulating the process . These proteins include helicases , which unwind the double @-@ stranded DNA molecule to facilitate access to it , RNA polymerases , which synthesize the growing RNA molecule , topoisomerases , which change the amount of supercoiling in DNA , helping it wind and unwind , as well as a large variety of transcription factors that regulate expression .
= = = Processing of pre @-@ mRNA = = =
Newly synthesized mRNA molecules are known as primary transcripts or pre @-@ mRNA . They must undergo post @-@ transcriptional modification in the nucleus before being exported to the cytoplasm ; mRNA that appears in the cytoplasm without these modifications is degraded rather than used for protein translation . The three main modifications are 5 ' capping , 3 ' polyadenylation , and RNA splicing . While in the nucleus , pre @-@ mRNA is associated with a variety of proteins in complexes known as heterogeneous ribonucleoprotein particles ( hnRNPs ) . Addition of the 5 ' cap occurs co @-@ transcriptionally and is the first step in post @-@ transcriptional modification . The 3 ' poly @-@ adenine tail is only added after transcription is complete .
RNA splicing , carried out by a complex called the spliceosome , is the process by which introns , or regions of DNA that do not code for protein , are removed from the pre @-@ mRNA and the remaining exons connected to re @-@ form a single continuous molecule . This process normally occurs after 5 ' capping and 3 ' polyadenylation but can begin before synthesis is complete in transcripts with many exons . Many pre @-@ mRNAs , including those encoding antibodies , can be spliced in multiple ways to produce different mature mRNAs that encode different protein sequences . This process is known as alternative splicing , and allows production of a large variety of proteins from a limited amount of DNA .
= = Dynamics and regulation = =
= = = Nuclear transport = = =
The entry and exit of large molecules from the nucleus is tightly controlled by the nuclear pore complexes . Although small molecules can enter the nucleus without regulation , macromolecules such as RNA and proteins require association karyopherins called importins to enter the nucleus and exportins to exit . " Cargo " proteins that must be translocated from the cytoplasm to the nucleus contain short amino acid sequences known as nuclear localization signals , which are bound by importins , while those transported from the nucleus to the cytoplasm carry nuclear export signals bound by exportins . The ability of importins and exportins to transport their cargo is regulated by GTPases , enzymes that hydrolyze the molecule guanosine triphosphate to release energy . The key GTPase in nuclear transport is Ran , which can bind either GTP or GDP ( guanosine diphosphate ) , depending on whether it is located in the nucleus or the cytoplasm . Whereas importins depend on RanGTP to dissociate from their cargo , exportins require RanGTP in order to bind to their cargo .
Nuclear import depends on the importin binding its cargo in the cytoplasm and carrying it through the nuclear pore into the nucleus . Inside the nucleus , RanGTP acts to separate the cargo from the importin , allowing the importin to exit the nucleus and be reused . Nuclear export is similar , as the exportin binds the cargo inside the nucleus in a process facilitated by RanGTP , exits through the nuclear pore , and separates from its cargo in the cytoplasm .
Specialized export proteins exist for translocation of mature mRNA and tRNA to the cytoplasm after post @-@ transcriptional modification is complete . This quality @-@ control mechanism is important due to these molecules ' central role in protein translation . Mis @-@ expression of a protein due to incomplete excision of exons or mis @-@ incorporation of amino acids could have negative consequences for the cell ; thus , incompletely modified RNA that reaches the cytoplasm is degraded rather than used in translation .
= = = Assembly and disassembly = = =
During its lifetime , a nucleus may be broken down or destroyed , either in the process of cell division or as a consequence of apoptosis ( the process of programmed cell death ) . During these events , the structural components of the nucleus — the envelope and lamina — can be systematically degraded . In most cells , the disassembly of the nuclear envelope marks the end of the prophase of mitosis . However , this disassembly of the nucleus is not a universal feature of mitosis and does not occur in all cells . Some unicellular eukaryotes ( e.g. , yeasts ) undergo so @-@ called closed mitosis , in which the nuclear envelope remains intact . In closed mitosis , the daughter chromosomes migrate to opposite poles of the nucleus , which then divides in two . The cells of higher eukaryotes , however , usually undergo open mitosis , which is characterized by breakdown of the nuclear envelope . The daughter chromosomes then migrate to opposite poles of the mitotic spindle , and new nuclei reassemble around them .
At a certain point during the cell cycle in open mitosis , the cell divides to form two cells . In order for this process to be possible , each of the new daughter cells must have a full set of genes , a process requiring replication of the chromosomes as well as segregation of the separate sets . This occurs by the replicated chromosomes , the sister chromatids , attaching to microtubules , which in turn are attached to different centrosomes . The sister chromatids can then be pulled to separate locations in the cell . In many cells , the centrosome is located in the cytoplasm , outside the nucleus ; the microtubules would be unable to attach to the chromatids in the presence of the nuclear envelope . Therefore , the early stages in the cell cycle , beginning in prophase and until around prometaphase , the nuclear membrane is dismantled . Likewise , during the same period , the nuclear lamina is also disassembled , a process regulated by phosphorylation of the lamins by protein kinases such as the CDC2 protein kinase . Towards the end of the cell cycle , the nuclear membrane is reformed , and around the same time , the nuclear lamina are reassembled by dephosphorylating the lamins .
However , in dinoflagellates , the nuclear envelope remains intact , the centrosomes are located in the cytoplasm , and the microtubules come in contact with chromosomes , whose centromeric regions are incorporated into the nuclear envelope ( the so @-@ called closed mitosis with extranuclear spindle ) . In many other protists ( e.g. , ciliates , sporozoans ) and fungi , the centrosomes are intranuclear , and their nuclear envelope also does not disassemle during cell division .
Apoptosis is a controlled process in which the cell 's structural components are destroyed , resulting in death of the cell . Changes associated with apoptosis directly affect the nucleus and its contents , for example , in the condensation of chromatin and the disintegration of the nuclear envelope and lamina . The destruction of the lamin networks is controlled by specialized apoptotic proteases called caspases , which cleave the lamin proteins and , thus , degrade the nucleus ' structural integrity . Lamin cleavage is sometimes used as a laboratory indicator of caspase activity in assays for early apoptotic activity . Cells that express mutant caspase @-@ resistant lamins are deficient in nuclear changes related to apoptosis , suggesting that lamins play a role in initiating the events that lead to apoptotic degradation of the nucleus . Inhibition of lamin assembly itself is an inducer of apoptosis .
The nuclear envelope acts as a barrier that prevents both DNA and RNA viruses from entering the nucleus . Some viruses require access to proteins inside the nucleus in order to replicate and / or assemble . DNA viruses , such as herpesvirus replicate and assemble in the cell nucleus , and exit by budding through the inner nuclear membrane . This process is accompanied by disassembly of the lamina on the nuclear face of the inner membrane .
= = = Disease @-@ related dynamics = = =
Initially , it has been suspected that immunoglobulins in general and autoantibodies in particular do not enter the nucleus . Now there is a body of evidence that under pathological conditions ( e.g. lupus erythematosus ) IgG can enter the nucleus .
= = Nuclei per cell = =
Most eukaryotic cell types usually have a single nucleus , but some have no nuclei , while others have several . This can result from normal development , as in the maturation of mammalian red blood cells , or from faulty cell division .
= = = Anucleated cells = = =
An anucleated cell contains no nucleus and is , therefore , incapable of dividing to produce daughter cells . The best @-@ known anucleated cell is the mammalian red blood cell , or erythrocyte , which also lacks other organelles such as mitochondria , and serves primarily as a transport vessel to ferry oxygen from the lungs to the body 's tissues . Erythrocytes mature through erythropoiesis in the bone marrow , where they lose their nuclei , organelles , and ribosomes . The nucleus is expelled during the process of differentiation from an erythroblast to a reticulocyte , which is the immediate precursor of the mature erythrocyte . The presence of mutagens may induce the release of some immature " micronucleated " erythrocytes into the bloodstream . Anucleated cells can also arise from flawed cell division in which one daughter lacks a nucleus and the other has two nuclei .
In flowering plants , this condition occurs in sieve tube elements .
= = = Multinucleated cells = = =
Multinucleated cells contain multiple nuclei . Most acantharean species of protozoa and some fungi in mycorrhizae have naturally multinucleated cells . Other examples include the intestinal parasites in the genus Giardia , which have two nuclei per cell . In humans , skeletal muscle cells , called myocytes and syncytium , become multinucleated during development ; the resulting arrangement of nuclei near the periphery of the cells allows maximal intracellular space for myofibrils . Multinucleated and binucleated cells can also be abnormal in humans ; for example , cells arising from the fusion of monocytes and macrophages , known as giant multinucleated cells , sometimes accompany inflammation and are also implicated in tumor formation .
A number of dinoflagelates are known to have two nuclei . Unlike other multinucleated cells these nuclei contain two distinct lineages of DNA : one from the dinoflagelate and the other from a symbiotic diatom . Curiously the mitochondrion and the plastid of the diatom remain functional .
= = Evolution = =
As the major defining characteristic of the eukaryotic cell , the nucleus ' evolutionary origin has been the subject of much speculation . Four major hypotheses have been proposed to explain the existence of the nucleus , although none have yet earned widespread support .
The first model known as the " syntrophic model " proposes that a symbiotic relationship between the archaea and bacteria created the nucleus @-@ containing eukaryotic cell . ( Organisms of the Archaea and Bacteria domain have no cell nucleus . ) It is hypothesized that the symbiosis originated when ancient archaea , similar to modern methanogenic archaea , invaded and lived within bacteria similar to modern myxobacteria , eventually forming the early nucleus . This theory is analogous to the accepted theory for the origin of eukaryotic mitochondria and chloroplasts , which are thought to have developed from a similar endosymbiotic relationship between proto @-@ eukaryotes and aerobic bacteria . The archaeal origin of the nucleus is supported by observations that archaea and eukarya have similar genes for certain proteins , including histones . Observations that myxobacteria are motile , can form multicellular complexes , and possess kinases and G proteins similar to eukarya , support a bacterial origin for the eukaryotic cell .
A second model proposes that proto @-@ eukaryotic cells evolved from bacteria without an endosymbiotic stage . This model is based on the existence of modern planctomycetes bacteria that possess a nuclear structure with primitive pores and other compartmentalized membrane structures . A similar proposal states that a eukaryote @-@ like cell , the chronocyte , evolved first and phagocytosed archaea and bacteria to generate the nucleus and the eukaryotic cell .
The most controversial model , known as viral eukaryogenesis , posits that the membrane @-@ bound nucleus , along with other eukaryotic features , originated from the infection of a prokaryote by a virus . The suggestion is based on similarities between eukaryotes and viruses such as linear DNA strands , mRNA capping , and tight binding to proteins ( analogizing histones to viral envelopes ) . One version of the proposal suggests that the nucleus evolved in concert with phagocytosis to form an early cellular " predator " . Another variant proposes that eukaryotes originated from early archaea infected by poxviruses , on the basis of observed similarity between the DNA polymerases in modern poxviruses and eukaryotes . It has been suggested that the unresolved question of the evolution of sex could be related to the viral eukaryogenesis hypothesis .
A more recent proposal , the exomembrane hypothesis , suggests that the nucleus instead originated from a single ancestral cell that evolved a second exterior cell membrane ; the interior membrane enclosing the original cell then became the nuclear membrane and evolved increasingly elaborate pore structures for passage of internally synthesized cellular components such as ribosomal subunits .
= = Gallery = =
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= Until the Whole World Hears =
Until the Whole World Hears is the fourth studio album by American Christian rock band Casting Crowns . Released on November 27 , 2009 , the album was produced by Mark . A Miller and features a sound that has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Lyrically , the album discusses Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation , with several songs being reinventions of classic hymns . Until the Whole World Hears sold over 167 @,@ 000 copies in its first week , Casting Crowns ' highest sales week to date , and debuted at No. 4 on the Billboard 200 and at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart . In the United States , the album ranked as the 37th best @-@ selling album of 2010 and the 137th best @-@ selling album of 2011 ; it ranked as the first and third best @-@ selling Christian album in those years , respectively . It has sold over 1 @.@ 1 million copies and been certified Platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) .
Until the Whole World Hears received a mixed @-@ to @-@ positive reception from critics and was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards . Three singles were released from the album : the title track , " If We 've Ever Needed You " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " . The title track and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " both peaked atop the Billboard Christian Songs chart , while the latter also peaked at No. 2 on the Billboard Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart ; " If We 've Ever Needed You " peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . Two album cuts , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , also appeared on the Christian Songs chart , peaking at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .
= = Background and songwriting = =
Casting Crowns ' lead vocalist Mark Hall has stated that the band 's songs " have always come from our ministry in the church . They start as messages on Wednesday night , things we 're teaching our teenagers and their families " ; Until the Whole World Hears retains that same formula . Hall also stated that the musical sound of their songs is written so as not to conflict or detract from the lyrics , comparing the musical elements of his songs to a plate that the ' meat ' , the lyrics , are served on . A philosophy that " fuels " the album is the idea of putting " faith in action " ; Hall stated that he wanted believers to become more active in their faith , and to " get out of their pews and get involved in what God is doing " . " Always Enough " was written when a member of Hall 's church was killed in Afghanistan ; the band was unable to attend his funeral , as they were on the other side of the United States and couldn 't cancel their tour dates . Another song on the album , the title track , was inspired by the Biblical character of John the Baptist . Several songs on the album are reinventions of hymns , which Hall enjoyed experimenting with ; Hall retained the lyrics of the songs while reworking their melodies .
Until the Whole World Hears was produced by Mark A. Miller ; its executive producer was Terry Hemmings . It was recorded by Sam Hewitt , Michael Hewitt , and Dale Oliver at Zoo Studio in Franklin , Tennessee ; the string instrument tracks on the title track and " Always Enough " were recorded by Bobby Shin at Little Big Sound Studio in Nashville , Tennessee , while the string instrument tracks on " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Joyful , Joyful " were recorded by John Painter and Leslie Richter at Ocean Way in Nashville . Crowd vocals on the title track and " Blessed Redeemer " were recorded by Carter Hassebroek , Darren Hughes and Billy Lord at Eagle 's Landing Baptist Church in McDonough , Georgia . Digital editing was handled by Michael Hewitt , while mixing was handled by Sam Hewitt . The album was mastered by Andrew Mendelson , Shelly Anderson , Natthaphol Abhigantaphand and Daniel Bacigalupi at Georgetown Masters in Nashville .
= = Composition = =
The overall sound of Until the Whole World Hears has been described as ' pure American rock ' , ' soft adult contemporary ' , and ' CCM ' . Robert Ham of Christianity Today regarded the album as comparable to the sound of rock bands Creed and Nickelback . One critic observed that most of the songs on the album " start off with chords plunked out on a piano or strummed slowly on a guitar , letting the song build slowly toward a massive wave of sound " . The title track has been described as having a " real rock vibe " infused by electric guitar riffs , while " Shadow of Your Wings " has been described as an " unashamed rock @-@ n @-@ roll jam " . " Joyful , Joyful " is driven by a " pulsing " and " driving " string section that " calls to mind Coldplay 's ' Viva la Vida ' " . " Mercy " and " Blessed Redeemer " feature female @-@ fronted vocals , the former sung by Megan Garrett and the latter sung by Melodee DeVevo ; on " At Your Feet " , Hector Cervantes and Juan DeVevo joining Mark Hall on vocals .
Every track on Until the Whole World Hears features references to Christian subjects such as God , Jesus , and salvation . " Joyful , Joyful " , " Blessed Redeemer " , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " were adopted from classic hymns . " Holy One " and " Shadow of Your Wings " are taken almost word for word from the Book of Psalms . " If We 've Ever Needed You " and " Always Enough " are " darker inspirational anthems " , while other songs explore themes such as repentance and forgiveness .
= = Release and sales = =
Until the Whole World Hears had first @-@ week sales of 167 @,@ 000 copies , Casting Crowns ' best sales week to date ; the album 's high first @-@ week sales enabled a No. 4 debut on the Billboard 200 . It also debuted at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Albums chart and at No. 12 on the Billboard Digital Albums chart . The Recording Industry Association of America ( RIAA ) certified the album Platinum , signifying shipments of over 1 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 copies . By April 2011 Until the Whole World Hears had sold over 800 @,@ 000 copies , and as of March 2014 the album has sold 1 @.@ 1 million copies . Billboard magazine ranked Until the Whole World Hears as the best @-@ selling Christian album and the 37th best @-@ selling album overall of 2010 . It also ranked as the 3rd best @-@ selling Christian album and the 137th best @-@ selling album overall of 2011 .
Three singles were released from Until the Whole World Hears . The title track was released as the album 's lead single and peaked at No. 1 on the Billboard Christian Songs chart and at No. 23 on the Billboard Heatseekers Songs chart . " If We 've Ever Needed You " , the second single released from the album , peaked at No. 5 on the Christian Songs chart . " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " was released as the third single off the album and peaked atop the Christian Songs chart . It also peaked at No. 2 on the Bubbling Under Hot 100 Singles chart and at No. 20 on the Heatseekers Songs chart . Two other songs off the album , " To Know You " and " Joyful , Joyful " , appeared on the Christian Songs chart ; they peaked at numbers 27 and 3 , respectively .
= = Reception = =
= = = Critical reception = = =
Until the Whole World Hears met with an overall mixed to positive response from critics . Several critics regarded the musical aspects of the album as mediocre or sub @-@ par , while others praised the album 's lyrical content . Jared Johnson of Allmusic gave the album four out of five stars and described it as a " powerful worship experience " , but also stated that " some might wonder how a little more variety would sound from such experienced professionals ... the band 's core sound continues to land in the AC cross hairs " . Andrew Greer of CCM Magazine commented that the album " ups the musical ante a bit , with some borderline poetic verses and interesting musical riffs " , but also commented that " many of these tracks still suffer from the ' Crowns Cliché Syndrome , ' using lyrical Christian @-@ ese to produce trite rhymes that seem hard @-@ pressed to energize a ready @-@ to @-@ worship crowd " . Robert Ham of Christianity Today criticized the album for using what he deemed as a repetitive musical formula , but also praised the song " Joyful , Joyful " , which he compared to Coldplay 's song " Viva la Vida " , as well as Megan 's Garrett 's vocals on " Mercy " . He concluded that Until the Whole World Hears " feels like a step backward creatively " . At Cross Rhythms , Tony Cummings rated the album seven out of ten squares , saying " this album is a little disappointing considering some of the glories that preceeded [ sic ] it . "
Debra Akins of Gospel Music Channel.com said the album " follows successfully in the footsteps of its predecessors " and " should further solidify Casting Crowns as a staple artist for Christian music fans everywhere " . Roger Gelwicks of Jesus Freak Hideout gave Until the Whole World Hears two out of five stars , opining that " Casting Crowns has come down to a whole new low , such that it could be their most unremarkable record to date " and that " it is almost insulting to the listener to believe that one is supposed to find this project profound or listenable " . Paul Asay of Plugged In stated that " With appropriate apologies to the many talented and successful acts that straddle the secular and spiritual with their tunes , it 's great to have a band that speaks to the Christian heart with such power and eloquence — without apology " .
= = = Awards and accolades = = =
Until the Whole World Hears was nominated for the Pop / Contemporary Album of the Year at the 42nd GMA Dove Awards Two of its three singles also received award nominations ; its title track was nominated for Pop / Contemporary Record Song of the Year at the 41st GMA Dove Awards , and " Glorious Day ( Living He Loved Me ) " has been nominated for Song of the Year and Worship Song of the Year at the 43rd GMA Dove Awards . It was nominated for Top Christian Album at the 2012 Billboard Music Awards .
= = Track listing = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Personnel = =
( Credits lifted from the album liner notes )
= = Charts and certifications = =
= = = Album charts = = =
= = = Song charts = = =
= = = Certifications = = =
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= Ceres ( dwarf planet ) =
Ceres ( / ˈsɪəriːz / ; minor @-@ planet designation : 1 Ceres ) is the largest object in the asteroid belt that lies between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Its diameter is approximately 945 kilometers ( 587 miles ) , making it the largest of the minor planets within the orbit of Neptune . The thirty @-@ third @-@ largest known body in the Solar System , it is the only one identified orbiting entirely within the orbit of Neptune that is a dwarf planet . Composed of rock and ice , Ceres is estimated to comprise approximately one third of the mass of the entire asteroid belt . Ceres is the only object in the asteroid belt known to be rounded by its own gravity . From Earth , the apparent magnitude of Ceres ranges from 6 @.@ 7 to 9 @.@ 3 , and hence even at its brightest , it is too dim to be seen with the naked eye , except under extremely dark skies .
Ceres was the first asteroid discovered , by Giuseppe Piazzi at Palermo on 1 January 1801 . It was originally considered a planet , but was reclassified as an asteroid in the 1850s when many other objects in similar orbits were discovered .
Ceres appears to be differentiated into a rocky core and icy mantle , and may have a remnant internal ocean of liquid water under the layer of ice . The surface is probably a mixture of water ice and various hydrated minerals such as carbonates and clay . In January 2014 , emissions of water vapor were detected from several regions of Ceres . This was unexpected , because large bodies in the asteroid belt do not typically emit vapor , a hallmark of comets .
The robotic NASA spacecraft Dawn entered orbit around Ceres on 6 March 2015 . Pictures with a resolution previously unattained were taken during imaging sessions starting in January 2015 as Dawn approached Ceres , showing a cratered surface . Two distinct bright spots ( or high @-@ albedo features ) inside a crater ( different from the bright spots observed in earlier Hubble images ) were seen in a 19 February 2015 image , leading to speculation about a possible cryovolcanic origin or outgassing . On 3 March 2015 , a NASA spokesperson said the spots are consistent with highly reflective materials containing ice or salts , but that cryovolcanism is unlikely . On 11 May 2015 , NASA released a higher @-@ resolution image showing that , instead of one or two spots , there are actually several . On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . In June 2016 , near @-@ infrared spectra of these bright areas were found to be consistent with a large amount of sodium carbonate , ( Na
2CO
3 ) , implying that recent geologic activity was probably involved in the creation of the bright spots .
In October 2015 , NASA released a true color portrait of Ceres made by Dawn .
= = History = =
= = = Discovery = = =
Johann Elert Bode , in 1772 , first suggested that an undiscovered planet could exist between the orbits of Mars and Jupiter . Kepler had already noticed the gap between Mars and Jupiter in 1596 . Bode based his idea on the Titius – Bode law — a now @-@ discredited hypothesis Johann Daniel Titius first proposed in 1766 — observing that there was a regular pattern in the semi @-@ major axes of the orbits of known planets , marred only by the large gap between Mars and Jupiter . The pattern predicted that the missing planet ought to have an orbit with a semi @-@ major axis near 2 @.@ 8 astronomical units ( AU ) . William Herschel 's discovery of Uranus in 1781 near the predicted distance for the next body beyond Saturn increased faith in the law of Titius and Bode , and in 1800 , a group headed by Franz Xaver von Zach , editor of the Monatliche Correspondenz , sent requests to twenty @-@ four experienced astronomers ( dubbed the " celestial police " ) , asking that they combine their efforts and begin a methodical search for the expected planet . Although they did not discover Ceres , they later found several large asteroids .
One of the astronomers selected for the search was Giuseppe Piazzi , a Catholic priest at the Academy of Palermo , Sicily . Before receiving his invitation to join the group , Piazzi discovered Ceres on 1 January 1801 . He was searching for " the 87th [ star ] of the Catalogue of the Zodiacal stars of Mr la Caille " , but found that " it was preceded by another " . Instead of a star , Piazzi had found a moving star @-@ like object , which he first thought was a comet . Piazzi observed Ceres a total of 24 times , the final time on 11 February 1801 , when illness interrupted his observations . He announced his discovery on 24 January 1801 in letters to only two fellow astronomers , his compatriot Barnaba Oriani of Milan and Bode of Berlin . He reported it as a comet but " since its movement is so slow and rather uniform , it has occurred to me several times that it might be something better than a comet " . In April , Piazzi sent his complete observations to Oriani , Bode , and Jérôme Lalande in Paris . The information was published in the September 1801 issue of the Monatliche Correspondenz .
By this time , the apparent position of Ceres had changed ( mostly due to Earth 's orbital motion ) , and was too close to the Sun 's glare for other astronomers to confirm Piazzi 's observations . Toward the end of the year , Ceres should have been visible again , but after such a long time it was difficult to predict its exact position . To recover Ceres , Carl Friedrich Gauss , then 24 years old , developed an efficient method of orbit determination . In only a few weeks , he predicted the path of Ceres and sent his results to von Zach . On 31 December 1801 , von Zach and Heinrich W. M. Olbers found Ceres near the predicted position and thus recovered it .
The early observers were only able to calculate the size of Ceres to within an order of magnitude . Herschel underestimated its diameter as 260 km in 1802 , whereas in 1811 Johann Hieronymus Schröter overestimated it as 2 @,@ 613 km .
= = = Name = = =
Piazzi originally suggested the name Cerere Ferdinandea for his discovery , after the goddess Ceres ( Roman goddess of agriculture , Cerere in Italian , who was believed to have originated in Sicily and whose oldest temple was there ) and King Ferdinand of Sicily . " Ferdinandea " , however , was not acceptable to other nations and was dropped . Ceres was called Hera for a short time in Germany . In Greece , it is called Demeter ( Δήμητρα ) , after the Greek equivalent of the Roman Cerēs ; in English , that name is used for the asteroid 1108 Demeter .
The regular adjectival forms of the name are Cererian and Cererean , derived from the Latin genitive Cereris , but Ceresian is occasionally seen for the goddess ( as in the sickle @-@ shaped Ceresian Lake ) , as is the shorter form Cerean .
The old astronomical symbol of Ceres is a sickle , 〈 ⚳ 〉 ( ) , similar to Venus ' symbol 〈 ♀ 〉 but with a break in the circle . It has a variant 〈 〉 , reversed under the influence of the initial letter ' C ' of ' Ceres ' . These were later replaced with the generic asteroid symbol of a numbered disk , 〈 ① 〉 .
Cerium , a rare @-@ earth element discovered in 1803 , was named after Ceres . In the same year another element was also initially named after Ceres , but when cerium was named , its discoverer changed the name to palladium , after the second asteroid , 2 Pallas .
= = = Classification = = =
The categorization of Ceres has changed more than once and has been the subject of some disagreement . Johann Elert Bode believed Ceres to be the " missing planet " he had proposed to exist between Mars and Jupiter , at a distance of 419 million km ( 2 @.@ 8 AU ) from the Sun . Ceres was assigned a planetary symbol , and remained listed as a planet in astronomy books and tables ( along with 2 Pallas , 3 Juno , and 4 Vesta ) for half a century .
As other objects were discovered in the neighborhood of Ceres , it was realized that Ceres represented the first of a new class of objects . In 1802 , with the discovery of 2 Pallas , William Herschel coined the term asteroid ( " star @-@ like " ) for these bodies , writing that " they resemble small stars so much as hardly to be distinguished from them , even by very good telescopes " . As the first such body to be discovered , Ceres was given the designation 1 Ceres under the modern system of minor @-@ planet designations . By the 1860s , the existence of a fundamental difference between asteroids such as Ceres and the major planets was widely accepted , though a precise definition of " planet " was never formulated .
The 2006 debate surrounding Pluto and what constitutes a planet led to Ceres being considered for reclassification as a planet . A proposal before the International Astronomical Union for the definition of a planet would have defined a planet as " a celestial body that ( a ) has sufficient mass for its self @-@ gravity to overcome rigid @-@ body forces so that it assumes a hydrostatic equilibrium ( nearly round ) shape , and ( b ) is in orbit around a star , and is neither a star nor a satellite of a planet " . Had this resolution been adopted , it would have made Ceres the fifth planet in order from the Sun . This never happened , however , and on 24 August 2006 a modified definition was adopted , carrying the additional requirement that a planet must have " cleared the neighborhood around its orbit " . By this definition , Ceres is not a planet because it does not dominate its orbit , sharing it as it does with the thousands of other asteroids in the asteroid belt and constituting only about a third of the mass of the belt . Bodies that met the first proposed definition but not the second , such as Ceres , were instead classified as dwarf planets .
Ceres is the largest object in the asteroid belt . It is sometimes assumed that Ceres has been reclassified as a dwarf planet , and that it is therefore no longer considered an asteroid . For example , a news update at Space.com spoke of " Pallas , the largest asteroid , and Ceres , the dwarf planet formerly classified as an asteroid " , whereas an IAU question @-@ and @-@ answer posting states , " Ceres is ( or now we can say it was ) the largest asteroid " , though it then speaks of " other asteroids " crossing Ceres ' path and otherwise implies that Ceres is still considered an asteroid . The Minor Planet Center notes that such bodies may have dual designations . The 2006 IAU decision that classified Ceres as a dwarf planet never addressed whether it is or is not an asteroid . Indeed , the IAU has never defined the word ' asteroid ' at all , having preferred the term ' minor planet ' until 2006 , and preferring the terms ' small Solar System body ' and ' dwarf planet ' after 2006 . Lang ( 2011 ) comments " the [ IAU has ] added a new designation to Ceres , classifying it as a dwarf planet . ... By [ its ] definition , Eris , Haumea , Makemake and Pluto , as well as the largest asteroid , 1 Ceres , are all dwarf planets " , and describes it elsewhere as " the dwarf planet – asteroid 1 Ceres " . NASA continues to refer to Ceres as an asteroid , as do various academic textbooks .
= = Orbit = =
Ceres follows an orbit between Mars and Jupiter , within the asteroid belt , with a period of 4 @.@ 6 Earth years . The orbit is moderately inclined ( i |
= 10 @.@ 6 ° compared to 7 ° for Mercury and 17 ° for Pluto ) and moderately eccentric ( e =
0 @.@ 08 compared to 0 @.@ 09 for Mars ) .
The diagram illustrates the orbits of Ceres ( blue ) and several planets ( white and gray ) . The segments of orbits below the ecliptic are plotted in darker colors , and the orange plus sign is the Sun 's location . The top left diagram is a polar view that shows the location of Ceres in the gap between Mars and Jupiter . The top right is a close @-@ up demonstrating the locations of the perihelia ( q ) and aphelia ( Q ) of Ceres and Mars . In this diagram ( but not in general ) , the perihelion of Mars is on the opposite side of the Sun from those of Ceres and several of the large main @-@ belt asteroids , including 2 Pallas and 10 Hygiea . The bottom diagram is a side view showing the inclination of the orbit of Ceres compared to the orbits of Mars and Jupiter .
Ceres was once thought to be a member of an asteroid family . The asteroids of this family share similar proper orbital elements , which may indicate a common origin through an asteroid collision some time in the past . Ceres was later found to have spectral properties different from other members of the family , which is now called the Gefion family after the next @-@ lowest @-@ numbered family member , 1272 Gefion . Ceres appears to be merely an interloper in the Gefion family , coincidentally having similar orbital elements but not a common origin .
= = = Resonances = = =
Ceres is in a near @-@ 1 : 1 mean @-@ motion orbital resonance with Pallas ( their proper orbital periods differ by 0 @.@ 2 % ) . However , a true resonance between the two would be unlikely ; due to their small masses relative to their large separations , such relationships among asteroids are very rare . Nevertheless , Ceres is able to capture other asteroids into temporary 1 : 1 resonant orbital relationships ( making them temporary trojans ) for periods up to 2 million years or more ; fifty such objects have been identified .
= = = Transits of planets from Ceres = = =
Mercury , Venus , Earth , and Mars can all appear to cross the Sun , or transit it , from a vantage point on Ceres . The most common transits are those of Mercury , which usually happen every few years , most recently in 2006 and 2010 . The most recent transit of Venus was in 1953 , and the next will be in 2051 ; the corresponding dates are 1814 and 2081 for transits of Earth , and 767 and 2684 for transits of Mars .
= = Rotation and axial tilt = =
The rotation period of Ceres ( the Cererian day ) is 9 hours and 4 minutes . It has a small axial tilt of 4 ° . This is nevertheless large enough for Ceres 's polar regions to contain permanently shadowed craters that are expected to act as cold traps and accumulate water ice over time , similar to the situation on the Moon and Mercury . About 0 @.@ 14 % of water molecules released from the surface are expected to end up in the traps , hopping an average of 3 times before escaping or being trapped .
= = Geology = =
Ceres has a mass of 9 @.@ 39 × 1020 kg as determined from the Dawn spacecraft . With this mass Ceres comprises approximately a third of the estimated total 3 @.@ 0 ± 0 @.@ 2 × 1021 kg mass of the asteroid belt , which is in turn approximately 4 % of the mass of the Moon . Ceres is massive enough to give it a nearly spherical , equilibrium shape . Among Solar System bodies , Ceres is intermediate in size between the smaller Vesta and the larger Tethys . Its surface area is approximately the same as the land area of India or Argentina .
= = = Surface = = =
The surface composition of Ceres is broadly similar to that of C @-@ type asteroids . Some differences do exist . The ubiquitous features in Ceres ' IR spectrum are those of hydrated materials , which indicate the presence of significant amounts of water in its interior . Other possible surface constituents include iron @-@ rich clay minerals ( cronstedtite ) and carbonate minerals ( dolomite and siderite ) , which are common minerals in carbonaceous chondrite meteorites . The spectral features of carbonates and clay minerals are usually absent in the spectra of other C @-@ type asteroids . Sometimes Ceres is classified as a G @-@ type asteroid .
Ceres ' surface is relatively warm . The maximum temperature with the Sun overhead was estimated from measurements to be 235 K ( approximately − 38 ° C , − 36 ° F ) on 5 May 1991 . Ice is unstable at this temperature . Material left behind by the sublimation of surface ice could explain the dark surface of Ceres compared to the icy moons of the outer Solar System .
= = = = Observations prior to Dawn = = = =
Prior to the Dawn mission , only a few surface features had been unambiguously detected on Ceres . High @-@ resolution ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images taken in 1995 showed a dark spot on its surface , which was nicknamed " Piazzi " in honor of the discoverer of Ceres . This was thought to be a crater . Later near @-@ infrared images with a higher resolution taken over a whole rotation with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics showed several bright and dark features moving with Ceres ' rotation . Two dark features had circular shapes and were presumed to be craters ; one of them was observed to have a bright central region , whereas another was identified as the " Piazzi " feature . Visible @-@ light Hubble Space Telescope images of a full rotation taken in 2003 and 2004 showed eleven recognizable surface features , the natures of which were then undetermined . One of these features corresponds to the " Piazzi " feature observed earlier .
These last observations indicated that the north pole of Ceres pointed in the direction of right ascension 19 h 24 min ( 291 ° ) , declination + 59 ° , in the constellation Draco , resulting in an axial tilt of approximately 3 ° . Dawn later determined that the north polar axis actually points at right ascension 19 h 25 m 40 @.@ 3 s ( 291 @.@ 418 ° ) , declination + 66 ° 45 ' 50 " ( about 1 @.@ 5 degrees from Delta Draconis ) , which means an axial tilt of 4 ° .
= = = = Observations by Dawn = = = =
Dawn revealed a large number of craters with low relief , indicating that they lie over a relatively soft surface , probably of water ice . One crater , with extremely low relief , is 270 km ( 170 mi ) in diameter , reminiscent of large , flat craters on Tethys and Iapetus . An unexpectedly large number of Cererian craters have central pits , and many have central peaks . Several bright spots have been observed by Dawn , the brightest spot ( " Spot 5 " ) located in the middle of an 80 @-@ kilometer ( 50 mi ) crater called Occator . From images taken of Ceres on 4 May 2015 , the secondary bright spot was revealed to actually be a group of scattered bright areas , possibly as many as ten . These bright features have an albedo of approximately 40 % that are caused by a substance on the surface , possibly ice or salts , reflecting sunlight . A haze periodically appears above Spot 5 , the best known bright spot , supporting the hypothesis that some sort of outgassing or sublimating ice formed the bright spots . In March 2016 , Dawn found definitive evidence of water molecules on the surface of Ceres at Oxo crater . JPL states : " This water could be bound up in minerals or , alternatively , it could take the form of ice . "
On 9 December 2015 , NASA scientists reported that the bright spots on Ceres may be related to a type of salt , particularly a form of brine containing magnesium sulfate hexahydrite ( MgSO4 · 6H2O ) ; the spots were also found to be associated with ammonia @-@ rich clays . Another team thinks the salts are sodium carbonate .
= = = Internal structure = = =
Ceres ' oblateness is consistent with a differentiated body , a rocky core overlain with an icy mantle . This 100 @-@ kilometer @-@ thick mantle ( 23 % – 28 % of Ceres by mass ; 50 % by volume ) contains up to 200 million cubic kilometers of water , which would be more than the amount of fresh water on Earth . This result is supported by the observations made by the Keck telescope in 2002 and by evolutionary modeling . Also , some characteristics of its surface and history ( such as its distance from the Sun , which weakened solar radiation enough to allow some fairly low @-@ freezing @-@ point components to be incorporated during its formation ) , point to the presence of volatile materials in the interior of Ceres . It has been suggested that a remnant layer of liquid water may have survived to the present under a layer of ice . Measurements taken by Dawn confirm that Ceres is both differentiated and has a shape consistent with hydrostatic equilibrium , which makes Ceres the smallest object confirmed to be in hydrostatic equilibrium , being 600 km smaller and less than half the mass of Saturn 's moon Rhea , the next smallest such object . Modeling has suggested Ceres could have a small metallic core from partial differentiation of its rocky fraction .
= = Atmosphere = =
There are indications that Ceres may have a tenuous water vapor atmosphere outgassing from water ice on the surface .
Surface water ice is unstable at distances less than 5 AU from the Sun , so it is expected to sublime if it is exposed directly to solar radiation . Water ice can migrate from the deep layers of Ceres to the surface , but escapes in a very short time . As a result , it is difficult to detect water vaporization . Water escaping from polar regions of Ceres was possibly observed in the early 1990s but this has not been unambiguously demonstrated . It may be possible to detect escaping water from the surroundings of a fresh impact crater or from cracks in the subsurface layers of Ceres . Ultraviolet observations by the IUE spacecraft detected statistically significant amounts of hydroxide ions near Ceres ' north pole , which is a product of water vapor dissociation by ultraviolet solar radiation .
In early 2014 , using data from the Herschel Space Observatory , it was discovered that there are several localized ( not more than 60 km in diameter ) mid @-@ latitude sources of water vapor on Ceres , which each give off approximately 1026 molecules ( or 3 kg ) of water per second . Two potential source regions , designated Piazzi ( 123 ° E , 21 ° N ) and Region A ( 231 ° E , 23 ° N ) , have been visualized in the near infrared as dark areas ( Region A also has a bright center ) by the W. M. Keck Observatory . Possible mechanisms for the vapor release are sublimation from approximately 0 @.@ 6 km2 of exposed surface ice , or cryovolcanic eruptions resulting from radiogenic internal heat or from pressurization of a subsurface ocean due to growth of an overlying layer of ice . Surface sublimation would be expected to be lower when Ceres is farther from the Sun in its orbit , whereas internally powered emissions should not be affected by its orbital position . The limited data available are more consistent with cometary @-@ style sublimation .
= = Origin and evolution = =
Ceres is possibly a surviving protoplanet ( planetary embryo ) , which formed 4 @.@ 57 billion years ago in the asteroid belt . Although the majority of inner Solar System protoplanets ( including all lunar- to Mars @-@ sized bodies ) either merged with other protoplanets to form terrestrial planets or were ejected from the Solar System by Jupiter , Ceres is thought to have survived relatively intact . An alternative theory proposes that Ceres formed in the Kuiper belt and later migrated to the asteroid belt . The discovery of ammonia salts in Occator crater supports an origin in the outer Solar System . Another possible protoplanet , Vesta , is less than half the size of Ceres ; it suffered a major impact after solidifying , losing ~ 1 % of its mass .
The geological evolution of Ceres was dependent on the heat sources available during and after its formation : friction from planetesimal accretion , and decay of various radionuclides ( possibly including short @-@ lived isotopes such as the cosmogenic nuclide aluminium @-@ 26 ) . These are thought to have been sufficient to allow Ceres to differentiate into a rocky core and icy mantle soon after its formation . This process may have caused resurfacing by water volcanism and tectonics , erasing older geological features . Due to its small size , Ceres would have cooled early in its existence , causing all geological resurfacing processes to cease . Any ice on the surface would have gradually sublimated , leaving behind various hydrated minerals like clay minerals and carbonates .
Today , Ceres appears to be a geologically inactive body , with a surface sculpted only by impacts . The presence of significant amounts of water ice in its composition raises the possibility that Ceres has or had a layer of liquid water in its interior . This hypothetical layer is often called an ocean . If such a layer of liquid water exists , it is hypothesized to be located between the rocky core and ice mantle like that of the theorized ocean on Europa . The existence of an ocean is more likely if solutes ( i.e. salts ) , ammonia , sulfuric acid or other antifreeze compounds are dissolved in the water .
= = Potential habitability = =
Although not as actively discussed as a potential home for microbial extraterrestrial life as Mars , Titan , Europa or Enceladus , there is evidence that Ceres ' icy mantle was once a watery subterranean ocean , and that has led to speculations that life could have existed there , and that hypothesized ejecta bearing microorganisms could have come from Ceres to Earth .
= = Observation and exploration = =
= = = Observation = = =
When Ceres has an opposition near the perihelion , it can reach a visual magnitude of + 6 @.@ 7 . This is generally regarded as too dim to be seen with the naked eye , but under exceptional viewing conditions a very sharp @-@ sighted person may be able to see it . Ceres was at its brightest ( 6 @.@ 73 ) on 18 December 2012 . The only other asteroids that can reach a similarly bright magnitude are 4 Vesta , and , during rare oppositions near perihelion , 2 Pallas and 7 Iris . At a conjunction Ceres has a magnitude of around + 9 @.@ 3 , which corresponds to the faintest objects visible with 10 × 50 binoculars . It can thus be seen with binoculars whenever it is above the horizon of a fully dark sky .
Some notable observations and milestones for Ceres include :
1984 November 13 : An occultation of a star by Ceres observed in Mexico , Florida and across the Caribbean .
1995 June 25 : Ultraviolet Hubble Space Telescope images with 50 @-@ kilometer resolution .
2002 : Infrared images with 30 km resolution taken with the Keck telescope using adaptive optics .
2003 and 2004 : Visible light images with 30 km resolution ( the best prior to the Dawn mission ) taken using Hubble .
2012 December 22 : Ceres occulted the star TYC 1865 @-@ 00446 @-@ 1 over parts of Japan , Russia , and China . Ceres ' brightness was magnitude 6 @.@ 9 and the star , 12 @.@ 2 .
2014 : Ceres was found to have an atmosphere with water vapor , confirmed by the Herschel space telescope .
2015 : The NASA Dawn spacecraft approached and orbited Ceres , sending detailed images and scientific data back to Earth .
= = = Exploration = = =
In 1981 , a proposal for an asteroid mission was submitted to the European Space Agency ( ESA ) . Named the Asteroidal Gravity Optical and Radar Analysis ( AGORA ) , this spacecraft was to launch some time in 1990 – 1994 and perform two flybys of large asteroids . The preferred target for this mission was Vesta . AGORA would reach the asteroid belt either by a gravitational slingshot trajectory past Mars or by means of a small ion engine . However , the proposal was refused by ESA . A joint NASA – ESA asteroid mission was then drawn up for a Multiple Asteroid Orbiter with Solar Electric Propulsion ( MAOSEP ) , with one of the mission profiles including an orbit of Vesta . NASA indicated they were not interested in an asteroid mission . Instead , ESA set up a technological study of a spacecraft with an ion drive . Other missions to the asteroid belt were proposed in the 1980s by France , Germany , Italy , and the United States , but none were approved . Exploration of Ceres by fly @-@ by and impacting penetrator was the second main target of the second plan of the multiaimed Soviet Vesta mission , developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991 – 1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding .
In the early 1990s , NASA initiated the Discovery Program , which was intended to be a series of low @-@ cost scientific missions . In 1996 , the program 's study team recommended as a high priority a mission to explore the asteroid belt using a spacecraft with an ion engine . Funding for this program remained problematic for several years , but by 2004 the Dawn vehicle had passed its critical design review .
It was launched on 27 September 2007 , as the space mission to make the first visits to both Vesta and Ceres . On 3 May 2011 , Dawn acquired its first targeting image 1 @.@ 2 million kilometers from Vesta . After orbiting Vesta for 13 months , Dawn used its ion engine to depart for Ceres , with gravitational capture occurring on 6 March 2015 at a separation of 61 @,@ 000 km , four months prior to the New Horizons flyby of Pluto .
Dawn 's mission profile calls for it to study Ceres from a series of circular polar orbits at successively lower altitudes . It entered its first observational orbit ( " RC3 " ) around Ceres at an altitude of 13 @,@ 500 km on 23 April 2015 , staying for only approximately one orbit ( fifteen days ) . The spacecraft will subsequently reduce its orbital distance to 4 @,@ 400 km for its second observational orbit ( " survey " ) for three weeks , then down to 1 @,@ 470 km ( " HAMO " ) for two months and then down to its final orbit at 375 km ( " LAMO " ) for at least three months . The spacecraft instrumentation includes a framing camera , a visual and infrared spectrometer , and a gamma @-@ ray and neutron detector . These instruments will examine Ceres ' shape and elemental composition . On 13 January 2015 , Dawn took the first images of Ceres at near @-@ Hubble resolution , revealing impact craters and a small high @-@ albedo spot on the surface , near the same location as that observed previously . Additional imaging sessions , at increasingly better resolution took place on 25 January , 4 , 12 , 19 , and 25 February , 1 March , and 10 and 15 April .
Dawn 's arrival in a stable orbit around Ceres was delayed after , close to reaching Ceres , it was hit by a cosmic ray , making it take another , longer route around Ceres in back , instead of a direct spiral towards it .
The Chinese Space Agency is designing a sample retrieval mission from Ceres that would take place during the 2020s .
= = Maps = =
= = = Map of quadrangles = = =
The following imagemap of the dwarf planet Ceres is divided into 15 quadrangles . They are named after the first craters whose names the IAU approved in July 2015 . The map image ( s ) were taken by the Dawn space probe .
= = Gallery = =
= = = True @-@ color images = = =
= = = Animations = = =
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= Skye =
Skye , or the Isle of Skye ( / skaɪ / ; Scottish Gaelic : An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach or Eilean a ' Cheò ) , is the largest and most northerly major island in the Inner Hebrides of Scotland . The island 's peninsulas radiate from a mountainous centre dominated by the Cuillins , the rocky slopes of which provide some of the most dramatic mountain scenery in the country . Although it has been suggested that the Gaelic Sgitheanach describes a winged shape there is no definitive agreement as to the name 's origins .
The island has been occupied since the Mesolithic period and its history includes a time of Norse rule and a long period of domination by Clan MacLeod and Clan Donald . The 18th @-@ century Jacobite risings led to the breaking up of the clan system and subsequent Clearances that replaced entire communities with sheep farms , some of which also involved forced emigrations to distant lands . Resident numbers declined from over 20 @,@ 000 in the early 19th century to just under 9 @,@ 000 by the closing decade of the 20th century . Skye 's population increased by 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 . About a third of the residents were Gaelic speakers in 2001 , and although their numbers are in decline this aspect of island culture remains important .
The main industries are tourism , agriculture , fishing and forestry . Skye is part of the Highland Council local government area . The island 's largest settlement is Portree , known for its picturesque harbour . There are links to various nearby islands by ferry and , since 1995 , to the mainland by a road bridge . The climate is mild , wet and windy . The abundant wildlife includes the golden eagle , red deer and Atlantic salmon . The local flora is dominated by heather moor , and there are nationally important invertebrate populations on the surrounding sea bed . Skye has provided the locations for various novels and feature films and is celebrated in poetry and song .
= = Etymology = =
The first written references to the island are Roman sources such as the Ravenna Cosmography , which refers to Scitis and Scetis , which can be found on a map by Ptolemy . One possible derivation comes from skitis , an early Celtic word for winged , which may describe how the island 's peninsulas radiate out from a mountainous centre . Subsequent Gaelic- , Norse- and English @-@ speaking peoples have influenced the history of Skye ; the relationships between their names for the island are not straightforward . Various etymologies have been proposed , such as the " winged isle " or " the notched isle " but no definitive solution has been found to date and the placename may be from an earlier , non @-@ Gaelic language .
In the Norse sagas Skye is called Skíð , for example in the Hákonar saga Hákonarsonar and a skaldic poem in the Heimskringla from c . 1230 contains a line that translates as " the hunger battle @-@ birds were filled in Skye with blood of foemen killed " . The island was also referred to by the Norse as Skuy ( misty isle ) , Skýey or Skuyö ( isle of cloud ) . The traditional Gaelic name is An t @-@ Eilean Sgitheanach ( the island of Skye ) , An t @-@ Eilean Sgiathanach being a more recent and less common spelling . In 1549 Donald Munro , High Dean of the Isles , wrote of " Sky " : " This Ile is callit Ellan Skiannach in Irish , that is to say in Inglish the wyngit Ile , be reason it has mony wyngis and pointis lyand furth fra it , throw the dividing of thir foirsaid Lochis . " but the meaning of this Gaelic name is unclear .
Eilean a ' Cheò , which means island of the mist ( a translation of the Norse name ) , is a poetic Gaelic name for the island .
= = Geography = =
At 1 @,@ 656 square kilometres ( 639 sq mi ) , Skye is the second @-@ largest island in Scotland after Lewis and Harris . The coastline of Skye is a series of peninsulas and bays radiating out from a centre dominated by the Cuillin hills ( Gaelic : An Cuiltheann ) . Malcolm Slesser suggested that its shape " sticks out of the west coast of northern Scotland like a lobster 's claw ready to snap at the fish bone of Harris and Lewis " and W. H. Murray , commenting on its irregular coastline , stated that " Skye is sixty miles [ 100 km ] long , but what might be its breadth is beyond the ingenuity of man to state " . Martin Martin , a native of the island , reported on it at length in a 1703 publication . His geological observations included a note that :
There are marcasites black and white , resembling silver ore , near the village Sartle : there are likewise in the same place several stones , which in bigness , shape , & c . , resemble nutmegs , and many rivulets here afford variegated stones of all colours . The Applesglen near Loch @-@ Fallart has agate growing in it of different sizes and colours ; some are green on the outside , some are of a pale sky colour , and they all strike fire as well as flint : I have one of them by me , which for shape and bigness is proper for a sword handle . Stones of a purple colour flow down the rivulets here after great rains .
The Black Cuillin , which are mainly composed of basalt and gabbro , include twelve Munros and provide some of the most dramatic and challenging mountain terrain in Scotland . The ascent of Sgùrr a ' Ghreadaidh is one of the longest rock climbs in Britain and the Inaccessible Pinnacle is the only peak in Scotland that requires technical climbing skills to reach the summit . These hills make demands of the hill walker that exceed any others found in Scotland and a full traverse of the Cuillin ridge may take 15 – 20 hours . The Red Hills ( Gaelic : Am Binnean Dearg ) to the south are also known as the Red Cuillin . They are mainly composed of granite that has weathered into more rounded hills with many long scree slopes on their flanks . The highest point of these hills is Glamaig , one of only two Corbetts on Skye .
The northern peninsula of Trotternish is underlain by basalt , which provides relatively rich soils and a variety of unusual rock features . The Kilt Rock is named after the tartan @-@ like patterns in the 105 metres ( 344 ft ) cliffs . The Quiraing is a spectacular series of rock pinnacles on the eastern side of the main spine of the peninsula and further south is the rock pillar of the Old Man of Storr .
Beyond Loch Snizort to the west of Trotternish is the Waternish peninsula , which ends in Ardmore Point 's double rock arch . Duirinish is separated from Waternish by Loch Dunvegan , which contains the island of Isay . The loch is ringed by sea cliffs that reach 295 metres ( 967 ft ) at Waterstein Head . Oolitic loam provides good arable land in the main valley . Lochs Bracadale and Harport and the island of Wiay lie between Duirinish and Minginish , which includes the narrower defiles of Talisker and Glen Brittle and whose beaches are formed from black basaltic sands . Strathaird is a relatively small peninsula close to the Cuillin hills with only a few crofting communities , the island of Soay lies offshore . The bedrock of Sleat in the south is Torridonian sandstone , which produces poor soils and boggy ground , although its lower elevations and relatively sheltered eastern shores enable a lush growth of hedgerows and crops . The islands of Raasay , Rona , Scalpay and Pabay all lie to the north and east between Skye and the mainland .
= = = Towns and villages = = =
Portree in the north at the base of Trotternish is the largest settlement ( estimated population 2 @,@ 264 in 2011 ) and is the main service centre on the island . Broadford , the location of the island 's only airstrip , is on the east side of the island and Dunvegan in the north @-@ west is well known for its castle and the nearby Three Chimneys restaurant . The 18th @-@ century Stein Inn on the Waternish coast is the oldest pub on Skye . Kyleakin is linked to Kyle of Lochalsh on the mainland by the Skye Bridge , which spans the narrows of Loch Alsh . Uig , the port for ferries to the Outer Hebrides , is on the west of the Trotternish peninsula and Edinbane is between Dunvegan and Portree . Much of the rest of the population lives in crofting townships scattered around the coastline .
= = = Climate = = =
The influence of the Atlantic Ocean and the Gulf Stream create a mild oceanic climate . Temperatures are generally cool , averaging 6 @.@ 5 ° C ( 43 @.@ 7 ° F ) in January and 15 @.@ 4 ° C ( 59 @.@ 7 ° F ) in July at Duntulm in Trotternish . Snow seldom lies at sea level and frosts are less frequent than on the mainland . Winds are a limiting factor for vegetation . South @-@ westerlies are the most common and speeds of 128 km / h ( 80 mph ) have been recorded . High winds are especially likely on the exposed coasts of Trotternish and Waternish . In common with most islands of the west coast of Scotland , rainfall is generally high at 1 @,@ 500 – 2 @,@ 000 mm ( 59 – 79 in ) per annum and the elevated Cuillin are wetter still . Variations can be considerable , with the north tending to be drier than the south . Broadford , for example , averages more than 2 @,@ 870 mm ( 113 in ) of rain per annum . Trotternish typically has 200 hours of bright sunshine in May , the sunniest month . On 28 December 2015 , the temperature reached 15 ° C , beating the previous December record of 12 @.@ 9 ° C , set in 2013 . On 9 May 2016 , a temperature of 26 @.@ 7 ° C ( 80 @.@ 1 ° F ) was recorded at Lusa in the south @-@ east of the island .
= = History = =
= = = Prehistory = = =
A Mesolithic hunter @-@ gatherer site dating to the 7th millennium BC at An Corran in Staffin is one of the oldest archaeological sites in Scotland . Its occupation is probably linked to that of the rock shelter at Sand , Applecross , on the mainland coast of Wester Ross where tools made of a mudstone from An Corran have been found . Surveys of the area between the two shores of the Inner Sound and Sound of Raasay have revealed 33 sites with potentially Mesolithic deposits . Finds of bloodstone microliths on the foreshore at Orbost on the west coast of the island near Dunvegan also suggest Mesolithic occupation . These tools probably originate from the nearby island of Rum .
Rubha an Dùnain , an uninhabited peninsula to the south of the Cuillin , has a variety of archaeological sites dating from the Neolithic onwards . There is a 2nd or 3rd millennium BC chambered cairn , an Iron Age promontory fort and the remains of other prehistoric settlement dating from the Bronze Age nearby . Loch na h @-@ Airde on the peninsula is linked to the sea by an artificial " Viking " canal that may date from the later period of Norse settlement . Dun Ringill is a ruined Iron Age hill fort on the Strathaird peninsula , which was further fortified in the Middle Ages and may have become the seat of Clan MacKinnon .
= = = Early history = = =
The late Iron Age inhabitants of the northern and western Hebrides were probably Pictish , although the historical record is sparse . Three Pictish symbol stones have been found on Skye and a fourth on Raasay . More is known of the kingdom of Dál Riata to the south ; Adomnán 's life of Columba , written shortly before 697 , portrays the saint visiting Skye ( where he baptised a pagan leader using an interpreter ) and Adomnán himself is thought to have been familiar with the island . The Irish annals record a number of events on Skye in the later 7th and early 8th centuries – mainly concerning the struggles between rival dynasties that formed the background to the Old Irish language romance Scéla Cano meic Gartnáin .
The Norse held sway throughout the Hebrides from the 9th century until after the Treaty of Perth in 1266 . However , apart from placenames , little remains of their presence on Skye in the written or archaeological record . Apart from the name " Skye " itself , all pre @-@ Norse placenames seem to have been obliterated by the Scandinavian settlers . Viking heritage is claimed by Clan MacLeod and Norse tradition is celebrated in the winter fire festival at Dunvegan , during which a replica Viking long boat is set alight .
= = = Clans and Scottish rule = = =
The most powerful clans on Skye in the post – Norse period were Clan MacLeod , originally based in Trotternish , and Clan Macdonald of Sleat . Following the disintegration of the Lordship of the Isles , the Mackinnons also emerged as an independent clan , whose substantial landholdings in Skye were centred on Strathaird . Clan MacNeacail also have a long association with Trotternish , and in the 16th century many of the MacInnes clan moved to Sleat . The MacDonalds of South Uist were bitter rivals of the MacLeods , and an attempt by the former to murder church @-@ goers at Trumpan in retaliation for a previous massacre on Eigg , resulted in the Battle of the Spoiling Dyke of 1578 .
After the failure of the Jacobite rebellion of 1745 , Flora MacDonald became famous for rescuing Prince Charles Edward Stuart from the Hanoverian troops . Although she was born on South Uist her story is strongly associated with their escape via Skye and she is buried at Kilmuir in Trotternish . Samuel Johnson and James Boswell 's visit to Skye in 1773 and their meeting with Flora MacDonald in Kilmuir is recorded in Boswell 's The Journal of a Tour to the Hebrides . Boswell wrote , " To see Dr. Samuel Johnson , the great champion of the English Tories , salute Miss Flora MacDonald in the isle of Sky , [ sic ] was a striking sight ; for though somewhat congenial in their notions , it was very improbable they should meet here " . Johnson 's words that Flora MacDonald was " A name that will be mentioned in history , and if courage and fidelity be virtues , mentioned with honour " are written on her gravestone . After this rebellion the clan system was broken up and Skye became a series of landed estates .
Of the island in general , Johnson observed :
I never was in any house of the islands , where I did not find books in more languages than one , if I staid long enough to want them , except one from which the family was removed . Literature is not neglected by the higher rank of the Hebrideans . It need not , I suppose , be mentioned , that in countries so little frequented as the islands , there are no houses where travellers are entertained for money . He that wanders about these wilds , either procures recommendations to those whose habitations lie near his way , or , when night and weariness come upon him , takes the chance of general hospitality . If he finds only a cottage he can expect little more than shelter ; for the cottagers have little more for themselves but if his good fortune brings him to the residence of a gentleman , he will be glad of a storm to prolong his stay . There is , however , one inn by the sea @-@ side at Sconsor , in Sky , where the post @-@ office is kept .
Skye has a rich heritage of ancient monuments from this period . Dunvegan Castle has been the seat of Clan MacLeod since the 13th century . It contains the Fairy Flag and is reputed to have been inhabited by a single family for longer than any other house in Scotland . The 18th @-@ century Armadale Castle , once home of Clan Donald of Sleat , was abandoned as a residence in 1925 but now hosts the Clan Donald Centre . Nearby are the ruins of two more MacDonald strongholds , Knock Castle , and Dunscaith Castle , the legendary home of warrior woman , martial arts instructor ( and , according to some sources , Queen ) Scáthach . Caisteal Maol , built in the late 15th century near Kyleakin and once a seat of Clan MacKinnon , is another ruin .
= = = Clearances = = =
In the late 18th century the harvesting of kelp became a significant activity but from 1822 on cheap imports led to a collapse of this industry throughout the Hebrides . During the 19th century , the inhabitants of Skye were also devastated by famine and Clearances . Thirty thousand people were evicted between 1840 and 1880 alone , many of them forced to emigrate to the New World . For example , the settlement of Lorgill on the west coast of Duirinish was cleared on 4 August 1830 . Every crofter under the age of seventy was removed and placed on board the Midlothian on threat of imprisonment , with those over that age being sent to the poorhouse . The " Battle of the Braes " involved a demonstration against a lack of access to land and the serving of eviction notices . The incident involved numerous crofters and about 50 police officers . This event was instrumental in the creation of the Napier Commission , which reported in 1884 on the situation in the Highlands . Disturbances continued until the passing of the 1886 Crofters ' Act and on one occasion 400 marines were deployed on Skye to maintain order . The ruins of cleared villages can still be seen at Lorgill , Boreraig and Suisnish in Strath Swordale , and Tusdale on Minginish .
= = = Overview of population trends = = =
As with many Scottish islands , Skye 's population peaked in the 19th century and then declined under the impact of the Clearances and the military losses in the First World War . From the 19th century until 1975 Skye was part of the county of Inverness @-@ shire but the crofting economy languished and according to Slesser , " Generations of UK governments have treated the island people contemptuously . " a charge that has been levelled at both Labour and Conservative administrations ' policies in the Highlands and Islands . By 1971 the population was less than a third of its peak recorded figure in 1841 . However , the number of residents then grew by over 28 per cent in the thirty years to 2001 .
The changing relationship between the residents and the land is evidenced by Robert Carruthers 's remark circa 1852 that , " There is now a village in Portree containing three hundred inhabitants . " Even if this estimate is inexact the population of the island 's largest settlement has probably increased sixfold or more since then . During the period the total number of island residents has declined by 50 per cent or more .
The island @-@ wide population increase of 4 per cent between 1991 and 2001 occurred against the background of an overall reduction in Scottish island populations of 3 per cent for the same period . By 2011 the population had risen a further 8 @.@ 4 % to 10 @,@ 008 with Scottish island populations as a whole growing by 4 % to 103 @,@ 702 .
= = = Gaelic = = =
Historically , Skye was overwhelmingly Gaelic @-@ speaking , but this changed between 1921 and 2001 . In both the 1901 and 1921 censuses , all Skye parishes were more than 75 per cent Gaelic @-@ speaking . By 1971 , only Kilmuir parish had more than three quarters Gaelic speakers while the rest of Skye ranged between 50 and 74 per cent . At that time , Kilmuir was the only area outside the Western Isles that had such a high proportion of Gaelic speakers . In the 2001 census Kilmuir had just under half Gaelic speakers , and overall , Skye had 31 per cent , distributed unevenly . The strongest Gaelic areas were in the north and south @-@ west of the island , including Staffin at 61 per cent . The weakest areas were in the west and east ( e.g. Luib 23 per cent and Kylerhea 19 per cent ) . Other areas on Skye ranged between 48 per cent and 25 per cent .
= = Government and politics = =
In terms of local government , from 1975 to 1996 , Skye , along with the neighbouring mainland area of Lochalsh , constituted a local government district within the Highland administrative area . In 1996 the district was included into the unitary Highland Council , ( Comhairle na Gàidhealtachd ) based in Inverness and formed one of the new council 's area committees . Following the 2007 elections , Skye now forms a four @-@ member ward called " Eilean a ' Cheò " ; it is currently represented by two independents , one Scottish National Party , and one Liberal Democrat councillor .
Skye is in the Highlands electoral region and comprises a part of the Ross , Skye and Inverness West constituency of the Scottish Parliament , which elects one member under the first past the post basis to represent it . Currently this is David Thompson for the SNP . In addition , Skye forms part of the wider Ross , Skye and Lochaber constituency , which elects one member to the House of Commons in Westminster . The present Member of Parliament is Ian Blackford of the Scottish National Party , who took office after the SNP 's sweep in the General Election of 2015 . Prior to this , Charles Kennedy , a Liberal Democrat , had represented the area since the 1983 general election .
= = Economy = =
The largest employer on the island and its environs is the public sector , which accounts for about a third of the total workforce , principally in administration , education and health . The second largest employer in the area is the distribution , hotels and restaurants sector , highlighting the importance of tourism . Key attractions include Dunvegan Castle , the Clan Donald Visitor Centre , and The Aros Experience arts and exhibition centre in Portree . There are about a dozen large landowners on Skye , the largest being the public sector , with the Scottish Government owning most of the northern part of the island . Glendale is a community @-@ owned estate in Duirinish and the Sleat Community Trust , the local development trust , is active in various regeneration projects .
Small firms dominate employment in the private sector . The Talisker Distillery , which produces a single malt whisky , is beside Loch Harport on the west coast of the island . Three other whiskies — Mac na Mara ( " son of the sea " ) , Tè Bheag nan Eilean ( " wee dram of the isles " ) and Poit Dhubh ( " black pot " ) — are produced by blender Pràban na Linne ( " smugglers den by the Sound of Sleat " ) , based at Eilean Iarmain . These are marketed using predominantly Gaelic @-@ language labels . There is also an established software presence on Skye , with Portree @-@ based Sitekit having expanded in recent years .
Crofting is still important , but although there are about 2 @,@ 000 crofts on Skye only 100 or so are large enough to enable a crofter to earn a livelihood entirely from the land . Cod and herring stocks have declined but commercial fishing remains important , especially fish farming of salmon and shellfish such as scampi . The west coast of Scotland has a considerable renewable energy potential and the Isle of Skye Renewables Co @-@ op has recently bought a stake in the Ben Aketil wind farm near Dunvegan . There is a thriving arts and crafts sector .
The unemployment rate in the area tends to be higher than in the Highlands as a whole , and is seasonal in nature , in part due to the impact of tourism . The population is growing and in common with many other scenic rural areas in Scotland , significant increases are expected in the percentage of the population aged 45 to 64 years .
= = Transport = =
Skye is linked to the mainland by the Skye Bridge , while ferries sail from Armadale on the island to Mallaig , and from Kylerhea to Glenelg . Ferries also run from Uig to Tarbert on Harris and Lochmaddy on North Uist , and from Sconser to Raasay .
The Skye Bridge opened in 1995 under a private finance initiative and the high tolls charged ( £ 5 @.@ 70 each way for summer visitors ) met with widespread opposition , spearheaded by the pressure group SKAT ( Skye and Kyle Against Tolls ) . On 21 December 2004 it was announced that the Scottish Executive had purchased the bridge from its owners and the tolls were immediately removed .
Bus services run to Inverness and Glasgow , and there are local services on the island , mainly starting from Portree or Broadford . Train services run from Kyle of Lochalsh at the mainland end of the Skye Bridge to Inverness , as well as from Glasgow to Mallaig from where the ferry can be caught to Armadale .
The Isle of Skye Airfield at Ashaig , near Broadford , is used by private aircraft and occasionally by NHS Highland and the Scottish Ambulance Service for transferring patients to hospitals on the mainland .
The A87 trunk road traverses the island from the Skye Bridge to Uig , linking most of the major settlements . Many of the island 's roads have been widened in the past forty years although there are still substantial sections of single track road .
= = Culture , media and the arts = =
Students of Scottish Gaelic travel from all over the world to attend Sabhal Mòr Ostaig , the Scottish Gaelic college based near Kilmore in Sleat . In addition to members of the Church of Scotland and a smaller number of Roman Catholics many residents of Skye belong to the Free Church of Scotland , known for its strict observance of the Sabbath .
Skye has a strong folk music tradition , although in recent years dance and rock music have been growing in popularity on the island . Gaelic folk rock band Runrig started in Skye and former singer Donnie Munro still works on the island . Runrig 's second single and a concert staple is entitled Skye , the lyrics being partly in English and partly in Gaelic and they have released other songs such as " Nightfall on Marsco " that were inspired by the island . Celtic fusion band the Peatbog Faeries are based on Skye . Jethro Tull singer Ian Anderson owned an estate at Strathaird on Skye at one time . Several Tull songs are written about Skye , including Dun Ringil , Broadford Bazaar , and Acres Wild ( which contains the lines " Come with me to the Winged Isle , / Northern father 's western child ... " in reference to the island itself ) . The Isle of Skye Music Festival featured sets from The Fun Lovin ' Criminals and Sparks , but collapsed in 2007 . Electronic musician Mylo was born on Skye .
The poet Sorley MacLean , a native of the Isle of Raasay , which lies off the island 's east coast , lived much of his life on Skye . The island has been immortalised in the traditional song " The Skye Boat Song " and is the notional setting for the novel To the Lighthouse by Virginia Woolf , although the Skye of the novel bears little relation to the real island . John Buchan 's descriptions of Skye , as featured in his Richard Hannay novel Mr Standfast , are more true to life . I Diari di Rubha Hunis is a 2004 Italian language work of non @-@ fiction by Davide Sapienza . The international bestseller , The Ice Twins , by S K Tremayne , published around the world in 2015 @-@ 2016 , is set in southern Skye , especially around the settlement and islands of Isleornsay .
Skye has been used as a location for a number of feature films . The Ashaig aerodrome was used for the opening scenes of the 1980 film Flash Gordon . Stardust , released in 2007 and starring Robert De Niro and Michelle Pfeiffer , featured scenes near Uig , Loch Coruisk and the Quiraing . Another 2007 film , Seachd : The Inaccessible Pinnacle , was shot almost entirely in various locations on the island . Some of the opening scenes in Ridley Scott 's 2012 feature film Prometheus were shot at the Old Man of Storr . In 1973 The Highlands and Islands - a Royal Tour , a documentary about Prince Charles 's visit to the Highlands and Islands , directed by Oscar Marzaroli , was shot partly on Skye .
The West Highland Free Press is published at Broadford . This weekly newspaper takes as its motto " An Tìr , an Cànan ' s na Daoine " ( " The Land , the Language and the People " ) , which reflects its radical , campaigning priorities . The Free Press was founded in 1972 and circulates in Skye , Wester Ross and the Outer Hebrides . Shinty is a popular sport played throughout the island and Portree @-@ based Skye Camanachd won the Camanachd Cup in 1990 .
= = Wildlife = =
The Hebrides generally lack the biodiversity of mainland Britain , but like most of the larger islands , Skye still has a wide variety of species . Observing the abundance of game birds Martin wrote :
There is plenty of land and water fowl in this isle - as hawks , eagles of two kinds ( the one grey and of a larger size , the other much less and black , but more destructive to young cattle ) , black cock , heath @-@ hen , plovers , pigeons , wild geese , ptarmigan , and cranes . Of this latter sort I have seen sixty on the shore in a flock together . The sea fowls are malls of all kinds - coulterneb , guillemot , sea cormorant , & c . The natives observe that the latter , if perfectly black , makes no good broth , nor is its flesh worth eating ; but that a cormorant , which hath any white feathers or down , makes good broth , and the flesh of it is good food ; and the broth is usually drunk by nurses to increase their milk .
Similarly , Samuel Johnson noted that :
At the tables where a stranger is received , neither plenty nor delicacy is wanting . A tract of land so thinly inhabited , must have much wild @-@ fowl ; and I scarcely remember to have seen a dinner without them . The moor @-@ game is every where to be had . That the sea abounds with fish , needs not be told , for it supplies a great part of Europe . The Isle of Sky has stags and roebucks , but no hares . They sell very numerous droves of oxen yearly to England , and therefore cannot be supposed to want beef at home . Sheep and goats are in great numbers , and they have the common domestic fowls . "
In the modern era avian life includes the corncrake , red @-@ throated diver , kittiwake , tystie , Atlantic puffin , goldeneye and golden eagle . The eggs of the last breeding pair of white @-@ tailed sea eagle in the UK were taken by an egg collector on Skye in 1916 but the species has recently been re @-@ introduced . The chough last bred on the island in 1900 . Mountain hare ( apparently absent in the 18th century ) and rabbit are now abundant and preyed upon by wild cat and pine marten . The rich fresh water streams contain brown trout , Atlantic salmon and water shrew . Offshore the edible crab and edible oyster are also found , the latter especially in the Sound of Scalpay . There are nationally important horse mussel and brittlestar beds in the sea lochs and in 2012 a bed of 100 million flame shells was found during a survey of Loch Alsh . Grey Seals can be seen off the Southern coast .
Heather moor containing ling , bell heather , cross @-@ leaved heath , bog myrtle and fescues is everywhere abundant . The high Black Cuillins weather too slowly to produce a soil that sustains a rich plant life , but each of the main peninsulas has an individual flora . The basalt underpinnings of Trotternish produce a diversity of Arctic and alpine plants including alpine pearlwort and mossy cyphal . The low @-@ lying fields of Waternish contain corn marigold and corn spurry . The sea cliffs of Duirinish boast mountain avens and fir clubmoss . Minginish produces fairy flax , cats @-@ ear and black bog rush . There is a fine example of Brachypodium @-@ rich ash woodland at Tokavaig in Sleat incorporating silver birch , hazel , bird cherry , and hawthorn .
The local Biodiversity Action Plan recommends land management measures to control the spread of ragwort and bracken and identifies four non @-@ native , invasive species as threatening native biodiversity : Japanese knotweed , rhododendron , New Zealand flatworm and mink . It also identifies problems of over @-@ grazing resulting in the impoverishment of moorland and upland habitats and a loss of native woodland , caused by the large numbers of red deer and sheep .
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= Florida Atlantic University =
Florida Atlantic University ( also referred to as FAU or Florida Atlantic ) is a public university located in Boca Raton , Florida , with five satellite campuses located in the Florida cities of Dania Beach , Davie , Fort Lauderdale , Jupiter , and in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . FAU belongs to the 12 @-@ campus State University System of Florida and serves South Florida , which has a population of more than five million people and spans more than 100 miles ( 160 km ) of coastline . Florida Atlantic University is classified by the Carnegie Foundation as a research university with high research activity . The university offers more than 180 undergraduate and graduate degree programs within its 10 colleges in addition to a professional degree from the College of Medicine . Programs of study cover arts and humanities , the sciences , medicine , nursing , accounting , business , education , public administration , social work , architecture , engineering , and computer science .
Florida Atlantic opened in 1964 as the first public university in southeast Florida , offering only upper @-@ division and graduate level courses . Initial enrollment was only 867 students , increasing in 1984 when the university admitted its first lower @-@ division undergraduate students . As of 2012 , enrollment has grown to over 30 @,@ 000 students representing 140 countries , 50 states , and the District of Columbia . Since its inception , Florida Atlantic has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni .
In recent years , FAU has undertaken an effort to increase its academic and research standings while also evolving into a more traditional university . The university has raised admissions standards , increased research funding , built new facilities , and established notable partnerships with major research institutions . Changes include an on @-@ campus stadium , additional on @-@ campus housing , and the establishment of a College of Medicine in 2010 .
= = History = =
= = = Establishment = = =
On July 15 , 1961 , to meet the burgeoning educational demands of South Florida , the state legislature passed an act authorizing the establishment of a new university in the City of Boca Raton . Florida Atlantic University was built on Boca Raton Army Airfield , a 1940s @-@ era army airbase . During World War II , the airfield served as the Army Air Corps ' sole radar training facility . The base was built on the existing Boca Raton Airport and on 5 @,@ 860 acres ( 23 @.@ 7 km ² ) of adjacent land . A majority of the land was acquired from Japanese @-@ American farmers from the failing Yamato Colony . The land was seized through eminent domain , leaving many Japanese @-@ Americans little recourse in the early days of World War II .
The airbase was used for radar training , anti @-@ submarine patrols along the coast , and as a stop @-@ over point for planes being ferried to Africa and Europe via South America . The airfield was composed of four runways , still visible on the Boca Campus today and mainly used for parking .
By early 1947 , the military decided to transfer future radar training operations to Keesler Air Force Base in Mississippi . The departure of the air force in 1947 would leave Boca Raton Army Airfield essentially abandoned .
= = = Expansion and growth = = =
Florida Atlantic University opened on September 14 , 1964 , with an initial student body of 867 students in five colleges . The first degree awarded was an honorary doctorate given to President Lyndon B. Johnson on October 25 , 1964 , at the dedication and opening of the university . At the time of its opening , there were 120 faculty out of a total of 350 employees . On @-@ campus housing for students was first added in September 1965 , when Algonquin Hall opened .
Florida Atlantic 's history is one of continuing expansion as the university 's service population has grown . The university originally served only upper @-@ division and graduate level students , because Florida intended the institution " to complement the state 's community college system , accepting students who had earned their associate degrees from those institutions . "
Florida Atlantic began its expansion beyond a one @-@ campus university in 1971 , when it opened its Commercial Boulevard campus in Fort Lauderdale . Due to a rapidly expanding population in South Florida , in 1984 Florida Atlantic opened its doors to lower @-@ division undergraduate students . The following year , the university added its third campus , in downtown Fort Lauderdale on Las Olas Boulevard .
= = = Recent history = = =
In 1989 , the Florida Legislature recognized demands for higher education in South Florida by designating Florida Atlantic as the lead state university serving Broward County . To fill this role , the university would establish a campus in Dania Beach in 1997 and another campus in the City of Davie in western Broward County in 1990 . Florida Atlantic later purchased 50 acres ( 20 ha ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 to establish a campus on the Treasure Coast . This would be the institution 's fifth campus . The university continued its expansion in 1999 when it opened its Jupiter Campus , named for the late John D. MacArthur . This campus houses the university 's honors college .
Florida Atlantic University and the University of Miami 's Miller School of Medicine established a medical training program within the Charles E. Schmidt College of Biomedical Science in 2004 . Plans originally called for the construction of a new teaching hospital in coordination with Boca Raton Community Hospital on the main campus . Following successive budgets deficits in 2007 , the hospital delayed its participation indefinitely . However , Florida Atlantic later established its own College of Medicine in 2010 . The Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution ( HBOI ) also joined the university in 2007 , creating Florida Atlantic 's seventh campus . To bring HBOI into the university family the Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million to Florida Atlantic to acquire the institution .
Florida Atlantic has changed dramatically since its opening in 1964 . As of 2013 , there are more than 30 @,@ 000 students attending classes on seven campuses spread across 120 miles ( 193 km ) . The university consists of ten colleges and employs more than 3 @,@ 200 faculty and staff . The university 's endowment decreased from $ 182 million in June 2008 to $ 142 million in January 2009 due to a worsening economy . However , with the national economic recovery the endowment has increased to $ 179 million by the end of 2012 .
Since its founding , the university has been led by seven presidents . The university 's immediate past president is Dr. Mary Jane Saunders . She was named president on March 3 , 2010 , then resigned on May 15 , 2013 . Her appointment followed the resignation of Frank Brogan . Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida , left the university in late 2009 to become Chancellor of the State University System of Florida . Past university presidents also included Dr. Anthony J. Catanese , Dr. Helen Popovich , Dr. Glenwood Creech , and Dr. Kenneth Rast Williams . On January 17 , 2014 , the Board of Trustees announced the selection of Dr. John W. Kelly , formerly a VP of Clemson University , to be the seventh president of the university with a starting date of March 1 , 2014 .
= = Academics = =
= = = Profile = = =
As of fall 2013 , the university 's student body consists of 24 @,@ 686 undergraduates , 4 @,@ 666 graduate and professional students , 64 medical students , and 1 @,@ 451 unclassified students . As of 2013 , the undergraduate student body contains 47 % ethnic minorities and includes students from more than 180 countries , 49 states , and the District of Columbia . For the undergraduate class of 2012 , the acceptance rate was 35 % for first @-@ time @-@ in @-@ college students .
The university has ten colleges which altogether offer over 180 different bachelor 's , master 's and doctoral degree programs : the Charles E. Schmidt College of Science , Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine , Christine E. Lynn College of Nursing , College for Design and Social Inquiry , College of Business , College of Education , College of Engineering and Computer Science , Dorothy F. Schmidt College of Arts and Letters , Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , and the Graduate College .
The university offers two honors options : the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College and a University Scholars Program . The Wilkes Honors College is located on the John D. MacArthur campus in Jupiter , Florida . It offers a liberal arts education in the platform of a public university , yet is comparable to a private liberal arts college . The Boca Raton campus houses the University Scholars Program , which offers special honors seminars , forums , courses , and advanced course substitution for freshmen .
In recent years , FAU has increased its admission requirements for prospective freshmen . The fall 2013 freshmen profile for the mid @-@ 50 % includes 3 @.@ 38 @-@ 3 @.@ 98 high school GPA , a 22 @-@ 26 ACT composite score , and a 1520 @-@ 1740 SAT total score . Following a surge in the university 's popularity , in early 2009 , the university created its first wait @-@ list for undergraduate enrollment . After February 15 , 2009 , applicants for admission in the 2009 – 2010 academic year were required to have a 3 @.@ 5 GPA or an SAT score of 1600 to be considered for admission .
The average class size at FAU for undergraduates is 33 students , and for graduate classes , 12 students . The student @-@ to @-@ faculty ratio is 20 : 1 . The top three undergraduate majors by enrollment are elementary education , accounting , and management , respectively . The top three graduate majors by enrollment are business administration , educational leadership , and accounting , respectively . The average age for first @-@ year students is 18 ; however , the average age for all undergraduates is 24 and the average age for graduate students is 33 . The average 4 @-@ year graduation rate for first @-@ time , non @-@ transfer students is 14 % while the 6 @-@ year graduation rate is 39 % .
Florida Atlantic University has long ranked as the most racially , ethnically and culturally diverse institution in Florida 's State University System . U.S. News & World Report has ranked FAU the 27th most diverse university in the nation . Florida Atlantic University students come from all 50 states , every county in Florida , and more than 180 countries . Enrichment opportunities include internships , hands @-@ on research , study abroad experiences , and 310 clubs and campus organizations .
The Lifelong Learning Society operates programs that serve the educational interests of more than 19 @,@ 000 senior citizens by providing classes focusing on subjects of specific interest , and audit options for regular university classes . Under the university 's Commercial Music Program , Hoot / Wisdom Recordings was created in 2002 , enabling students to work in all creative and business aspects of the music industry . This program generated music that landed a Top 10 spot on the Billboard 's Hot R & B / Hip @-@ Hop Singles Sales Chart during its first week of release . The university 's two @-@ story trading room simulator , located in the College of Business , provides hands @-@ on financial education using 25 dual @-@ monitor computers and can accommodate 50 people at one time . A second lab provides full audio / visual connectivity and 25 additional workstations . Florida Atlantic allows local financial businesses to use the Trading Room for training .
= = = Research = = =
Florida Atlantic is classified by The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching as a research university with high research activity . The university has established notable partnerships with major research institutions such as The Scripps Research Institute , the Torrey Pines Institute for Molecular Studies , and the Max Planck Society .
The university is the home of two centers of excellence : The Center of Excellence in Biomedical and Marine Biotechnology and The Center for Ocean Energy Technology . These centers have been selected by Florida 's Emerging Technology Commission to receive grants to continue and increase their operations . Florida Atlantic beat out some of Florida 's top research universities , including the University of Florida and Florida State University , for the initial money from the state .
Since receiving its startup funding , Florida Atlantic has secured additional funds from other sources , including federal and private research grants . As a result , both centers have engaged in academic and industry partnerships , combining expertise in ocean engineering , marine biotechnology , functional genomics , proteomics , and bioinformatics . Researchers , scientists , and students at the centers are designing technologies to explore the sea , harvest renewable energy , discover new medicines , and develop new therapeutics to combat agents of bioterrorism . As a result of this research , in 2007 the university and Lockheed Martin announced an exclusive licensing agreement to develop and produce a rapidly deployable and autonomous mooring buoy system for military and scientific uses .
In 2010 , the United States Department of Energy designated FAU as one of three national centers for ocean energy research and development . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center joins centers in the Pacific Northwest ( University of Washington and Oregon State University ) and in Hawaii ( University of Hawaii ) . The Southeast National Marine Renewable Energy Center is undertaking research and development of technologies capable of generating renewable power from ocean currents and ocean thermal energy .
The university houses both an Imaging Technology Center and a NASA Imaging Technology Space Center . Located in the College of Engineering and Computer Science , the centers specialize in digital imaging research and development for use in both government and commercial applications in the areas of medical technology , surveillance , communications , education , inspection , scientific observation , manufacturing , visual recognition and identification , and motion picture and digital video . The Florida Atlantic Imaging Technology Center is developing a curriculum for digital imaging and processing , thereby establishing Florida Atlantic as the only university in the nation to offer this technical concentration . The NASA Imaging Technology Center is one of 12 NASA Research Partnership Centers throughout the nation which develop dual @-@ use research and development with the participation of NASA and other related industries in the US . The center occupies two sets of laboratories and administrative offices , one on Florida Atlantic 's main campus in Boca Raton , the other at the Fort Lauderdale campus .
Florida Atlantic is affiliated to the Research Park at Florida Atlantic University , with properties in Deerfield Beach and Boca Raton . The Research Park provides outside research facilities for companies which enable them to interact with the university community and its facilities , resources , and expertise . The Research Park operates the Technology Business Incubator ; The incubator works to foster the start @-@ up and growth of technology @-@ based businesses , seeking to scale them and build relationships for them with the university . The Boca Raton campus is also home to the Center for Complex Systems and Brain Sciences , which includes the Machine Perception and Cognitive Robotics Laboratory
= = = Rankings = = =
For 2013 , Florida Atlantic University was classified as a second @-@ tier university by the U.S. News & World Report 's rankings of " Best Colleges . " U.S. News ranks universities into one of two tiers , with one being the highest , based on how they compare with other colleges in a peer assessment , retention rates , student selectivity , faculty resources , financial resources , graduation rates , and the amount of alumni giving . The university was named one of the 146 " Best Southeastern Colleges " in the United States by the Princeton Review . The Review also recognized FAU 's business program by naming the College of Business to their list of " Best 296 Business Schools " for 2009 . For 2011 , Florida Atlantic was ranked 249th in the nation by Washington Monthly . The magazine based its rankings on the following three criteria : " how well a university performs as an engine of social mobility ( ideally helping the poor to get rich rather than the very rich to get very , very rich ) , how well a university does in fostering scientific and humanistic research , and how well a university promotes an ethic of service to country . " The university was also ranked 28th in the United States and fourth in Florida by The Hispanic Outlook in Higher Education magazine for awarding 738 bachelor 's degrees to Hispanic students during the 2006 – 2007 academic year .
= = Campus = =
Florida Atlantic University is a distributed university located on seven campuses spread across Palm Beach , Broward , and St. Lucie counties . The region is home to more than three million people . The university 's main campus is located in the City of Boca Raton in Palm Beach County . The county is also home to the John D. MacArthur Campus located in the City of Jupiter . In addition to its campuses in Palm Beach County , the university operates three campuses in the Broward County cities of Dania Beach , Davie , and Fort Lauderdale . Florida Atlantic University also operates two campuses in the St. Lucie County cities of Port St. Lucie and Fort Pierce . In addition to students who attend classes on the universities campuses , there are 1 @,@ 612 distance learning students who conduct their studies over the internet or through other means . These students account for 6 % of the university 's student body .
Florida Atlantic is a signatory of the American College & University Presidents Climate Commitment Association for the Advancement of Sustainability in Higher Education . This commits the institution to ensuring all new construction projects meet the U.S. Green Building Council 's Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design ( LEED ) Silver standards . In 2011 , The College of Engineering and Computer Science Building was LEED Platinum certified .
= = = Palm Beach County campuses = = =
= = = = Boca Raton = = = =
Florida Atlantic University 's main campus in Boca Raton was established on the remnants of a World War II American Army airbase in 1964 . Spanning 850 acres ( 3 @.@ 5 km ² ) , the site is located between the cities of Palm Beach and Fort Lauderdale . The campus was designated a burrowing owl sanctuary in 1971 by the Audubon Society . The owls find the campus appealing because there are few predators , due to the university 's proximity to the Boca Raton Airport , and because the campus was originally cleared of vegetation when operating as an airbase during World War II . " The feisty bird , traditionally associated with wisdom and determination , serves as the university 's mascot . "
The Boca Raton campus is home to a wide variety of university programs and facilities . These facilities are labs and classrooms , housing for students , a 6 @,@ 000 @-@ gallon shark tank for aquatic research , a movie theater , athletic and recreational facilities , and the student @-@ run record label Hoot / Wisdom Recordings . In addition to academic and cultural programs , the campus also houses Florida Atlantic 's Division I athletics program . The main campus serves approximately 19 @,@ 077 students , or 70 % of the university 's student body , offering a number of academic programs , activities , and services .
The Boca Raton campus also houses a number of other institutions , including the A. D. Henderson University School , FAU High School , one of two Florida Atlantic University Research Parks , and the Lifelong Learning Society .
= = = = Jupiter – John D. MacArthur Campus = = = =
In addition to the Boca Raton campus in southern Palm Beach County , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in northern Palm Beach County , in Jupiter . The John D. MacArthur Campus , named after businessman and philanthropist John D. MacArthur , was established in 1999 to serve residents of central and northern Palm Beach and southern Martin counties . The MacArthur Campus occupies 45 acres ( 0 @.@ 18 km ² ) , upon which are eight classroom and office buildings , a library , a 500 @-@ seat auditorium , two residence halls , a dining hall , museum building , and utility plant . The MacArthur Campus also houses the Harriet L. Wilkes Honors College , Scripps Florida , and the Max Planck Florida Institute . The campus serves approximately 1 @,@ 262 students , or 4 % of the university 's student body .
= = = Broward County campuses = = =
= = = = Dania Beach – SeaTech = = = =
The Dania Beach Campus , also known as SeaTech , was founded in 1997 as a state @-@ funded Type II research center . The institute is part of Florida Atlantic 's Department of Ocean Engineering which was founded in 1965 as the first ocean engineering undergraduate program in the nation . The campus is located on 8 acres ( 0 @.@ 03 km ² ) of land between the Atlantic Ocean and the Intracoastal Waterway . SeaTech is home to university faculty and students engaged in sponsored ocean engineering research and development in the areas of acoustics , marine vehicles , hydrodynamics and physical oceanography , marine materials and nanocomposites . The Dania Beach Campus serves approximately 70 students , roughly 1 % of the university 's total student body .
= = = = Davie = = = =
The Davie Campus of Florida Atlantic University was established in 1990 on 38 acres ( 0 @.@ 15 km ² ) of land in western Broward County . The campus serves approximately 3 @,@ 488 students , or 13 % of the Florida Atlantic student body , making it the university 's second largest campus by enrollment . The campus features a multi @-@ story student union with offices for student government and student organizations , a multipurpose area and student lounge , a bookstore , and cafeteria . The union also contains a student health center that provides medical services and health counseling . Davie is also the home of " environmental research initiatives focused on Everglades restoration . " FAU colleges offering courses at the FAU Davie campus include Design and Social Inquiry ; Arts and Letters ; Business ; Education ; Nursing ; and Science . The campus is located on Broward College 's Central Campus . Students may enter BC as freshmen and graduate from FAU with undergraduate degrees in over 14 disciplines . More than 315 @,@ 000 square feet of carefully designed classrooms , laboratories and faculty , staff and student offices are located on this campus along with a shared @-@ use , 112 @,@ 000 square @-@ foot FAU / BC library designed for the 21st century .
Other support facilities include a shared Childcare Center , a student Wellness Center and a multi @-@ service Student Union . The campus also offers a rich and varied program of student activities provided by the Division of Student Affairs . Students have all of the services they require for career counseling , wellness , testing and evaluation , tutoring , health services , student government and financial aid , among others . Like a small college within a large university , the Davie Campus is seen as a " model " branch campus for the state of Florida and the nation .
= = = = Fort Lauderdale = = = =
The university has two buildings in downtown Fort Lauderdale , both of which are considered part of one Fort Lauderdale campus . The Askew Tower ( AT ) and the Higher Education Complex ( HEC ) on Las Olas Boulevard . The campus offers courses in communication , graphic design , architecture , and urban and regional planning . The campus is home to approximately 900 students or 3 @.@ 2 % of the university 's student body .
= = = St. Lucie County campuses = = =
= = = = Fort Pierce – Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution = = = =
In addition to the Treasure Coast Campus , Florida Atlantic University operates a campus in Fort Pierce at the Harbor Branch Oceanographic Institution . Harbor Branch merged with the university in 2007 to become the HBOI at FAU . The Florida Legislature allocated $ 44 million for the university to acquire the institution and its 600 acre ( 2 @.@ 4 km ² ) campus .
= = = Former Campuses = = =
= = = = Port St. Lucie – Treasure Coast Campus = = = =
Treasure Coast Campus of Florida Atlantic University operated through a partnership with Indian River State College ( IRSC ) . Florida Atlantic purchased 50 acres ( 0 @.@ 2 km ² ) of land in Port St. Lucie in 1994 . At the end of Spring 2012 class term , Florida Atlantic University ended offering classes at the Port St. Lucie campus .
= = Athletics = =
Florida Atlantic 's 18 varsity sports teams , the Owls , compete in NCAA 's Division I. The Owls recently got in C @-@ USA for the 2013 – 14 season . The university 's athletics program began in 1979 , when Florida Atlantic first started sponsoring intercollegiate teams . Since then , the university has worked to expand the quality of its intercollegiate program by attracting coaches such as Howard Schnellenberger , Matt Doherty , Rex Walters and Mike Jarvis . In 2006 , the athletic department was ranked 79th in the nation by the National Association of Collegiate Directors of Athletics ( NACDA ) . Along with USA Today and the United States Sports Academy , NACDA recognized the university for its Division I athletic programs and accomplishments . " This ranking placed Florida Atlantic in the top 24 % of 326 NCAA Division I universities . The university 's colors are FAU Blue , FAU Red , and FAU Silver .
In 2008 , the Florida Atlantic football team finished six wins and six losses in regular season play and was invited to the Motor City Bowl . The Owls defeated Central Michigan University 24 – 21 , increasing their bowl record to two wins and zero losses . During the previous season , the football team beat Troy University in the final game of regular season play to become Sun Belt Co @-@ Champions and receive an invitation to the New Orleans Bowl . In just the seventh year of the football program 's history , and the third year playing in Division I , Florida Atlantic set NCAA records by both becoming the youngest program ever to receive an invitation to , and win , a bowl game . As a result of the New Orleans Bowl the university has seen a surge in school spirit .
In past seasons the Owls have garnered a number of accolades for their accomplishments . During the 2006 – 2007 season , the men 's basketball team was noted as " one of the Sun Belt Conference 's top offensive teams , " with a " scary offense " that earned it the reputation of the " best shooting team in the conference . " In 2010 , the men 's basketball team defeated its first @-@ ever Southeastern Conference opponent Mississippi State University 61 – 59 as well as Big East opponent the University of South Florida 50 – 42 en route to a 21 – 9 overall record and claimed the Sun Belt Conference title .
The baseball team was also recognized by the NCAA as ranking in the Top 10 in five team categories . The team was also ranked third in the nation in home runs per game ( 1 @.@ 66 ) and in slugging percentage ( .563 ) . In 2010 , the Owls baseball team was 37 – 24 ( 21 – 9 ) and claimed their first Sun Belt Conference regular @-@ season title .
= = = Traditions = = =
Florida Atlantic University is home to a number of sports @-@ related traditions and school spirit organizations .
Every fall before the first football game of the season , FAU 's Student Government Association sponsors the " Annual Football Kick @-@ Off Bonfire " wherein the opposing team 's mascot is burned in effigy . Also in football , Florida Atlantic challenges its rival Florida International ( FIU ) is the annual Shula Bowl . This intercollegiate football game is named after legendary coach Don Shula ; so named because at the time of its inception , both head coaches , Florida Atlantic 's Howard Schnellenberger and Florida International coach Don Strock , had worked under Shula at some point during their careers . Even though both universities have since moved on to new head coaches , the Shula Bowl is still played . As a home game , the competition takes place at university 's own stadium ; as an away game , the bowl is played at FIU Stadium in Miami .
For basketball , Florida Atlantic celebrates a " Midnight Madness " pep rally that introduces fans to the team and coaches as well as inspires a number of basketball @-@ related contests such as 3 Point Shoot Outs and Slam Dunk competitions . During the regular season , the " Bury the Burrow in Red " event calls for Florida Atlantic students to wear as much red as possible and fill the Burrow , the university 's multi @-@ purpose arena , during the annual basketball rivalry game between Florida Atlantic and Florida International University .
The official spirit group supporting Florida Atlantic athletics is the " prOWLers . " The group began in February 2002 to support the men 's basketball program during the team 's run for the Atlantic Sun Conference Championship . The group is funded by the Student Alumni Association , and can now be found at most sporting events cheering for Florida Atlantic . The prOWLers are joined by the Owl Rangers , a fan group that paints their bodies in the Florida Atlantic school colors . The hOWLetts are a student club that attend gameday events and assist in recruiting athletes .
Since 2002 , Florida Atlantic students have been using Owl Fingers ( the " OK " hand sign ) to show school pride and wish the athletic teams luck during football point after attempts ( PATs ) and basketball free throws . The Florida Atlantic University Athletics Department has chosen to use Owl Fingers as part of its " Salute the Hoot " 2012 marketing campaign that encourages students to " proudly raise the hand salute that depicts the eyes of the owl , FAU 's mascot . "
= = Student life = =
= = = Residential life = = =
Residential housing at Florida Atlantic University is available on the Boca Raton and John D. MacArthur campuses . " All full @-@ time freshmen are required to reside in university housing , " however , " exemptions from this policy are made for students who : are 21 or older by the first day of class , reside with parent ( s ) or legal guardian ( s ) within a 50 @-@ mile ( 80 km ) radius of the Boca Raton campus , or are married . " As of 2011 , 4 @,@ 555 students live on @-@ campus in Boca Raton . The Wilkes Honors College on the MacArthur Campus requires all students live on @-@ campus within its two residence halls , however , exceptions are made for students who are 26 years of age , married , or have dependent children . As of 2011 , there are 231 students residing on @-@ campus at the honors college .
Boca Raton 's on @-@ campus housing facilities are : Algonquin Hall ( opened 1965 ) , Indian River Towers ( opened 2001 ) , Heritage Park Towers ( opened 2004 ) , Glades Park Towers ( opened 2007 ) , Parliament Hall ( opened 2013 ) , University Village Apartments ( UVA ) , and Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) ( opened 2011 ) . Heritage Park and Glades Park Towers each offer 602 beds with 96 single rooms . UVA and IVA exclusively serve upperclassmen while the other residence halls exclusively serve freshmen students , with Algonquin Hall serving all students . The university also offers upper @-@ division undergraduate and graduate student housing in the Business and Professional Women 's Scholarship House for women with a strong academic background .
One of the newest residences on the Boca Raton campus is the Innovation Village Apartments ( IVA ) , consisting of two buildings : IVA North and IVA South . It is a 1 @,@ 200 @-@ bed apartment @-@ style housing facility for upperclassmen , graduate , and medical students . It offers amenities that one would find in a high @-@ rise apartment complex : lounges , retail dining , fitness centers , a pool / cabana , a volleyball court , common areas , and more . The facility opened in fall 2011 . FAU 's newest residence hall is Parliament Hall , a lakeside freshmen housing facility offering 614 beds , a fitness center , lounges , retail dining , and views of the nearby Atlantic Ocean from top floors .
Within its existing residential life programs , Florida Atlantic offers a number of Learning Communities for freshmen and students with similar interests and concentrations . Participants meet people with similar interests , live on the same floor and take courses with others in their community , while receiving additional guidance related to those interests . The university 's Learning Community programs are divided into two categories , Freshman Learning Communities and Living Learning Communities . The freshman program offers 16 different concentrations , including business , nursing , and education . The Living program offers six concentrations for students residing in the Heritage Park Towers dormitory , including engineering , computer science , and a Women 's Leadership program .
The university 's Department of Housing and Residential Life and the university 's fraternities and sororities sponsor a program for freshmen and other students returning to Florida Atlantic in the fall semester . This program , called the " Weeks of Welcome , " spans 11 days and all campuses , and works to acclimate students with university life and to build a good on @-@ campus community . On each day , a number of different events are scheduled , including Hall Wars , which are athletic competitions between dormitories , Luaus , and a number of other events . The Weeks of Welcome is the second largest campus @-@ wide event held by Florida Atlantic .
= = = Student housing = = =
= = = Campus organizations and activities = = =
For the 2010 – 2011 academic year , Florida Atlantic had approximately 300 registered student organizations . Among the groups are academic organizations , honor societies , spiritual / religious organizations , diversity @-@ appreciation organizations , service organizations , personal interest organizations , sports clubs , and student government agencies . These clubs and organizations run the gamut from sailing to Ultimate Frisbee , from varsity and club sports and a jazz group to a pottery guild , from political organizations to chess and video game clubs . These organizations are funded by student tuition , from which $ 10 @.@ 00 per credit hour goes toward an activities and service fee fund . This generates approximately $ 9 million that is then given to student government for allocation to student clubs and organizations . The student government also finances other student life programs , including career fairs , the University Press , OWL TV and Owl Radio , and Homecoming .
Florida Atlantic 's homecoming , also known as the " Owl Prowl , " is celebrated annually in the fall semester . Events occur mainly on the Boca Raton Campus , but a number of other campuses host their own events as well . In the past , homecoming has had kickoff parties , costumed dances , bonfires , comedy shows , alumni events and dinners , a golf cart parade , and tailgating . Florida Atlantic students have an organized football tailgating area known as the Rat 's Mouth . The name references the Spanish translation of Boca Raton .
Florida Atlantic completed an $ 18 @.@ 6 million Recreation and Wellness Center in spring 2010 . The facility houses an outdoor leisure and lap pool , a cardio equipment and free weight room , two multipurpose rooms , three indoor courts and health club @-@ style locker rooms . In 2011 , the facility won the NIRSA Outstanding Sports Facilities Award . Other recreation facilities include a $ 4 @.@ 2 million track and field complex , with synthetic turf ( opened January 2007 ) , a ropes challenge course and the 6 @.@ 5 acre Henderson Fields , utilized most often by the FAU Intramural Sports and Club Sports programs .
= = = Greek life = = =
Florida Atlantic is home to approximately 28 chapters of national fraternities and sororities , encompassing approximately 1 @,@ 077 members or 5 % of the undergraduate population . The highpoint of Greek life at Florida Atlantic is " Greek Week . " This event is held annually during the spring semester and showcases a number of themed competitions between the university 's Greek organizations . There are currently no on @-@ campus Greek houses . However , a Greek Life Housing task force has been formed to explore various housing models , including the cost of construction , " and make recommendations on how to improve the overall quality of the Greek housing .... "
= = Alumni = =
Florida Atlantic University has awarded more than 110 @,@ 000 degrees to nearly 105 @,@ 000 alumni worldwide since its opening . Some notable Florida Atlantic alumni are R. David Paulison , the former head of the United States ' Federal Emergency Management Agency ; Luis Alberto Moreno , President of the Inter @-@ American Development Bank ; and former university President Frank T. Brogan , a former Lieutenant Governor of Florida . Charles Ghigna or " Father Goose " is a children 's poet and former nationally syndicated columnist . Judith Ortiz Cofer is an acclaimed Puerto Rican author whose works span a range of literary genres including poetry , short stories , and essays . Other alumni are Chris Carrabba , the lead singer of the band Dashboard Confessional ; and Phil Zimmermann , the creator of Pretty Good Privacy . Entertainers Mary Carey , a pornographic actress and former candidate for Governor of California , prop comedian Carrot Top , and humorist Daniel Dickey also attended the university . Alumnus and NASA astronaut Steven Swanson went to space aboard Space Shuttle Atlantis during STS @-@ 117 in June 2007 , and Space Shuttle Discovery during STS @-@ 119 in March 2009 .
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= The Clean Tech Revolution =
The Clean Tech Revolution : The Next Big Growth and Investment Opportunity is a 2007 book by Ron Pernick and Clint Wilder , who say that commercializing clean technologies is a profitable enterprise that is moving steadily into mainstream business . As the world economy faces challenges from energy price spikes , resource shortages , global environmental problems , and security threats , clean technologies are seen to be the next engine of economic growth .
Pernick and Wilder highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications , and water filtration . Six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , are pushing clean technology into the mainstream : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology .
The book has been reviewed in USA Today , Business Week , Energy Priorities , Sustainability Investment News and several other magazines , and has been translated into seven languages . Clean Tech Nation is the sequel to The Clean Tech Revolution .
= = Themes = =
Pernick and Wilder explain that , in the 1970s , clean technology was considered “ alternative , ” the province of back @-@ to @-@ the @-@ land lifestyle advocates , altruistic environmentalists , and lab scientists on research grants . Such technology was in an early stage of development , was too expensive , it did not have widespread political support , and very few large , established companies were embracing the sector . Even at the start of the 21st century , the term clean tech was not yet in the financial or business community ’ s vocabulary . But now , throughout much of the world , in trends large and small , there is " the beginning of a revolution that is changing the places where we live and work , the products we manufacture and purchase , and the development plans of cities , regional governments , and nations around the globe . "
Pernick and Wilder define " clean tech " as " any product , service , or process that delivers value using limited or zero non @-@ renewable resources and / or creates significantly less waste than conventional offerings . " They highlight eight major clean technology sectors : solar power , wind power , biofuels , green buildings , personal transportation , the smart grid , mobile applications ( such as portable fuel cells ) , and water filtration . The authors explain how investors , entrepreneurs , and individuals can profit from technological innovation in these areas . Pernick and Wilder identify some specific clean technologies , companies , and regions that are leading the way .
The authors present a list of drivers for clean tech : " high energy prices , depleted natural resources , volatile sources of foreign oil , record deficits , and unprecedented environmental and security challenges " . The central message , which is repeated in almost every chapter , is that a clean tech revolution with benefit humanity worldwide , and will require significant collaboration between the public and private sectors .
Pernick and Wilder present examples which show that the " clean tech revolution " is already under way . Very large corporations such as GE , Toyota and Sharp , and investment firms such as Goldman Sachs are making multibillion @-@ dollar investments in clean technology . Emerging clean tech cities are seen to include Copenhagen , where wind power generates 20 percent of Denmark 's electricity , and Chicago , a leader in " green " buildings saving energy , heating and cooling costs . Statistics from the U.S. and from abroad , especially from China , India , Brazil , and Europe are presented .
The authors ' say that nuclear power and clean coal are not clean technologies . Apart from the risks associated with nuclear power , " multibillion @-@ dollar nuclear plants are simply not cost @-@ effective when compared with other energy sources . " The authors also believe that clean coal is an oxymoron for a myriad of reasons , including the sheer number of coal mine @-@ related deaths and the fact that coal @-@ fired plants , even some cleaner ones , are major contributors to serious illnesses such as asthma , heart disease , and mercury poisoning .
Pernick and Wilder do not recommend specific stocks or securities . They prefer to lay out a blueprint of opportunities , technologies , companies , and trends that may build successful businesses and strengthen economies .
= = Six C 's = =
Pernick and Wilder identify six major forces , which they call the six C ’ s , that are pushing clean technology into the mainstream and driving rapid growth and expansion : costs , capital , competition , China , consumers , and climate .
Costs . " Perhaps the most powerful force driving today ’ s clean @-@ tech growth is simple economics . As a general trend , clean @-@ energy costs are falling as the costs of fossil fuel energy are going up . The future of clean tech is going to be , in many ways , about scaling up manufacturing and driving down costs . "
Capital . " An unprecedented influx of capital is changing the clean tech landscape , with billions of dollars , euros , yen , and yuan pouring in from a myriad of public and private sector sources . "
Competition . " Governments are competing aggressively in the highstakes race to dominate in the clean @-@ tech sector and build the jobs of the future . "
China . " Clean tech is being driven by the inexorable demands being placed on the earth not only by mature economies but also by the explosive demand for resources in China , India , and other developing nations . Their expanding energy needs are driving major growth in clean @-@ energy , transportation , building , and water @-@ delivery technologies . "
Consumers . " Savvy consumers are demanding cleaner products and services that use resources efficiently , reduce costs , and embrace quality over quantity . "
Climate . " The debate around climate change has gone from question mark to peer @-@ reviewed certainty , and smart businesses are taking heed . "
The six C ’ s are a simple list of factors , not necessarily a useful framework for understanding , or profiting from , the clean technology industry .
= = Release and reception = =
The Clean Tech Revolution was published by Collins as a 320 @-@ page hardcover book on June 12 , 2007 . An e @-@ book version was published by HarperCollins on June 7 , 2007 . In 2008 , a revised paperback edition was published , with a new sub @-@ title : Discover the Top Trends , Technologies and Companies to Watch . The book has been translated into seven languages .
Paul Gruber from the Erb Institute states that the The Clean Tech Revolution is logically organized and is " an excellent resource for those who would like a solid understanding of clean tech and the potential of each sector " . He also says that it is very useful for those seeking out the names of companies , NGOs , agencies , and people working on each technology . Gruber identifies one omission : the concern that major investments in clean technology parallel those made during the Internet boom , with the attendant fear that there " may be a bubble burst with clean tech " .
The physicist and environmentalist , Joseph Romm , has recommended The Clean Tech Revolution to people who are looking for one book to help them understand what is happening in clean technology . He says The Clean Tech Revolution is the only book that covers the whole gamut of the latest in clean energy .
Russ Juskalian from USA Today says The Clean Tech Revolution shows the green movement not in " heartstring terms " but as economically profitable . The real power players are the mainstream consumers , investors , entrepreneurs , governments and multinational corporations whose " eyes are trained on that most crucial of economic fundamentals : the bottom line " .
According to Reena Jana from Business Week , The Clean Tech Revolution is a " readable , straightforward guide to earth @-@ friendly business strategies " . The authors explain how businesses can follow the lead of companies such as Toyota by designing , selling , or funding inventive eco @-@ friendly products and services . Jana says that the Toyota Prius is just one well @-@ known example of successful clean technology in action .
Denis Du Bois , editor of Energy Priorities magazine , commented on the realistic and comprehensive coverage of the book . However , he suggests that The Clean Tech Revolution is not an explanation of the technologies and how they work , nor is it an analysis of energy or environmental policy . Policy is complicated and the authors avoid discussing it in detail . Little discussion ties the various clean technologies together and a " single @-@ minded American focus " dominates . There is very little on the influence of mass transit and urban planning in Europe and other progressive regions . The chapter on water focuses on filtration , which is already an area of considerable opportunity , affecting even " green " industries , such as photovoltaics manufacturing .
Francesca Rheannon in Sustainability Investment News says that the book does not ask the most challenging question of all : is " clean growth " an oxymoron ? She says that at a time when some experts say carbon emissions will need to be cut by 80 to 90 % by 2050 , the world may have to accept steady or even decreasing energy production , no matter how clean it is . Rheannon also states that there is little coverage of social issues . For example , nowhere is there mention of how water supply privatization and delivery by multinational corporations could affect the poor people of the world .
The Clean Tech Revolution was followed by the 2012 book Clean Tech Nation : How the U.S. Can Lead in the New Global Economy .
= = Authors = =
Author Ron Pernick is co @-@ founder and managing director of Clean Edge , a research and strategy firm in the United States which focuses on the commercialization of renewable energy and other clean technologies . Clint Wilder is senior editor at Clean Edge , and a veteran business and technology journalist . Both authors have been mapping clean technology trends for many years , and identifying business opportunities for prospective investors .
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= Missouri River =
The Missouri River is the longest river in North America . Rising in the Rocky Mountains of western Montana , the Missouri flows east and south for 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) before entering the Mississippi River north of St. Louis , Missouri . The river takes drainage from a sparsely populated , semi @-@ arid watershed of more than half a million square miles ( 1 @,@ 300 @,@ 000 km2 ) , which includes parts of ten U.S. states and two Canadian provinces . When combined with the lower Mississippi River , it forms the world 's fourth longest river system .
For over 12 @,@ 000 years , people have depended on the Missouri River and its tributaries as a source of sustenance and transportation . More than ten major groups of Native Americans populated the watershed , most leading a nomadic lifestyle and dependent on enormous buffalo herds that once roamed through the Great Plains . The first Europeans encountered the river in the late seventeenth century , and the region passed through Spanish and French hands before finally becoming part of the United States through the Louisiana Purchase . The Missouri was long believed to be part of the Northwest Passage – a water route from the Atlantic to the Pacific – but when Lewis and Clark became the first to travel the river 's entire length , they confirmed the mythical pathway to be no more than a legend .
The Missouri River was one of the main routes for the westward expansion of the United States during the 19th century . The growth of the fur trade in the early 1800s laid much of the groundwork as trappers explored the region and blazed trails . Pioneers headed west en masse beginning in the 1830s , first by covered wagon , then by the growing numbers of steamboats entering service on the river . Former Native American lands in the watershed were taken over by settlers , leading to some of the most longstanding and violent wars against indigenous peoples in American history .
During the 20th century , the Missouri River basin was extensively developed for irrigation , flood control and the generation of hydroelectric power . Fifteen dams impound the main stem of the river , with hundreds more on tributaries . Meanders have been cut and the river channelized to improve navigation , reducing its length by almost 200 miles ( 320 km ) from pre @-@ development times . Although the lower Missouri valley is now a populous and highly productive agricultural and industrial region , heavy development has taken its toll on wildlife and fish populations as well as water quality .
= = Course = =
From the Rocky Mountains of Montana and Wyoming , three streams rise to form the headwaters of the Missouri River . The longest begins near Brower 's Spring , 9 @,@ 100 feet ( 2 @,@ 800 m ) above sea level , on the southeastern slopes of Mount Jefferson in the Centennial Mountains . Flowing west then north , it runs first in Hell Roaring Creek , then west into the Red Rock ; swings northeast to become the Beaverhead , it finally joins with the Big Hole to form the Jefferson . The Firehole River originates at Madison Lake in Wyoming 's Yellowstone National Park and joins with the Gibbon to form the Madison , while the Gallatin River rises out of Gallatin Lake , also in the national park . These two streams then flow north and northwest into Montana .
The Missouri River officially starts at the confluence of the Jefferson and Madison in Missouri Headwaters State Park near Three Forks , Montana , and is joined by the Gallatin a mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) downstream . The Missouri then passes through Canyon Ferry Lake , a reservoir west of the Big Belt Mountains . Issuing from the mountains near Cascade , the river flows northeast to the city of Great Falls , where it drops over the Great Falls of the Missouri , a series of five substantial waterfalls . It then winds east through a scenic region of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks , receiving the Marias River from the west then widening into the Fort Peck Lake reservoir a few miles above the confluence with the Musselshell River . Farther on , the river passes through the Fort Peck Dam , and immediately downstream , the Milk River joins from the north .
Flowing eastwards through the plains of eastern Montana , the Missouri receives the Poplar River from the north before crossing into North Dakota where the Yellowstone River , its greatest tributary by volume , joins from the southwest . At the confluence , the Yellowstone is actually the larger river . The Missouri then meanders east past Williston and into Lake Sakakawea , the reservoir formed by Garrison Dam . Below the dam the Missouri receives the Knife River from the west and flows south to Bismarck , the capital of North Dakota , where the Heart River joins from the west . It slows into the Lake Oahe reservoir just before the Cannonball River confluence . While it continues south , eventually reaching Oahe Dam in South Dakota , the Grand , Moreau and Cheyenne Rivers all join the Missouri from the west .
The Missouri makes a bend to the southeast as it winds through the Great Plains , receiving the Niobrara River and many smaller tributaries from the southwest . It then proceeds to form the boundary of South Dakota and Nebraska , then after being joined by the James River from the north , forms the Iowa – Nebraska boundary . At Sioux City the Big Sioux River comes in from the north . The Missouri flows south to the city of Omaha where it receives its longest tributary , the Platte River , from the west . Downstream , it begins to define the Nebraska – Missouri border , then flows between Missouri and Kansas . The Missouri swings east at Kansas City , where the Kansas River enters from the west , and so on into north @-@ central Missouri . To the east of the Kansas City , Missouri receives , on the left side , the Grand River . It passes south of Columbia and receives the Osage and Gasconade Rivers from the south downstream of Jefferson City . The river then rounds the northern side of St. Louis to join the Mississippi River on the border between Missouri and Illinois .
= = Watershed = =
With a drainage basin spanning 529 @,@ 350 square miles ( 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 000 km2 ) , the Missouri River 's catchment encompasses nearly one @-@ sixth of the area of the United States or just over five percent of the continent of North America . Comparable to the size of the Canadian province of Quebec , the watershed encompasses most of the central Great Plains , stretching from the Rocky Mountains in the west to the Mississippi River Valley in the east and from the southern extreme of western Canada to the border of the Arkansas River watershed . Compared with the Mississippi River above their confluence , the Missouri is twice as long and drains an area three times as large . The Missouri accounts for 45 percent of the annual flow of the Mississippi past St. Louis , and as much as 70 percent in certain droughts .
In 1990 , the Missouri River watershed was home to about 12 million people . This included the entire population of the U.S. state of Nebraska , parts of the U.S. states of Colorado , Iowa , Kansas , Minnesota , Missouri , Montana , North Dakota , South Dakota , and Wyoming , and small southern portions of the Canadian provinces of Alberta and Saskatchewan . The watershed 's largest city is Denver , Colorado , with a population of more than six hundred thousand . Denver is the main city of the Front Range Urban Corridor whose cities had a combined population of over four million in 2005 , making it the largest metropolitan area in the Missouri River basin . Other major population centers – mostly located in the southeastern portion of the watershed – include Omaha , Nebraska , situated north of the confluence of the Missouri and Platte Rivers ; Kansas City , Missouri – Kansas City , Kansas , located at the confluence of the Missouri with the Kansas River ; and the St. Louis metropolitan area , situated south of the Missouri River just below the latter 's mouth , on the Mississippi . In contrast , the northwestern part of the watershed is sparsely populated . However , many northwestern cities , such as Billings , Montana , are among the fastest growing in the Missouri basin .
With more than 170 @,@ 000 square miles ( 440 @,@ 000 km2 ) under the plow , the Missouri River watershed includes roughly one @-@ fourth of all the agricultural land in the United States , providing more than a third of the country 's wheat , flax , barley and oats . However , only 11 @,@ 000 square miles ( 28 @,@ 000 km2 ) of farmland in the basin is irrigated . A further 281 @,@ 000 square miles ( 730 @,@ 000 km2 ) of the basin is devoted to the raising of livestock , mainly cattle . Forested areas of the watershed , mostly second @-@ growth , total about 43 @,@ 700 square miles ( 113 @,@ 000 km2 ) . Urban areas , on the other hand , comprise less than 13 @,@ 000 square miles ( 34 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land . Most built @-@ up areas are located along the main stem and a few major tributaries , including the Platte and Yellowstone Rivers .
Elevations in the watershed vary widely , ranging from just over 400 feet ( 120 m ) at the Missouri 's mouth to the 14 @,@ 293 @-@ foot ( 4 @,@ 357 m ) summit of Mount Lincoln in central Colorado . The river itself drops a total of 8 @,@ 626 feet ( 2 @,@ 629 m ) from Brower 's Spring , the farthest source . Although the plains of the watershed have extremely little local vertical relief , the land rises about 10 feet per mile ( 1 @.@ 9 m / km ) from east to west . The elevation is less than 500 feet ( 150 m ) at the eastern border of the watershed , but is over 3 @,@ 000 feet ( 910 m ) above sea level in many places at the base of the Rockies .
The Missouri 's drainage basin has highly variable weather and rainfall patterns , Overall , the watershed is defined by a Continental climate with warm , wet summers and harsh , cold winters . Most of the watershed receives an average of 8 to 10 inches ( 200 to 250 mm ) of precipitation each year . However , the westernmost portions of the basin in the Rockies as well as southeastern regions in Missouri may receive as much as 40 inches ( 1 @,@ 000 mm ) . The vast majority of precipitation occurs in winter , although the upper basin is known for short @-@ lived but intense summer thunderstorms such as the one which produced the 1972 Black Hills flood through Rapid City , South Dakota . Winter temperatures in Montana , Wyoming and Colorado may drop as low as − 60 ° F ( − 51 ° C ) , while summer highs in Kansas and Missouri have reached 120 ° F ( 49 ° C ) at times .
As one of the continent 's most significant river systems , the Missouri 's drainage basin borders on many other major watersheds of the United States and Canada . The Continental Divide , running along the spine of the Rocky Mountains , forms most of the western border of the Missouri watershed . The Clark Fork and Snake River , both part of the Columbia River basin , drain the area west of the Rockies in Montana , Idaho and western Wyoming . The Columbia , Missouri and Colorado River watersheds meet at Three Waters Mountain in Wyoming 's Wind River Range . South of there , the Missouri basin is bordered on the west by the drainage of the Green River , a tributary of the Colorado , then on the south by the mainstem of the Colorado . Both the Colorado and Columbia Rivers flow to the Pacific Ocean . However , a large endorheic drainage called the Great Divide Basin exists between the Missouri and Green watersheds in western Wyoming . This area is sometimes counted as part of the Missouri River watershed , even though its waters do not flow to either side of the Continental Divide .
To the north , the much lower Laurentian Divide separates the Missouri River watershed from those of the Oldman River , a tributary of the South Saskatchewan River , as well as the Souris , Sheyenne , and smaller tributaries of the Red River of the North . All of these streams are part of Canada 's Nelson River drainage basin , which empties into Hudson Bay . There are also several large endorheic basins between the Missouri and Nelson watersheds in southern Alberta and Saskatchewan . The Minnesota and Des Moines Rivers , tributaries of the upper Mississippi , drain most of the area bordering the eastern side of the Missouri River basin . Finally , on the south , the Ozark Mountains and other low divides through central Missouri , Kansas and Colorado separate the Missouri watershed from those of the White River and Arkansas River , also tributaries of the Mississippi River .
= = = Major tributaries = = =
Over 95 significant tributaries and hundreds of smaller ones feed the Missouri River , with most of the larger ones coming in as the river draws close to the mouth . Most rivers and streams in the Missouri River basin flow from west to east , following the incline of the Great Plains ; however , some eastern tributaries such as the James , Big Sioux and Grand River systems flow from north to south .
The Missouri 's largest tributaries by runoff are the Yellowstone in Montana and Wyoming , the Platte in Wyoming , Colorado , and Nebraska , and the Kansas – Republican / Smoky Hill and Osage in Kansas and Missouri . Each of these tributaries drains an area greater than 50 @,@ 000 square miles ( 130 @,@ 000 km2 ) , and has an average discharge greater than 5 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 140 m3 / s ) . The Yellowstone River has the highest discharge , even though the Platte is longer and drains a larger area . In fact , the Yellowstone 's flow is about 13 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 390 m3 / s ) – accounting for sixteen percent of total runoff in the Missouri basin and nearly double that of the Platte . On the other end of the scale is the tiny Roe River in Montana , which at 201 feet ( 61 m ) long is one the world 's shortest rivers .
The table on the right lists the ten longest tributaries of the Missouri , along with their respective catchment areas and flows . Length is measured to the hydrologic source , regardless of naming convention . The main stem of the Kansas River , for example , is 148 miles ( 238 km ) long . However , including the longest headwaters tributaries , the 453 @-@ mile ( 729 km ) Republican River and the 156 @-@ mile ( 251 km ) Arikaree River , brings the total length to 749 miles ( 1 @,@ 205 km ) . Similar naming issues are encountered with the Platte River , whose longest tributary , the North Platte River , is more than twice as long as its mainstream .
The Missouri 's headwaters above Three Forks extend much farther upstream than the main stem . Measured to the farthest source at Brower 's Spring , the Jefferson River is 298 miles ( 480 km ) long . Thus measured to its highest headwaters , the Missouri River stretches for 2 @,@ 639 miles ( 4 @,@ 247 km ) . When combined with the lower Mississippi , the Missouri and its headwaters form part of the fourth @-@ longest river system in the world , at 3 @,@ 745 miles ( 6 @,@ 027 km ) .
= = = Discharge = = =
By discharge , the Missouri is the ninth largest river of the United States , after the Mississippi , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , and St. Clair . The latter two , however , are sometimes considered part of a strait between Lake Huron and Lake Erie . Among rivers of North America as a whole , the Missouri is thirteenth largest , after the Mississippi , Mackenzie , St. Lawrence , Ohio , Columbia , Niagara , Yukon , Detroit , St. Clair , Fraser , Slave , and Koksoak .
As the Missouri drains a predominantly semi @-@ arid region , its discharge is much lower and more variable than other North American rivers of comparable length . Before the construction of dams , the river flooded twice each year – once in the " April Rise " or " Spring Fresh " , with the melting of snow on the plains of the watershed , and in the " June Rise " , caused by snowmelt and summer rainstorms in the Rocky Mountains . The latter was far more destructive , with the river increasing to over ten times its normal discharge in some years . The Missouri 's discharge is affected by over 17 @,@ 000 reservoirs with an aggregate capacity of some 141 million acre feet ( 174 km3 ) . By providing flood control , the reservoirs dramatically reduce peak flows and increase low flows . Evaporation from reservoirs significantly reduces the river 's runoff , causing an annual loss of over 3 million acre feet ( 3 @.@ 7 km3 ) from mainstem reservoirs alone .
The United States Geological Survey operates fifty @-@ one stream gauges along the Missouri River . The river 's average discharge at Bismarck , 1 @,@ 314 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @,@ 115 @.@ 5 km ) from the mouth , is 21 @,@ 920 cu ft / s ( 621 m3 / s ) . This is from a drainage area of 186 @,@ 400 sq mi ( 483 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 35 % of the total river basin . At Kansas City , 366 @.@ 1 miles ( 589 @.@ 2 km ) from the mouth , the river 's average flow is 55 @,@ 400 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 570 m3 / s ) . The river here drains about 484 @,@ 100 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 254 @,@ 000 km2 ) , representing about 91 % of the entire basin .
The lowermost gage with a period of record greater than fifty years is at Hermann , Missouri – 97 @.@ 9 miles ( 157 @.@ 6 km ) upstream of the mouth of the Missouri – where the average annual flow was 87 @,@ 520 cu ft / s ( 2 @,@ 478 m3 / s ) from 1897 to 2010 . About 522 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 1 @,@ 353 @,@ 000 km2 ) , or 98 @.@ 7 % of the watershed , lies above Hermann . The highest annual mean was 181 @,@ 800 cu ft / s ( 5 @,@ 150 m3 / s ) in 1993 , and the lowest was 41 @,@ 690 cu ft / s ( 1 @,@ 181 m3 / s ) in 2006 . Extremes of the flow vary even further . The largest discharge ever recorded was over 750 @,@ 000 cu ft / s ( 21 @,@ 000 m3 / s ) on July 31 , 1993 , during a historic flood . The lowest , a mere 602 cu ft / s ( 17 @.@ 0 m3 / s ) – caused by the formation of an ice dam – was measured on December 23 , 1963 .
= = Upper and Lower Missouri River = =
The Upper Missouri River is north of Gavins Point Dam the last hydroelectric dam of 15 on the river and it 's just upstream from Sioux City , Iowa . The lower Missouri River is the 840 river miles until it meets the Mississippi just above St. Louis . The Lower Missouri River has no Hydroelectric or Lock and dams but it has a plethora of Wing dams that enable barge traffic by directing the flow of the river into a 200 foot wide , 12 foot deep channel . These wing dams have been put in place and maintained by the U.S. Army corps of engineers , and there currently are no plans to construct any Lock and dams to replace these wing dams on the Missouri River .
See also : - List of locks and dams of the Upper Mississippi River , List of locks and dams of the Ohio River
= = Geology = =
The Rocky Mountains of southwestern Montana at the headwaters of the Missouri River first rose in the Laramide Orogeny , a mountain @-@ building episode that occurred from around 70 to 45 million years ago ( the end of the Mesozoic through the early Cenozoic ) . This orogeny uplifted Cretaceous rocks along the western side of the Western Interior Seaway , a vast shallow sea that stretched from the Arctic Ocean to the Gulf of Mexico , and deposited the sediments that now underlie much of the drainage basin of the Missouri River . This Laramide uplift caused the sea to retreat and laid the framework for a vast drainage system of rivers flowing from the Rocky and Appalachian Mountains , the predecessor of the modern @-@ day Mississippi watershed . The Laramide Orogeny is essential to modern Missouri River hydrology , as snow and ice melt from the Rockies provide the majority of the flow in the Missouri and its tributaries .
The Missouri and many of its tributaries cross the Great Plains , flowing over or cutting into the Ogallala Group and older mid @-@ Cenozoic sedimentary rocks . The lowest major Cenozoic unit , the White River Formation , was deposited between roughly 35 and 29 million years ago and consists of claystone , sandstone , limestone , and conglomerate . Channel sandstones and finer @-@ grained overbank deposits of the fluvial Arikaree Group were deposited between 29 and 19 million years ago . The Miocene @-@ age Ogallala and the slightly younger Pliocene @-@ age Broadwater Formation deposited atop the Arikaree Group , and are formed from material eroded off of the Rocky Mountains during a time of increased generation of topographic relief ; these formations stretch from the Rocky Mountains nearly to the Iowa border and give the Great Plains much of their gentle but persistent eastward tilt , and also constitute a major aquifer .
Immediately before the Quaternary Ice Age , the Missouri River was likely split into three segments : an upper portion that drained northwards into Hudson Bay , and middle and lower sections that flowed eastward down the regional slope . As the Earth plunged into the Ice Age , a pre @-@ Illinoian ( or possibly the Illinoian ) glaciation diverted the Missouri River southeastwards towards its present confluence with the Mississippi and caused it to integrate into a single river system that cuts across the regional slope . In western Montana , the Missouri River is thought to have once flowed north then east around the Bear Paw Mountains . Sapphires are found in some spots along the river in western Montana . Advances of the continental ice sheets diverted the river and its tributaries , causing them to pool up into large temporary lakes such as Glacial Lakes Great Falls , Musselshell and others . As the lakes rose , the water in them often spilled across adjacent local drainage divides , creating now @-@ abandoned channels and coulees including the Shonkin Sag , 100 miles ( 160 km ) long . When the glaciers retreated , the Missouri flowed in a new course along the south side of the Bearpaws , and the lower part of the Milk River tributary took over the original main channel .
The Missouri 's nickname , the " Big Muddy " , was inspired by its enormous loads of sediment or silt – some of the largest of any North American river . In its pre @-@ development state , the river transported some 175 to 320 million short tons ( 159 to 290 Mt ) per year . The construction of dams and levees has drastically reduced this to 20 to 25 million short tons ( 18 to 23 Mt ) in the present day . Much of this sediment is derived from the river 's floodplain , also called the meander belt ; every time the river changed course , it would erode tons of soil and rocks from its banks . However , damming and channeling the river has kept it from reaching its natural sediment sources along most of its course . Reservoirs along the Missouri trap roughly 36 @.@ 4 million short tons ( 33 @.@ 0 Mt ) of sediment each year . Despite this , the river still transports more than half the total silt that empties into the Gulf of Mexico ; the Mississippi River Delta , formed by sediment deposits at the mouth of the Mississippi , constitutes a majority of sediments carried by the Missouri .
= = First peoples = =
Archaeological evidence , especially in Missouri , suggests that man first made his presence in the watershed of the Missouri River between 10 @,@ 000 and 12 @,@ 000 years ago at the end of the Pleistocene . During the end of the last glacial period , a great migration of humans began , traveling via the Bering land bridge from Eurasia into and throughout the Americas . As they traveled slowly over centuries , the Missouri River formed one of the main migration paths . Most settled in the Ohio Valley and the lower Mississippi River Valley , but many , including the Mound builders , stayed along the Missouri , becoming the ancestors of the later indigenous peoples of the Great Plains .
The Native Americans that lived along the Missouri had access to ample food , water , and shelter . Many migratory animals inhabited the plains at the time , providing them meat , clothing , and other everyday items ; there were also great riparian areas in the river 's floodplain that provided them with natural herbs and staple foods . No written records from the tribes and peoples of the pre @-@ European period exist because they did not use writing . According to the writings of explorers , some of the major tribes along the Missouri River included the Otoe , Missouria , Omaha , Ponca , Brulé , Lakota , Sioux , Arikara , Hidatsa , Mandan , Assiniboine , Gros Ventres and Blackfeet .
Natives used the Missouri , at least to a limited extent , as a path of trade and transport . In addition , the river and its tributaries formed tribal boundaries . Lifestyles of the indigenous mostly centered on a semi @-@ nomadic culture ; many tribes would have different summer and winter camps . However , the center of Native American wealth and trade lay along the Missouri River in the Dakotas region on its great bend south . A large cluster of walled Mandan , Hidatsa and Arikara villages situated on bluffs and islands of the river was home to thousands , and later served as a market and trading post used by early French and British explorers and fur traders . Following the introduction of horses to Missouri River tribes , possibly from feral European @-@ introduced populations , natives ' way of life changed dramatically . The use of the horse allowed them to travel greater distances , and thus facilitated hunting , communications and trade .
Once , tens of millions of American bison ( commonly called buffalo ) , one of the keystone species of the Great Plains and the Ohio Valley , roamed the plains of the Missouri River basin . Most Native American groups in the basin relied heavily on the bison as a food source , and their hides and bones served to create other household items . In time , the species came to benefit from the indigenous peoples ' periodic controlled burnings of the grasslands surrounding the Missouri to clear out old and dead growth . The large bison population of the region gave rise to the term great bison belt , an area of rich annual grasslands that extended from Alaska to Mexico along the eastern flank of the Continental Divide . However , after the arrival of Europeans in North America , both the bison and the Native Americans saw a rapid decline in population . Hunting eliminated bison populations east of the Mississippi River by 1833 and reduced the numbers in the Missouri basin to a mere few hundred . Foreign diseases such as smallpox raged across the land , decimating Native American populations . Left without their primary source of sustenance , many of the remaining indigenous people were amalgamated into resettlement areas and reservations .
= = Early European explorers = =
In May 1673 , the French explorers Louis Jolliet and Jacques Marquette left the settlement of St. Ignace on Lake Huron and traveled down the Wisconsin and Mississippi Rivers , aiming to reach the Pacific Ocean . In late June , Jolliet and Marquette became the first documented European discoverers of the Missouri River , which according to their journals was in full flood . " I never saw anything more terrific , " Jolliet wrote , " a tangle of entire trees from the mouth of the Pekistanoui [ Missouri ] with such impetuosity that one could not attempt to cross it without great danger . The commotion was such that the water was made muddy by it and could not clear itself . " They recorded Pekitanoui or Pekistanoui as the local name for the Missouri . However , the party never explored the Missouri beyond its mouth , nor did they linger in the area . In addition , they later learned that the Mississippi drained into the Gulf of Mexico and not the Pacific as they had originally presumed ; the expedition turned back about 440 miles ( 710 km ) short of the Gulf at the confluence of the Arkansas River with the Mississippi .
In 1682 , France expanded its territorial claims in North America to include land on the western side of the Mississippi River , which included the lower portion of the Missouri . However , the Missouri itself remained formally unexplored until Étienne de Veniard , Sieur de Bourgmont commanded an expedition in 1714 that reached at least as far as the mouth of the Platte River . It is unclear exactly how far Bourgmont traveled beyond there ; he described the blond @-@ haired Mandans in his journals , so it is likely he reached as far as their villages in present @-@ day North Dakota . Later that year , Bourgmont published The Route To Be Taken To Ascend The Missouri River , the first known document to use the name " Missouri River " ; many of the names he gave to tributaries , mostly for the native tribes that lived along them , are still in use today . The expedition 's discoveries eventually found their way to cartographer Guillaume Delisle , who used the information to create a map of the lower Missouri . In 1718 , Jean @-@ Baptiste Le Moyne , Sieur de Bienville requested that the French government bestow upon Bourgmont the Cross of St. Louis because of his " outstanding service to France " .
Bourgmont had in fact been in trouble with the French colonial authorities since 1706 , when he deserted his post as commandant of Fort Detroit after poorly handling an attack by the Ottawa that resulted in thirty @-@ one deaths . However , his reputation was enhanced in 1720 when the Pawnee – who had earlier been befriended by Bourgmont – massacred the Spanish Villasur expedition near present @-@ day Columbus , Nebraska on the Missouri River and temporarily ending Spanish encroachment on French Louisiana .
Bourgmont established Fort Orleans , the first European settlement of any kind on the Missouri River , near present @-@ day Brunswick , Missouri , in 1723 . The following year Bourgmont led an expedition to enlist Comanche support against the Spanish , who continued to show interest in taking over the Missouri . In 1725 Bourgmont brought the chiefs of several Missouri River tribes to visit France . There he was raised to the rank of nobility and did not accompany the chiefs back to North America . Fort Orleans was either abandoned or its small contingent massacred by Native Americans in 1726 .
The French and Indian War erupted when territorial disputes between France and Great Britain in North America reached a head in 1754 . By 1763 , France was defeated by the much greater strength of the British army and was forced to cede its Canadian possessions to the English and Louisiana to the Spanish in the Treaty of Paris , amounting to most of its colonial holdings in North America . Initially , the Spanish did not extensively explore the Missouri and let French traders continue their activities under license . However , this ended after news of the British Hudson 's Bay Company incursions in the upper Missouri River watershed was brought back following an expedition by Jacques D 'Eglise in the early 1790s . In 1795 the Spanish chartered the Company of Discoverers and Explorers of the Missouri , popularly referred to as the " Missouri Company " , and offered a reward for the first person to reach the Pacific Ocean via the Missouri . In 1794 and 1795 expeditions led by Jean Baptiste Truteau and Antoine Simon Lecuyer de la Jonchšre did not even make it as far north as the Mandan villages in central North Dakota .
Arguably the most successful of the Missouri Company expeditions was that of James MacKay and John Evans . The two set out along the Missouri , and established Fort Charles about 20 miles ( 32 km ) south of present @-@ day Sioux City as a winter camp in 1795 . At the Mandan villages in North Dakota , they expelled several British traders , and while talking to the populace they pinpointed the location of the Yellowstone River , which was called Roche Jaune ( " Yellow Rock " ) by the French . Although MacKay and Evans failed to accomplish their original goal of reaching the Pacific , they did create the first accurate map of the upper Missouri River .
In 1795 , the young United States and Spain signed Pinckney 's Treaty , which recognized American rights to navigate the Mississippi River and store goods for export in New Orleans . Three years later , Spain revoked the treaty and in 1800 secretly returned Louisiana to Napoleonic France in the Third Treaty of San Ildefonso . This transfer was so secret that the Spanish continued to administer the territory . In 1801 , Spain restored rights to use the Mississippi and New Orleans to the United States .
Fearing that the cutoffs could occur again , President Thomas Jefferson proposed to buy the port of New Orleans from France for $ 10 million . Instead , faced with a debt crisis , Napoleon offered to sell the entirety of Louisiana , including the Missouri River , for $ 15 million – amounting to less than 3 ¢ per acre . The deal was signed in 1803 , doubling the size of the United States with the acquisition of the Louisiana Territory . In 1803 , Jefferson instructed Meriwether Lewis to explore the Missouri and search for a water route to the Pacific Ocean . By then , it had been discovered that the Columbia River system , which drains into the Pacific , had a similar latitude as the headwaters of the Missouri River , and it was widely believed that a connection or short portage existed between the two . However , Spain balked at the takeover , citing that they had never formally returned Louisiana to the French . Spanish authorities warned Lewis not to take the journey and forbade him from seeing the MacKay and Evans map of the Missouri , although Lewis eventually managed to gain access to it .
Meriwether Lewis and William Clark began their famed expedition in 1804 with a party of thirty @-@ three people in three boats . Although they became the first Europeans to travel the entire length of the Missouri and reach the Pacific Ocean via the Columbia , they found no trace of the Northwest Passage . The maps made by Lewis and Clark , especially those of the Pacific Northwest region , provided a foundation for future explorers and emigrants . They also negotiated relations with multiple Native American tribes and wrote extensive reports on the climate , ecology and geology of the region . Many present @-@ day names of geographic features in the upper Missouri basin originated from their expedition .
= = American frontier = =
= = = Fur trade = = =
As early as the 18th century , fur trappers entered the extreme northern basin of the Missouri River in the hopes of finding populations of beaver and river otter , the sale of whose pelts drove the thriving North American fur trade . They came from many different places – some from the Canadian fur corporations at Hudson Bay , some from the Pacific Northwest ( see also : Maritime fur trade ) , and some from the midwestern United States . Most did not stay in the area for long , as they failed to find significant resources .
The first glowing reports of country rich with thousands of game animals came in 1806 when Meriwether Lewis and William Clark returned from their two @-@ year expedition . Their journals described lands rich with thousands of buffalo , beaver , and river otter ; and also an abundant population of sea otters on the Pacific Northwest coast . In 1807 , explorer Manuel Lisa organized an expedition which would lead to the explosive growth of the fur trade in the upper Missouri River country . Lisa and his crew traveled up the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers , trading manufactured items in return for furs from local Native American tribes , and established a fort at the confluence of the Yellowstone and a tributary , the Bighorn , in southern Montana . Although the business started small , it quickly grew into a thriving trade .
Lisa 's men started construction of Fort Raymond , which sat on a bluff overlooking the confluence of the Yellowstone and Bighorn , in the fall of 1807 . The fort would serve primarily as a trading post for bartering with the Native Americans for furs . This method was unlike that of the Pacific Northwest fur trade , which involved trappers hired by the various fur enterprises , namely Hudson 's Bay . Fort Raymond was later replaced by Fort Lisa at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone in North Dakota ; a second fort also called Fort Lisa was built downstream on the Missouri River in Nebraska . In 1809 the St. Louis Missouri Fur Company was founded by Lisa in conjunction with William Clark and Pierre Choteau , among others . In 1828 , the American Fur Company founded Fort Union at the confluence of the Missouri and Yellowstone Rivers . Fort Union gradually became the main headquarters for the fur trade in the upper Missouri basin .
Fur trapping activities in the early 19th century encompassed nearly all of the Rocky Mountains on both the eastern and western slopes . Trappers of the Hudson 's Bay Company , St. Louis Missouri Fur Company , American Fur Company , Rocky Mountain Fur Company , North West Company and other outfits worked thousands of streams in the Missouri watershed as well as the neighboring Columbia , Colorado , Arkansas , and Saskatchewan river systems . During this period , the trappers , also called mountain men , blazed trails through the wilderness that would later form the paths pioneers and settlers would travel by into the West . Transport of the thousands of beaver pelts required ships , providing one of the first large motives for river transport on the Missouri to start .
As the 1830s drew to a close , the fur industry slowly began to die as silk replaced beaver fur as a desirable clothing item . By this time , also , the beaver population of streams in the Rocky Mountains had been decimated by intense hunting . Furthermore , frequent Native American attacks on trading posts made it dangerous for employees of the fur companies . In some regions , the industry continued well into the 1840s , but in others such as the Platte River valley , declines of the beaver population contributed to an earlier demise . The fur trade finally disappeared in the Great Plains around 1850 , with the primary center of industry shifting to the Mississippi Valley and central Canada . Despite the demise of the once @-@ prosperous trade , however , its legacy led to the opening of the American West and a flood of settlers , farmers , ranchers , adventurers , hopefuls , financially bereft , and entrepreneurs took their place .
= = = Settlers and pioneers = = =
The river roughly defined the American frontier in the 19th century , particularly downstream from Kansas City , where it takes a sharp eastern turn into the heart of the state of Missouri . The major trails for the opening of the American West all have their starting points on the river , including the California , Mormon , Oregon , and Santa Fe trails . The first westward leg of the Pony Express was a ferry across the Missouri at St. Joseph , Missouri . Similarly , most emigrants arrived at the eastern terminus of the First Transcontinental Railroad via a ferry ride across the Missouri between Council Bluffs , Iowa and Omaha . The Hannibal Bridge became the first bridge to cross the Missouri River in 1869 , and its location was a major reason why Kansas City became the largest city on the river upstream from its mouth at St. Louis .
True to the then @-@ ideal of Manifest Destiny , over 500 @,@ 000 people set out from the river town of Independence , Missouri to their various destinations in the American West from the 1830s to the 1860s . These people had many reasons to embark on this strenuous year @-@ long journey – economic crisis , and later gold strikes including the California Gold Rush , for example . For most , the route took them up the Missouri to Omaha , Nebraska , where they would set out along the Platte River , which flows from the Rocky Mountains in Wyoming and Colorado eastwards through the Great Plains . An early expedition led by Robert Stuart from 1812 to 1813 proved the Platte impossible to navigate by the dugout canoes they used , let alone the large sidewheelers and sternwheelers that would later ply the Missouri in increasing numbers . One explorer remarked that the Platte was " too thick to drink , too thin to plow " . Nevertheless , the Platte provided an abundant and reliable source of water for the pioneers as they headed west . Covered wagons , popularly referred to as prairie schooners , provided the primary means of transport until the beginning of regular boat service on the river in the 1850s .
During the 1860s , gold strikes in Montana , Colorado , Wyoming and northern Utah attracted another wave of hopefuls to the region . Although some freight was hauled overland , most transport to and from the gold fields was done through the Missouri and Kansas Rivers , as well as the Snake River in western Wyoming and the Bear River in Utah , Idaho and Wyoming . It is estimated that of the passengers and freight hauled from the Midwest to Montana , over 80 percent were transported by boat , a journey that took 150 days in the upstream direction . A route more directly west into Colorado lay along the Kansas River and its tributary the Republican River as well as pair of smaller Colorado streams , Big Sandy Creek and the South Platte River , to near Denver . The gold rushes precipitated the decline of the Bozeman Trail as a popular emigration route , as it passed through land held by often @-@ hostile Native Americans . Safer paths were blazed to the Great Salt Lake near Corinne , Utah during the gold rush period , which led to the large @-@ scale settlement of the Rocky Mountains region and eastern Great Basin .
As settlers expanded their holdings into the Great Plains , they ran into land conflicts with Native American tribes . This resulted in frequent raids , massacres and armed conflicts , leading to the federal government creating multiple treaties with the Plains tribes , which generally involved establishing borders and reserving lands for the indigenous . As with many other treaties between the U.S. and Native Americans , they were soon broken , leading to huge wars . Over 1 @,@ 000 battles , big and small , were fought between the U.S. military and Native Americans before the tribes were forced out of their land onto reservations .
Conflicts between natives and settlers over the opening of the Bozeman Trail in the Dakotas , Wyoming and Montana led to Red Cloud 's War , in which the Lakota and Cheyenne fought against the U.S. Army . The fighting resulted in a complete Native American victory . In 1868 , the Treaty of Fort Laramie was signed , which " guaranteed " the use of the Black Hills , Powder River Country and other regions surrounding the northern Missouri River to Native Americans without white intervention . The Missouri River was also a significant landmark as it divides northeastern Kansas from western Missouri ; pro @-@ slavery forces from Missouri would cross the river into Kansas and spark mayhem during Bleeding Kansas , leading to continued tension and hostility even today between Kansas and Missouri . Another significant military engagement on the Missouri River during this period was the 1861 Battle of Boonville , which did not affect Native Americans but rather was a turning point in the American Civil War that allowed the Union to seize control of transport on the river , discouraging the state of Missouri from joining the Confederacy .
However , the peace and freedom of the Native Americans did not last for long . The Great Sioux War of 1876 – 77 was sparked when American miners discovered gold in the Black Hills of western South Dakota and eastern Wyoming . These lands were originally set aside for Native American use by the Treaty of Fort Laramie . When the settlers intruded onto the lands , they were attacked by Native Americans . U.S. troops were sent to the area to protect the miners , and drive out the natives from the new settlements . During this bloody period , both the Native Americans and the U.S. military won victories in major battles , resulting in the loss of nearly a thousand lives . The war eventually ended in an American victory , and the Black Hills were opened to settlement . Native Americans of that region were relocated to reservations in Wyoming and southeastern Montana .
= = Dam @-@ building era = =
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries , a great number of dams were built along the course of the Missouri , transforming 35 percent of the river into a chain of reservoirs . River development was stimulated by a variety of factors , first by growing demand for electricity in the rural northwestern parts of the basin , and also by floods and droughts that plagued rapidly growing agricultural and urban areas along the lower Missouri River . Small , privately owned hydroelectric projects have existed since the 1890s , but the large flood @-@ control and storage dams that characterize the middle reaches of the river today were not constructed until the 1950s .
Between 1890 and 1940 , five dams were built in the vicinity of Great Falls to generate power from the Great Falls of the Missouri , a chain of giant waterfalls formed by the river in its path through western Montana . Black Eagle Dam , built in 1891 on Black Eagle Falls , was the first dam of the Missouri . Replaced in 1926 with a more modern structure , the dam was little more than a small weir atop Black Eagle Falls , diverting part of the Missouri 's flow into the Black Eagle power plant . The largest of the five dams , Ryan Dam , was built in 1913 . The dam lies directly above the 87 @-@ foot ( 27 m ) Great Falls , the largest waterfall of the Missouri .
In the same period , several private establishments – most notably the Montana Power Company – began to develop the Missouri River above Great Falls and below Helena for power generation . A small run @-@ of @-@ the river structure completed in 1898 near the present site of Canyon Ferry Dam became the second dam to be built on the Missouri . This rock @-@ filled timber crib dam generated seven and a half megawatts of electricity for Helena and the surrounding countryside . The nearby steel Hauser Dam was finished in 1907 , but failed in 1908 because of structural deficiencies , causing catastrophic flooding all the way downstream past Craig . At Great Falls , a section of the Black Eagle Dam was dynamited to save nearby factories from inundation . Hauser was rebuilt in 1910 as a concrete gravity structure , and stands to this day .
Holter Dam , about 45 miles ( 72 km ) downstream of Helena , was the third hydroelectric dam built on this stretch of the Missouri River . When completed in 1918 by the Montana Power Company and the United Missouri River Power Company , its reservoir flooded the Gates of the Mountains , a limestone canyon which Meriwether Lewis described as " the most remarkable clifts that we have yet seen … the tow [ er ] ing and projecting rocks in many places seem ready to tumble on us . " In 1949 , the U.S. Bureau of Reclamation ( USBR ) began construction on the modern Canyon Ferry Dam to provide flood control to the Great Falls area . By 1954 , the rising waters of Canyon Ferry Lake submerged the old 1898 dam , whose powerhouse still stands underwater about 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) upstream of the present @-@ day dam .
" [ The Missouri 's temperament was ] uncertain as the actions of a jury or the state of a woman 's mind . " – Sioux City Register , March 28 , 1868
The Missouri basin suffered a series of catastrophic floods around the turn of the 20th century , most notably in 1844 , 1881 , and 1926 – 1927 . In 1940 , as part of the Great Depression @-@ era New Deal , the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers ( USACE ) completed Fort Peck Dam in Montana . Construction of this massive public works project provided jobs for more than 50 @,@ 000 laborers during the Depression and was a major step in providing flood control to the lower half of the Missouri River . However , Fort Peck only controls runoff from 11 percent of the Missouri River watershed , and had little effect on a severe snowmelt flood that struck the lower basin three years later . This event was particularly destructive as it submerged manufacturing plants in Omaha and Kansas City , greatly delaying shipments of military supplies in World War II .
Flooding damages on the Mississippi – Missouri river system were one of the primary reasons for which Congress passed the Flood Control Act of 1944 , opening the way for the USACE to develop the Missouri on a massive scale . The 1944 act authorized the Pick – Sloan Missouri Basin Program ( Pick – Sloan Plan ) , which was a composite of two widely varying proposals . The Pick plan , with an emphasis on flood control and hydroelectric power , called for the construction of large storage dams along the main stem of the Missouri . The Sloan plan , which stressed the development of local irrigation , included provisions for roughly 85 smaller dams on tributaries .
In the early stages of Pick – Sloan development , tentative plans were made to build a low dam on the Missouri at Riverdale , North Dakota and 27 smaller dams on the Yellowstone River and its tributaries . This was met with controversy from inhabitants of the Yellowstone basin , and eventually the USBR proposed a solution : to greatly increase the size of the proposed dam at Riverdale – today 's Garrison Dam , thus replacing the storage that would have been provided by the Yellowstone dams . Because of this decision , the Yellowstone is now the longest free @-@ flowing river in the contiguous United States . In the 1950s , construction commenced on the five mainstem dams – Garrison , Oahe , Big Bend , Fort Randall and Gavins Point – proposed under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan . Along with Fort Peck , which was integrated as a unit of the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the 1940s , these dams now form what is known as the Missouri River Mainstem System .
The six dams of the Mainstem System , chiefly Fort Peck , Garrison and Oahe , are among the largest dams in the world by volume ; their sprawling reservoirs also rank within the biggest of the nation . Holding up to 74 @.@ 1 million acre feet ( 91 @.@ 4 km3 ) in total , the six reservoirs can store more than three years ' worth of the river 's flow as measured below Gavins Point , the lowermost dam . This capacity makes it the largest reservoir system in the United States and one of the largest in North America . In addition to storing irrigation water , the system also includes an annual flood @-@ control reservation of 16 @.@ 3 million acre feet ( 20 @.@ 1 km3 ) . Mainstem power plants generate about 9 @.@ 3 billion KWh annually – equal to a constant output of almost 1 @,@ 100 megawatts . Along with nearly 100 smaller dams on tributaries , namely the Bighorn , Platte , Kansas , and Osage Rivers , the system provides irrigation water to nearly 7 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 19 @,@ 000 km2 ) of land .
The table at left lists statistics of all fifteen dams on the Missouri River , ordered downstream . Many of the run @-@ of @-@ the @-@ river dams on the Missouri ( marked in yellow ) form very small impoundments which may or may not have been given names ; those unnamed are left blank . All dams are on the upper half of the river above Sioux City ; the lower river is uninterrupted due to its longstanding use as a shipping channel .
= = Navigation = =
" [ Missouri River shipping ] never achieved its expectations . Even under the very best of circumstances , it was never a huge industry . " ~ Richard Opper , former Missouri River Basin Association executive director
Boat travel on the Missouri started with the wood @-@ framed canoes and bull boats of the Native Americans , which were used for thousands of years before the introduction of larger craft to the river upon colonization of the Great Plains . The first steamboat on the Missouri was the Independence , which started running between St. Louis and Keytesville , Missouri around 1819 . By the 1830s , large mail and freight @-@ carrying vessels were running regularly between Kansas City and St. Louis , and many traveled even farther upstream . A handful , such as the Western Engineer and the Yellowstone , were able to make it up the river as far as eastern Montana .
During the early 19th century , at the height of the fur trade , steamboats and keelboats began traveling nearly the whole length of the Missouri from Montana 's rugged Missouri Breaks to the mouth , carrying beaver and buffalo furs to and from the areas that the trappers frequented . This resulted in the development of the Missouri River mackinaw , which specialized in carrying furs . Since these boats could only travel downriver , they were dismantled and sold for lumber upon their arrival at St. Louis .
Water transport increased through the 1850s with multiple craft ferrying pioneers , emigrants and miners ; many of these runs were from St. Louis or Independence to near Omaha . There , most of these people would set out overland along the large but shallow and unnavigable Platte River , which was described by pioneers as " a mile wide and an inch deep " and " the most magnificent and useless of rivers " . Steamboat navigation peaked in 1858 with over 130 boats operating full @-@ time on the Missouri , with many more smaller vessels . Many of the earlier vessels were built on the Ohio River before being transferred to the Missouri . Side @-@ wheeler steamboats were preferred over the larger sternwheelers used on the Mississippi and Ohio because of their greater maneuverability .
The industry 's success , however , did not guarantee safety . In the early decades before the river 's flow was controlled by man , its sketchy rises and falls and its massive amounts of sediment , which prevented a clear view of the bottom , wrecked some 300 vessels . Because of the dangers of navigating the Missouri River , the average ship 's lifespan was short , only about four years . The development of the Transcontinental and Northern Pacific Railroads marked the beginning of the end of steamboat commerce on the Missouri . Outcompeted by trains , the number of boats slowly dwindled , until there was almost nothing left by the 1890s . Transport of agricultural and mining products by barge , however , saw a revival in the early twentieth century .
= = = Passage to Sioux City = = =
Since the beginning of the 20th century , the Missouri River has been extensively engineered for water transport purposes , and about 32 percent of the river now flows through artificially straightened channels . In 1912 , the USACE was authorized to maintain the Missouri to a depth of six feet ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) from the Port of Kansas City to the mouth , a distance of 368 miles ( 592 km ) . This was accomplished by constructing levees and wing dams to direct the river 's flow into a straight , narrow channel and prevent sedimentation . In 1925 , the USACE began a project to widen the river 's navigation channel to 200 feet ( 61 m ) ; two years later , they began dredging a deep @-@ water channel from Kansas City to Sioux City . These modifications have reduced the river 's length from some 2 @,@ 540 miles ( 4 @,@ 090 km ) in the late 19th century to 2 @,@ 341 miles ( 3 @,@ 767 km ) in the present day .
Construction of dams on the Missouri under the Pick @-@ Sloan Plan in the mid @-@ twentieth century was the final step in aiding navigation . The large reservoirs of the Mainstem System help provide a dependable flow to maintain the navigation channel year @-@ round , and are capable of halting most of the river 's annual freshets . However , high and low water cycles of the Missouri – notably the protracted early @-@ 21st @-@ century drought in the Missouri River basin and historic floods in 1993 and 2011 – are difficult for even the massive Mainstem System reservoirs to control .
In 1945 , the USACE began the Missouri River Bank Stabilization and Navigation Project , which would permanently increase the river 's navigation channel to a width of 300 feet ( 91 m ) and a depth of nine feet ( 2 @.@ 7 m ) . During work that continues to this day , the 735 @-@ mile ( 1 @,@ 183 km ) navigation channel from Sioux City to St. Louis has been controlled by building rock dikes to direct the river 's flow and scour out sediments , sealing and cutting off meanders and side channels , and dredging the riverbed . However , the Missouri has often resisted the efforts of the USACE to control its depth . In 2006 , several U.S. Coast Guard boats ran aground in the Missouri River because the navigation channel had been severely silted . The USACE was blamed for failing to maintain the channel to the minimum depth .
In 1929 , the Missouri River Navigation Commission estimated the total amount of goods shipped on the river annually at 15 million tons ( 13 @.@ 6 million metric tons ) , providing widespread consensus for the creation of a navigation channel . However , shipping traffic has since been far lower than expected – shipments of commodities including produce , manufactured items , lumber , and oil averaged only 683 @,@ 000 tons ( 616 @,@ 000 t ) per year from 1994 to 2006 .
By tonnage of transported material , Missouri is by far the largest user of the river accounting for 83 percent of river traffic , while Kansas has 12 percent , Nebraska three percent and Iowa two percent . Almost all of the barge traffic on the Missouri River ships sand and gravel dredged from the lower 500 miles ( 800 km ) of the river ; the remaining portion of the shipping channel now sees little to no use by commercial vessels .
= = = Traffic decline = = =
Tonnage of goods shipped by barges on the Missouri River has seen a serious decline from the 1960s to the present . In the 1960s , the USACE predicted an increase to 12 million short tons ( 11 Mt ) per year by 2000 , but instead the opposite has happened . The amount of goods plunged from 3 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 3 @.@ 0 Mt ) in 1977 to just 1 @.@ 3 million short tons ( 1 @.@ 2 Mt ) in 2000 . One of the largest drops has been in agricultural products , especially wheat . Part of the reason is that irrigated land along the Missouri has only been developed to a fraction of its potential . In 2006 , barges on the Missouri hauled only 200 @,@ 000 short tons ( 180 @,@ 000 t ) of products which is equal to the amount of daily freight traffic on the Mississippi .
Drought conditions in the early 21st century and competition from other modes of transport – mainly railroads – are the primary reason for decreasing river traffic on the Missouri . The failure of the USACE to consistently maintain the navigation channel has also hampered the industry . Currently , efforts are being made to revive the shipping industry on the Missouri River , because of the efficiency and cheapness of river transport to haul agricultural products , and the overcrowding of alternative transportation routes . Solutions such as expanding the navigation channel and releasing more water from reservoirs during the peak of the navigation season are being considered . Drought conditions lifted in 2010 , in which about 334 @,@ 000 short tons ( 303 @,@ 000 t ) were barged on the Missouri , representing the first significant increase in shipments since 2000 . However , flooding in 2011 closed record stretches of the river to boat traffic – " wash [ ing ] away hopes for a bounce @-@ back year . "
There are no lock and dams on the lower Missouri River , but there are plenty of wing dams that jettie out into the river and make it harder for barges to navigate . In contrast , the upper Mississippi has 29 locks and dams and averaged 61 @.@ 3 million tons of cargo annually from 2008 to 2011 , and its locks are closed in the winter .
= = Ecology = =
= = = Natural history = = =
Historically , the thousands of square miles that comprised the floodplain of the Missouri River supported a wide range of plant and animal species . Biodiversity generally increased proceeding downstream from the cold , subalpine headwaters in Montana to the temperate , moist climate of Missouri . Today , the river 's riparian zone consists primarily of cottonwoods , willows and sycamores , with several other types of trees such as maple and ash . Average tree height generally increases farther from the riverbanks for a limited distance , as land adjacent to the river is vulnerable to soil erosion during floods . Because of its large sediment concentrations , the Missouri does not support many aquatic invertebrates . However , the basin does support about 300 species of birds and 150 species of fish , some of which are endangered such as the pallid sturgeon . The Missouri 's aquatic and riparian habitats also support several species of mammals , such as minks , river otters , beavers , muskrats , and raccoons .
The World Wide Fund For Nature divides the Missouri River watershed into three freshwater ecoregions : the Upper Missouri , Lower Missouri and Central Prairie . The Upper Missouri , roughly encompassing the area within Montana , Wyoming , southern Alberta and Saskatchewan , and North Dakota , comprises mainly semiarid shrub @-@ steppe grasslands with sparse biodiversity because of Ice Age glaciations . There are no known endemic species within the region . Except for the headwaters in the Rockies , there is little precipitation in this part of the watershed . The Middle Missouri ecoregion , extending through Colorado , southwestern Minnesota , northern Kansas , Nebraska , and parts of Wyoming and Iowa , has greater rainfall and is characterized by temperate forests and grasslands . Plant life is more diverse in the Middle Missouri , which is also home to about twice as many animal species . Finally , the Central Prairie ecoregion is situated on the lower part of the Missouri , encompassing all or parts of Missouri , Kansas , Oklahoma and Arkansas . Despite large seasonal temperature fluctuations , this region has the greatest diversity of plants and animals of the three . Thirteen species of crayfish are endemic to the lower Missouri .
= = = Human impacts = = =
Since the beginning of river commerce and industrial development in the 1800s , the Missouri has been severely polluted and its water quality degraded by human activity . Most of the river 's floodplain habitat is long gone , replaced by irrigated agricultural land . Development of the floodplain has led to increasing amounts of people and infrastructure within areas at high risk of inundation . Levees have been constructed along more than a third of the river in order to keep floodwater within the channel , but with the consequences of faster stream velocity and a resulting increase of peak flows in downstream areas . Fertilizer runoff , which causes elevated levels of nitrogen and other nutrients , is a major problem along the Missouri River , especially in Iowa and Missouri . This form of pollution also heavily affects the upper Mississippi , Illinois and Ohio Rivers . Low oxygen levels in rivers and the vast Gulf of Mexico dead zone at the end of the Mississippi Delta are both results of high nutrient concentrations in the Missouri and other tributaries of the Mississippi .
Channelization of the lower Missouri waters has made the river narrower , deeper and less accessible to riparian flora and fauna . Numerous dams and bank stabilization projects have been constructed to facilitate the conversion of 300 @,@ 000 acres ( 1 @,@ 200 km2 ) of Missouri River floodplain to agricultural land . Channel control has significantly reduced the volume of sediment transported downstream by the river and eliminated critical habitat for fish , birds and amphibians . By the early 21st century , declines in populations of native species prompted the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service to issue a biological opinion recommending restoration of river habitats for federally endangered bird and fish species .
The USACE began work on ecosystem restoration projects along the lower Missouri River in the early 21st century . Because of the low use of the shipping channel in the lower Missouri maintained by the USACE , it is now considered feasible to remove some of the levees , dikes , and wing dams that constrict the river 's flow , thus allowing it to naturally restore its banks . By 2001 , there were 87 @,@ 000 acres ( 350 km2 ) of riverside floodplain undergoing active restoration .
Restoration projects have re @-@ mobilized some of the sediments that had been trapped behind bank stabilization structures , prompting concerns of exacerbated nutrient and sediment pollution locally and downstream in the northern Gulf of Mexico . A 2010 National Research Council report assessed the roles of sediment in the Missouri River , evaluating current habitat restoration strategies and alternative ways to manage sediment . The report found that a better understanding of sediment processes in the Missouri River , including the creation of a " sediment budget " – an accounting of sediment transport , erosion , and deposition volumes for the length of the Missouri River – would provide a foundation for projects to improve water quality standards and protect endangered species .
= = Tourism and recreation = =
With over 1 @,@ 500 sq mi ( 3 @,@ 900 km2 ) of open water , the six reservoirs of the Missouri River Mainstem System provide some of the main recreational areas within the basin . Visitation has increased from 10 million visitor @-@ hours in the mid @-@ 1960s to over 60 million visitor @-@ hours in 1990 . Development of visitor facilities was spurred by the Federal Water Project Recreation Act of 1965 , which required the USACE to build and maintain boat ramps , campgrounds and other public facilities along major reservoirs . Recreational use of Missouri River reservoirs is estimated to contribute $ 85 – 100 million to the regional economy each year .
The Lewis and Clark National Historic Trail , some 3 @,@ 700 miles ( 6 @,@ 000 km ) long , follows nearly the entire Missouri River from its mouth to its source , retracing the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition . Extending from Wood River , Illinois , in the east , to Astoria , Oregon , in the west , it also follows portions of the Mississippi and Columbia Rivers . The trail , which spans through eleven U.S. states , is maintained by various federal and state government agencies ; it passes through some 100 historic sites , notably archaeological locations including the Knife River Indian Villages National Historic Site .
Parts of the river itself are designated for recreational or preservational use . The Missouri National Recreational River consists of portions of the Missouri downstream from Fort Randall and Gavins Point Dams that total 98 miles ( 158 km ) . These reaches exhibit islands , meanders , sandbars , underwater rocks , riffles , snags , and other once @-@ common features of the lower river that have now disappeared under reservoirs or have been destroyed by channeling . About forty @-@ five steamboat wrecks are scattered along these reaches of the river .
Downstream from Great Falls , Montana , about 149 miles ( 240 km ) of the river course through a rugged series of canyons and badlands known as the Missouri Breaks . This part of the river , designated a U.S. National Wild and Scenic River in 1976 , flows within the Upper Missouri Breaks National Monument , a 375 @,@ 000 @-@ acre ( 1 @,@ 520 km2 ) preserve comprising steep cliffs , deep gorges , arid plains , badlands , archaeological sites , and whitewater rapids on the Missouri itself . The preserve includes a wide variety of plant and animal life ; recreational activities include boating , rafting , hiking and wildlife observation .
In north @-@ central Montana , some 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 000 acres ( 4 @,@ 500 km2 ) along over 125 miles ( 201 km ) of the Missouri River , centering on Fort Peck Lake , comprise the Charles M. Russell National Wildlife Refuge . The wildlife refuge consists of a native northern Great Plains ecosystem that has not been heavily affected by human development , except for the construction of Fort Peck Dam . Although there are few designated trails , the whole preserve is open to hiking and camping .
Many U.S. national parks , such as Glacier National Park , Rocky Mountain National Park , Yellowstone National Park and Badlands National Park are in the watershed . Parts of other rivers in the basin are set aside for preservation and recreational use – notably the Niobrara National Scenic River , which is a 76 @-@ mile ( 122 km ) protected stretch of the Niobrara River , one of the Missouri 's longest tributaries . The Missouri flows through or past many National Historic Landmarks , which include Three Forks of the Missouri , Fort Benton , Montana , Big Hidatsa Village Site , Fort Atkinson , Nebraska and Arrow Rock Historic District .
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= Monty Can 't Buy Me Love =
" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " is the twenty @-@ first episode of The Simpsons ' tenth season . It first aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . In the episode , Mr. Burns is jealous of megastore owner Arthur Fortune , who is beloved by the people of Springfield . In order to win the people 's love , Burns gathers the help of Homer Simpson , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie to capture the Loch Ness monster .
The episode was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . The idea for the episode was pitched by the Simpsons writing staff , who wanted to make an episode in which Mr. Burns becomes a " thrillionaire " , a millionaire who goes on thrilling adventures . Although it would originally be green , a mistake in the overseas animation led to the Loch Ness monster looking pink , a mistake that was ultimately too expensive to fix .
In its original broadcast , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was seen by approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers , and finished in 43rd place in the ratings the week it aired . Following the release of The Simpsons : The Complete Tenth Season , the episode received mixed reviews from critics .
= = Plot = =
On a normal afternoon , Marge wants Homer , Bart , Lisa , and Maggie to go for a walk . They agree when faced with the threat of having to talk to each other , and arrive at a Fortune Megastore , a venture of wealthy Arthur Fortune ( modelled on British entrepreneur Richard Branson ) . Fortune easily charms the crowd and hands out dollar bills to his customers . This embarrasses the unpopular Mr. Burns , who asks Homer to help him be loved by all .
As his first activity , Burns has Homer throw silver dollars from the top of a tall building , which instead of winning him popularity just causes injuries and terrifies the crowds below . Next , he writes out a check and tells Homer to donate it to the Springfield Hospital , but Homer is mistakenly believed to be the donor and receives the credit . Mr. Burns appears on a radio show called " Jerry Rude and the Bathroom Bunch " and is mocked by Rude . Feeling disappointed , Mr. Burns decides to go to Scotland to capture the legendary Loch Ness Monster with help from Homer , Professor Frink and Groundskeeper Willie . After little progress , Burns has the loch drained of water to expose the creature . After subduing the monster single @-@ handed ( although it is not shown , it is mentioned that the monster swallowed him ) , Burns has it sent to Springfield to be unveiled , where " Nessie " turns out to be friendly and charms all of the spectators .
However , during the unveiling of the monster , Burns is blinded by camera flashes . He runs into a camera , which crashes and starts a fire : the crowd panic and flee . Following this disaster , Homer then cheers up Burns by pointing out that being loved means you have to be nice to people everyday but being hated means you do not have to do anything . Burns agrees with that logic , saying " I 'm a selfish old crank--and that fits me like a Speedo ! " In the aftermath of the incident , Homer and Burns give Nessie a job at the " Vegas Town Casino " .
= = Production = =
" Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " was written by John Swartzwelder and directed by Mark Ervin . It originally aired on the Fox network in the United States on May 2 , 1999 . The inspiration for the episode came from the concept of " thrillionaires " , a term the Simpsons writers found in an issue of The Economist to describe millionaires who " do really incredible stunts " and " go on amazing adventures " . The episode 's third act went through several incarnations , and the writers had a lot of ideas about what Burns should do once he has captured the Loch Ness monster . Eventually , the staff settled on the act 's current iteration , which was conceived by Simpsons writer George Meyer . According to current showrunner Al Jean , the color of the Loch Ness monster would originally be green , but when the overseas animation was completed , the Loch Ness monster had a " kind of pinkish " color . Because it would be too expensive to re @-@ color all the cels in which the monster appears , the staff decided to air the episode as it was , even though the monster was in the wrong color . Inside the Fortune Megastore , Simpsons staff writer Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham can be seen .
The episode features American comedian and composer Michael McKean as Jerry Rude , a parody on the radio personality Howard Stern . Scully stated that McKean was " very funny " and that his Stern impression was " dead on the money " . The Simpsons staff originally asked Stern if he wanted to guest @-@ star in the episode , but he declined . Actor and producer Kevin Costner was portrayed by series regular cast member Hank Azaria , who voices Moe Szyslak among other characters in the series . Azaria also played Arthur Fortune , a character based on British business magnate Richard Branson . In the DVD commentary for the episode , Scully stated that Branson would have been a " great guest [ -actor ] " in the episode . The episode also features Groundskeeper Willie 's father , even though Willie in an earlier episode said that he was killed for stealing a pig .
= = Cultural references = =
In the beginning of the episode , the Simpsons watch a television program called Cash in Your Legacy , which is a parody on the PBS program Antiques Roadshow . Arthur Fortune is a parody of Branson and Fortune Megastore is a reference to Branson 's international record shop chain Virgin Megastores . On the cover of Billionaire Beat , a magazine that Burns reads in the episode , business magnates Bill Gates and Rupert Murdoch can be seen . In a scene in the episode , Burns assumes that " Don McNeill and his Breakfast Club " is currently the most popular radio program . Don McNeill 's Breakfast Club was a real radio program that , according to Scully , Swartzwelder used to listen to . Costner 's film The Postman is also referenced in the episode . Burns ' unveiling of the Loch Ness Monster is ruined as the numerous camera flashes blind him , causing him to knock over some lights , starting a fire . This is a reference to the film King Kong , although in the film the flashes enrage the captured gorilla Kong , as opposed to his captor .
= = Reception = =
In its original American broadcast on May 2 , 1999 , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received a 7 @.@ 3 rating , according to Nielsen Media Research , translating to approximately 7 @.@ 26 million viewers . The episode finished in 43rd place in the ratings for the week of April 26 @-@ May 2 , 1999 . On August 7 , 2007 , the episode was released as part of The Simpsons - The Complete Tenth Season DVD box set . Mike Scully , George Meyer , Ian Maxtone @-@ Graham , Ron Hauge and Matt Selman participated in the DVD 's audio commentary of the episode .
Following its home video release , " Monty Can 't Buy Me Love " received mixed reviews from critics . Giving the episode a positive review , Currentfilm.com considered it to be " one of the best Mr. Burns @-@ centric episodes ever " , and that it has " some classic Burns moments , especially when Monty describes exactly what it took for him to capture the creature . " Colin Jacobson of DVD Movie Guide stated that , while the episode " doesn ’ t do a lot to expand the character " , it " manages a reasonable number of yuks " . He added that " A fun Howard Stern @-@ esque character done by Michael McKean helps make this a nice show . " David Plath of DVD Town wrote that the episode has " Some funny moments " . Giving the episode a mixed review , Warren Martyn and Adrian Wood of I Can 't Believe It 's a Bigger and Better Updated Unofficial Simpsons Guide said that the episode is " Very funny when it 's funny , very poor when it isn 't . " They wrote that the best part of the episode is " the Scottish stuff , " and " the idea that , once again , Burns is actually worried about his public image , as he was in ' The Joy of Sect ' . " Jake McNeill of Digital Entertainment News gave the episode a negative review , and wrote that " the story takes too long to get going " .
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= Landing at Anzac Cove =
The landing at Anzac Cove on Sunday , 25 April 1915 , also known as the landing at Gaba Tepe , and to the Turks as the Arıburnu Battle , was part of the amphibious invasion of the Gallipoli Peninsula by the forces of the British Empire , which began the land phase of the Gallipoli Campaign of the First World War .
The assault troops , mostly from the Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , landed at night on the western ( Aegean Sea ) side of the peninsula . They were put ashore one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) north of their intended landing beach . In the darkness , the assault formations became mixed up , but the troops gradually made their way inland , under increasing opposition from the Ottoman Turkish defenders . Not long after coming ashore the ANZAC plans were discarded , and the companies and battalions were thrown into battle piece @-@ meal , and received mixed orders . Some advanced to their designated objectives while others were diverted to other areas , then ordered to dig in along defensive ridge lines .
Although they failed to achieve their objectives , by nightfall the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , albeit much smaller than intended . In places they were clinging onto cliff faces with no organised defence system . Their precarious position convinced both divisional commanders to ask for an evacuation , but after taking advice from the Royal Navy about how practicable that would be , the army commander decided they would stay . The exact number of the day 's casualties is not known . The ANZACs had landed two divisions but over two thousand of their men had been killed or wounded , together with at least a similar number of Turkish casualties .
Since 1916 the anniversary of the landings on 25 April has been commemorated as Anzac Day , becoming one of the most important national celebrations in Australia and New Zealand . The anniversary is also commemorated in Turkey , the United Kingdom and Ireland .
= = Background = =
The Ottoman Turkish Empire entered the First World War on the side of the Central Powers on 31 October 1914 . The stalemate of trench warfare on the Western Front convinced the British Imperial War Cabinet that an attack on the Central Powers elsewhere , particularly Turkey , could be the best way of winning the war . From February 1915 this took the form of naval operations aimed at forcing a passage through the Dardanelles , but after several setbacks it was decided that a land campaign was also necessary . To that end , the Mediterranean Expeditionary Force was formed under the command of General Ian Hamilton . Three amphibious landings were planned to secure the Gallipoli Peninsula , which would allow the navy to attack the Turkish capital Constantinople , in the hope that would convince the Turks to ask for an armistice .
= = = Intention = = =
Lieutenant @-@ General William Birdwood , commanding the inexperienced Australian and New Zealand Army Corps ( ANZAC ) , comprising the Australian Division and two brigades of the New Zealand and Australian Division , was ordered to conduct an amphibious assault on the western side of the Gallipoli Peninsula . The New Zealand and Australian Division normally also had two mounted brigades assigned to it , but these had been left in Egypt , as it was believed there would be no requirement or opportunities to use mounted troops on the peninsula . To bring the division up to strength , Hamilton had tried unsuccessfully to get a brigade of Gurkhas attached to them . In total ANZAC strength was 30 @,@ 638 men .
The location chosen for the operation was between the headland of Gaba Tepe and the Fisherman 's Hut , three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the north . Landing at dawn after a naval gunfire bombardment , the first troops were to seize the lower crests and southern spurs of Hill 971 . The second wave would pass them to capture the spur of Hill 971 , especially Mal Tepe . There they would be positioned to cut the enemy 's lines of communications to the Kilid Bahr Plateau , thus preventing the Turks from bringing reinforcements from the north to the Kilid Bahr Plateau during the attack by the British 29th Division which would advance from a separate beachhead further south @-@ west . The capture of Mal Tepe was " more vital and valuable than the capture of the Kilid Bahr Plateau itself . "
Birdwood planned to arrive off the peninsula after the moon had set , with the first troops landing at 03 : 30 , an hour before dawn . He declined the offer of an old merchant ship , loaded with troops , being deliberately grounded at Gaba Tepe . Instead , the troops were to travel in naval and merchant ships , transferring to rowing boats towed by small steamboats to make the assault .
First ashore would be the Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General William Bridges . The 3rd Australian Brigade , known as the covering force , were to capture the third ridge from Battleship Hill south along the Sari Bair mountain range to Gaba Tepe . The 2nd Australian Brigade , landing next , were to capture all the Sari Bar range up to Hill 971 on the left . The 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery from the British Indian Army would land next and then the 1st Australian Brigade , the division 's reserve ; all were to be ashore by 08 : 30 . The New Zealand and Australian Division , commanded by Major @-@ General Alexander Godley , followed them ; the 1st New Zealand Brigade then the 4th Australian Brigade . Only after the second division had landed would the advance to Mal Tepe begin . The planners had come to the conclusion that the area was sparsely , if at all , defended , and that they should be able to achieve their objectives with no problems ; Turkish opposition had not been considered .
= = = Turkish forces = = =
The First World War Ottoman Turkish Army was modelled after the German Imperial Army , with most of its members being conscripted for two years ( infantry ) or three years ( artillery ) ; they then served in the reserve for the next twenty @-@ three years . The pre @-@ war army had 208 @,@ 000 men in thirty @-@ six divisions , formed into army corps and field armies . On mobilisation each division had three infantry and one artillery regiment for a total of around ten thousand men , or about half the size of the equivalent British formation . Unlike the largely inexperienced ANZACs , all the Turkish Army commanders , down to company commander level , were very experienced , being veterans of the Italo @-@ Turkish and Balkan Wars .
The British preparations could not be made in secret , and by March 1915 , the Turks were aware that a force of fifty thousand British and thirty thousand French troops was gathering at Lemnos . They considered there were only four likely places for them to land : Cape Helles , Gaba Tepe , Bulair , or on the Asiatic ( eastern ) coast of the Dardanelles .
On 24 March , the Turks formed the Fifth Army , a force of over 100 @,@ 000 men , in two corps of six divisions and a cavalry brigade , commanded by the German general Otto Liman von Sanders . The Fifth Army deployed the III Corps at Gallipoli and the XV Corps on the Asiatic coast . The 5th Division and a cavalry brigade were on the European mainland , positioned to support the III Corps if required . The III Corps had the 9th Division ( 25th , 26th and 27th Infantry Regiments ) , the 19th Division ( 57th , 72nd and 77th Infantry Regiments ) and the 7th Division ( 19th , 20th and 21st Infantry Regiments ) . The 9th Division provided coastal defence from Cape Helles north to Bulair , where the 7th Division took over , while the 19th Division at Maidos was the corps reserve . The area around Gaba Tepe , where the ANZAC landings would take place , was defended by a battalion of the 27th Infantry Regiment .
= = Anzac Cove = =
On 19 April orders were issued for the ANZACs to stop training , and for all ships and small boats to take on coal and stores , in preparation for a landing originally scheduled to occur on 23 April . Weather conditions delayed their departure from Lemnos until dawn on 24 April . The Royal Navy battleships Queen , Triumph , Prince of Wales , London , and Majestic , the cruiser Bacchante , seven destroyers and four transport ships led the way carrying the 3rd Brigade . They were followed by the rest of the force who were embarked in their own transport ships .
= = = First six companies = = =
At 01 : 00 on 25 April the British ships stopped at sea , and thirty @-@ six rowing boats towed by twelve steamers embarked the first six companies , two each from the 9th , 10th and 11th Battalions . At 02 : 00 a Turkish sentry reported seeing ships moving at sea , and at 02 : 30 the report was sent to 9th Division 's headquarters . At 02 : 53 the ships headed towards the peninsula , continuing until 03 : 30 when the larger ships stopped . With 50 yards ( 46 m ) to go , the rowing boats continued using only their oars .
Around 04 : 30 Turkish sentries opened fire on the boats , but the first ANZAC troops were already ashore at Beach Z , called Ari Burnu at the time , but later known as Anzac Cove . ( It was formally renamed Anzac Cove by the Turkish government in 1985 . ) They were one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) further north than intended , and instead of an open beach they were faced with steep cliffs and ridges up to around three hundred feet ( 91 m ) in height . However , the mistake had put them ashore at a relatively undefended area ; at Gaba Tepe further south where they had planned to land , there was a strong @-@ point , with an artillery battery close by equipped with two 15 cm and two 12 cm guns , and the 5th Company , 27th Infantry Regiment was positioned to counter @-@ attack any landing at that more southern point . The hills surrounding the cove where the ANZACs landed made the beach safe from direct fire Turkish artillery . Fifteen minutes after the landing , the Royal Navy began firing at targets in the hills .
On their way in , the rowing boats had become mixed up . The 11th Battalion grounded to the north of Ari Burnu point , while the 9th Battalion hit the point or just south of it , together with most of the 10th Battalion . The plan was for them to cross the open ground and assault the first ridge line , but they were faced with a hill that came down almost to the water line , and there was confusion while the officers tried to work out their location , under small arms fire from the 4th Company , 2nd Battalion , 27th Infantry Regiment , who had a platoon of between eighty and ninety men at Anzac Cove and a second platoon in the north around the Fisherman 's Hut . The third platoon was in a reserve position on the second ridge . They also manned the Gaba Tepe strong @-@ point , equipped with two obsolescent multi @-@ barrelled Nordenfelt machine @-@ guns , and several smaller posts in the south .
Men from the 9th and 10th Battalions started up the Ari Burnu slope , grabbing the gorse branches or digging their bayonets into the soil to provide leverage . At the peak they found an abandoned trench , the Turks having withdrawn inland . Soon the Australians reached Plugge 's Plateau , the edge of which was defended by a trench , but the Turks had withdrawn to the next summit two hundred yards ( 180 m ) inland , from where they fired at the Australians coming onto the plateau . As they arrived , Major Edmund Brockman of the 11th Battalion started sorting out the mess , sending the 9th Battalion 's men to the right flank , the 11th Battalion 's to the left , and keeping the 10th Battalion in the centre .
= = = Second six companies = = =
The second six companies landed while it was still dark , the destroyers coming to within five hundred yards ( 460 m ) to disembark the troops , under fire . They also landed at Anzac Cove , but now as planned the 11th were in the north , 10th in the centre and the 9th in the south . The 12th Battalion landed all along the beach . This extended the beachhead 500 yards ( 460 m ) to the north of Ari Burnu , and 1 @.@ 5 miles ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) to the south . Landing under fire , some of the assaulting troops were killed in their boats , and others as they reached the beach . Once ashore they headed inland . In the south , the first men from the 9th and 12th Battalions reached the bottom of 400 Plateau .
In the north , the first men from the 11th and 12th Battalions started up Walker 's Ridge , under fire from a nearby Turkish trench . Around the same time Turkish artillery started bombarding the beachhead , destroying at least six boats . The Australians fought their way forward and reached Russell 's Top ; the Turks withdrew through The Nek to Baby 700 , 350 yards ( 320 m ) away . Coming under fire again the Australians went to ground , having advanced only around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) inland . Some also dug in at The Nek , a twenty yards ( 18 m ) piece of high ground between Malone 's Gully to the north and Monash Valley to the south . Around this time Colonel Ewen Sinclair @-@ Maclagan , commanding the 3rd Brigade , decided to change the corps plan . Concerned about a possible counter @-@ attack from the south , he decided to hold the Second Ridge instead of pushing forward to the Third or Gun Ridge . This hesitation suited the Turkish defence plans , which required the forward troops to gain time for the reserves to coordinate a counter @-@ attack .
= = = Turkish reaction = = =
At 05 : 45 , Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mehmet Sefik of the Turkish 27th Infantry Regiment received orders to move his 1st and 3rd Battalions to the west and support the 2nd Battalion around Gaba Tepe . The two battalions were already assembled , having spent that night carrying out military exercises . They could not be sent to Ari Burnu as it was not marked on the Turkish maps . Colonel Halil Sami , commanding the 9th Division , also ordered the division 's machine @-@ gun company and an artillery battery to move in support of the 27th Infantry Regiment , followed soon after by an 77 mm artillery battery . At 08 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Mustafa Kemal , commanding the 19th Division , was ordered to send a battalion to support them . Kemal instead decided to go himself with the 57th Infantry Regiment and an artillery battery towards Chunuk Bair , which he realised was the key point in the defence ; whoever held those heights would dominate the battlefield . By chance , the 57th Infantry were supposed to have been on an exercise that morning around Hill 971 and had been prepared since 05 : 30 , waiting for orders .
At 09 : 00 Sefik and his two battalions were approaching Kavak Tepe , and made contact with his 2nd Battalion that had conducted a fighting withdrawal , and an hour and a half later the regiment was deployed to stop the ANZACs advancing any further . Around 10 : 00 Kemal arrived at Scrubby Knoll and steadied some retreating troops , pushing them back into a defensive position . As they arrived , the 57th Infantry Regiment were given their orders and prepared to counter @-@ attack . Scrubby Knoll , known to the Turks as Kemalyeri ( Kemal 's Place ) , now became the site of the Turkish headquarters for the remainder of the campaign .
= = Baby 700 = =
Baby 700 is a hill in the Sari Bair range , next to Battleship Hill or Big 700 . It was named after its supposed height above sea level , though its actual height is only 590 feet ( 180 m ) .
Maclagen sent the 11th Battalion , Captain Joseph Lalor 's company of the 12th Battalion and Major James Robertson 's of the 9th , towards Baby 700 . Brockman divided his own company , sending half up the right fork of Rest Gully , and half up the left , while Brockman and a reserve platoon headed up Monash Valley . As they moved forward , Turkish artillery targeted them with air burst shrapnel shells , which dispersed the companies . This , coupled with senior officers diverting men to other areas instead of towards Baby 700 , meant only fragments of the units eventually reached Baby 700 .
Arriving at Baby 700 , Captain Eric Tulloch , 11th Battalion , decided to take his remaining sixty men towards Battleship Hill , leaving Lalor 's company to dig in and defend The Nek . Tulloch moved around to the right before advancing towards the summit . The 11th Battalion crossed the first rise unopposed , but at the second , Turkish defenders around four hundred yards ( 370 m ) away opened fire on them . Going to ground , the Australians returned fire . When the Turkish fire slackened the remaining fifty men resumed their advance , reaching the now evacuated Turkish position , behind which was a large depression , with Battleship Hill beyond that . Still under fire they moved forward again , then around seven hundred yards ( 640 m ) from the summit The Turks opened fire on them from a trench . The Australians held out for thirty minutes , but increasing Turkish fire and mounting casualties convinced Tulloch to withdraw . No other ANZAC unit would advance as far inland that day .
At 08 : 30 Robertson and Lalor decided to take their companies up Baby 700 . Instead of going round to the right like Tulloch , they went straight up the centre , crossed over the summit onto the northern slope and went to ground . A spur on their left , leading to Suvla Bay , was defended by a Turkish trench system . At 09 : 15 Turkish troops started moving down Battleship Hill , and for the next hour they exchanged fire . Where the spur joined Baby 700 , a group of Australians from the 9th , 11th , and 12th Battalions crossed Malone 's Gully and charged the Turkish trench . A Turkish machine @-@ gun on Baby 700 opened fire on them , forcing them back , followed by a general withdrawal of Australian troops . The Turks had secured Battleship Hill and were now driving the Australians off Baby 700 . From his headquarters at the head of Monash Valley , Maclagen could see the Turks attacking , and started sending all available men towards Baby 700 .
= = = Second wave = = =
The 2nd Brigade landed between 05 : 30 and 07 : 00 , and the reserve 1st Brigade landed between 09 : 00 and 12 : 00 , already putting the timetable behind schedule . The 2nd Brigade , which was supposed to be heading for Baby 700 on the left , were instead sent to the right to counter a Turkish attack building up there . At 07 : 20 Bridges and his staff landed ; finding no senior officers on the beach to brief them , they set out to locate the 3rd Brigade headquarters .
The 1st Brigade was on the opposite flank to the 3rd Brigade and already getting involved in battles of its own , when its commander , Colonel Percy Owen , received a request from Maclagen for reinforcements . Owen sent two companies from the 3rd Battalion and one from the 1st Battalion ( Swannell 's ) to support the 3rd Brigade .
Soon after , Lalor 's company had been forced back to The Nek and the Turks were threatening to recapture Russell 's Top , and at 10 : 15 Maclagen reported to Bridges his doubts over being able to hold out . In response Bridges sent part of his reserve , two companies from the 2nd Battalion ( Gordon 's and Richardson 's ) , to reinforce the 3rd Brigade .
At 11 : 00 Swannell 's company arrived at the foot of Baby 700 , joining the seventy survivors of Robertson 's and Lalor 's companies . They immediately charged and chased the Turks back over the summit of Baby 700 , then stopped and dug in . The two 2nd Battalion companies arrived alongside them , but all the companies had taken casualties , among the dead being Swannell and Robertson .
By this time most of the 3rd Brigade men had been killed or wounded , and the line was held by the five depleted companies from the 1st Brigade . On the left , Gordon 's company 2nd Battalion , with the 11th and 12th Battalion 's survivors , charged five times and captured the summit of Baby 700 , but were driven back by Turkish counter @-@ attacks ; Gordon was among the casualties . For the second time Maclagen requested reinforcements for Baby 700 , but the only reserves Bridges had available were two 2nd Battalion companies and the 4th Battalion . It was now 10 : 45 and the advance companies of the 1st New Zealand Brigade were disembarking , so it was decided they would go to Baby 700 .
= = = Third wave = = =
The New Zealand Brigade commander had been taken ill , so Birdwood appointed Brigadier @-@ General Harold Walker , a staff officer already ashore , as commander . The Auckland Battalion had landed by 12 : 00 , and were being sent north along the beach to Walker 's Ridge on their way to Russell 's Top . Seeing that the only way along the ridge was in single file along a goat track , Walker ordered them to take the route over Plugge 's Plateau . As each New Zealand unit landed they were directed the same way to Baby 700 . However , in trying to avoid Turkish fire , they became split up in Monash Valley and Rest Gully , and it was after midday that two of the Auckland companies reached Baby 700 .
At 12 : 30 two companies of the Canterbury Battalion landed and were sent to support the Aucklands , who had now been ordered back to Plugge 's Plateau , and were forming on the left of the 3rd Brigade . The Canterbury companies moved into the line on the Aucklands ' left , waiting for the rest of their brigade to land . However , between 12 : 30 and 16 : 00 not one infantry or artillery formation came ashore . The ships carrying the New Zealanders were in the bay , but the steamers and rowing boats were being used to take the large numbers of wounded to the hospital ship . The transports with the 4th Australian Brigade on board were still well out at sea and not due to land until that evening . The landings recommenced around 16 : 30 when the Wellington Battalion came ashore , followed by the Otago Battalion around 17 : 00 , who were put into the line beside the Aucklanders . Next to land were the two other Canterbury companies , who were sent north to Walker 's Ridge to extend the corps left flank . Events ashore now forced a change in the disembarkation schedule , and at 17 : 50 orders were issued for the 4th Australian Brigade to start landing to boost the defence . It would take until the next day for the complete brigade to come ashore . The transports carrying both divisions ' artillery batteries had been forced further out to sea by Turkish artillery fire , and were unable to land .
= = = MacLaurin 's Hill = = =
MacLaurin 's Hill is a 1 @,@ 000 yard ( 910m ) long section of the Second Ridge that connects Baby 700 to 400 Plateau , with a steep slope on the ANZAC side down to Monash Valley . In the coming days Quinn 's , Steel 's and Courtney 's Posts would be built on the slope . The first ANZAC troops to reach the hill , from the 11th Battalion , found that the Turkish defenders had already withdrawn . As the Australians crested the hill they came under fire from Baby 700 , but to their front was a short , shallow slope into Mule Valley . When Major James Denton 's company of the 11th Battalion arrived at the hill they started digging in , and soon after received orders from MacLagen to hold the position at all costs . At 10 : 00 Turkish troops , advancing from Scrubby Knoll , got to within three hundred yards ( 270 m ) of the Australians on the hill , opening fire at them . Altogether there were two and a half companies from the 11th Battalion between Courtney 's Post , Steele 's Post , and Wire Gully . They had not been there long before the 3rd Battalion arrived to reinforce them .
= = 400 Plateau = =
The 400 Plateau , named for its height above sea level , was a wide and level plateau on the second ridge line , about six hundred by six hundred yards ( 550 by 550 m ) wide and around one thousand yards ( 910 m ) from Gun Ridge . The northern half of the plateau became known as Johnston 's Jolly , and the southern half as Lone Pine , with Owen 's Gully between them .
= = = 3rd Brigade = = =
If the landings had gone to plan , the 11th Battalion was supposed to be crossing the plateau heading north . The 10th Battalion , south of the plateau , was to capture a Turkish trench and artillery battery behind Gun Ridge . The 9th Battalion , furthest south , was to attack the artillery battery at Gaba Tepe , and the 12th Battalion was the reserve , with 26th Jacob 's Mountain Battery to establish their gun line on the plateau . Unknown to the ANZACs , the Turks had an artillery battery sited on 400 Plateau .
After landing , some of the 9th and 10th Battalion 's men headed for 400 Plateau . The first 10th Battalion platoon to arrive was commanded by Lieutenant Noel Loutit , and accompanied by the Brigade @-@ Major , Charles Brand . They discovered the Turkish battery in the Lone Pine sector , which was preparing to move . As the Australians opened fire the battery withdrew down Owen 's Gully . Brand remained on the plateau and ordered Loutit to continue after the Turkish battery . However , the guns had been hidden at the head of the gully and Loutit 's platoon moved beyond them . Around the same time , Lieutenant Eric Smith and his 10th Battalion scouts and Lieutenant G. Thomas with his platoon from the 9th Battalion arrived on the plateau , looking for the guns . As they crossed the plateau Turkish machine @-@ guns opened fire on them from the Lone Pine area . One of Thomas 's sections located the battery , which had started firing from the gully . They opened fire , charged the gun crews , and captured the guns . The Turks did manage to remove the breech blocks , making the guns inoperable , so the Australians damaged the sights and internal screw mechanisms to put them out of action . By now the majority of the 9th and 10th Battalions , along with brigade commander Maclagen , had arrived on the plateau , and he ordered them to dig in on the plateau instead of advancing to Gun Ridge . Unfortunately the units that had already passed beyond there were obeying their orders to " go as fast as you can , at all costs keep going " .
Loutit , Lieutenant J. Haig of the 10th , and thirty @-@ two men from the 9th , 10th , and 11th Battalions crossed Legge Valley and climbed a spur of Gun Ridge , just to the south of Scrubby Knoll . As they reached the top , about four hundred yards ( 370 m ) further inland was Gun Ridge , defended by a large number of Turkish troops . Loutit and two men carried out a reconnaissance of Scrubby Knoll , from the top of which they could see the Dardanelles , around three miles ( 4 @.@ 8 km ) to the east . When one of the men was wounded they returned to the rest of their group , which was being engaged by Turkish machine @-@ gun and rifle fire . Around 08 : 00 , Loutit sent a man back for reinforcements ; he located Captain J. Ryder of the 9th Battalion , with half a company of men at Lone Pine . Ryder had not received the order to dig in , so he advanced and formed a line on Loutit 's right . Soon after , they came under fire from Scrubby Knoll and were in danger of being cut off ; Ryder sent a message back for more reinforcements . The messenger located Captain John Peck , the 11th Battalion 's adjutant , who collected all the men around him and went forward to reinforce Ryder . It was now 09 : 30 and the men on the spur , outflanked by the Turks , had started to withdraw . At 10 : 00 the Turks set up a machine @-@ gun on the spur and opened fire on the withdrawing Australians . Pursued by the Turks , only eleven survivors , including Loutit and Haig , reached Johnston 's Jolly and took cover . Further back , two companies of the 9th and the 10th Battalions had started digging a trench line .
= = = 2nd Brigade = = =
As part of the second wave , the 2nd Brigade had been landing since 05 : 30 ; the 5th , 6th and 8th Battalions were supposed to cross 400 Plateau and head to Hill 971 , while the 7th Battalion on the left were to climb Plugge 's Plateau then make for Hill 971 . One 7th Battalion company , Jackson 's , landed beside the Fisherman 's Hut in the north and was almost wiped out ; only forty men survived the landing . At 06 : 00 Major Ivie Blezard 's 7th Battalion company , and part of another , were sent onto 400 Plateau by Maclagen to strengthen the defence . When the 7th Battalion commander Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Harold Elliott landed he realised events were not going to plan , and he headed to the 3rd Brigade headquarters to find out what was happening . Maclagen ordered him to gather his battalion at the south of the beachhead , as the 2nd Brigade would now form the division 's right flank , not left . When the 2nd Brigade commander Colonel James McCay arrived Maclagen convinced him to move his brigade to the south , swapping responsibility with the 3rd Brigade . Eventually agreeing , he established his headquarters on the seaward slope of 400 Plateau ( McCay 's Hill ) . Heading onto the plateau , McCay realised the ridge to his right , Bolton 's Ridge , would be a key point in their defence . He located the Brigade @-@ Major , Walter Cass , and ordered him to gather what men he could to defend the ridge . Looking around , he saw the 8th Battalion , commanded by Colonel William Bolton , moving forward , so Cass directed them to Bolton 's Ridge . As such , it was the only ANZAC battalion that remained together during the day . Eventually , around 07 : 00 , the rest of the brigade started arriving . As each company and battalion appeared they were pushed forward into the front line , but with no defined orders other than to support the 3rd Brigade . At 10 : 30 the six guns of the 26th Jacobs Mountain Battery arrived , positioning three guns each side of White 's Valley . At noon they opened fire on the Turks on Gun Ridge .
Within two hours half the Australian Division was involved in the battle of 400 Plateau . However , most of the officers had misunderstood their orders . Believing the intention was to occupy Gun Ridge and not hold their present position , they still tried to advance . The 9th and 10th Battalions had started forming a defence line , but there was a gap between them that the 7th Battalion was sent to fill . Seeing the 2nd Brigade coming forward , units of the 3rd Brigade started to advance to Gun Ridge . The advancing Australians did not then know that the counter @-@ attacking Turkish forces had reached the Scrubby Knoll area around 08 : 00 and were prepared for them . As the Australians reached the Lone Pine section of the plateau , Turkish machine @-@ guns and rifles opened fire , decimating the Australians . To the north other troops , advancing beyond Johnstone 's Jolly and Owen 's Gully , were caught by the same small arms fire . Soon afterwards a Turkish artillery battery also started firing at them . This was followed by a Turkish counter @-@ attack from Gun Ridge . Such was the situation they now found themselves in that at 15 : 30 McCay , now giving up all pretence of advancing to Gun Ridge , ordered his brigade to dig in from Owen 's Gully to Bolton 's Ridge .
= = = Pine Ridge = = =
Pine Ridge is part of the 400 Plateau , and stretches , in a curve towards the sea , for around one mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) . Beyond Pine Ridge is Legge Valley and Gun Ridge and , like the rest of the terrain , it was covered in a thick gorse scrub , but also had stunted pine trees around eleven feet ( 3 @.@ 4 m ) tall growing on it .
Several groups of men eventually made their way to Pine Ridge . Among the first was Lieutenant Eric Plant 's platoon from the 9th Battalion . Captain John Whitham 's company of the 12th Battalion moved forward from Bolton 's Ridge when they saw the 6th Battalion moving up behind them . As the 6th Battalion reached the ridge , the companies carried on towards Gun Ridge , while Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Walter McNicoll established the battalion headquarters below Bolton 's Ridge . As the 6th Battalion moved forward they were engaged by Turkish small arms and artillery fire , causing heavy casualties . At 10 : 00 brigade headquarters received a message from the 6th Battalion asking for reinforcement , and McCay sent half the 5th Battalion to assist . At the same time the 8th Battalion were digging in on Bolton 's , except for two companies which moved forward to attack a group of Turks that had come up from the south behind the 6th Battalion . By noon the 8th Battalion was dug in on the ridge ; in front of them were scattered remnants of the 5th , 6th , 7th , and 9th Battalions , mostly out of view of each other in the scrub . Shortly after , McCay was informed that if he wanted the 6th Battalion to hold its position , it must be reinforced . So McCay sent his last reserves , a company of the 1st Battalion , and ordered the 8th to leave one company on the ridge and advance on the right of the 6th Battalion . The scattered formations managed to hold their positions for the remainder of the afternoon , then at 17 : 00 saw large numbers of Turkish troops coming over the southern section of Gun Ridge .
= = Turkish counter @-@ attack = =
Around 10 : 00 Kemal and the 1st Battalion , 57th Infantry were the first to arrive in the area between Scrubby Knoll and Chunuk Bair . From the knoll Kemal was able to observe the landings . He ordered the artillery battery to set up on the knoll , and the 1st Battalion to attack Baby 700 and Mortar Ridge from the North @-@ East , while the 2nd Battalion would simultaneously circle around and attack Baby 700 from the West . The 3rd Battalion would for the moment be held in reserve . At 10 : 30 Kemal informed II Corps he was attacking .
At 11 : 30 Sefik told Kemal that the ANZACs had a beachhead of around 2 @,@ 200 yards ( 2 @,@ 000 m ) , and that he would attack towards Ari Burnu , in conjunction with the 19th Division . Around midday Kemal was appraised that the 9th Division was fully involved with the British landings at Cape Helles , and could not support his attack , so at 12 : 30 he ordered two battalions of the 77th Infantry Regiment ( the third battalion was guarding Suvla Bay ) to move forward between the 57th and 27th Infantry Regiments . At the same time he ordered his reserve 72nd Infantry Regiment to move further west . Within the next half @-@ hour the 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments started the counter @-@ attack , supported by three batteries of artillery . At 13 : 00 Kemal met with his corps commander Esat Pasha and convinced him of the need to react in strength to the ANZAC landings . Esat agreed and released the 72nd and 27th Infantry Regiments to Kemal 's command . Kemal deployed the four regiments from north to south ; 72nd , 57th , 27th and 77th . In total , Turkish strength opposing the landing numbered between ten thousand and twelve thousand men .
= = = North = = =
At 15 : 15 Lalor left the defence of The Nek to a platoon that had arrived as reinforcements , and moved his company to Baby 700 . There he joined a group from the 2nd Battalion , commanded by Lieutenant Leslie Morshead . Lalor was killed soon afterwards . The left flank of Baby 700 was now held by sixty men , the remnants of several units , commanded by a corporal . They had survived five charges by the Turks between 07 : 30 and 15 : 00 ; after the last charge the Australians were ordered to withdraw through The Nek . There , a company from the Canterbury Battalion had just arrived , with their commanding officer Lieutenant @-@ Colonel Douglas Stewart . By 16 : 00 the New Zealand companies had formed a defence line on Russell 's Top . On Baby 700 , there was on the left Morsehead 's and Lalor 's men , and at the top of Malone 's Gulley were the survivors of the 2nd Battalion and some men from the 3rd Brigade . On the right were the men left from the Auckland companies , and a mixed group from the 1st , 2nd , 11th and 12th Battalions . Once Stewart 's men were secure , he ordered Morsehead to withdraw . During a Turkish artillery bombardment of The Nek , Stewart was killed . The artillery heralded the start of a Turkish counter @-@ attack ; columns of troops appeared over the top of Battleship Hill and on the flanks and attacked the ANZAC lines .
At 16 : 30 the three battalions from the 72nd Infantry Regiment arrived and attacked from the north . At the same time the Australians and New Zealanders holding on at Baby 700 broke and ran back to an improvised line , from Walker 's Ridge in the north to Pope 's Hill in the south . The defence line at The Nek was now defended by nine New Zealanders , under the command of a sergeant ; they had three machine @-@ guns but the crews had all been killed or wounded . As the survivors arrived from Baby 700 their numbers rose to around sixty . Bridges in his divisional headquarters starting receiving messages from the front ; just after 17 : 00 Lieutenant @-@ Colonel George Braund on Walker 's Ridge advised he was holding his position and " if reinforced could advance " . At 17 : 37 Maclagen reported they were being " heavily attacked " , at 18 : 15 the 3rd Battalion signalled , " 3rd Brigade being driven back " . At 19 : 15 from Maclagen again " 4th Brigade urgently required " . Bridges sent two hundred stragglers , from several different battalions , to reinforce Braund and promised two extra battalions from the New Zealand and Australian Division which was now coming ashore .
Dusk was at 19 : 00 and the Turkish attack had now reached Malone 's Gulley and The Nek . The New Zealanders waited until the Turks came close , then opened fire in the darkness , stopping their advance . Seriously outnumbered , they asked for reinforcements . Instead , the supporting troops to their rear were withdrawn and the Turks managed to get behind them . So , taking the machine @-@ guns with them , they withdrew off Russell 's Top into Rest Gully . This left the defenders at Walker 's Ridge isolated from the rest of the force .
= = = South = = =
The Australians on 400 Plateau had for some time been subjected to sniping and artillery fire and could see Turkish troops digging in on Gun Ridge . Around 13 : 00 a column of Turkish reinforcements from the 27th Infantry Regiment , in at least battalion strength , were observed moving along the ridge @-@ line from the south . The Turks then turned towards 400 Plateau and advanced in extended order . The Turkish counter @-@ attack soon forced the advanced Australian troops to withdraw , and their machine @-@ gun fire caused them heavy casualties . It was not long before the attack had forced a wedge between the Australians on Baby 700 and those on 400 Plateau . The heavy Turkish fire onto Lone Pine forced the survivors to withdraw back to the western slope of 400 Plateau . At 14 : 25 Turkish artillery and small arms fire was so heavy that the Indian artillerymen were forced to push their guns back off the plateau by hand , and they reformed on the beach .
Although in places there was a mixture of different companies and platoons dug in together , the Australians were deployed with the 8th Battalion in the south still centred on Bolton 's Ridge . North of them , covering the southern sector of 400 Plateau , were the mixed together 6th and 7th Battalions , both now commanded by Colonel Walter McNicoll of the 6th . North of them was the 5th Battalion , and the 10th Battalion covered the northern sector of 400 Plateau at Johnston 's Jolly . But by now they were battalions in name only , having all taken heavy casualties ; the commanders had little accurate knowledge of where their men were located .
At 15 : 30 the two battalions of the Turkish 77th Infantry Regiment were in position , and with the 27th Infantry they counter @-@ attacked again . At 15 : 30 and at 16 : 45 McCay , now under severe pressure , requested reinforcements . The second time he was informed there was only one uninvolved battalion left , the 4th , and Bridges was keeping them in reserve until more troops from the New Zealand and Australian Division had been landed . McCay then spoke to Bridges direct and informed him the situation was desperate and if not reinforced the Turks would get behind him . At 17 : 00 Bridges released the 4th Battalion to McCay who sent them to the south forming on the left of the 8th Battalion along Bolton 's Ridge . They arrived just in time to help counter Turkish probing attacks , by the 27th Infantry Regiment , from the south .
At 17 : 20 McCay signalled Bridges that large numbers of unwounded men were leaving the battlefield and heading for the beaches . This was followed by Maclagan asking for urgent artillery fire support , onto Gun Ridge , as his left was under a heavy attack and at 18 : 16 Owen reported the left flank was " rapidly " being forced to retire . At dusk Maclagan made his way to Bridges headquarters and when asked for his opinion replied " It 's touch and go . If the Turks come on in mass formation ... I don 't think anything can stop them . " As it got dark the Turkish artillery ceased firing , and although small arms fire continued on both sides , the effects were limited when firing blind . Darkness also provided the opportunity to start digging more substantial trenches and to resupply the troops with water and ammunition .
The last significant action of the day was at 22 : 00 south of Lone Pine , when the Turks charged towards Bolton 's Ridge . By now the 8th Battalion had positioned two machine @-@ guns to cover their front , which caused devastation amongst the attackers , and to their left the 4th Battalion also became involved . When the Turks got to within fifty yards ( 46 m ) the 8th Battalion counter @-@ attacked in a bayonet charge and the Turks withdrew . The ANZAC defence was aided by Royal Navy searchlights providing illumination . Both sides now waited for the next attack , but the day 's events had shattered both formations and they were no longer in any condition to conduct offensive operations .
= = Aftermath = =
By nightfall , around sixteen thousand men had been landed , and the ANZACs had formed a beachhead , although with several undefended sections . It stretched along Bolton 's Ridge in the south , across 400 Plateau , to Monash Valley . After a short gap it resumed at Pope 's Hill , then at the top of Walker 's Ridge . It was not a large beachhead ; it was under two miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) in length , with a depth around 790 yards ( 720 m ) , and in places only a few yards separated the two sides . That evening Birdwood had been ashore to check on the situation , and , satisfied , returned to HMS Queen . Around 21 : 15 he was asked to return to the beachhead . There he met with his senior officers , who asked him to arrange an evacuation . Unwilling to make that decision on his own he signalled Hamilton ;
Both my divisional generals and brigadiers have represented to me that they fear their men are thoroughly demoralised by shrapnel fire to which they have been subjected all day after exhaustion and gallant work in morning . Numbers have dribbled back from the firing line and cannot be collected in this difficult country . Even New Zealand Brigade which has only recently been engaged lost heavily and is to some extent demoralised . If troops are subjected to shellfire again tomorrow morning there is likely to be a fiasco , as I have no fresh troops with which to replace those in firing line . I know my representation is most serious , but if we are to re @-@ embark it must be at once .
Hamilton conferred with his naval commanders , who convinced him an evacuation would be almost impossible , and responded ; " dig yourselves right in and stick it out ... dig , dig , dig until you are safe " . The survivors had to fight on alone until 28 April when four battalions of the Royal Naval Division were attached to the corps .
On the Turkish side , by that night the 2nd Battalion 57th Infantry were on Baby 700 , the 3rd Battalion , reduced to only ninety men , were at The Nek , and the 1st Battalion on Mortar Ridge . Just south of them was the 77th Infantry , next was the 27th Infantry opposite 400 Plateau . The last regiment , the 72nd Infantry , were on Battleship Hill . As for manpower , the Turks were in a similar situation to the ANZACs . Of the two regiments most heavily involved , the 57th had been destroyed , and the 27th were exhausted with heavy casualties . Large numbers of the 77th had deserted , and the regiment was in no condition to fight . The 72nd was largely intact , but they were a poorly trained force of Arab conscripts . The III Corps , having to deal with both landings , could not assist as they had no reserves available . It was not until 27 April that the 33rd and 64th Infantry Regiments arrived to reinforce the Turkish forces . The ANZACs , however , had been unable to achieve their obectives , and therefore dug in . Gallipoli , like the Western Front , turned into a war of attrition . The German commander , Liman von Saunders , was clear about the reasons for the outcome . He wrote that , " on the Turkish side the situation was saved by the immediate and independent action of the 19th Division . " The division commander , Kemal , became noted as " the most imaginative , most successful officer to fight on either side " during the campaign . As a commander he was able to get the most out of his troops , typified by his order to the 57th Infantry Regiment ; " Men , I am not ordering you to attack . I am ordering you to die . In the time that it takes us to die , other forces and commanders can come and take our place . "
In the following days there were several failed attacks and counter @-@ attacks by both sides . The Turks were the first to try during the Second attack on Anzac Cove on 27 April , followed by the ANZACs who tried to advance overnight 1 / 2 May . The Turkish Third attack on Anzac Cove on 19 May was the worst defeat of them all , with around ten thousand casualties , including three thousand dead . The next four months consisted of only local or diversionary attacks , until 6 August when the ANZACs , in connection with the Landing at Suvla Bay , attacked Chunuk Bair with only limited success . The Turks never succeeded in driving the Australians and New Zealanders back into the sea . Similarly , the ANZACs never broke out of their beachhead . Instead , in December 1915 , after eight months of fighting , they evacuated the peninsula .
= = = Casualties = = =
The full extent of casualties on that first day are not known . Birdwood , who did not come ashore until late in the day , estimated between three and four hundred dead on the beaches . The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage claims one in five of the three thousand New Zealanders involved became a casualty . The Australian War Memorial has 860 Australian dead between 25 – 30 April , and the Australian Government estimates 2 @,@ 000 wounded left Anzac Cove on 25 April , but more wounded were still waiting on the battlefields to be evacuated . The Commonwealth War Graves Commission documents that 754 Australian and 147 New Zealand soldiers died on 25 April 1915 . A higher than normal proportion of the ANZAC casualties were from the officer ranks . One theory was that they kept exposing themselves to fire , trying to find out where they were or to locate their troops . Four men were taken prisoner by the Turks .
It is estimated that the Turkish 27th and 57th Infantry Regiments lost around 2 @,@ 000 men , or fifty per cent of their combined strength . The full number of Turkish casualties for the day has not been recorded . During the campaign , 8 @,@ 708 Australians and 2 @,@ 721 New Zealanders were killed . The exact number of Turkish dead is not known but has been estimated around 87 @,@ 000 .
= = = Anzac Day = = =
The anniversary of the landings , 25 April , has since 1916 been recognised in Australia and New Zealand as Anzac Day , now one of their most important national occasions . It does not celebrate a military victory , but instead commemorates all the Australians and New Zealanders " who served and died in all wars , conflicts , and peacekeeping operations " and " the contribution and suffering of all those who have served . " Around the country , dawn services are held at war memorials to commemorate those involved . In Australia , at 10 : 15 , another service is held at the Australian War Memorial , which the prime minister and governor general normally attend . The first official dawn services were held in Australia in 1927 and in New Zealand in 1939 . Lower @-@ key services are also held in the United Kingdom and Ireland . In Turkey , large groups of Australians and New Zealanders have begun to gather at Anzac Cove , where in 2005 an estimated 20 @,@ 000 people attended the service to commemorate the landings . Attendance figures rose to 38 @,@ 000 in 2012 and 50 @,@ 000 in 2013 .
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= Michelle Rzepecki =
Michelle Rzepecki ( born 6 November 1986 ) is an Australian goalball player classified as a B3 competitor . She made her debut for the Australia women 's national goalball team at the 2011 African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She was selected to represent Australia at the 2012 Summer Paralympics in goalball .
= = Personal life = =
Rzepecki was born on 6 November 1986 in Wollstonecraft , New South Wales , and is 173 centimetres ( 68 in ) tall . She has the visual disability rod monochromatism , which she acquired at birth . She can play the saxophone and piano . Rzepecki is a third @-@ generation Australian , as her grandfather moved to Australia from Germany . While attending Castle Hill High School , she returned to the country of her grandfather 's birth to do study abroad that was funded by a scholarship from the Society for Australian @-@ German Student Exchange Inc . She also lived in Bolivia for a while , working at a school for children with visual impairments . While there , she introduced the children to goalball . Part of her work in the country was funded by a mini @-@ grant . As of 2012 , she works as a Sydney Tower Skywalk guide .
= = Goalball = =
Rzepecki is a goalball player , and for visual disability sports , is classified as a B3 competitor . She is a centre and winger . She has a goalball scholarship with the New South Wales Institute of Sport . Rzepecki started playing the sport in 2002 . She competed at the 2004 Australian National Goalball Championships , playing for the New South Wales goalball team which beat the Queensland goalball team in the finals . In 2011 , Rzepecki made her national team debut during the African @-@ Oceania regional Paralympic qualifying competition . She played in the game against the New Zealand women 's national goalball team that Australia won . As a member of the 2011 team , she finished sixth at the IBSA Goalball World Cup .
The Australian Paralympic Committee had chosen to work on her development as a goalball player with the idea that she might be able to qualify for , and win a medal at , the 2016 Summer Paralympics . She was a named a member of the Aussie Belles that was going to the 2012 Summer Paralympics , in what would be her debut Games . That the team qualifyied for the Games came as a surprise , as the Australian Paralympic Committee had been working on player development with an idea of the team qualifying for the 2016 Summer Paralympics . An Australian team had not participated since the 2000 Summer Paralympics , when they earned an automatic selection as hosts , and the team finished last in the competition . Going into the Paralympics , her team was ranked eighth in the world . In the 2012 Summer Paralympics tournament , the Belles played games against Japan , Canada , the United States and Sweden . They lost every game , and did not advance to the finals .
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= The Good Terrorist =
The Good Terrorist is a 1985 political novel by Doris Lessing . It was first published in September 1985 in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The story examines events in the life of Alice , a naïve and well @-@ intentioned squatter , who moves in with a group of radicals in London , and is drawn into their terrorist activities .
Lessing was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She had been a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , but later grew disillusioned with communism . Three reviewers labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . Some critics called the novel 's title an oxymoron , stating that it highlights Alice 's ambivalent nature , and that she is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary .
The Good Terrorist divided reviewers , with some being impressed by the book 's insight and characterization , and others complaining about the novel 's style and the character 's lack of depth . One critic complimented Lessing 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " , but another called the book 's text " surprisingly bland " , and described the characters as " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " . The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the Booker Prize , and won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award .
= = Plot summary = =
The Good Terrorist is written in third person from the point of view of Alice , an unemployed politics and economics graduate in her mid @-@ thirties who drifts from commune to commune . She considers herself a revolutionary , fighting against " fascist imperialism " , but is still dependent on her parents , whom she treats with contempt . In the early @-@ 1980s , Alice joins a squat of like @-@ minded " comrades " in a derelict house in London . Accompanying her is Jasper , a graduate she took in at a student commune she lived in fifteen years previously . Jasper became dependent on Alice and followed her from squat to squat . Alice fell in love with him , only to become frustrated later by his aloofness and bourgeoning homosexuality . Other members of the squat include Bert , their ineffective leader , and a lesbian couple , the maternal Roberta , and Faye , her unstable and fragile partner .
The abandoned house is in a state of disrepair and is earmarked by the City Council for demolition . To the indifference of the other comrades , Alice takes it upon herself to clean up and renovate the house , and convinces the Council that it is worth saving . She also persuades the authorities to restore the electricity and water supplies . Alice becomes the house 's " mother " , cooking for everyone , and dealing with the local police , who are trying to evict them . The members of the squat belong to the Communist Centre Union ( CCU ) , and attend demonstrations and pickets . Alice involves herself in some of these activities , but spends most of her time working on the house .
To be more useful to the struggle , Jasper and Bert travel to Ireland to persuade the Irish Republican Army ( IRA ) to let the CCU join them , but they are rejected . They also take a trip to the Soviet Union to offer their services , but are turned down . The IRA and KGB , however , have begun taking notice of them and start using the house as a conduit for propaganda material and guns . Packages start arriving in the middle of the night , and Alice , to avoid attracting the attention of the police , raises objections . This results in visits to the house by strangers who question the squat 's decision making . After this , the comrades decide to ignore orders , to act on their own , and to consider themselves " Freeborn British Communists " .
Going it alone now , they start experimenting with explosives , and build a car bomb . Alice does not fully support this action , but accepts the majority decision . They target an upmarket hotel in Knightsbridge , but their inexperience results in the premature detonation of the bomb , which kills Faye and several passers @-@ by . The remaining comrades , shaken by what they have done , decide to leave the squat and go their own way . Alice , disillusioned by Jasper , chooses not to follow him and remains behind because she cannot bear to abandon the house she has put so much effort into . Despite her initial reservations about the bombing , Alice feels a need to justify their actions to others , but realises it would be fruitless because " [ o ] rdinary people simply didn 't understand " . She acknowledges that she is a terrorist now , though she cannot remember when the change happened .
= = Background = =
Doris Lessing 's interest in politics began in the 1940s while she was living in Southern Rhodesia ( now Zimbabwe ) . She was attracted to a group of " quasi @-@ Communist [ s ] " and joined their Left Book Club in Salisbury ( now Harare ) . Later , prompted by the conflicts arising from racial segregation prominent in Rhodesia at the time , she also joined the Southern Rhodesian Labour Party . Lessing moved to London in 1949 and began her writing career there . She became a member of the British Communist Party in the early 1950s , and was an active campaigner against the use of nuclear weapons .
By 1964 , Lessing had published six novels , but grew disillusioned with Communism and , after reading The Sufis by Idries Shah , turned her attention to Sufism , an Islamic belief system . This prompted her to write her five @-@ volume " space fiction " series , Canopus in Argos : Archives , which drew on Sufi concepts . The series was not well received by some of her readers , who felt she had abandoned her " rational worldview " .
The Good Terrorist was Lessing 's first book to be published after the Canopus in Argos series , which prompted several retorts from reviewers , including , " Lessing has returned to Earth " , and " Lessing returns to reality " . Several commentators have labelled The Good Terrorist as a satire , while Lessing called it humorous . She said :
[ I ] t 's not a book with a political statement . It 's ... about a certain kind of political person , a kind of self @-@ styled revolutionary that can only be produced by affluent societies . There 's a great deal of playacting that I don 't think you 'd find in extreme left revolutionaries in societies where they have an immediate challenge .
Lessing said she was inspired to write The Good Terrorist by the IRA bombing of the Harrods department store in London in 1983 . She recalled , " the media reported it to sound as if it was the work of amateurs . I started to think , what kind of amateurs could they be ? " and realised " how easy it would be for a kid , not really knowing what he or she was doing , to drift into a terrorist group . " Lessing already had Alice in mind as the central character : " I know several people like Alice — this mixture of ... maternal caring , ... and who can contemplate killing large numbers of people without a moment 's bother . " She described Alice as " quietly comic [ al ] " because she is so full of contradictions . She said she was surprised how some of the characters ( other than Jasper , Alice 's love interest ) developed , such as the pill @-@ popping and fragile Faye , who turned out to be a " destroyed person " .
= = Genre = =
The Good Terrorist has been labelled a " political novel " by the publishers and some reviewers , including Alison Lurie in The New York Review of Books . Lurie stated that as political fiction , it is " one of the best novels ... about the terrorist mentality " since Joseph Conrad 's The Secret Agent ( 1907 ) , although this was questioned by William H. Pritchard in The Hudson Review , who wrote that compared to Conrad , The Good Terrorist is " shapeless " . Several commentators have pointed out that it is more a novel about politics than political fiction . In From the Margins of Empire : Christina Stead , Doris Lessing , Nadine Gordimer , Louise Yelin called the work a novel about politics , rather than a political novel per se .
The Good Terrorist has also been called a satire . In her book Doris Lessing : The Poetics of Change , Gayle Greene called it a " satire of a group of revolutionaries " , and Susan Watkins , writing in Doris Lessing : Border Crossings , described it as a " dry and satirical examination of a woman 's involvement with a left @-@ wing splinter group " . A biography of Lessing for the Swedish Academy on the occasion of her winning the 2007 Nobel Prize in Literature described the book as " a satirical picture of the need of the contemporary left for total control and the female protagonist 's misdirected martyrdom and subjugation " . Yelin said the novel " oscillat [ ed ] between satire and nostalgia " . Academic Robert E. Kuehn felt that it is not satire at all . He stated while the book could have been a " satire of the blackest and most hilarious kind " , in his opinion Lessing " has no sense of humor , and instead of lashing [ the characters ] with the satirist 's whip , she treats them with unremitting and belittling irony " .
Virginia Scott called the novel a fantasy . Drawing on Lewis Carroll 's Alice 's Adventures in Wonderland in The International Fiction Review , she wrote that " [ Lessing 's ] Alice with her group of political revolutionaries can be seen as a serious fantasy which has striking parallels to ... Carroll 's Alice " . Both Alices enter a house and are confronted by seemingly impossible challenges : Carroll 's Alice has to navigate passages too small to fit through , while Lessing 's Alice finds herself in a barely inhabitable house that is earmarked for demolition . Both Alices are able to change their appearances : in Wonderland , Alice adjusts her size to suit her needs ; in The Good Terrorist , Alice changes her demeanour to get what she wants from others . Scott noted that at one point in The Good Terrorist , Faye refers to Alice as " Alice the Wonder , the wondrous Alice " , alluding to Carroll 's Alice .
= = Themes = =
The American novelist Judith Freeman wrote that one of the common themes in The Good Terrorist is that of keeping one 's identity in a collective , of preserving " individual conscience " . This theme suggests that problems occur when we are coerced into conforming . Freeman said that Alice is a " quintessential good woman ... the little Hausefrau revolutionary " , but turns bad under peer pressure .
Another theme present is the symbolic nature of the house . Margaret Scanlan stated that as in books like Mansfield Park and Jane Eyre , The Good Terrorist " defines a woman in terms of her house " . Writing in the journal Studies in the Novel , Katherine Fishburn said that Lessing often uses a house to symbolise " psychological or ontological change " , and that here , " the house ... symbolizes Alice 's function in the story " . Yelin described The Good Terrorist as " an urban , dystopian updating of the house @-@ as @-@ England genre , [ where ] ... England is represented by a house in London " . Writing in " Politics of Feminine Abuse : Political Oppression and Masculine Obstinacy in Doris Lessing 's The Good Terrorist " , Lalbakhsh and Yahya suggest that the house , and the " oppressive relations " in it , reflect the similarly oppressive relationships in the society it resides in .
Several critics have focused on the theme of motherhood . In " Mothers and Daughters / Aging and Dying " , Claire Sprague wrote that Lessing often dwells on the theme of mothers passing their behaviours onto their daughters , and how the cycle of daughters fighting their mothers permeates each generation . The British novelist Jane Rogers said that The Good Terrorist " is as unsparing and incisive about motherhood as it is about the extreme left " . She stated that motherhood here " is terrible " : Alice 's mother is reduced to despair continually yielding to her selfish daughter 's demands ; Alice mothers Jasper , and has a similar despairing relationship with him . Rogers added that motherhood is depicted here as a compulsion to protect the weak , despite their propensity to retaliate and hurt you .
Feminist themes and the subjugation of women have also been associated with The Good Terrorist . Scanlan indicated that while many of the comrades in the book are women , they find that political activity does not elevate their position , and that they are " trapped in the patriarchy they despise " . Yelin suggested that although Lessing ridicules the male members of the CCU and their role playing , she is also critical of the female members " who collude in male @-@ dominant political organizations and thus in their own oppression " . But with the book 's allusions to Jasper 's homosexuality , Yelin added that Lessing 's " critique of women 's infatuation with patriarchal misogyny and their emotional dependence on misogynist men " is muted by homophobia and the " misogyny pervasive in patriarchal constructions of ( male ) heterosexuality " . Lalbakhsh and Yahya noted that Lessing depicts Alice as a " typical housewife " who cares for her family , in this case , the squat , but is " ignored and neglected " . They concluded that Alice 's fate is sealed because , according to the British socialist feminist Juliet Mitchell , women are " fundamental to the human condition " , yet " their economic , social , and political roles ... are marginal " .
= = Critical analysis = =
Several critics have called The Good Terrorist 's title an oxymoron . Robert Boschman suggested it is indicative of Alice 's " contradictory personality " , that she renovates the squat 's house , yet is bent on destroying society . In The Hudson Review , George Kearns wrote that the title " hovers above the novel with ... irony " . The reader assumes that Alice is the " good terrorist " , but that while she may be a good person , she is " rotten at being a terrorist " . Writing in World Literature Today , Mona Knapp concluded that Lessing 's heroine , the " good terrorist " , is neither a good person , nor a good revolutionary . She knows how to renovate houses and manipulate people to her advantage , but she is unemployed and steals money from her parents . When real revolutionaries start using the squat to ship arms , she panics , and going behind her comrades ' backs , she makes a telephone call to the authorities to warn them . Knapp called Alice " a bad terrorist and a stunted human being " . Fishburn suggested that it is Lessing herself who is the " good terrorist " , symbolised here by Alice , but that hers is " political terrorism of a literary kind " , where she frequently disguises her ideas in " very domestic @-@ looking fiction " , and " direct [ ly ] challenge [ s ] ... our sense of reality " .
Kuehn described Alice as " well @-@ intentioned , canny and sometimes lovable " , but as someone who , at 36 , never grew up , and is still dependent on her parents . Yelin said Alice is " in a state of perpetual adolescence " , and her need to " mother everyone " is " an extreme case of psychological regression or failure to thrive " . Greene wrote that Alice 's " humanitarianism is ludicrous in her world " , and described her as " so furiously at odds with herself " because she is too immature to comprehend what is happening and her actions vary from being helpful to dangerous .
Boschman called Lessing 's narrative " ironic " because it highlights the divide between who Alice is and who she thinks she is , and her efforts to pretend there is no discrepancy . Alice refuses to acknowledge that her " maternal activities " stem from her desire to win her mother 's approval , and believing that her mother has " betrayed and abandoned " her , Alice turns to Jasper as a way to " continue to sustain her beliefs about herself and the world " . Even though Jasper takes advantage of her adoration of him by mistreating her , Alice still clings to him because her self @-@ image " vigorously qualifies her perception of [ him ] , and thus proliferates the denial and self @-@ deception " . The fact that Jasper has turned to homosexuality , which Alice dismisses as " his emotional life " , " suits her own repressed desires " . Kuehn called Alice 's obsession with the " hapless " and " repellent " Jasper " just comprehensible " , adding that she feels safe with his gayness , even though she has to endure his abuse .
Knapp stated that while Lessing exposes self @-@ styled insurrectionists as " spoiled and immature products of the middle class " , she also derides their ineptness at affecting any meaningful change . Lessing is critical of the state which " feeds the very hand that terrorizes it " , yet she also condemns those institutions that exploits the working class and ignores the homeless . Knapp remarks that Lessing does not resolve these ambiguities , but instead highlights the failings of the state and those seeking to overthrow it . Scanlan compared Lessing 's comrades to Richard E. Rubenstein 's terrorists in his book Alchemists of Revolution : Terrorism in the Modern World . Rubenstein wrote that when " ambitious idealists " have no " creative ruling class to follow or a rebellious lower class to lead [ they ] have often taken upon themselves the burden of representative action " , which he said " is a formula for disaster " .
= = Reception = =
Critics have been divided on The Good Terrorist . Elizabeth Lowry highlighted this in the London Review of Books : " [ Lessing ] has been sharply criticised for the pedestrian quality of her prose , and as vigorously defended " . The Irish literary critic Denis Donoghue complained that the style of the novel is " insistently drab " , and Kuehn referred to Lessing 's text as " surprisingly bland " . Lowry noted that the English academic Clare Hanson defended the book by saying that it is " a grey and textureless novel because it ... speaks a grey and textureless language " .
Freeman on the other hand called the book a " graceful and accomplished story " , and a " brilliant account of the types of individuals who commit terrorist acts " . Writing in the Los Angeles Times Freeman described Lessing as " one of our most valuable writers " who " has an uncanny grasp of human relationships " . In a review in the Sun @-@ Sentinel , Bonnie Gross described the novel as " rewarding reading " and Lessing 's " most accessible " book to date . She said it is the author 's " strong descriptive prose and her precise and realistic characterizations " that makes this book " remarkable " . Gross felt that while some of the male characters are not that strong , the female characters are much better developed , particularly Alice , whom she found memorable .
Amanda Sebestyen wrote in The Women 's Review of Books that at first glance the ideas in The Good Terrorist appear deceptively simple , and the plot predictable . But she added that Lessing 's strength is her " stoic narrat [ ion ] of the daily effort of living " , which excels in the way she describes day @-@ to @-@ day life in a squat . Sebestyen also liked the book 's depiction of Alice , who " speak [ s ] to me most disquietingly about myself and my generation " . In a review in off our backs , an American feminist publication , Vickie Leonard called The Good Terrorist a " fascinating book " that is " extremely well written " with characters that are " exciting " and " realistic " . Leonard added that even though Alice is not a feminist , the book illustrates the author 's " strong admiration for women and their accomplishments " .
Writing in The Guardian , Rogers described The Good Terrorist as " a novel in unsparing close @-@ up " that examines society through the eyes of individuals . She said it is " witty and ... angry at human stupidity and destructiveness " , and within the context of recent terrorist attacks in London , it is an example of " fiction going where factual writing cannot " . A critic in Kirkus Reviews wrote that Alice 's story is " an extraordinary tour de force — a psychological portrait that 's realistic with a vengeance " . The reviewer added that although Alice is " self @-@ deluding " and not always likeable , the novel 's strength are the characters and its depiction of political motivation .
Donoghue wrote in The New York Times that he did not care much about what happened to Alice and her comrades . He felt that Lessing presents Alice as " an unquestioned rigmarole of reactions and prejudices " , which leaves no room for any further interest . Donoghue complained that Lessing has not made up her mind on whether her characters are " the salt of the earth or its scum " . In a review in the Chicago Tribune , Kuehn felt that the work has little impact and is not memorable . He said Lessing 's real interest is character development , but complained that the characters are " trivial or two @-@ dimensional or crippled by self @-@ delusions " .
The Good Terrorist was shortlisted for the 1985 Booker Prize , and in 1986 won the Mondello Prize and the WH Smith Literary Award . In 2007 Lessing was awarded the Nobel Prize in Literature for being " part of both the history of literature and living literature " . In the award ceremony speech by Swedish writer Per Wästberg , The Good Terrorist was cited as " an in @-@ depth account of the extreme leftwing squatting culture that sponges off female self @-@ sacrifice " . Following Lessing 's death in 2013 , The Guardian put The Good Terrorist in their list of the top five Lessing books . Indian writer Neel Mukherjee included the novel in his 2015 " top 10 books about revolutionaries " , also published in The Guardian .
= = Publication history = =
The Good Terrorist was first published in September 1985 in hardcover in the United Kingdom by Jonathan Cape , and in the United States by Alfred A. Knopf . The first paperback edition was published in the United Kingdom in September 1986 by Grafton . An unabridged 13 @-@ hour audio cassette edition , narrated by Nadia May , was released in the United States in April 1999 by Blackstone Audio . The novel has been translated into several other languages since its first publication in English in 1985 , including Catalan , Chinese , French , German , Italian , Spanish and Swedish .
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= Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster =
Henry of Grosmont , 1st Duke of Lancaster , 4th Earl of Leicester and Lancaster , KG ( c . 1310 – 23 March 1361 ) , also Earl of Derby , was a member of the English nobility in the 14th century , and a prominent English diplomat , politician , and soldier . The son and heir of Henry , 3rd Earl of Lancaster , and Maud Chaworth , he became one of Edward III 's most trusted captains in the early phases of the Hundred Years ' War and distinguished himself with victory in the Battle of Auberoche . He was a founding member and the second Knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 , and in 1351 was created duke . Grosmont was also the author of the book Livre de seyntz medicines , a highly personal devotional treatise . He is remembered as one of the founders and early patrons of Corpus Christi College , Cambridge , which was established by two of the guilds of the town in 1352 .
= = Family background and early life = =
Grosmont 's uncle , Thomas of Lancaster , was the son and heir of Edward I 's brother Edmund Crouchback . Through his inheritance and a fortunate marriage , Thomas became the wealthiest peer in England , but constant quarrels with King Edward II led to his execution in 1322 . Having no heir , Thomas 's possessions and titles went to his younger brother Henry – Grosmont 's father . Earl Henry of Lancaster assented to the deposition of Edward II in 1327 , but did not long stay in favour with the regency of Queen Isabella and Roger Mortimer . When Edward III took personal control of the government in 1330 , relations with the Crown improved , but by this time the older Henry was already struggling with poor health and blindness .
Little is known of Grosmont 's early years , but that he was born at Grosmont Castle in Grosmont , Monmouthshire , Wales , and that he was born c . 1310 , not around the turn of the century as previously held . According to his own memoirs , he was better at martial arts than at academic subjects , and did not learn to read until later in life . In 1330 he was knighted , and represented his father in parliament . The next year he is recorded as participating in a royal tournament at Cheapside .
In 1333 he took part in Edward 's Scottish campaign , though it is unclear whether he was present at the great English victory at the Battle of Halidon Hill . After further service in the north , he was appointed the King 's lieutenant in Scotland in 1336 . The next year he was one of the six men Edward III promoted to the higher levels of the peerage . One of his father 's lesser titles , that of Earl of Derby , was bestowed upon Grosmont .
= = Service in France = =
With the outbreak of the Hundred Years ' War in 1337 , Grosmont 's attention was turned towards France . He took part in several diplomatic missions and minor campaigns and was present at the great English victory in the naval Battle of Sluys in 1340 . Later the same year , he was required to commit himself as hostage in the Low Countries for the king 's considerable debts . He remained hostage until the next year and had to pay a large ransom for his own release . On his return he was made the king 's lieutenant in the north and stayed at Roxburgh until 1342 . The next years he spent in diplomatic negotiations in the Low Countries , Castile and Avignon .
In 1345 Edward III was planning a major assault on France . A three @-@ pronged attack would have the Earl of Northampton attacking from Brittany , the king himself from Flanders , while Grosmont was dispatched to Aquitaine to prepare a campaign in the south . Moving rapidly through the country , he confronted the Comte d ’ Isle at Auberoche on 21 October and there achieved a victory described as " the greatest single achievement of Lancaster 's entire military career " . The ransom from the prisoners has been estimated at £ 50 @,@ 000 . The next year , while Edward was carrying out his Crécy campaign , Grosmont laid siege to , and captured , Poitiers , before returning home to England in 1347 .
= = Duke of Lancaster = =
In 1345 , while Grosmont was in France , his father died . The younger Henry was now Earl of Lancaster – the wealthiest and most powerful peer of the realm . After participating in the Siege of Calais in 1347 , the king honoured Lancaster by including him as a founding knight of the Order of the Garter in 1348 . A few years later , in 1351 , Edward bestowed an even greater honour on Lancaster when he created him Duke of Lancaster . The title of duke was of relatively new origin in England ; only one other ducal title existed previously .
In addition to this , Lancaster was given palatinate status for the county of Lancashire , which entailed a separate administration independent of the crown . This grant was quite exceptional in English history ; only two other counties palatine existed : Durham , which was an ancient ecclesiastical palatinate , and Chester , which was crown property .
It is a sign of Edward 's high regard for Lancaster that he would bestow such extensive privileges on him . The two men were second cousins through their great @-@ grandfather Henry III and practically coeval ( Edward was born in 1312 ) , so it is natural to assume that a strong sense of camaraderie existed between them . Another factor that might have influenced the king 's decision was the fact that Henry had no male heir , so the grant was made for the Earl 's lifetime only , and not intended to be hereditary .
= = = Further prestige = = =
Lancaster spent the 1350s intermittently campaigning and negotiating peace treaties with the French . In 1350 he was present at the naval victory at Winchelsea , where he allegedly saved the lives of the Black Prince and John of Gaunt . The years 1351 @-@ 2 he spent on crusade in Prussia . It was here that a quarrel with Otto , Duke of Brunswick , almost led to a duel between the two men , narrowly averted by the intervention of the French king , John II . In the later half of the decade campaigning in France resumed . After a chevauchée in Normandy in 1356 and the siege of Rennes in 1358 , Lancaster participated in the last great offensive of the first phase of the Hundred Years ' War : the Rheims campaign of 1359 @-@ 60 . Then he was appointed principal negotiator for the Treaty of Brétigny , where the English achieved very favourable terms .
After returning to England in November 1360 , he fell ill early the next year , and died at Leicester Castle on 23 March . It is likely that the cause of death was the plague , which that year was making a second visitation of England . He was buried in the Church of the Annunciation of Our Lady of the Newarke , Leicester , the church which he had built within the religious and charitable institution founded by his father next to Leicester Castle , and where he had re @-@ buried his father some years previously .
= = Private life = =
Lancaster was married to Isabella , daughter of Henry , Lord Beaumont , in 1330 . The two had no sons , but two daughters : Maud and Blanche . While Maud was married to William I , Duke of Bavaria , Blanche married Edward III 's son John of Gaunt . Gaunt ended up inheriting Lancaster 's possessions and ducal title , but it was not until 1377 , when the dying King Edward III was largely incapacitated , that he was able to restore the palatinate rights for the county of Lancaster . When Gaunt 's son Henry of Bolingbroke usurped the crown in 1399 and became Henry IV , the vast Lancaster inheritance , including the Lordship of Bowland , was merged with the crown as the Duchy of Lancaster .
We know more about Lancaster 's character than of most of his contemporaries through his memoirs , the Livre de seyntz medicines ( Book of the Holy Doctors ) . This book is a highly personal treatise on matters of religion and piety , but it also contains details of historical interest . It , among other things , revealed that Lancaster , at the age of 44 when he wrote the book in 1354 , suffered from gout . The book is primarily a devotional work though ; it is organized around seven wounds which Henry claims to have , representing the seven sins . Lancaster confesses to his sins , explains various real and mythical medical remedies in terms of their theological symbolism , and exhorts the reader to greater morality .
= = Ancestors = =
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= I Am Unicorn =
" I Am Unicorn " is the second episode of the third season of the American musical television series Glee , and the forty @-@ sixth overall . The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and first aired on September 27 , 2011 on Fox in the United States . It features the return of Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) to the show to direct a rival glee club at William McKinley High even while New Directions , the current club , is having trouble recruiting members . Shelby also wants Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck ( Mark Salling ) , the biological parents of her adopted daughter Beth , to be a part of Beth 's life . The director of New Directions , Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) sets up a " booty camp " for the less capable dancers in the club , and auditions for the school musical , West Side Story , begin .
The episode received mostly positive reviews , which ranged from okay to fabulous , with approval being given to the resurrection of neglected storylines from the show 's first season . One of these was the adoption of Beth , and critics were especially happy with the scene where Puck meets her , but there was widespread disdain for the explanation behind Shelby 's return , that of starting a rival glee club . There were only three musical numbers in the episode , though all three were given positive notices , with the overall favorite being Blaine 's performance of " Something 's Coming " from West Side Story at the end of the episode . All three songs were released as singles , available for download , and " Somewhere " , sung as a duet by Menzel and Lea Michele , charted on the Billboard Hot 100 . It did not chart on the Canadian Hot 100 . Upon its initial airing , this episode was viewed by 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers and garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic . The total viewership and ratings for this episode were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " .
= = Plot = =
Glee club director Will Schuester ( Matthew Morrison ) institutes a " booty camp " to hone the dancing skills of New Directions members Finn ( Cory Monteith ) , Mercedes ( Amber Riley ) , Puck ( Mark Salling ) , Kurt ( Chris Colfer ) and Blaine ( Darren Criss ) , and has Mike ( Harry Shum Jr . ) instruct them . As he is too busy to direct the upcoming school musical West Side Story , guidance counselor Emma Pillsbury ( Jayma Mays ) , football coach Shannon Beiste ( Dot @-@ Marie Jones ) and New Directions member Artie Abrams ( Kevin McHale ) take charge of it .
Rachel ( Lea Michele ) and Kurt audition , respectively , for the lead roles of Maria and Tony ; she performs " Somewhere " from the show , and he performs " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl . Kurt later eavesdrops on the directors and hears them question whether he is masculine enough for the role . He re @-@ auditions and attempts to give a more masculine performance , but they are unable to suppress laughter at his acting . Kurt is also running for class president , and accepts campaign help from Brittany ( Heather Morris ) , who wants to highlight his unique character by comparing him to a unicorn . Kurt feels her proposed campaign materials highlight only his gay side , and is upset when she goes against his wishes and posts them anyway . He discusses his image problem with his father , Burt ( Mike O 'Malley ) , who recommends that he embrace his uniqueness . Kurt later changes his mind about his campaign 's approach and apologizes to Brittany , but is surprised to learn that she too has decided to run for class president .
Shelby Corcoran ( Idina Menzel ) — Rachel 's biological mother , the adoptive mother of Quinn ( Dianna Agron ) and Puck 's daughter Beth , and the former coach of rival glee club Vocal Adrenaline — is headhunted to coach a second glee club at McKinley High financed by Sugar Motta 's ( Vanessa Lengies ) wealthy and doting father . Shelby reaches out to Rachel , Puck and Quinn . She lets Puck see Beth , but rejects Quinn 's desire to do likewise due to Quinn 's bad @-@ girl attitude , appearance and behavior . Cheerleading coach Sue Sylvester ( Jane Lynch ) , who is running for Congress , convinces Quinn to feature in an anti @-@ arts video for her campaign . In it , Quinn confronts Will and blames him for her transformation into a bad girl , but Will reprimands her , reminds her of how the glee club and its members have always supported her in the past and tells her to grow up . After seeing a picture of a happy Beth and Puck , Quinn breaks down . She resumes her normal appearance , and Will and the New Directions welcome her back into the club . Puck tells Quinn he is proud of her , but Quinn reveals she is only pretending to behave in order to take Beth back from Shelby , and intends to pursue full custody .
To avoid competing with Kurt , Blaine auditions for a supporting role with a rendition of " Something 's Coming " , one of Tony 's songs from the show . The directors are impressed , and ask if he will read for the part of Tony instead . Kurt , who was watching from above , silently walks out of the auditorium .
= = Production = =
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy , directed by series co @-@ creator Brad Falchuk , and was filmed in five days , from August 22 , 2011 through August 26 , 2011 . Broadway star Idina Menzel returns for the first time since the first season finale " Journey to Regionals " , when her character , Shelby Corcoran , adopted Quinn 's newborn baby , named Beth . On July 15 , 2011 , it was announced that Menzel would be returning to Glee in the third season " for a major arc that could span as many as 10 @-@ 12 episodes " . Series co @-@ creator Ryan Murphy was quoted as saying , " I 'm really excited [ ... ] that Idina is joining the family again . We missed her last year and we 're happy that she is coming back . " The article also noted that her character , Shelby , would be " returning from New York to Ohio to join William McKinley High School as a new teacher " . Menzel herself said that she would " be back and forth in Glee all throughout the season " , which she was " very excited about " . Shelby 's adopted daughter is also appearing : Menzel tweeted that she was " shooting scenes with babies " . The drawing of the " Clown Pig " that Puck brings for Beth was actually drawn by Falchuk and Agron .
Recurring guest stars appearing in the episode include Principal Figgins ( Iqbal Theba ) , Coach Beiste ( Jones ) , cheerleader Becky Jackson ( Lauren Potter ) , student Sugar Motta ( Lengies ) and Menzel as Shelby . Second season series regular Mike O 'Malley , who plays Burt Hummel and also appears in the episode , is listed in the Fox press release as a guest star for this episode and receives a like credit in the episode itself .
Three singles were released from the episode : " I 'm the Greatest Star " from Funny Girl sung by Colfer , and covers of " Something 's Coming " and " Somewhere " from West Side Story — the former sung by Criss , and the latter a duet between Michele and Menzel .
= = Reception = =
= = = Ratings = = =
" I Am Unicorn " was first broadcast on September 27 , 2011 in the United States on Fox . It garnered a 3 @.@ 7 / 10 Nielsen rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and received 8 @.@ 60 million American viewers during its initial airing . It was beaten for the second week in a row in its timeslot by NCIS on CBS , which earned a 4 @.@ 2 / 12 rating / share in the 18 – 49 demographic , and also by the second episode of New Girl , which follows Glee on Fox , and brought in a 4 @.@ 5 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 28 million viewers . The Glee numbers were down from the previous week 's season opener , " The Purple Piano Project " , which netted a 4 @.@ 0 / 11 rating / share and 9 @.@ 21 million viewers .
In the United Kingdom , " I Am Unicorn " was watched on Sky1 by 995 @,@ 000 viewers , down 177 @,@ 000 from the season premiere the previous week . In Australia , the episode drew 729 @,@ 000 viewers , which made Glee the fifteenth most @-@ watched program of the night , down from the season premiere 's twelfth most @-@ watched program of the night and 760 @,@ 000 viewers in the previous week . In Canada , 1 @.@ 50 million viewers watched the episode , and it was the eighteenth most @-@ viewed show of the week , down eight slots and 28 % from the 2 @.@ 10 million who watched " The Purple Piano Project " .
= = = Critical reception = = =
Reviewers generally received this episode positively , though some , like IGN 's Robert Canning , thought it was merely " okay " ; he gave it a score of 6 @.@ 5 out of 10 , and Amy Reiter of the Los Angeles Times said she " felt vaguely underwhelmed " and that the episode " lacked emotional resonance " . In contrast , The A.V. Club 's Todd VanDerWerff gave the episode a " B " , and called it " a marked improvement over the season premiere " , and complimented the way it " gave nearly all of the storylines an emotional core " . Anthony Benigno of The Faster Times characterized it as " one of the tightest , best @-@ made , most well @-@ acted , and entertaining hours " from Glee in a very long time , and BuddyTV 's John Kubicek said that it was " quintessential Glee " and that " the show is once again a magical , fabulous unicorn . " Bobby Hankinson of the Houston Chronicle was " charmed " , " moved " , and " excited for what 's to come . "
The reappearance of storylines left dangling at the end of the first season was noted with approval by Samantha Urban of The Dallas Morning News and VanDerWerff , who both mentioned not only the big one about Quinn and Puck and baby Beth but also Artie 's love of directing , and variously added Rachel and Shelby , and movement on the Will and Emma relationship . The fact that Shelby had been hired to form a second glee club at McKinley , however , was greeted with derision by both reviewers — Urban called it " mind @-@ bogglingly idiotic " — and others as well . Reiter found the idea incomprehensible , and Vanity Fair 's Brett Berk wrote , " Given Will 's ongoing struggles to fill his own crooning baker 's dozen , this is about as realistic a plan as Michele Bachmann starting a rival chapter of PFLAG at Liberty University . " Vicki Hyman of The Star @-@ Ledger characterized the notion of " Shelby deciding to give up a burgeoning Broadway career because she was missing her daughter grow up " to take a part @-@ time job in Lima as " ridiculous " , and the whole scenario as " more than a little bizarre " .
The effect of Shelby 's advent on Puck evoked the most praise . Benigno called the segment where Puck meets Beth " the best scene of this very young season " , The Hollywood Reporter 's Lesley Goldberg said it was a " top moment " , and Abby West of Entertainment Weekly dubbed it " the sweetest scene of the night " . VanDerWerff also called it " very sweet " and expressed hope that " the show will come up with something for him to do after mostly relegating him to weird comic relief last season . " The effect of her return on Quinn was greeted with less enthusiasm . Reiter was " not thrilled " by the possibility of a custody battle between Quinn and Shelby and called Quinn 's plan " half @-@ baked " , and Canning dismissed it as " clichéd drama " . Kubicek expressed interest in seeing " where this goes " , and VanDerWerff noted that Quinn has been " grieving giving up her child all this time and she didn 't even know it " , and characterized it as a " fairly powerful storyline " .
Critics were divided on Kurt 's storyline as he faced being perceived primarily as gay both when auditioning and when running for class president . VanDerWerff said it was " the most consistent " storyline , and Canning called it " the most familiar story " , but also described Kurt as " by far the most interesting and most layered " character , his stories " delivering the most emotional connections " , and this episode 's installments " entertaining territory " . Kubicek stated that there were " tons " of wonderful " Kurt moments " in the episode . Benigno called Kurt learning to embrace his gayness yet again on the show " kind of awkward " , and Hyman asked " Was this Kurt Accepts He 's Special 3 @.@ 0 or 4 @.@ 0 ? I can 't keep track . " Votta summed up Kurt 's audition quandary : " Kurt is fighting typecasting , and while the ninjitsu , fingerless gloves and climbing routine might have been an attempt to butch it up , instead Kurt played right into expectations with the over @-@ the @-@ top Funny Girl piece . " His attempt to rescue the situation by reauditioning via performing a Romeo and Juliet scene with Rachel evoked laughter from the three directors and Rachel herself , but as Votta points out , Kurt was " not actually being bad as Romeo " . Jayma Mays , who plays Emma , one of the directors in that scene , stated in an interview that she thought Kurt was " good " . Kurt finding himself in competition with Blaine was also touched on , but several reviewers were unhappy with the revelation that Blaine was not a senior like Kurt , as had been implied in the previous season . VanDerWerff wrote that Blaine " seems to have simultaneously gotten younger and had a complete personality transplant over the summer " , Votta noted " the continuity @-@ bending plot point that he 's somehow a Junior and not a Senior like his boyfriend " , and Urban allowed her exasperation to show : " Oh really , Glee ? Blaine 's a junior ? Blaine 's younger than Kurt ? Fine . FINE . " MTV 's Jim Cantiello went into rhyme to express his dismay : " It 's hard to keep my bearings straight / And oh , how it makes my heart ache / Kurt and Blaine were gonna move to New York together / But now they 'll have to wait " , referring to a scene in the " New York " episode where Kurt discussed the planned move with Rachel .
Goldberg was pleased that having Brittany volunteer to run Kurt 's campaign included an acknowledgment that he " went through hell " the previous year , and praised " Brittany logic " in general . Respers France loved that Brittany , in helping Kurt find his magical inner unicorn , was able to find her own . Reiter enjoyed the " delicious dose of Brittany @-@ isms " , which she called " the best part " of the episode , and Kubicek said that there were " tons of wonderful " Brittany moments . For Hyman , the " one sit @-@ up @-@ and @-@ take @-@ notice moment " was the confrontation between Will and Quinn where he told her to grow up . Respers France thought " Sue Sylvester 's attempt to use Quinn against the glee club was hilarious " , but VanDerWerff was unhappy with Quinn being coopted into " Sue ’ s ridiculous run for Congress " . Reiter wrote that it was " hard to muster much sympathy for Quinn " in the episode given the scene with Quinn and The Skanks : " Flushing someone 's head in a public toilet , threatening to cut them , and shaking them down for their lunch money are orders of magnitude more chilling than the face @-@ full @-@ of @-@ slushy bullying we 're used to seeing . "
= = = Music and performances = = =
The episode 's musical performances were well received by most reviewers . All three were Broadway songs , two from West Side Story and one from Funny Girl — the concentration on show tunes disappointed Reiter , and Canning felt they were all " too bland " , but others were happy with the selections including Hankinson who said he was " loving the Broadway @-@ bend to these first two episodes " , and added , " all three of tonight 's numbers were hands @-@ down fantastic . "
The duet of " Somewhere " featuring Rachel and Shelby was generally complimented . Both Benigno and Rae Votta of Billboard compared it favorably to their previous duet , Lady Gaga 's " Poker Face " , from season one . Benigno gave the performance a " B + " , while Michael Slezak of TVLine gave it an " A − " and praised their " powerful , evocative voices " . Rolling Stone 's Erica Futterman was not impressed , and characterized it as " Lite FM snooze that does nothing to showcase these Broadway belters in a new and exciting way " . Amy Lee of The Huffington Post called it " pretty bland " , and said it was " getting annoying " that Rachel " sings every song as if she 's Barbra Streisand " . The Wall Street Journal 's Raymund Flandez , however , called the duet " pitch @-@ perfect " and " so sublime it makes you catch your breath " .
Kurt 's choice of " I 'm the Greatest Star " to audition for the role of Tony — the one song not from West Side Story — drew comment : Benigno ascribed it to Kurt 's " ability to make a talented ass of himself " , while Slezak was of the opinion that Kurt was " way too savvy , and way too hungry for the role " for that kind of misstep . Despite these plot @-@ related issues , both reviewers gave the performance an " A " , and Benigno noted both that " he nails it " and " last half of the song is a singing clinic . " VanDerWerff was not fond of the reliance on " gimmicky staging " , though Futterman called it " an impressive physical performance " , Votta stated that " Kurt sounds flawless and the performance is captivating " and Flandez complimented his " captivating high notes after high notes " , and added , " He 's a star unicorn , and he knows it . " Lisa Respers France of CNN wrote that Kurt " was amazing singing Streisand , and for the first time I realized that he really is as big a star as Rachel . "
Blaine 's rendition of " Something 's Coming " was the most enthusiastically welcomed . It was the favorite number of Lee , VanDerWerff and Futterman ; Lee said it was " the best song " , and added , " he 's kinetic , impassioned and generally delightful as Blaine @-@ playing @-@ Tony . " VanDerWerff was even more complimentary with " by far the best performance " , and Futterman called it " the winning musical number of the episode " . Both Slezak and Benigno gave it a " B + " , and the former complimented Criss 's " breathless charm and boyish enthusiasm " , while the latter maintained that the actor is " at his best when he 's doing goofy pop numbers with kind of an off @-@ beat twist " . West gave the song an " A − " , and said " Blaine just knows how to own the stage and your TV screen " , while both Votta and Respers France wrote that he was the " perfect Tony " .
= = = Chart history = = =
One of the three cover versions released as singles debuted on the Billboard Hot 100 , and none charted on the Canadian Hot 100 or in England or Australia . The duet version of " Somewhere " appeared at number seventy @-@ five , the fourth time the song charted in the Hot 100 . By contrast , " Something 's Coming " , the episode 's other song from West Side Story , has never appeared in the Hot 100 , and failed to chart there again .
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= Galentine 's Day =
" Galentine 's Day " is the 16th episode of the second season of the American comedy television series Parks and Recreation , and the 22nd overall episode of the series . It originally aired on NBC in the United States on February 11 , 2010 . In the episode , Leslie and her boyfriend Justin seek to reunite Leslie 's mother , Marlene , with her teenage flame . Meanwhile , April 's feelings for Andy continue to bloom , while Ann appears to be growing apart from Mark .
The episode was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . " Galentine 's Day " featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Marlene Griggs @-@ Knope , who was played by Pamela Reed . It also featured the last in a string of guest performances by Justin Theroux as Leslie 's love interest , Justin Anderson .
According to Nielsen Media Research , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million household viewers , which marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . It tied a record set with the previous episode , " Sweetums " , for the season 's highest rating among viewers aged between 18 and 49 . The episode received generally positive reviews .
= = Plot summary = =
Leslie ( Amy Poehler ) throws her annual " Galentine 's Day " party for her female friends , celebrated the day before Valentine 's Day . She asks her mother , Marlene ( Pamela Reed ) , to tell the story about how she fell in love with a lifeguard that saved her from drowning in 1968 , but the two had to break it off over objections from Marlene 's parents . Leslie later tells the story to Justin ( Justin Theroux ) , who is amazed by the tale and wants to unite the two . He successfully tracks down Marlene 's old flame , Frank Beckerson ( John Larroquette ) , and convinces Leslie to go with him to Illinois and reunite the two on Valentine 's Day at the Senior Center Valentine 's Dance , which the parks department oversees .
Leslie and Justin meet Frank , a strange and depressed man that has constant panic attacks . Leslie begins to have doubts about bringing him to her mother and tries to call it off , but Justin insists that they should " let this unfold " . At the dance , where Andy 's ( Chris Pratt ) band Mouse Rat is playing , Frank meets up with Marlene , who is repulsed by Frank 's past , current unemployment and overall failure at life . She turns down his offer at a second chance at love , prompting him to storm onto the stage and denounce her over the microphone . Leslie apologizes to her mother for bringing Frank . She is later upset with Justin , but has trouble pinpointing the reasons for her dissatisfaction . Ron ( Nick Offerman ) explains that Justin is a " tourist , " meaning that he takes " vacations in people 's lives " and only cares about telling interesting stories to impress other people , which makes him selfish . Two older women then recognize Ron as jazz saxophonist Duke Silver , but he denies it . Leslie later breaks up with Justin , which Tom ( Aziz Ansari ) takes especially hard , reacting as if his parents were getting divorced .
Before the senior dance , Tom invites his ex @-@ wife Wendy ( Jama Williamson ) to his office to finally disclose his romantic feelings for her , but she rejects him . Not satisfied with the outcome , he attempts to blackmail her into a date using an alimony lawsuit as leverage . Tom and Wendy are later shown hugging and presumably making amends , although their conversation remains inaudible . Meanwhile , April 's ( Aubrey Plaza ) boyfriend Derek ( Blake Lee ) and his boyfriend Ben ( Josh Duvendeck ) mock the senior citizens , causing April to question why their interactions must constantly be " cloaked in like 15 layers of irony " . They accuse her of " lameness " , which they attribute to spending time with Andy , and provide her with several ultimatums . She breaks up with them in response . Ann ( Rashida Jones ) and Mark ( Paul Schneider ) , at the same time , celebrate their first Valentine 's Day together . In an interview with the camera crew , Ann describes the relationship as " good " , but her tone of voice and body language around Mark contradict her statements . She later becomes jealous when Andy dedicates a song to April , even going so far as to question April about the possibility of a budding relationship between April and Andy , to which April responds impatiently .
= = Production = =
" Galentine 's Day " was written by series co @-@ creator Michael Schur and directed by Ken Kwapis . The episode featured a guest appearance by John Larroquette as Frank Beckerson , the long @-@ lost love of Leslie 's mother , Marlene Knope . When Parks and Recreation co @-@ creator Greg Daniels announced the casting in January 2010 , he described Larroquette 's character as " He 's the one who got away . " " Galentine 's Day " also included an appearance by Pamela Reed , who has played Marlene Knope in several episodes , and the last of a string of slated guest appearances by Justin Theroux as Justin Anderson , a love interest for Leslie . The episode marked the return of Andy 's band , " Mouse Rat " , which was previously featured in the first season finale " Rock Show " . His bandmates are played by Mark Rivers ( drums ) , Andrew Burlinson ( guitar ) and Alan Yang ( bass ) , the latter of whom serves as a screenwriter for Parks and Recreation .
= = Cultural references = =
At the dance , a senior citizen approaches Ron Swanson and asks for an autograph from Duke Silver . This is a reference to the previous second season episode , " Practice Date " , which establishes Ron 's secret identity as a jazz musician . Leslie referred to her Galentine 's Day breakfast tradition as " Lilith Fair minus the angst and plus frittatas " , a reference to the concert tour and traveling music festival . She also said the love story between Marlene and Frank makes the 2004 romance film The Notebook look like the 2008 horror film Saw V. Mark gets Ann a necklace similar to the Heart of the Ocean , the fictional jewelry given to Kate Winslet 's character in the 1997 romantic drama film , Titanic . During one scene in " Galentine 's Day " , Leslie does a voice impersonation of U.S. President John F. Kennedy . When Tom mistakes the impression for that of the Arnold Schwarzenegger character Terminator , he prompts Leslie to do that impression as well .
Among the songs performed by Mouse Rat in " Galentine 's Day " were " The Way You Look Tonight " , originally performed by Fred Astaire in the 1936 film , Swing Time . Andy 's bandmate suggests he sings the " Let 's Call the Whole Thing Off " more like jazz musician and trumpeter Louis Armstrong , who Andy admits he has never heard of . Andy and his band also performs " I Only Have Eyes for You " and " I 've Got You Under My Skin " . Leslie said reuniting Marlene and Frank would be like reuniting Romeo and Juliet , the protagonists of the William Shakespeare play of the same name , or reuniting actress Jennifer Aniston and actor Brad Pitt . She also warns to the camera for Aniston to " stay away from John Mayer " , the musician who previously dated Aniston . In the days prior to the original broadcast of " Galentine 's Day " , Mayer publicly apologized for a number of explicit sexual and racial comments he had made in the past months , which prompted news outlets to praise Parks and Recreation for the timeliness of their Mayer joke . Ironically , in May 2011 , Jennifer Aniston started dating Justin Theroux , who guest starred in the episode , and they later married . Frank made a reference to a recurring gag from Arrested Development when , after being rejected , he announced to Marlene , " take one last look ... because you 'll never see this body again . "
= = Reception = =
In its original American NBC broadcast on February 11 , 2010 , " Galentine 's Day " was seen by 4 @.@ 98 million households , according to Nielsen Media Research . This marked a continued recent improvement in ratings for the series . " Galentine 's Day " was seen by more viewers than the previous week 's episode " Sweetums " , which drew 4 @.@ 87 million viewers and was an itself an increase from previous episodes . " Galentine 's Day " drew an overall 3 @.@ 1 rating / 5 share , and a 2 @.@ 3 rating / 6 share among viewers between 18 and 49 , the latter of which tied with " Sweetums " as the highest of its age group for the series . The subsequent episode , " Woman of the Year " , would also tie the two episodes for a series @-@ high rating in that 18 to 49 age group .
" Galentine 's Day " received generally positive reviews . Entertainment Weekly writer Sandra Gonzalez said , " The show managed to cram more character development into 22 minutes than I thought possible . Almost every couple had a major milestone of sorts last night . " Gonzalez complimented the acting of Aziz Ansari during his moments with Wendy , and praised the " touching moment " between Ron and Leslie when she realized she had to break up with Justin . Steve Kandell of New York magazine appreciated that Leslie was correct about Frank , and that Justin was the ignorant one . Kandell said the senior dance served as a " poignant backdrop " for the episode 's romantic subplots , but said the most intriguing show 's relationship is between Leslie and Ron . Alan Sepinwall , television columnist with The Star @-@ Ledger , said the episode was funny , but focused more attention on advancing various romantic subplots . Sepinwall said the scenes about Ann and Mark were " a nice reaction to the general blandness of that relationship " , but found it " frustrating " that the episode left the reason for Wendy and Tom 's resolution unclear in " Galentine 's Day " .
Steve Heisler of The A.V. Club praised the episode for displaying some of Leslie 's stronger and more competent aspects , which he said makes audiences " much more willing to put up with her many , many eccentricities " . Heisler said he thought the Leslie and Justin relationship ended appropriately and praised Ansari 's performance , but added he was a little " taken aback " by how rudely Tom treated Wendy . Matt Fowler of IGN said the episode had many funny moments and good character development , but he said some of the romantic relationships risked skewing the balance between " the sweet and the absurd " , and that some of the character moments " played out a bit too jarringly real for a show like this " . Kona Gallagher of TV Squad said she would like to see Leslie get a boyfriend who last longer than three episodes , unlike Justin Theroux and Louis C.K. , who played Leslie 's love interest Dave Sanderson earlier in the season . Gallagher praised Andy 's band and the befuddlement with which Andy reacted to the senior citizen audience . Mike Murphy of The Press Democrat said the episode was funny , and he particularly praised the " hilariously whacked @-@ out " performance of John Laroquette . Several commentators praised the joke about Andy 's new rock song " Sex Hair " , about how one can tell whether someone had sex because their hair is matted .
= = DVD release = =
" Galentine 's Day " , along with the other 23 second season episodes of Parks and Recreation , was released on a four @-@ disc DVD set in the United States on November 30 , 2010 . The DVD included deleted scenes for each episode .
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= Bossy ( Lindsay Lohan song ) =
" Bossy " is a song by American actress and singer @-@ songwriter Lindsay Lohan . The song was written and produced by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . After leaking online in the beginning of May 2008 , Universal Motown officially released the song to media outlets , while its digital single was released on May 27 , 2008 . The song is influenced by electropop and dance @-@ pop . Lyrically , it is about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it .
Critically , " Bossy " attained generally mixed reception upon release , many music critics generally praised the attitude of the song , but considered the song less catchy than Lohan 's previous efforts . Commercially , " Bossy " managed to peak at number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire music career , so far , to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play .
= = Background = =
" Bossy " was written by Shaffer Smith , known by his stage name Ne @-@ Yo , while additional writing and song production was done by Stargate members Mikkel Storleer Eriksen and Tor Erik Hermansen . In the beginning of May 2008 , a clip of the song leaked on YouTube . As a result , Universal Motown released the full song to media outlets on May 7 , 2008 . In an interview with Billboard , Ne @-@ Yo revealed that he was approached by the label to write a song for Lohan : " I gotta admit , we were like ... Lindsay Lohan ? ' I mean , I 've written for Beyoncé , Mary J. Blige , Rihanna , Celine Dion and ... Lindsay Lohan ? But I will say this ; we gave her a quality record and she did a ridiculously fabulous job . I was so shocked I had to call her and apologize for what I was thinking because she did so good . I think the world is gonna be surprised . " In an interview with People Magazine , he revealed the song " it 's basically about a woman being strong enough to get what she wants when she wants it . In this case , ' Bossy ' is a term that describes confidence and power . " " Bossy " was digitally released on May 27 , 2008 , and it was set to appear on Lohan 's third studio album .
= = Critical reception = =
" Bossy " received mixed reviews from music critics . A Billboard review said " the track spotlights the raspy @-@ voiced singer 's dominating side as she rhymes about liking things her way over simple drums " , while Nick Levine of Digital Spy considered " Bossy " as an " electro @-@ dance @-@ pop [ song ] with attitude " , but commented that it " isn 't pop gold – the chorus lacks a bit of oomph and Lohan 's vocals still aren 't convincing – but it 's the first Lohan tune we 'd be prepared to listen to more than once . That , we suppose , is enough to constitute a small step forward " . Kate Brandli of Blogcritics said " Bossy " " is not nearly as good or as catchy as Miss Lohan 's previous musical attempts " , while commenting that its lyrical content " is an obvious reflection on Miss Lohan 's relationship with the paparazzi . As Miss Lohan sings in the lyrics , she does what she wants , she controls them , and not vice versa . Unfortunately , Miss Lohan 's logic is not entirely correct — neither party has the authority to boss the other around . That is , sadly , the price of fame these days — once people want in , they want total access and exposure . With some individual 's antics , like Miss Lohan and Britney Spears , it is difficult to garner sympathy for them " . " Bossy " reached number 77 on the Canadian Hot 100 , and became Lohan 's first song from her entire career to reach number one on the United States ' Billboard Hot Dance Club Play . The song also managed to peak on the Global Dance Tracks component chart .
= = Track listing = =
Digital download
" Bossy " – 4 : 10
= = Charts = =
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= Biddenden Maids =
Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst ( or Chalkhurst ) , commonly known as the Biddenden Maids , were a pair of conjoined twins supposedly born in Biddenden , Kent , England , in the year 1100 . They are said to have been joined at both the shoulder and the hip , and to have lived for 34 years . It is claimed that on their death they bequeathed five plots of land to the village , known as the Bread and Cheese Lands . The income from these lands was used to pay for an annual dole of food and drink to the poor every Easter . Since at least 1775 , the dole has included Biddenden cakes , hard biscuits imprinted with an image of two conjoined women .
Although the annual distribution of food and drink is known to have taken place since at least 1605 , no records exist of the story of the sisters prior to 1770 . Records of that time say that the names of the sisters were not known , and early drawings of Biddenden cakes do not give names for the sisters ; it is not until the early 19th century that the names " Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst " were first used .
Edward Hasted , the local historian of Kent , has dismissed the story of the Biddenden Maids as a folk myth , claiming that the image on the cake had originally represented two poor women and that the story of the conjoined twins was " a vulgar tradition " invented to account for it , while influential historian Robert Chambers accepted that the legend could be true but believed it unlikely . Throughout most of the 19th century little research was carried out into the origins of the legend . Despite the doubts among historians , in the 19th century the legend became increasingly popular and the village of Biddenden was thronged with rowdy visitors every Easter . In the late 19th century historians investigated the origins of the legend . It was suggested that the twins had genuinely existed but had been joined at the hip only rather than at both the hip and shoulder , and that they had lived in the 16th rather than the 12th century .
In 1907 , the Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , and the resulting income allowed the annual dole to expand considerably , providing the widows and pensioners of Biddenden with cheese , bread and tea at Easter and with cash payments at Christmas . Biddenden cakes continue to be given to the poor of Biddenden each Easter , and are sold as souvenirs to visitors .
= = Legend = =
According to tradition Mary and Eliza Chulkhurst , or Chalkhurst , were born to relatively wealthy parents in Biddenden , Kent , in the year 1100 . The pair were said to be conjoined at both the shoulder and the hip . They grew up conjoined , and are said to have " had frequent quarrels , which sometimes terminated in blows " . At the age of 34 , Mary Chulkhurst died suddenly . Doctors proposed to separate the still @-@ living Eliza from her sister 's body but she refused , saying " as we came together we will also go together " , and died six hours afterwards . In their wills , the sisters left five pieces of land in the Biddenden area comprising around 20 acres ( 8 ha ) in total to the local church , with the income from these lands ( claimed to have been 6 guineas per annum at the time of their death ) to provide an annual dole of bread , cheese and beer to the poor every Easter . Henceforward , the lands were to be known as the Bread and Cheese Lands .
= = History = =
The churchwardens of Biddenden continued to maintain the annual dole from the Bread and Cheese Lands . It is recorded that in 1605 , the custom that " on that day [ Easter ] our parson giveth unto the parishoners bread , cheese , cakes and divers barrels of beer , brought in there and drawn " was suspended on account of a visit from Charles Fotherby , the Archdeacon of Canterbury , owing to previous ceremonies having caused " much disorder by reason of some unruly ones , which at such time we cannot restrain with any ease " . In 1645 , rector William Horner claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were glebe ( land intended for the use of the parish priest ) , and attempted to take control of the lands . The case of the Bread and Cheese Lands was brought before the Committee for Plundered Ministers , who eventually found in favour of the charity in 1649 . Horner brought the case before the Court of the Exchequer in 1656 but again without success , and the charity continued to own the lands and to operate the annual Easter dole . Witness statements from these cases mention that the lands had been given by two women " who grew together in their bodies " , but do not give any name for the women .
In 1681 the " disorder and indecency " of the annual dole led to the threat of intervention by the Archbishop of Canterbury . The distribution of the dole ceased to be conducted inside the church ; it was moved to the church porch .
By 1770 , it is recorded that the annual dole took place immediately after the afternoon Easter service . The annual income from the Bread and Cheese Lands had risen to 20 guineas ( about £ 2 @,@ 600 in 2016 ) , and a huge quantity of food was distributed each year . By this time as well as the dole of bread , cheese and beer , hard bread rolls known as " Biddenden cakes " , moulded into an image of the sisters , were thrown to crowds from the church roof . The Biddenden cakes were flat , hard and made of flour and water , and were described as " not by any means tempting " ; one writer in 1860 described one as " a biscuit plaque " .
= = = Origins of the Biddenden Maids legend = = =
Although it is known that the charity had been in operation as early as 1656 , an anonymous article in The Gentleman 's Magazine in August 1770 is the earliest recorded account of the legend of the Biddenden Maids . This account states that the twins were joined at the hip only , rather than at both the hip and the shoulder , and that they lived to a relatively old age . The article explicitly states that their names were not recorded , and that they were known only as the " Maids of Biddenden " . The anonymous author recounts the story of their bequest of the lands to the parish to support the annual dole , and goes on to say that despite the antiquity of the events described , he has no doubt as to their authenticity . As with all accounts of the tradition prior to 1790 the author does not mention their alleged birth in 1100 , or the name of Chulkhurst ; these details first appeared in a broadside published in 1790 . The Antiquarian Repertory of 1775 says that the sisters had lived " as tradition says , two hundred and fifty years ago " . Drawings of Biddenden cakes from this period show that they featured an image of two women , possibly conjoined , but no names , dates or ages .
Historian Edward Hasted , in the third volume of The History and Topographical Survey of the County of Kent published in 1798 , dismissed the legend of the Biddenden Maids . He claimed that the Bread and Cheese Lands were the gift of two women named Preston ( although he elsewhere described the lands as having been " given by persons unknown " ) . Hasted stated that the Biddenden cakes had only begun to be moulded with the imprint of two women in the last 50 years ( i.e. since 1748 ) and that the figures were intended to represent " two poor widows , as the general objects of a charitable benefaction " . While he mentioned a legend that the figures represent two conjoined twins who died in their 20s and bequeathed the Bread and Cheese Lands to the parish , he dismissed it as " a vulgar tradition " .
Hasted 's arguments were largely accepted by influential historian Robert Chambers , and the story was generally treated as a folk myth . A letter to the British Medical Journal in 1869 pointed out that surnames were not in use in Kent in the 12th century , and that in older styles of English handwriting the 1 and 5 characters could easily be confused , and suggested a correct birthdate of 1500 . The Biddenden Maids were occasionally mentioned in pieces on conjoined twins , particularly after Chang and Eng Bunker proved that conjoined twins could live to an advanced age and lead relatively normal lives . Notes and Queries magazine called in 1866 for a close examination of Biddenden documents , the editors describing Hasted 's conclusions as " very obscure and unsatisfactory " and questioning why the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " should have been added to the design of cakes granted by a family named Preston , but no significant research into the tradition was carried out .
= = = Growth of the charity = = =
As the annual dole grew larger the Easter distribution became increasingly popular . In 1808 a broadside featuring a woodcut of the twins and a brief history of their alleged story was sold outside the church at Easter , the first recorded mention of the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " , and clay replicas of Biddenden cakes were sold as souvenirs .
In the 1820s , a new account of the Biddenden Maids was published , which claimed that a gravestone marked with a diagonal line near the rector 's pew in Biddenden church was the sisters ' burial place . In 1830 it was noted that Biddenden was becoming thronged by visitors every Easter , " attracted from the adjacent towns and villages by the usage , and the wonderful account of its origin , and the day is spent in rude festivity " . The large crowds were increasingly disorderly , and churchwardens on occasion had to use their staffs to hold back the mob . As a result , the distribution of the dole was moved from the church to the workhouse , but the crowds continued to cause problems . In 1882 Biddenden 's rector applied for authority to abandon the ceremony ; the Archbishop of Canterbury permitted the distribution of bread , cheese and Biddenden cakes to continue , but abolished the free beer in an effort to combat the problem of unruly crowds .
In 1900 , antiquarian George Clinch investigated the Biddenden Maids in detail . Examining the costumes of the figures on the Biddenden cake moulds , he concluded that the style of dress depicted dated from the reign of Mary I ( 1553 – 1558 ) , a date roughly consistent with the " two hundred and fifty years ago " reported in 1775 , and concluded that the tradition had originated in the 16th century . He suggested that the " 1100 " date on Biddenden cakes had originally read " 1500 " , and explained the absence of names on prints of 18th century Biddenden cakes as an engraving error . It is likely that the cake moulds examined by Clinch were not the original moulds , as the designs Clinch examined are strikingly different to the earliest surviving drawings of Biddenden cakes , published in 1775 . Writing in the early 1930s , William Coles Finch explains the confusion over the dates , saying " the old @-@ fashioned numeral five is so frequently taken as a one " . He lamented the quality of the Biddenden cake then being produced , compared to that of former years . Coles Finch stated that the villagers considered the then @-@ current cake to be unleavened bread .
= = Belief and scepticism = =
In almost all drawings and Biddenden cake designs , the twins are shown as conjoined at both the hip and the shoulder . Although such a fusion is theoretically possible , in that twins fused at one point may form a secondary fusion elsewhere , no case of a viable double fusion has ever been documented .
Although Clinch believed that the evidence pointed to the twins having genuinely existed but that they had lived in the 16th century , rather than the early 12th century as generally claimed , they are not mentioned in any journals or books from the period . This points against their having lived in the 16th century ; the case of Lazarus and Joannes Baptista Colloredo ( 1617 – after 1646 ) had prompted great interest in conjoined twins , and conjoined sisters surviving to adulthood in south east England would have been widely noted .
In 1895 , surgeon J. W. Ballantyne considered the case of the Biddenden Maids from a teratological perspective . He suggested that they had in fact been pygopagus ( twins joined at the pelvis ) . Pygopagus twins are known to put their arms around each other 's shoulders when walking , and Ballantyne suggested that this accounted for their apparently being joined at the shoulders in drawings . The pygopagus Millie and Christine McCoy had lived in Britain for a short time before going on to a successful singing career in the United States , and it was known from their case that such twins were capable of surviving to adulthood .
Jan Bondeson ( 1992 and 2006 ) proposed that , while the names " Eliza and Mary Chulkhurst " are not recorded in any early documents and are likely to have been a later addition , the existence of the twins and the claimed 1100 year of birth cannot be dismissed . Although mediaeval chronicles are unreliable , he noted multiple reports in the Chronicon Scotorum , the Annals of the Four Masters and the Annals of Clonmacnoise of a pair of conjoined sisters born in or around 1100 , although all three are records of Irish history and none mention Kent as the location . He concluded that the case of Christine McCoy , who survived for eight hours following the death of her polypagus twin Millie , shows that the claimed six hours between the deaths of the Biddenden Maids is plausible , and agreed with Ballantyne 's proposal that the idea that the twins were joined at the shoulder is a later misinterpretation of the figures on the Biddenden cake . He also pointed out that although there is no recorded version of the legend prior to 1770 , there would have been no possible motive for the villagers of the 18th century to fabricate the story .
= = Today = =
In 1907 , the Chulkhurst Charity was amalgamated with other local charities with similar purposes , to form the Biddenden Consolidated Charity , still functioning as a registered charity . The Bread and Cheese Lands were sold for housing , expanding the charity significantly to provide Biddenden pensioners and widows with bread , cheese , and tea at Easter , a cash payment at Christmas , and distribute Biddenden cakes . ( During the food rationing of the 1940s and early 1950s , the cheese was replaced by cocoa . Distribution of cheese resumed in 1951 . ) A wrought iron village sign showing the Biddenden Maids was erected on Biddenden village green in the 1920s .
The tradition of the dole continues to the present , and every Easter Monday tea , cheese and bread are given to local widows and pensioners through the windows of Biddenden 's former workhouse . All those eligible for the annual dole are given a Biddenden cake , and they are sold as souvenirs to visitors . The cakes are baked so hard as to be inedible , to allow better preservation as souvenirs ; they are baked in large batches every few years and kept until the stock runs out . Historically , the loaves used were of the archaic quartern loaf size , but this particular part of the tradition ended when Biddenden 's last bakery closed in the 1990s .
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= Ælfric of Abingdon =
Ælfric of Abingdon ( Old English : Ælfrīc ; died 16 November 1005 ) , also known as Ælfric of Wessex , was a late 10th @-@ century Archbishop of Canterbury . He previously held the offices of abbot of St Albans Abbey and Bishop of Ramsbury , as well as likely being the abbot of Abingdon Abbey . After his election to Canterbury , he continued to hold the bishopric of Ramsbury along with the archbishopric of Canterbury until his death in 1005 . Ælfric may have altered the composition of Canterbury 's cathedral chapter by changing the clergy serving in the cathedral from secular clergy to monks . In his will he left a ship to King Æthelred II of England as well as more ships to other legatees .
= = Early life = =
Ælfric was the son of an earl of Kent and became a monk of Abingdon Abbey in Berkshire ( now Oxfordshire ) . He was very likely Abbot of Abingdon before becoming Abbot of St Albans Abbey around 975 , although some historians do not believe that he held the office of Abbot at Abingdon . Although the Historia Ecclesie Abbendonensis , or History of the Church of Abingdon , names Ælfric as abbot , the abbatial lists do not record him as such . Indirect corroboration of his being abbot at Abingdon is a grant of land to Ælfric personally ( instead of to the office he held ) while he was archbishop that had previously been unjustly taken from Abingdon . This land was to revert to Abingdon after Ælfric 's death .
= = Bishop and archbishop = =
Ælfric 's brother , Leofric , succeeded him as Abbot of St Albans when he became bishop . Between 991 and 993 , Ælfric rose to the Bishopric of Ramsbury , and possibly continued to hold office of abbot of St Albans while bishop . In 995 he was elevated to the see of Canterbury . He was translated , or moved with appropriate ecclesiastical ceremony , to Canterbury on 21 April 995 at a witenagemot held at Amesbury . Here he received the permission of " King Æthelred and all the witan " to be elevated to Canterbury . Ælfric continued to hold Ramsbury along with Canterbury until his death . The story that his brother was chosen first for Canterbury but refused , stems from confusion on the part of Matthew of Paris and historians generally hold the entire episode to be untrue .
Ælfric 's appointment to Canterbury caused consternation with the clergy of the cathedral chapter . In reaction , the chapter sent two members to Rome ahead of Ælfric and tried to secure the archbishopric for either of the monks . Pope Gregory V , however , would not appoint a candidate without royal permission , which neither of the monks had . Instead , when Ælfric arrived in Rome in 997 , he was appointed and received the pallium , a symbol of an archbishop 's authority . He also witnessed some miracles at the gravesite of Edward the Martyr at Shaftesbury Abbey , helping to lead to Edward 's sainthood .
A story was told that Ælfric introduced monks into the cathedral church of Christ Church , Canterbury , replacing the secular clerks that had taken over the foundation during the ninth century . Ælfric is said to have done this on the command of the pope . This story originally dates to soon after the Norman Conquest and originated with the monastic historians of Canterbury , and its veracity is unclear . He likely performed the marriage ceremony of King Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy in 1002 . A later tradition held that he consecrated a Bishop of Llandaff and two Bishops of St. David 's in Wales , which , if true , would have meant extending Canterbury 's jurisdiction into new territory .
Either Ælfric or his predecessor Sigeric wrote a letter to Wulfsige , Bishop of Sherborne about the duties of bishops to make sure that the laity did not despoil churches . The letter also urged Wulfsige to exhort the laity to strive for justice in their dealings with others , help widows and orphans , not fight , as well as other moral precepts . Ælfric also ordered the composition of the first Life of Dunstan , a hagiography , or saint 's life , of Dunstan , a predecessor as Archbishop of Canterbury . He also acted as a royal judge , once being ordered by King Æthelred to adjudicate a case between thegns , or local noblemen .
= = Death and legacy = =
Ælfric died on 16 November 1005 and was buried in Abingdon Abbey , later being translated to Canterbury Cathedral . His will survives and in it he left ships to the people of Wiltshire and Kent , with his best one , equipped for sixty men , going to King Æthelred . The hagiography of Dunstan was dedicated to Ælfric at the end of the 10th century . After his death , he was considered a saint with a feast day of 16 November .
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= White Dog ( Gary novel ) =
White Dog , released in France as Chien Blanc , is a fictional autobiographical novel written by Romain Gary . Originally published as a short story in Life in 1970 ( 9 October ) , the full novel was published in 1970 in French in France by Éditions Gallimard . Gary 's English version of the novel was published in North America in the same year by New American Library . The novel provides a fictionalized account of Gary and his wife 's experiences in the 1960s with a stray Alabama police dog trained to attack black people on sight , and their attempts to have the dog reprogrammed .
Gary uses the novel as a vehicle to denounce both racism and the activists supporting African @-@ American rights , including his own ex @-@ wife and Marlon Brando . He also examines whether human responses to situations , including racism , are learned social behavior and whether they can be unlearned . In 1981 , it was adapted into the controversial film of the same name , in which director Samuel Fuller made various changes to the novel 's story to focus more on the dog and present a more pessimistic ending than the original novel . The film 's American release after negative press from the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People ( NAACP ) led to concerns of boycotts .
= = Plot synopsis = =
A fictionalized memoir set in both the United States and France during the 1960s American civil rights movement , White Dog focuses on the events that occur after Gary and his then @-@ wife Jean Seberg , an actress and an activist , adopt a handsome and clearly well @-@ trained German Shepherd dog who comes back to their home with one of their other dogs . At first , the dog , which they name Batka , is an ideal new member of the family : intelligent , devoted , and quickly befriending the couple 's assortment of other animals . To their dismay , they discover that the dog , a former Alabama police dog , was trained to attack black people on sight . Although they are told the dog is too old to be retrained , they take him to a black dog trainer to try . Instead , the man trains the dog to attack white people , including Gary himself . Gary states that he changed the ending of the American version to be more optimistic .
= = Publication history = =
White Dog was first released as an English short story that appeared in Life magazine in 1968 . It was published as a full novel in 1970 in two languages and two countries . A French @-@ language version was published in France under the title Chien Blanc by Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) in April 1970 . Gary , who was multi @-@ lingual , also wrote an English version , which was published by New American Library in 1970 under its Signet label .
French
1970 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 207027022X ) , 256 pages , paperback
1972 , France , Éditions Gallimard ( ISBN 2070360504 ) , 220 pages , paperback
English
1970 , United States , New American Library , 279 pages , paperback
2004 , United States , University Of Chicago Press ( ISBN 0226284301 ) , 290 pages , paperback
= = Themes = =
With the use of a " flippant tone and [ an ] uncomfortable use of sarcasm , " White Dog is Gary 's dissection of the paranoia generated by both racism and classism as he juxtaposes McCarthyism @-@ American , in which there is an " obsessive sniffing out of ' subversives ' and violent race riots , " against the barricades and race riots of France in 1968 . The violence depicted also provides a discourse on revolutionary social change , as it also leads to " a new order , a new reality . " Gary " excoriates American racism , black activism , and movie @-@ colony liberalism " and reflects on American race relations as a whole . He also documents his own " intolerance of intolerance that is the curse of tolerance " . Through the dog , Gary examines whether a learned response can be unlearned . He also poses the question of how much freedom and uniqueness a person can claim if humans responses are indeed learned by " social indoctrination . "
Within the novel , Gary makes " scathing attacks on self @-@ aggrandising Jewish pro @-@ black sentiment and self @-@ serving celebrity campaigners " , while making explicit attacks against Marlon Brando and Seberg for their involvement in civil rights movements and the latter 's involvement with the Black Panthers organization . In an interview about the novel , Gary states that as a " typical American idealist " she was an easy mark for people seeking money for causes , and he depicts this in the novel by having her frequently appearing in activist events writing checks . After her death , he called the novel the " story of her crusade " .
= = Reception = =
White Dog quickly became a bestseller in the United States after its English release . Phoebe Adams of The Atlantic felt the story was ironic , and noted that it was " presumably " true . She felt the depiction of Marlon Brando was " tartly funny " and that story as a whole served " as an excuse for Mr. Gary 's comments on racial affairs in this country , a matter on which is somewhat less pessimistic than the natives and a good deal more sensible . " The Globe and Mail 's H. J. Kirchhoff considered it a " riveting , thoughtful work " that serves as a metaphor for American racism . Julien Roumette felt Romain 's depiction of the racial tensions in America at the time was " meticulously reconstituted , with a realistic , even documentary , rather exceptional dimension . " Julia Weldon of Harper 's Magazine remarked with amusement that the events of the novel were ones that " only a Frenchman " could have found himself in . She felt the novel was a " decathlon event " in which Gary turned a " household crisis into a full @-@ scale allegory . " Overall , she praised the book as a " memorable portrait of guilt and largess in black and white " , noting she felt Gary had lived to " witness his own maturity " though she also wondered if he stretched the truth to " make himself a legend in his own time . "
= = Film adaptation = =
Paramount Pictures purchased the film rights for White Dog in 1975 , though the film itself was not produced until 1981 , after Gary 's suicide . Various changes were made from the original novel 's story , including the removal of Gary himself and a tighter focus on the dog . Gary 's wife was replaced in the script with a young , unmarried actress as Paramount wanted the film to show a strong contrast between the loving relationship between the protagonist and the dog 's random attacks . The novel 's hate @-@ filled Muslim black trainer was converted into the character named Keys , who genuinely wished to cure the animal . The novel 's original ending was also changed to make it more pessimistic . Directed by Samuel Fuller and starring Paul Winfield and Kristy McNichol , the film 's theatrical release was suppressed in the United States out of concern of negative press after rumors began circulating from the NAACP that the film was racist . It was released internationally in France and the United Kingdom in 1982 , and broadcast on various American cable television channels . Its first official American release came in December 2008 when The Criterion Collection released the original uncut film to DVD .
In reflecting on the film , Fuller notes that he had known Gary before being offered the chance to direct the White Dog adaptation , and greatly admired both Gary and the novel . He wanted to have the film dedicated to Gary , who had committed suicide before the film was completed , but the studio declined . In an interview with the Los Angeles Times , he stated " I know [ Gary would ] have liked it . And he 'd have been pleased because his other books ( The Roots of Heaven , etc ) had not done well as films . "
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= Condom =
A condom is a sheath @-@ shaped barrier device that may be used during sexual intercourse to reduce the probability of pregnancy and decrease the risk of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) such as HIV / AIDS . It is rolled onto an erect penis before intercourse and blocks ejaculated semen from entering the body of a sexual partner . Condoms are also used during fellatio and for collection of semen for use in infertility treatment . In the modern age , condoms are most often made from latex , but some are made from other materials such as polyurethane , polyisoprene , or lamb intestine . A female condom is also available , often made of nitrile rubber .
As a method of birth control , male condoms have the advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , having few side effects , and offering protection against sexually transmitted infections . With proper use — and use at every act of intercourse — women whose partners use male condoms experience a 2 % per @-@ year pregnancy rate . With typical use the rate of pregnancy is 18 % per @-@ year . Condoms have been used for at least 400 years . Since the 19th century , they have been one of the most popular methods of contraception in the world . While widely accepted in modern times , condoms have generated some controversy , primarily over what role they should play in sex education classes .
= = Medical uses = =
= = = Birth control = = =
The effectiveness of condoms , as of most forms of contraception , can be assessed two ways . Perfect use or method effectiveness rates only include people who use condoms properly and consistently . Actual use , or typical use effectiveness rates are of all condom users , including those who use condoms incorrectly or do not use condoms at every act of intercourse . Rates are generally presented for the first year of use . Most commonly the Pearl Index is used to calculate effectiveness rates , but some studies use decrement tables .
The typical use pregnancy rate among condom users varies depending on the population being studied , ranging from 10 to 18 % per year . The perfect use pregnancy rate of condoms is 2 % per year . Condoms may be combined with other forms of contraception ( such as spermicide ) for greater protection .
= = = Sexually transmitted infections = = =
Condoms are widely recommended for the prevention of sexually transmitted infections ( STIs ) . They have been shown to be effective in reducing infection rates in both men and women , but not eliminating it . While not perfect , the condom is effective at reducing the transmission of organisms that cause AIDS , genital herpes , cervical cancer , genital warts , syphilis , chlamydia , gonorrhea , and other diseases . Condoms are often recommended as an adjunct to more effective birth control methods ( such as IUD ) in situations where STD protection is also desired .
According to a 2000 report by the National Institutes of Health ( NIH ) , consistent use of latex condoms reduces the risk of HIV / AIDS transmission by approximately 85 % relative to risk when unprotected , putting the seroconversion rate ( infection rate ) at 0 @.@ 9 per 100 person @-@ years with condom , down from 6 @.@ 7 per 100 person @-@ years . Analysis published in 2007 from the University of Texas Medical Branch and the World Health Organization found similar risk reductions of 80 – 95 % .
The 2000 NIH review concluded that condom use significantly reduces the risk of gonorrhea for men . A 2006 study reports that proper condom use decreases the risk of transmission of human papillomavirus ( HPV ) to women by approximately 70 % . Another study in the same year found consistent condom use was effective at reducing transmission of herpes simplex virus @-@ 2 also known as genital herpes , in both men and women .
Although a condom is effective in limiting exposure , some disease transmission may occur even with a condom . Infectious areas of the genitals , especially when symptoms are present , may not be covered by a condom , and as a result , some diseases like HPV and herpes may be transmitted by direct contact . The primary effectiveness issue with using condoms to prevent STDs , however , is inconsistent use .
Condoms may also be useful in treating potentially precancerous cervical changes . Exposure to human papillomavirus , even in individuals already infected with the virus , appears to increase the risk of precancerous changes . The use of condoms helps promote regression of these changes . In addition , researchers in the UK suggest that a hormone in semen can aggravate existing cervical cancer , condom use during sex can prevent exposure to the hormone .
= = = Causes of failure = = =
Condoms may slip off the penis after ejaculation , break due to improper application or physical damage ( such as tears caused when opening the package ) , or break or slip due to latex degradation ( typically from usage past the expiration date , improper storage , or exposure to oils ) . The rate of breakage is between 0 @.@ 4 % and 2 @.@ 3 % , while the rate of slippage is between 0 @.@ 6 % and 1 @.@ 3 % . Even if no breakage or slippage is observed , 1 – 3 % of women will test positive for semen residue after intercourse with a condom .
" Double bagging " , using two condoms at once , is often believed to cause a higher rate of failure due to the friction of rubber on rubber . This claim is not supported by research . The limited studies that have been done on the subject support that double bagging is likely not harmful and possibly beneficial .
Different modes of condom failure result in different levels of semen exposure . If a failure occurs during application , the damaged condom may be disposed of and a new condom applied before intercourse begins – such failures generally pose no risk to the user . One study found that semen exposure from a broken condom was about half that of unprotected intercourse ; semen exposure from a slipped condom was about one @-@ fifth that of unprotected intercourse .
Standard condoms will fit almost any penis , with varying degrees of comfort or risk of slippage . Many condom manufacturers offer " snug " or " magnum " sizes . Some manufacturers also offer custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condoms , with claims that they are more reliable and offer improved sensation / comfort . Some studies have associated larger penises and smaller condoms with increased breakage and decreased slippage rates ( and vice versa ) , but other studies have been inconclusive .
It is recommended for condoms manufacturers to avoid very thick or very thin condoms , because they are both considered less effective . Some authors encourage users to choose thinner condoms " for greater durability , sensation , and comfort " , but others warn that " the thinner the condom , the smaller the force required to break it " .
Experienced condom users are significantly less likely to have a condom slip or break compared to first @-@ time users , although users who experience one slippage or breakage are more likely to suffer a second such failure . An article in Population Reports suggests that education on condom use reduces behaviors that increase the risk of breakage and slippage . A Family Health International publication also offers the view that education can reduce the risk of breakage and slippage , but emphasizes that more research needs to be done to determine all of the causes of breakage and slippage .
Among people who intend condoms to be their form of birth control , pregnancy may occur when the user has sex without a condom . The person may have run out of condoms , or be traveling and not have a condom with them , or simply dislike the feel of condoms and decide to " take a chance " . This type of behavior is the primary cause of typical use failure ( as opposed to method or perfect use failure ) .
Another possible cause of condom failure is sabotage . One motive is to have a child against a partner 's wishes or consent . Some commercial sex workers from Nigeria reported clients sabotaging condoms in retaliation for being coerced into condom use . Using a fine needle to make several pinholes at the tip of the condom is believed to significantly impact their effectiveness . Cases of such condom sabotage have occurred .
= = Adverse effects = =
The use of latex condoms by people with an allergy to latex can cause allergic symptoms , such as skin irritation . In people with severe latex allergies , using a latex condom can potentially be life @-@ threatening . Repeated use of latex condoms can also cause the development of a latex allergy in some people .
= = Use = =
Male condoms are usually packaged inside a foil or plastic wrapper , in a rolled @-@ up form , and are designed to be applied to the tip of the penis and then unrolled over the erect penis . It is important that some space be left in the tip of the condom so that semen has a place to collect ; otherwise it may be forced out of the base of the device . After use , it is recommended the condom be wrapped in tissue or tied in a knot , then disposed of in a trash receptacle . Condoms are used to reduce the likelihood of pregnancy during intercourse and to reduce the likelihood of contracting sexually @-@ transmitted infections ( STIs ) . Condoms are also used during fellatio to reduce the likelihood of contracting STIs .
Some couples find that putting on a condom interrupts sex , although others incorporate condom application as part of their foreplay . Some men and women find the physical barrier of a condom dulls sensation . Advantages of dulled sensation can include prolonged erection and delayed ejaculation ; disadvantages might include a loss of some sexual excitement . Advocates of condom use also cite their advantages of being inexpensive , easy to use , and having few side effects .
= = = Adult film industry = = =
In 2012 proponents gathered 372 @,@ 000 voter signatures through a citizens ' initiative in Los Angeles County to put Measure B on the 2012 ballot . As a result , Measure B , a law requiring the use of condoms in the production of pornographic films , was passed . This requirement has received much criticism and is said by some to be counter @-@ productive , merely forcing companies that make pornographic films to relocate to other places without this requirement . Producers claim that condom use depresses sales .
= = = Sex education = = =
Condoms are often used in sex education programs , because they have the capability to reduce the chances of pregnancy and the spread of some sexually transmitted diseases when used correctly . A recent American Psychological Association ( APA ) press release supported the inclusion of information about condoms in sex education , saying " comprehensive sexuality education programs ... discuss the appropriate use of condoms " , and " promote condom use for those who are sexually active . "
In the United States , teaching about condoms in public schools is opposed by some religious organizations . Planned Parenthood , which advocates family planning and sex education , argues that no studies have shown abstinence @-@ only programs to result in delayed intercourse , and cites surveys showing that 76 % of American parents want their children to receive comprehensive sexuality education including condom use .
= = = Infertility treatment = = =
Common procedures in infertility treatment such as semen analysis and intrauterine insemination ( IUI ) require collection of semen samples . These are most commonly obtained through masturbation , but an alternative to masturbation is use of a special collection condom to collect semen during sexual intercourse .
Collection condoms are made from silicone or polyurethane , as latex is somewhat harmful to sperm . Many men prefer collection condoms to masturbation , and some religions prohibit masturbation entirely . Also , compared with samples obtained from masturbation , semen samples from collection condoms have higher total sperm counts , sperm motility , and percentage of sperm with normal morphology . For this reason , they are believed to give more accurate results when used for semen analysis , and to improve the chances of pregnancy when used in procedures such as intracervical or intrauterine insemination . Adherents of religions that prohibit contraception , such as Catholicism , may use collection condoms with holes pricked in them .
For fertility treatments , a collection condom may be used to collect semen during sexual intercourse where the semen is provided by the woman 's partner . Private sperm donors may also use a collection condom to obtain samples through masturbation or by sexual intercourse with a partner and will transfer the ejaculate from the collection condom to a specially designed container . The sperm is transported in such containers , in the case of a donor , to a recipient woman to be used for insemination , and in the case of a woman 's partner , to a fertility clinic for processing and use . However , transportation may reduce the fecundity of the sperm . Collection condoms may also be used where semen is produced at a sperm bank or fertility clinic .
Condom therapy is sometimes prescribed to infertile couples when the female has high levels of antisperm antibodies . The theory is that preventing exposure to her partner 's semen will lower her level of antisperm antibodies , and thus increase her chances of pregnancy when condom therapy is discontinued . However , condom therapy has not been shown to increase subsequent pregnancy rates .
= = = Other uses = = =
Condoms excel as multipurpose containers and barriers because they are waterproof , elastic , durable , and ( for military and espionage uses ) will not arouse suspicion if found .
Ongoing military utilization began during World War II , and includes covering the muzzles of rifle barrels to prevent fouling , the waterproofing of firing assemblies in underwater demolitions , and storage of corrosive materials and garrotes by paramilitary agencies .
Condoms have also been used to smuggle alcohol , cocaine , heroin , and other drugs across borders and into prisons by filling the condom with drugs , tying it in a knot and then either swallowing it or inserting it into the rectum . These methods are very dangerous and potentially lethal ; if the condom breaks , the drugs inside become absorbed into the bloodstream and can cause an overdose .
Medically , condoms can be used to cover endovaginal ultrasound probes , or in field chest needle decompressions they can be used to make a one @-@ way valve .
Condoms have also been used to protect scientific samples from the environment , and to waterproof microphones for underwater recording .
= = Types = =
Most condoms have a reservoir tip or teat end , making it easier to accommodate the man 's ejaculate . Condoms come in different sizes , from oversized to snug and they also come in a variety of surfaces intended to stimulate the user 's partner . Condoms are usually supplied with a lubricant coating to facilitate penetration , while flavored condoms are principally used for oral sex . As mentioned above , most condoms are made of latex , but polyurethane and lambskin condoms also exist .
= = = Female condom = = =
Male condoms have a tight ring to form a seal around the penis while female condoms typically have a large stiff ring to keep them from slipping into the body orifice . The Female Health Company produced a female condom that was initially made of polyurethane , but newer versions are made of nitrile . Medtech Products produces a female condom made of latex .
= = = Materials = = =
= = = = Natural latex = = = =
Latex has outstanding elastic properties : Its tensile strength exceeds 30 MPa , and latex condoms may be stretched in excess of 800 % before breaking . In 1990 the ISO set standards for condom production ( ISO 4074 , Natural latex rubber condoms ) , and the EU followed suit with its CEN standard ( Directive 93 / 42 / EEC concerning medical devices ) . Every latex condom is tested for holes with an electric current . If the condom passes , it is rolled and packaged . In addition , a portion of each batch of condoms is subject to water leak and air burst testing .
While the advantages of latex have made it the most popular condom material , it does have some drawbacks . Latex condoms are damaged when used with oil @-@ based substances as lubricants , such as petroleum jelly , cooking oil , baby oil , mineral oil , skin lotions , suntan lotions , cold creams , butter or margarine . Contact with oil makes latex condoms more likely to break or slip off due to loss of elasticity caused by the oils . Additionally , latex allergy precludes use of latex condoms and is one of the principal reasons for the use of other materials . In May 2009 the U.S. Food and Drug Administration granted approval for the production of condoms composed of Vytex , latex that has been treated to remove 90 % of the proteins responsible for allergic reactions . An allergen @-@ free condom made of synthetic latex ( polyisoprene ) is also available .
= = = = Synthetic = = = =
The most common non @-@ latex condoms are made from polyurethane . Condoms may also be made from other synthetic materials , such as AT @-@ 10 resin , and most recently polyisoprene .
Polyurethane condoms tend to be the same width and thickness as latex condoms , with most polyurethane condoms between 0 @.@ 04 mm and 0 @.@ 07 mm thick .
Polyurethane can be considered better than latex in several ways : it conducts heat better than latex , is not as sensitive to temperature and ultraviolet light ( and so has less rigid storage requirements and a longer shelf life ) , can be used with oil @-@ based lubricants , is less allergenic than latex , and does not have an odor . Polyurethane condoms have gained FDA approval for sale in the United States as an effective method of contraception and HIV prevention , and under laboratory conditions have been shown to be just as effective as latex for these purposes .
However , polyurethane condoms are less elastic than latex ones , and may be more likely to slip or break than latex , lose their shape or bunch up more than latex , and are more expensive .
Polyisoprene is a synthetic version of natural rubber latex . While significantly more expensive , it has the advantages of latex ( such as being softer and more elastic than polyurethane condoms ) without the protein which is responsible for latex allergies . Like polyurethane condoms , polyisoprene condoms are said to do a better job of transmitting body heat . Unlike polyurethane condoms , they cannot be used with an oil @-@ based lubricant .
= = = = Lambskin = = = =
Condoms made from sheep intestines , labeled " lambskin " , are also available . Although they are generally effective as a contraceptive by blocking sperm , it is presumed that they are likely less effective than latex in preventing the transmission of agents that cause STDs , because of pores in the material . This is based on the idea that intestines , by their nature , are porous , permeable membranes , and while sperm are too large to pass through the pores , viruses — such as HIV , herpes , and genital warts — are small enough to pass through . However , there are to date no clinical data confirming or denying this theory . Some believe that lambskin condoms provide a more " natural " sensation , and they lack the allergens that are inherent to latex , but because of their lesser protection against infection , other hypoallergenic materials such as polyurethane are recommended for latex @-@ allergic users and / or partners . Lambskin condoms are also significantly more expensive than other types and as slaughter by @-@ products they are also not vegetarian .
= = = Spermicide = = =
Some latex condoms are lubricated at the manufacturer with a small amount of a nonoxynol @-@ 9 , a spermicidal chemical . According to Consumer Reports , condoms lubricated with spermicide have no additional benefit in preventing pregnancy , have a shorter shelf life , and may cause urinary @-@ tract infections in women . In contrast , application of separately packaged spermicide is believed to increase the contraceptive efficacy of condoms .
Nonoxynol @-@ 9 was once believed to offer additional protection against STDs ( including HIV ) but recent studies have shown that , with frequent use , nonoxynol @-@ 9 may increase the risk of HIV transmission . The World Health Organization says that spermicidally lubricated condoms should no longer be promoted . However , it recommends using a nonoxynol @-@ 9 lubricated condom over no condom at all . As of 2005 , nine condom manufacturers have stopped manufacturing condoms with nonoxynol @-@ 9 and Planned Parenthood has discontinued the distribution of condoms so lubricated .
= = = Ribbed and studded = = =
Textured condoms include studded and ribbed condoms which can provide extra sensations to both partners . The studs or ribs can be located on the inside , outside , or both ; alternatively , they are located in specific sections to provide directed stimulation to either the g @-@ spot or frenulum . Many textured condoms which advertise " mutual pleasure " also are bulb @-@ shaped at the top , to provide extra stimulation to the penis . Some women experience irritation during vaginal intercourse with studded condoms .
= = = Youth condoms = = =
In March 2010 , the Swiss government announced that it was planning to promote smaller condoms intended for boys and youths of 12 – 14 years old following concern about the pregnancy rate among adolescent girls , and also about the potential spread of AIDS among this age group . This was due to the fact that standard condoms were too wide and consequently failed to afford protection to adolescent boys during vaginal and anal intercourse . Family planning groups and the Swiss AIDS Federation had campaigned to have a narrower condom produced for youths after a number of studies , including a government study researched at the Centre for Development and Personality Psychology at Basel University , found that standard condoms were unsuitable for boys in this age range , and that the condoms either failed during use or that the boys rejected them altogether because they were too wide , and consequently they used no protection at all .
As a result of these studies , a condom aimed at 12- to 14 @-@ year @-@ old boys is now produced and is available in Switzerland and in certain other countries . Manufactured by Ceylor , the " Hotshot " is a lubricated , teat @-@ ended latex condom which is narrower than a standard condom and has a tight band at the opening to ensure that it remains on the youth 's penis during intercourse . A standard condom has a diameter of 2 inches ( 5 @.@ 2 cm ) whereas the Hotshot has a diameter of 1 @.@ 7 inches ( 4 @.@ 5 cm ) . Both are the same length – 7 @.@ 4 inches ( 19 cm ) . In 2014 , in response to demand for condoms from a younger age @-@ group , German condom manufacturer Amor started producing another condom aimed at young people . Known as " Amor Young Love " , these lubricated condoms have a diameter of 1 @.@ 9 inches ( 4 @.@ 9 cm ) .
= = = Other = = =
The anti @-@ rape condom is another variation designed to be worn by women . It is designed to cause pain to the attacker , hopefully allowing the victim a chance to escape .
A collection condom is used to collect semen for fertility treatments or sperm analysis . These condoms are designed to maximize sperm life .
Some condom @-@ like devices are intended for entertainment only , such as glow @-@ in @-@ the dark condoms . These novelty condoms may not provide protection against pregnancy and STDs .
= = Prevalence = =
The prevalence of condom use varies greatly between countries . Most surveys of contraceptive use are among married women , or women in informal unions . Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in that country , condoms account for almost 80 % of contraceptive use by married women . On average , in developed countries , condoms are the most popular method of birth control : 28 % of married contraceptive users rely on condoms . In the average less @-@ developed country , condoms are less common : only 6 – 8 % of married contraceptive users choose condoms .
= = History = =
= = = Before the 19th century = = =
Whether condoms were used in ancient civilizations is debated by archaeologists and historians . In ancient Egypt , Greece , and Rome , pregnancy prevention was generally seen as a woman 's responsibility , and the only well documented contraception methods were female @-@ controlled devices . In Asia before the 15th century , some use of glans condoms ( devices covering only the head of the penis ) is recorded . Condoms seem to have been used for contraception , and to have been known only by members of the upper classes . In China , glans condoms may have been made of oiled silk paper , or of lamb intestines . In Japan , they were made of tortoise shell or animal horn .
In 16th century Italy , Gabriele Falloppio wrote a treatise on syphilis . The earliest documented strain of syphilis , first appearing in Europe in a 1490s outbreak , caused severe symptoms and often death within a few months of contracting the disease . Falloppio 's treatise is the earliest uncontested description of condom use : it describes linen sheaths soaked in a chemical solution and allowed to dry before use . The cloths he described were sized to cover the glans of the penis , and were held on with a ribbon . Falloppio claimed that an experimental trial of the linen sheath demonstrated protection against syphilis .
After this , the use of penis coverings to protect from disease is described in a wide variety of literature throughout Europe . The first indication that these devices were used for birth control , rather than disease prevention , is the 1605 theological publication De iustitia et iure ( On justice and law ) by Catholic theologian Leonardus Lessius , who condemned them as immoral . In 1666 , the English Birth Rate Commission attributed a recent downward fertility rate to use of " condons " , the first documented use of that word ( or any similar spelling ) .
In addition to linen , condoms during the Renaissance were made out of intestines and bladder . In the late 16th century , Dutch traders introduced condoms made from " fine leather " to Japan . Unlike the horn condoms used previously , these leather condoms covered the entire penis .
Casanova in the 18th century was one of the first reported using " assurance caps " to prevent impregnating his mistresses .
From at least the 18th century , condom use was opposed in some legal , religious , and medical circles for essentially the same reasons that are given today : condoms reduce the likelihood of pregnancy , which some thought immoral or undesirable for the nation ; they do not provide full protection against sexually transmitted infections , while belief in their protective powers was thought to encourage sexual promiscuity ; and , they are not used consistently due to inconvenience , expense , or loss of sensation .
Despite some opposition , the condom market grew rapidly . In the 18th century , condoms were available in a variety of qualities and sizes , made from either linen treated with chemicals , or " skin " ( bladder or intestine softened by treatment with sulfur and lye ) . They were sold at pubs , barbershops , chemist shops , open @-@ air markets , and at the theater throughout Europe and Russia . They later spread to America , although in every place there were generally used only by the middle and upper classes , due to both expense and lack of sex education .
= = = 1800 through 1920s = = =
The early 19th century saw contraceptives promoted to the poorer classes for the first time . Writers on contraception tended to prefer other methods of birth control to the condom . By the late 19th century many feminists expressed distrust of the condom as a contraceptive , as its use was controlled and decided upon by men alone . They advocated instead for methods which were controlled by women , such as diaphragms and spermicidal douches . Other writers cited both the expense of condoms and their unreliability ( they were often riddled with holes , and often fell off or broke ) , but they discussed condoms as a good option for some , and as the only contraceptive that also protected from disease .
Many countries passed laws impeding the manufacture and promotion of contraceptives . In spite of these restrictions , condoms were promoted by traveling lecturers and in newspaper advertisements , using euphemisms in places where such ads were illegal . Instructions on how to make condoms at home were distributed in the United States and Europe . Despite social and legal opposition , at the end of the 19th century the condom was the Western world 's most popular birth control method .
Beginning in the second half of the 19th century , American rates of sexually transmitted diseases skyrocketed . Causes cited by historians include effects of the American Civil War , and the ignorance of prevention methods promoted by the Comstock laws . To fight the growing epidemic , sex education classes were introduced to public schools for the first time , teaching about venereal diseases and how they were transmitted . They generally taught that abstinence was the only way to avoid sexually transmitted diseases . Condoms were not promoted for disease prevention because the medical community and moral watchdogs considered STDs to be punishment for sexual misbehavior . The stigma against victims of these diseases was so great that many hospitals refused to treat people who had syphilis .
The German military was the first to promote condom use among its soldiers , beginning in the later 19th century . Early 20th century experiments by the American military concluded that providing condoms to soldiers significantly lowered rates of sexually transmitted diseases . During World War I , the United States and ( at the beginning of the war only ) Britain were the only countries with soldiers in Europe who did not provide condoms and promote their use .
In the decades after World War I , there remained social and legal obstacles to condom use throughout the U.S. and Europe . Founder of psychoanalysis Sigmund Freud opposed all methods of birth control on the grounds that their failure rates were too high . Freud was especially opposed to the condom because he thought it cut down on sexual pleasure . Some feminists continued to oppose male @-@ controlled contraceptives such as condoms . In 1920 the Church of England 's Lambeth Conference condemned all " unnatural means of conception avoidance " . London 's Bishop Arthur Winnington @-@ Ingram complained of the huge number of condoms discarded in alleyways and parks , especially after weekends and holidays .
However , European militaries continued to provide condoms to their members for disease protection , even in countries where they were illegal for the general population . Through the 1920s , catchy names and slick packaging became an increasingly important marketing technique for many consumer items , including condoms and cigarettes . Quality testing became more common , involving filling each condom with air followed by one of several methods intended to detect loss of pressure . Worldwide , condom sales doubled in the 1920s .
= = = Rubber and manufacturing advances = = =
In 1839 , Charles Goodyear discovered a way of processing natural rubber , which is too stiff when cold and too soft when warm , in such a way as to make it elastic . This proved to have advantages for the manufacture of condoms ; unlike the sheep 's gut condoms , they could stretch and did not tear quickly when used . The rubber vulcanization process was patented by Goodyear in 1844 . The first rubber condom was produced in 1855 . The earliest rubber condoms had a seam and were as thick as a bicycle inner tube . Besides this type , small rubber condoms covering only the glans were often used in England and the United States . There was more risk of losing them and if the rubber ring was too tight , it would constrict the penis . This type of condom was the original " capote " ( French for condom ) , perhaps because of its resemblance to a woman 's bonnet worn at that time , also called a capote .
For many decades , rubber condoms were manufactured by wrapping strips of raw rubber around penis @-@ shaped molds , then dipping the wrapped molds in a chemical solution to cure the rubber . In 1912 , Polish inventor Julius Fromm developed a new , improved manufacturing technique for condoms : dipping glass molds into a raw rubber solution . Called cement dipping , this method required adding gasoline or benzene to the rubber to make it liquid . Latex , rubber suspended in water , was invented in 1920 . Latex condoms required less labor to produce than cement @-@ dipped rubber condoms , which had to be smoothed by rubbing and trimming . The use of water to suspend the rubber instead of gasoline and benzene eliminated the fire hazard previously associated with all condom factories . Latex condoms also performed better for the consumer : they were stronger and thinner than rubber condoms , and had a shelf life of five years ( compared to three months for rubber ) .
Until the twenties , all condoms were individually hand @-@ dipped by semi @-@ skilled workers . Throughout the decade of the 1920s , advances in the automation of the condom assembly line were made . The first fully automated line was patented in 1930 . Major condom manufacturers bought or leased conveyor systems , and small manufacturers were driven out of business . The skin condom , now significantly more expensive than the latex variety , became restricted to a niche high @-@ end market .
= = = 1930 to present = = =
In 1930 the Anglican Church 's Lambeth Conference sanctioned the use of birth control by married couples . In 1931 the Federal Council of Churches in the U.S. issued a similar statement . The Roman Catholic Church responded by issuing the encyclical Casti connubii affirming its opposition to all contraceptives , a stance it has never reversed .
In the 1930s , legal restrictions on condoms began to be relaxed . But during this period Fascist Italy and Nazi Germany increased restrictions on condoms ( limited sales as disease preventatives were still allowed ) . During the Depression , condom lines by Schmid gained in popularity . Schmid still used the cement @-@ dipping method of manufacture which had two advantages over the latex variety . Firstly , cement @-@ dipped condoms could be safely used with oil @-@ based lubricants . Secondly , while less comfortable , these older @-@ style rubber condoms could be reused and so were more economical , a valued feature in hard times . More attention was brought to quality issues in the 1930s , and the U.S. Food and Drug Administration began to regulate the quality of condoms sold in the United States .
Throughout World War II , condoms were not only distributed to male U.S. military members , but also heavily promoted with films , posters , and lectures . European and Asian militaries on both sides of the conflict also provided condoms to their troops throughout the war , even Germany which outlawed all civilian use of condoms in 1941 . In part because condoms were readily available , soldiers found a number of non @-@ sexual uses for the devices , many of which continue to this day .
After the war , condom sales continued to grow . From 1955 – 1965 , 42 % of Americans of reproductive age relied on condoms for birth control . In Britain from 1950 – 1960 , 60 % of married couples used condoms . The birth control pill became the world 's most popular method of birth control in the years after its 1960 début , but condoms remained a strong second . The U.S. Agency for International Development pushed condom use in developing countries to help solve the " world population crises " : by 1970 hundreds of millions of condoms were being used each year in India alone . ( This number has grown in recent decades : in 2004 , the government of India purchased 1 @.@ 9 billion condoms for distribution at family planning clinics . )
In the 1960s and 1970s quality regulations tightened , and more legal barriers to condom use were removed . In Ireland , legal condom sales were allowed for the first time in 1978 . Advertising , however was one area that continued to have legal restrictions . In the late 1950s , the American National Association of Broadcasters banned condom advertisements from national television : this policy remained in place until 1979 .
After learning in the early 1980s that AIDS can be a sexually transmitted infection , the use of condoms was encouraged to prevent transmission of HIV . Despite opposition by some political , religious , and other figures , national condom promotion campaigns occurred in the U.S. and Europe . These campaigns increased condom use significantly .
Due to increased demand and greater social acceptance , condoms began to be sold in a wider variety of retail outlets , including in supermarkets and in discount department stores such as Wal @-@ Mart . Condom sales increased every year until 1994 , when media attention to the AIDS pandemic began to decline . The phenomenon of decreasing use of condoms as disease preventatives has been called prevention fatigue or condom fatigue . Observers have cited condom fatigue in both Europe and North America . As one response , manufacturers have changed the tone of their advertisements from scary to humorous .
New developments continued to occur in the condom market , with the first polyurethane condom — branded Avanti and produced by the manufacturer of Durex — introduced in the 1990s , and the first custom sized @-@ to @-@ fit condom , called TheyFit , introduced in the early 2000s .
Worldwide condom use is expected to continue to grow : one study predicted that developing nations would need 18 @.@ 6 billion condoms by 2015 . As of September 2013 , condoms are available inside prisons in Canada , most of the European Union , Australia , Brazil , Indonesia , South Africa , and the US states of Vermont ( on September 17 , 2013 , the Californian Senate approved a bill for condom distribution inside the state 's prisons , but the bill was not yet law at the time of approval ) .
= = = Etymology and other terms = = =
The term condom first appears in the early 18th century . Its etymology is unknown . In popular tradition , the invention and naming of the condom came to be attributed to an associate of England 's King Charles II , one " Dr. Condom " or " Earl of Condom " . There is however no evidence of the existence of such a person , and condoms had been used for over one hundred years before King Charles II ascended to the throne .
A variety of unproven Latin etymologies have been proposed , including condon ( receptacle ) , condamina ( house ) , and cumdum ( scabbard or case ) . It has also been speculated to be from the Italian word guantone , derived from guanto , meaning glove . William E. Kruck wrote an article in 1981 concluding that , " As for the word ' condom ' , I need state only that its origin remains completely unknown , and there ends this search for an etymology . " Modern dictionaries may also list the etymology as " unknown " .
Other terms are also commonly used to describe condoms . In North America condoms are also commonly known as prophylactics , or rubbers . In Britain they may be called French letters . Additionally , condoms may be referred to using the manufacturer 's name .
= = Society and culture = =
Some moral and scientific criticism of condoms exists despite the many benefits of condoms agreed on by scientific consensus and sexual health experts .
Condom usage is typically recommended for new couples who have yet to develop full trust in their partner with regard to STDs . Established couples on the other hand have few concerns about STDs , and can use other methods of birth control such as the pill , which does not act as a barrier to intimate sexual contact . Note that the polar debate with regard to condom usage is attenuated by the target group the argument is directed . Notably the age category and stable partner question are factors , as well as the distinction between heterosexual and homosexuals , who have different kinds of sex and have different risk consequences and factors .
Among the prime objections to condom usage is the blocking of erotic sensation , and / or the intimacy that barrier @-@ free sex provides . As the condom is held tightly to the skin of the penis , it diminishes the delivery of stimulation through rubbing and friction . Condom proponents claim this has the benefit of making sex last longer , by diminishing sensation and delaying male ejaculation . Those who promote condom @-@ free heterosexual sex ( slang : " bareback " ) claim that the condom puts a prophylactic barrier between partners , diminishing what is normally a highly sensual , intimate , and spiritual connection between partners .
= = = Religious = = =
Roman Catholic Church opposes all kinds of sexual acts outside of marriage , as well as any sexual act in which the chance of successful conception has been reduced by direct and intentional acts ( for example , surgery to prevent conception ) or foreign objects ( for example , condoms ) .
The use of condoms to prevent STD transmission is not specifically addressed by Catholic doctrine , and is currently a topic of debate among theologians and high @-@ ranking Catholic authorities . A few , such as Belgian Cardinal Godfried Danneels , believe the Catholic Church should actively support condoms used to prevent disease , especially serious diseases such as AIDS . However , the majority view — including all statements from the Vatican — is that condom @-@ promotion programs encourage promiscuity , thereby actually increasing STD transmission . This view was most recently reiterated in 2009 by Pope Benedict XVI .
The Roman Catholic Church is the largest organized body of any world religion . The church has hundreds of programs dedicated to fighting the AIDS epidemic in Africa , but its opposition to condom use in these programs has been highly controversial .
In a November 2011 interview , the Pope discussed for the first time the use of condoms to prevent STD transmission . He said that the use of a condom can be justified in a few individual cases if the purpose is to reduce the risk of an HIV infection . He gave as an example male prostitutes . There was some confusion at first whether the statement applied only to homosexual prostitutes and thus not to heterosexual intercourse at all . However , Federico Lombardi , spokesman for the Vatican , clarified that it applied to heterosexual and transsexual prostitutes , whether male or female , as well . He did , however , also clarify that the Vatican 's principles on sexuality and contraception had not been changed .
= = = Scientific and environmental = = =
More generally , some scientific researchers have expressed objective concern over certain ingredients sometimes added to condoms , notably talc and nitrosamines . Dry dusting powders are applied to latex condoms before packaging to prevent the condom from sticking to itself when rolled up . Previously , talc was used by most manufacturers , but cornstarch is currently the most popular dusting powder . Talc is known to be toxic if it enters the abdominal cavity ( i.e. , via the vagina ) . Cornstarch is generally believed to be safe ; however , some researchers have raised concerns over its use as well .
Nitrosamines , which are potentially carcinogenic in humans , are believed to be present in a substance used to improve elasticity in latex condoms . A 2001 review stated that humans regularly receive 1 @,@ 000 to 10 @,@ 000 times greater nitrosamine exposure from food and tobacco than from condom use and concluded that the risk of cancer from condom use is very low . However , a 2004 study in Germany detected nitrosamines in 29 out of 32 condom brands tested , and concluded that exposure from condoms might exceed the exposure from food by 1.5- to 3 @-@ fold .
In addition , the large @-@ scale use of disposable condoms has resulted in concerns over their environmental impact via littering and in landfills , where they can eventually wind up in wildlife environments if not incinerated or otherwise permanently disposed of first . Polyurethane condoms in particular , given they are a form of plastic , are not biodegradable , and latex condoms take a very long time to break down . Experts , such as AVERT , recommend condoms be disposed of in a garbage receptacle , as flushing them down the toilet ( which some people do ) may cause plumbing blockages and other problems . Furthermore , the plastic and foil wrappers condoms are packaged in are also not biodegradable . However , the benefits condoms offer are widely considered to offset their small landfill mass . Frequent condom or wrapper disposal in public areas such as a parks have been seen as a persistent litter problem .
While biodegradable , latex condoms damage the environment when disposed of improperly . According to the Ocean Conservancy , condoms , along with certain other types of trash , cover the coral reefs and smother sea grass and other bottom dwellers . The United States Environmental Protection Agency also has expressed concerns that many animals might mistake the litter for food .
= = = Cultural barriers to use = = =
In much of the Western world , the introduction of the pill in the 1960s was associated with a decline in condom use . In Japan , oral contraceptives were not approved for use until September 1999 , and even then access was more restricted than in other industrialized nations . Perhaps because of this restricted access to hormonal contraception , Japan has the highest rate of condom usage in the world : in 2008 , 80 % of contraceptive users relied on condoms .
Cultural attitudes toward gender roles , contraception , and sexual activity vary greatly around the world , and range from extremely conservative to extremely liberal . But in places where condoms are misunderstood , mischaracterised , demonised , or looked upon with overall cultural disapproval , the prevalence of condom use is directly affected . In less @-@ developed countries and among less @-@ educated populations , misperceptions about how disease transmission and conception work negatively affect the use of condoms ; additionally , in cultures with more traditional gender roles , women may feel uncomfortable demanding that their partners use condoms .
As an example , Latino immigrants in the United States often face cultural barriers to condom use . A study on female HIV prevention published in the Journal of Sex Health Research asserts that Latino women often lack the attitudes needed to negotiate safe sex due to traditional gender @-@ role norms in the Latino community , and may be afraid to bring up the subject of condom use with their partners . Women who participated in the study often reported that because of the general machismo subtly encouraged in Latino culture , their male partners would be angry or possibly violent at the woman 's suggestion that they use condoms . A similar phenomenon has been noted in a survey of low @-@ income American black women ; the women in this study also reported a fear of violence at the suggestion to their male partners that condoms be used .
A telephone survey conducted by Rand Corporation and Oregon State University , and published in the Journal of Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndromes showed that belief in AIDS conspiracy theories among United States black men is linked to rates of condom use . As conspiracy beliefs about AIDS grow in a given sector of these black men , consistent condom use drops in that same sector . Female use of condoms was not similarly affected .
In the African continent , condom promotion in some areas has been impeded by anti @-@ condom campaigns by some Muslim and Catholic clerics . Among the Maasai in Tanzania , condom use is hampered by an aversion to " wasting " sperm , which is given sociocultural importance beyond reproduction . Sperm is believed to be an " elixir " to women and to have beneficial health effects . Maasai women believe that , after conceiving a child , they must have sexual intercourse repeatedly so that the additional sperm aids the child 's development . Frequent condom use is also considered by some Maasai to cause impotence . Some women in Africa believe that condoms are " for prostitutes " and that respectable women should not use them . A few clerics even promote the idea that condoms are deliberately laced with HIV . In the United States , possession of many condoms has been used by police to accuse women of engaging in prostitution . The Presidential Advisory Council on HIV / AIDS has condemned this practice and there are efforts to end it .
In March 2013 , technology mogul Bill Gates offered a US $ 100 @,@ 000 grant through his foundation for a condom design that " significantly preserves or enhances pleasure " to encourage more males to adopt the use of condoms for safer sex . The grant information states : “ The primary drawback from the male perspective is that condoms decrease pleasure as compared to no condom , creating a trade @-@ off that many men find unacceptable , particularly given that the decisions about use must be made just prior to intercourse . Is it possible to develop a product without this stigma , or better , one that is felt to enhance pleasure ? ” The project has been named the " Next Generation Condom " and anyone who can provide a " testable hypothesis " is eligible to apply .
Middle @-@ Eastern couples who have not had children , because of the strong desire and social pressure to establish fertility as soon as possible within marriage , rarely use condoms .
= = = Major manufacturers = = =
One analyst described the size of the condom market as something that " boggles the mind " . Numerous small manufacturers , nonprofit groups , and government @-@ run manufacturing plants exist around the world . Within the condom market , there are several major contributors , among them both for @-@ profit businesses and philanthropic organizations . Most large manufacturers have ties to the business that reach back to the end of the 19th century .
= = Research = =
A spray @-@ on condom made of latex is intended to be easier to apply and more successful in preventing the transmission of diseases . As of 2009 , the spray @-@ on condom was not going to market because the drying time could not be reduced below two to three minutes .
The Invisible Condom , developed at Université Laval in Québec , Canada , is a gel that hardens upon increased temperature after insertion into the vagina or rectum . In the lab , it has been shown to effectively block HIV and herpes simplex virus . The barrier breaks down and liquefies after several hours . As of 2005 , the invisible condom is in the clinical trial phase , and has not yet been approved for use .
Also developed in 2005 is a condom treated with an erectogenic compound . The drug @-@ treated condom is intended to help the wearer maintain his erection , which should also help reduce slippage . If approved , the condom would be marketed under the Durex brand . As of 2007 , it was still in clinical trials . In 2009 , Ansell Healthcare , the makers of Lifestyle condoms , introduced the X2 condom lubricated with " Excite Gel " which contains the amino acid l @-@ arginine and is intended to improve the strength of the erectile response .
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= Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleship =
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class battleships ( Project 23 , Russian : Советский Союз , " Soviet Union " ) , also known as " Stalin 's Republics " , were a class of battleships begun by the Soviet Union in the late 1930s but never brought into service . They were designed in response to the battleships being built by Germany . Only four hulls of the sixteen originally planned had been laid down by 1940 , when the decision was made to cut the program to only three ships to divert resources to an expanded army rearmament program .
These ships would have rivaled the Imperial Japanese Yamato class and America 's planned Montana class in size if any had been completed , although with significantly weaker firepower : nine 406 @-@ millimeter ( 16 @.@ 0 in ) guns compared to the nine 460 @-@ millimeter ( 18 @.@ 1 in ) guns of the Japanese ships and a dozen 16 @-@ inch ( 406 @.@ 4 mm ) on the Montanas . However , they would have been superior to their German rivals , the Bismarck class , at least on paper . The failure of the Soviet armor plate industry to build cemented armor plates thicker than 230 millimeters ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) would have negated any advantages from the Sovetsky Soyuz class 's thicker armor in combat .
Construction of the first four ships was plagued with difficulties as the Soviet shipbuilding and related industries were not prepared to build such large ships . One battleship , Sovetskaya Belorussiya , was cancelled on 19 October 1940 after serious construction flaws were found . Construction of the other three ships was suspended shortly after Nazi Germany invaded the Soviet Union in June 1941 , and never resumed . All three of the surviving hulls were scrapped in the late 1940s .
= = Design and development = =
Design work began in 1935 on new battleships in response to the existing and planned German battleships , and the Soviets made extensive efforts in Italy and the United States to purchase either drawings or the ships themselves in the late 1930s . The Italian firm of Gio . Ansaldo & C. proposed a ship of 42 @,@ 000 long tons ( 43 @,@ 000 t ) standard displacement with nine 16 @-@ inch ( 406 mm ) guns , in size and appearance similar to the Italian battleship Littorio then under construction by the company . The U.S. firm of Gibbs & Cox provided four designs ; one for a conventional battleship , and three hybrid designs which combined battleship main armament with a raised flight deck on the central superstructure capable of operating up to 30 aircraft . While these projects proved useful to the Soviets , they decided to proceed with their own designs .
The first Tactical @-@ Technical Requirement ( abbreviated in Russian as TTZ ) for the large battleship design was issued on 21 February 1936 but proved too ambitious , specifying nine 460 mm guns and a speed of 36 knots ( 67 km / h ; 41 mph ) on a displacement of 55 @,@ 000 tons . The TTZ was revised in May 1936 by Admiral Orlov , Commander of the Soviet Navy , reducing speed to 30 knots ( 56 km / h ; 35 mph ) , and weakening the secondary and anti @-@ aircraft batteries . A few months later Admiral Orlov further reduced the size of the battleship to 45 @,@ 000 tons and set the size of the main guns at 406 mm . Shortly afterward , the Soviet Union signed the Anglo @-@ Soviet Quantitative Naval Agreement of 1937 and agreed to follow the terms of the Second London Naval Treaty that limited battleships to a displacement of 35 @,@ 560 metric tons ( 35 @,@ 000 long tons ) , although they did add a proviso that allowed them to build ships of unlimited size to face the Imperial Japanese Navy if they notified the British . Yet another TTZ was approved by Orlov on 3 August for ships of 41 @,@ 500 tons with an armament of nine 406 @-@ millimeter , twelve 152 @-@ millimeter ( 6 @.@ 0 in ) , twelve 100 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) , and forty 37 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) guns , a maximum armor thickness of 380 mm ( 15 in ) and a speed of 30 knots .
The design of KB @-@ 4 , the surface ship design bureau of the Baltic Shipyard , was selected for further development although the lead designers were convinced that only a larger ship could fulfill the ambitious requirements . They did manage to get agreement on 22 November 1936 for a thickening of the deck armor that raised the displacement to about 47 @,@ 000 tons . Design work continued on this basis and technical work was completed for a ship of 47 @,@ 700 tons in April 1937 , but the designers continued to press their case for larger ships . The issue was resolved by Premier Stalin at a meeting on 4 July when he agreed to increase displacement to about 56 @,@ 000 tons . This forced the project to begin again .
The timing of the redesign proved to be inauspicious as the Great Purge was spreading through the ranks of the military and related industries . The original deadline for completion of design work by 15 October was missed , and an incomplete version was presented to the navy 's Shipbuilding Administration the next month . A number of details remained to be worked out , including the final design of the machinery plant , the 152 mm guns and the 100 mm gun mounts . In the meantime , extensive and expensive testing was conducted on the ship 's hull form , deck armor and torpedo protection ; 27 million rubles were spent on experimental work in 1938 alone . Over 100 models of the hull were tested in a ship model basin to find the best hull form and two one @-@ tenth @-@ scale launches were built at Sevastopol to test the hull 's maneuverability . An old steamship was fitted with a replica of the design 's armor decks and tested against 500 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @,@ 100 lb ) bombs , proving that such ordnance would generally penetrate both the 40 @-@ millimeter ( 1 @.@ 6 in ) upper and 50 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) middle decks before exploding on the armored deck . The main armor deck was raised one deck in consequence and a splinter deck added underneath it to stop any bomb or shell fragments that might penetrate the armor deck . The underwater protection system was tested on fifteen one @-@ fifth scale models and two full @-@ sized experimental barges . These tests proved that the torpedo belt system of multiple bulkheads was superior to the Pugliese system of a large tube filled with smaller sealed tubes , but it was too late to incorporate these test results into the design as construction was well underway by the time they were completed in late 1939 .
A revised design was approved on 28 February 1938 and the first ship was to be laid down on 15 July , but even this design was incomplete and would be revised later . Trials with similarly shaped motor launches suggested that the hull 's propulsive efficiency would be 1 knot ( 1 @.@ 9 km / h ; 1 @.@ 2 mph ) less than planned , and this was accepted in the November 1938 revision as a maximum speed of 27 @.@ 5 knots ( 50 @.@ 9 km / h ; 31 @.@ 6 mph ) . However , a new propeller design proved to be more efficient and was predicted to increase speed to 28 knots ( 52 km / h ; 32 mph ) . Another change was the deletion of the centerline rudder when tests showed that the two wing rudders would not be able to counteract its effects if it jammed . The weight toward the stern of the boat was calculated to be too great , producing a substantial stern @-@ down trim . To remedy this , the two 100 mm turrets mounted on the quarterdeck were deleted and the height of the armor belt abreast the rear turret was lowered , but this decision was reversed and they were restored by a decision of the State Defense Committee on 14 January 1941 . This forced a revision of the aircraft arrangements as the aircraft catapult had to be removed from the centerline of the quarterdeck ; two catapults were added to the sides of the quarterdeck instead .
= = = General characteristics = = =
As designed , the Project 23 @-@ class ships , as Sovetsky Soyuz and her sisters were designated , were 269 @.@ 4 meters ( 883 ft 10 in ) long overall . They had a beam of 38 @.@ 9 meters ( 127 ft 7 in ) and at full load a draft of 10 @.@ 4 meters ( 34 ft 1 in ) . They displaced 59 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 58 @,@ 220 long tons ) at standard load and 65 @,@ 150 metric tons ( 64 @,@ 121 long tons ) at full load , although weight estimates made in 1940 show that they would have exceeded 60 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 59 @,@ 052 long tons ) standard and 67 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 65 @,@ 942 long tons ) at full load .
The hull form was very full @-@ bodied , especially at the forward magazines , where the torpedo protection system added width to the beam . Coupled with the relatively low length @-@ to @-@ beam ratio of 7 @.@ 14 : 1 , this meant that very powerful turbines were necessary to achieve even modest speeds . Stalin 's decision that the Project 23 @-@ class ships would use three shafts instead of four increased the load on each shaft and reduced propulsive efficiency , although it did shorten the length of the armored citadel and thus overall displacement . Metacentric height was designed at 3 @.@ 4 meters ( 11 ft 2 in ) and the tactical diameter was estimated at about 1 @,@ 170 meters ( 3 @,@ 840 ft ) .
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships were provided with aircraft facilities to handle two to four KOR @-@ 2 flying boats which would be launched by the two catapults mounted on the stern . Two hangars were built into the after end of the forecastle deck to house two of them and cranes were provided at the forward end of the quarterdeck to hoist them out of the water .
= = = Machinery = = =
The machinery arrangement " provided good dispersal of the machinery spaces , but at the cost of very long runs for the wing shafts ( ca . 105 meters ( 344 @.@ 5 ft ) ) " . The turbine compartments for the wing shafts were located forward of boiler room No. 1 and aft of the No. 2 turret magazines . The engine room for the center shaft 's turbine was between boiler room No. 2 and No. 3 . This meant that the wing propeller shafts had to run underneath the boilers .
The steam turbines , and a license to build them , were originally going to be ordered from Cammell Laird in the United Kingdom , but their £ 700 @,@ 000 cost was more than the Soviets wanted to pay . Instead they bought them from Brown Boveri , using the technical information acquired from Cammell Laird in the process , for £ 400 @,@ 000 . Four single @-@ reduction , impulse @-@ reduction geared turbines were ordered from the Swiss firm , three to equip Sovetskaya Rossiya and one to serve as a pattern for the factory in Kharkiv that was to build the remainder . The three produced a total of 201 @,@ 000 shaft horsepower ( 149 @,@ 886 kW ) . Six triangle @-@ type water @-@ tube boilers — two in each boiler room — powered the turbines at a working pressure of 37 kg / cm2 ( 3 @,@ 628 kPa ; 526 psi ) and a temperature of 380 ° C ( 716 ° F ) .
Maximum speed was estimated at 28 knots , using the revised propeller design , although forcing the machinery would yield an extra knot . The normal fuel oil capacity was 5 @,@ 280 metric tons ( 5 @,@ 197 long tons ) , giving an estimated endurance of 6 @,@ 300 nautical miles ( 11 @,@ 700 km ; 7 @,@ 200 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots ( 26 @.@ 9 km / h ; 16 @.@ 7 mph ) and 1 @,@ 890 nautical miles ( 3 @,@ 500 km ; 2 @,@ 170 mi ) at full speed . Maximum fuel capacity was 6 @,@ 440 metric tons ( 6 @,@ 338 long tons ) which gave a range of 7 @,@ 680 nautical miles ( 14 @,@ 220 km ; 8 @,@ 840 mi ) at 14 @.@ 5 knots and 2 @,@ 305 nautical miles ( 4 @,@ 269 km ; 2 @,@ 653 mi ) at full speed .
= = = Armament = = =
The main armament consisted of three electrically powered MK @-@ 1 triple turrets , each with three 50 @-@ caliber 406 mm B @-@ 37 guns . The guns could be depressed to − 2 ° and elevated to 45 ° . They had a fixed loading angle of 6 ° and their rate of fire varied with the time required to re @-@ aim the guns . It ranged from 2 @.@ 0 to 2 @.@ 6 rounds per minute depending on the elevation . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 6 @.@ 2 degrees per second and traverse at 4 @.@ 55 degrees per second . 100 rounds per gun were carried . The guns fired 1 @,@ 108 @-@ kilogram ( 2 @,@ 443 lb ) projectiles at a muzzle velocity of 830 m / s ( 2 @,@ 700 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 45 @,@ 600 meters ( 49 @,@ 900 yd ) .
The secondary armament consisted of twelve 57 @-@ caliber B @-@ 38 152 mm guns mounted in six dual MK @-@ 4 turrets . Their elevation limits were − 5 ° to + 45 ° with a fixed loading angle of 8 ° . Their rate of fire also varied with the elevation from 7 @.@ 5 to 4 @.@ 8 rounds per minute . They were provided with 170 rounds per gun . The turrets could elevate at a rate of 13 degrees per second and traverse at 6 degrees per second . They had a maximum range of about 30 @,@ 000 meters ( 98 @,@ 425 ft ) with a 55 @-@ kilogram ( 121 lb ) shell at a muzzle velocity of 950 m / s ( 3 @,@ 100 ft / s ) .
Heavy anti @-@ aircraft ( AA ) fire was provided by a dozen 56 @-@ caliber 100 mm B @-@ 34 dual @-@ purpose guns in six twin MZ @-@ 14 turrets with 400 rounds per gun . The ships began construction with only four turrets , but two additional turrets were restored to the quarterdeck in January 1941 . They could elevate to a maximum of 85 ° and depress to − 8 ° . They could traverse at a rate of 12 ° per second and elevate at 10 ° per second . They fired 15 @.@ 6 @-@ kilogram ( 34 lb ) high explosive shells at a muzzle velocity of 895 m / s ( 2 @,@ 940 ft / s ) ; this provided a maximum range of 22 @,@ 241 meters ( 24 @,@ 323 yd ) against surface targets , but their maximum range against aerial targets was 9 @,@ 895 meters ( 32 @,@ 464 ft ) , the limit of their time fuse .
Light AA defense was handled by ten quadruple , water @-@ cooled , 46 @-@ K mounts fitted with 37 mm ( 1 @.@ 5 in ) 70 @-@ K guns with 1800 rounds per gun . Initially only eight mounts were planned when the ships began construction , but two more were added later , probably in January 1941 , one on each side of the forward superstructure . Each mount was fully enclosed to protect the crew from the muzzle blast of the larger guns and against splinters . The guns fired .732 @-@ kilogram ( 1 @.@ 61 lb ) shells at a muzzle velocity of 880 m / s ( 2 @,@ 900 ft / s ) . Their effective anti @-@ aircraft range was 4 @,@ 000 meters ( 13 @,@ 123 ft ) .
= = = Fire control = = =
Each main gun turret was given a DM @-@ 12 12 @-@ meter ( 39 ft 4 in ) rangefinder for use in local control , but they were generally controlled by one of three KDP @-@ 8 fire @-@ control directors . These had two 8 @-@ meter ( 26 ft 3 in ) stereoscopic rangefinders , one to track the target and the other to measure the range to the ship 's own shell splashes . Two of these were protected by 20 mm ( 0 @.@ 79 in ) of armor and were mounted atop the rear superstructure and the tower @-@ mast . The other was mounted on top of the conning tower and was protected by 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) of armor . They used a TsAS @-@ 0 mechanical computer to generate firing solutions . Four KDP @-@ 4t @-@ II directors , with two 4 @-@ meter ( 13 ft 1 in ) rangefinders each , controlled the secondary armament . One pair was on either side of the tower @-@ mast and the aft pair was on each side of the aft funnel . Three SPN @-@ 300 stabilized directors , each with a 4 @-@ meter rangefinder , controlled the heavy anti @-@ aircraft guns . There was one on each side of the forward funnel while the other was atop the rear superstructure .
= = = Protection = = =
Soviet armor plate plants proved incapable of producing plates of cemented armor thicker than 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) which forced the decision to replace cemented plates thicker than 200 mm ( 7 @.@ 9 in ) with face @-@ hardened ones with less resistance in November 1940 . The plants tended to compensate by making the thicker plates harder , but this often made them more brittle and large numbers did not pass the acceptance tests . This would have significantly reduced the level of protection enjoyed by the Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships in combat .
The Sovetsky Soyuz @-@ class ships devoted a total weight of 23 @,@ 306 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 938 long tons ) to armor protection , a slightly greater weight than that of the larger Japanese Yamato class ( 23 @,@ 262 metric tons ( 22 @,@ 895 long tons ) ) . Their armor was intended to resist 406 mm shells and 500 kg bombs , specifically shells fired from forward bearings between 35 ° and 50 ° from the centerline . This led to the very unusual situation where the armor belt thickened toward the bow to compensate for the narrowing of the ship near the forward magazines , which had to be compensated for by thicker armor . The belt was 148 @.@ 4 meters ( 486 ft 11 in ) long and covered 57 % of the total waterline length . It was inclined 5 ° to increase its resistance to flat @-@ trajectory shells . Over the machinery spaces it was 375 mm ( 14 @.@ 8 in ) thick and increased in steps until it was 420 mm ( 17 in ) thick over the forward magazines . It was 380 mm ( 15 in ) over the rear magazine . The belt armor was carried forward of the magazines at a thickness of 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) and terminated in a steeply sloped ( 30 ° ) transverse 285 mm ( 11 @.@ 2 in ) bulkhead that reduced to 250 mm ( 9 @.@ 8 in ) at the lower deck where it was continued down to the inner bottom by a 75 @-@ millimeter ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) bulkhead . Forward of this bulkhead was a 20 mm splinter belt that continued all the way to the bow . The main armor belt dropped down to the main deck from the upper deck abreast the aft turret to reduce weight . This " step " was protected by 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) plates . A 365 @-@ millimeter ( 14 @.@ 4 in ) transverse bulkhead separated the rear turret and the ship 's sides . The main part of the armored citadel was closed off by a 230 mm forward bulkhead and a 180 mm ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) rear bulkhead , both of homogeneous armor . Splinter armor 25 mm ( 0 @.@ 98 in ) thick covered the upper portion of the citadel .
The forecastle deck was 25 mm thick while the upper deck was 155 mm ( 6 @.@ 1 in ) over the citadel . Below it , the 50 mm middle deck acted as a splinter deck . The upper deck was 100 mm thick above the 220 mm waterline belt extension . The bottom edge of the forward splinter belt met with a 65 mm ( 2 @.@ 6 in ) arched deck . Another arched deck of the same thickness covered the stern aft of the rear transverse bulkhead .
The main gun turrets had faces 495 mm ( 19 @.@ 5 in ) thick with sides and roofs 230 mm ( 9 @.@ 1 in ) thick . 180 @-@ millimeter ( 7 @.@ 1 in ) thick plates protected the gun ports and 60 @-@ millimeter ( 2 @.@ 4 in ) bulkheads separated each gun . The barbettes were 425 mm ( 16 @.@ 7 in ) thick above the upper deck . The MK @-@ 4 turrets had 100 mm faces and 65 mm sides . Their barbettes were 100 mm in thickness , but reduced to 65 mm on their inboard sides . 100 mm of armor protected the faces , sides and backs of the MZ @-@ 14 turrets for the 100 mm guns , but their roofs and barbettes were 100 mm thick . The forward conning tower had walls 425 mm thick while the rear conning tower had only 220 mm ( 8 @.@ 7 in ) . The flag bridge in the tower @-@ mast had 75 mm ( 3 @.@ 0 in ) of protection .
The torpedo defense system was designed to withstand torpedoes with warheads equivalent to 750 kg ( 1 @,@ 653 lb ) of TNT . The ships were intended to be able to remain afloat with any five adjacent compartments flooded or with three torpedo hits and the destruction of the unarmored above @-@ water side . The Pugliese system protected 123 meters ( 403 ft 7 in ) of the ships ' midsection . At the aft end was a multi @-@ bulkhead protection system that extended another 33 meters ( 108 ft 3 in ) to the rear from the Pugliese system . The depth of the system was 8 @.@ 2 meters ( 26 ft 11 in ) amidships , but it reduced to 7 meters ( 23 ft 0 in ) fore and aft . The outer plating ranged from 11 to 14 mm ( 0 @.@ 43 to 0 @.@ 55 in ) in thickness while the inner bottom was 7 mm ( 0 @.@ 28 in ) thick . The cylinder of the Pugliese system was also 7 mm thick while the semi @-@ circular main bulkhead was 35 mm ( 1 @.@ 4 in ) thick with a flat 10 @-@ millimeter ( 0 @.@ 39 in ) bulkhead behind it . The 3 @.@ 15 @-@ meter ( 10 ft 4 in ) diameter cylinder was intended to be immersed in fuel oil or water .
= = Construction = =
The August 1938 shipbuilding plan envisioned a total of 15 Project 23 @-@ class battleships , and this grandiose scheme was only slightly revised downward to 14 ships in the August 1939 plan . Eight of these were to be laid down before 1942 and the remaining six before 1947 . However , only four were actually laid down before the outbreak of World War II forced the Soviets to reassess their ambitious plans . On 19 October 1940 an order was issued , signed by Stalin and Molotov , that no new battleships would be laid down in order to concentrate on smaller ships ' building ( and also , probably , because more resources were required for the Army ) , one ship is to be scrapped , and priority should be given to only one of the three remaining battleships .
The Soviet shipbuilding and related industries proved to be incapable of supporting the construction of so many large ships at the same time . The largest warships built in the Soviet Union prior to 1938 were the 8 @,@ 000 @-@ metric @-@ ton ( 7 @,@ 874 @-@ long @-@ ton ) Kirov @-@ class cruisers , and even they had suffered from a number of production problems , but the Soviet leadership appeared to ignore the difficulties encountered in the construction of the Kirov class when ordering 14 much more ambitious ships . Construction of two more ships planned for Leningrad and Nikolayev had to move to the brand @-@ new Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk because the existing shipyards could not be expanded to handle so many large ships . Components for these two ships had to be manufactured at Leningrad and shipped via the White Sea – Baltic Canal to Molotovsk . Also , the turret shop at Nikolaev proved to be too poorly equipped to assemble the 406 mm mountings and the propeller shafts had to be ordered in 1940 from Germany and the Netherlands as the domestic plants were already overburdened with orders . Shipbuilding steel proved to be in short supply in 1940 , and a number of batches were rejected because they did not meet specifications . Armor plate production was even more problematic as only 1 @,@ 800 metric tons ( 1 @,@ 772 long tons ) of the anticipated 10 @,@ 000 metric tons ( 9 @,@ 842 long tons ) were delivered in 1939 , and more than half of that was rejected . Furthermore , the armor plants proved to be incapable of making cemented plates over 230 mm , and inferior face @-@ hardened plates had to substitute for all thicknesses over 200 millimeters ( 8 in ) .
Machinery problems were likely to delay the ships well past their intended delivery dates of 1943 – 44 . Three turbines were delivered by Brown Boveri in 1939 to Arkhangelsk for the Sovetskaya Rossiya , but the Kharkhovskii Turbogenerator Works never completed a single turbine before the German invasion in June 1941 . A prototype boiler was supposed to have been built ashore for evaluation , but it was not completed until early 1941 , which further complicated the production plan .
Construction of all three ships was ordered halted on 10 July 1941 , and the Sovetsky Soyuz was placed into long @-@ term conservation as the most advanced ship . However , all three were officially stricken from the Navy List on 10 September 1941 .
= = = Sovetsky Soyuz = = =
Sovetsky Soyuz ( Russian : Советский Союз — Soviet Union ) was formally laid down 15 July 1938 in Shipyard Nr. 189 ( Ordzhonikidze ) in Leningrad , although evidence suggests that construction actually began in January 1939 after her slipway was completed , the necessary cranes were in place , and working drawings had been completed . When the war began she was estimated to be 21 @.@ 19 % complete , with 15 @,@ 818 metric tons ( 15 @,@ 568 long tons ) of steel assembled on the slip . She was only lightly damaged by German air attacks and bombardments , and , as some material had been used during the Siege of Leningrad , she was estimated to be 19 @.@ 5 % complete after the end of the war . Some thought was given to completing her , but this was opposed as she was regarded as obsolete in light of the experience gained during the war . Stalin 's expressed desire to see one of the Project 23 @-@ class ships completed only delayed the decision to scrap her ; this was ordered on 29 May 1948 and was well underway by April 1949 .
= = = Sovetskaya Ukraina = = =
Sovetskaya Ukraina ( Russian : Советская Украина — Soviet Ukraine ) was laid down 31 October 1938 at Shipyard Nr. 198 ( Marti South ) in Nikolayev . When the war began she was 17 @.@ 98 % complete , with 13 @,@ 001 metric tons ( 12 @,@ 796 long tons ) assembled on the slipway . Some effort was made to launch the hull , but little work had been done to dredge the river at the foot of the slipway , and she was captured on 18 August 1941 , although retreating Soviet troops slightly damaged her hull . The Germans dismantled 200 feet ( 61 m ) of her bow and 100 feet ( 30 m ) of her stern for use in fortifications . They were forced to evacuate Nikolayev on 17 March 1944 and demolished the supporting blocks under her port side before they left , which gave her a list between 5 and 10 degrees and made her a total loss . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .
= = = Sovetskaya Rossiya = = =
Sovetskaya Rossiya ( Russian : Советская Россия — Soviet Russia ) was laid down on 22 July 1940 in Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk . After the end of the war she was only 0 @.@ 97 % complete , with 2 @,@ 125 metric tons ( 2 @,@ 091 long tons ) of steel assembled . She was ordered scrapped on 27 March 1947 .
= = = Sovetskaya Belorussiya = = =
Sovetskaya Belorussiya ( Russian : Советская Белоруссия — Soviet Belorussia ) was laid down 21 December 1939 at Shipyard Nr. 402 in Molotovsk , but construction was suspended in mid @-@ 1940 when it was discovered that 70 @,@ 000 rivets used in her hull plating were of inferior quality . This fact probably influenced the decision to cancel her on 19 October 1940 . Material intended for her construction was used to construct a floating battery for the defense of Leningrad .
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= Sang Pencerah =
Sang Pencerah ( The Enlightener ) is a 2010 Indonesian film directed by Hanung Bramantyo and starring Lukman Sardi , Zaskia Adya Mecca , and Slamet Rahardjo . It is a biopic of Ahmad Dahlan which describes how he came to found the Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah .
Sang Pencerah , produced to coincide with Muhammadiyah 's centenary , was announced in November 2009 . It was meant to be historically accurate , with much of the Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) budget paying for period costumes and sets . However , as documentation on the early years of Dahlan 's life is lacking , those scenes were fictionalised . Sang Pencerah marks the feature film debut of Ihsan Tarore and Giring Ganesha .
The film , released on 8 September 2010 during the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday , was meant to show different views of Islam ; however , it has also been interpreted as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership . It was seen in theatres by over 1 million people – the only Indonesian film of 2010 to do so . It also received favourable critical reception , winning the 2011 Bandung Film Festival after being refused a nomination at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival . However , some Muslim critics decried it as being too liberal .
= = Plot = =
Muhammad Darwis ( Ihsan Tarore ) is a youth in 19th @-@ century Kauman , Yogyakarta , and the son of Kyai Abubakar , the imam of the area 's mosque . Displeased with the mixture of Islam and animistic Javanese mysticism , which leads to poor Javanese spending exorbitant amounts of money on religious ceremonies , Darwis decides to go on the hajj to Mecca in Saudi Arabia . While there , he studies what he considers the true form of Islam over a period of five years .
Upon his return to Yogyakarta , Darwis ( now played by Lukman Sardi ) changes his name to Ahmad Dahlan and begins teaching Islam , preaching that prayers need only come from inner peace and do not require large donations or sacrifices . Conflict soon arises between Dahlan and the local kyais ( religious leaders ) after he shows that the direction in which they pray is wrong , pointing not to the Kaaba in Mecca but to Africa . The kyais , especially Cholil Kamaludiningrat ( Slamet Rahardjo ) , decry Dahlan as the leader of a cult and provoke a crowd of their followers to destroy the building next to Dahlan 's house used for studying prayer .
Dahlan continues to preach and teach , opening a school for native people , teaching Islam at a Dutch @-@ run school , and opening a small mosque ; he also marries his cousin , Siti Walidah . His actions , such as having his students sit on chairs instead of the traditional mats on the floor , lead to Kamaludiningrat decrying Dahlan as an unbeliever who is working to Westernise the local populace .
Despite continued resistance from Kamaludiningrat , Dahlan prevails and furthers his teaching . Together with Walidah , and the students Dirjo ( Abdurrahman Arif ) , Fahrudin ( Mario Irwinsyah ) , Hisyam ( Dennis Adishwara ) , Sangidu ( Ricky Perdana ) , and Sudja ( Giring Ganesha ) , he founds the progressive Islamic organisation Muhammadiyah , which preaches Islam without any influence from Javanese mysticism .
= = Production = =
The film announced in November 2009 . It was directed by Hanung Bramantyo , a Yogyakarta @-@ born Muslim filmmaker . Bramantyo , who had previously directed the Islamic @-@ themed Ayat @-@ Ayat Cinta ( The Verses of Love ; 2008 ) , considered Dahlan his favourite national hero ; he later told The Jakarta Post that he admired the kyai 's spirit . He also said that he had been wanting to make the film since he was a teenager . The film was meant to coincide with the 100 year anniversary of Muhammadiyah 's founding .
Bramantyo attempted to make his film as historically accurate as possible . However , as no documentation of Dahlan 's life before he went to Mecca exists , the scenes showing Dahlan 's youth were fictionalized . The script underwent 12 revisions before the film was completed . Much of the film 's budget of Rp . 12 billion ( US $ 1 @.@ 3 million ) was spent on costumes and sets to ensure accuracy . The crew restored several old buildings for their shots and custom @-@ ordered 19th @-@ century style traditional garments for their scenes .
Bramatyo cast his wife , Zaskia Adya Mecca , as Ahmad Dahlan 's wife Siti Walidah — Mecca also served as casting director , in charge of auditioning the supporting cast . Before filming began , Mecca attempted to research the biographies of Dahlan and his wife , as she and the other young actors did not know much about the couple . However , she found such research difficult as the libraries did not have the information she needed .
Lukman Sardi , who played Dahlan , was also unaware of his character 's historical biography before researching it ; he noted that he was not very confident in playing the role . Indonesian Idol winner Ihsan Tarore was cast as the young Ahmad Dahlan , while the lead singer of the band Nidji , Giring Ganesha , was cast as Dahlan 's protege Sudja ; it was the feature film debut for both . Giring also wrote a song for the film , titled " Allah Maha Suci " ( " Allah , the All @-@ Pure " ) , over a period of two days .
On set , Mecca , who was pregnant at the time of shooting , found her physical condition " perfect " for the role as Walidah had been a large woman . However , her pregnancy led to Bramantyo worrying about a potential miscarriage during a scene where Mecca had to ride a traditional carriage with wooden wheels , which shook violently when moving .
= = Themes = =
In a 2011 interview with the Jakarta Globe after the release of his controversial film ? , Bramantyo said that he had intended Sang Pencerah to use Dahlan 's life to examine different aspects of Islam . He meant for the film to show Islam as being a peaceful and truthful religion . Pramono , writing for Tempo , notes that the film presents a different side of Dahlan , who is usually portrayed as an old , bearded man who , in his opinion , seems neither modernist nor progressive .
Ahmad Muttaqin , a lecturer on comparative religious studies at Sunan Kalijaga Islamic University in Yogyakarta , sees the film as a critique of the current Muhammadiyah leadership , whom he describes as " narrow minded , intolerant , hav [ ing ] poor social respect , [ ... ] rigid and allergic to progress " .
= = Release and reception = =
Sang Pencerah was released on 8 September 2010 , over the Eid ul @-@ Fitr holiday ; the increase in film attendance over the holiday is similar to blockbuster season for Hollywood films . According to Bramantyo , Sang Pencerah was seen by 1 @.@ 1 million people while in theatres ; a report from The Jakarta Globe says 1 @.@ 2 million . It was the only Indonesian film of 2010 to sell over a million tickets .
Bramatnyo was accused of working for Muhammadiyah when creating the film , an accusation which he denied . He also was criticised by some Muslim groups , which considered him too liberal . The film was not nominated for best picture at the 2010 Indonesian Film Festival after several nominees threatened to withdraw if Sang Pencerah was nominated . Sang Pencerah later won best picture at the Bandung Film Festival , held in Bandung , West Java , on 6 May 2011 .
Triwik Kurniasari , reviewing for The Jakarta Post , praised Sardi and Rahardjo 's acting ; noting that Sang Pencerah was " a good film and a conduit for young people to learn about their national heroes " . Asep Saefudin , writing for Antara , himself a graduate from Muhammadiyah schools , viewed the film as being well put together and reflective of the issues faced by Islamic modernists in the early 1900s . Pramono praised the film 's acting , soundtrack , and plot , especially Dahlan 's portrayal as a human with emotions and flaws instead of being perfect in every way . He found Sang Pencerah 's greatest weakness to be the language spoken by in some scenes , as it mixed Indonesian with Javanese ( something not done during the period portrayed ) , and the film 's stars – neither of whom is Javanese – had inaccurate accents .
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= Underneath ( The X @-@ Files ) =
" Underneath " is the twelfth episode of the ninth season of the American science fiction television series The X @-@ Files . The episode first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . The episode is a " monster @-@ of @-@ the @-@ week " episode , a stand @-@ alone plot which is unconnected to the mythology , or overarching fictional history , of The X @-@ Files . The episode earned a Nielsen rating of 4 @.@ 4 and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . It received mixed reviews from critics .
The show centers on FBI special agents who work on cases linked to the paranormal , called X @-@ Files ; this season focuses on the investigations of John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) , and Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) . In this episode , Doggett is determined to find an error in the DNA evidence that freed the convicted Robert Fassl , the " Screwdriver Killer " , whom he nearly caught in the act 13 years earlier . In the end , it is revealed that Fassl has a mental condition that splits him into two parts : the religious innocent and the vengeful killer .
" Underneath " marked the directorial debut of Shiban , who had been a writer for the series for several seasons . Reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives nearly refused to allow the finished product to air . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date . Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but due to the events of September 11 , a sewer mock @-@ up was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .
= = Plot = =
Thirteen years before the present , Robert Fassl ( W. Earl Brown ) sits in his van . He later approaches a home and claims to be there to repair the cable . As Fassl holds up a piece of paper to show it to the family who called for the repair , blood spatter splashes across the paper . He looks up and sees the house 's occupants with slit throats in pools of blood . Abruptly , two police officers burst into the house and apprehend Fassl . One of the officers who goes to check out the kitchen , turns to reveal he is John Doggett ( Robert Patrick ) as a young NYPD officer .
In the present , Monica Reyes ( Annabeth Gish ) discusses Fassl 's release — due to DNA evidence — with an outraged Doggett . Dana Scully ( Gillian Anderson ) confirms that the test results conclusively disprove Fassl as the killer . Meanwhile , in court , Fassl notices a mysterious Bearded Man . After being released , he stays in a room belonging to his lawyer , Jana Fain , where he clutches a Rosary beads and prays frantically . When the Bearded Man appears , Fassl begs for the man not to hurt her . While Fain is unharmed , Fassl learns that the housekeeper , Mrs. Dowdy , has gone missing . Fassl finds her body , cleans up the blood , and dismembers her remains to cover up what has happened .
Scully tells Doggett that while the DNA test disproves Fassl 's culpability , it implicates a possible blood relative ; Fassl , however , is an only child . Reyes proposes that the murders are being conducted by an entity rather than a person . Meanwhile , Fassl approaches Assistant District Attorney Damon Kaylor and begs to be sent back to prison . Kaylor refuses , but is killed by the Bearded Man . After hearing of Kaylor 's disappearance , Reyes theorizes that Fassl 's piety and his unwillingness to acknowledge his darker half has given him the unwanted ability to physically change into another , more violent person .
The Bearded Man demands that Fassl kill Fain , beating him up when he doesn 't comply . As she tends to Fassl , Fain first sees the Bearded Man in his place . While staking out Fain 's house , the agents see the Bearded Man flee . Doggett pursues the Bearded Man while Reyes finds Fain alive . In the pursuit , Reyes falls through into a sewer , where she finds the remains of the Bearded Man 's victims . After a struggle with the Bearded Man , Doggett ends up apprehending Fassl , much to his confusion . Reyes tries to remind him that it does not matter as long as the case is solved .
= = Production = =
" Underneath " was written and directed by executive producer John Shiban . This marked his directorial debut . According to Shiban , part of the inspiration for the episode was that the series production staff had " actually talked for some time about doing a Jekyll / Hyde story but never quite found a way to do it " until the idea to use DNA came into play . Another inspiration for the episode was the 1949 film The Third Man , which featured a climactic chase through a sewage system .
The episode , which explores John Doggett 's backstory as a New York City police officer , was described as containing similar themes as those " explored on the Millennium series . " The episode guest @-@ starred Arthur Nascarella , who was a friend of series co @-@ star Robert Patrick . Patrick was essential in getting Nascarella cast on the show ; he later joked " I stole [ Nascarella 's ] New York accent in Copland [ sic ] and I stole it to do The X @-@ Files , but I got him cast in The X @-@ Files show . "
As the ninth season progressed and the show 's ratings began to plummet , Fox became more and more actively involved in the show 's style and direction . Although " Underneath " was the twelfth episode aired , it was actually the ninth episode produced during the season ; reportedly , the episode contained " so many problems " that the Fox executives very nearly nixed the finished product . At the last minute , however , they relented , and allowed the episode to be aired later on in the season , several weeks after its intended air date .
Shiban originally wanted to film the sewer scenes in Los Angeles ' actual sewer system , but the Los Angeles Department of Water and Power vetoed the idea and stated that " there 's a moratorium on shooting there since September 11 " , a position that Shiban called " understandable . " In order to make up for this , series art director Corey Kaplan was tasked with building a sewer replica ; she used the blueprints from the 1952 version of Les Misérables as an inspiration . Eventually , a complete set was built on Stage 11 at the Fox studios .
= = Reception = =
" Underneath " first aired in the United States on March 31 , 2002 on the Fox network . The episode later debuted in the United Kingdom on February 2 , 2003 on BBC One . The episode earned a Nielsen household rating of 4 @.@ 4 , meaning that it was seen by 4 @.@ 4 % of the nation 's estimated households and was viewed by 4 @.@ 64 million households and over 7 @.@ 3 million viewers . " Underneath " was the 71st most watched episode of television that aired during the week ending March 31 .
The episode received mixed reviews from television critics . Jessica Morgan from Television Without Pity gave the episode a B – rating . John Keegan from Critical Myth gave the episode a negative review and called it " easily the worst of the season " . He awarded it a 4 out of 10 and concluded that , " We can only hope that none of the remaining episodes are Shiban @-@ related , and pray that he can do a much better job when he writes for Enterprise next season . " Robert Shearman and Lars Pearson , in their book Wanting to Believe : A Critical Guide to The X @-@ Files , Millennium & The Lone Gunmen , rated the episode three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half stars out of five , and called the entry " solid and efficient " . The two complimented Shiban 's directorial efforts , noting that " as a director [ he ] makes ' Underneath ' shine " , but were critical of some of the " trademark X @-@ File moments " , citing " the surprise appearance of a face in the bathroom mirror " and " the climactic fight in a sewer " as examples . Shearman and Pearson , however , wrote positively of Shiban 's realistic depiction of Doggett . M.A. Crang , in his book Denying the Truth : Revisiting The X @-@ Files after 9 / 11 , wrote that the episode felt " very familiar " but was impressed with the production design on the sewer set .
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= Islais Creek =
Islais Creek or Islais Creek Channel ( previously known as Du Vrees Creek , Islais Channel and Islais Swamp ) is a small creek in San Francisco , California . The name of the creek is derived from a Salinan Native American word " slay " or " islay " , the name for the Prunus ilicifolia wild cherries . Around the time of the Gold Rush , the area became an industrial hub , and the condition of the creek worsened . After the devastating earthquake in 1906 , the city decided to reclaim the creek using earthquake debris , reducing the waterbody to its present size . Though much of Islais Creek has been converted to an underground culvert , remnants still exist today at both Glen Canyon Park and Third Street . Several community organizations are dedicated to preserve these remnants , as they are important wildlife habitats .
= = Course = =
The historic Islais Creek , the largest body of water in the city covering an area of nearly 5 @,@ 000 acres ( 7 @.@ 813 sq mi ; 20 @.@ 234 km2 ) , had two main branches . One originated near the southern slope of Twin Peaks , slightly north of Portola Drive . It flowed downstream southeastward through the Glen Canyon Park paralleling Bosworth Street and eventually reaching the bottom of the Mission Street viaduct at I @-@ 280 . The other branch began at the intersection of Cayuga Avenue and Regent Street . It flowed generally eastward along Mission Street and reached the I @-@ 280 viaduct . Together , as a wider creek , it ran parallel to Alemany Boulevard and I @-@ 280 and emptied into the Islais Creek estuary , near Industrial Street and Oakdale Avenue . Precita Creek , a nearby creek that originated from Noe Valley , also joined Islais Creek at the César Chávez Boulevard and Evans Avenue intersection .
From its sources in the Glen Canyon , the entire creek stretched about 3 @.@ 5 miles ( 5 @.@ 6 km ) to the San Francisco Bay . The mouth was nearly 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) wide , providing up to 85 % of the drinking water in San Francisco . Due to urban development , however , the watershed of Islais Creek has been reduced by roughly 80 % from its historical extent . A large number of neighborhoods in San Francisco today , such as Bernal Heights , Hunters Point , Visitacion Valley , parts of the Mission and Potrero Hill , was once covered by the extent of the creek .
In 2007 , the San Francisco Public Utilities Commission , which manages the city 's water , began investigating the possibility of " daylighting " underground portions of the creek . As of 2009 , remnants of the creek remain inside the Glen Canyon Park and a 1 @-@ mile ( 1 @.@ 6 km ) channel near Third Street where Islais Creek emptied into the bay .
= = History = =
The history of Islais Creek dates to the 18th century . The name Los Islais first appeared on Mexican maps in 1834 , named for the Islay cherries that grew wildly in the area . By 1850 , water from the creek was used by farmers to irrigate crops . The Gold Rush marked the decline of the creek as large numbers of gold rushers swarmed into the city .
A railroad trestle was built over the creek and tidal flats in the 1860s and in a lawsuit that went up to the California Supreme Court called The People of the State of California ex relatione The Board of State Harbor Commissioners VS . The Potrero And Bay View Railroad Company , Islais Creek was declared a non @-@ navigable waterway in 1883 .
In 1871 , the area along the creek became known as the city ’ s " New Butchertown " when more than 100 slaughterhouses opened . Since then , the condition of the creek deteriorated , literally becoming a dumping place of garbage , sewage , animal waste , and unsold meat products . The condition became so bad that the creek was commonly referred to as " Shit Creek " by San Franciscans , according to historian Karl Kortum .
After the 1906 earthquake , San Francisco Board of Supervisors voted to fill the creek with earthquake debris , reducing the creek to its present size . During World War II , it served as docking areas for large ocean @-@ going tugs . The area also located the largest copra coconut processing plant in the United States West Coast . In fact , the abandoned five @-@ story high copra crane , used to transport large amount of copras from ships to the plant as late as 1974 , still remains on the creek bank preserved as a historic landmark . In the 1950s , Islais Creek was home to the largest sardine canning industry in the world . The deteriorated condition of the creek gradually improved after the construction of a water treatment plant in 1970 . Today , the majority of the creek is covered and transformed into a culvert with its remnants flowing at Glen Canyon and near the bay .
Many local community organizations were set up to improve the condition of the creek and nearby areas . Friends of Islais Creek , established back in 1984 , and David Erickson , a local community figure , were committed to build a waterfront park in Islais Creek . The initial plan for a park was finally launched in 1988 with a $ 50 @,@ 000 grant from the State Department of Water Resources as well as community groups in The Bayview . With an additional of $ 100 @,@ 000 federal and local grants as well as supports from non @-@ profit organizations and governmental agencies , namely the Sierra Club , San Francisco Municipal Railway ( Muni ) , Department of Public Works , Public Utilities Commission , Port of San Francisco , and Caltrans , the park was finished in 1998 . Located adjacent to Pier 80 on the shores of the creek , the Muwekma Ohlone Park or the Muwekma Ohlone Sanctuary is named after the native inhabitants and has since became an important habitat for a wide array of wildlife , including the Pacific Chorus Frog and Mission blue butterfly .
On November 19 , 2001 , construction crews , while preparing to drill an electrical conduit ( consisting of six large 115kV electrical cables ) across the creek for the Muni Metro T Third Street light rail line , cracked the concrete sewer underground which carries more than 80 million gallons of sewage a day . The incident flooded the creek and its adjacent Muwekma Ohlone Park with sewage . The park had to be excavated to make way for the repairing of the sewer pipe . It was estimated that it would take more than $ 101 @,@ 660 to repair and $ 65 @,@ 000 for wildlife habitat restoration .
= = = Health hazard = = =
Since Islais Creek is a culvert that carries storm water , domestic sewage , and industrial wastewater , it is possible for the sewage to overflow . Such overflow can cause a public health hazard as Islais Creek displays higher level of heavy metals , PCBs , bacteria , as well as organochlorines than other parts of the San Francisco Bay .
= = Transportation = =
The Third Street Bridge is the major crossing of the creek , carrying T Third Street light rail line and Third Street . It is a bascule @-@ type drawbridge . The Port of San Francisco extended Illinois Street across Islais Creek in 2006 to relieve traffic for Third Street . This crossing also uses a bascule bridge .
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= Iguanodon =
Iguanodon ( / ᵻˈɡwɑːnədɒn / i @-@ GWAH @-@ nə @-@ don ; meaning " iguana @-@ tooth " ) is a genus of ornithopod dinosaur that existed roughly halfway between the first of the swift bipedal hypsilophodontids of the mid @-@ Jurassic and the duck @-@ billed dinosaurs of the late Cretaceous . While many species have been classified in the genus Iguanodon , dating from the late Jurassic Period to the late Cretaceous Period of Asia , Europe , and North America , research in the first decade of the 21st century suggests that there is only one well @-@ substantiated species : I. bernissartensis , which lived from the late Barremian to the earliest Aptian ages ( Early Cretaceous ) in Belgium and possibly elsewhere in Europe , between about 126 and 125 million years ago . Iguanodon were large , bulky herbivores . Distinctive features include large thumb spikes , which were possibly used for defense against predators , combined with long prehensile fifth fingers able to forage for food .
The genus was named in 1825 by English geologist Gideon Mantell , based on fossil specimens that are now assigned to Therosaurus and Mantellodon . Iguanodon was the second type of dinosaur formally named based on fossil specimens , after Megalosaurus . Together with Megalosaurus and Hylaeosaurus , it was one of the three genera originally used to define Dinosauria . The genus Iguanodon belongs to the larger group Iguanodontia , along with the duck @-@ billed hadrosaurs . The taxonomy of this genus continues to be a topic of study as new species are named or long @-@ standing ones reassigned to other genera .
Scientific understanding of Iguanodon has evolved over time as new information has been obtained from fossils . The numerous specimens of this genus , including nearly complete skeletons from two well @-@ known bonebeds , have allowed researchers to make informed hypotheses regarding many aspects of the living animal , including feeding , movement , and social behaviour . As one of the first scientifically well @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has occupied a small but notable place in the public 's perception of dinosaurs , its artistic representation changing significantly in response to new interpretations of its remains .
= = Description = =
Iguanodon were bulky herbivores that could shift from bipedality to quadrupedality . The only well @-@ supported species , I. bernissartensis , is estimated to have weighed about 3 @.@ 08 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 4 tons ) on average , and measured about 10 metres ( 33 feet ) long as an adult , with some specimens possibly as long as 13 metres ( 43 feet ) . These animals had large , tall but narrow skulls , with toothless beaks probably covered with keratin , and teeth like those of iguanas , but much larger and more closely packed .
The arms of I. bernissartensis were long ( up to 75 % the length of the legs ) and robust , with rather inflexible hands built so that the three central fingers could bear weight . The thumbs were conical spikes that stuck out away from the three main digits . In early restorations , the spike was placed on the animal 's nose . Later fossils revealed the true nature of the thumb spikes , although their exact function is still debated . They could have been used for defense , or for foraging for food . The little finger was elongated and dextrous , and could have been used to manipulate objects . The phalangeal formula is 2 @-@ 3 @-@ 3 @-@ 2 @-@ 4 , meaning that the innermost finger ( phalange ) has two bones , the next has three , etc . The legs were powerful , but not built for running , and each foot had three toes . The backbone and tail were supported and stiffened by ossified tendons , which were tendons that turned to bone during life ( these rod @-@ like bones are usually omitted from skeletal mounts and drawings ) .
Iguanodon teeth are , as the name suggests , like those of an iguana , but larger . Unlike hadrosaurids , which had columns of replacement teeth , Iguanodon only had one replacement tooth at a time for each position . The upper jaw held up to 29 teeth per side , with none at the front of the jaw , and the lower jaw 25 ; the numbers differ because teeth in the lower jaw are broader than those in the upper . Because the tooth rows are deeply inset from the outside of the jaws , and because of other anatomical details , it is believed that , as with most other ornithischians , Iguanodon had some sort of cheek @-@ like structure , muscular or non @-@ muscular , to retain food in the mouth .
= = Classification and origins = =
Iguanodon gives its name to the unranked clade Iguanodontia , a very populous group of ornithopods with many species known from the Middle Jurassic to the Late Cretaceous . Aside from Iguanodon , the best @-@ known members of the clade include Dryosaurus , Camptosaurus , Ouranosaurus , and the duck @-@ bills , or hadrosaurs . In older sources , Iguanodontidae was shown as a distinct family . This family traditionally has been something of a wastebasket taxon , including ornithopods that were neither hypsilophodontids or hadrosaurids . In practice , animals like Callovosaurus , Camptosaurus , Craspedodon , Kangnasaurus , Mochlodon , Muttaburrasaurus , Ouranosaurus , and Probactrosaurus were usually assigned to this family .
With the advent of cladistic analyses , Iguanodontidae as traditionally construed was shown to be paraphyletic , and these animals are recognised to fall at different points in relation to hadrosaurs on a cladogram , instead of in a single distinct clade . Essentially , the modern concept of Iguanodontidae currently includes only Iguanodon . Groups like Iguanodontoidea are still used as unranked clades in the scientific literature , though many traditional iguanodontids are now included in the superfamily Hadrosauroidea . Iguanodon lies between Camptosaurus and Ouranosaurus in cladograms , and is probably descended from a camptosaur @-@ like animal . At one point , Jack Horner suggested , based mostly on skull features , that hadrosaurids actually formed two more distantly related groups , with Iguanodon on the line to the flat @-@ headed hadrosaurines , and Ouranosaurus on the line to the crested lambeosaurines , but his proposal has been rejected .
The cladogram below follows an analysis by Andrew McDonald , 2012 .
= = Palaeobiology = =
= = = Feeding = = =
One of the first details noted about Iguanodon was that it had the teeth of a herbivorous reptile , although there has not always been consensus on how it ate . As Mantell noted , the remains he was working with were unlike any modern reptile , especially in the toothless , scoop @-@ shaped form of the lower jaw symphysis , which he found best compared to that of the two @-@ toed sloth and the extinct ground sloth Mylodon . He also suggested that Iguanodon had a prehensile tongue which could be used to gather food , like a giraffe . More complete remains have shown this to be an error ; for example , the hyoid bones that supported the tongue are heavily built , implying a muscular , non @-@ prehensile tongue used for moving food around in the mouth . The giraffe @-@ tongue idea has also been incorrectly attributed to Dollo via a broken lower jaw .
The skull was structured in such a way that as it closed , the bones holding the teeth in the upper jaw would bow out . This would cause the lower surfaces of the upper jaw teeth to rub against the upper surface of the lower jaw 's teeth , grinding anything caught in between and providing an action that is the rough equivalent of mammalian chewing . Because the teeth were always replaced , the animal could have used this mechanism throughout its life , and could eat tough plant material . Additionally , the front ends of the animal 's jaws were toothless and tipped with bony nodes , both upper and lower , providing a rough margin that was likely covered and lengthened by a keratinous material to form a cropping beak for biting off twigs and shoots . Its food gathering would have been aided by its flexible little finger , which could have been used to manipulate objects , unlike the other fingers .
Exactly what Iguanodon ate with its well @-@ developed jaws is not known . The size of the larger species , such as I. bernissartensis , would have allowed them access to food from ground level to tree foliage at 4 – 5 metres ( 13 – 16 ft ) high . A diet of horsetails , cycads , and conifers was suggested by David Norman , although iguanodonts in general have been tied to the advance of angiosperm plants in the Cretaceous due to the dinosaurs ' inferred low browsing habits . Angiosperm growth , according to this hypothesis , would have been encouraged by iguanodont feeding because gymnosperms would be removed , allowing more space for the weed @-@ like early angiosperms to grow . The evidence is not conclusive , though . Whatever its exact diet , due to its size and abundance , Iguanodon is regarded as a dominant medium to large herbivore for its ecological communities . In England , this included the small predator Aristosuchus , larger predators Eotyrannus , Baryonyx , and Neovenator , low @-@ feeding herbivores Hypsilophodon and Valdosaurus , fellow " iguanodontid " Mantellisaurus , the armoured herbivore Polacanthus , and sauropods like Pelorosaurus .
= = = Posture and movement = = =
Early fossil remains were fragmentary , which led to much speculation on the posture and nature of Iguanodon . Iguanodon was initially portrayed as a quadrupedal horn @-@ nosed beast . However , as more bones were discovered , Mantell observed that the forelimbs were much smaller than the hindlimbs . His rival Owen was of the opinion it was a stumpy creature with four pillar @-@ like legs . The job of overseeing the first lifesize reconstruction of dinosaurs was initially offered to Mantell , who declined due to poor health , and Owen 's vision subsequently formed the basis on which the sculptures took shape . Its bipedal nature was revealed with the discovery of the Bernissart skeletons . However , it was depicted in an upright posture , with the tail dragging along the ground , acting as the third leg of a tripod .
During his re @-@ examination of Iguanodon , David Norman was able to show that this posture was unlikely , because the long tail was stiffened with ossified tendons . To get the tripodal pose , the tail would literally have to be broken . Putting the animal in a horizontal posture makes many aspects of the arms and pectoral girdle more understandable . For example , the hand is relatively immobile , with the three central fingers grouped together , bearing hoof @-@ like phalanges , and able to hyperextend . This would have allowed them to bear weight . The wrist is also relatively immobile , and the arms and shoulder bones robust . These features all suggest that the animal spent time on all fours .
Furthermore , it appears that Iguanodon became more quadrupedal as it got older and heavier ; juvenile I. bernissartensis have shorter arms than adults ( 60 % of hindlimb length versus 70 % for adults ) . When walking as a quadruped , the animal 's hands would have been held so that the palms faced each other , as shown by iguanodontian trackways and the anatomy of this genus 's arms and hands . The three toed pes ( foot ) of Iguanodon was relatively long , and when walking , both the hand and the foot would have been used in a digitigrade fashion ( walking on the fingers and toes ) . The maximum speed of Iguanodon has been estimated at 24 km / h ( 15 mph ) , which would have been as a biped ; it would not have been able to gallop as a quadruped .
Large three @-@ toed footprints are known in Early Cretaceous rocks of England , particularly Wealden beds on the Isle of Wight , and these trace fossils were originally difficult to interpret . Some authors associated them with dinosaurs early on . In 1846 , E. Tagert went so far as to assign them to an ichnogenus he named Iguanodon , and Samuel Beckles noted in 1854 that they looked like bird tracks , but might have come from dinosaurs . The identity of the trackmakers was greatly clarified upon the discovery in 1857 of the hind leg of a young Iguanodon , with distinctly three @-@ toed feet , showing that such dinosaurs could have made the tracks . Despite the lack of direct evidence , these tracks are often attributed to Iguanodon . A trackway in England shows what may be an Iguanodon moving on all fours , but the foot prints are poor , making a direct connection difficult . Tracks assigned to the ichnogenus Iguanodon are known from locations including places in Europe where the body fossil Iguanodon is known , to Spitsbergen , Svalbard , Norway .
= = = Thumb spike = = =
The thumb spike is one of the best @-@ known features of Iguanodon . Although it was originally placed on the animal 's nose by Mantell , the complete Bernissart specimens allowed Dollo to place it correctly on the hand , as a modified thumb . ( This would not be the last time a dinosaur 's modified thumb claw would be misinterpreted ; Noasaurus , Baryonyx , and Megaraptor are examples since the 1980s where an enlarged thumb claw was first put on the foot , as in dromaeosaurids . )
This thumb is typically interpreted as a close @-@ quarter stiletto @-@ like weapon against predators , although it could also have been used to break into seeds and fruits , or against other Iguanodon . One author has suggested that the spike was attached to a venom gland , but this has not been accepted , as the spike was not hollow , nor were there any grooves on the spike for conducting venom .
= = = Possible social behaviour = = =
Although sometimes interpreted as the result of a single catastrophe , the Bernissart finds instead are now interpreted as recording multiple events . According to this interpretation , at least three occasions of mortality are recorded , and though numerous individuals would have died in a geologically short time span ( ? 10 – 100 years ) , this does not necessarily mean these Iguanodon were herding animals .
An argument against herding is that juvenile remains are very uncommon at this site , unlike modern cases with herd mortality . They more likely were the periodic victims of flash floods whose carcasses accumulated in a lake or marshy setting . The Nehden find , however , with its greater span of individual ages , more even mix of Dollodon or Mantellisaurus to Iguanodon bernissartensis , and confined geographic nature , may record mortality of herding animals migrating through rivers .
Unlike other purported herding dinosaurs ( especially hadrosaurs and ceratopsids ) , there is no evidence that Iguanodon was sexually dimorphic , with one sex appreciably different from the other . At one time , it was suggested that the Bernissart I. " mantelli " , or I. atherfieldensis ( Dollodon and Mantellisaurus , respectively ) represented a sex , possibly female , of the larger and more robust , possibly male , I. bernissartensis . However , this is not supported today .
= = = Paleopathology = = =
Evidence of a fractured hip bone was found in a specimen of Iguanodon , which had an injury to its ischium . Two other individuals were observed with signs of osteoarthritis as evidenced by bone overgrowths in their anklebones which are called osteophytes .
= = Discovery and history = =
= = = Gideon Mantell , Sir Richard Owen , and the discovery of dinosaurs = = =
The discovery of Iguanodon has long been accompanied by a popular legend . The story goes that Gideon Mantell 's wife , Mary Ann , discovered the first teeth of an Iguanodon in the strata of Tilgate Forest in Whitemans Green , Cuckfield , Sussex , England , in 1822 while her husband was visiting a patient . However , there is no evidence that Mantell took his wife with him while seeing patients . Furthermore , he admitted in 1851 that he himself had found the teeth . Not everyone agrees that the story is false , though . It is known from his notebooks that Mantell first acquired large fossil bones from the quarry at Whitemans Green in 1820 . Because also theropod teeth were found , thus belonging to carnivores , he at first interpreted these bones , which he tried to combine into a partial skeleton , as those of a giant crocodile . In 1821 Mantell mentioned the find of herbivorous teeth and began to consider the possibility that a large herbivorous reptile was present in the strata . However , in his 1822 publication Fossils of the South Downs he as yet did not dare to suggest a connection between the teeth and his very incomplete skeleton , presuming that his finds presented two large forms , one carnivorous ( " an animal of the Lizard Tribe of enormous magnitude " ) , the other herbivorous . In May 1822 he first presented the herbivorous teeth to the Royal Society of London but the members , among them William Buckland , dismissed them as fish teeth or the incisors of a rhinoceros from a Tertiary stratum . On 23 June 1823 Charles Lyell showed some to Georges Cuvier , during a soiree in Paris , but the famous French naturalist at once dismissed them as those of a rhinoceros . Though the very next day Cuvier retracted , Lyell reported only the dismissal to Mantell , who became rather diffident about the issue . In 1824 Buckland described Megalosaurus and was on that occasion invited to visit Mantell 's collection . Seeing the bones on 6 March he agreed that these were of some giant saurian — though still denying it was a herbivore . Emboldened nevertheless , Mantell again sent some teeth to Cuvier , who answered on 22 June 1824 that he had determined that they were reptilian and quite possibly belonged to a giant herbivore . In a new edition that year of his Recherches sur les Ossemens Fossiles Cuvier admitted his earlier mistake , leading to an immediate acceptance of Mantell , and his new saurian , in scientific circles . Mantell tried to corroborate his theory further by finding a modern @-@ day parallel among extant reptiles . In September 1824 he visited the Royal College of Surgeons but at first failed to find comparable teeth . However , assistant @-@ curator Samuel Stutchbury recognised that they resembled those of an iguana he had recently prepared , albeit twenty times longer .
In recognition of the resemblance of the teeth to those of the iguana , Mantell decided to name his new animal Iguanodon or " iguana @-@ tooth " , from iguana and the Greek word ὀδών ( odon , odontos or " tooth " ) . Based on isometric scaling , he estimated that the creature might have been up to 18 metres ( 59 feet ) long , more than the 12 metres ( 39 feet ) length of Megalosaurus . His initial idea for a name was Iguana @-@ saurus ( " Iguana lizard " ) , but his friend William Daniel Conybeare suggested that that name was more applicable to the iguana itself , so a better name would be Iguanoides ( " Iguana @-@ like " ) or Iguanodon . He neglected to add a specific name to form a proper binomial , but one was supplied in 1829 by Friedrich Holl : I. anglicum , which was later amended to I. anglicus .
Mantell sent a letter detailing his discovery to the local Portsmouth Philosophical Society in December 1824 , several weeks after settling on a name for the fossil creature . The letter was read to members of the Society at a meeting on 17 December , and a report was published in the Hampshire Telegraph the following Monday , 20 December , which announced the name , mis @-@ spelt as " Iguanadon " . Mantell formally published his findings on 10 February 1825 , when he presented a paper on the remains to the Royal Society of London .
A more complete specimen of similar animal was discovered in a quarry in Maidstone , Kent , in 1834 ( lower Lower Greensand Formation ) , which Mantell soon acquired . He was led to identify it as an Iguanodon based on its distinctive teeth . The Maidstone slab was utilized in the first skeletal reconstructions and artistic renderings of Iguanodon , but due to its incompleteness , Mantell made some mistakes , the most famous of which was the placement of what he thought was a horn on the nose . The discovery of much better specimens in later years revealed that the horn was actually a modified thumb . Still encased in rock , the Maidstone skeleton is currently displayed at the Natural History Museum in London . The borough of Maidstone commemorated this find by adding an Iguanodon as a supporter to their coat of arms in 1949 . This specimen has become linked with the name I. mantelli , a species named in 1832 by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in place of I. anglicus , but it actually comes from a different formation than the original I. mantelli / I. anglicus material . The Maidstone specimen , also known as Gideon Mantell 's " Mantel @-@ piece " , and formally labelled NHMUK 3741 was subsequently excluded from Iguanodon . It is classified as cf . Mantellisaurus by McDonald ( 2012 ) ; as cf . Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis by Norman ( 2012 ) ; and made the holotype of a separate species Mantellodon carpenteri by Paul ( 2012 ) .
At the same time , tension began to build between Mantell and Richard Owen , an ambitious scientist with much better funding and society connections in the turbulent worlds of Reform Act – era British politics and science . Owen , a firm creationist , opposed the early versions of evolutionary science ( " transmutationism " ) then being debated and used what he would soon coin as dinosaurs as a weapon in this conflict . With the paper describing Dinosauria , he scaled down dinosaurs from lengths of over 61 metres ( 200 feet ) , determined that they were not simply giant lizards , and put forward that they were advanced and mammal @-@ like , characteristics given to them by God ; according to the understanding of the time , they could not have been " transmuted " from reptiles to mammal @-@ like creatures .
In 1849 , a few years before his death in 1852 , Mantell realised that iguanodonts were not heavy , pachyderm @-@ like animals , as Owen was putting forward , but had slender forelimbs ; however , his passing left him unable to participate in the creation of the Crystal Palace dinosaur sculptures , and so Owen 's vision of the dinosaurs became that seen by the public for decades . With Benjamin Waterhouse Hawkins , he had nearly two dozen lifesize sculptures of various prehistoric animals built out of concrete sculpted over a steel and brick framework ; two iguanodonts ( based on the Mantellodon specimen ) , one standing and one resting on its belly , were included . Before the sculpture of the standing iguanodont was completed , he held a banquet for twenty inside it .
= = = Bernissart = = =
The largest find of Iguanodon remains to that date occurred on 28 February 1878 in a coal mine at Bernissart in Belgium , at a depth of 322 m ( 1 @,@ 056 ft ) , when two mineworkers , Jules Créteur and Alphonse Blanchard , accidentally hit on a skeleton that they initially took for petrified wood . With the encouragement of Alphonse Briart , supervisor of mines at nearby Morlanwelz , Louis de Pauw on 15 May 1878 started to excavate the skeletons and in 1882 Louis Dollo reconstructed them . At least 38 Iguanodon individuals were uncovered , most of which were adults . In 1882 , the holotype specimen of I. bernissartensis became one of the first ever dinosaur skeletons mounted for display . It was put together in a chapel at the Palace of Charles of Lorraine using a series of adjustable ropes attached to scaffolding so that a lifelike pose could be achieved during the mounting process . This specimen , along with several others , first opened for public viewing in an inner courtyard of the palace in July 1883 . In 1891 they were moved to the Royal Museum of Natural History , where they are still on display ; nine are displayed as standing mounts , and nineteen more are still in the Museum 's basement . The exhibit makes an impressive display in the Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences , in Brussels . A replica of one of these is on display at the Oxford University Museum of Natural History and at the Sedgwick Museum in Cambridge . Most of the remains were referred to a new species , I. bernissartensis , a larger and much more robust animal than the English remains had yet revealed , but one specimen was referred to the nebulous , gracile I. mantelli ( now Dollodon bampingi ) . The skeletons were some of the first complete dinosaur skeletons known . Found with the dinosaur skeletons were the remains of plants , fish , and other reptiles , including the crocodyliform Bernissartia .
The science of conserving fossil remains was in its infancy , and new techniques had to be improvised to deal with what soon became known as " pyrite disease " . Crystalline pyrite in the bones was being oxidized to iron sulphate , accompanied by an increase in volume that caused the remains to crack and crumble . When in the ground , the bones were isolated by anoxic moist clay that prevented this from happening , but when removed into the drier open air , the natural chemical conversion began to occur . To limit this effect , De Pauw immediately , in the mine @-@ gallery , re @-@ covered the dug @-@ out fossils with wet clay , sealing them with paper and plaster reinforced by iron rings , forming in total about six hundred transportable blocks with a combined weight of a hundred and thirty tons . In Brussels after opening the plaster he impregnated the bones with boiling gelatine mixed with oil of cloves as a preservative . Removing most of the visible pyrite he then hardened them with hide glue , finishing with a final layer of tin foil . Damage was repaired with papier @-@ mâché . This treatment had the unintended effect of sealing in moisture and extending the period of damage . In 1932 museum director Victor van Straelen decided that the specimens had to be completely restored again to safeguard their preservation . From December 1935 to August 1936 the staff at the museum in Brussels treated the problem with a combination of alcohol , arsenic , and 390 kilograms of shellac . This combination was intended to simultaneously penetrate the fossils ( with alcohol ) , prevent the development of mold ( with arsenic ) , and harden them ( with shellac ) . The fossils entered a third round of conservation from 2003 until May 2007 , when the shellac , hide glue and gelatine were removed and impregnated with polyvinyl acetate and cyanoacrylate and epoxy glues . Modern treatments of this problem typically involve either monitoring the humidity of fossil storage , or , for fresh specimens , preparing a special coating of polyethylene glycol that is then heated in a vacuum pump , so that moisture is immediately removed and pore spaces are infiltrated with polyethelene glycol to seal and strengthen the fossil .
Dollo 's specimens allowed him to show that Owen 's prehistoric pachyderms were not correct for Iguanodon . He instead modelled the skeletal mounts after the cassowary and wallaby , and put the spike that had been on the nose firmly on the thumb . He was not completely correct , but he also had the disadvantage of being faced with some of the first complete dinosaur remains . A problem that was later recognised was the bend he introduced into the tail . This organ was more or less straight , as shown by the skeletons he was excavating , and the presence of ossified tendons . In fact , to get the bend in the tail for a more wallaby or kangaroo @-@ like posture , the tail would have had to be broken . With its correct , straight tail and back , the animal would have walked with its body held horizontal to the ground , arms in place to support the body if needed .
Excavations at the quarry were stopped in 1881 , although it was not exhausted of fossils , as recent drilling operations have shown . During World War I , when the town was occupied by German forces , preparations were made to reopen the mine for palaeontology , and Otto Jaekel was sent from Berlin to supervise . The Allies recaptured Bernissart just as the first fossiliferous layer was about to be uncovered . Further attempts to reopen the mine were hindered by financial problems and were stopped altogether in 1921 when the mine flooded .
= = = Current research = = =
Research on Iguanodon decreased during the early part of the 20th century as World Wars and the Great Depression enveloped Europe . A new species that would become the subject of much study and taxonomic controversy , I. atherfieldensis , was named in 1925 by R. W. Hooley , for a specimen collected at Atherfield Point on the Isle of Wight .
Iguanodon was recorded from Africa based on teeth from Tunisia and elsewhere in the Sahara , but the description of Lurdusaurus and Ouranosaurus cast doubt on African records of Iguanodon . The genus was also recorded from Mongolia based on the description of I. orientalis , and in North America based on I. ottingeri from Utah . Another North American species , from South Dakota , once assigned to Iguanodon as I. lakotaensis , has since been reclassified as the genus Dakotadon .
Iguanodon was not part of the initial work of the dinosaur renaissance that began with the description of Deinonychus in 1969 , but it was not neglected for long . David B. Weishampel 's work on ornithopod feeding mechanisms provided a better understanding of how it fed , and David B. Norman 's work on numerous aspects of the genus has made it one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs . In addition , a further find of numerous Iguanodon skeletons , in Nehden , Nordrhein @-@ Westphalen , Germany , has provided evidence for gregariousness in this genus , as the animals in this areally restricted find appear to have been killed by flash floods . At least 15 individuals , from 2 to 8 metres ( 6 @.@ 6 to 26 @.@ 2 ft ) long , have been found here , although at least some of them are gracile iguanodontians and belong to the related Mantellisaurus or Dollodon ( described as I. atherfieldensis , at that time believed to be another species of Iguanodon ) .
Iguanodon material has also been used in the search for dinosaur DNA and other biomolecules . In research by Graham Embery et al . , Iguanodon bones were processed to look for remnant proteins . In this research , identifiable remains of typical bone proteins , such as phosphoproteins and proteoglycans , were found in a rib .
= = Species = =
Because Iguanodon is one of the first dinosaur genera to have been named , numerous species have been assigned to it . While never becoming the wastebasket taxon several other early genera of dinosaurs became ( such as Megalosaurus ) , Iguanodon has had a complicated history , and its taxonomy continues to undergo revisions . Although Gregory Paul recommended restricting I. bernissartensis to the famous sample from Bernissart , ornithopod workers like Norman and McDonald have disagreed with Paul 's recommendations , except exercising caution when accepting records of Iguanodon from France and Spain as valid .
I. anglicus was the original type species , but the holotype was based on a single tooth and only partial remains of the species have been recovered since . In March 2000 , the International Commission on Zoological Nomenclature changed the type species to the much better known I. bernissartensis , with the new holotype being IRSNB 1534 . The original Iguanodon tooth is held at Te Papa Tongarewa , the national museum of New Zealand in Wellington , although it is not on display . The fossil arrived in New Zealand following the move of Gideon Mantell 's son Walter there ; after the elder Mantell 's death , his fossils went to Walter .
= = = Species currently accepted as valid = = =
Only two species assigned to Iguanodon are still considered to be valid .
I. bernissartensis , described by George Albert Boulenger in 1881 , is the type species for the genus . This species is best known for the many skeletons discovered in Bernissart , but is also known from remains across Europe . David Norman suggested that it includes the dubious Mongolian I. orientalis , but this has not been followed by other researchers .
I. galvensis , described in 2015 , is based on adult and juvenile remains found in Barremian @-@ age deposits in Teruel , Spain .
= = = Reassigned species = = =
I. hoggi ( also spelled I. boggii or hoggii ) , named by Owen for a lower jaw from the Tithonian – Berriasian @-@ age Upper Jurassic – Lower Cretaceous Purbeck Beds of Dorset in 1874 , has been reassigned to its own genus , Owenodon .
Iguanodon albinus ( or Albisaurus scutifer ) , described by Czech palaeontologist Antonin Fritsch in 1893 , is a dubious nondinosaurian reptile now known as Albisaurus albinus .
I. atherfieldensis , described by R.W. Hooley in 1925 , was smaller and less robust than I. bernissartensis , with longer neural spines . It was renamed Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis in 2007 . The Bernissart specimen RBINS 1551 was described as Dollodon bampingi in 2008 , but McDonald and Norman returned Dollodon to synonymy with Mantellisaurus .
I. exogyrarum was described by Fritsch in 1878 . It is a nomen dubium based on very poor material and was renamed Ponerosteus in 2000 .
I. prestwichii ( also spelled I. prestwichi ) , described by John Hulke in 1880 , has been reassigned to Camptosaurus prestwichii or to its own genus Cumnoria .
Two species described by Richard Lydekker in the late 19th century have been reassigned to different genera .
I. dawsoni , described by Lydekker in 1888 , is known from two partial skeletons found in East Sussex , England , from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Wadhurst Clay . It is now the type species of Barilium .
I. fittoni was described by Lydekker in 1889 . Like I. dawsoni , this species was described from the Wadhurst Clay of East Sussex . It is now the type species of Hypselospinus .
I. hollingtoniensis ( also spelled I. hollingtonensis ) , described by Lydekker in 1889 has variously been considered a synonym of Hypselospinus fittoni or a distinct species assigned to the genus Huxleysaurus . A specimen from the Valanginian Wadhurst Clay Formation , variously assigned to I. hollingtoniensis and I. mantelli over the years , has an unusual combination of hadrosaurid @-@ like lower jaw and very robust forelimb ; Norman ( 2010 ) assigned this specimen to the species Hypselospinus fittoni , while Paul ( 2012 ) made it the holotype of a separate species Darwinsaurus evolutionis .
I. seelyi ( also incorrectly spelled I. seeleyi ) , described by Hulke two years after I. prestwichii , has been synonymised with Iguanodon bernissartensis , though this is controversial .
I. suessii , described by Emanuel Bunzel in 1871 , has been reassigned to Mochlodon suessi .
I. lakotaensis was described by David B. Weishampel and Philip R. Bjork in 1989 . The only well @-@ accepted North American species of Iguanodon , I. lakotaensis was described from a partial skull from the Barremian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Lakota Formation of South Dakota . Its assignment has been controversial . Some researchers suggest that it was more basal than I. bernissartensis , and related to Theiophytalia , but David Norman has suggested that it was a synonym of I. bernissartensis . Gregory S. Paul has since given the species its own genus , Dakotadon .
Iguanodon mantelli described by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer in 1832 , was based on the same material as I. anglicus and is an objective junior synonym of the latter . Several taxa , including the holotype of Dollodon and Mantellodon , but also the dubious hadrosauroid Trachodon cantabrigiensis the hypsilophodont Hypsilophodon , and Valdosaurus , were previously mis @-@ assigned to I. mantelli .
I. hilli , coined by Edwin Tully Newton in 1892 for a tooth from the early Cenomanian Upper Cretaceous Lower Chalk of Hertfordshire , has been considered an early hadrosaurid of some sort . However , recent work places it as indeterminate beyond Hadrosauroidea outside Hadrosauridae .
I. orientalis , described by A. K. Rozhdestvensky in 1952 , was based on poor material , but a skull with a distinctive arched snout that had been assigned to it was renamed Altirhinus kurzanovi in 1998 . At the same time , I. orientalis was considered to be a nomen dubium because it cannot be compared to I. bernissartensis .
Harry Seeley described I. phillipsi in 1869 , but later reassigned it to Priodontognathus .
I. praecursor ( also spelled I. precursor ) , described by E. Sauvage in 1876 from teeth from an unnamed Kimmeridgian ( Late Jurassic ) formation in Pas @-@ de @-@ Calais , France , is actually a sauropod , sometimes assigned to Neosodon , although the two come from different formations .
" I. mongolensis " ( Whitfield , 1992 ) is a nomen nudum from a photo caption in a book , of remains that would later be named Altirhinus .
Delapparentia turolensis was named in 2011 based on a specimen previously assigned to Iguanodon bernissartensis .
= = = Species referred to Iguanodon that were originally named as nominal species of other genera = = =
I. valdensis , a renaming of Vectisaurus valdensis by Ernst van den Broeck in 1900 . Originally named Vectisaurus valdensis by Hulke in 1879 based on vertebral and pelvic remains , it was from the Barremian stage of the Isle of Wight . It was considered a juvenile specimen of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , or an undetermined species of Mantellisaurus , but is indeterminate beyond Iguanodontia .
I. foxii ( also spelled I. foxi ) was originally described by Thomas Henry Huxley in 1869 as the type species of Hypsilophodon ; Owen ( 1873 or 1874 ) reassigned it to Iguanodon , but his assignment was soon overturned .
I. gracilis , named by Lydekker in 1888 as the type species of Sphenospondylus and assigned to Iguanodon in 1969 by Rodney Steel , has been tossed of as a synonym of Mantellisaurus atherfieldensis , but is dubious nowadays .
I. major , a species named by Justin Delair in 1966 , based on vertebrae from the Isle of Wight and Sussex originally described by Owen in 1842 as a species of Streptospondylus , S. major , is a nomen dubium which is now thought to be a synonym of I. anglicus , although it may be its own species .
The nomen nudum " Proiguanodon " ( van den Broeck , 1900 ) also belongs here .
= = = Dubious species = = =
Two Iguanodon species are currently considered to be nomina dubia :
I. anglicus , described by Friedrich Holl in 1829 , is the original type species of Iguanodon , but , as discussed above , was replaced by I. bernissartensis . In the past , it has been spelled as I. angelicus ( Lessem and Glut , 1993 ) and I. anglicum ( Holl , 1829 emend . Bronn , 1850 ) . It is known from teeth from the middle Valanginian @-@ age Lower Cretaceous Grinstead Clay Formation ) of Cuckfield , West Sussex , England . It is currently classified in the genus Therosaurus as T. anglicus .
I. ottingeri , described by Peter Galton and James A. Jensen in 1979 , is a nomen dubium based on teeth from the possibly Aptian @-@ age lower Cedar Mountain Formation of Utah .
The genera Iguanosaurus ( Ritgen , 1828 ) , Hikanodon ( Keferstein , 1834 ) , and Therosaurus ( Fitzinger , 1840 ) , are simply junior objective synonyms , later names for the material of I. anglicus .
= = In popular culture = =
Since its description in 1825 , Iguanodon has been a feature of worldwide popular culture . Two lifesize reconstructions of Mantellodon ( considered Iguanodon at the time ) built at the Crystal Palace in London in 1852 greatly contributed to the popularity of the genus . Their thumb spikes were mistaken for horns , and they were depicted as elephant @-@ like quadrupeds , yet this was the first time an attempt was made at constructing full @-@ size dinosaur models . In 1910 Heinrich Harder portrayed a group of Iguanodon in the classic German collecting cards about extinct and prehistoric animals " Tiere der Urwelt " .
Several motion pictures have featured Iguanodon . In the Disney film Dinosaur , an Iguanodon named Aladar served as the protagonist with three other iguanodonts as other main characters ; a loosely related ride of the same name at Disney 's Animal Kingdom is based around bringing an Iguanodon back to the present . Iguanodon is one of the three dinosaur genera that inspired Godzilla ; the other two were Tyrannosaurus and Stegosaurus . Iguanodon has also made appearances in some of the many Land Before Time films , as well as episodes of the television series .
Aside from appearances in movies , Iguanodon has also been featured on the television documentary miniseries Walking with Dinosaurs ( 1999 ) produced by the BBC , and played a starring role in Sir Arthur Conan Doyle 's book , The Lost World as well as featuring in an episode of the Discovery Channel documentary , Dinosaur Planet ( incorrectly portrayed being able to run on all fours and living in the Late Cretaceous ) . It also was present in Bob Bakker 's Raptor Red ( 1995 ) , as a Utahraptor prey item . A main belt asteroid , 1989 CB3 , has been named 9941 Iguanodon in honour of the genus .
Because it is both one of the first dinosaurs described and one of the best @-@ known dinosaurs , Iguanodon has been well @-@ placed as a barometer of changing public and scientific perceptions on dinosaurs . Its reconstructions have gone through three stages : the elephantine quadrupedal horn @-@ snouted reptile satisfied the Victorians , then a bipedal but still fundamentally reptilian animal using its tail to prop itself up dominated the early 20th century , but was slowly overturned during the 1960s by its current , more agile and dynamic representation , able to shift from two legs to all fours .
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= Subtropical Storm Alpha ( 1972 ) =
Subtropical Storm Alpha ( also called Alfa ) was a rare off @-@ season subtropical cyclone that hit Georgia in May 1972 . It developed from a previously non @-@ tropical cyclone in the western Atlantic Ocean , and initially it moved northeastward off of the Carolinas . The storm turned southwestward due to a building ridge , and concurrently it intensified to become Subtropical Storm Alpha . It later moved ashore near Savannah , and it finally dissipated in the northeast Gulf of Mexico on May 29 . It produced wave action and moderate rainfall along the coast . Damage totaled over $ 100 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) , and there were two associated deaths .
= = Meteorological history = =
Throughout May 1972 , a series of weak troughs moved across the eastern United States . In the third week of the month , an upper @-@ level cutoff low developed along one of these troughs , located southeast of the United States and removed from the Westerlies . The origins of Alpha were from a surface low northeast of Florida , associated with the larger @-@ scale , cold core upper low . It organized , and late on May 23 it could be classified as a subtropical depression , east of the Georgia / South Carolina border . While southeast of Hatteras , North Carolina , a developing ridge blocked its northeast motion , and so it slowed to turn to the southeast . On May 25 , a small , intense low @-@ level center organized rapidly , and by the next day it attained gale force winds , by which time the storm turned southwestward . At 1600 UTC on May 26 , the National Hurricane Center initiated advisories on Subtropical Cyclone Alpha , when the storm was about 225 miles south of Cape Hatteras . Around that time , it reached its peak winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) .
On its first advisory , there was disagreement among forecast models regarding its eventual track , with projected tracks deviating from a Georgia landfall to a track northeastward out to sea . Alpha was also a climatological outlier at the time ; the NHC HURRAN model , which was based on previous storms with similar characteristics , found no analogs for the storm . Subtropical Storm Alpha was initially well @-@ defined as it moved southwestward . The very small center was located along the eastern edge of the convection , while low @-@ level cloud bands formed east of the center . At the time , the temperature structure was more typical of a winter storm , although it was expected to become more like a subtropical storm typical during the summer months . The winds decreased steadily as it turned more westward on May 27 , and the heavy rainfall persisted mostly to the north and west of the center .
The National Hurricane Center initially thought the center might not have been at the surface , and the agency indicated low forecasting confidence , as they could not determine a circulation center . The difficulty arose from the large , sprawling nature of the storm , and by later on May 27 a new center formed , as confirmed by radar imagery and the Hurricane Hunters . That night , the extremely small center made landfall just south of Savannah , Georgia , affecting a very small area with winds of 65 mph ( 100 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 991 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 26 inHg ) . Around the time of landfall , Alpha developed a warm core , indicating some tropical characteristics . The storm weakened quickly over land , although it did not dissipate until two days later over the northeast Gulf of Mexico .
= = Preparations and impact = =
At the time of the first advisory on Alpha , there were small craft warnings from Jacksonville , Florida to Cape May , New Jersey . Gale warnings were posted from Cape Fear , North Carolina to Chincoteague , Virginia . The interaction between Alpha and the high pressure system to its northeast caused cooler temperatures and gusty winds from Delaware southward . Wave heights reached up to 20 feet ( 6 @.@ 1 m ) along the Virginia capes . The storm dropped rainfall along the coast of North Carolina and Virginia , with a maximum of 6 @.@ 97 inches ( 177 mm ) reported in Ocracoke , North Carolina . While moving slowly off the North Carolina coast , Alpha caused heavy beach erosion , destroyed one house , and threatened the foundation of several other homes in the Outer Banks . Damage totaled over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) .
While the storm was traveling over the western Atlantic Ocean , the storm produced a large area of rough seas , which was considered the greatest threat from the storm . In northeastern Florida , police officers were stationed to ensure people did not swim in the dangerous seas . The high waves also halted work to deepen a harbor at the Mayport Naval Station . Two people drowned after the storm dissipated , when surf was still turbulent . Tides along the Georgia coast reached 2 to 3 feet ( 0 @.@ 61 to 0 @.@ 91 m ) above normal , which caused some flooding and beach erosion . Wind gusts reached 58 mph ( 93 km / h ) on Saint Simons Island . The winds knocked down trees and power lines , leaving some people without power in eastern Georgia . Damage was minor but widespread in the state , estimated at over $ 50 @,@ 000 ( 1972 USD ) . Moderate rains spread in coastal areas from South Carolina through southern Florida .
The 1972 hurricane season was the first year in which quasi @-@ tropical cyclones were named , by using the NATO phonetic alphabet . At the time , the names were applied to large subtropical cyclones and small neutercanes , both of which were later combined into one category .
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= Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax =
Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is a video game first published in 1988 for various home computers . It was also released as Axe of Rage in North America . The game is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( Death Sword in North America ) , which was published in 1987 . In Barbarian II , the player controls a princess or barbarian character , exploring the game world to locate and defeat an evil wizard . The game 's plot is an extension of its predecessor , although the gameplay is different . While the first game offers two players the opportunity for virtual head @-@ to @-@ head combat , the second is solely a single @-@ player adventure with fewer fighting moves .
Palace Software , the developer of the two Barbarian games , marketed the sequel with the same strategy they used for the first game . They hired Maria Whittaker , a model known for her topless work , to pose on the cover and posters as the princess in the game , attempting to recapture the controversy that had boosted sales . Barbarian II received a mixed critical reception . Reviewers were split in their opinions over whether the game was a refreshing and gory adventure , or a boring and lonely sojourn through a confusing digital world .
= = Gameplay = =
Barbarian II : The Dungeon of Drax is an action video game released in 1988 for various personal computer platforms , such as Commodore 64 and MS @-@ DOS . It is the sequel to Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior ( released in 1987 ) , which offers sword fighting action to one or two players . Unlike its predecessor , Barbarian II features only a single @-@ player mode , in which the player assumes the role of either sword @-@ wielding Princess Mariana or the titular savage , who is armed with a battleaxe . Their common quest is to pursue the evil wizard Drax , who has fled to his dungeon hideout after his defeat in the first game . The player characters battle their way through an inhospitable wasteland , a system of caves , and a dungeon before facing Drax in his inner sanctum for a showdown .
Using a joystick or keyboard , the player moves his or her character through Barbarian II 's world . Each of the four stages — wasteland , caves , dungeon , and inner sanctum — is a series of interconnected rooms , populated by monsters , traps , and items . The game displays one room at a time in a flick @-@ screen manner : as the protagonist leaves a room , the screen is updated to display the next . The connections among rooms are disjointed : the exit on the left of one room might be connected to the entrance on the same side of another . A compass at the bottom of the interface serves as a directional guide , always pointing to the north . The player directs his or her player through the rooms , seeking the exit to the next stage while avoiding traps and collecting items .
The protagonist is also challenged in his or her quest by 20 types of creatures . By moving the joystick while pressing its button or by performing the equivalent keyboard commands , the player defends the protagonist with four styles of attacks : a low slash , a high chop , a kick , and a spinning neck chop . The life of the combatants are represented by gauges at the top corners of the screen . Successful attacks on a character reduce its gauge and the character is killed when its life is reduced to zero . A well @-@ timed neck chop ( or the bites of certain monsters ) decapitates the opponent , killing it instantly . Monsters disappear in a puff of smoke when killed , reappearing with a full life gauge in the same room some time later . Although the player character likewise reappears fully rejuvenated in the room after being killed , he or she can only do so for a limited number of times . This limit ( number of lives ) is represented in the form of globes at the top centre of the screen . The protagonist increases his or her number of lives by collecting skulls that are scattered throughout the game world .
= = Development = =
Barbarian II 's predecessor , Barbarian : The Ultimate Warrior , was a critical and commercial success on its release in 1987 . Reviewers enjoyed the game 's exciting sword fights , and its profile was greatly enhanced by marketing strategies employed by its developer , Palace Software , a subsidiary of media company Palace Group . The developer had engaged Maria Whittaker , a model known for topless shoots , to pose on the box covers and posters of the game . The image of bikini @-@ clad Whittaker created a hype that pushed the game beyond the attention of the video game industry , producing a controversy in which members of the public criticised the industry for promoting Barbarian in a sexist manner .
Palace Software repeated the strategy for the sequel , publishing a poster of Whittaker as Princess Mariana , this time in metal bikini armour , and Michael Van Wijk as the barbarian . Steve Brown , creator of the Barbarian games , recalled that the bikini 's chain " snapped a number of times " in comical Carry On fashion during the shoot . Brown was behind the concept of the poster , which was brought to fruition by Lee Gibbons , a commercial artist , over the course of four weeks . The image of the barbarian and princess poised over the fallen body of a large , scaly monster was a photomontage , created by superimposing three photographs — one of each subject — on one another . The creature was a small scale model made of Plasticine . After cutting out the subjects from their photos and composing the cut @-@ outs to form a new scene , Gibbons painted the background and added effects such as smoke to form the final image .
Brown had filmed sword fights and used the tracings of the combatants ' movements to produce the animations in Barbarian . For the animations in the sequel , he turned to the works of photographer Eadweard Muybridge , who made a name for himself through his series of photographs of animals and humans captured in motion . The movements of Barbarian II 's characters were based on the pictures in Muybridge 's book Human in Motion , which was published in 1901 . The resulting animation was judged very realistic and detailed by several reviewers .
First released in August 1988 for the Commodore 64 , Barbarian II was ported to various personal computers . The various versions differed in features , depending on specifications of the platforms . The Amiga version of the game was given several improvements . It has digitized speech and better graphics in the form of greater details and number of colours . The introductory and disc loading sequences were revamped , featuring animated skeletons with maniacal voices . In contrast , the ZX Spectrum version has monochromatic graphics ; the first level comprises black @-@ outlined sprites against pink backgrounds .
As with its predecessor , Barbarian II was licensed to Epyx for release in North America . The game was published there under the title Axe of Rage and included a tattoo in its packaging . The North American version featured a different cover art , showing the close @-@ up visage of " a screaming berserker with homicidal tendencies " . Dragon magazine 's reviewers found the cover ugly , and according to Computer Gaming World , a Canadian wholesaler refused to sell Axe of Rage because it considered the game 's box cover art crass enough to offend customers . Similarly , in the United Kingdom , pharmacy chain Boots banned displays of Barbarian II , featuring Whittaker , from their stores .
= = Reception = =
Barbarian II received praise for its audio , mostly for the versions on more powerful platforms . Reviewers of The Games Machine pointed out that the " most remarkable feature of the ST version is its crystal clear sampled effects " . Zzap ! 64 's staff and Computer and Video Games 's Julian Rignall were impressed with the digital thuds and whacks produced on the Commodore 64 , and particularly the rendition of a certain monster 's laughter . Mike Pattenden of CU Amiga claimed the " manic clucking of the mutant chicken would be enough to send [ the player ] running in the opposite direction " . Although rating the audio @-@ visual components of the Amiga version on par with that for the Atari ST , Pattenden and reviewers from The Game Machine felt the flashy introductory sequence on the Amiga made it stand out ; Tony Horgan of Amiga User International called it the best introduction he has seen in Amiga games .
Although reviewers were less than impressed with the graphics on lower @-@ end systems such as the ZX Spectrum , the colours and large detailed sprites on the higher @-@ end platforms won their acclaim . The animation of the characters also captured their attention . Tommy Nash of Your Sinclair hailed it as " first class " , while Paul Glancey of Zzap ! 64 called the sprites " beautifully defined " and " realistically animated " . Similar accolades were given by other reviewers . The staff of The Games Machine were " constantly [ amazed ] " at the designs of the monsters in the game .
Several reviewers had a common complaint about the game . As the difference between executing an attack and a movement was the pressing of the joystick button , they were irked to find their characters frequently switching directions instead of attacking with a low slash . Their frustration was increased when the protagonist took damage from enemy attacks as he or she executes the unintentional command to change facing . Chris Jenkins , however , praised the game for responsive joystick controls in his review for Sinclair User . Paul Lakin of Zero pointed out that the flick @-@ screen presentation could lead to confusing situations in combat as the protagonist retreats across an exit and appears at the other end of the screen . Horgan had another grouse with the combat , moaning the loss of simplicity from the Barbarian series . According to him , while players could enjoy the first Barbarian game without much effort , intense practise was needed to defeat the monsters in the second game .
The change in combat systems was not the only difference between Barbarian II and its predecessor that influenced reviewers ' opinions about the sequel . The first Barbarian game was enjoyed by reviewers for providing exciting head @-@ to @-@ head action between two players . Barbarian II abandoned this , setting up an adventuring experience for the single player . Jim Douglas , reviewing for Sinclair User , doubted that players who were looking for quick action would appreciate plotting a path through the maze to reach the final goal . Your Sinclair 's Marcus Berkmann felt the two genres — slash ' em up and arcade adventure — were " fundamentally incompatible " , agreeing with Douglas that the maze was a distraction . Crash 's reviewers , however , felt the combination of genres made the game interesting . James Price wrote in Amiga Force that the adventuring element and unending number of enemies made Barbarian II a far better game than the first , while The Games Machine 's staff said the expanded menagerie of foes adequately made up for a reduction in combat moves .
In their review for Dragon magazine , the Lessers called Axe of Rage " an engrossing slash ' n hack that 'll please most arcaders . " Zzap ! 64 's reviewers were unanimous in recommending Barbarian II to their readers ; however , two years later in a re @-@ review , the magazine 's staff said the game has aged badly , finding the gameplay " lot more crude and clichéd " and of dubious replay value . Martyn Carroll concurred in his article for Retro Gamer , 17 years after the game 's release , calling Barbarian II " hugely disappointing " for " [ messing ] up almost everything that was great about the first game . " Brown and Palace Software 's co @-@ founder Richard Leinfellner admitted as much ; they said they had mixed feelings about Barbarian II , thinking the idea of a simple fun game was lost by stuffing too many features into it .
When Barbarian II was released , Palace Software went ahead with plans for Barbarian III . For two years , the third game in the series was publicised in gaming magazines . Your Sinclair held a contest for its readers , asking them to submit concepts of gruesome monsters . The winning entry would be implemented in Barbarian III . The Barbarian series of games were , however , brought to a halt in 1991 when Palace Group sold its software subsidiary to fund its expansion into the movie industry . Titus Software bought Palace Software and after reviewing its holdings , cancelled several of its new acquisition 's projects , including Barbarian III .
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= Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now =
Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now is a biography of musician Van Morrison , written by Steve Turner . It was first published in 1993 in the United States by Penguin Group , and in Great Britain by Bloomsbury Publishing . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 ; he interviewed approximately 40 people that knew the subject in his research for the biography . Van Morrison did not think positively of the biography , and multiple newspapers reported he attempted to purchase all of the book 's 25 @,@ 000 copies . He sent a letter to the author asserting the 40 individuals interviewed for the book were not his friends , and accused Turner of " peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally " .
The biography takes a pictorial format , and includes many photographs of Van Morrison and scenes relating to his life , including close @-@ up shots and contact prints . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's youth in Belfast , Northern Ireland , and how early experiences shaped his perceptions . Flautist John Payne was interviewed for the book , and comments on his work with Van Morrison on the album Astral Weeks . Turner discusses Van Morrison 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and includes quotes from the musician about this desire for privacy . The author discusses Van Morrison 's efforts to seek out creativity , and his exploration of spirituality . The book concludes with an assessment of Van Morrison 's experiences with religion .
The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age . Publishers Weekly 's review of the book was critical of its " adulatory " tone , but called it a " necessity for fans " , due the inclusion of the discography . A review of the book for The Boston Globe commented " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured ... religion and spirituality . " The Palm Beach Post noted that the biography provides " insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life " . The Sunday Times wrote that " the really interesting story here is told by the photographs " . The Irish Times was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of the included photographs .
= = Research and publication = =
Prior to his work on the biography , Steve Turner had previously written a book about the music group U2 , titled U2 : Rattle & Hum , and Eric Clapton , titled Conversations With Eric Clapton . Turner first met Van Morrison in 1985 , while writing a book on religion 's place in rock music . Turner characterised himself as someone who is " drawn to artists bothered by spiritual issues " . In his research for the book , the author interviewed approximately 40 people that knew Van Morrison . Turner spoke with Van Morrison , and they discussed the musician 's views on philosophy . Some of the photographs included in the book were obtained by Turner from a guitarist with Van Morrison 's band Them .
According to The Sunday People , " though critics said it was an affectionate tribute about a nice man . Van went on to urge fans not to buy it . " According to The Boston Globe , Van Morrison " disdained the book " . In an interview with The Boston Globe , Turner commented on this : " He considers anything that reveals details of family background or anything like that an invasion of his privacy . He doesn 't believe in biographies , and I do . " When the biography came out in hardcover , Van Morrison sent Turner 36 statements from the book that he called " lies , gross exaggerations and innuendo " . Van Morrison told Turner that none of the 40 individuals the author had interviewed for the biography were currently friends of his . The letter from Van Morrison to Turner concluded with : " I am very sorry that you feel you are entitled to earn a living by peddling distortions and inaccuracies about me personally . " In his reply letter to Van Morrison , Turner wrote : " You may not think you are ' difficult ' or ' introvert ' but other people do and have the right to express their opinions . " The Sunday Times reported that " Allegedly , Van 's management even considered buying up all 25 @,@ 000 copies of the book to pulp them , " and this was also reported in The Independent . The Evening Times wrote that Van Morrison " reportedly tried to buy all the copies of a biography by Steve Turner . " Representatives for Van Morrison did not confirm whether he attempted to purchase the 25 @,@ 000 copies of the biography , and confirmed that " representatives of the singer discussed various possibilities " . Van Morrison 's manager , Chris O 'Donnell , said of the musician : " He is not happy about books , period . He is an artist and stands up for himself – he doesn 't want his private life raked over . "
Steve Turner appeared on a panel of experts in the 2008 documentary Van Morrison : Under Review 1964 – 1974 . Along with Turner was Johnny Rogan , author of the biographies Van Morrison : A Portrait of the Artist ( 1984 ) and Van Morrison : No Surrender ( 2005 ) .
= = Contents = =
The introduction to the book includes an analysis by the author of Van Morrison 's skill to use " the stuff of his life " . Turner compares Van Morrison with other musicians of the time period , including Robbie Robertson , Bob Dylan , and Neil Young . The book 's 10 chapters contain a pictorial overview of the musician 's professional work . The book 's chapters are structured according to record releases of the musician . Pictures include images from locations where Van Morrison grew up in Belfast , contact prints from a photo shoot for a cover album with his wife at the time Janet Planet , and archived marketing photographs of a younger Van Morrison . The beginning of the book includes 10 close @-@ up shots of the musician . The book also contains a complete discography of Van Morrison 's work .
Turner describes Van Morrison 's early life as George Ivan Morrison on Hyndford Street in Belfast . " I 'm definitely Irish " , Van Morrison is quoted as stating in the book . He asserts that Van Morrison was affected by his mother 's religious conversion to the Jehovah 's Witnesses when he was a child . Turner states that this experience contributed to his position as an outcast : " Who else in Belfast had a father who played Jelly Roll Morton records , and a mother who indulged in doorstep evangelism ? " Turner discusses Van Morrison 's musical colleagues , his successes , the break @-@ ups of his various bands , and his efforts to seek out creative expression . The author includes commentary and images from Van Morrison 's first release with the band Them in 1964 , through to his latest album at the time of the book 's publication .
Turner interviewed flautist John Payne for the book , who had sat in on sessions with Van Morrison and later collaborated with him . Payne comments on their work together on the album Astral Weeks , which also included musicians Connie Kay , Warren Smith , Jay Berliner , and Richard Davis : " Ironically , the image you have when you listen to the album now is of these guys who are all together , and they realise they are creating a monumental work of art . The fact is that it was just another session for them . " Payne states of his observations of Van Morrison 's performance style : " When ( Van ) was on stage , he would look like a space cadet , but then he 'd open his mouth and you would realize that he had channeled everything into the sound of his voice . The rest of it was just a shell that was there for the purpose of producing this noise . "
The book notes the artist 's reluctance to be interviewed or engage with the public , and quotes him as saying : " It 's very hard for me to relate to people asking questions that are not only boring but don 't have anything to do with my life ... It 's a waste of time on my part because it drains me from doing what I really want to do , which is just to play music . " Van Morrison describes his perceived musical role : " I just feel I 'm doing the job . My job is to play music and deliver the show ... It 's more emotional for the audience ... what they sort of think you are . " He states that one of his motivations is " ideally to induce states of meditation and ecstasy , as well as to make people think " .
The author notes Van Morrison 's dislike of conformity , and quotes him as saying : " I hate organizations . " Of his period in his life of experimentation , Van Morrison comments : " I 'm not searching for anything in particular . I 'm just groping in the dark ... for a bit more light . That 's it really . " Turner notes how musical styles including rhythm and blues and Motown influenced the musician . Van Morrison 's exploration of spirituality is discussed in the book , including his experiences with mysticism , Christianity , and Dianetics . In the last chapter of the book , Turner comments on Van Morrison 's experiences in religion , writing : " His development of religion as a normal topic of discourse in popular song may turn out to be his most lasting contribution . "
= = Reception = =
The book was selected as " Editor 's Choice " in the Sunday Age , where Michael Gordon wrote : " This is not the whole story , but it is a well @-@ researched and superbly presented summary of the story so far – a kind of companion to the John Lennon book , ' Imagine ' – including the temper tantrums . Fans may , however , disagree with the closing assessment that Morrison may be running out of themes and ideas to express . " Publishers Weekly was critical of the book 's tone , commenting : " Turner is more adulatory than probing . " The review noted : " A complete discography makes this book a necessity for fans of the Irish Rover . " Writing for The Boston Globe , Thomas C. Palmer Jr. called the book " a coffee @-@ table biography that fills an extensive void , both for those hungry for gossip and for those who have wondered at the source of the creativity in this prolific producer of often stunningly original – if difficult to categorize – music " . Palmer commented on the book 's value : " The value of the book is that it has at its heart the same subjects that most of Morrison 's music has featured , subtly or otherwise ( but never as blatantly as Dylan in his " Saved " period ) : religion and spirituality . " Robert Sandall reviewed the book for The Sunday Times , and wrote : " Steve Turner has performed his task as a biographer diligently enough in Too Late To Stop Now , but the really interesting story here is told by the photographs . " Sandall commented : " Thirty years of constant rowing with anybody who has ever tried to get close to him , and a fitful and irritable hankering after religion ( any religion ) have left him looking bloated , sad and , as Turner has the courage and decency to point out , not as great a musician now as his current reputation would suggest . It 's all there in the pictures . "
Bernard Perusse of The Gazette described the book as " more superficial but more positive " than the 2006 biography Van Morrison : No Surrender by Johnny Rogan . In a review of the book for The Palm Beach Post , Lisa McDonough wrote " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late To Stop Now is not the final answer on Morrison – only Morrison could give that – but he does provide insights and updates as well as a solid background on Morrison 's early life . " Writing for The Irish Times , John Boland was critical of the book 's text but wrote positively of its images : " Steve Turner 's Van Morrison : Too Late to Stop Now , has a trite , fanzine style text and isn 't very informative about the great man , but it has some splendid pictures and in its coffee table format is well worth the asking price " . A review in the Herald Sun was critical : " Too Late To Stop Now is more suited to the coffee table than a library shelf . It is browsing material , fleshed with snapshots , album covers , PR shots , posters and prints . The words are mere stitches , there to hold the pictures in place . " The Herald Sun noted that the author left out critical quotes from individuals that knew Van Morrison , and questioned Turner 's objectivity .
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= Music of Chrono Cross =
The Chrono series is a video game franchise developed and published by Square Enix ( formerly Square ) . It began in 1995 with the time travel role @-@ playing video game Chrono Trigger , which spawned two continuations , Radical Dreamers and Chrono Cross . The music of Chrono Cross was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , the main composer of Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . Chrono Cross has sparked a soundtrack album , released in 1999 by DigiCube and re @-@ released in 2005 by Square Enix , and a greatest hits mini @-@ album , published in 2000 by Square along with the North American release of the game . Radical Dreamers , the music of which heavily inspired the soundtrack of Chrono Cross , has not sparked any albums , though some songs from its soundtrack were reused in Chrono Cross . An album of arrangements of Chrono Cross songs was first announced by Mitsuda in 2005 , and later intended to be released to coincide with the tenth anniversary of the game in 2009 ; its release data was pushed back several times since then . In 2015 , Mitsuda via Square Enix released an album of arranged music from Chrono Trigger and Chrono Cross entitled To Far Away Times to commemorate the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger .
The original soundtrack album has been hailed as an excellent video game music album , while the Chrono Cross Music Selection mini @-@ album has garnered little attention . Songs from the soundtrack have been played at various orchestral concerts , such as the personal arrangements by Mitsuda for the Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert series . Chrono Cross music has also been extensively remixed by fans , and such remixes have been included in both official and unofficial albums .
= = Creation and development = =
Mitsuda returned as the lead composer for 1999 's Chrono Cross after composing its predecessor , Chrono Trigger . After being contacted to compose the score by the game 's director Masato Kato , Mitsuda decided to center his work around old world cultural influences , including Mediterranean , Fado , Celtic , and percussive African music . To complement the theme of parallel worlds , he gave the songs for the two worlds of the game , Another and Home , respectively dark and bright moods . Mitsuda was happy to accomplish even half of what he envisioned . Once production concluded , Mitsuda played Chrono Cross to record his impressions and observe how the tracks intermingled with scenes .
Radical Dreamers was a 1996 text @-@ based Visual Novel set as a gaiden , or side story , to Chrono Trigger . It was released to complement its predecessor 's plot , and later served as inspiration for Chrono Cross . The music of Radical Dreamers was written by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack includes several ambient pieces , including the sound of water running in a fountain and wind accompanied by strings . Players can listen to the game 's 15 songs by accessing a hidden menu in one of the game 's scenarios . The soundtrack has never been released as a separate album .
Several themes and musical patterns from Radical Dreamers were later adapted for Chrono Cross on the suggestion of Masato Kato ; many appear unchanged except for new instrumentation . Appearing in Chrono Cross are " Gale " , " Frozen Flame " , " Viper Manor " , " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " On the Beach of Dreams - Another World " and " The Dream that Time Dreams " ) , " The Girl who Stole the Stars " , and " Epilogue ~ Dream Shore " ( as part of " Jellyfish Sea " ) . Other entries in the soundtrack contain leitmotifs from Chrono Trigger and Radical Dreamers . The melody of " Far Promise ~ Dream Shore " features prominently in " The Dream That Time Dreams " and " Voyage - Another World " .
= = Albums = =
= = = Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack = = =
The Chrono Cross Original Soundtrack is a soundtrack of the music from Chrono Cross , composed by Yasunori Mitsuda . The soundtrack spans three discs and 67 tracks , covering a duration of 3 hours . It was published by DigiCube on December 18 , 1999 , and reprinted by Square Enix on June 29 , 2005 .
Xenogears contributor Tomohiko Kira played guitar on the beginning and ending themes . Noriko Mitose , selected for the role by Masato Kato , sang the ending song " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . Ryo Yamazaki , a synthesizer programmer for Square Enix , helped Mitsuda transfer his ideas to the PlayStation 's sound capabilities . The soundtrack has been described as having " some of the most haunting melodies known to man " . The " Home World " tracks from the soundtrack have been termed " emotional " , " driving " and " striking " , while the " Another World " tracks are described as " slower " , " dreamier " , and more " serene " than their counterparts .
The soundtrack won the Gold Prize for Sony 's PlayStation Awards of 2000 . It reached # 72 on the Japan Oricon charts on its first print and # 174 when reprinted . It was praised by reviewers such as Patrick Gann of RPGFan , who called it his favorite video game music soundtrack of all time and especially praised the vocals in " Radical Dreamers ~ Unstolen Jewel ~ " . This high opinion was echoed by Don Kotowski of Square Enix Music Online , who called it " one of Mitsuda 's best , both in and out of [ the ] context " of the game and said that it " surpasses his Chrono Trigger soundtrack " . He singled out " Scars of Time " and " Radical Dreamers " as especially worthy of praise . IGN , in their review of the game , termed the soundtrack " a brilliant score " that " does wonders in stirring the emotional strings of the players as they 're playing through the game " . IGN praised the technical sound quality of the soundtrack as well , though they did comment that for them no specific tracks stood out as especially memorable . In a separate piece about Japanese RPG composers , however , IGN called " Scars of Time " and " Arni Village - Home World " as two of Mitsuda 's most memorable tracks in naming him the second best out of ten behind Nobuo Uematsu .
Track listing
= = = Chrono Cross Music Selection = = =
Chrono Cross Music Selection is a mini @-@ album of Chrono Cross music that was released in North America exclusively as a bonus for pre @-@ ordering Chrono Cross . The five @-@ track disc was composed by Yasunori Mitsuda , has a length of 15 : 47 and was published by Square along with the game on August 15 , 2000 . Although the release of the album sparked rumors that it would be followed by a North American release of the full soundtrack album , Square Enix has not to date published Chrono Cross OST outside Japan .
Patrick Gann enjoyed the album , calling it a " little American gem of VG music " , but noted that there is no reason to purchase it now that the full soundtrack is just as easy to obtain , especially given its short length . The five tracks on this album were released on the " Original Soundtrack " with three of the tracks renamed .
= = = To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album = = =
In 2005 , Mitsuda announced a new arranged album of Chrono Cross music was scheduled for release in July of that year . It did not materialize , though at a Play ! A Video Game Symphony concert in May 2006 , he revealed it would be out " within the year " and would feature acoustic music . Later in 2006 , Mitsuda alleged that the album would actually be released in 2007 . In 2008 , Yasunori Mitsuda posted a streaming sample of a track from the upcoming Chrono Cross arranged album . Though no official release date was announced , Mitsuda more than once stated that the album would be planned to coincide with the 10th anniversary of the game 's original release in 2009 . Mitsuda claimed that the album was " nearly done " , but that it may not be possible to release it before the year was out .
On a live performance at the Tokyo Dome in July 2015 commemorating the 20 @-@ year anniversary of Chrono Trigger , Mitsuda announced that the long requested Chrono series arrangement album , entitled To Far Away Times : Chrono Trigger & Chrono Cross Arrangement Album would be released . This was eventually released by Square Enix Music on October 14 , 2015 . The album was released on the Square Enix website . A number of the tracks had vocalists to go on top of the score . All tracks were composed by Yasunori Mitsuda .
= = Legacy = =
Mitsuda has personally arranged versions of music from Chrono Cross for Play ! A Video Game Symphony video game music concerts in 2006 . Music from the game has also been performed in other video game concert tours such as the Video Games Live concert series and in concerts by the Eminence Orchestra . Music from Chrono Trigger and Cross made up one fourth of the music in the Symphonic Fantasies concerts in Leipzig in September 2009 which were produced by the creators of the Symphonic Game Music Concert series and conducted by Arnie Roth . The concerts featured a suite of music from both games interspersed together with the songs from Cross comprising " Scars of Time " , " Gale " , " Brink of Death " , and " Prisoners of Fate " . A suite comprising music from Chrono Trigger and Cross was performed at the Press Start -Symphony of Games- 2008 concerts in Tokyo and Shanghai . " Scars of Time " was played at the Fantasy Comes Alive concert in Singapore on April 30 , 2010 . Sheet music for Chrono Cross tracks arranged for both solo guitar and guitar duets has been released by Procyon Studio .
Chrono Cross 's soundtrack has been heavily remixed by fans , sparking several albums . These include the officially licensed Time & Space - A Tribute to Yasunori Mitsuda , released by OneUp Studios on October 7 , 2001 and containing 18 remixes over a span of 1 : 00 : 58 , with a second version of the album released on June 17 , 2003 . A related popular album release was Radical Dreamers : Thieves of Fate , an unofficial download @-@ only album release by the remix website OverClocked ReMix on January 5 , 2008 containing 15 remixes of the soundtrack to Radical Dreamers , including remixes of the tracks that later appeared in Chrono Cross . Selections of remixes also appear on dōjin remix albums , and on English remixing websites such as OverClocked Remix . " Time 's Scar " was featured by NPR in a program about classically arranged video game scores in December 2012 .
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= M @-@ 47 ( Michigan highway ) =
M @-@ 47 is a north – south state trunkline highway in the US state of Michigan . It runs near Saginaw and Midland in the Tri @-@ Cities area of the Lower Peninsula . The highway runs through suburban and agricultural areas to connect the two cities with the airport in the area . The northernmost section of M @-@ 47 runs along a freeway to the terminus at US Highway 10 ( US 10 ) . M @-@ 47 runs for 14 @.@ 328 miles ( 23 @.@ 059 km ) , all of which has been listed as a part of the National Highway System .
First designated by July 1 , 1919 along a different routing , M @-@ 47 was extended several times in both directions through the 1920s and 1930s . Two of these extensions replaced sections of M @-@ 111 in the Bay City area . At the apex of its length in the 1950s , M @-@ 47 stretched from Webberville in the south to Bay City State Park in the north . Since Interstate 75 ( I @-@ 75 ) opened in the Tri @-@ Cities area , the northern section of M @-@ 47 was rerouted and truncated as a result of related changes to other highways . The southern end was moved after I @-@ 96 opened in the Lansing area . Further changes into the 1970s shortened M @-@ 47 more , producing the routing in use today .
= = Route description = =
M @-@ 47 starts at M @-@ 46 ( Gratiot Road ) east of Shields next to the Oakwood Cemetery . M @-@ 47 is known as Midland Road as it runs slightly northwest to intersect with M @-@ 58 ( State Road ) in Saginaw Charter Township running parallel to the Tittabawassee River . This area is the western edge of Saginaw 's suburbs . Along the road towards Freeland , there are periodic small farms in between small residential subdivisions . In the community of Freeland , M @-@ 47 runs near the MBS International Airport off Freeland Road . North of town , M @-@ 47 leaves Midland Road and becomes a freeway near Tittabawassee Park . The freeway section of M @-@ 47 runs through rural farm land . There is a diamond interchange with Salzburg Road before the terminal interchange at US 10 .
As part of its maintenance duties , the Michigan Department of Transportation ( MDOT ) tracks the volume of traffic on the highways it maintains . This number is expressed in terms of annual average daily traffic ( AADT ) , a calculation of the average traffic for a segment of roadway on any average day of the year . In 2009 , the department measured a peak of 19 @,@ 719 vehicles daily on the stretch north of Tittabawasee Road . The section south of the US 10 interchange had the lowest traffic level at 9 @,@ 315 vehicles AADT . Additionally , entire route of M @-@ 47 has been listed on the National Highway System , a network of roads important to the country 's economy , defense , and mobility .
= = History = =
The original designation of M @-@ 47 was routed from the Shiawassee – Ingham county line north to St. Charles and then east along M @-@ 46 into Saginaw . A southern extension into Ingham County to end at M @-@ 16 in Williamston was transferred and completed in 1924 . A northern extension to Bay City replaced a section of M @-@ 111 in 1929 , and extended farther to Bay City State Park in 1933 . M @-@ 47 replaced the remainder of M @-@ 111 and extended southward from the park to Bay City in 1938 , creating a " U @-@ turn " in the routing . The southern terminus was moved again in late 1951 or early 1952 to Webberville , although still ending on US 16 .
At its greatest extent in the 1950s , the highway extended north from Webberville through Owosso and St. Charles to a junction with M @-@ 46 between Hemlock and Shields . M @-@ 47 turned east along M @-@ 46 , running concurrently with that highway to Saginaw Township . There M @-@ 47 turned north independently to a junction with US 10 , and then ran concurrently with US 10 into Saginaw . Once in the city , M @-@ 47 turned north along Bay Street out of town toward Bay City . M @-@ 47 joined US 23 and followed it north of town . M @-@ 47 then ran separately to the state park before turning south and back into downtown Bay City , ending at the US 23 business loop .
Major changes to the routing of M @-@ 47 started in December 1960 when the I @-@ 75 / US 10 / US 23 freeway opened between Saginaw and Bay City . US 10 was rerouted east of Midland to Bay City along the M @-@ 20 freeway . M @-@ 47 was rerouted along the former US 10 from Saginaw to east of Midland using a connector expressway from Freeland north to the US 10 freeway . M @-@ 81 was extended over State Street in Saginaw , and the former routing of M @-@ 47 between Saginaw and Bay City was redesignated as M @-@ 84 . M @-@ 13 also replaced the former US 23 / M @-@ 47 when US 23 was moved to freeways as well . The southern end of M @-@ 47 was changed in 1962 with the completion of I @-@ 96 in the Lansing area . US 16 was replaced by M @-@ 43 , and the southern terminus of M @-@ 47 was moved to exit 122 along I @-@ 96 . This segment of M @-@ 47 south of M @-@ 46 became an extension of M @-@ 52 in 1969 , truncating M @-@ 47 to Hemlock . The interchange at Salzburg Road north of Freeland opened in 1970 , and the expressway segment was upgraded to a full freeway . At the same time , M @-@ 47 was truncated to its current routing , resulting in the elimination of the M @-@ 46 / M @-@ 47 concurrency near Shields . In the end , only about a mile and a half ( 2 @.@ 4 km ) of roadway still bears the M @-@ 47 from before the changes made starting in 1960 , along a section of road that was not originally part of the highway in 1919 .
In June 2014 , a construction project began on the interchange with US 10 at the route 's northern terminus . This construction consisted of bridge replacement over US 10 , as well as a new ramp connecting northbound M @-@ 47 to westbound US 10 that , unlike the old ramp , does not conflict with westbound traffic exiting onto southbound M @-@ 47 .
= = = M @-@ 111 = = =
In 1928 , M @-@ 111 was assigned to a route connecting M @-@ 13 ( later signed as US 23 for a time ) north of Bay City to Bay City State Park on Saginaw Bay . The original route consisted of what is today Euclid Avenue . In the early 1930s , a return leg towards Bay City was added to the east of the original route along what is now State Park Road , giving the route an upside @-@ down @-@ U shape.In 1933 , the western leg along Euclid Avenue from Midland Road to Beaver Road was designated as M @-@ 47 . In 1938 , all of M @-@ 111 was re @-@ designated as M @-@ 47 — thus making M @-@ 47 double back to Bay City .
= = Major intersections = =
All exits are unnumbered .
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= The Convict ( 1910 film ) =
The Convict is a 1910 American silent short comedy produced by the Thanhouser Company . The film begins with a convict walking down the road , he is spotted and it begins a wild chase with more people becoming involved in the pursuit as it continues . The convict gets in a carriage and leaps away , successfully eluding all the pursuers except for a little girl . The convict then runs to the water and takes a boat from another accomplice and the chase continues in water and on land . The convict gets ashore and escapes , taking a car and flees to town . The police are notified and set a trap , but the convict avoids the growing crowd of pursuers until he arrives at the theater . There " the convict " takes a pose under an advertisement and the pursuers understand it was all an advertising ploy , they purchase tickets and go to see the film . The film was released on September 23 , 1910 , it was the first part of a split @-@ reel production that included A Husband 's Jealous Wife . The film was met with positive reviews though the film is presumed lost .
= = Plot = =
Though the film is presumed lost , a synopsis survives in The Moving Picture World from September 24 , 1910 . It states : " The convict is discovered stealing along a country road , glancing about for signs of danger . His stripes are discernible on that portion of his breast and on that portion of his trousers ' leg not covered by the long coat he wears - which cannot conceal the stripes that tell all ; hence his keen watch for passersby . Still , he does not spy a nearby farmer until too late ; the cry ' prisoner loose ' is raised , and a dozen rustics make after the unfortunate . Convict meets accomplice who is waiting with carriage ; jumps in the carriage and the pair drives off . Baffled pursuers come up , sight a wagon , all pile within and resume pursuit . Convict jumps from carriage and drops behind boulder , accomplice driving straight on with the wagon hot after him ; when the wagon has passed him by , convict comes from behind boulder , crosses road and disappears on other side - but has been seen crossing the road by a small girl who kept out of sight until the convict had disappeared , but who now rushes off to tell of her discovery . Put back on the trail by the little girl , pursuers follow their quarry to the waterside , where a second accomplice awaits the convict with a rowboat , and into which he jumps and pulls for the other side . Another rowboat sets out in pursuit . One of the pursuers telephones constables on the other side of the water to catch convict when he tries to land . "
" Race of the rowboats . Nearing shore the convict finds himself hemmed in - pursuers on water and constables on land . Luckily for him , pursuers in their efforts to grab his boat overturn their own ; he gets to shore , where [ the ] accomplice is caught though [ the convict ] escapes . Constable and pursuer chase him to town road , where third accomplice awaits with auto ; they speed off . An automobile too happens along , allows pursuers to use his auto to chase convict 's , and all enter except constable who rushes off to ' phone town police of convict 's coming . Receiving the message , chief of police leaves with coppers for town end of road , across which they stretch rope and await convict 's auto . As the convict dashes down Main Street new pursuers spring up at every step . Yet when he reaches the opera house he calmly walks into the entrance and , facing his pursuers , takes a dignified stand beside the billboard on which is printed : ' Latest Moving Picture - Today 's Feature - STUNG ! or The Convict 's Escape - A Roaring Comedy Now Showing . ' "
= = Production = =
The writer of the scenario is unknown , but it was most likely Lloyd Lonergan . He was an experienced newspaperman employed by The New York Evening World while writing scripts for the Thanhouser productions . The plot is a clever advertising scheme employed by a theatre manager to draw patrons and using an elaborate series of events in order to accomplish that effect . Once " the convict " is identified and the chase begins , he receives assistance in prolonging the chase until arriving at the theatre where the crowd purchases tickets for the show . The film director is unknown , but it may have been Barry O 'Neil . Film historian Q. David Bowers does not attribute a cameraman for this production , but at least two possible candidates exist . Blair Smith was the first cameraman of the Thanhouser company , but he was soon joined by Carl Louis Gregory who had years of experience as a still and motion picture photographer . The role of the cameraman was uncredited in 1910 productions . The only role in the cast which is known is for Marie Eline as the little girl . The other cast credits are unknown , but many 1910 Thanhouser productions are fragmentary . A surviving film still gives the possibility of identifying two actors .
= = Release and reception = =
The split @-@ reel comedy , approximately 1000 feet long with A Husband 's Jealous Wife included , was released on September 23 , 1910 . Advertising for the film was a bit mixed as to whether or not it was a comedy or a drama , stating , " You have no idea as to how marvelously a Thanhouser can twist a story until you see this gripping dra - well , perhaps , it isn 't a drama at that - or a comedy even . We hate to tip you off as to WHAT it is . When you see the picture , with its totally unlooked @-@ for climax , you 'll know why ! " Bowers would later term this as more of the slapstick comedy that Edwin Thanhouser said the company would not produce . The film likely had a wide national release , known advertising theatres include Indiana , and Kansas . The film was also shown in Vancouver , Canada . One theater advertisement may have confused this film with another because it lists this film as a western film .
Reviews for the film were positive and focused on the novel methods used to attract the audience to the theater . The Moving Picture World stated , " A burlesque picture which becomes more thrilling as it proceeds . The convict is supposed to have escaped and the way he is chased and surrounded bodes no good for him . But somehow he manages to elude the steadily increasing army of pursuers until they are gathered around him , when he calmly shows a motion picture announcement , and the reason for all this melee , in which the whole countryside took part , becomes apparent . " The requirement that the fleeing " convict " be continually assisted as a part of the plot may have been lost on The New York Dramatic Mirror reviewer . The reviewer writes , " Perhaps , in real life , things might not happen so luckily for the convict unless the carriage , the boat and the automobile were previously arranged for him . Even then , Fate might conceivably have some disagreeable card up her sleeve . In the film , at any rate , everybody bit nicely . They pursued the escaped convict in increasing crowds until he led them to the theatre he was advertising . There they all obligingly bought tickets to the show and , no doubt , enjoyed it hugely . They did if it was as good as the film is . The least interesting sections of the film are the telephone messages exchanged by agitated police officials ; but they set off the livelier adventures of the convict with agreeable contrast . " Walton of The Moving Picture News identified the set up and assistance to " the convict " and states , " In spite of the Thanhouser folk joining in the racket and the peculiar readiness of carriage and automobile and boat to help the gentleman in a costume , not used in this state for some two years , the audience did not ' catch on . ' When the revelation came , at the door of the New Rochelle picture show , the theatre rang with laughter . We were all ' stung ' and we enjoyed it . "
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= Max Mosley =
Max Rufus Mosley ( born 13 April 1940 ) is the former president of the Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) , a non @-@ profit association that represents the interests of motoring organisations and car users worldwide . The FIA is also the governing body for Formula One and other international motorsports .
A qualified barrister and former amateur racing driver , Mosley was a founder and co @-@ owner of March Engineering , a successful racing car constructor and Formula One racing team . He dealt with legal and commercial matters for the company between 1969 and 1977 and became its representative at the Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) , the body that represents Formula One constructors . Together with Bernie Ecclestone , he represented FOCA at the FIA and in its dealings with race organisers . In 1978 , Mosley became the official legal adviser to FOCA . In this role he and Marco Piccinini negotiated the first version of the Concorde Agreement , which settled a long @-@ standing dispute between FOCA and the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , a commission of the FIA and the then governing body of Formula One . Mosley was elected president of FISA in 1991 and became president of the FIA , FISA 's parent body , in 1993 . Mosley identified his major achievement as FIA President as the promotion of the European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP or Encap ) . He has also promoted increased safety and the use of green technologies in motor racing . In 2008 , stories about his sex life appeared in the British press , along with unfounded allegations regarding Nazi connotations . Mosley successfully sued the newspaper that published the allegations and maintained his position as FIA president . He stood down at the end of his term in 2009 and was replaced by his preferred successor , Jean Todt .
Mosley is the youngest son of Sir Oswald Mosley , former leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) , and Diana Mitford . He was educated in France , Germany and Britain before going on to attend university at Christ Church , Oxford , where he graduated with a degree in physics . He then changed to law and was called to the Bar in 1964 . In his teens and early twenties Mosley was involved with his father 's post @-@ war political party , the Union Movement ( UM ) . He has said that the association of his surname with fascism stopped him from developing his interest in politics further , although he briefly worked for the Conservative Party in the early 1980s .
= = Family and early life = =
His father , Sir Oswald Mosley was a Labour minister , and a Member of Parliament for both the Conservative and Labour parties in the 1920s . By the 1930s , he had left mainstream politics and become the leader of the British Union of Fascists ( BUF ) . His first wife died in 1933 , and in 1936 Sir Oswald married Diana Mitford , in a ceremony in Germany attended by Joseph Goebbels and Adolf Hitler . Max was born in London in April 1940 during the early days of the Second World War to Diana and Oswald . In May , Sir Oswald , who had campaigned for a negotiated peace with Nazi Germany , was interned by the British Authorities under Defence Regulation 18B , along with most other active fascists in Britain . Lady Mosley was imprisoned a month later . Max and his brother Alexander were not included in this internship and as a result were separated from their parents for the first few years of their lives . In December 1940 , then @-@ prime minister Winston Churchill , asked Home Secretary Herbert Morrison to ensure Lady Mosley was able to see Max regularly .
Sir Oswald and Lady Mosley were released from detention at HMP Holloway on 16 November 1943 , provoking widespread public protests . Max ’ s elder brother was unhappy at his private school . As a result , both children were tutored at home until the age of 13 . The family moved to a succession of country houses in England . Mosley 's older half @-@ brother Nicholas describes the family , including Sir Oswald ’ s children from his first marriage , spending the summer of 1945 getting the harvest in and shooting at Crowood Farm . In 1950 , the Mosleys bought houses in Ireland , and in Orsay , near Paris . They spent the year moving around Europe , spending the spring in France and the autumn and winter in Ireland , where Mosley was keen on riding and hunting . His aunt Nancy Mitford , in letters to Evelyn Waugh , recalled Sir Oswald and his family cruising the Mediterranean Sea on the family yacht . On one such trip they visited Spain and were entertained by Sir Oswald 's friend , General Franco .
At the age of 13 Mosley was sent to Stein an der Traun in Germany for two years , where he learned to speak fluent German . On his return to England he spent a year at Millfield , an independent boarding school in Somerset after which he continued his education in London for two years . He attended Christ Church at Oxford University , graduating with a degree in physics in 1961 . During his time there he was Secretary of the Oxford Union where his father spoke on two occasions , once with Jeremy Thorpe on the other side . In 1960 Mosley introduced his father to Robert Skidelsky , one of Mosley 's contemporaries at the university , who later wrote Sir Oswald 's biography . Rejecting an early ambition to work as a physicist after " establishing that there was no money in it " , Mosley went on to study law at Gray 's Inn in London and qualified as a barrister in 1964 . After a pupillage with Maurice Drake he specialised in patent and trademark law . Northumbria University awarded Mosley an Honorary Doctorate of Civil Law in 2005 . From 1961 to 1964 Mosley was a member of the Territorial Army , Parachute Regiment ( 44th Independent Parachute Brigade Group ) .
Mosley , like many of Formula One 's drivers , lives in Monaco . On 9 June 1960 he was married at the Chelsea Register Office to Jean Taylor , the daughter of James Taylor , a policeman from Streatham . In 1970 their first son , Alexander , was born and in 1972 their second son , Patrick . On 5 May 2009 , Alexander , a restaurateur , was found dead at his home . He was thirty @-@ nine . At an inquest on 10 June 2009 the Westminster coroner declared that he had died due to heroin intoxication .
In addition to his full @-@ brother Alexander , Mosley has five older half @-@ siblings . On his father 's side they are Vivien Mosley ( 1921 – 2002 ) , novelist Nicholas Mosley , 3rd Baron Ravensdale ( born 1923 ) , and Michael Mosley ( 1932 – 2014 ) . On his mother 's side they are merchant banker Jonathan Guinness , 3rd Baron Moyne ( born 1930 ) , and Irish preservationist Desmond Guinness ( born 1931 ) . He is a third cousin of the late Winston Churchill , the grandson of the former British prime minister .
= = Politics = =
From their teens to early twenties , Mosley and his brother were involved with their father 's post @-@ war party , the Union Movement ( UM ) , which advocated a united Europe as its core issue . Trevor Grundy , a central figure in the UM 's Youth Movement , writes of the 16 @-@ year @-@ old Mosley painting the flash and circle symbol on walls in London on the night of the Soviet Union 's invasion of Hungary ( 4 November 1956 ) . The flash and circle was used by both the UM and the pre @-@ war BUF . He also says Mosley organised a couple of large parties as a way " to get in with lively , ordinary , normal young people , girls as well as boys , and attract them to the Movement by showing that we were like them and didn 't go on about Hitler and Mussolini , Franco and British Fascism all the time . " Mosley met his future wife Jean at such a party . Mosley and Alexander were photographed posing as Teddy Boys in Notting Hill during the 1958 race riots between Afro @-@ Caribbeans and local white gangs of Teddy Boys . The following year , they canvassed for their father when he ran as a Union Movement candidate for the nearby Kensington North seat in the 1959 General Election .
Mosley has rarely discussed his early political involvement with his father . When his father Oswald died , the London Daily Mail described him as a " much maligned and much misunderstood political giant of his era . " Certainly , his father 's political presence affected his early years but Mosley reflected on this time , " I was born into this rather strange family and then at a certain point you get away from that . " Whilst he has distanced himself from this period of his life , the " misunderstanding has remained and today ... he carries that weight on his shoulders . "
In 1961 Mosley was an election agent for the Union Movement , supporting Walter Hesketh as parliamentary candidate for Moss Side . The motor racing journalist Alan Henry describes him as one of his father 's " right @-@ hand men " at the time of a violent incident in 1962 , in which Sir Oswald was knocked down by a mob in London and saved from serious injury by his son 's intervention . As a result of his involvement in this fracas , Mosley was arrested and charged with threatening behaviour . He was later cleared at Old Street Magistrates ' Court on the grounds that he was trying to protect his father . By 1964 , when he began work as a barrister , Mosley was no longer involved in politics .
In the early 1980s , Mosley attempted a political career , working for the UK Conservative Party and hoping to become a parliamentary candidate . Bernie Ecclestone 's biographer , Terry Lovell , writes that he gave up this aspiration after being unimpressed by " the calibre of senior party officials " . He also felt his name would be a handicap and has since said " If I had a completely open choice in my life , I would have chosen party politics , but because of my name , that 's impossible . " By the late 1990s he had become a supporter of the UK Labour Party , following a meeting with then Labour Leader John Smith .
= = Racing career = =
While Mosley was at University , his wife was given tickets to a motor race at the Silverstone Circuit . The circuit is not far from Oxford , and the couple went out of curiosity . Mosley was attracted by the sport , and when his career as a barrister was bringing in sufficient money , he started racing cars himself . The sport 's indifference to his background appealed to Mosley :
There was always a certain amount of trouble [ being the son of Sir Oswald ] until I came into motor racing . And in one of the first races I ever took part in there was a list of people when they put the practice times [ ... ] and I heard somebody say , ' Mosley , Max Mosley , he must be some relation of Alf Mos [ e ] ley , the coachbuilder . ' And I thought to myself , ' I 've found a world where they don 't know about Oswald Mosley . ' And it has always been a bit like that in motor racing : nobody gives a damn .
At national level in the UK , Mosley competed in over 40 races in 1966 and 1967 ; he won 12 and set several class lap records . In 1968 , he formed the London Racing Team in partnership with driver Chris Lambert to compete in European Formula Two , which at that time was the level of racing just below Formula One . Their cars were prepared by Frank Williams , later a Formula One team owner . It was a dangerous time to race . Mosley 's first Formula Two race was the 1968 Deutschland Trophäe , at Hockenheim in which double world champion Jim Clark was killed , and within two years both of Mosley 's 1968 team mates , Piers Courage and Chris Lambert were dead in racing accidents . Mosley 's best result that year was an eighth place at a non @-@ championship race at Monza . Engine builder Brian Hart says that as a driver , Mosley " might not have been particularly quick , but he was a thinking driver . He kept out of trouble and generally used his head . " [ a ]
= = March Engineering = =
In 1969 , after two large accidents due to breakages on his Lotus car , Mosley decided that " it was evident that I wasn 't going to be World Champion " and retired from driving . He was already working with Robin Herd , Alan Rees and Graham Coaker to establish the racing car manufacturer March Engineering where he handled legal and commercial matters . The name March is an acronym based on the initials of the founders ; the ' M ' stands for Mosley . Like the other founders , Mosley put in £ 2 @,@ 500 of capital . His father told him that the company " would certainly go bankrupt , but it would be good training for something serious later on . "
Mosley played a key role in publicising the new outfit . Although March had few resources and limited experience , the firm announced ambitious plans to enter Formula One , the pinnacle of single @-@ seater racing , in 1970 . The team had initially intended to enter a single car , but by the beginning of the season ( partly due to deals made by Mosley ) , the number of March cars entered for their first Formula One race had risen to five . Two of these were run by March 's own in @-@ house works team and the rest by customer teams . Mosley also negotiated sponsorship from tyre maker Firestone and oil additive manufacturer STP .
The new operation was initially successful . In Formula One , March cars won three of their first four races . One of these was a world championship race , the 1970 Spanish Grand Prix , won by reigning world champion Jackie Stewart in a customer car run by Tyrrell Racing . As a result , March finished third in the 1970 Constructors ' Championship . The factory also sold 40 cars to customers in various lower formulae . Despite these successes , the organisation got into financial difficulty almost immediately . The Formula One operation was costing more than the customer car business was making . The March works team 's contract with its lead driver , Chris Amon , was expensive , and Mosley , in his own words , " tried at every opportunity to get rid of him " . He reasoned that Stewart 's highly competitive customer car was enough to show March in a good light . Amon stayed to the end of the year , but Mosley succeeded in " restructuring " his contract , saving the company some much @-@ needed money . At the end of the season , Mosley successfully demanded full control of the finances , including the factory run by Coaker , who left shortly afterwards . Mosley and Herd borrowed £ 20 @,@ 000 from relatives and friends to support the company into its second year . According to Lovell the money came from Mosley 's half @-@ brother , Jonathan Guinness .
Tyrrell started making its own cars towards the end of 1970 , and March 's 1971 program in Formula One was much reduced , with no recognised front @-@ running driver . The Firestone and STP sponsorship was insufficient and Mosley failed to attract a large backer for 1971 . Motorsport author Mike Lawrence has suggested that the shortfall forced him into short @-@ term deals , which maintained cashflow , but were not in the best long @-@ term interests of the company . Mosley negotiated a deal for the team to use Alfa Romeo engines in a third car , bringing much needed funding . The engines proved uncompetitive , and his hopes of an ongoing partnership with the Italian automobile manufacturer were not met . Nonetheless , March again finished third in the constructors championship , and works driver Ronnie Peterson , in a Cosworth DFV @-@ powered car , was second in the Drivers ' Championship . March 's financial woes continued : the company had lost £ 71 @,@ 000 at the end of 1971 . Mosley and Rees disagreed over how to rectify the situation and Rees left March early in 1972 .
March was more successful in selling large numbers of customer cars in the lower formulae . Mosley organised extensive test sessions for the 1971 cars for journalists and drivers , and arranged a successful scheme for drivers to rent cars and engines for the season , rather than buying them outright . Losing money on a deal to supply Jochen Neerpasch , then motorsport manager at Ford , with a Formula Two car paid off when Neerpasch moved to BMW and offered March an exclusive deal in 1972 to use BMW 's Formula Two engine . March cars powered by BMW engines won five of the next 11 European Formula Two championships . However , BMW also put pressure on Herd to concentrate on the Formula Two programme . As a result , he spent less time with the Formula One team , where Mosley started to act as a race engineer .
Although March considered quitting Formula One on several occasions , money was always found to support at least one car . Motorsport historian Mike Lawrence credits Mosley with pressing for a six @-@ wheeled March to be built as a draw for sponsors , having seen the popularity with fans of Tyrrell 's six @-@ wheeled P34 . The resulting March 2 @-@ 4 @-@ 0 never competed in Formula One , but generated the required publicity and a Scalextric slotcar model was profitable . Mosley spent much of his time negotiating deals for drivers with sponsorship and was also successful in selling Marches to other Formula One teams , such as Williams and Penske . The cars were rarely frontrunners , although the works team won a single race in both 1975 and 1976 . By the end of 1977 , Mosley was fed up with the struggle to compete in Formula One with no resources and left to work for FOCA full @-@ time , selling his shares in the company to Herd but remaining as a director . March 's involvement in Formula One ended the same year . [ b ]
= = Formula One Constructors ' Association = =
From 1969 , Mosley was invited to represent March at the Grand Prix Constructors ' Association ( GPCA ) , which negotiated joint deals on behalf of its member teams . Although the new March organisation was not popular with the established teams , Mosley has said that " when they went along to meetings to discuss things such as prize money , they felt they ought to take me along because I was a lawyer " . He was unimpressed with the standard of negotiations : " our side all went in a group because no @-@ one trusted anyone else and all were afraid that someone would break ranks and make a private deal . " In 1971 , British businessman Bernie Ecclestone bought the Brabham team , and Mosley recalls that :
Within about 20 minutes of [ Ecclestone ] turning up at the [ GPCA ] meeting , it was apparent that here was someone who knew how many beans made five and after about half an hour he moved round the table to sit next to me , and from then on he and I started operating as a team . Within a very short time , the two of us were doing everything for the GPCA , instead of everyone moving around in a block , and from that developed FOCA .
The Formula One Constructors ' Association ( FOCA ) was created in 1974 by Ecclestone , Colin Chapman , Teddy Mayer , Mosley , Ken Tyrrell and Frank Williams . FOCA would represent the commercial interests of the teams at meetings with the Fédération Internationale du Sport Automobile ( FISA ) , motorsport 's world governing body . After leaving March at the end of 1977 , Mosley officially became legal advisor to FOCA , which was led by Ecclestone . In his biography of Ecclestone , Terry Lovell suggests that he appointed Mosley to this role not only because of his legal ability , but also because he " saw in Mosley the necessary diplomatic and political skills that made him perfectly suited to the establishment of the FIA " . The Fédération Internationale de l 'Automobile ( FIA ) was FISA 's parent body , representing car users worldwide . In the same year , Mosley was nominated for a role at the FIA Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . His nomination was blocked by French , Italian and German manufacturers .
In the early 1980s , Mosley represented FOCA in the " FISA @-@ FOCA War " , a conflict between FOCA , representing the mainly UK @-@ based independent teams , and FISA , which was supported by the " grandee " constructors owned by road car manufacturers ( primarily Alfa Romeo , Ferrari and Renault ) . In 1981 , FOCA announced its own World Federation of Motor Sport and ran the non @-@ championship 1981 South African Grand Prix . The staging of this event , with worldwide television coverage , helped persuade Jean @-@ Marie Balestre , the FISA president , that FISA would have to negotiate a settlement with FOCA . As Mosley has since commented : " We were absolutely skint . If Balestre could have held the manufacturer 's support for a little bit longer , the constructors would have been on their knees . The outcome would then have been very different . " Mosley helped draw up the Concorde Agreement , a document which resolved the dispute by essentially giving FISA control of the rules and FOCA control of promotion and television rights . The most recent version of the Concorde Agreement expired on 31 December 2007 , and a new one was being discussed , as of 2008 . In 1982 , the year after the first Concorde Agreement was signed , Mosley left his role at FOCA , and Formula One , to work for the Conservative Party .
= = FISA presidency = =
Mosley returned to motorsport in 1986 , with the support of Ecclestone and Balestre , to become president of the FISA Manufacturers ' Commission , the successor to the Bureau Internationale de Constructeurs d 'Automobile . That same year , he established Simtek Research , a racing technical consultancy firm , with Nick Wirth , a former March employee . He sold his share of Simtek in 1991 , when elected president of the FISA . According to Lovell , in 1987 Mosley suggested to Balestre that he could deal with his problems with Ecclestone by " mak [ ing ] him a member of the establishment " . Later that year Ecclestone was appointed vice @-@ president of the FIA 's promotional affairs , with authority over Formula One and the other motor sports authorised by the FIA .
In 1991 , Mosley challenged Balestre for the presidency of FISA . Mosley said that his decision to challenge the Frenchman was prompted by Balestre 's reported intervention on behalf of his countryman Alain Prost to ensure that race stewards disqualified Brazilian driver Ayrton Senna from the 1989 Japanese Grand Prix . Mosley campaigned on the basis that Balestre , who was also president of the FIA and of the Fédération Française du Sport Automobile , could not effectively manage all these roles together . He also said that no @-@ one challenged Balestre because they were afraid of the consequences and suggested that the FISA President should not interfere with F1 , which could be left to run itself . Mosley won the FISA presidency by 43 votes to 29 ; Balestre remained as FIA president . Mosley resigned a year later , fulfilling a promise made during his election campaign to seek a re @-@ affirmation of his mandate . " I wanted to show people that I do what I say " , he said . " Now they can judge me in a year 's time . " FISA immediately re @-@ elected him .
= = FIA presidency = =
= = = 1993 – 1997 = = =
In 1993 , Mosley agreed with Balestre that the Frenchman would stand down as president of the FIA in Mosley 's favour , in return for the new role of President of the FIA Senate , to be created after Mosley 's election . As well as motorsport , the FIA 's remit includes the interests of motorists worldwide , an area in which Mosley wanted to involve himself : " That is what really interested me : [ in F1 ] you maybe save one life every five years , whereas [ in ] road safety you are talking about thousands of lives " . A challenge to Mosley 's election by Jeffrey Rose , chairman of the British Royal Automobile Club , was withdrawn when it became clear that the majority of voters were already committed to Mosley . The FISA was then merged into the FIA as its sporting arm .
After the deaths of drivers Ayrton Senna and Roland Ratzenberger at the 1994 San Marino Grand Prix , worldwide media attention focused on the charismatic triple @-@ world champion Senna , rather than Ratzenberger , a virtual unknown driving for the minor Simtek team . Mosley did not go to Senna 's funeral , but attended that of Ratzenberger . In a press conference 10 years later Mosley said , " I went to his funeral because everyone went to Senna 's . I thought it was important that somebody went to his . " In the aftermath of the deaths , and a number of other serious accidents , Mosley announced the formation of the Advisory Expert Group chaired by Professor Sid Watkins , to research and improve safety in motor racing . Watkins , who learned of his new role by hearing Mosley announce it on the radio , has called it a " novel and revolutionary approach " . The resulting changes have included reducing the capacity and power of engines , the use of grooved tyres to reduce cornering speeds , the introduction of the HANS device to protect drivers ' necks in accidents , circuit re @-@ design and greatly increased requirements for crash testing of chassis . Mosley was criticised for some of the very rapid changes announced in the immediate aftermath of the deaths at the San Marino race .
In 1995 , a deal was signed between Ecclestone and the FIA that passed all of the commercial rights to Formula One to him for 15 years , on the condition that they would return to the FIA at the end of that period . Ecclestone had been building up Formula One as a television package since the early 1990s , investing heavily in new digital television technology . For the duration of the deal , the FIA would receive an index @-@ linked annual fixed royalty , estimated by Lovell at around 15 % . Mosley said " My belief is that I got a better deal than anyone else could have because it was more difficult for Ecclestone to take a hard line with me as we had worked together for so long . " The following year the FIA also passed the rights to all its other directly sanctioned championships and events to Ecclestone , also for 15 years , An attempt to add a 10 @-@ year extension to the F1 contract in return for a share in Ecclestone 's proposed flotation of Formula One was later vetoed by the European Commission . Mosley 's agreement with Ecclestone on TV rights for F1 angered three of the team principals in particular : Ron Dennis ( McLaren ) , Frank Williams ( Williams ) and Ken Tyrrell ( Tyrrell ) , who felt that neither Ecclestone nor the FIA had the right to make such an agreement without the teams . They refused to sign the 1997 Concorde Agreement without increased financial returns and threatened to make a complaint under European Union competition rules . The European Commission was already investigating the FIA ’ s agreement with Ecclestone in what Lovell calls a " highly personal and bitter battle between Max Mosley and [ EU commissioner Karel ] van Miert " .
= = = 1997 – 2001 = = =
Mosley was elected to his second term as president of the FIA in October 1997 . Later that year , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition made a preliminary decision against Ecclestone and the FIA . The resulting warning letters from van Miert to the FIA and Ecclestone were leaked and ended the attempt to float F1 ; the FIA won a case against the Commission for the leakage in 1998 .
At the same time , a local court in Germany ruled that the television rights to the FIA European Truck Racing Cup ( passed to Ecclestone by the FIA the previous year , along with all other FIA authorised championships ) should be returned to the series organiser , following a complaint from German television company AE TV @-@ Cooperations . The TV Company argued that Ecclestone and Mosley were in breach of commercial clauses in the Treaty of Rome ; following the court 's decision Mosley appealed the judgement and cancelled the series until further notice . On appeal , the court ruled that the series organiser should be able to sell the television rights to whoever they felt was the best option for coverage and the FIA reinstated the European Truck Racing Cup . Between 1997 and 2000 Mosley repeatedly warned that if any EU decision went against the FIA , the marketing organisations and F1 itself would be moved out of Europe . In 1999 , the EU Commission Directorate @-@ General for Competition issued a Statement of Objections , listing a number of grievances surrounding the FIA 's dealings with Ecclestone and Formula One . The FIA released the Statement to the media and held a press conference in Brussels ridiculing the Commission ’ s case . The Commission argued that a number of commercial agreements could be viewed as anti @-@ competition and invited the FIA and Ecclestone 's companies , ISC and FOA , to submit proposals to modify these arrangements . In 2001 , nine months after settlement talks had begun , the parties reached an agreement to amend existing contracts , which included Ecclestone stepping down as the FIA 's vice @-@ president of promotional affairs and the FIA ending all involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . Mosley came up with an innovative way to dispose of the FIA 's involvement in the commercial activities of Formula One . In order to maintain Ecclestone 's investment to deliver digital television , he proposed extending Ecclestone 's rights for F1 coverage to 100 years from the initial 15 , arguing that a deal of such length could not be anti @-@ competition as it was effectively the same as an outright sale . The Commission agreed with his assessment and in the interest of impartiality , Mosley removed himself from the negotiations , which eventually returned around $ 300 million ( £ 150 million ) . The FIA planned to " put almost all of it into a charitable foundation which will then have the resources to undertake important work on improving safety in motor sport and in road safety " , and thus the FIA Foundation was created in 2001 . In addition , the FIA continued to receive an annual dividend from the deal , Mosley stated : " Over the totality of the contract , and on an annual basis , the sum we have accepted represents billions of dollars . Looked at from that point of view , it is a huge amount of money . " Lovell compares the figure to extend the rights to 100 years to the £ 600 million KirchGruppe paid for the rights to the 2002 Football World Cup and the £ 1 @.@ 1 billion British Sky Broadcasting paid for a three @-@ year package of English Premier League football . The figure was not entirely comparable however due to the dispute over who actually owned Formula One . Before the settlement with the EU Commission was reached , Mosley feared that the FIA was losing control over the sport following a heated argument with Ecclestone in Paris . Ecclestone argued that he had built Formula One into the entity that it was and the FIA only had rights to designate the event as official . Ecclestone threatened to " do a scorched earth " if another party were to gain control of the commercial side of Formula One . Mosley came up with the solution in order for the FIA to retain its sporting management role and Ecclestone to retain his commercial role .
Over the same period , Mosley was attempting to delay European legislation banning tobacco advertising . At this time all leading Formula One teams carried significant branding from tobacco brands such as Rothmans , West , Marlboro and Mild Seven . The Labour party had pledged to ban tobacco advertising in its manifesto ahead of its 1997 General Election victory , supporting a proposed European Union Directive . The Labour Party 's stance on banning tobacco advertising was reinforced following the election by forceful statements from the Health Secretary Frank Dobson and Minister for Public Health Tessa Jowell . Ecclestone appealed " over Jowell 's head " to Jonathan Powell , Tony Blair 's chief of staff , who arranged a meeting with Blair . Ecclestone and Mosley , both Labour Party donors , met Blair on 16 October 1997 . Mosley argued that the proposed legislation was illegal by EU rules , that Formula One needed more time to find alternative sources of funding and that the prompt introduction of a ban would lead to races being held outside Europe , while the coverage , including tobacco logos , would still be broadcast into the EU . He also argued that :
Motor racing was a world class industry which put Britain at the hi @-@ tech edge . Deprived of tobacco money , Formula One would move abroad at the loss of 50 @,@ 000 jobs , 150 @,@ 000 part @-@ time jobs and £ 900 million of exports .
On 4 November the " fiercely anti @-@ tobacco Jowell " argued in Brussels for an exemption for Formula One . Media attention initially focused on Labour bending its principles for a " glamour sport " and on the " false trail " of Jowell 's husband 's links to the Benetton Formula One team . On 6 November correspondents from three newspapers enquired whether Labour had received any donations from Ecclestone ; he had donated £ 1 million in January 1997 . On 11 November Labour promised to return the money on the advice of Sir Patrick Neill . On 17 November Blair apologised for his government 's mishandling of the affair and stated " the decision to exempt Formula One from tobacco sponsorship was taken two weeks later . It was in response to fears that Britain might lose the industry overseas to Asian countries who were bidding for it . "
The revised directive went into force in June 1998 , and banned sponsorship from 2003 , with a further three @-@ year extension for " global sports such as Formula One " . On 5 October 2000 , the directive was successfully overturned in the European Court of Justice on the grounds that it was unlawful . A new Tobacco Advertising Directive took effect in July 2005 ; the Financial Times described Mosley as " furious " that this was a year earlier than provided for under the 1998 directive . As of 2009 , Ferrari is the only F1 team to retain tobacco sponsorship , although the team carries no explicit branding in races because of the European legislation . Although the FIA moved its headquarters out of the EU in 1999 , it returned in 2001 ; all of the F1 teams remain in Europe , and six are in the UK , compared to seven of eleven at the end of 1997 .
Asked in a 2003 interview about his most enduring achievement as president of the FIA , Mosley replied : " I think using Formula One to push ENCAP Crash @-@ Testing . " The European New Car Assessment Programme ( Euro NCAP ) is a European car safety performance assessment programme that originated with work done by the Transport Research Laboratory for the UK Department for Transport . The FIA became involved in the programme in 1996 , taking a lead in promoting it , and Mosley chaired the body from its launch as Euro NCAP in 1997 to 2004 . Despite what NCAP describes as a " strong negative response " from car manufacturers at first , the initiative has expanded , and NCAP says that there has been a clear increase in the safety of modern cars as a result . The EU commission in 2000 stated that " EuroNCAP had become the single most important mechanism for achieving advances in vehicle safety " and " the most cost effective road safety action available to the EU . " Mosley has continued to promote the matter through his membership of initiatives such as CARS 21 , the European Commission ’ s policy group aimed at improving the worldwide competitiveness of the European automotive industry .
In February 2001 , Mosley announced his intention to stand again for the presidency in October of that year , saying that if successful this third term would be his last .
= = = 2001 – 2005 = = =
Mosley was elected to his third term as president of the FIA in 2001 . From 2000 , Formula One saw the return of teams partly or wholly owned and operated by major motor manufacturers , who feared that under Ecclestone 's management F1 coverage would go to pay television , reducing the value of their investment . In 2001 , the Grand Prix Manufacturers Association ( GPMA ) announced an alternative world championship , the Grand Prix World Championship to start by 2008 . The GPMA stipulated that the championship should not be regulated by the FIA , which Lovell believes was because the organisation believed Mosley was too close to Ecclestone .
In June 2004 , Mosley announced that he would step down from his position in October of that year , one year early , saying " I no longer find it either satisfying or interesting to sit in long meetings [ ... ] I have achieved in this job everything I set out to [ ... ] " . One month later , he rescinded his decision after the FIA Senate called for him to stay on . According to a BBC Sport profile , many insiders considered that the announcement , and Mosley 's public disagreements with Ecclestone , were " just part of a well crafted plan to strengthen their control over the sport " ; Ron Dennis , the McLaren team principal , suggested that it arose because Mosley 's proposals for Formula One met opposition . In 2004 , Mosley said he felt Ferrari 's then team principal Jean Todt should succeed him as president of the FIA when he stepped down .
The 2005 United States Grand Prix was run with only six cars , after the Michelin tyres used by the other 14 cars proved unsafe for the circuit . A proposal involving the addition of a temporary chicane to slow cars through the fastest corner of the circuit was suggested but rejected by Mosley . He stated his reasons for not agreeing to the chicane : " Formula One is a dangerous activity and it would be most unwise to make fundamental changes to a circuit without following tried and tested procedures . What happened was bad but can be put right . This is not true of a fatality . " He continued , " Formula One is a sport which entertains . It is not entertainment disguised as sport . " Mosley gave three possible solutions for the Michelin runners : to use qualifying tyres but change them whenever necessary on safety grounds , to use a different tyre to be provided by Michelin or to run at reduced speed . These were all rejected by the Michelin @-@ shod teams . Paul Stoddart , the then @-@ owner of the Minardi team who ran on Bridgestone tyres , was prepared to compromise to accommodate Michelin teams — even though a reduced field would guarantee his team much needed points — and was particularly vocal in his criticism and renewed his calls for Mosley to resign .
= = = 2005 – 2009 = = =
Mosley was elected unopposed to his fourth term as president of the FIA in 2005 . In recognition of his contribution to road safety and motorsport , Mosley was made a Chevalier dans l ’ Ordre de la Légion d ’ honneur in 2006 . The Légion d 'honneur ( Legion of Honour ) is France 's highest decoration for outstanding achievements in military or civil life ; a Chevalier ( Knight ) is the fifth class .
Continuing a theme of his presidency , in 2006 Mosley called for Formula One manufacturers to develop technology relevant to road cars . In recent years , a large proportion of the enormous budget of Formula One has been spent on the development of very powerful , very high @-@ revving engines , which some say have little applicability to road cars . Mosley has announced a 10 @-@ year freeze on the development of engines , which would allow manufacturers to spend more of their budgets on environmentally friendly technology such as the Kinetic Energy Recovery System ( KERS ) introduced in 2009 . In July 2008 , he sent a letter to the Formula One teams , in which he called for the teams to propose future sporting regulations to address specific issues including reduced fuel consumption .
The 2007 Formula One season was dominated by Ferrari 's accusations that the McLaren team had made illegal use of their intellectual property , leading to legal cases in the United Kingdom and Italy . Unlike previous cases , such as the Toyota team 's illegal use of Ferrari intellectual property in 2004 that had been handled by German police , the FIA investigated . They initially found McLaren innocent ; unable to find enough evidence to suggest that anyone other than designer Mike Coughlan had seen the information or that the team had used it . Ron Dennis , team principal of McLaren , was unaware at this point that Mosley had been sent personal e @-@ mails from Fernando Alonso , stating that the data had been used and seen by others in the team . When Italian police uncovered a series of text messages between McLaren and their spy at Ferrari , the team was hauled in front of the World Motor Sports Council ( WMSC ) once more . This time they were found guilty and eventually fined a gross $ 100M and excluded from the 2007 constructors ' championship . Later in the year , the Renault team was found guilty by the FIA of possessing McLaren 's intellectual property , but was not punished , as the " FIA 's WMSC decided there was not enough evidence to show the championship had been affected . " In relation to McLaren , triple world champion Jackie Stewart criticised Mosley and stated that other teams did not back McLaren for " fear of repercussions " . TV commentator and newspaper columnist Martin Brundle , a former driver , was among those who criticised the FIA and Mosley for inconsistency and questioned the " energetic manner " in which he felt McLaren was being pursued , suggesting that there was a " witch hunt " against the team . Brundle and The Sunday Times subsequently received a writ for libel before the paper printed a correction . Mosley went on to defend himself of the charges made by Brundle , highlighting that the WMSC originally acquitted McLaren of any wrongdoing , stating : " Concrete evidence of use by McLaren of the Ferrari information was simply not there . " It was only later in the year when " e @-@ mails emerged which showed others inside McLaren were indeed aware of the Ferrari information " , that the FIA found the team guilty .
At the start of 2008 , Mosley said that he wanted to see through reforms such as budget capping and new technologies like KERS successfully introduced into Formula One before retiring . In March of that year the News of the World released video footage of Mosley engaged in acts with five consenting women in a scenario that the paper alleged involved Nazi role @-@ playing ( an allegation that , though dismissed in court as " no genuine basis " , allegedly " ruined " Mosley 's reputation ) . The situation was made more controversial by his father 's association with the Nazis . Mosley admitted " the embarrassment the revelations caused " , but said that there was no Nazi theme involved . He was strongly criticised by former drivers , motor manufacturers and several of the national motoring bodies who form the FIA . His involvement in several high level motor sport events was cancelled . Public expressions of support were limited . Mosley says that he received much supportive correspondence , and said that he would continue to the end of his current term , which he said would be his last . Mosley 's longtime ally Ecclestone eventually appeared to support Mosley 's removal .
Mosley won a vote of confidence at an Extraordinary General Meeting of the FIA on 3 June 2008 , with 103 votes in support and 55 against , with seven abstentions and four invalid votes . Several clubs , including the ADAC , AAA and KNAF considered withdrawal from the FIA after the decision . Other formerly critical organisations have since said that they will accept the outcome of the vote and now wish to move on . In July 2008 , Mosley won a High Court legal case against the News of the World for invasion of privacy . The presiding judge , Mr Justice Eady , said : " I see no genuine basis at all for the suggestion that the participants mocked the victims of the Holocaust . "
In December 2008 , Mosley said that he still intended to stand down when his term ran out in October 2009 , but would take the final decision in June of that year . Mosley 's close relationship with Ecclestone , the sport 's promoter , was criticised in early 2009 by Sir Jackie Stewart , who suggested that Mosley should resign in favour of a CEO from outside motorsport .
In mid @-@ 2009 , the FIA and the newly formed Formula One Teams Association disagreed over the format of rules for the following season . When the entry list for the 2010 championship was announced on 12 June 2009 , the entries of five of the eight FOTA teams remained provisional on their acceptance of the new rules . The next day , the European Automobile Manufacturers Association announced its support for FOTA 's request for " stability , clear rules , a clear and transparent system of governance " and their threat to form a breakaway series from Formula One . The BBC Sport website reported this as an attack on Mosley 's authority and noted that Mosley was expected to stand again for the presidency in 2009 .
On 23 June , Mosley said he was considering running for a fifth term as FIA president in October " in light of the attack on my mandate " . However , the following day FOTA and the FIA reached an agreement with Mosley agreeing not to stand for re @-@ election as part of the deal : ' now there is peace ' . Luca di Montezemolo welcomed Mosley 's decision to stand down and called Mosley a ' dictator ' . Mosley responded by saying that he was still considering his ' options ' and might well stand for re @-@ election in October after all . He later said that he was " under pressure from all over the world " to stand for re @-@ election . On 15 July , Mosley confirmed that he would after all stand down , and again endorsed former Ferrari Executive Director Jean Todt as his successor . Todt went on to win the presidency .
= = Honours = =
Grande Ufficiale dell ' Ordine al Merito ( Italy ) 1994
Castrol Gold Medal from the Institute of Motor Industry in the year 2000 .
Order of Madarski Konnik , 1st degree ( Bulgaria ) , 2000
Quattroruote Premio Speciale per la Sicurezza Stradale ( Italy ) , 2001
The Goldene VdM @-@ Dieselring , 2001
Order of Merit ( Romania ) , 2004
Huespad Illustre do Quito ( Ecuador ) , 2005 .
National Road Safety Council NGO , Armenia , 2005 .
France : Chevalier of the Légion d 'honneur ( 2006 )
Monaco : Commander of the Order of Saint @-@ Charles ( 27 May 2006 )
= = Achievements = =
Secretary , Oxford Union Society , 1961 .
1964 , Called to the Bar , Gray ’ s Inn .
Director of March Cars , 1969 @-@ 79
Member of High Level Gp , CARS ( Competitive Automotive Regulatory System for the 21st century ) 21 , 2005 @-@ 09
Patron at eSafety Aware , 2006 @-@ 2009
Member of the Board of Trustees , 2001 @-@ 2014 , Chairman of the Programmes Committee , 2001 @-@ 2012 , FIA Foundation for the Automobile and Society
Chairmanship of Euro NCAP , Global NCAP , ERTICO
Honorary President of European Parliament Automobile Users ' Intergroup
= = Sex scandal = =
In 2008 , Mosley won a court case ( Mosley v News Group Newspapers ) against the News of the World newspaper which had reported his involvement in a sex act involving five consenting women on the grounds that it had breached his privacy . Justice Eady ruled that despite some of the attendees wearing German World War 2 uniforms there were no Nazi connotations to the orgy , a false statement that had been printed by the newspaper . As a result , in 2009 Mosley brought a case ( Mosley v United Kingdom ) against the UK 's privacy laws in the European Court of Human Rights , in a bid to force newspapers to warn people before exposing their private lives so they could have the opportunity to seek a court injunction . The case was rejected by the court on 10 May 2011 as they argued that a " pre @-@ notification requirement would inevitably affect political reporting and serious journalism . "
In July 2011 , The Daily Telegraph reported that Mosley was financially guaranteeing the court costs of claimants who may have been subjected to phone hacking by the News of the World . Mosley refused to comment at the time , but he later gave a TV interview to the BBC and telephone interview to Reuters where he confirmed the story .
Mosley launched legal action against Google , in an attempt to stop searches from returning web pages which use the photographs from the video used for the News of the World story . On 6 November 2013 in Mosley v SARL Google a French court sided with Mosley and ordered Google to prevent its search engine from providing links to images of Mosley engaging in sexual activities from the video . The Register suggested the ruling would lead to a Streisand effect , increasing interest in the images , which are still findable through other search engines . At the Leveson Enquiry , Mosley stated his reasons for pursuing Google :
" the fundamental point is that Google could stop this material appearing but they don 't , or they won 't as a matter of principle . My position is that if the search engines - if somebody were to stop the search engines producing the material , the actual sites don 't really matter because without a search engine , nobody will find it , it would just be a few friends of the person who posts it . The really dangerous things are the search engines . "
Mosley launched similar legal action against Google in Germany . In January 2014 , the German court also ruled against the American company . In giving its verdict , the court stated , " that the banned pictures of the plaintiff severely violate his private sphere . "
In an interview with Der Spiegel following the judgement , Mosley said : " Strictly speaking Google has got to obey German courts in Germany and French courts in France . But in the end it has to decide whether it wants to live in a democracy . Google behaves like an adolescent rebelling against the establishment . The company has to recognise that it is a part of society and it must accept the responsibility which comes with that . "
= = Ancestry = =
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= 130th Engineer Brigade ( United States ) =
The 130th Engineer Brigade is an engineer brigade of the United States Army based in Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . It provides engineering support to the United States Army Pacific command . The brigade specializes in bridging operations .
The brigade traces its lineage back to an engineering regiment active during World War II , but the brigade itself did not see action until the mid @-@ 1990s . As a part of the V Corps for most of the Cold War , the brigade was stationed in western Europe for decades as a deterrent to a possible Soviet invasion . It finally saw action during Operation Joint Endeavor , providing bridging assistance for the international force in the Bosnia region . Several years later , the brigade was the primary engineering component during the invasion of Iraq in 2003 . With numerous difficulties , the brigade was forced to take on several unexpected missions during its year in Iraq . It saw a second tour in 2005 and a third in 2009 in which it once again was the primary engineering component in the country . The brigade deployed to Afghanistan as the Theater Engineer Brigade in support of Operation Enduring Freedom from 2013 @-@ 2014 .
The brigade had a long history of supporting V Corps of United States Army Europe from 1969 until 2007 , during which it was based at Warner Barracks in the Bavarian town of Bamberg , Germany . That ended when the brigade was relocated to Hawaii to support United States Army Pacific as part of a major restructuring plan of the US Army . Reactivated in 2008 , the brigade is currently at home in Hawaii .
= = Organization = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade is a subordinate unit of the 8th Theater Sustainment Command which is in turn subordinate to United States Army Pacific . It provides engineering assistance to US forces stationed throughout the Pacific Ocean region .
The Brigade 's Headquarters and Headquarters Company is stationed at Schofield Barracks and permanently commands two subordinate battalions . The 65th Engineer Battalion and the 84th Engineer Battalion are both located at Schofield Barracks . The total force of the brigade and its subordinate elements is approximately 1 @,@ 600 . As the brigade is modular in nature , it is able to take command and control of more units when deployed .
= = History = =
= = = Origins = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade traces its lineage to the 1303rd Engineer General Service Regiment which saw action in World War II . The regiment was activated on 15 July 1943 at Camp Ellis , Illinois . It was deployed to the European Theatre where it participated in the Battle of Normandy and subsequent invasion of Germany before being transferred to the Pacific after V @-@ E Day . The 1303rd received campaign streamers for Normandy , Northern France , Rhineland , Ardennes @-@ Alsace , Central Europe , and the Asian @-@ Pacific theatre . It was deactivated in Japan on 31 January 1946 .
The regiment was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade in Japan on 8 July 1955 before being activated in September of that year . Only a few months later , this brigade was inactivated on 25 June 1956 without having seen any deployment .
On 16 June 1969 , Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Aviation Brigade was re @-@ designated as Headquarters and Headquarters Company , 130th Engineer Brigade and activated in Pioneer Kaserne , Hanau , Germany . The 130th Engineer Brigade was a consolidation of V Corps ' 37th and 11th Engineer Groups into a single unit that would provide more efficient command and control . It was subsequently put under the command of V Corps , as part of the US Army 's force in Europe . The brigade received its shoulder sleeve insignia on 23 September 1969 , and its distinctive unit insignia on 3 November 1969 . Brigade members specially designed these with images alluding to the 1303rd Regiment 's battle honors in World War II using scarlet and white , colors signifying US Army engineer units .
The brigade remained in Germany in support of V Corps for almost 25 years , seeing no deployments . It underwent a shuffling of units as several of its battalions were reassigned elsewhere following the end of the Cold War in 1990 , and it gained new battalions from units deactivating elsewhere . Though three of the brigade 's subordinate battalions deployed to support Operation Desert Shield and Operation Desert Storm , the brigade headquarters itself remained in Germany along with the rest of V Corps . The operations were conducted by VII Corps and XVIII Airborne Corps , which had significant engineer assets of their own . Throughout the early 1990s , the brigade would continue to see units come and go from its command as they were transferred from the restructuring 18th Engineer Brigade and the deactivating 7th Engineer Brigade .
= = = Operation Joint Endeavour = = =
From December 1995 to January 1996 , all units in the brigade , except the 320th Engineer Company ( Topographic ) , deployed to Croatia or Bosnia and Herzegovina in support of Operation Joint Endeavor . The 320th Engineer Company deployed their topographic surveying platoon the following year . The 130th Engineer Brigade was tasked with building an assault bridge over the Sava River . Despite severe flooding conditions around the river and international pressure against such a structure , the brigade sent its units to begin work on the bridge . In December 1995 , the 502nd Engineer Company deployed to Zupanja , Croatia and placed the historic ribbon bridge over the river . This bridge , at 2 @,@ 239 feet ( 682 m ) was the longest assault floating bridge in military history . The company operated 24 @-@ hours a day for three months crossing critical traffic in support of Task Force Eagle and NATO 's Implementation Force . The company also assisted in the construction of a second bridge over the Sava River in Brčko @-@ Gunja . The 502nd Engineer Company redeployed in May 1996 , with a rafting section remaining at Slavonski Brod to support the force restructuring of Task Force Eagle . The 130th Engineer Brigade would go on to construct seven fixed bridges in support of the operation . During the deployment , the brigade was also tasked with creating and maintaining maps and overlays of the area of operations . It would produce over 300 @,@ 000 such maps . The 130th Engineer Brigade was also tasked with repairing and maintaining much of the Task Force 's infrastructure .
The brigade returned to Germany after the operation was complete . Throughout 1998 – 2002 it would train with German engineers , including German units from Lahnstein and Speyer , as well as the German Engineering School . The brigade also set up marksman competitions with German units , to give US soldiers the chance to earn the German Armed Forces Badge of Marksmanship , the German Sports Badge , and other badges . Over 2 @,@ 500 of these badges would be earned by soldiers of the 130th over the years that it served in Germany . It also trained extensively in bridging operations at rivers throughout Germany . In summer of 2000 , the brigade participated in a joint engineering exercise in Moldova with US Navy Seabees and the 505th Engineer Brigade of the North Carolina Army National Guard . The exercise was the first ever conducted in Moldova and featured numerous training scenarios as well as the construction of a medical clinic . Several other such exercises were conducted in nations throughout Europe including Albania , Romania , Georgia , Latvia , Bulgaria and Macedonia . They also performed annual humanitarian missions to Poland , working on community projects around the country with the assistance of Polish Armed Forces every September , as a training exercise .
= = = Operation Iraqi Freedom = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade mobilized in support of the Global War on Terrorism in 2003 . It was commanded by Colonel Gregg F. Martin . As preparations were being made for Operation Iraqi Freedom , the 130th Engineer Brigade was placed in charge of the largest engineering force in the theater . This included seven different engineering battalions as well as several separate group and company sized elements . Units of the brigade were then deployed to Kuwait in early 2003 , along with much of V Corps ' staff . They would provide command and assistance for the 3rd Infantry Division , 82nd Airborne Division and 101st Airborne Division as they crossed the border to Iraq and attacked to the capitol region of Baghdad from the south . Coupled with the landings of the 173rd Airborne Brigade Combat Team to the north , the operation would see the US Forces surround and destroy Iraqi forces in and around the capitol .
The first obstacle facing the brigade was " the berm " , a 10 @-@ kilometer @-@ deep defensive obstacle complex that spanned Iraq 's border with Kuwait . The berm consisted of large tank ditches , berms of dirt , electrified fencing , and razor wire . It was decided that the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams would breach this berm in eight locations and move through . The 130th Engineer brigade analyzed the berms and provided a layout of them to coalition forces . The 130th Engineer Brigade then conducted the actual breaches in late March , using armored combat earthmovers to build roads for tracked vehicles , while armored vehicle @-@ launched bridges set up for wheeled vehicles . The 130th worked with Kuwati engineers to breach the berm in 12 places , and the 3rd Infantry Division 's Brigade Combat Teams moved though , starting the Iraq War . After combat forces moved through , the brigade and the Kuwatis then sealed off ten of these breaches to prevent Iraqi forces from using then , leaving two open for US forces that followed from the 82nd and 101st .
After the breach , the 130th moved into Iraq . They provided support for the divisions as they advanced along the path to Baghdad . When a large sandstorm grounded aviation and large dust clouds became a problem , the brigade repurposed oil for use in dust abatement around airfields , allowing the 101st 's fleet of AH @-@ 64 Apaches to take off and engage Iraqi ground forces on 24 March . Retreating Iraqi units detonated many bridges to slow the 3rd Infantry Division 's advance . The 130th Engineers conducted rapid repairs to allow the brigades to continue to move through . The brigade supported combat elements moving through An Najaf , clearing roads and pathways of debris and obstacles to allow rapid movement through the city . The 565th Engineer Battalion built the " birthday bridge " – the longest float bridge constructed in a combat theatre with a span of 580 meters – over the Tigris River in Tikrit on Saddam Hussein ’ s birthday , 28 April 2003 .
After the invasion was over , the brigade was supposed to support the operation with bridging and infrastructure support . During the planning for the invasion , the engineers of the brigade were told that reconstruction in Iraq would be conducted by Department of Defense contractors and Iraqi civilians . They were not originally prepared to conduct major reconstruction efforts . When V Corps became the commanding element for the task force to rebuild Iraq , much of the invasion force , including the 130th Engineer Brigade , was sent to do jobs they had not been originally planned for , as basic utilities and sanitation conditions in Iraq were far below what was expected . Throughout the rest of 2003 and 2004 , the engineers engaged in a large number of initial reconstruction projects on basic utilities , including schools , water treatment plants , waste removal , and the nation 's power grid . It was determined that the scale of these projects was much greater than what the US had expected or what had been encountered in previous contingencies . It was also decided that reconstruction was essential to the coalition since it would help win over the Iraqi people . By May 2003 , the brigade had been completely repurposed . Though originally tasked with demolishing obstacles , building fortifications , and bridging operations , the brigade was tasked entirely with construction projects . This conversion was a difficult process , as the brigade did not have the equipment and specialist units designed to handle reconstruction on a national scale . As more US military reconstruction units arrived in Iraq , the brigade grew to eight battalions and three groups .
The 130th Engineer Brigade focused on bridging projects as was its specialty , but it ultimately found itself undertaking numerous different projects throughout the country for much of 2003 and into 2004 . Not all of its units were confined entirely to construction , though . The 502nd Engineer Company also conducted river patrol operations in Baghdad and Tikrit . This new mission for the company was essential for force protection , troop transportation , search and cordon operations , and to protect against sabotage on fixed bridges . In September 2003 , with the inactivation of the 38th Engineer Company ( Medium Girder Bridge ) , the 502nd Engineer Company became a multi @-@ role bridge company with both float and fixed bridging capabilities and the only active bridge company in USAREUR .
The 130th was headquartered at Logistical Support Area Anaconda for the majority of the deployment . Throughout Operation Iraqi Freedom , the headquarters commanded up to 15 @,@ 000 engineers at one time , conducting missions including bridging , humanitarian assistance , topographic missions , dive missions , firefighting , base construction , river patrols , mine detection , missile removal and many more . Brigade units redeployed to Hanau in late 2003 and early 2004 . Most of the brigade 's soldiers returned to Hanau on 5 February 2004 after numerous logistical delays . Most of the 130th Engineer Brigade 's subordinate units would receive Meritorious Unit Commendation for their roles in the invasion of Iraq , though the Brigade 's headquarters did not .
= = = Second tour in Iraq = = =
The 502nd Engineer Company became the first V Corps company @-@ sized unit to return for a second tour in Iraq when it deployed in September 2004 . The company returned to Hanau in September 2005 . In December 2004 , the 130th Engineer Brigade 's headquarters was informed that it would be deployed back to Iraq the next year . The brigade mobilized and began this new deployment in September 2005 ; it began operating in the country the next month . The 54th Engineer Battalion followed in October . The brigade eventually replaced the 130th , 194th , and 20th Engineer Brigades , becoming the only engineer brigade operating in the country . By December 2006 , the brigade commanded all engineering formations in Multi @-@ National Corps - Iraq , including engineers from other branches of the US Military , for a total of 3 @,@ 300 soldiers . During the tour they were supported by the 412th Engineer Command .
The 130th Engineers had a variety of reconstruction tasks during their second tour in Iraq . The top priority of the brigade was to " maintain and upgrade lines of communications " to " insure uninterrupted ground movement through the area of operations . " This duty also included detection and removal of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade undertook numerous construction projects , primarily in building coalition forward operating bases , but they were tasked with construction projects for the Iraqi army and civilians as well . Many of the units of the brigade were integrated with military from other branches for projects . US Navy and US Marine Corps engineers operated side @-@ by @-@ side with 130th Engineer Brigade soldiers , and though commanders reported a " culture clash " between different branches of service , the soldiers , sailors , and Marines were able to adapt to the situation quickly .
The brigade 's Headquarters Company managed the engineer battalions but it also undertook its own missions , including humanitarian missions and public affairs assignments . It was supported by the brigade 's Special Troops Battalion which provided a wide range of duties for the Headquarters . The task of detecting and removing IEDs proved particularly difficult for the brigade , as IEDs were a serious issue for coalition forces and the leading cause of casualties at the time . The 54th Engineer Battalion under the 130th was specially tasked with counter @-@ IED operations on the over 300 kilometers of roads that the brigade was responsible for . The 249th Engineer Battalion was charged with maintaining the power grid throughout Iraq . They were required to assess 200 power stations throughout the country and make repairs to each one individually . The 84th Engineer Battalion was tasked with most construction projects in the Forward Operating Bases . These projects involved expansion of many of the larger FOBs as smaller ones were shut down and consolidated . One of the main focuses of the Battalion was the expansion of living quarters at Al Asad Air Base . The 565th Engineer Battalion was responsible for maintaining the supply yards housing building materials for the rest of the Brigade 's battalions , and to ensure that the materials were dispersed and used as efficiently as possible . The brigade 's mechanical and vehicle maintenance duties were provided by civilian contractors . These contractors also handled transportation of construction vehicles and vehicle parts to the theater .
During the year of its deployment in Iraq , the brigade reported progress in numerous areas . Brigade commander Colonel Thomas Kula reported that " greater than 50 percent " of IEDs found on roads used by the Corps were recognized and disarmed before they could be used against coalition forces . The brigade also cleared 700 kilometers of road from trash and debris and filled more than 600 potholes caused by explosions . It also completed 1 @,@ 800 mapping projects in the theater . The brigade also finished numerous building projects around Iraq . Soldiers of the 130th Engineer Brigade completed 345 construction projects during the year in the country , including emplacing four bridges and maintaining eight more , well digging projects throughout western Iraq , maintaining the power grid to 25 coalition bases , repairing and expanding services at FOBs throughout the region , and construction of outposts and checkpoints throughout the country 's roadways with the assistance of Iraqi engineers . During the deployment , a total of 15 soldiers from the brigade were killed in action . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Hanau from its second tour in Iraq in October 2006 .
= = = Reactivation in Hawaii = = =
With the US Army forces in Europe seeing drawdowns and redeployments , it was announced that V Corps would be eliminated , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved elsewhere . The brigade formally left Hanau with a casing of the unit colors ceremony at Pioneer Kaserne on 4 May 2007 . Casing the unit 's colors was a tradition formally signifying its inactivation and , for all official purposes , the brigade had ceased to be an active Army unit . The brigade headquarters became part of U.S. Army Pacific on 16 June 2007 .
The brigade had originally been slated to relocate to Fort Lewis , Washington to replace the 555th Engineer Brigade , which was scheduled to be inactivated . But with the announcement of the Grow the Army plan in early 2007 , it was decided that no engineer brigades would be inactivated permanently , and the 130th Engineer Brigade would be moved to Hawaii instead . Both the 130th and 555th Engineer Brigades remained on active duty .
The brigade was inactive for a year while it was reconstructed in Hawaii . As a part of the transformation of the US Army , the brigade was reorganized into a modular force with new and updated equipment and new personnel . The Brigade stood up provisionally on 27 June 2008 as it neared ready status . On 23 October , the brigade 's colors were formally uncased at Schofield Barracks , Hawaii . This signified the end of the brigade 's relocation to Hawaii as well as its completion and readiness to take on new missions .
The brigade took command of the 6th , 65th and 84th Engineer battalions .
= = = Third tour in Iraq = = =
The brigade was alerted for another deployment to Operation Iraqi Freedom in summer 2009 . There , its missions will once again include construction , route clearance , and training of Iraqi engineers . Since being alerted for deployment , the brigade began conducting vigorous Mission Rehearsal Exercise ( MRE ) training at Schofield Barracks . Among this training has been updated strategies for detection and clearance of Improvised Explosive Devices . The brigade began its deployment on 17 July 2009 , uncasing its colors in Mosul and taking command of construction projects in the area from the 18th Engineer Brigade .
The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks Hawaii from Iraq on 4 June 2010 .
= = = Theater Security Cooperation Program Exercises = = =
Upon the 130th Engineer Brigade 's return from Iraq in 2010 , the 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Theater Engineer Brigade in the PACOM AOR . In this capacity , the brigade provided combat engineering , construction engineering and dive operations support to joint and combined partners at more than 30 Theater Security Cooperation Program ( TSCP ) exercises and multiple company sized deployments to Operations New Dawn and Enduring Freedom .
The 130th Engineer Brigade served as the Combined Joint Civil Military Operations Task Force ( CJMOTF ) for Balikatan 2011 in the Philippines . For over two months , the brigade headquarters along with platoons from the 84th Engineer Battalion built schools and all @-@ purpose facilities . Meanwhile , the brigade 's subordinate joint partners conducted veterinarian and medical events to help improve the lives of the Filipino people . This event sharpened the brigade 's skills at responding to humanitarian aid and disaster response ( HADR ) events throughout the region . Upon completion of BK11 , the brigade shifted its training focus from stability operations to major combat operations . Specifically , the brigade initiated a 9 @-@ month train @-@ up plan for its MCTP graded war @-@ fighter with the 2nd Infantry Division in Korea . Through a series of individual and collective training events the brigade honed , sharpened and in some cases re @-@ learned the skills necessary to achieve victory in a high @-@ intensity conflict . Through UFG12 , 2ID 's War @-@ Path II Exercise , and finally the Full Spectrum Exercise in November 2011 , the 130th Engineer Brigade earned some of the highest marks and accolades ever given to a brigade by the MCTP during a certification war @-@ fighter exercise . Through these series of exercises , the 130th Engineer Brigade helped USFK , 8th Army , and 2ID refine and improve their most significant OPLANs by updating TPFDDs , task organizations , engineer concepts of operations , and combined arms gap @-@ crossing plans . The 130th Engineer Brigade , along with 8th Army and 2ID remain ready to " Fight Tonight " if called upon .
= = = Operation Enduring Freedom = = =
The 130th Engineer Brigade Headquarters and Headquarters Company ( HHC ) , and one of their subordinate battalions , the 65th Engineer Battalion ( Combat Effects ) , deployed in support of Operation Enduring Freedom in September and October 2013 . This marked the brigade headquarters ' first deployment to Afghanistan . After a two @-@ week handover period , the 130th Engineer Brigade officially took over on 2 October 2013 from the 555th Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Lewis @-@ McChord , WA ) , Joint Task Force Triple Nickel , thus becoming Joint Task Force Sapper , overseeing U.S. Army , Navy , and Air Force engineer units across Afghanistan . A direct subordinate element of ISAF Joint Command and U.S. Forces @-@ Afghanistan , JTF Sapper constituted the fourth largest command in theater , behind only regional commands . The 130th Engineer Brigade became the core of a provisional multi @-@ role brigade headquarters for engineer operations in Afghanistan with seven subordinate battalions , one Naval Mobile Construction Battalion , and one Engineer Prime Beef Squadron consisting of over 4 @,@ 200 Soldiers , Sailors and Airmen operating in each Regional Command .
From September to December 2013 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " The Theater Engineer Brigade trains , certifies and advises the ANA Engineers on construction , facility management , and assured mobility capabilities while supporting the retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and assured mobility across the CJOA @-@ A. "
From January to May 2014 , Joint Task Force Sapper 's mission in theater was " Joint Task Force Sapper partners with ANA engineers to enable their independent operations and support the redeployment and retrograde of Coalition Forces through expeditionary construction and deconstruction across the CJOA @-@ A in order to set the conditions for the resolute support mission . "
The 130th Engineer Brigade turned over responsibility as Operation Enduring Freedom 's Theater Engineer Brigade to the 2nd Engineer Brigade ( from Joint Base Elmedorf @-@ Richardson , AK ) , Joint Task Force Trailblazer , on 29 May 2014 . The 130th Engineer Brigade returned to Schofield Barracks , Hawaii from Afghanistan on 4 June 2014 .
= = Honors = =
= = = Unit Decorations = = =
= = = Campaign streamers = = =
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= Corythosaurus =
Corythosaurus / ˌkɒrᵻθoʊˈsɔːrəs / is a genus of hadrosaurid " duck @-@ billed " dinosaur from the Upper Cretaceous Period , about 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . It lived in what is now North America . Its name means " helmet lizard " , derived from Greek κόρυς . It was named and described in 1914 by Barnum Brown . Corythosaurus is now thought to be a lambeosaurine , related to Nipponosaurus , Velafrons , Hypacrosaurus , and Olorotitan . Corythosaurus has an estimated length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) , and has a skull , including the crest , that is 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) tall .
Corythosaurus is known from many complete specimens , including the nearly complete holotype found by Brown in 1911 . The holotype skeleton is only missing the last section of the tail , and part of the forelimbs , but was preserved with impressions of polygonal scales . Corythosaurus is known from many skulls with tall crests . The crests resemble the crests of the cassowary and a Corinthian helmet . The most likely function of the crest is thought to be vocalization . As in a trombone , sound waves would travel through many chambers in the crest , and then get amplified when Corythosaurus exhaled . A Corythosaurus specimen has been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits : Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .
The two species of Corythosaurus are both present in slightly different levels of the Dinosaur Park Formation . Both still co @-@ existed with theropods and other ornithischians , like Daspletosaurus , Brachylophosaurus , Parasaurolophus , Scolosaurus , and Chasmosaurus .
= = Discovery and species = =
The first specimen , AMNH 5240 , was discovered in 1911 by Barnum Brown in Red Deer River , Alberta , Canada , and secured by him in the Fall of 1912 . As well as an almost complete skeleton , the find was notable because impressions of much of the creature 's skin had also survived . The specimen came from the Belly River Group of the province . The left or underside of the skeleton was preserved in carbonaceous clay , making it difficult to expose the skin . The skeleton was articulated , and only missing about the last 0 @.@ 61 metres ( 2 @.@ 0 ft ) of the tail and the forelimbs . Both scapulae and coracoids are preserved in position , but the rest of the forelimbs are gone , except for phalanges and pieces of humeri , ulnae and radii . Apparently the remaining forelimbs were weathered or eroded away . Impressions of the integument were preserved covering over a large part of the skeletons outlining , and shows the form of the body . Another specimen , AMNH 5338 , was found in 1914 by Brown and Peter Kaisen . Both specimens are now housed in the American Museum of Natural History in their original death poses .
The type species Corythosaurus casuarius was named by Barnum Brown in 1914 , based on the first specimen collected by him in 1912 . AMNH 5240 is thus the holotype . In 1916 , the original author , Brown , published a more detailed description which was also based on AMNH 5338 , which specimen is therefore the plesiotype . Corythosaurus is among many lambeosaurines that possess crests , and it was the crest that lends Corythosaurus its name . The generic name Corythosaurus is derived from Greek κόρυθος , korythos , " Corinthian helmet " , and means " helmeted lizard " . The specific name casuarius refers to the cassowary , a bird with a similar skull crest . The full binomial of Corythosaurus casuarius thus means " Cassowary @-@ like reptile , with a Corinthian helmet crest " .
The two best preserved specimens of Corythosaurus found , by Charles H. Sternberg in 1912 , were lost on 6 December 1916 while being carried to the United Kingdom , during World War One . They were being sent to Arthur Smith Woodward , a paleontologist of the British Museum of Natural History in England , when the ship transporting them was sunk by the German merchant raider SMS Möwe in the middle of the ocean .
There were formerly up to seven species described , including C. casuarius , C. bicristatus Parks 1935 , C. brevicristatus Parks 1935 , C. excavatus Gilmore 1923 , C. frontalis Parks 1935 , and C. intermedius Parks 1923 . In 1975 Peter Dodson studied the differences between the skulls and crests of different species of lambeosaurine dinosaurs . He found that the differences in size and shape may have actually been related to the gender and age of the animal . Now only one species is recognized for certain , C. casuarius , although C. intermedius has been recognized as valid in some studies . It is based on specimen ROM 776 , a skull found by Levi Sternberg in 1920 and was named by William Parks in 1923 , who had originally named it Stephanosaurus intermedius earlier that year . The specific name of C. intermedius is derived from its apparent intermediate position according to Parks . C. intermedius lived at a slightly later time in the Campanian than C. casuarius , and the two species are not identical , which supported the separation of them in a 2009 study .
= = Description = =
= = = Size = = =
Benson et al . ( 2012 ) estimated that Corythosaurus has an average length of 9 metres ( 30 ft ) . Richard Swann Lull 's earlier length estimate , published in 1942 , found a slightly longer total length of 9 @.@ 4 m ( 31 ft ) , a size similar to Lambeosaurus lambei , another Canadian lambeosaurine . In 1962 , Edwin H. Colbert used models of specific dinosaurs , including Corythosaurus , to estimate their weight . The Corythosaurus model used , was modelled by Vincent Fusco after a mounted skeleton , and supervised by Barnum Brown . After testing , it was concluded that the average weight of Corythosaurus was 3 @.@ 82 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 76 long tons ; 4 @.@ 21 short tons ) . More recent size estimates of Corythosaurus , published in 2001 , find the genus to be among the largest hadrosaurids , only smaller than Shantungosaurus and Parasaurolophus . The total length of Corythosaurus specimen AMNH 5240 was found to be 8 @.@ 1 m ( 27 ft ) , with a weight of 3 @.@ 0785 tonnes ( 3 @.@ 0299 long tons ; 3 @.@ 3935 short tons ) .
Proportionally , the skull is much shorter and smaller than that of Edmontosaurus ( formerly Trachodon ) , Kritosaurus , or Saurolophus , but when including its crest , its superficial area is almost as large .
= = = Skull = = =
Over twenty skulls have been found from this dinosaur . As with other lambeosaurines , the animal bore a tall , elaborate bony crest atop its skull , which contained the elongate narial passages . The narial passages extended into the crest , first into separate pockets in the sides , then into a single central chamber and onward into the respiratory system . The skull of the type specimen has no dermal impressions on it . During preservation it was compressed laterally , so now the width is about two @-@ thirds what it would have been in real life . According to Brown , the compression also caused the nasals to shift where they pressed down on the premaxillaries . Because they were pressed on the premaxillaries , the nasals would have closed the nares . Apart from the compression , the skull appears to be normal . Contrary to what Brown assumed , the areas concerned were fully part of the praemaxillae .
The crests of Corythosaurus resemble that of a cassowary , or a Corinthian helmet . They are formed by a combination of the praemaxillae , nasals , prefrontals and frontals , as in Saurolophus , but instead of projecting backwards as a spine , they rise up to make the highest point above the orbit . The two halves of the crest are separated by a median suture . In front of the orbit , the crest is made of thick bone .
The nasals make up most of the crest . Brown assumed that they extended from the beaks ' tip to the highest spot along the crest and that , unlike those in other genera , the nasals meet in the centre and are not separated in front by an ascending premaxillary process . Brown however , mistook the praemaxillae for the nasals ; the snout is actually largely formed by them and they do separate the nasals . Brown also thought that on the top and back of the crest , the whole external face is covered by the frontals . Again he made a mistake : what he assumed to be the frontals are in fact the nasals . The nasals end at the back of the squamosals in a hooked , short process . The prefrontals also make up part of the crest ; however , Brown mistook the lower upper branch of the praemaxilla for the prefrontal . The actual prefrontal , triangular in shape , is located at the side of the crest base ; it was by Brown seen as a part of the frontal . The real frontals , largely internal to the crest base structure , are not visible from the side .
The mouth of the holotype of Corythosaurus is narrow . The praemaxillae each form two long folds . The folds enclose air passages extending the narial passages to the front of the snout . There they end in narrow openings , sometimes called " pseudonares " , false bony nostrils . These were mistaken by Brown for the real nares or nostrils . These are actually situated inside the crest , above the eye sockets . As in Saurolophus , the expanded portion of the premaxillary in front of the pseudonaris ' opening is elongate : by comparison , in Kritosaurus , the bill is short , and the pseudonares extend far forward . At the end of the Corythosaurus bill , the two pseudonares unite into one . Because of his incorrect identification , Brown assumed that the holotype 's inferior process of the premaxillary was shorter than in Kritosaurus and Saurolophus , and that the process does not unite with the lacrimal , another difference from those genera . The praemaxilla actually does touch the lacrimal and extends to the rear until well behind the eye socket .
The lower jaw of the holotype is 66 @.@ 9 centimetres ( 26 @.@ 3 in ) long , and 10 centimetres ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) deep . The total length of the crest from the beak to the uppermost tip of the type specimen is 83 @.@ 7 centimetres ( 33 @.@ 0 in ) , its total length is 81 @.@ 2 centimetres ( 32 @.@ 0 in ) , and height 70 @.@ 8 centimetres ( 27 @.@ 9 in ) .
= = = Soft tissue = = =
In the holotype of C. casuarius , the sides and tail of the body are covered in scales of several types . Polygonal tuberculate scales , covered in small bumps , vary in size over the body . Conical limpet @-@ like scales are only preserved on a fold of skin preserved on the back of the tibia , but which was probably from the bottom of the belly , rather than the leg . Separating the polygonal scales of C. casuarius are shieldlike scales , arranged close together in rows . Ossified tendons are present on all the vertebrae , except for those in the cervical region . On no vertebrae do the tendons extend below the transverse processes . Each tendon is flattened at its origin , and transversely ovoid in the central rod , ending at a rounded point .
Aside from those found on Corythosaurus casuarius , extensive skin impressions have been found on Edmontosaurus annectens and notable integument has also been found on Brachylophosaurus canadensis , Gryposaurus notabilis , Parasaurolophus walkeri , Lambeosaurus magnicristatus , L. lambei , Saurolophus angustirsotris and on unidentified ornithopods . Of these , L. lambei , C. casuarius , G. notabilis , P. walkeri , and S. angustirsotris have preserved polygonal scales . The scales on L. lambei , S. angustirostris and C. casuarius are all similar . Corythosaurus is one of very few hadrosaurids which have preserved skin impressions on the hind limbs and feet . A study in 2013 showed that amongst hadrosaurids , Saurolophus angustirostris preserved the best and most complete foot and limb integument , although other species like S. osborni , Edmontosaurus annectens and Lambeosaurus lambei ( = L. clavinitialis ) share a fair amount of preserved tissue on those regions .
It was once thought that this dinosaur lived mostly in the water , due to the appearance of webbed hands and feet . However , it was later discovered that the so @-@ called " webs " were in fact deflated padding , much like that found on many modern mammals .
= = = Distinguishing characteristics = = =
A set of characters were indicated by Barnum Brown in 1914 to distinguish Corythosaurus from all other hadrosaurids from Alberta : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by the nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by the premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , with an expansion in front of an elongated naris ; and a small narial opening .
In 1916 , Brown expanded the character set to include more features ; in the revised version : a comparatively short skull with a high helmet @-@ like crest formed by nasals , prefrontals and frontals ; the nasals not being separated in front by premaxillaries ; a narrow beak , expanded section in front of the elongated nares ; a small narial opening ; a vertebral formula of 15 cervicals , 19 dorsals , 8 sacrals , and 61 + caudals ; possession of dorsal spines of a medium height ; high anterior caudal spines ; long chevrons ; long scapulae , possessing a blade of medium width ; a radius considerably longer than humerus ; comparatively short metacarpals ; an anteriorly decurved ilium ; a long ischium with a foot @-@ like terminal expansion ; a pubis with an anterior blade that is short and broadly expanded at end ; a femur that is longer than the tibia ; the phalanges of pes are short ; that the integument over the sides and tail composed of polygonal tuberculate scales without pattern but graded in size in different parts of the body ; and a belly with longitudinal rows of large conical limpet @-@ like scales separated by uniformly large polygonal tubercles . Again , the presumed traits of the snout are incorrect because Brown confused the praemaxillae with the nasal bones and the nasal bones with the frontals . Most of the postcranial traits are today known to be shared with other lambeosaurines .
= = Classification = =
Originally , Brown referred to Corythosaurus as a member of the family Trachodontidae ( now Hadrosauridae ) . Inside Trachodontidae were the subfamilies Trachodontinae and Saurolophinae . Brown classified Hadrosaurus , Trachodon , Claosaurus , and Kritosaurus in Trachodontinae , and Corythosaurus , Stephanosaurus , and Saurolophus in Saurolophinae .
Later , Brown revised the phylogeny of Corythosaurus , and found that it was closely related , and possibly ancestral to Hypacrosaurus . The only differences he found between them were the development of the vertebrae , and the proportions of the limbs . During a study of dinosaurian ilia in the 1920s , Alfred Sherwood Romer proposed that the two orders of dinosaurs might have evolved separately , and that birds , based on the shape and proportions of their ilia might truly be specialized ornithischians . He used both Tyrannosaurus and Corythosaurus as a base model to analyze which theory is more likely true . He found that even though birds are thought of as saurischians , it is very plausible for them to have evolved their specific pelvic musculature and anatomy if they evolved from ornithschians like Corythosaurus . However , even though Corythosaurus does resemble modern birds in pelvic structure more than saurischians , birds are now thought to have descended from the latter .
Corythosaurus is currently classified as a hadrosaurid , in the subfamily Lambeosaurinae . It is related to other hadrosaurs such as Hypacrosaurus , Lambeosaurus and Olorotitan , with the exception of Olorotitan they all share similar looking skulls and crests . However , research published in 2003 has suggested that even though it possesses a unique crest , Olorotitan is Corythosaurus closest known relative . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) found that Corythosaurus was closely related to Velafrons , Nipponosaurus , and Hypacrosaurus , and said that they formed a group of fan @-@ crested lambeosaurines .
In 2014 , a study including the description of Zhanghenglong was published in the journal PLOS ONE . The study included an almost complete cladogram of hadrosauroid relationships , including Corythosaurus as the most derived lambeosaurine , as sister taxon to Hypacrosaurus . The below cladogram is a simplified version including only Lambeosaurini .
= = Paleobiology = =
Comparisons between the scleral rings of Corythosaurus and modern birds and reptiles suggest that it may have been cathemeral , active throughout the day at short intervals . The sense of hearing in hadrosaurids , specifically such as Lophorhothon , also seems to have been greatly developed because of an elongated lagena . The presence of a thin stapes ( an ear bone that is rod @-@ like in reptiles ) , combined with a large eardrum implies the existence of a sensitive middle ear . It is possible that hadrosaurid ears are sensitive enough to detect as much sound as a modern crocodilian .
= = = Crest function = = =
The internal structures of the crest of Corythosaurus are quite complex , making possible a call that could be used for warning or attracting a mate . Nasal passageways of Corythosaurus , as well as Hypacrosaurus and Lambeosaurus are S @-@ shaped , with Parasaurolophus only possessing U @-@ shaped tubes . Any vocalization would travel through these elaborate chambers , and probably get amplified . Scientists speculate that Corythosaurus could make loud , low pitched cries " like a wind or brass instrument " , such as a trombone . The sounds could serve to alert other Corythosaurus to the presence of food or a potential threat from a predator . The nasal passages emit low @-@ frequency sounds when Corythosaurus exhaled . The individual crests would produce different sounds , so it is likely that each species of lambeosaurine would have had a unique sound . However , even though the range for different lambeosaurine nasal passages vary , they all probable made low @-@ pitched sounds . This might be because low sounds ( below 400 Hz ) travel a set distance in any environment , while higher ( above 400 Hz ) sounds have a larger spread in the distance travelled .
When they were first described , crested hadrosaurs were thought to be aquatic , an assessment based incorrectly on webbing that is now known to be padding . The theory was that the animals could swim deep in the water , and use the crest to store air to breath . However , it has now been proven that the crest did not have any holes in the end , and the water pressure at even 3 metres ( 9 @.@ 8 ft ) would be too great for the lungs to be able to inflate .
= = = Growth = = =
Corythosaurus casuarius is one of a few lambeosaurines , along with Lambeosaurus lambei , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri and H. altispinus , to have had surviving fossilized juveniles assigned to it . Juveniles are harder to assign to species , because at a young age they lack the distinctive larger crests of adults . As they age , lambeosaurine crests tend to grow and become more prominent come maturity . In the Dinosaur Park Formation , over fifty articulated specimens have been found , coming from many different genera . Among them , juveniles are hard to identify at the species level . Earlier , four genera and thirteen species were recognized from the formation 's area , when paleontologists used differences in size and crest shape to differentiate taxa . The smallest specimens were identified as Tetragonosaurus , now seen as a synonym of Procheneosaurus , and the largest skeletons were called either Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus ; an adult was identified as Parasaurolophus . Small lambeosaurines from the Horseshoe Canyon Formation were referred to Cheneosaurus .
Corythosaurus started developing its crest when half the size of adults , but Parasaurolophus juveniles grew crests when only 25 % as long as adults . Juvenile Corythosaurus , along with adults , had a premaxilla @-@ nasal fontanelle . Young and adult Corythosaurus are similar to Lambeosaurus and Hypacrosaurus but dissimilar to Parasaurolophus in that the sutures of the skull are sinuous , and not smooth and straight . This feature helps differentiate parasaurolophins from lambeosaurins . Generally , the crests of juveniles of lambeosaurines like Corythosaurus , Lambeosaurus , Hypacrosaurus stebingeri , parasaurolophines like Parasaurolophus , and primitive lambeosaurines like Kazaklambia are quite alike , although other features can be used to distinguish them .
Work by Dodson ( 1975 ) recognized that there were many less taxa present in Alberta . Tetragonosaurus was found to be juveniles of Corythosaurus or Lambeosaurus . T. erectofrons was assigned to Corythosaurus based largely on biometric information . The only non @-@ typic specimen of Tetragonosaurus , assigned to T. erectofrons , was found later to be referable to Hypacrosaurus , although the holotype of the species was still found to be assignable to Corythosaurus .
= = = Diet = = =
Corythosaurus was an ornithopod , and therefore a herbivore . Benson et al . ( 2012 ) realized that the beak of Corythosaurus was shallow and delicate , and concluded that it must have been used to feed upon soft vegetation . Based on the climate of the Late Cretaceous , they guessed that Corythosaurus would have been a selective feeder , eating only the juiciest fruits and youngest leaves . Corythosaurus specimens have been preserved with its last meal in its chest cavity . Inside the cavity were remains of conifer needles , seeds , twigs , and fruits , meaning that Corythosaurus probably fed on all of these .
= = Paleoecology = =
Fossils have been found in the upper Oldman Formation and lower Dinosaur Park Formation of Canada . The Oldman Formation dates to the Campanian , about 77 @.@ 5 to 76 @.@ 5 million years ago , and the Dinosaur Park Formation dates from 76 @.@ 6 to 74 @.@ 8 million years ago . Corythosaurus lived from ~ 77 – 75 @.@ 7 million years ago . In the Dinosaur Park Formation C. casuarius lived from 76 @.@ 6 to 75 @.@ 9 mya , with C. intermedius living from 75 @.@ 8 to 75 @.@ 7 mya . In the Oldman Formation C. casuarius , the only species of Corythosaurus from the deposits , lived about 77 to 76 @.@ 5 mya . The holotype specimen was clearly a carcass that had floated up on a beach , as Unio shells , water @-@ worn bones , and a baenid turtle were preserved all around . Corythosaurus probably lived in a woodland forest , and might have occasionally wandered into swampy areas .
A limited fauna is known from the upper section of the Oldman Formation , and Corythosaurus casuarius as well as C. intermedius are among the taxa . Also from the section of the formation are the theropods Daspletosaurus , and Saurornitholestes , the hadrosaurids Brachylophosaurus , Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , and the ankylosaurid Scolosaurus , and the ceratopsians Coronosaurus and Chasmosaurus . Other genera are known , but do not persist from the upper section of the formation , and therefore are not contemporaries of Corythosaurus .
Corythosaurus casuarius is widespread throughout the lower unit of the Dinosaur Park Formation . In it , Corythosaurus was found to be closely associated with the ceratopsid Centrosaurus apertus . Their associating was found in the Dinosaur Park , Judith River , and Mesaverde formations , and also in the Wind River Basin and the Wheatland County area . Corythosaurus lived alongside numerous other giant herbivores , such as the hadrosaurids Gryposaurus and Parasaurolophus , the ceratopsids Centrosaurus and Chasmosaurus , and ankylosaurids Scolosaurus , Edmontonia and Dyoplosaurus in the earliest stages of the formation , Dyoplosaurus , Panoplosaurus and Euoplocephalus in the middle age , and Euoplocephalus alone in later stages of the formation . Studies of the jaw anatomy and mechanics of these dinosaurs suggests they probably all occupied slightly different ecological niches in order to avoid direct competition for food in such a crowded eco @-@ space . The only large predators known from the same levels of the formation as Corythosaurus are the tyrannosaurids Gorgosaurus libratus and an unnamed species of Daspletosaurus .
Thomas M. Lehman has observed that Corythosaurus hasn 't been discovered outside of southern Alberta even though it is one of the most abundant Judithian dinosaurs in the region . Large herbivores like the hadrosaurs living in North America during the Late Cretaceous had " remarkably small geographic ranges " despite their large body size and high mobility . This restricted distribution strongly contrasts with modern mammalian faunas whose large herbivores ' ranges " typical [ ly ] ... span much of a continent . "
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= Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society =
Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex - Solid State Society ( Japanese : 攻殻機動隊 STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society , Hepburn : Kōkaku Kidōtai STAND ALONE COMPLEX Solid State Society ) is a 2006 made @-@ for @-@ television science fiction action spy thriller anime film and is part of the Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex series based on Masamune Shirow 's manga Ghost in the Shell . It was produced by Production I.G and directed by Kenji Kamiyama .
The film is set in 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG . Togusa is now the team leader for Public Security Section 9 , which has increased considerably in size . Section 9 deals with a series of complicated incidents , including the assassination of Ka Rum , a former dictator of the Siak Republic , which leads to a terrorist plot using children as vectors for a cybernetic virus . Investigations reveal that a hacker nicknamed the " The Puppeteer " is behind the entire series of events .
The film , which had a production budget of 360 million yen , debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 and it was released in North America in 2007 . A stereoscopic 3D version of the film was released in 2011 . The film received generally positive reviews , but was criticized for being very dialogue heavy and lacking in action .
= = Plot = =
In 2034 , two years after the events of 2nd GIG , Public Security Section 9 is investigating a string of mysterious suicides by refugees from the Siak Republic . Chief Aramaki conducts a raid to arrest the refugee dictator only to find him already dead . In retaliation , a Siak operative plans a terrorist attack with a micromachine virus . Batou is sent to intercept the Siak operative and encounters Kusanagi , who is conducting her own investigation . Before they can apprehend the operative , he dies while attacking them . Kusanagi takes a case of virus ampules and warns Batou to stay away from the Solid State Society before leaving .
Section 9 operatives develop a theory that a hacker known as the Puppeteer is responsible for Siak agents ' forced suicides and Togusa discovers sixteen kidnapped children who were intended carriers of the virus . All the children are listed as the children of Noble Rot Senior Citizens and Section 9 begins to suspect a larger conspiracy when they are part of a larger body of 20 @,@ 000 children . Soon afterwards , the Puppeteer causes the disappearance of the sixteen children and Batou reveals to Togusa that he believes Kusanagi to be the Puppeteer . Section 9 next intercepts a Siak sniper that is targeting the supposed mastermind of Ka Rum 's assassination . After his capture it is revealed the informant and the target are one in the same . The sniper says that the Puppeteer is a mechanism in the Solid State and cannot be killed .
Togusa tracks down one of the missing children , now assigned to an elderly man in the Noble Rot program . As Togusa tries to take the child , the man awakens and demands the child be left with him as he had named the child as his sole heir . He would rather give his assets to a child off the street and to protect them from abuse than have his assets turned over to the government upon his death . The man immediately dies after warning Togusa not to interfere with the will of the Solid State . Late , Togusa receives a call from the Puppeteer who hacks his brain and forces him to drive to a cyberbrain implant hospital with his daughter . The Puppeteer and Togusa converse , and Togusa is given the option to lose his daughter to the Solid State or commit suicide . He chooses suicide but is saved by Kusanagi who then identifies the Puppeteer as a rhizome formed by the collective consciousness of the Noble Rot Senior Citizens located in a welfare center .
Kusanagi temporarily rejoins Section 9 and confirms that Ito Munei , an influential politician , was behind the assassination of General Ka Rum . She also confirms that Munei and other politicians use it as a front for a brainwashing facility to create an elite group of pure @-@ blooded Japanese to take control of the country in the next generation and lead it into Munei 's vision of a new Golden Age . The Solid State decided to eliminate Munei for interfering in its plans , but Munei was ignorant of the origin of the abduction infrastructure .
A designer named Tateaki Koshiki steps forward , claiming he developed the Solid State system before committing suicide . Kusanagi dives into his cyberbrain and into Koshiki 's trap , allowing him to hack her cyberbrain . The Puppetmaster reveals that he was spread across several egos until a collective consciousness emerged and developed into a Solid State , allowing him to move into the society beyond as the vanishing mediator . Later , Batou tells a recovering Kusanagi that the real Tateaki Koshiki used a cybernetic body and built the Solid State after he was hired by Munei . Kusanagi does not reveal that the Puppeteer was a fragment of herself , but Batou already knew from being linked to her during the dive . Batou concludes that the ultimate identity of the Puppeteer will remain unknown and that incident will be written off a scandal .
= = Cast = =
= = Production = =
The film was initially hinted as a new anime project collaboration with Bandai Visuals and Production I.G. The film was officially announced by Production I.G at the 2006 Tokyo Anime Fair . Whether the film would be released theatrically , broadcast on television , or released direct @-@ to @-@ DVD was undecided at the time . The film had a production budget of 360 million yen ( equivalent to US $ 4 @.@ 3 million ) . It was produced in Hi @-@ vision format and was made by the same staff that originally made the TV series .
The production team used a 3 @-@ D layout system to render the interior shots ahead separately and in advance . The art team was tasked to draw lighting boards to show the position of light sources in the scene to improve the overall quality of the animation . One of the themes in the series was " Motoko Kusanagi 's rebirth " . The team had a difficult time portraying Motoko Kusanagi and her return to Section 9 . Kenji Kamiyama stated that he felt the characters have obtained " ghosts " of their own and that Kusanagi needed a convincing story in order to return to Section 9 . Shotaro Shuga noted that Kusanagi was more going back to her old self rather than showing the new strength she found when she left Section 9 .
For the music , Yoko Kanno read the scripts of the film in order to compose music that would synchronize with each scene , rather than composing music ahead of time . Sound Director Kazuhiro Wakabayashi returned to provide music menus , which made up of 70 % of the scores Yoko Kanno composed .
As part of the Nissan sponsorship , the movie features two concept cars designed by Nissan . Section 9 drive a white Nissan Sport Concept sports hatchback and seater Infiniti Kuraza that premiered at the 2005 New York International Auto Show and North American International Auto Show .
= = Releases = =
The film debuted in Japan on SKY PerfecTV ! on September 1 , 2006 . It premiered in North America at the 2007 New York Comic @-@ Con screening from February 23 – 25 , and also featured in 2007 's Fantasia Festival in Canada . The English version was released on July 3 , 2007 . The Limited Edition Steelbook contained an additional DVD containing various development interviews and videos and the Solid State Society Original Soundtrack CD . In July 2008 , Solid State Society was released in Blu @-@ Ray alongside the two OVA The Laughing Man and Individual Eleven in Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Trilogy Box .
In November 2010 , a stereoscopic 3D version was announced adding a new opening sequence . The 3D version was released in Tokyo 's Shinjuku Wald 9 theater on March 26 , 2011 . The stereoscopic 3D version was released in both normal and deluxe edition on July 22 , 2011 . The normal version contains opening @-@ day greetings by the staff and cast , film advertisements , and audio commentaries . The deluxe edition titled Ghost in the Shell : Stand Alone Complex Solid State Society -Another Dimension- is packaged in a Dennōka Box containing the film in Stereoscopic 3D all the content the normal edition along with three Tachikomatic Days shorts in 3D and one in 2D .
A novel adaptation titled Ghost in the Shell : S.A.C. Solid State Society ( 攻殻機動隊S.A.C. Solid State Society ) was published by Kodansha and released on April 3 , 2011 . An optical camouflage camera app for iOS was released on September 2 , 2011 . A video game for the Xbox 360 Kinect was developed by Kayac to promote the 3D remake of the film .
= = Reception = =
Christopher Monfette of IGN gave Solid State Society an " Impressive " score of 8 @.@ 0 out of 10 , stating that it was " A worthwhile watch " . Carl Kimlinger of Anime News Network gave the film a " B " rating , calling it a " swift @-@ moving futuristic crime film with some clever science @-@ fiction twists and solid action " but criticizing it was " wordy , confusing and somewhat bloodless . " The film earned a 1 @.@ 4 % rating when it aired in NTV on October 15 , 2012 . Marcus Doidge of DVD Active gave it a 6 / 10 stating , " Solid State Society isn 't as strong as the first and second season of the anime show but being one feature length story as opposed to lots of very cool and largely great individual episodes offers a more in depth and focused story for the most part and a happy return to the world of Ghost in the Shell " . The film was awarded the Juri Prize at the 21st Digital Content Grand Prix . The film was featured in the " Late Night Manga to Anime Film Season " hosted by The British Museum . The DVD released ranked No. 1 on Oricon charts on November 23 , 2006 .
The 3D version ranked at No. 11 in the Japanese box office chart with a total of $ 285 @,@ 268 from a total of nine theaters . The 3D version won the Movie award for The Japanese Committee of the International 3D Society .
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= Winston Tunnel =
The Winston Tunnel is a railroad tunnel located 9 miles ( 14 @.@ 5 kilometers ) west of Elizabeth , Illinois .
The tunnel was completed in 1888 for the Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad , a predecessor to the Chicago Great Western Railway ( CGW ) . The tunnel was located on the CGW main line 152 miles ( 245 kilometers ) west of Chicago in the isolated and hilly Driftless Area of extreme north @-@ western Illinois .
In 1972 , four years after the Chicago Great Western was merged into the Chicago and North Western Railway ( C & NW ) , the CGW 's largely redundant trackage in the area , including the Winston Tunnel , was abandoned . It was the third longest railroad tunnel in Illinois at 2 @,@ 493 feet ( 760 m ) . Two longer ( still active ) tunnels are located on the Canadian National ( ex @-@ Illinois Central ) Edgewood Cutoff Line , the longest being Tunnel # 2 near Abbot , Illinois which is 6 @,@ 994 feet ( 2 @,@ 132 m ) long .
= = History = =
The newly constructed Minnesota and Northwestern Railroad across northern Illinois utilized trackage rights on the Illinois Central Railroad between Dubuque , Iowa and Stockton , Illinois in 1886 before construction on its own line through the isolated wilderness could commence . Engineers quickly realized that a tunnel would need to be constructed in order to traverse the rugged landscape . The Sheppard , Winston and Company ( for which the tunnel would be named ) and more than 350 laborers worked by hand , digging through the silty and unstable shale for nine months starting in the spring of 1887 . The work was backbreaking and dangerous , and at least one worker , a thirty @-@ two @-@ year @-@ old Finnish immigrant named John Hill , was killed . When complete , the total cost of the tunnel , $ 600 @,@ 000 , had exceeded expectations .
The tunnel proved to be a constant nuisance to the Chicago Great Western and its predecessors . Almost immediately , railroad engineers realized that the unstable nature of shale through which the tunnel was bored , ground water seepage , and the isolated location of the tunnel meant repairs would be frequent and costly . The tunnel was originally braced by wooden beams when it opened to rail traffic in January 1888 , but these eventually proved inadequate , to be replaced in 1902 by brick and reinforced concrete . Constant deterioration of the supports meant large @-@ scale reconstruction of the tunnel would be needed again in 1912 , 1918 , 1944 and 1947 .
The bore was also improperly ventilated at first . A shaft sunk into the top of the tunnel failed to provide enough fresh air , and the crews of the steam engines would often complain of the intense heat and smoke due to the poor air circulation . Piecemeal solutions failed to work , and by 1912 the railroad was forced to install a huge fan , powered by a 310 horsepower ( 230 kW ) diesel motor and staffed by operators day and night , to ventilate the tunnel . The fanhouse , constructed by 1916 , was abandoned by the CGW with the acquisition of diesel locomotives by 1947 .
When the Chicago Great Western was federalized during World War I , a contingent of Illinois National Guardsmen were assigned to protect the tunnel .
The operating nightmares of the tunnel , not to mention the millions of dollars the CGW spent to keep it open , forced the railroad 's management to consider many schemes to rid themselves of the burden . In 1909 , 1951 and again in 1964 ( the same year the North Western and Great Western announced their intentions to merge ) the CGW sought engineering proposals to reroute their trackage around the bore , to daylight the tunnel , or to completely rebuild and improve it . To the often cash @-@ strapped Great Western , however , all these plans proved far too expensive .
In the end , the 1968 merger with the Chicago and North Western ( C & NW ) sealed the Winston Tunnel 's fate . The Great Western 's main line through northern Illinois closely paralleled the North Western 's own line , but through less densely populated and less commercially active areas . The steep grades of the line and the obvious financial burden of the Winston Tunnel also played a role in the decision to completely abandon the Great Western 's trackage in the area . The C & NW operated its last train through the tunnel in 1971 . Scrappers pulled up the tracks the following year . Upon abandonment , the C & NW placed chain @-@ link fences over each bore of the tunnel to keep squatters and other trespassers out . A 1973 attempt to turn the right @-@ of @-@ way through Jo Daviess County , including the Winston Tunnel , into a rail trail , failed when ownership of the land reverted to nearby property owners .
= = Present day = =
The Winston Tunnel still exists , although in a very isolated area , and in a very deteriorated condition . Nature has reclaimed the right @-@ of @-@ way ; the fan house , unused since the 1940s and severely damaged by the elements , was demolished in early 2007 ; and the eastern bore , located on private property , has been almost completely sealed with earth .
The western half , however , was purchased by the Illinois Department of Natural Resources as a " satellite area " of Apple River Canyon State Park . The DNR installed a new steel gate to replace the chain @-@ link fence covering the western bore , and is developing the area with nature trails and other improvements . However , the tunnel is currently off @-@ limits to general public visitation , as it is a very dangerous place to visit , with the ever @-@ present danger of further collapse and rattlesnake bite .
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= Wales national rugby union team =
The Wales national rugby union team ( Welsh : Tîm rygbi 'r undeb cenedlaethol Cymru ) represent Wales in international rugby union . They compete annually in the Six Nations Championship with England , France , Ireland , Italy and Scotland . Wales have won the Six Nations and its predecessors 26 times outright , one less than England . Wales ' most recent championship win came in 2013 .
The governing body , the Welsh Rugby Union ( WRU ) , was established in 1881 , the same year that Wales played their first international against England . Wales ' performances in the Home Nations Championship ( now the Six Nations ) continued to improve , experiencing their first ' golden age ' between 1900 and 1911 . They first played New Zealand , known as the All Blacks , in 1905 , when they defeated them 3 – 0 in a famous match at Cardiff Arms Park . Welsh rugby struggled between the two World Wars , but experienced a second ' golden age ' between 1969 and 1980 when they won eight Five Nations Championships .
Wales played in the inaugural Rugby World Cup in 1987 where they achieved their best ever result of third . Following the sport allowing professionalism in 1995 , Wales hosted the 1999 World Cup and , in 2005 , won their first @-@ ever Six Nations Grand Slam . That was the first Grand Slam won by a team playing most of the matches away from home . Wales won two more Grand Slams in 2008 and in 2012 , and in 2011 came fourth in the Rugby World Cup .
Their home ground is the Millennium Stadium , currently known for sponsorship reasons as Principality Stadium , completed in 1999 to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park . Eight former Welsh players have been inducted into the World Rugby Hall of Fame ; ten were inducted into the International Rugby Hall of Fame prior to its 2014 merger into the World Rugby Hall .
= = History = =
= = = Early years ( 1881 – 1892 ) = = =
Rugby union took root in Wales in 1850 , when Reverend Rowland Williams became Vice @-@ Principal at St David 's College , Lampeter , where he introduced the sport . Wales played their first international on 19 February 1881 ; organised by Newport 's Richard Mullock , Wales played against England , losing by seven goals , one drop goal and six tries to nil ( 8 – 0 ) . On 12 March 1881 , the Welsh Rugby Union was formed at The Castle Hotel , Neath . Two years later , the Home Nation Championship – now the Six Nations Championship – was first played and Wales did not register a win . However , rugby in Wales developed and , by the 1890s , the Welsh had developed the four three @-@ quarters formation . This formation – with seven backs and eight forwards , instead of six backs and nine forwards – revolutionised the sport and was eventually adopted almost universally at international and club level .
= = = First ' golden age ' ( 1893 – 1913 ) = = =
With the " four three @-@ quarter " formation Wales became Home International Champions for the first time in 1893 ; in the process winning the Triple Crown . Wales next won the Championship in 1900 , heralding the first " golden age " of Welsh rugby which was to last until 1911 . They won two more Triple Crowns in 1902 and 1905 , and were runners up in 1901 , 1903 and 1904 .
When Wales faced New Zealand 's All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in late 1905 they had not lost at home since 1899 . This New Zealand team – now referred to as the Original All Blacks – was the first of the southern hemisphere national teams to visit the British Isles , and were undefeated on their tour up until that point ; their victories included prior defeats of England , Ireland and Scotland . Before the match , the All Blacks performed a haka ( a Māori posture dance ) ; the 47 @,@ 000 @-@ strong crowd responded with the Welsh national anthem – Hen Wlad Fy Nhadau ( " Land of Our Fathers " ) – the first time a national anthem had been sung before a sporting fixture . Wales ' wing Teddy Morgan scored a try to give Wales a 3 – 0 lead , but later in the match All Black Bob Deans claimed to have scored a try , only to be dragged behind the try @-@ line before the referee arrived . The referee ruled a scrum to Wales and the score did not change ; Wales winning 3 – 0 . The loss was the All Blacks ' only loss on their 35 @-@ match tour .
In 1906 , Wales again won the Home Championship , and later that year played the South African national side , the Springboks for the first time . Wales were favourites to win the match , but instead South Africa dominated in the forwards and eventually won 11 – 0 . Two years later , on 12 December 1908 , Wales played the touring Australians , the Wallabies , who they defeated 9 – 6 .
In 1909 , Wales won the Home Championship and then , in 1910 – with the inclusion of France – the first @-@ ever Five Nations . In 1911 , Wales took the first Five Nations Grand Slam by winning all their matches in the Five Nations ; France were heavily defeated by Wales at St Helens in 1910 ( 49 – 14 ) and Ivor Morgan scored two tries in the match . It would be nearly forty years before they achieved a Grand Slam again . England 's defeat of Wales at Cardiff in 1913 was Wales ' first home loss to one of the Home Nations since 1899 , and their first home loss to England since 1895 . The Great War came in 1914 and rugby was suspended for the duration .
= = = Post @-@ war years ( 1920 – 1968 ) = = =
The post @-@ First World War years marked a decline in Welsh rugby . An industrial recession struck the principality , and hurt South Wales in particular . Welsh international results in the 1920s mirrored the performance of the economy : of their 42 matches they won only 17 , with three drawn . Half @-@ a @-@ million people emigrated from Wales to find work elsewhere during the depression ; this included many Welsh rugby union internationals who moved to the professional code of rugby league . Between 1923 and 1928 , Wales managed only seven victories – five of them against France . However , even France managed to defeat Wales that decade ; achieving their first victory over Wales in 1928 . Welsh selection policy reflected the upheavals of the mid @-@ 1920s . In 1924 , 35 different players were selected for Wales ' four matches , with a different captain for each ; and only Edward Watkins in the backs and Charlie Pugh in the forwards , playing in all four matches .
A resurgence of both economy and rugby union followed in the 1930s and , in 1931 , Wales won their first championship for nine years . That year , for the first time since the First World War , Wales retained the same side for two consecutive Tests when they faced England and Scotland . Then , in 1933 , captained by Watcyn Thomas , Wales defeated England at Twickenham . In 1935 , Wales beat the touring All Blacks by 13 – 12 , with Haydn Tanner making his first appearance . Although the Five Nations Championship was suspended during the Second World War Wales did play a Red Cross charity match against England at Cardiff in 1940 , which Wales lost 18 – 9 .
Following the Second World War , Wales played a New Zealand Army team ( the Kiwis ) in 1946 , which Wales lost 11 – 3 . The Five Nations ( suspended during the war ) resumed in 1947 when Wales shared the title with England . Although Wales suffered their first home defeat to France in 1948 , they won their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1911 in 1950 . The next year , they lost to the touring South Africans 6 – 3 despite dominating in the line @-@ outs . They achieved another Grand Slam in 1952 , followed by a 13 – 8 win over the All Blacks in 1953 . In 1954 , St Helens in Swansea ( a Welsh international venue since 1882 ) hosted its last international and Cardiff Arms Park officially became the home of the Welsh team . In 1956 , Wales again won the Five Nations , but they did not regain the title until 1964 and did not win it outright until 1965 .
Wales conducted their first overseas tour in 1964 , playing several games and one Test in South Africa . They lost the Test against South Africa in Durban 24 – 3 , their biggest defeat in 40 years . At the WRU annual general meeting that year , the outgoing WRU President D. Ewart Davies declared that " it was evident from the experience of the South African Tour that a much more positive attitude to the game was required in Wales ... Players must be prepared to learn , and indeed re @-@ learn , to the absolute point of mastery , the basic principles of Rugby Union football " . This started the coaching revolution . The WRU Coaching Committee – set up in the late 1950s – was given the task of improving the quality of coaching and , in January 1967 , Ray Williams was appointed Coaching Organiser . The first national coach , David Nash , was appointed in 1967 to coach Wales for the season , but resigned when the WRU refused to allow him to accompany Wales on their 1968 tour of Argentina . Eventually , the WRU reversed their decision , appointing Clive Rowlands to tour as coach . Of the six matches , Wales won three , drew two and lost one .
= = = Second ' golden age ' ( 1969 – 1979 ) = = =
Wales enjoyed a second " golden age " in the 1970s , with world @-@ class players such as Gareth Edwards , J. P. R. Williams , Gerald Davies , Barry John , and Mervyn Davies , in their side . Wales dominated Northern Hemisphere rugby between 1969 and 1979 , and attained an incredible winning record , losing only seven times during that period . Wales toured New Zealand for the first time in 1969 , but were defeated in both Tests . As well as losing the first Test 19 – 0 , and the second 33 – 12 , they also conceded 24 points to the All Blacks ' fullback Fergie McCormick in the second Test ; a record at the time .
In 1970 , Wales shared the Five Nations with France , and recorded a 6 – 6 draw against South Africa in Cardiff . The following year Wales recorded their first Five Nations Grand Slam since 1952 . Using only 16 players in four games , the 1971 side achieved their most notable win of the tournament in their victory over Scotland ; after a last minute try by Gerald Davies that reduced Scotland 's lead to 18 – 17 , flanker John Taylor kicked a conversion from the sideline described as " the greatest conversion since St Paul " to give Wales a 19 – 18 win . Wales contributed more players than any other team to the British and Irish Lions that toured New Zealand that year . Those Lions became the only to win a series over the All Blacks .
In the 1972 Five Nations Championship , Wales and Scotland refused to travel to Ireland at the height of the Troubles after receiving threats , purportedly from the Irish Republican Army . The Championship remained unresolved with Wales and Ireland unbeaten . Although the Five Nations was a five way tie in 1973 , the Welsh did defeat Australia 24 – 0 in Cardiff .
Wales next won the Five Nations outright in 1975 , and in 1976 , Wales won their second Grand slam of the decade . Just like the first in 1971 , they only used 16 players over their four matches . They repeated the feat in 1978 and , in the process , became the first team to win three consecutive Triple Crowns . Following their final Five Nations match of 1978 , both Phil Bennett and Gareth Edwards retired from rugby .
Wales hosted the All Blacks at Cardiff Arms Park in November 1979 , losing 13 – 12 after a late penalty goal by the replacement All Black fullback , Brian McKechnie . The penalty was controversial because All Black lock Andy Haden had dived out of a line @-@ out in an attempt to earn a penalty . Haden later admitted that he and Frank Oliver had pre @-@ agreed this tactic should the All Blacks find themselves in difficulties . Referee Roger Quittenton was roasted by the press for failing to notice the dive , but he later stated he had the penalty was in for Welsh lock Geoff Wheel for jumping off the shoulder of Frank Oliver . Quittenton later said , " Haden 's perception is that his dive secured the penalty . That is a load of rubbish " . The All Blacks went on to secure their first Home Nations Grand Slam . Wales then went on to win the 1979 Five Nations with a Triple Crown .
= = = Barren years ( 1980 – 2003 ) = = =
In 1980 , the WRU 's centenary year , Wales lost to the All Blacks in Cardiff by 23 – 3 after the All Blacks scored four tries to nil . Wales won two matches in each Five Nations of 1980 and 1981 , and in 1983 were nearly upset by Japan ; winning 29 – 24 at Cardiff . In 1984 , Australia defeated Wales 28 – 9 at Cardiff Arms Park and in the process scored a push @-@ over try . Australia went on to win their first Home Nations Grand Slam .
Wales achieved only one win in 1987 's Five Nations before contesting the inaugural Rugby World Cup . Wales defeated Ireland in their crucial pool fixture , before defeating England in the quarter @-@ finals . They then faced hosts the All Blacks who won 49 – 6 , but beat Australia in the third place play @-@ off game to claim third . The next year Wales won the Triple Crown for the first time since 1979 , but heavy defeats on tour to New Zealand later that year saw the end of a number of Welsh players ' careers , as several converted to rugby league .
Welsh rugby reached a nadir when Wales suffered their first Five Nations championship whitewash ; they had upset England in 1989 to avoid losing all their Championship matches that season , but in 1990 Wales were defeated in all four Five Nations ' matches for the first time . The 1991 World Cup saw further frustration when Wales were upset by Manu Samoa in their opening match . A second group @-@ stage loss , by 38 – 3 to Australia , eliminated Wales from the tournament .
After winning two Five Nations games in 1992 , and one in 1993 , Wales won the Championship in 1994 on points difference . But without defeating one of Australia , New Zealand , or South Africa , during the inter @-@ World Cup period , Wales was not considered a major tournament contender . At the 1995 World Cup , after comprehensively beating Japan , Wales lost to New Zealand ; this meant that they needed to defeat Ireland to qualify for the quarter @-@ finals . Wales lost 24 – 23 and so failed to progress beyond the pool stage for the second time , and later that year Kevin Bowring replaced Alex Evans to become Wales ' first full @-@ time coach .
Record defeats , 51 – 0 to France , and 96 – 13 to South Africa , prompted the WRU to appoint New Zealander Graham Henry as coach in 1998 . Henry had early success as coach , leading Wales to a ten @-@ match winning streak ; this included Wales ' first ever victory over South Africa , by 29 – 19 . Henry was consequently nicknamed " the great redeemer " by the Welsh media and fans . Hosting the 1999 World Cup , Wales qualified for the quarter @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 , but lost 9 – 24 to eventual champions Australia . A lack of success in the Five and Six Nations ( Italy joined the tournament in 2000 ) , and especially a number of heavy losses to Ireland , led to Henry 's resignation in February 2002 ; his assistant Steve Hansen took over .
During Hansen 's tenure , the WRU implemented a significant change in the structure of the game domestically . Regional teams were introduced as a tier above the traditional club @-@ based structures in 2003 , and the five ( then four ) regional sides became the top level of domestic professional rugby in the principality . At the 2003 World Cup , Wales scored four tries in their 53 – 37 loss to New Zealand , and also lost to the eventual tournament winners , England , in their quarter @-@ final , despite outscoring them by three tries to one .
= = = Revival ( 2004 – present ) = = =
Coached by Mike Ruddock , Wales won their first Grand Slam since 1978 and their first ever Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . A late long range penalty from Gavin Henson gave them a victory over England at Cardiff for the first time in 12 years , and after victories over Italy , France , Scotland , they faced Ireland in front of a capacity crowd at the Millennium Stadium where Wales ' 32 – 20 victory gave them their first Championship since 1994 . Later that year they suffered a record home loss , 41 – 3 to New Zealand .
Mike Ruddock resigned as the head coach of Wales mid @-@ way through the 2006 Six Nations , where Wales finished fifth , and Gareth Jenkins was eventually appointed as his replacement . Jenkins led Wales through the 2007 World Cup , where they failed to advance beyond the pool stage following a loss to Fiji . Jenkins subsequently lost his job , and Warren Gatland , a New Zealander , was appointed as his successor .
Wales faced England at Twickenham for Gatland 's inaugural match as coach and their first match of the 2008 Six Nations . They had not defeated England there since 1988 , and went on to win 26 – 19 . They eventually won all their Championship matches , conceding only two tries in the process , to claim another Grand Slam . Later that year Wales defeated Australia 21 – 18 in Cardiff , but then started a six @-@ year , twenty @-@ three @-@ game win @-@ less streak against the southern hemisphere nations of Australia , New Zealand and South Africa .
At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the tournament semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 where they lost 9 – 8 to France after a red card for captain Sam Warburton . The two teams met again in March 2012 , where Wales needed a win to claim their third Six Nations Grand Slam in eight years , which they did with a 16 – 9 victory . This was followed immediately by an eight @-@ match losing streak , which was eventually broken during the 2013 Six Nations , where Wales retained the Championship for the first time since 1979 wins . Wales reached the quarter @-@ finals of the 2015 World Cup at the expense of hosts England , then lost 23 – 19 to South Africa .
= = Strip = =
Wales play in red jerseys , white shorts and red socks . For the 2015 – 16 season , the design of the Jersey incorporated gold for the first time . The jerseys are embroidered with the Prince of Wales 's feathers , which were chosen in the 19th century by the WRU over another Welsh symbol , the leek , to demonstrate the nation 's loyalty to Britain . In 1991 , to enable the device to be trademarked , the original generic motif was replaced with a more stylised version . The original motto beneath the feathers was Ich dien ( German for " I serve " ) but was replaced with " WRU " in the new version .
Wales change strip – also known as the alternative strip – is black jerseys , shorts and socks. although there have been various different coloured strips in the past Former change strips worn by Wales have included a green , navy , white or grey jersey . Wales previously wore black jerseys as part of celebrations for the WRU 's 125th anniversary in 2005 . The jersey was worn against Fiji and then Australia that year ; the Australia match was the first time Wales had not played in their red jersey against one of their traditional rivals . Since the 2008 end @-@ of @-@ year Tests , the strip is made by Under Armour . They replaced Reebok who supplied the Wales strip between late 1996 and the 2008 mid @-@ year @-@ Tests . The shirt sponsor is Cardiff based Insurance firm , Admiral .
= = Support = =
Rugby union and Wales ' national team hold an important place in Welsh culture and society . Sport historian John Bale has stated that " rugby is characteristically Welsh " , and David Andrew said that " To the popular consciousness , rugby is as Welsh as coal mining , male voice choirs , How Green Was My Valley , Dylan Thomas , and Tom Jones " . Welsh rugby 's first ' golden age ' ( 1900 – 1911 ) coincided with the country 's zenith during the 20th century , and rugby was important in building Wales ' modern identity . There is a long tradition of Welsh supporters singing before and during matches . The choral tradition developed in Wales during the nineteenth @-@ century alongside the rise of nonconformity , and has extended to singing at rugby matches . Commonly sung songs include the hymn Bread of Heaven , Tom Jones ' Delilah , and Max Boyce 's Hymns and Arias .
= = Grounds = =
Wales ' first home international was played at St Helen 's ground , Swansea in 1882 . In the 1880s and 1890s , home Welsh internationals were played at Cardiff , Swansea , Newport and Llanelli . Swansea continued to be used as an international venue until 1954 , when Cardiff Arms Park became Wales ' primary home venue . Cardiff Arms Park first had a stand erected in 1881 , and continued to expand its seating that decade . Crowds continued to grow and in 1902 in Wales ' match against Scotland a world record 40 @,@ 000 spectators paid to see the match . In 1911 , the owners of the Arms Park , the Marquess of Bute 's family , confirmed Wales ' tenure and the 1920s and 1930s , Wales gradually gained increasing control . A new stand was built at the park in the 1933 – 34 season , which increased the grounds capacity to 56 @,@ 000 .
By 1958 , the WRU had concluded that a new national ground was needed due to flooding that often plagued Arms Park . After debate and disputes between the WRU and various other parties , including Cardiff RFC , in the 1960s , it was decided that a new national stadium would be built with a new ground for the Cardiff club backing onto it . The National Stadium , as it was known , was officially opened in 1970 .
Currently , Wales play all their home matches at the 74 @,@ 500 capacity Millennium Stadium , Cardiff , which is also Wales ' national stadium . The Millennium Stadium was first conceived in 1994 , when a group redevelopment committee was set up . It was decided to replace the National Stadium at Cardiff Arms Park after a review found it was out of date ; new legislation also required stadia to be all seated . Construction began in September 1997 , and was completed by June 1999 , in time for the Rugby World Cup . The construction cost the WRU £ 126 million , which was funded by private investment , £ 46 million of public funds from the National Lottery , the sale of debentures to supporters ( which offered guaranteed tickets in exchange for an interest @-@ free loan ) , and loans . While the new ground was being built , Wales used the old Wembley Stadium for their home matches – a deal reciprocated during construction of the new Wembley , when FA Cup finals were held at the Millennium Stadium .
= = Record = =
= = = Six Nations = = =
Wales compete annually in the Six Nations Championship , which is played against five other European nations : England , France , Ireland , Italy , and Scotland . The Six Nations started as the Home Nations Championship in 1883 , as a contest between the four component nations of the United Kingdom . Wales first won it in 1893 , when they achieved a Triple Crown . Wales have won the tournament outright 26 times , and shared eleven other victories . Their longest wait between championships was 11 years ( 1994 – 2005 ) . Wales first won a Grand Slam in 1908 – although France did not officially join the Five Nations until 1910 – and their first Six Nations Grand Slam in 2005 . Their latest Grand Slam was won against France on 17 March 2012 , and they claimed their most recent Triple Crown on 25 February 2012 against England .
= = = World Cup = = =
Wales have contested every Rugby World Cup since the inaugural tournament in 1987 . The 1987 tournament was Wales ' most successful ; they won all three pool matches and their quarter @-@ final , before losing to the All Blacks in the semi @-@ finals . They then faced Australia in the third place play @-@ off match , which they won 22 – 21 . In the next two tournaments in 1991 and 1995 , Wales failed to progress beyond the pool stage , winning just one match in each tournament . Both the 1999 and 2003 tournaments were more successful , with Wales qualifying for the quarter @-@ finals both times . Wales hosted the event in 1999 and topped their pool only to lose to eventual winners Australia in the quarter @-@ finals . In 2003 , they finished second in their pool behind the All Blacks , and faced England in their quarter @-@ final . They lost to England , the eventual champions , 28 – 17 . Wales conceded 17 penalties , and their lack of discipline proved costly . In the 2007 World Cup , Wales again failed to progress from the pool stage . After a loss to Australia , and two wins against Japan and Canada , they faced Fiji for a place in the quarter @-@ finals . The game started poorly for Wales who were behind 25 – 3 at half @-@ time . They fought back to lead by three points with six minutes remaining , but Fiji then scored a try to win 38 – 34 and eliminated Wales from the tournament . At the 2011 World Cup , Wales reached the semi @-@ finals for the first time since 1987 . Playing the semi @-@ finals against France , Wales lost 9 – 8 , in a game overshadowed by the 18th @-@ minute sending off of Wales ' captain Sam Warburton for a dangerous tackle against Vincent Clerc .
= = = Overall = = =
When the World Rugby Rankings were introduced in October 2003 , Wales were ranked 8th . They rose to 7th in June 2004 , before falling back to 8th in November that year . Following a Grand Slam win in the 2005 Six Nations , they rose to a ranking position of 5th . They fell to 9th by June 2006 , and , after rising back to 8th by September , fell to 10th after the 2007 World Cup . A second Six Nations ' Grand Slam in 2008 propelled them to 6th in the rankings , but following losses to South Africa in the mid @-@ year and end @-@ of @-@ year internationals Wales slipped to 7th . Wales climbed to 4th after a win over Scotland in their first match of the 2009 Six Nations . They slumped to 9th in 2010 but rose back to 4th after their fourth place in the 2011 World Cup . Since then – notwithstanding a nine @-@ game slump in 2012 – 13 where they fell to 9th – Wales have ranked consistently in the top six teams . They reached their highest ranking of 2nd during the 2015 Rugby World Cup .
Wales have won 355 of their 690 Test matches for a 51 @.@ 45 % winning record . Their biggest Test defeat was 96 – 13 loss to South Africa in 1998 , and their largest victory a 98 – 0 defeat of Japan in 2004 . Their record for most tries in a match is 16 , scored against Portugal in 1994 – they also scored 102 points in this match , more than in any other Test . Wales ' record for consecutive Test wins is eleven , and for consecutive losses is ten .
Below is table summary of Wales Test matches up until 25 June 2016 .
= = Players = =
= = = Current squad = = =
On 10 May , Warren Gatland named a 35 @-@ man squad for their June 3 @-@ test series against New Zealand , pre @-@ tour test against England and the mid week match against the Chiefs .
On 29 May , after injury to Dan Lydiate in the England warm @-@ up match , Ellis Jenkins was called up to the squad to replace Lydiate .
On 7 June , Aaron Jarvis was called up to the squad as injury cover for Paul James . Jarvis later became a permanent replacement after James failed to recover form his injury .
On 11 June , Aled Davies joined the squad as an injury replacement for Lloyd Williams .
Following the first test , Keelan Giles and Rhys Patchell were called up to the squad as injury cover .
‡ – Denotes dual contracted players .
Caps and clubs updated 25 June 2016
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= Anekantavada =
Anekāntavāda ( Sanskrit : अनेकान ् तवाद , " many @-@ sidedness " ) refers to the principles of pluralism and multiplicity of viewpoints , or vantage points , the notion that reality is perceived differently from diverse points of view , and that no single point of view is the complete truth , yet taken together they comprise the complete truth . It is one of the most important and fundamental doctrines of Jainism .
Jains contrast all attempts to proclaim the sole monopoly on truth with andhagajanyāyah , which can be illustrated through the parable of the " blind men and an elephant " . In this story , each blind man felt a different part of an elephant ( trunk , leg , ear , etc . ) . All the men claimed to understand and explain the true appearance of the elephant , but could only partly succeed , due to their limited perspectives . This principle is more formally stated by observing that objects are infinite in their qualities and modes of existence , so they cannot be completely grasped in all aspects and manifestations by finite human perception . ( This is the Absolute Truth . ) According to the Jains , only the Kevalis — omniscient beings — can comprehend objects in all aspects and manifestations ; others are only capable of partial knowledge . Consequently , no single , specific , human view can claim to represent absolute truth .
The origins of anekāntavāda can be traced back to the teachings of Mahāvīra ( 599 – 527 BCE ) , the 24th Jain Tīrthankara . The dialectical concepts of syādvāda " conditioned viewpoints " and nayavāda " partial viewpoints " arose from anekāntavāda , providing it with more detailed logical structure and expression . The Sanskrit compound an @-@ eka @-@ anta @-@ vāda literally means " doctrine of uncertainty " ( an- " not " , ekānta " certainty " or " single @-@ natured " , vāda ( " school of thought " or " thesis " ) ; it is roughly translated into English as " non @-@ absolutism " . An @-@ ekānta " uncertainty , non @-@ exclusivity " is the opposite of ekānta ( eka + anta ) " exclusiveness , absoluteness , necessity " ( or also " monotheistic doctrine " ) .
Anekāntavāda encourages its adherents to consider the views and beliefs of their rivals and opposing parties . Proponents of anekāntavāda apply this principle to religion and philosophy , reminding themselves that any religion or philosophy — even Jainism — which clings too dogmatically to its own tenets , is committing an error based on its limited point of view . The principle of anekāntavāda also influenced Mahatma Gandhi to adopt principles of religious tolerance , ahiṃsā and satyagraha .
= = Philosophical overview = =
The etymological root of anekāntavāda lies in the compound of two Sanskrit words : anekānta ( " manifoldness " ) and vāda ( " school of thought " ) . The word anekānta is a compound of the Sanskrit negative prefix an , eka ( " one " ) , and anta ( " attribute " ) . Hence , anekānta means " not of solitary attribute " .
The Jain doctrine lays a strong emphasis on samyaktva , that is , rationality and logic . According to Jains , the ultimate principle should always be logical and no principle can be devoid of logic or reason . Thus , the Jain texts contain deliberative exhortations on every subject , whether they are constructive or obstructive , inferential or analytical , enlightening or destructive .
= = = Jain doctrines of relativity = = =
Anekāntavāda is one of the three Jain doctrines of relativity used for logic and reasoning . The other two are :
syādvāda — the theory of conditioned predication and ;
nayavāda — the theory of partial standpoints .
These Jain philosophical concepts made important contributions to ancient Indian philosophy , especially in the areas of skepticism and relativity .
= = = = Syādvāda = = = =
Syādvāda ( Sanskrit : स ् याद ् वाद ) is the theory of conditioned predication , which provides an expression to anekānta by recommending that every phrase or statement be expressed in the optative mood ( the equivalent of the subjunctive mood in Latin and other Indo @-@ European languages ) , i.e. generally by prefacing each sentence with the verb syāt , the third person singular optative of the Sanskrit verb as , " to be " . ( In Sanskrit , syāt becomes syān when followed by an " n " , and syād when followed by a non @-@ nasal voiced consonant or vowel . ) According to Jain texts , a thing or object of knowledge has infinite characters ( i.e. , it is anekāntātmaka ) ; each character can be analysed and grasped individually . Each individual character is called a naya . Jains asserts that a naya reveals only a part of the totality , and should not be mistaken for the whole . A synthesis of different viewpoints is said to be achieved by the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) wherein every viewpoint is able to retain its relative importance . Highlighting the indispensability of syādvāda , Acharya Samantabhadra asserts :
Affirmation , when not in conflict with negation , yields the desired result of describing truly an object of knowledge . Only when affirmation and negation are juxtaposed in mutually non @-@ conflicting situation , one is able to decide whether to accept or reject the assertion . This is how the doctrine of conditional predications ( syādvāda ) establishes the truth . ”
Syādvāda is not only an extension of anekānta ontology , but a separate system of logic capable of standing on its own . As reality is complex , no single proposition can express the nature of reality fully . Thus " syāt " should be prefixed before each proposition giving it a conditional point of view and thus removing any dogmatism in the statement . Since it ensures that each statement is expressed from seven different conditional and relative viewpoints or propositions , syādvāda is known as saptibhaṅgīnāya or " the theory of seven conditioned predications " . These saptibhaṅgī are :
syād @-@ asti — in some ways , it is ,
syān @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is not ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti — in some ways , it is , and it is not ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , and it is indescribable ,
syān @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is not , and it is indescribable ,
syād @-@ asti @-@ nāsti @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is , it is not , and it is indescribable ,
syād @-@ avaktavyaḥ — in some ways , it is indescribable .
Each of these seven propositions examines the complex and multifaceted nature of reality from a relative point of view of time , space , substance and mode . To ignore the complexity of reality is to commit the fallacy of dogmatism .
The phrase ‘ in a way ’ ( syāt ) declares the standpoint of expression – affirmation with regard to own substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) , and negation with regard to other substance ( dravya ) , place ( kṣetra ) , time ( kāla ) , and being ( bhāva ) . Thus , for a ‘ jar ’ , in regard to substance ( dravya ) – earthen , it simply is ; wooden , it simply is not . In regard to place ( kṣetra ) – room , it simply is ; terrace , it simply is not . In regard to time ( kāla ) – summer , it simply is ; winter , it simply is not . In regard to being ( bhāva ) – brown , it simply is ; white , it simply is not . And the word ‘ simply ’ has been inserted for the purpose of excluding a sense not approved by the ‘ nuance ’ ; for avoidance of a meaning not intended . The phrase ‘ in a way ’ is used to declare that the ‘ jar ’ exists in regard to its own substance etc. and not also in regard to other substance etc .
According to the Jains , Syādvāda and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) are the foundational facts of knowledge . In this regard , Āchārya Samantabhadra writes :
Syādvāda , the doctrine of conditional predications , and kevalajñāna ( omniscience ) , are both illuminators of the substances of reality . The difference between the two is that while kevalajñāna illumines directly , syādvāda illumines indirectly . Anything which is not illuminated or expressed by the two is not a substance of reality and hence a non @-@ substance ( avastu ) .
= = = = Nayavāda = = = =
Nayavāda is the theory of partial standpoints or viewpoints . Nayavāda is a compound of two Sanskrit words — naya ( " reason " or " method " ) and vāda ( " school of thought or thesis " ) . It is used to arrive at a certain inference from a point of view . An object has infinite aspects to it , but when we describe an object in practice , we speak of only relevant aspects and ignore irrelevant ones . This does not deny the other attributes , qualities , modes and other aspects ; they are just irrelevant from a particular perspective . Authors like Natubhai Shah explain nayavāda with the example of a car ; for instance , when we talk of a " blue BMW " we are simply considering the color and make of the car . However , our statement does not imply that the car is devoid of other attributes like engine type , cylinders , speed , price and the like . This particular viewpoint is called a naya or a partial viewpoint . As a type of critical philosophy , nayavāda holds that all philosophical disputes arise out of confusion of standpoints , and the standpoints we adopt are , although we may not realise it , " the outcome of purposes that we may pursue " . While operating within the limits of language and seeing the complex nature of reality , Mahāvīra used the language of nayas . Naya , being a partial expression of truth , enables us to comprehend reality part by part .
= = = Syncretisation of changing and unchanging reality = = =
The age of Mahāvīra and Buddha was one of intense intellectual debates , especially on the nature of reality and self . Upanishadic thought postulated the absolute unchanging reality of Brahman and Ātman and claimed that change was mere illusion . The theory advanced by Buddhists denied the reality of permanence of conditioned phenomena , asserting only interdependence and impermanence . According to the vedāntin ( Upanishadic ) conceptual scheme , the Buddhists were wrong in denying permanence and absolutism , and within the Buddhist conceptual scheme , the vedāntins were wrong in denying the reality of impermanence . The two positions were contradictory and mutually exclusive from each other 's point of view . The Jains managed a synthesis of the two uncompromising positions with anekāntavāda . From the perspective of a higher , inclusive level made possible by the ontology and epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda , Jains do not see such claims as contradictory or mutually exclusive ; instead , they are seen as ekantika or only partially true . The Jain breadth of vision embraces the perspectives of both Vedānta which , according to Jainism , " recognises substances but not process " , and Buddhism , which " recognises process but not substance " . Jainism , on the other hand , pays equal attention to both substance ( dravya ) and process ( paryaya ) .
This philosophical syncretisation of paradox of change through anekānta has been acknowledged by modern scholars such as Arvind Sharma , who wrote :
Our experience of the world presents a profound paradox which we can ignore existentially , but not philosophically . This paradox is the paradox of change . Something – A changes and therefore it cannot be permanent . On the other hand , if A is not permanent , then what changes ? In this debate between the " permanence " and " change " , Hinduism seems more inclined to grasp the first horn of the dilemma and Buddhism the second . It is Jainism that has the philosophical courage to grasp both horns fearlessly and simultaneously , and the philosophical skill not to be gored by either .
However , anekāntavāda is not simply about syncretisation or compromise between competing ideas , as it is cooperatively about finding the hidden elements of shared truth between such ideas ( such as naturalism — relative to pantheism and sanctuary — although its basis in simplicity may be described with the scientific principle of Occam 's razor — whereas science is likewise paradoxical in nature — relative to nonviolence ) . Anekāntavāda is not about denying the truth ; rather truth is acknowledged as an ultimate spiritual goal . For ordinary humans , it is an elusive goal , but they are still obliged to work towards its attainment . Anekāntavāda also does not mean compromising or diluting ones own values and principles . On the contrary , it allows us to understand and be tolerant of conflicting and opposing views , while respectfully maintaining the validity of ones own view @-@ point . Hence , John Koller calls anekāntavāda as – " epistemological respect for view of others " . Anekāntavāda , thus , did not prevent the Jain thinkers from defending the truth and validity of their own doctrine while simultaneously respecting and understanding the rival doctrines . Anne Vallely notes that the epistemological respect for other viewpoints was put to practice when she was invited by Ācārya Tulsi , the head of the Terāpanthī order , to teach sadhvis the tenets of Christianity . Commenting on their adherence to ahiṃsā and anekāntavāda , she says :
The Jain samaṇīs of Ladnun uncompromisingly maintain ahiṃsā to be an eternal and unchangeable moral law . Other views and beliefs that contradict this belief would certainly be challenged , and ultimately rejected . But what is significant , is that both the rejection and retention of views is tempered by the belief that our perception conveys only a partial reality , that reality itself is manifold , and that to assume one particular viewpoint is final , is to hold a limited picture of reality .
Anekāntavāda is also different from moral relativism . It does not mean conceding that all arguments and all views are equal , but rather logic and evidence determine which views are true , in what respect and to what extent ( as truth in relativism , itself ) . While employing anekāntavāda , the 17th century philosopher monk , Yaśovijaya Gaṇi also cautions against anābhigrahika ( indiscriminate attachment to all views as being true ) , which is effectively a kind of misconceived relativism . Jains thus consider anekāntavāda as a positive concept corresponding to religious pluralism that transcends monism and dualism , implying a sophisticated conception of a complex reality . It does not merely involve rejection of partisanship , but reflects a positive spirit of reconciliation of opposite views . However , it is argued that pluralism often degenerates to some form of moral relativism or religious exclusivism . According to Anne Vallely , anekānta is a way out of this epistemological quagmire , as it makes a genuinely pluralistic view possible without lapsing into extreme moral relativism or exclusivity .
= = = Parable of the blind men and elephant = = =
The ancient Jain texts often explain the concepts of anekāntvāda and syādvāda with the parable of the blind men and an elephant ( Andhgajanyāyah ) , which addresses the manifold nature of truth .
A group of blind men heard that a strange animal , called an elephant , had been brought to the town , but none of them were aware of its shape and form . Out of curiosity , they said : " We must inspect and know it by touch , of which we are capable " . So , they sought it out , and when they found it they groped about it . In the case of the first person , whose hand landed on the trunk , said " This being is like a drain pipe " . For another one whose hand reached its ear , it seemed like a kind of fan . As for another person , whose hand was upon its leg , said , " I perceive the shape of the elephant to be like a pillar " . And in the case of the one who placed his hand upon its back said , " Indeed , this elephant is like a throne " . Now , each of these presented a true aspect when he related what he had gained from experiencing the elephant . None of them had strayed from the true description of the elephant . Yet they fell short of fathoming the true appearance of the elephant .
Two of the many references to this parable are found in Tattvarthaslokavatika of Vidyanandi ( 9th century ) and Syādvādamanjari of Ācārya Mallisena ( 13th century ) . Mallisena uses the parable to argue that immature people deny various aspects of truth ; deluded by the aspects they do understand , they deny the aspects they don 't understand . " Due to extreme delusion produced on account of a partial viewpoint , the immature deny one aspect and try to establish another . This is the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . " Mallisena also cites the parable when noting the importance of considering all viewpoints in obtaining a full picture of reality . " It is impossible to properly understand an entity consisting of infinite properties without the method of modal description consisting of all viewpoints , since it will otherwise lead to a situation of seizing mere sprouts ( i.e. , a superficial , inadequate cognition ) , on the maxim of the blind ( men ) and the elephant . "
= = History and development = =
The principle of anekāntavāda is the foundation of many Jain philosophical concepts . The development of anekāntavāda also encouraged the development of the dialectics of syādvāda ( conditioned viewpoints ) , saptibhaṅgī ( the seven conditioned predication ) , and nayavāda ( partial viewpoints ) .
= = = Origins = = =
The origins of anekāntavāda lie in the teachings of Mahāvīra , who used it effectively to show the relativity of truth and reality . Taking a relativistic viewpoint , Mahāvīra is said to have explained the nature of the soul as both permanent , from the point of view of underlying substance , and temporary , from the point of view of its modes and modification . The importance and antiquity of anekāntavāda are also demonstrated by the fact that it formed the subject matter of Astinasti Pravāda , the fourth part of the lost Purva that contained teachings of the Tīrthaṇkaras prior to Mahāvīra . German Indologist Hermann Jacobi believes Mahāvīra effectively employed the dialectics of anekāntavāda to refute the agnosticism of Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Sutrakritanga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , contains the first references to syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . According to Sūtrakritanga , Mahāvīra advised his disciples to use syādvāda to preach his teachings :
A monk living single should not ridicule heretical doctrines , and should avoid hard words though they be true ; he should not be vain , nor brag , but he should without embarrassment and passion preach the Law . A monk should be modest , though he be of a fearless mind ; he should expound the syādvāda , he should use the two permitted kinds of speech , living among virtuous men , impartial and wise .
= = = Early history = = =
The early Jain canons and teachings contained multitudes of references to anekāntavāda and syādvāda in rudimentary form without giving it proper structure or establishing it as a separate doctrine . Śvētāmbara text , Sutrakritanga contains references to Vibhagyavāda , which , according to Hermann Jacobi , is the same as syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī . Bhagvatisūtra mentions only three primary predications of the saptibhaṅgīnaya . After Mahāvīra , Kundakunda ( 1st century CE ) was the first author – saint to expound on the doctrine of syādvāda and saptibhaṅgī and give it a proper structure in his famous works Pravacanasāra and Pancastikayasāra . Kundakunda also used nayas to discuss the essence of the self in Samayasāra . Proper classification of the nayas was provided by the philosopher monk , Umāsvāti ( 2nd century CE ) in Tattvārthasūtra . Samantabhadra ( 2nd century CE ) and Siddhasena Divākara ( 3rd century CE ) further fine @-@ tuned Jain epistemology and logic by expounding on the concepts of anekāntavāda in proper form and structure .
Ācārya Siddhasena Divākara expounded on the nature of truth in the court of King Vikramāditya :
Vikramāditya : What is ' truth ' ? That which is said repeatedly , that which is said loudly , that which is said with authority or that which is agreed by the majority ?
Divākara : None of the above . Every one has his own definition of ' truth ' and that it is conditional .
Vikramāditya : How about traditions ? They have been established by our ancestors and have passed the test of time ?
Divākara : Would the system established by ancestors hold true on examination ? In case it does not , I am not here to justify it for the sake of saving the traditional grace of the dead , irrespective of the wrath I may have to face .
In Sanmatitarka , Divākara further adds : " All doctrines are right in their own respective spheres — but if they encroach upon the province of other doctrines and try to refute their view , they are wrong . A man who holds the view of the cumulative character of truth never says that a particular view is right or that a particular view is wrong . "
= = = Age of logic = = =
The period beginning with the start of common era , up to the modern period is often referred to as the age of logic in the history of Jain philosophy . By the time of Akalanka ( 5th century CE ) , whose works are a landmark in Jain logic , anekāntavāda was firmly entrenched in Jain texts , as is evident from the various teachings of the Jain scriptures .
Ācārya Haribhadra ( 8th century CE ) was one of the leading proponents of anekāntavāda . He was the first classical author to write a doxography , a compendium of a variety of intellectual views . This attempted to contextualise Jain thoughts within the broad framework , rather than espouse narrow partisan views . It interacted with the many possible intellectual orientations available to Indian thinkers around the 8th century .
Ācārya Amrtacandra starts his famous 10th century CE work Purusathasiddhiupaya with strong praise for anekāntavāda : " I bow down to the principle of anekānta , the source and foundation of the highest scriptures , the dispeller of wrong one @-@ sided notions , that which takes into account all aspects of truth , reconciling diverse and even contradictory traits of all objects or entity . "
Ācārya Vidyānandi ( 11th century CE ) provides the analogy of the ocean to explain the nature of truth in Tattvarthaslokavārtikka , 116 : " Water from the ocean contained in a pot can neither be called an ocean nor a non @-@ ocean , but simply a part of ocean . Similarly , a doctrine , though arising from absolute truth can neither be called a whole truth nor a non @-@ truth . "
Yaśovijaya Gaṇi , a 17th @-@ century Jain monk , went beyond anekāntavāda by advocating madhāyastha , meaning " standing in the middle " or " equidistance " . This position allowed him to praise qualities in others even though the people were non @-@ Jain and belonged to other faiths . There was a period of stagnation after Yasovijayaji , as there were no new contributions to the development of Jain philosophy .
= = = Role in ensuring the survival of Jainism = = =
Anekāntavāda played a pivotal role in the growth as well as the survival of Jainism in ancient India , especially against onslaughts from Śaivas , Vaiṣṇavas , Buddhists , Muslims , and Christians at various times . According to Hermann Jacobi , Mahāvīra used such concepts as syādvāda and saptbhangi to silence some of his opponents . The discussions of the agnostics led by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta had probably influenced many of their contemporaries and consequently syādvāda may have seemed to them a way out of ajñānavāda . Jacobi further speculates that many of their followers would have gone over to Mahāvīra 's creed , convinced of the truth of the saptbhanginaya . According to Professor Christopher Key Chapple , anekāntavāda allowed Jains to survive during the most hostile and unfavourable moments in history . According to John Koller , professor of Asian studies , anekāntavāda allowed Jain thinkers to maintain the validity of their doctrine , while at the same time respectfully criticizing the views of their opponents .
Anekāntavāda was often used by Jain monks to obtain royal patronage from Hindu Kings . Ācārya Hemacandra used anekāntavāda to gain the confidence and respect of the Cālukya Emperor Jayasimha Siddharaja . According to the Jain text Prabandhacantamani , Emperor Siddharaja desired enlightenment and liberation and he questioned teachers from various traditions . He remained in a quandary when he discovered that they all promoted their own teachings while disparaging other teachings . Among the teachers he questioned was Hemacandra , who , rather than promote Jainism , told him a story with a different message . According to his story , a sick man was cured of his disease after eating all the herbs available , as he was not aware which herb was medicinal . The moral of the tale , according to Hemacandra , was that just as the man was restored by the herb , even though no one knew which particular herb did the trick , so in the kaliyuga ( " age of vice " ) the wise should obtain salvation by supporting all religious traditions , even though no @-@ one can say with absolute certainty which tradition it is that provides that salvation .
= = Influence = =
Jain religious tolerance fits well with the ecumenical disposition typical of Indian religions . It can be traced to the analogous Jain principles of anekāntavāda and ahiṃsā . The epistemology of anekāntavāda and syādvāda also had a profound impact on the development of ancient Indian logic and philosophy . In recent times , Jainism influenced Gandhi , who advocated ahiṃsā and satyagraha .
= = = Intellectual ahimsā and religious tolerance = = =
The concepts of anekāntavāda and syādvāda allow Jains to accept the truth in other philosophies from their own perspective and thus inculcate tolerance for other viewpoints . Anekāntavāda is non @-@ absolutist and stands firmly against all dogmatisms , including any assertion that Jainism is the only correct religious path . It is thus an intellectual ahiṃsā , or ahiṃsā of the mind . Burch writes , " Jain logic is intellectual ahiṃsā . Just as a right @-@ acting person respects the life of all beings , so a right @-@ thinking person acknowledges the validity of all judgments . This means recognizing all aspects of reality , not merely one or some aspects , as is done in non @-@ Jain philosophies . "
Mahāvīra encouraged his followers to study and understand rival traditions in his Acaranga Sutra : " Comprehend one philosophical view through the comprehensive study of another one . "
In anekāntavāda , there is no " battle of ideas " , because this is considered to be a form of intellectual himsa or violence , leading quite logically to physical violence and war . In today 's world , the limitations of the adversarial , " either with us or against us " form of argument are increasingly apparent by the fact that the argument leads to political , religious and social conflicts . Sūtrakrtānga , the second oldest canon of Jainism , provides a solution by stating : " Those who praise their own doctrines and ideology and disparage the doctrine of others distort the truth and will be confined to the cycle of birth and death . "
This ecumenical and irenical attitude , engendered by anekāntavāda , allowed modern Jain monks such as Vijayadharmasuri to declare : " I am neither a Jain nor a Buddhist , a Vaisnava nor a Saivite , a Hindu nor a Muslim , but a traveler on the path of peace shown by the supreme soul , the God who is free from passion . "
= = = = Contemporary role and influence = = = =
Some modern authors believe that Jain philosophy in general and anekāntavāda in particular can provide a solution to many problems facing the world . They claim that even the mounting ecological crisis is linked to adversarialism , because it arises from a false division between humanity and " the rest " of nature . Modern judicial systems , democracy , freedom of speech , and secularism all implicitly reflect an attitude of anekāntavāda . Many authors , such as Kamla Jain , have claimed that the Jain tradition , with its emphasis on ahimsā and anekāntavāda , is capable of solving religious intolerance , terrorism , wars , the depletion of natural resources , environmental degradation and many other problems . Referring to the September 11 attacks , John Koller believes that violence in society mainly exists due to faulty epistemology and metaphysics as well as faulty ethics . A failure to respect the life and views of others , rooted in dogmatic and mistaken knowledge and refusal to acknowledge the legitimate claims of different perspectives , leads to violent and destructive behaviour . Koller suggests that anekāntavāda has a larger role to play in the world peace . According to Koller , because anekāntavāda is designed to avoid one @-@ sided errors , reconcile contradictory viewpoints , and accept the multiplicity and relativity of truth , the Jain philosophy is in a unique position to support dialogue and negotiations amongst various nations and peoples .
Some Indologists like Professor John Cort have cautioned against giving undue importance to " intellectual ahiṃsā " as the basis of anekāntavāda . He points out that Jain monks have also used anekāntavāda and syādvāda as debating weapons to silence their critics and prove the validity of the Jain doctrine over others . According to Dundas , in Jain hands , this method of analysis became a fearsome weapon of philosophical polemic with which the doctrines of Hinduism and Buddhism could be pared down to their ideological bases of simple permanence and impermanence , respectively , and thus could be shown to be one @-@ pointed and inadequate as the overall interpretations of reality they purported to be . On the other hand , the many @-@ sided approach was claimed by the Jains to be immune from criticism since it did not present itself as a philosophical or dogmatic view .
= = = Influence on Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi = = =
Since childhood , Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi was exposed to the actual practice of non @-@ violence , non @-@ possession and anekāntavāda by his mother . According to biographers like Uma Majumdar , Rajmohan Gandhi , and Stephen Hay , these early childhood impressions and experiences contributed to the formation of Gandhi 's character and his further moral and spiritual development . In his writings , Mahatma Gandhi attributed his seemingly contradictory positions over a period of time to the learning process , experiments with truth and his belief in anekāntavāda . He proclaimed that the duty of every individual is to determine what is personally true and act on that relative perception of truth . According to Gandhi , a satyagrahi is duty bound to act according to his relative truth , but at the same time , he is also equally bound to learn from truth held by his opponent . In response to a friend 's query on religious tolerance , he responded in the journal " Young India – 21 Jan 1926 " :
I am an Advaitist and yet I can support Dvaitism ( dualism ) . The world is changing every moment , and is therefore unreal , it has no permanent existence . But though it is constantly changing , it has a something about it which persists and it is therefore to that extent real . I have therefore no objection to calling it real and unreal , and thus being called an Anekāntavadi or a Syādvadi . But my Syādvāda is not the Syādvāda of the learned , it is peculiarly my own . I cannot engage in a debate with them . It has been my experience that I am always true from my point of view , and am often wrong from the point of view of my honest critics . I know that we are both right from our respective points of view . And this knowledge saves me from attributing motives to my opponents or critics . The seven blind men who gave seven different descriptions of the elephant were all right from their respective points of view , and wrong from the point of view of one another , and right and wrong from the point of view of the man who knew the elephant . I very much like this doctrine of the manyness of reality . It is this doctrine that has taught me to judge a Musulman from his standpoint and a Christian from his . Formerly I used to resent the ignorance of my opponents . Today I can love them because I am gifted with the eye to see myself as others see me and vice versa . I want to take the whole world in the embrace of my love . My Anekāntavāda is the result of the twin doctrine of Satyagraha and ahiṃsā .
= = Criticism = =
The doctrines of anekāntavāda and syādavāda are often criticised on the grounds that they engender a degree of hesitancy and uncertainty , and may compound problems rather than solve them . It is also pointed out that Jain epistemology asserts its own doctrines , but at the cost of being unable to deny contradictory doctrines . Furthermore , it is also argued that this doctrine could be self @-@ defeating . It is argued that if reality is so complex that no single doctrine can describe it adequately , then anekāntavāda itself , being a single doctrine , must be inadequate . This criticism seems to have been anticipated by Ācārya Samantabhadra who said : " From the point of view of pramana ( means of knowledge ) it is anekānta ( multi @-@ sided ) , but from a point of view of naya ( partial view ) it is ekanta ( one @-@ sided ) . "
In defense of the doctrine , Jains point out that anekāntavāda seeks to reconcile apparently opposing viewpoints rather than refuting them .
Anekāntavāda received much criticism from the Vedantists , notably Adi Sankarācārya ( 9th century C.E. ) . Sankara argued against some tenets of Jainism in his bhasya on Brahmasutra ( 2 : 2 : 33 – 36 ) . His main arguments centre on anekāntavāda :
It is impossible that contradictory attributes such as being and non @-@ being should at the same time belong to one and the same thing ; just as observation teaches us that a thing cannot be hot and cold at the same moment . The third alternative expressed in the words — they either are such or not such — results in cognition of indefinite nature , which is no more a source of true knowledge than doubt is . Thus the means of knowledge , the object of knowledge , the knowing subject , and the act of knowledge become all alike indefinite . How can his followers act on a doctrine , the matter of which is altogether indeterminate ? The result of your efforts is perfect knowledge and is not perfect knowledge . Observation shows that , only when a course of action is known to have a definite result , people set about it without hesitation . Hence a man who proclaims a doctrine of altogether indefinite contents does not deserve to be listened any more than a drunken or a mad man .
However , many believe that Sankara fails to address genuine anekāntavāda . By identifying syādavāda with sansayavāda , he instead addresses " agnosticism " , which was argued by Sañjaya Belaṭṭhaputta . Many authors like Pandya believe that Sankara overlooked that , the affirmation of the existence of an object is in respect to the object itself , and its negation is in respect to what the object is not . Genuine anekāntavāda thus considers positive and negative attributes of an object , at the same time , and without any contradictions .
Another Buddhist logician Dharmakirti ridiculed anekāntavāda in Pramānavarttikakārika : " With the differentiation removed , all things have dual nature . Then , if somebody is implored to eat curd , then why he does not eat camel ? " The insinuation is obvious ; if curd exists from the nature of curd and does not exist from the nature of a camel , then one is justified in eating camel , as by eating camel , he is merely eating the negation of curd . Ācārya Akalanka , while agreeing that Dharmakirti may be right from one viewpoint , took it upon himself to issue a rejoinder :
The person who criticises without understanding the prima facie view is acting like a jester and not a critic . The Buddha was born a deer and the deer was born as Buddha ; but Buddha is adorable and deer is only a food . Similarly , due to the strength of an entity , with its differences and similarities specified , nobody would eat camel if implored to eat curd .
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= Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery =
The Arnhem Oosterbeek War Cemetery , more commonly known as the Airborne Cemetery , is a Commonwealth War Graves Commission cemetery in Oosterbeek , near Arnhem , the Netherlands . It was established in 1945 and is home to 1759 graves from the Second World War . Most of the men buried in the cemetery were Allied servicemen killed in the Battle of Arnhem , an Allied attempt to cross the Rhine in 1944 , or in the liberation of the city the following year . Men killed in these battles are still discovered in the surrounding area even in the 21st century , and so the number of people interred in the cemetery continues to grow .
= = Background = =
In September 1944 the Allies launched Operation Market Garden , an attempt by the British 2nd Army to bypass the Siegfried Line and advance into the Ruhr , Germany 's industrial heartland . The operation required the 1st Airborne Corps to seize several bridges over rivers and canals in the Netherlands , allowing ground forces to advance rapidly through the Netherlands and cross the River Rhine .
The British 1st Airborne Division was tasked with securing the most distant objectives ; bridges over the Lower Rhine at Arnhem . The division dropped onto the area on 17 September and a small force was able to secure the Arnhem road bridge . However the unexpected presence of SS Panzer troops of the II SS Panzerkorps meant the Allies were never able to fully secure their objectives and so after nine days without sufficient reinforcement by the advancing ground forces , the division was withdrawn on 25 September .
In the 9 days of battle almost 2000 Allied soldiers were killed ( some of whom died of their wounds or in captivity after the battle ) . These included over 1174 men of the British 1st Airborne Division , 219 men of the Glider Pilot Regiment , 92 men of the Polish 1st Independent Parachute Brigade , 368 men of the RAF , 79 re @-@ supply dispatchers of the RASC , 25 men of XXX Corps and 27 men of US IX Troop Carrier Command . The exact number of German dead is unknown , but is believed to be at least 1300 . Additionally it is believed 453 Dutch civilians were killed during the battle .
= = Cemetery = =
Owing to the Allied withdrawal , the vast majority of their dead had to be left on the battlefield . Here they were buried in simple field graves ( some little more than their own slit trenches ) or in small mass graves dug by the Germans . Kate Ter Horst , whose house was used as a first aid post during the battle , found the graves of 57 men in her garden when she returned after the war . After Arnhem was liberated in April 1945 , Grave Registration Units of the British 2nd Army moved into the area and began to locate the Allied dead . A small field north of Oosterbeek was offered on perpetual loan by the Netherlands government to the Imperial War Graves Commission ( now Commonwealth War Graves Commission ) in June 1945 and the dead were reburied there . Many of those killed during Arnhem 's liberation were also buried at the same site . The cemetery was completed in February 1946 , originally with the graves marked by metal crosses , although these were replaced by headstones in 1952 . Most of the German dead were buried in the SS Heroes Cemetery near Arnhem after the battle , but reburied in Ysselsteyn German war cemetery after the war .
The Commonwealth War Graves Commission records 1759 graves in the cemetery as of 2004 . 1432 of these are Commonwealth , including British , Canadian , Australian and New Zealanders . The cemetery is also the last resting place of 73 Polish soldiers , ( many of them exhumed and moved from Driel , to the disappointment of Driel 's residents ) and 8 Dutch civilians – some killed in the fighting and some former Commission employees . 253 of the graves are unidentified .
As of 2003 there were still 138 Allied men with no known grave in the area , and they are commemorated at the Groesbeek Memorial . However , evidence of the battle is often discovered even today , and the bodies of Allied servicemen are reinterred at the Airborne Cemetery . When found , bodies are exhumed and Dutch Graves Registration staff attempt to identify them before they are reburied . One soldier of the Border Regiment was discovered and reburied in the cemetery in 2005 and another who had previously been unidentified was reburied in 2006 .
Five men were awarded the Victoria Cross after the battle , four of them posthumously . Three of the men now rest in the cemetery ; Lieutenant John Hollington Grayburn of the 2nd Battalion , Parachute Regiment ; Flight Lieutenant David Samuel Anthony Lord of 271 Squadron , Royal Air Force and Captain Lionel Ernest Queripel of the 10th Battalion , Parachute Regiment . Lance @-@ Sergeant John Daniel Baskeyfield of the 2nd Battalion South Staffordshire Regiment has no known grave and is commemorated instead at Groesbeek Memorial . Major Robert Henry Cain , also of 2nd Battalion , South Staffordshire Regiment , survived the battle and was buried on the Isle of Man when he died in 1974 .
Opposite the Airborne Cemetery is a civilian graveyard with a small Commonwealth War Graves Commission plot containing the graves of nine airmen shot down shortly before the battle . It is also home to Lipmann Kessel , a surgeon with the 16th ( Parachute ) Field Ambulance during the battle , who wished to be buried near his men after his death in 1986 . Similarly , the Moscowa Cemetery three miles east contains the graves of thirty six aircrew killed before the battle , and one unidentified soldier . Not all of the Allied dead from the Battle of Arnhem are interred at the cemetery . Some 300 men who were killed when flying into battle , while trying to escape or who succumbed to wounds later , are buried in civilian cemeteries in the Netherlands , Belgium , the UK and the USA . Sixty men who died in prisoner of war camps after the battle are buried in Germany .
= = Airborne commemoration service = =
In the summer of 1945 several hundred veterans of the battle were detached from operations in Norway and returned to Arnhem to take part in filming for the war movie Theirs Is the Glory . While there they attended the first commemorative event at the cemetery . This event continued every year , and was attended by veterans , local residents and over 1000 school children who laid flowers on the graves of the dead . After the 25th anniversary in 1969 , the Parachute Regiment approached Dutch organisers to suggest ending the ceremony , believing the battle to have passed sufficiently into history . The Dutch were vehemently and emotionally opposed to the idea and thus the ceremony continues to be held annually .
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= Ace Attorney =
Ace Attorney , known in Japan as Gyakuten Saiban ( Japanese : 逆転裁判 , " Turnabout Trial " ) , is a series of visual novel adventure video games developed by Capcom . The first entry in the series , Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney , was released in 2001 ; since then , nine further games have been released . Additionally , the series has seen adaptations in the form of a live action film and an anime , and has been the base for manga series , drama CDs , musicals and stage plays .
The player takes the roles of the defense attorneys Phoenix Wright , Mia Fey , Apollo Justice and Athena Cykes , and investigates cases and defends their clients in court ; they find the truth by cross @-@ examining witnesses and finding inconsistencies between the testimonies and the evidence they have collected . The cases all last a maximum of three days , with the judge determining the outcome based on evidence presented by the defense attorney and the prosecutor . In the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations , the player takes the role of prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , and in the spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban , they play as Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .
The series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi , who wanted the series to end after the third game . The series still continued , with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth ( 2009 ) ; Takumi has since returned to write and direct some spin @-@ off titles . While the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan , the series ' localizations are set in the United States , though retaining Japanese cultural influence . The series has been well received , with reviewers liking the characters and story , and the finding of contradictions ; it has also performed well commercially , with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties .
= = Titles = =
The Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney in 2001 , and has been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005 . The series currently consists of six main series games and four spin @-@ offs . Additionally , two titles that collect the first three main series games have been released : Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , which was released for iOS in 2012 in Japan and in 2013 in the West , and Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , which was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014 .
= = = Main series = = =
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii and iOS in 2009 .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All is the second entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan ; it has also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii in 2010 .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations is the third entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan ; it has also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006 , the Nintendo DS in 2007 , and the Wii in 2010 .
Apollo Justice : Ace Attorney is the fourth entry in the series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2007 in Japan and in 2008 in the West .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Dual Destinies is the fifth entry in the main series . It was originally released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2013 in Japan , North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it was given a digital @-@ only release . An iOS version was released in 2014 in Japan and the West .
Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Spirit of Justice is the sixth entry in the main series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2016 in Japan , and is planned to be released later in the year in North America and Europe ; outside of Japan , it will be a digital @-@ only release .
= = = Spin @-@ offs = = =
Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth is the first entry in the Investigations spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2009 in Japan and in 2010 in the West .
Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan , but has not been released in the West .
Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is a crossover between Ace Attorney and the Professor Layton series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2012 in Japan and in 2014 in the West .
Dai Gyakuten Saiban : Naruhodō Ryūnosuke no Bōken is the first entry in a planned spin @-@ off series . It was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2015 in Japan , but is not intended to be released in the West .
= = Common elements = =
= = = Gameplay = = =
The Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes . The gameplay is split into two types of sections : investigations and courtroom trials . During the investigations , the player searches the environments , gathering information and evidence , and talks to characters such as their client , witnesses , and the police . Once enough evidence has been collected , the game moves on to a courtroom trial section .
In the courtroom trials , the player aims to get their client declared " not guilty " . To do so , they cross @-@ examine witnesses , and aim to find lies and inconsistencies in the testimonies . They are able to go back and forth between the different statements in the testimony , and can press the witness for more details on a statement . When the player finds an inconsistency , they can present a piece of evidence that contradicts the statement . The player is penalized if they present incorrect evidence : in the first game , a number of exclamation marks is shown , with one disappearing after each mistake the player makes ; in later games , a health bar that represents the judge 's patience is used instead . If all exclamation marks are lost , or the health bar reaches zero , the player loses the game and their client is declared guilty .
Several Ace Attorney games introduce new gameplay mechanics to the series . Justice for All introduces " psyche @-@ locks " , which are shown over a witness when the player asks them about a topic they do not want to discuss ; using a magatama , the player can start breaking the psyche @-@ locks by showing the witness evidence or character profiles that proves they are hiding something . The number of psyche @-@ locks depends on how deep the secret is ; when all locks are broken , the topic becomes available , giving the player access to new information . Apollo Justice introduces the " perceive " system , where the player looks for motions or actions made by witnesses that show nervousness , similar to a tell in poker .
Dual Destinies introduces the " mood matrix " , through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness , such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics ; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony , they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information . Dual Destinies also introduces " revisualization " , where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions . Spirit of Justice introduces " divination séances " , in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths , and must find contradictions in the victim 's five senses to determine what has happened . Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross @-@ examinations of multiple witnesses , with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions . Dai Gyakuten Saiban introduces " joint reasoning " , where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Sherlock Holmes takes his reasoning " further than the truth " .
The Ace Attorney Investigations spin @-@ off series splits the gameplay into investigation phases and rebuttal phases , the latter of which is similar to the courtroom trials of the main series . During the investigation phases , the player searches for evidence and talks to witnesses and suspects . Things the player character notices in the environment are saved as thoughts ; the player can use the " logic " system to connect two such thoughts to gain access to new information . At some points , the player can create hologram reproductions of the crime scene , through which they can discover new information that would otherwise be hidden . Ace Attorney Investigations 2 introduces " logic chess " , where the player interrogates witnesses in a timed sequence that is visualized as a game of chess , with the player aiming to destroy the other character 's chess pieces . To do this , they need to build up their advantage in the discussion by alternating between speaking and listening , and then choose to go on the offensive .
= = = Characters and setting = = =
The protagonist of the first three games is the defense attorney Phoenix Wright , who is assisted by the spirit medium Maya Fey ; in the third game , Phoenix 's mentor Mia Fey is also a playable character . In the fourth game , the protagonist is the defense attorney Apollo Justice ; in the fifth , Phoenix , Apollo and the new defense attorney Athena Cykes are all protagonists ; and in the sixth , Phoenix and Apollo are the protagonists . The spin @-@ off Dai Gyakuten Saiban is set in England near the end of the 19th century , and follows Phoenix 's ancestor Ryūnosuke Naruhodō .
Phoenix 's childhood friend Miles Edgeworth , who is the protagonist of the Ace Attorney Investigations games , is a recurring rival prosecutor character ; in addition to him , each new game in the series introduces a new rival : Franziska von Karma is introduced in the second game , Godot in the third , Klavier Gavin in the fourth , Simon Blackquill in the fifth , and Nahyuta Sahdmadhi in the sixth . The prosecutor characters are portrayed as powerful and arrogant characters of high social status , who favor convictions over finding the truth , and who care about keeping perfect @-@ win records in court . Similarly to real Japanese prosecutors , the prosecutors in the series often directly oversee investigations , issuing orders to the police . Japanese attitudes towards the police force are reflected in the series , with the police being represented by incompetent characters such as Dick Gumshoe , Maggey Byrde and Mike Meekins . In the world of Ace Attorney , trials only last three days , and usually end with a " guilty " verdict . The outcomes of cases are decided by a judge , based on evidence provided by the defense attorney and the prosecutor .
= = Development = =
The series was created by Shu Takumi , who wrote and directed the first three games . The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi 's boss at the time , Shinji Mikami , gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to ; Takumi had originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games , and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator . The game was designed to be simple , as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play . It was originally going to be a detective game , with Phoenix being a private investigator , but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work , and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms .
Takumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues , and then pull them together into one conclusion , and not have multiple possible endings . He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together ; the goal was to make the player feel like they have driven the story forward themselves , with their own choices , even though the game is linear . He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game 's story , and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix 's personality as he went along . He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them , giving them advice , than investigating on their own .
After the first game 's development was finished , Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Takumi had originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game , but during the production the development team learned that the character had become popular . This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly ; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work , he avoided making a lot of changes between games : art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth was reused , to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series ; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations , as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after having added the psyche @-@ lock mechanic for Justice for All .
For the fourth game , Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role . He had wanted the series to end with the third game , as he felt Phoenix had been fully explored and that his story had been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . Despite this , the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created , being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro ; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney . He also directed and wrote Dai Gyakuten Saiban , which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series . He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff , comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school . Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice . Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies , Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice , with Yamazaki working on the scenario , and Fuse on the art and gameplay .
= = Localization = =
The localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global , and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson . While the Japanese version takes place in Japan , the localized version is set in the United States : because one of the episodes involves time zones , they had to specify where the game takes place , and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it . The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization , as changing it would have altered the entire game structure .
The change in the series ' setting became an issue in later games , where the Japanese setting was more apparent . Starting with the second game , the series localization direction has been handled by Janet Hsu ; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed .
Character names were also localized to use double meanings similarly to the Japanese names ; the name puns were based on the characters ' personalities or backgrounds , or were visual gags . Several English names were based on their Japanese counterparts , but for some characters the names had to be altered heavily compared to the Japanese versions . Smith and Anderson had a lot of freedom when localizing the names of minor characters in the first game , but discussed the names of the main cast with Capcom . Phoenix 's English surname , " Wright " , was chosen as his Japanese name , " Naruhodō " – meaning " I see " or " I understand " – was frequently used as a joke in the script .
Dual Destinies was given a digital @-@ only release in the West . This was partially because of the game 's tight development schedule : by releasing it digitally , Capcom was able to release the English version close to the Japanese release date . Two of the games have not been localized : Ace Attorney Investigations 2 and Dai Gyakuten Saiban , although the former has received a full fan translation .
= = Reception = =
The Ace Attorney series has been well received by critics , and has performed well commercially : in December 2009 , it was Capcom 's 9th best selling series of all time , and in October 2010 , they called it one of their " strongest intellectual properties " , with more than 3 @.@ 9 million units sold worldwide . By December 2013 , the series had sold over 5 million units . In the United States , the first game became surprisingly successful , forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand .
Reviewers have liked finding contradictions ; a common complaint , however , is the games ' linearity , as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial @-@ and @-@ error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence , and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order . Some reviewers have criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series , while some have said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this .
Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the " craziness " of the game world makes the cases entertaining , but also that it " resonates on a deeper level " due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system , making the setting still feel relevant in 2014 . Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time , and that the series ' strength is how each game builds up to a " stunning and satisfying finale " . Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing , praising its balance between " light @-@ hearted nonsense " and darker , more serious scenarios . Several reviewers have appreciated the series ' characters ; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya 's banter is among the best in video games , and that Edgeworth 's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories .
Several reviewers have praised the series ' music . Thew said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design , with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform ; he called the music phenomenal , with the exception of that in Justice for All , but said the sound effects are what " steals the show " . Mackey commented that the games ' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization .
= = Related media and other appearances = =
The Takarazuka Revue , an all @-@ female theater troupe , has adapted the series into stage musicals : 2009 's Ace Attorney : Truth Resurrected , which is based on the last episode of the first game ; 2010 's Ace Attorney 2 : Truth Resurrected Again , whose first act is an original story , while its second act is based on the final episode of the second game ; and 2013 's Ace Attorney 3 : Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again . A stage play based on the series , titled Gyakuten no Spotlight , ran in 2013 , and was written by Eisaku Saito . A 2012 live @-@ action film adaptation of the first game , titled Ace Attorney , was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike . A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series , Ace Attorney , is being produced at A @-@ 1 Pictures and is directed by Ayumu Watanabe . Kodansha has published several manga based on the series : a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006 ; Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009 , respectively ; and another manga , which is based on the anime , will be published in V Jump in 2016 . A novel based on the series , Gyakuten Saiban : Turnabout Idol , is planned to be released in 2016 . Ace Attorney drama CDs and albums with Ace Attorney music have also been released .
Ace Attorney characters have made cross @-@ over appearances in other video games . Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She @-@ Hulk 's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ; in the game 's update , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , Phoenix appears as a playable character . Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2 , while Edgeworth makes a non @-@ playable appearance . Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master : Doko Don ! Mystery Adventure , with Phoenix making an appearance in the game 's story .
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= Cambodian Campaign =
The Cambodian Campaign ( also known as the Cambodian Incursion and the Cambodian Invasion ) was a series of military operations conducted in eastern Cambodia during 1970 by the United States and the Republic of Vietnam ( South Vietnam ) ( NRA ) during the Vietnam War . These invasions were a result of the policy of President Richard Nixon . A total of 13 major operations were conducted by the Army of the Republic of Vietnam ( ARVN ) between 29 April and 22 July and by US forces between 1 May and 30 June .
The objective of the campaign was the defeat of the approximately 40 @,@ 000 troops of the People 's Army of Vietnam ( PAVN ) and the National Front for the Liberation of South Vietnam ( NLF , also known as Viet Cong ) who were ensconced in the eastern border regions of Cambodia . Cambodia 's official neutrality and military weakness made its territory effectively a safe zone where Vietnamese communist forces could establish bases for operations over the border . With the US shifting toward a policy of Vietnamization and withdrawal , the US sought to shore up the South Vietnamese government 's security by eliminating the cross @-@ border threat .
A change in the Cambodian government allowed a window of opportunity for the destruction of the base areas in 1970 when Prince Norodom Sihanouk was deposed and replaced by pro @-@ US General Lon Nol . Allied military operations failed to eliminate many communist troops or to capture their elusive headquarters , known as the Central Office for South Vietnam ( COSVN ) , but the haul of captured material in Cambodia prompted claims of success .
= = Preliminaries = =
= = = Background = = =
The People 's Army of Vietnam had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked . These base areas were also utilized by the Vietnamese communists to store weapons and other material that had been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail . PAVN forces had begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963 . In 1966 , Prince Norodom Sihanouk , ruler of Cambodia , convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule , had concluded an agreement with the People 's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply .
During 1968 , Cambodia 's indigenous communist movement , labeled Khmer Rouge ( Red Khmers ) by Sihanouk , began an insurgency to overthrow the government . While they received very limited material help from the North Vietnamese at the time ( the Hanoi government had no incentive to overthrow Sihanouk , since it was satisfied with his continued " neutrality " ) , they were able to shelter their forces in areas controlled by PAVN / NLF troops .
The US government was aware of these activities in Cambodia , but refrained from taking overt military action within Cambodia in hopes of convincing the mercurial Sihanouk to alter his position . To accomplish this , President Lyndon B. Johnson authorized covert cross @-@ border reconnaissance operations conducted by the secret Studies and Observations Group in order to gather intelligence on PAVN / NLF activities in the border regions ( Project Vesuvius ) . This intelligence data would then be presented to the prince in an effort to change his mind .
= = = Menu , coup and North Vietnamese offensive = = =
The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , General Creighton W. Abrams , recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after his inauguration that the Cambodian Base Areas be attacked by aerial bombardment utilizing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . The president initially refused , but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN 's " Mini @-@ Tet " Offensive of 1969 within South Vietnam . Nixon , angered at what he perceived as a violation of the " agreement " with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam , authorized the covert air campaign . The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3 @,@ 000 sorties had been flown and 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance had been dropped on eastern Cambodia .
While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970 , government @-@ sponsored anti @-@ Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia . Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister / Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours . The prince , outraged that his " modus vivendi " with the communists had been disturbed , immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia .
On 18 March , the Cambodian National Assembly deposed Sihanouk and named Lon Nol as provisional head of state . This led Sihanouk to immediately establish a government @-@ in @-@ exile in Beijing and to ally himself with North Vietnam , the Khmer Rouge , the NLF , and the Laotian Pathet Lao . In doing so , Sihanouk lent his name and popularity in the rural areas of Cambodia to a movement over which he had little control . The North Vietnamese response to the coup was swift . PAVN began directly supplying large amounts of weapons and advisors to the Khmer Rouge , and Cambodia plunged into civil war .
Lon Nol saw Cambodia 's population of 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment . Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror , murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians . On 15 April for example , 800 Vietnamese men had been rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar , tied together , executed , and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River . They then floated downstream into South Vietnam . Cambodia 's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments .
Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down , PAVN had begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos ( the Ho Chi Minh trail ) into northeastern Cambodia . PAVN also launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) against the Cambodian army , quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country , isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham . Communist forces then approached within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the capital , Phnom Penh , spurring President Nixon into action .
On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese had taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Phnom Penh . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .
= = = Planning = = =
In response to events in Cambodia , President Nixon believed that there were distinct possibilities for a U.S. response . With Sihanouk gone , conditions were ripe for strong measures against the Base Areas . He was also adamant that some action be taken to support " The only government in Cambodia in the last twenty @-@ five years that had the guts to take a pro @-@ Western stand . " The president then solicited proposals for actions from the Joint Chiefs of Staff and MACV , who presented him with a series of options : a naval quarantine of the Cambodian coast ; the launching of South Vietnamese and American airstrikes ; the expansion of hot pursuit across the border by ARVN forces ; or a ground invasion by ARVN , U.S. forces , or both .
During a televised address on 20 April , Nixon announced the withdrawal of 150 @,@ 000 U.S. troops from South Vietnam during the year . This planned withdrawal implied restrictions on any offensive U.S. action in Cambodia . By the spring of 1970 , MACV still maintained 330 @,@ 648 U.S. Army and 55 @,@ 039 Marine Corps troops in South Vietnam , most of whom were concentrated in 81 infantry and tank battalions . Many of them , however , were preparing to leave the country or expected to leave in the near future and would not be available for immediate combat operations .
On 22 April Nixon authorized the planning of a South Vietnamese incursion into the Parrot 's Beak ( named for its perceived shape on a map ) , believing that " Giving the South Vietnamese an operation of their own would be a major boost to their morale as well as provide a practical demonstration of the success of Vietnamization . " On the following day , Secretary of State William P. Rogers testified before the House Appropriations Subcommittee that " the administration had no intentions ... to escalate the war . We recognize that if we escalate and get involved in Cambodia with our ground troops that our whole program [ Vietnamization ] is defeated . "
South Vietnamese forces had been rehearsing for just such an operation since late March . On 27 April , an ARVN Ranger Battalion had advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a communist base . Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory . Lon Nol , who had initially attempted to follow a neutralist policy of his own , requested military aid and assistance from the U.S. government on 14 April . On that day , South Vietnamese forces then conducted the first of three brief cross @-@ border operations under the aegis of Operation Toan Thang ( Complete Victory ) 41 , sending armored cavalry units into regions of Cambodia 's Svay Rieng Province nicknamed the Angel 's Wing and the Crow 's Nest . On 20 April , 2 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops advanced into the Parrot 's Beak , killing 144 PAVN troops . On 22 April , Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations . All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger @-@ scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts , subject to authorization by Nixon .
President Nixon then authorized General Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region . A preliminary operational plan had actually been completed in March , but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to General Michael Davison , commander of the II Field Force , he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch . Seventy @-@ two hours later , Davison 's plan was submitted to the White House . National Security Advisor Dr. Henry Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April , and the NSC staffer was appalled by its " sloppiness " .
The main problems were the pressure of time and the desire of the U.S. president for secrecy . The Cambodian monsoon , whose heavy rains would hamper operations , was only two months away . By the order of the president , the State Department did not notify the Cambodian desk at the US Embassy , Saigon , the Phnom Penh embassy , or Lon Nol of the planning . Operational security was as tight as General Abrams could make it . There was to be no prior U.S. logistical build @-@ up in the border regions which might serve as a signal to the communists . U.S. brigade commanders were informed only a week in advance of the offensive , while battalion commanders got only two or three days ' notice .
= = = Decisions = = =
Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient . Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird and Secretary Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris ( they had both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons ) . Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their " bureaucratic foot @-@ dragging . " As a result , Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation .
On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger . Afterward , they screened one of Nixon 's favorite movies , Patton , a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton , Jr . , which he had seen five times previously . Kissinger later commented that " When he was pressed to the wall , his [ Nixon 's ] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton . "
The following evening , Nixon decided that " We would go for broke " and gave his authorization for the incursion . The joint U.S. / ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of : reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam ; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces ; and enhancing the U.S. / Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris .
In order to keep the campaign as low @-@ key as possible , General Abrams had suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon . At 21 : 00 on 30 April , however , President Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that " It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight " and that " the time has come for action . " He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN , " the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam . " COSVN as a single headquarters for control of PAVN operations in South Vietnam probably did not exist , or , at least , was never found .
= = Operations = =
= = = Previous ARVN attacks = = =
Coordinating with Lon Nol ARVN forces attacked the PRG headquarter complexes . Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March elements of the PRG and NLF were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter . Surrounded they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by the NLF 7th division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratie province in what would come to be known as Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government . Trương Như Tảng was the Minister of Justice in the PRG and he recounts that during the march to the northern bases was day after day of forced marches broken up by B @-@ 52 bombing raids . Just before the column crossed route 7 on their way north they received word that on 3 April the 9th Division had fought and won a battle near the city of Krek , Cambodia against ARVN forces .
Years later Trương would recall just how " close [ South Vietnamese ] were to annihilating or capturing the core of the Southern resistance – elite units of our frontline fighters along with the civilian and much of the military leadership " . After many days of hard marches the PRG reached the northern bases , and relative safety , in the Kratie region . Casualties were light and the march even saw the birth of a baby to Dương Quỳnh Hoa , the deputy minister of health in the Provisional Revolutionary Government ( PRG ) . The column needed many days to recover and Trương himself would require weeks to recover from the long march .
= = = Parrot 's Beak and Fishhook = = =
South Vietnamese forces had already crossed the border on 30 April , launching Operation Toan Thang 42 . 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8 @,@ 700 troops ( two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th Division and 5th Infantry Divisions , an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division , and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regt from the 3rd Ranger Group ) crossed into the Parrot 's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province . The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of III Corps , who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals . During their first two days in Cambodia , ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces . The North Vietnamese , forewarned by previous ARVN incursions , however , conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west .
The ARVN operation soon settled down to become a search and destroy mission , with South Vietnamese troops combing the countryside in small patrols looking for PAVN supply caches . Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of the 9th Infantry Division . Four tank @-@ infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot 's Beak from the south . After three days of operations , ARVN claimed 1 @,@ 010 PAVN troops had been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead and 330 wounded .
On 1 May an even larger operation , known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rockcrusher , got underway as 36 B @-@ 52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook . This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter @-@ bombers . At 10 : 00 , the 1st Air Cav Division , the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment , the 1st ARVN Armoured Cavalry Regiment , and the 3rd ARVN Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province of Cambodia . Known as Task Force Shoemaker ( after General Robert M. Shoemaker , the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division ) , the force attacked the long @-@ time communist stronghold with 10 @,@ 000 U.S. and 5 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops . The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that had been lifted in by helicopter .
Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy , but PAVN / NLF forces had begun moving westward two days before the advance began . By 3 May , MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded , low casualties for such a large operation . There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the U.S. 11th Armoured Cavalry three kilometers inside Cambodia . PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes . When the smoke had cleared , 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action .
1st Battalion / 7th Cavalry , 3rd Brigade 1st Cavalry Division was in the Fishhook very early May through 30 June when they crossed the river back into Vietnam . There was extremely heavy combat throughout the period . American losses were very heavy , with all units relying on heavy inflow of replacements to try to maintain at least half strength in the field . In one company , of all the men who had entered Cambodia , only nine left on 30 June , the rest having been either killed or wounded and evacuated . The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award , equivalent to individual Silver Stars , for their combat performance in the Fishhook .
The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack . A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B @-@ 3 Front , captured during the incursion , ordered PAVN / NLF forces to " break away and avoid shooting back ... Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can " . The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol , who had been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country . He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the head of the U.S. mission , who had found out about it himself from a radio broadcast .
The only conventional battle fought by American troops occurred on 1 May at the town of Snoul , the suspected terminus of the Sihanouk Trail at the junction of Routes 7 , 13 , and 131 . Elements of the U.S. 11th Armored Cavalry and supporting helicopters came under PAVN fire while approaching the town and its airfield . When a massed American attack was met by heavy resistance , the Americans backed off , called in air support and blasted the town for two days , reducing it to rubble . During the action , Brigadier General Donn A. Starry , commander of the 11th Armored Cavalry , was wounded by grenade fragments and evacuated .
= = = Hunting supply caches = = =
On the following day , elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry division entered what came to be known as " The City " , southwest of Snoul . The two @-@ square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts , storage sheds , and bunkers , each of which was packed with food , weapons , and ammunition . There were truck repair facilities , hospitals , a lumber yard , 18 mess halls , a pig farm , and even a swimming pool . Forty kilometers to the northeast , other 1st Cavalry Division elements discovered a larger base on 6 May . Nicknamed " Rock Island East " after the U.S. Army 's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois , the area contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million rounds of anti @-@ aircraft ammunition , 500 @,@ 000 rifle rounds , thousands of rockets , several General Motors trucks , and large quantities of communications equipment .
While on patrol 20 kilometers northeast of " Rock Island East " on 23 May , a point man nicknamed Shakey ( Chris Keffalos ) from the 5th Battalion , 7th Cavalry , tripped over a metal plate buried just below the surface of the ground . The trooper was later killed by PAVN defenders , but the cache he had uncovered was the first of 59 buried storage bunkers at the site of what was thereafter known as " Shakey 's Hill " . The bunkers contained thousands of cases of weapons and ammunition , all of which were turned over to the Cambodian army . Much of the captured enemy material was turned over to the MACV Special Support Group for Cambodia where it was maintained and then issued to Lon Nol 's Forces . This group was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Will H. Horn .
The one thing that was not found was COSVN . On 1 May a tape of Nixon 's announcement of the incursion was played for General Abrams , " who must have cringed " when he heard the president state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation . MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely- dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate . In response to a White House query before the fact , MACV had replied that " major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle " and that " the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote " .
After the first week of operations , additional battalion and brigade units were committed to the operation , so that between 6 and 24 May , a total of 90 @,@ 000 Allied troops ( including 33 U.S. maneuver battalions ) were conducting operations inside Cambodia . Due to increasing political and domestic turbulence in the U.S. , President Nixon issued a directive on 7 May limiting the distance and duration of U.S. operations to a depth of 30 kilometers ( 19 mi ) and setting a deadline of 30 June for the withdrawal of all U.S. forces to South Vietnam .
South Vietnamese forces were not constrained by the time and geographic limitations placed upon U.S. units . From the provincial capital of Svay Rieng , ARVN elements pressed westward to Kampong Trabek , where on 14 May their 8th and 15th Armored Cavalry regiments defeated the 88th PAVN Infantry Regiment . On 23 May , the South Vietnamese pushed beyond the deepest U.S. penetrations and attacked the town of Krek .
= = = Binh Tay and Cuu Long = = =
In the II Corps area , Operation Binh Tay I ( Operation Tame the West ) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the 40th ARVN Infantry Regiment against Base Area 702 ( the traditional headquarters of the communist B @-@ 2 Front ) in northeastern Cambodia from 5 – 25 May . Following airstrikes , the initial American forces , assaulting via helicopter , were driven back by intense anti @-@ aircraft fire . On the following day , the 3rd Battalion , 506th Infantry ( on loan from the U.S. 101st Airborne Division ) , landed without opposition . Its sister unit , the 1st Battalion , 14th Infantry was also unopposed . The 3rd Battalion of the 8th Infantry , however , inserted only 60 men before intense PAVN fire ( which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others ) shut down the landing zone , leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight . By the following morning , PAVN forces had left the area .
On the 7th , the division 's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed . After ten days ( and only one significant firefight ) the American troops returned to South Vietnam , leaving the area to the ARVN . Historian Shelby Stanton has noted that " there was a noted lack of aggressiveness " in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be " suffering from almost total combat paralysis . " During Operation Binh Tay II , the ARVN 22nd Division moved against Base Area 702 from 14 – 26 May . The second phase of the operation was carried out by ARVN forces against Base Area 701 between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 22nd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740 .
On 10 May , Bravo Company , 3rd Battalion , 506th Regiment , 101st Airborne Division , was ambushed by a much larger North Vietnamese force in the Se San Valley . Eight U.S. soldiers were killed and 28 wounded . Among the killed was Spc . Leslie Sabo , Jr . ( posthumously promoted to sergeant ) , who was recommended for the Medal of Honor , but the paperwork went missing until 1999 . Sabo was awarded the Medal of Honor on 16 May 2012 by President Barack Obama .
In the III Corps Tactical Zone , Operation Toan Thang 44 ( Operation Bold Lancer ) , was conducted by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 25th Infantry Division between 6 May and 30 June . The targets of the operation were Base Areas 353 , 354 , and 707 located north and northeast of Tay Ninh , South Vietnam . Once again , a hunt for COSVN units was conducted , this time around the Cambodian town of Memot and , once again , the search was futile . During its operations , the 25th Infantry killed 1 @,@ 017 PAVN and NLF troops while losing 119 of its own men killed .
Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44 , the two battalions of the 3rd Brigade , U.S. 9th Infantry Division , crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the Dog 's Face from 7 through 12 May . The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near the hamlet of Chantrea , where 51 North Vietnamese were killed and another 21 were captured . During the operation , the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded . It was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution , but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could now be evacuated to safety . South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave . The new relationship did not , however , prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left .
Thieu then authorized Operation Cuu Long , in which ARVN ground forces , including mechanized and armoured units , drove west and northwest up the eastern side of the Mekong River from 9 May – 1 July . A combined force of 110 Vietnamese Navy and 30 U.S. vessels proceeded up the Mekong to Prey Veng , permitting IV Corps ground forces to move westward to Phnom Penh and to aid ethnic Vietnamese seeking flight to South Vietnam . Those who did not wish to be repatriated were then forcibly expelled . Surprisingly , North Vietnamese forces did not oppose the evacuation , though they could easily have done so .
Other operations conducted from IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II ( 16 – 24 May ) , which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong . Lon Nol had requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kompong Speu , a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles ( 140 km ) inside Cambodia . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ man ARVN armoured task force linked up with Cambodian ground troops and then retook the town . Operation Cuu Long III ( 24 May – 30 June ) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces had left Cambodia .
After rescuing the Vietnamese from the Cambodians , ARVN was tasked with saving the Cambodians from the North Vietnamese . The goal was to relieve the city of Kompong Cham , 70 kilometers northwest of the capital and the site of the headquarters of Cambodia 's Military Region I. On 23 May , General Tri led a column of 10 @,@ 000 ARVN troops along Route 7 to the 180 @-@ acre ( 0 @.@ 73 km2 ) Chup rubber plantation , where PAVN resistance was expected to be heavy . Surprisingly , no battle ensued and the siege of Kompong Cham was lifted at a cost of 98 PAVN troops killed .
= = = Air support and logistics = = =
Aerial operations for the incursion got off to a slow start . Reconnaissance flights over the operational area were restricted since MACV believed that they might serve as a signal of intention . The role of the Air Force in the planning for the incursion itself was minimal at best , in part to preserve the secrecy of Menu which was then considered an overture to the thrust across the border .
On 17 April , General Abrams requested that the president approve Operation Patio , covert tactical airstrikes in support of Studies and Observations Group recon elements " across the fence " in Cambodia . This authorization was given , allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles ( 21 km ) into northeastern Cambodia . This boundary was extended to 29 miles ( 47 km ) along the entire frontier on 25 April . Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties had been flown . The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May .
During the incursion itself , U.S. and ARVN ground units were supported by 9 @,@ 878 aerial sorties ( 6 @,@ 012 U.S. / 2 @,@ 966 Vietnamese Air Force ) , an average of 210 per day . During operations in the Fishhook , for example , the USAF flew 3 @,@ 047 sorties and the South Vietnamese Air Force 332 . These tactical airstrikes were supplemented by 653 B @-@ 52 missions in the border regions ( 71 supporting Binh Tay operations , 559 for Toan Thang operations , and 23 for Cuu Long ) . 30 May saw the inauguration of Operation Freedom Deal ( named as of 6 June ) , a continuous U.S. aerial interdiction campaign conducted in Cambodia . These missions were limited to a depth of 48 @-@ kilometers between the South Vietnamese border and the Mekong River .
Within two months , however , the limit of the operational area was extended past the Mekong , and U.S. tactical aircraft were soon directly supporting Cambodian forces in the field . These missions were officially denied by the U.S. and false coordinates were given in official reports to hide their existence . Defense Department records indicated that out of more than 8 @,@ 000 combat sorties flown in Cambodia between July 1970 and February 1971 , approximately 40 percent were flown outside the authorized Freedom Deal boundary .
The real struggle for the U.S. and ARVN forces in Cambodia was the effort at keeping their units supplied . Once again , the need for security before the operations and the rapidity with which units were transferred to the border regions precluded detailed planning and preparation . This situation was exacerbated by the poor road network in the border regions and the possibility of ambush for nighttime road convoys demanded that deliveries only take place during daylight . Aerial resupply , therefore , became the chief method of logistical replenishment for the forward units . Military engineers and aviators were kept in constant motion throughout the incursion zone .
Due to the rapid pace of operations , deployment , and redeployment , coordination of artillery units and their fires became a worrisome quandary during the operations . This was made even more problematic by the confusion generated by the lack of adequate communications systems between the rapidly advancing units . The joint nature of the operation added another level of complexity to the already overstretched communications network . Regardless , due to the ability of U.S. logisticians to innovate and improvise , supplies of food , water , ammunition , and spare parts arrived at their destinations without any shortages hampering combat operations and the communications system , although complicated , functioned well enough during the short duration of U.S. operations .
= = Aftermath = =
The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and , if possible , to fall back westward and regroup . PAVN forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN / B @-@ 3 Front military units were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began . During 1969 PAVN logistical units had already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict . As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route , North Vietnamese forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year , pushing what had been a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) corridor to a width of 90 miles ( 140 km ) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia . A new logistical command , the 470th Transportation Group , was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new " Liberation Route " ran through Siem Prang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng .
As foreseen by Secretary Laird , fallout from the incursion was quick in coming on the campuses of America 's universities , as protests erupted against what was perceived as an expansion of the conflict into yet another country . On 4 May the unrest escalated to violence when Ohio National Guardsmen shot and killed four unarmed students ( two of whom were not protesters ) during the Kent State shootings . Two days later , at the University at Buffalo , police wounded four more demonstrators . On 8 May 100 @,@ 000 protesters gathered in Washington and another 150 @,@ 000 in San Francisco on only ten days notice . Nationwide , 30 ROTC buildings went up in flames or were bombed while 26 schools witnessed violent clashes between students and police . National Guard units were mobilized on 21 campuses in 16 states . The student strike spread nationwide , involving more than four million students and 450 universities , colleges and high schools in mostly peaceful protests and walkouts .
Simultaneously , public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of President Nixon 's actions . Fifty @-@ eight percent blamed the students for what had occurred at Kent State . On both sides , emotions ran high . In one instance , in New York City on 8 May , pro @-@ administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students . Such violence , however , was an aberration . Most demonstrations , both pro- and anti @-@ war , were peaceful . On 20 May 100 @,@ 000 construction workers , tradesmen , and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of the president 's policies .
Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift . Senators Frank F. Church ( Democratic Party , Idaho ) and John S. Cooper ( Republican Party , Kentucky ) , proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that would have cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia , but would also have ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces . On 30 June the United States Senate passed the act with the amendment included . The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled . The newly amended act did , however , rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution ( better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution ) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon had conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war .
The Cooper – Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970 . This time the measure made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December . As a result , all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia , while the air war being conducted in both countries by the U.S. Air Force was ignored .
= = Conclusion = =
President Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be " the most successful military operation of the entire war . " General Abrams was of like mind , believing that time had been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces had been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972 . A " decent interval " had been obtained for the final American withdrawal . ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical : " despite its spectacular results ... it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved , in the long run , to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam 's march toward domination of all of Laos , Cambodia , and South Vietnam . "
John Shaw and other historians , military and civilian , have based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia had been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective . The next large @-@ scale North Vietnamese offensive , the Nguyen Hue Offensive of 1972 ( called the Easter Offensive in the West ) would be launched out of southern North Vietnam and western Laos , not from Cambodia , was cited as proof positive that the Cambodian operations had succeeded . The fact that PAVN forces were otherwise occupied in Cambodia and had no such offensive plan ( so far as is known ) was seemingly irrelevant . The fact that logistically , a northern offensive ( especially a conventional one backed by armour and heavy artillery ) would be launched closer to its source of manpower and supply also seemed to be of little consequence .
The logistical haul discovered , removed , or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious : 20 @,@ 000 individual and 2 @,@ 500 crew @-@ served weapons ; 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 tons of rice ; 1 @,@ 800 tons of ammunition ( including 143 @,@ 000 mortar shells , rockets , and recoilless rifle rounds ) ; 29 tons of communications equipment ; 431 vehicles ; and 55 tons of medical supplies . MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN / NLF forces in southern Vietnam required 1 @,@ 222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations . Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos , MACV estimated that for every 2 @.@ 5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail , only one ton reached its destination . However , the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent . General Abrams claimed 11 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 500 captured , but his figures were disputed by CIA , who insisted that civilians death were figured into Abrams 's total
South Vietnamese forces had performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven . General Tri proved a resourceful and inspiring commander , earning the sobriquet the " Patton of the Parrot 's Beak " from the American media . General Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyen Viet Thanh , commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot 's Beak operation . Unfortunately for the anti @-@ communists , both officers were killed in helicopter crashes — Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Tri in February 1971 . Other ARVN commanders , however , had not performed well . Even at this late date in the conflict , the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence . As a test of Vietnamization , the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike , but the Vietnamese had not really performed alone . The participation of U.S. ground and air forces had precluded any such claim . When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos ( Operation Lam Son 719 ) in 1971 , the ARVN 's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent .
The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it was already under way . It has been argued by some scholars that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause .
= = = = Unpublished government documents = = = =
Military Assistance Command , Vietnam , Command History 1967 , Annex F. Saigon , 1968 .
= = = = Published government documents = = = =
Gilster , Herman L. The Air War in Southeast Asia : Case Studies of Selected Campaigns . Maxwell Air Force Base AL : Air University Press , 1993 .
Nalty , Bernard C. Air War Over South Vietnam : 1968 – 1975 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2000 .
Nalty , Bernard C. War Against Trucks : Aerial Interdiction in Southern Laos , 1968 – 1972 . Washington DC : Air Force History and Museums Program , 2005 .
A War Too Long : The USAF in Southeast Asia , 1961 @-@ 1975
Foreign Relations Series
VIETNAM , JULY 1970 – JANUARY 1972
VIETNAM , JANUARY 1969 – JULY 1970
= = = = Secondary accounts = = = =
Chandler , David P. The Tragedy of Cambodian History . New Haven CT : Yale University Press , 1991 .
Deac , Wilfred , Road to the Killing Fields : The Cambodian Civil War of 1970 – 1975 . College Station TX : Texas A & M University , 1997 .
Fulghum , David , Terrence Maitland , et al . South Vietnam on Trial : Mid @-@ 1970 – 1972 . Boston ; Boston Publishing Company , 1984 .
Gitlin , Todd , The Sixties : Years of Hope , Days of Rage . New York : Bantam Books , 1987 .
Karnow , Stanley , Vietnam : A History . New York : Viking Books , 1983 .
Kennedy , Denis , Tracks in the Jungle in The Army at War . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1987 .
Lipsman , Samuel , Edward Doyle , et al . Fighting for Time : 1969 – 1970 . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1983 .
Morocco , John , Operation Menu in War in the Shadows . Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1988 .
Morocco , John , Rain of Fire : Air War , 1969 – 1973 Boston : Boston Publishing Company , 1985 .
Nolan , Keith W. Into Cambodia : Spring Campaign , Summer Offensive , 1970 . Novato CA : Presidio Press , 1990 .
Palmer , Dave Richard ( 1978 ) . Summons of the Trumpet : The History of the Vietnam War from a Military Man 's Viewpoint . New York : Ballantine .
Prados , John , The Blood Road : The Ho Chi Minh Trail and the Vietnam War . New York : John Wiley and Sons , 1998 .
Shaw , John M. The Cambodian Campaign : The 1970 Offensive and America 's Vietnam War . Lawrence KS : University of Kansas Press , 2005 .
Shawcross , William , Sideshow : Kissinger , Nixon and the Destruction of Cambodia . New York : Washington Square Books , 1979 .
Sorley , Lewis ( 1999 ) . A Better War : The Unexamined Victories and Final Tragedy of America 's Last Years in Vietnam . New York : Harvest Books . ISBN 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 601309 @-@ 6 .
Stanton , Shelby L. ( 1985 ) . The Rise and Fall of an American Army : U.S. Ground Forces in Vietnam , 1965 – 1973 . New York : Dell . ISBN 0 @-@ 89141 @-@ 232 @-@ 8 .
Tảng , Truong Như ; David Chanoff , Van Toai Doan ( 1985 ) . A Vietcong memoir ( 1985 ed . ) . Harcourt Brace Jovanovich . ISBN 978 @-@ 0 @-@ 15 @-@ 193636 @-@ 6 . - Total pages : 350
= = = = TIME coverage = = = =
" Upsetting the Balance " . Time . 23 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Danger and Opportunity in Indochina " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Royal Jugglers of Southeast Asia " . Time . 30 March 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Mounting Uneasiness in Southeast Asia " . Time . 6 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Nixon Doctrine 's Test in Indochina " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Three @-@ Theater War " . Time . 13 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina 's Crumbling Frontiers " . Time . 20 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" A New Horror in Indochina " . Time . 27 April 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Communists on the Rampage " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Between the Lines " . Time . 4 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The New Burdens of War " . Time . 11 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" At War with War " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" In Search of an Elusive Foe " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Ten Days — or Ten Years " . Time . 18 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Congress v. the President " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Now It 's ' Operation Buy Time ' " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Exodus on the Mekong " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Nixon 's Campaign for Confidence " . Time . 25 May 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Toward War by Proxy " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Senate : Unloving Acts " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Widening Cracks in Nixon 's Cabinet " . Time . 1 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : A Cocky New ARVN " . Time . 8 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina : More and More Fighters " . Time . 15 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" No Confidence on Cambodia " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Indochina : The Rising Tide of War " . Time . 22 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" New Dangers in Cambodia " . Time . 29 June 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Cambodian Venture : An Assessment " . Time . 6 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Cambodia : Struggle for Survival " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Winding Up the Cambodian Hard Sell " . Time . 13 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" Gloom in the Land of Smiles " . Time . 27 July 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
" The Discreet US Presence " . Time . 3 August 1970 . Retrieved 10 April 2007 .
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= Verpa bohemica =
Verpa bohemica is a species of fungus in the family Morchellaceae . Commonly known as the early morel ( or early false morel ) or the wrinkled thimble @-@ cap , it is one of several species known informally as a " false morel " . The mushroom has a pale yellow or brown thimble @-@ shaped cap — 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long — that has a surface wrinkled and ribbed with brain @-@ like convolutions . The cap hangs from the top of a lighter @-@ colored , brittle stem that measures up to 12 cm ( 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick . Microscopically , the mushroom is distinguished by its large spores , typically 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm , and the presence of only two spores per ascus .
In the field , the mushroom is reliably distinguished from the true morels on the basis of cap attachment : V. bohemica has a cap that hangs completely free from the stem . Although widely considered edible , consumption of the mushroom is generally not advised due to reports of poisoning in susceptible individuals . Poisoning symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination . V. bohemica is found in northern North America , Europe , and Asia . It fruits in early spring , growing on the ground in woods following the snowmelt , before the appearance of " true morels " ( genus Morchella ) . The synonym Ptychoverpa bohemica is often used by European mycologists .
= = Taxonomy , phylogeny , and naming = =
The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica . The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 . Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications . Boudier believed that the large , curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species . Ptychoverpa has also been classified as a section of Verpa . The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .
The specific epithet bohemica refers to Bohemia ( now a part of the Czech Republic ) , where Krombholz originally collected the species . The mushroom is commonly known as the " early morel " , " early false morel " , or the " wrinkled thimble @-@ cap " . Ptychoverpa is derived from the Ancient Greek ptyx ( genitive form ptychos ) , meaning " fold " , layer " , or " plate " .
= = Description = =
The cap of this fungus ( known technically as an apothecium ) is 2 to 4 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 1 @.@ 6 in ) in diameter by 2 to 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 8 to 2 @.@ 0 in ) long , with a conical or bell shape . It is folded into longitudinal ridges that often fuse together ( anastomose ) in a vein @-@ like network . The cap is attached to the stem at the top only — hanging from the top of the stipe , with the lobed edge free from the stem — and varies in color from yellowish @-@ brown to reddish @-@ brown ; the underside of the cap is pale . The stem is 6 to 12 cm ( 2 @.@ 4 to 4 @.@ 7 in ) long by 1 to 2 @.@ 5 cm ( 0 @.@ 4 to 1 @.@ 0 in ) thick , cream @-@ white in color , and tapers upward so that the stem is thicker at the base than at the top . Although the stem is initially loosely stuffed with cottony hyphae , it eventually becomes hollow in maturity ; overall , the mushroom is rather fragile . The spore deposit is yellow , and the flesh is white .
Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm . They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish . The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per ascus are characteristic for this species . The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide . The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic — they bend toward light . As he noted , " I cut transverse sections though their pilei , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must have faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci has been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . " This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind . The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .
= = = Edibility = = =
The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , has been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals . Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta . The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin . Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom has been reported to have induced a coma . Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance . Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems . Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from " strong but not on a par with true morels " , to " pleasant " , to " not distinctive " .
= = = Similar species = = =
The closely related species Verpa conica typically has a smooth cap , although specimens with wrinkled caps are known . V. conica may be distinguished microscopically by its eight @-@ spored asci . Its North American range extends much further south than V. bohemica . Another similar group of species are the " half @-@ free " morels , Morchella semilibera and others , which have a honeycombed cap that is attached to the stalk for about half of its length , and with ridges that are darker than the pits . Additionally , a cross @-@ sectioned stem of a specimen of M. semilibera is hollow , while V. bohemica usually has cottony wisps in the stem , and M. semilibera usually has vertical perforations near the base , while V. bohemica lacks them . Verpa bohemica may be reliably distinguished from all similar species by its much larger spores .
= = Ecology , habitat and distribution = =
The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season . It is often found along riverbanks , near cottonwoods , willows and aspens , often buried in plant litter . The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight . Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an optimum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It has been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle . The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast . In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and has been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine . In Asia , it has been recorded from India and Turkey .
A 10 @-@ year study of the distribution , time of fruiting and habitats of morel and false morel population in Iowa showed that early false morels are the first morels to fruit in the spring , appearing shortly after leaves begin to form on deciduous trees . Narrow @-@ head morels ( Morchella angusticeps ) fruit next , followed by the yellow or white morels ( Morchella esculenta ) , then lastly Morchella crassipes . The fruit bodies serve as a habitat for breeding dipterans ( flies ) , including Porricondyla media , Pegomya geniculata , and Trichocera annulata .
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= Varanasi =
Varanasi ( Hindustani pronunciation : [ ʋaːˈraːɳəsi ] ) , also known as Benares , Banaras ( Banāras [ bəˈnaːrəs ] ) , or Kashi ( Kāśī [ ˈkaːʃi ] ) , is a North Indian city on the banks of the Ganges in Uttar Pradesh , India , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of the state capital , Lucknow , and 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad . The spiritual capital of India , it is the holiest of the seven sacred cities ( Sapta Puri ) in Hinduism and Jainism , and played an important role in the development of Buddhism . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi , and is served by Varanasi Junction and Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport .
Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi . Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Goswami Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi . Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism . In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 . The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi , who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin . Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .
Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges . Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage . The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead . The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple . The Kashi Naresh ( Maharaja of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations . An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or have lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed . One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) . The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .
= = Etymology = =
Traditional etymology links " Varanasi " to the names of two Ganges tributaries forming the city 's borders : Varuna , still flowing in northern Varanasi , and Assi , today a small stream in the southern part of the city , near Assi Ghat . The old city is located on the north shores of the Ganges , bounded by Varuna and Assi .
In the Rigveda , an ancient Indian sacred collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns , the city is referred to as Kāśī ( Kashi ) from the Sanskrit verbal root kaś- " to shine " , making Varanasi known as " City of Light " , the " luminous city as an eminent seat of learning " . The name was also used by pilgrims dating from Buddha 's days .
Hindu religious texts use many epithets to refer to Varanasi , such as Kāśikā ( Sanskrit : " the shining one " ) , Avimukta ( Sanskrit : " never forsaken " by Shiva ) , Ānandavana ( Sanskrit : the forest of bliss ) , and Rudravāsa ( Sanskrit : the place where Rudra / Śiva resides ) .
Over most of the last millennium , the city was known as Banaras . In the 1950s , Indian government decided to return to the Sanskrit form Varanasi ; however , Banaras is still the predominant form used locally .
= = History = =
According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva . The Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to have visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they had committed during the climactic Kurukshetra War . It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha ; Ayodhyā , Mathurā , Gayā , Kaśī , Kañchi , Avantikā , and Dwārāvatī are the seven cities known as the givers of liberation .
= = = Archaeological evidence = = =
Archaeological evidence of the earliest known settlements around Varanasi in the Ganges valley suggest that they began in the 20th century BC , placing it among the world 's oldest continually inhabited cities according to Kenneth Fletcher . These archaeological remains suggest that the Varanasi area was populated by Vedic people . However , the oldest known text referencing the city , the Atharvaveda , which dates to approximately the same period , suggests that the area was populated by indigenous tribes . It is possible that archaeological evidence of these previous inhabitants has yet to be discovered . Recent excavations at Aktha and Ramnagar , two sites very near to Varanasi , show them to be from 1800 BC , suggesting Varanasi was also inhabited by this time .
= = = Ancient period = = =
Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . During the time of Gautama Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi . The Buddha is believed to have founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang , also known as Hiuen Tsiang , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges . When Xuanzang , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it " Polonisse " and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .
= = = Medieval period = = =
Chandradeva , founder of the Gahadvala dynasty made Banaras a second capital in 1090 .
During the Birth Period , Varanasi was connected by a road starting from Taxila and ending at Pataliputra .
Feroz Shah ordered Hindu temples at Varanasi destroyed in 1376 .
Varanasi remained the centre of activity for intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Several major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir who was born here in 1389 , and Ravidas , a 15th @-@ century socio @-@ religious reformer , mystic , poet , traveller , and spiritual figure , who was born and lived in the city and employed in the tannery industry .
= = = Modern history ( 1500 – present ) = = =
Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia . Guru Nanak Dev visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism .
Varanasi experienced a Hindu cultural revival in the 16th century under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar , who invested in the city and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu . The Raja of Pune established the Annapurna Mandir , and the 200 @-@ metre ( 660 ft ) Akbari Bridge was also completed during this period . The earliest tourists began arriving in the city during the 16th century . In 1665 , the French traveller Jean Baptiste Tavernier described the architectural beauty of the Vindu Madhava temple on the side of the Ganges . The road infrastructure was also improved during this period . It was extended from Kolkata to Peshawar by Emperor Sher Shah Suri ; later during the British Raj it came to be known as the famous Grand Trunk Road . In 1656 , Emperor Aurangzeb ordered the destruction of many temples and the building of mosques , causing the city to experience a temporary setback . However , after Aurangazeb 's death , most of India was ruled by a confederacy of pro @-@ Hindu kings . Much of modern Varanasi was built during this time , especially during the 18th century by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kings governing Varanasi continued to wield power and importance through much of the British Raj period , including the Maharaja of Benares , or Kashi Naresh .
The Kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 , during the reign of Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh . In the 18th century , Muhammad Shah ordered the construction of an observatory on the Ganges , attached to Man Mandir Ghat , designed to discover imperfections in the calendar in order to revise existing astronomical tables . Tourism in the city began to flourish in the 18th century . In 1791 , under the rule of the British Governor @-@ General Warren Hastings , Jonathan Duncan founded a Sanskrit College in Varanasi . In 1867 , the establishment of the Varanasi Municipal Board led to significant improvements in the city 's infrastructure and basic amenities of health services , drinking water supply and sanitation
In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , " Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . " In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself . The religious head , Kashi Naresh , has had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges . The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .
In 1857 , the British Army committed a massacre of Indian troops and city residence during the early stages of the Indian Rebellion of 1857 . Annie Besant founded the Central Hindu College , which later became a foundation for the creation of Banaras Hindu University in 1916 . Besant founded the Central Hindu College because she wanted to bring men of all religions together under the ideal of brotherhood in order to promote Indian cultural values and to remove ill @-@ will among different sections of the Indian population . "
Varanasi was ceded to the Union of India in 1947 , and Dr. Vibhuti Narayan Singh incorporated his territories into the United Provinces in 1949 . He died in 2000 . The current king and the resident of the fort is Anant Narayan Singh , since 1971 .
= = Geography and climate = =
= = = Geography = = =
Varanasi is located at an elevation of 80 @.@ 71 metres ( 264 @.@ 8 ft ) in the centre of the Ganges valley of North India , in the Eastern part of the state of Uttar Pradesh , along the left crescent @-@ shaped bank of the Ganges , averaging between 15 metres ( 50 ft ) and 21 metres ( 70 ft ) above the river . The city is the headquarters of Varanasi district . By road , Varanasi is located 797 kilometres ( 495 mi ) south @-@ east of New Delhi , 320 kilometres ( 200 mi ) south @-@ east of Lucknow , 121 kilometres ( 75 mi ) east of Allahabad , and 63 kilometres ( 39 mi ) south of Jaunpur . The " Varanasi Urban Agglomeration " – an agglomeration of seven urban sub @-@ units – covers an area of 112 @.@ 26 km 2 ( approximately 43 mi ² ) . Neighbourhoods of the city include Adampura , Anandbagh , Bachchhaon , Bangali Tola , Bhelpura , Bulanala , Chaitganj , Chaukaghat , Chowk , Dhupchandi , Dumraon , Gandhinagar , Gautam Nagar , Giri Nagar , Gopal Vihar , Guru Nanak Nagar , Jaitpura , Kail Garh , Khanna , Kotwali , Lanka Manduadih , Luxa , Maheshpur , Mahmoorganj , Maulvibagh , Nagwar , Naipokhari , Shivala , Siddhagiribagh , and Sigra .
Being located in the Indo @-@ Gangetic Plains of North India , the land is very fertile because low level floods in the Ganges continually replenish the soil . Varanasi is located between the Ganges confluences with two rivers : the Varuna and the Assi stream . The distance between the two confluences is around 2 miles ( 4 km ) , and serves as a sacred journeying route for Hindus , which culminates with a visit to a Sakshi Vinayak Temple .
= = = Climate = = =
Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures . The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October . The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers . Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights . Cold waves from the Himalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) . Fog is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called loo , blow in the summers . In recent years , the water level of the Ganges has decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .
= = Administration = =
= = = Politics and law = = =
Varanasi is governed by a number of bodies , the most important being the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and the Varanasi Development Authority , which is responsible for the master planning of the city . Water supply and sewage system is operated by the Jal Nigam . Varanasi is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin .
= = = Healthcare = = =
Sushruta , the great surgeon and author of the Sushruta Samhita , the Sanskrit text of surgery , lived in Varanasi and practised medicine and surgery sometime during the 5th century BC . Since 1922 , Ayurveda has been a subject of training in the Banaras Hindu University and in 1927 a separate Ayurvedic College was established . There are many Ayurvedic centres in Varanasi like Sparsa Ayurvedic Centre which provide Ayurvedic treatments such as Panchakarma and other methods . S S Ayurveda Hospital operates a Panchakarma treatment centre , in association with Kerala Ayurveda Ltd .
Varansi has several hospitals , including Heritage Hospital , Marwari Hospital , Pitambari Hopspital , Mata Anand Mai Hospital , Rajkiya Hospital , Ram Krishna Mission Hospital , Shiv Prasad Gupta Hospital , Pandit Deen Dayal Upadhyay hospital ( managed by state govt . ) the largest & superspaciality hospital is Sir Sundar Lal Hospital ( University Hospital ) having more 1150 beds & a separate trauma centre having 340 beds , and Varanasi Hospital and Medical Research Centre . A separate cancer institute is also operated in Varanasi . The Varanasi Hospital , established in 1964 by Dr. Baijnath Prasad . The hospital , which in 2012 had 66 beds , serves Varanasi and surrounding districts and states , many of which rely on it for surgery . Although the hospital suffers from a lack of funding , it has facilities such as x @-@ ray , ultrasonography , echocardiography and a pathology lab . The urban portion of Varanasi District had an infant mortality rate of 70 per 1 @,@ 000 live births in 2010 – 2011 .
= = = Public maintenance = = =
Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions have expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components . Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself . The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control . Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .
Parts of Varanasi are contaminated with industrial chemicals including toxic heavy metal . Studies of wastewater from Varanasi 's sewage treatment plants identify that water 's contamination with metals and the reuse of this water for irrigation as a way that the toxic metals come to be in the plants that people grow for food . One studied example is palak , a popular leafy vegetable which takes up heavy metal when it is in the soil , and which people then eat . Some of the polluting sludge contains minerals which are fertiliser , which could make polluted water attractive to use . Pesticides used in local farming are persistent enough to be spread through the water , to sewer treatment , then back to the farms as wastewater .
Varanasi 's water supply and sewage system is maintained by Jal Nigam , a subsidiary of Varanasi Nagar Nigam . Power supply is by the Uttar Pradesh Power Corporation Limited . The city produces about 350 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 litres ( 77 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 imp gal ; 92 @,@ 000 @,@ 000 US gal ) per day of sewage and 425 tonnes ( 418 long tons ; 468 short tons ) per day of solid waste . The solid wastes are disposed in one landfill site .
= = Demographics = =
According to provisional data from the 2011 census , the Varanasi urban agglomeration had a population of 1 @,@ 435 @,@ 113 , with 761 @,@ 060 men and 674 @,@ 053 women .
The population of the Varanasi urban agglomeration in 2001 was 1 @,@ 371 @,@ 749 with a ratio of 879 females every 1 @,@ 000 males . However , the area under Varanasi Nagar Nigam has a population of 1 @,@ 100 @,@ 748 with a ratio of 883 females for every 1 @,@ 000 males . The literacy rate in the urban agglomeration is 77 % while that in the municipal corporation area is 78 % . Approximately 138 @,@ 000 people in the municipal area live in slums .
7
= = Economy = =
According to the 2006 City Development Plan for Varanasi , approximately 29 % of Varanasi 's population is employed . Approximately 40 % are employed in manufacturing , 26 % work in trade and commerce , 19 % work in other services , 8 % work in transport and communication , 4 % work in agriculture , 2 % work in construction , and 2 % are marginal workers ( working for less than half of the year ) .
Among manufacturing workers , 51 % work in spinning and weaving , 15 % work in metal , 6 % work in printing and publishing , 5 % work in electrical machinery , and the rest work in a wide variety of industry sectors . Varanasi 's manufacturing industry is not well developed and is dominated by small @-@ scale industries and household production .
Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi . Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as weavers , dyers , sari finishers , and salespersons . Weaving is typically done within the household , and most weavers are Momin Ansari Muslims . Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and Banarasi saris , brocades with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions . The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India . The silk weaving industry has recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .
In the metal manufacturing sector , Diesel Locomotive Works is a major employer . Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited , a large power equipment manufacturer , also operates a heavy equipment maintenance plant . Other major commodities manufactured and traded in Varanasi include hand @-@ knotted Mirzapur carpets , rugs , dhurries , brassware , copperware , wooden and clay toys , handicrafts , gold jewellery , and musical instruments . Important agricultural products include betel leaves ( for paan ) , langra mangoes and khoa ( solidified milk ) .
Tourism is Varanasi 's second most important industry . Over 3 million domestic and 200 @,@ 000 foreign tourists visit annually ( in 2005 and 2010 , respectively ) , most commonly for religious purposes . Most domestic tourists are from Bihar , West Bengal , Madhya Pradesh , and Uttar Pradesh , while the majority of foreign tourists are from Sri Lanka and Japan . The peak tourist season falls between October and March . In total , there are around 12 @,@ 000 beds available in the city , of which about one half are in inexpensive budget hotels and one third in dharamsalas . Overall , Varanasi 's tourist infrastructure is not well developed .
The prominent malls and multiplexes in Varanasi are JHV Mall in the Varanasi Cantonment area , IP Mall in Sigra , IP Vijaya Mall in Bhelupur , and PDR in Luxa . The city has several banks , including the Allahabad Bank , Andhra Bank , Bank of Baroda , Canara Bank , Central Bank of India , Corporation Bank , Indian Overseas Bank , and State Bank of India .
= = Notable landmarks = =
Apart from the 19 archaeological sites identified by the Archaeological Survey of India , some of the prominent places of interest are the Aghor Peeth , the Alamgir Mosque , the Ashoka Pillar , the Bharat Kala Bhawan ( Art Museum ) , the Bharat Mata Temple , the Central University for Tibetan Studies , the Dhanvantari Temple , the Durga Temple , the Jantar Mantar , the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , the Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , the New Vishwanath Temple on the BHU campus , the Ramnagar Fort , the Riverfront Ghats , the Tulsi Manas Temple .
= = = Jantar Mantar = = =
The Jantar Mantar observatory , constructed in 1737 , is located above the ghats along the Ganges , and is adjacent to the Manmandir and Dasaswamedh Ghats and near the palace of Raja Jai Singh of Jaipur . While less equipped than the observatories at Jaipur and Delhi , the Jantar Mantar has a unique equatorial sundial which is functional and allows measurements to be monitored and recorded by one person .
= = = Ramnagar Fort = = =
The Ramnagar Fort , located near the Ganges on its eastern bank and opposite the Tulsi Ghat , was built in the 18th century by Kashi Naresh Raja Balwant Singh with cream @-@ coloured chunar sandstone . The fort is a typical example of the Mughal architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . At present , the fort is in disrepair . The fort and its museum are the repository of the history of the kings of Benares . Cited as an " eccentric " museum , it contains a rare collection of American vintage cars , bejewelled sedan chairs , an impressive weaponry hall , and a rare astrological clock . In addition , manuscripts , especially religious writings , are housed in the Saraswati Bhawan which is a part of a museum within the fort . Many books illustrated in the Mughal miniature style are also part of the collections . Because of its scenic location on the banks of the Ganges , it is frequently used as an outdoor shooting location for films .
= = = Ghats = = =
The Ghats in Varanasi are world @-@ renowned embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . The ghats are an integral complement to the Hindu concept of divinity represented in physical , metaphysical , and supernatural elements . Varanasi has at least 84 ghats , most of which are used for bathing by pilgrims and spiritually significant Hindu puja ceremony , while a few are used exclusively as Hindu cremation sites . Steps in the ghats lead to the banks of Ganges , including the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , and the Harishchandra Ghat , where Hindus cremate their dead . Many ghats are associated with Hindu legends and several are now privately owned .
Many of the ghats were built when the city was under Maratha control . Many ghats were constructed under the patronage of the Marathas , Shindes ( Scindias ) , Holkars , Bhonsles , and Peshwas . Most of the ghats are bathing ghats , while others are used as cremation sites . A morning boat ride on the Ganges across the ghats is a popular tourist attraction . The extensive stretches of ghats in Varanasi enhance the riverfront with a multitude of shrines , temples , and palaces built " tier on tier above the water 's edge " .
The Dashashwamedh Ghat is the main and probably the oldest ghat of Varanasi located on the Ganges , close to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . It is believed that Brahma created this ghat to welcome Shiva and sacrificed ten horses during the Dasa @-@ Ashwamedha yajna performed there . Above and adjacent to this ghat , there are also temples dedicated to Sulatankesvara , Brahmesvara , Varahesvara , Abhaya Vinayaka , Ganga ( the Ganges ) , and Bandi Devi , which are all important pilgrimage sites . A group of priests perform " Agni Pooja " ( Sanskrit : " Worship of Fire " ) daily in the evening at this ghat as a dedication to Shiva , Ganga , Surya ( Sun ) , Agni ( Fire ) , and the entire universe . Special aartis are held on Tuesdays and on religious festivals .
The Manikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city . Adjoining the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals . According to a myth it is said that an earring of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here . Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat . However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and has been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .
The Jain Ghat or Bachraj Ghat is a Jain Ghat and has three Jain Temples located on the banks of the River . It is believed that the Jain Maharajas used to own these ghats.Bachraj Ghat has three Jain temples near the river 's banks and one them is a very ancient temple of Tirthankara Suparswanath .
= = = Temples = = =
further information at Religion in Varanasi
Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi , the temples most popular for worship are : the Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva ; the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple ; and the Durga Temple , known for monkeys that reside in the large trees nearby .
The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga Shiva temples in Varanasi . The temple has been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence . The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple . The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in 1780 by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore . The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by Ranjit Singh , the ruler of Punjab . The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh . Numerous rituals , prayers , and aartis are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .
The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , which is situated by the Asi River , is one of the sacred temples of the Hindu god Hanuman . The present temple was built in the early 1900s by the educationist and Indian independence figure , Pandit Madan Mohan Malviya , the founder of Banaras Hindu University . According to Hindu legend the temple was built on the very spot where the medieval Hindu saint Tulsidas had a vision of Hanuman . During a 7 March 2006 terrorist attack , one of three explosions hit the temple while a wedding was in progress , and resulted in injuries to 30 people apart from 23 deaths . Following the attack , a permanent police post was installed inside the temple .
There are two temples named " Durga " in Varanasi : Durga Mandir built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' kund ' meaning " pond or pool " ) built in the 18th century . A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during Navratri to worship the goddess Durga . The temple , built in the Nagara architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered spires and is stained red with ochre , representing the red colour of Durga . The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( " Kund " meaning a pond or pool ) . During annual celebrations of Nag Panchami , the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha is recreated in the Kund . While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy . The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets . Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the Kalabhairav Temple , the Mrithyunjay Mahadev Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .
Parshvanath Jain temple : The Parshvanath Jain temple , Varanasi is temple of Jain religion dedicated to Parshvanath , the 23rd Thirthankara who was born at Bhelpur in Varanasi . The idol deified in the temple is of black colour and 75 cm in height . It is located in Bhelapur about 5 km from the centre of Varanasi city and 3 km from the Benares Hindu University . It belongs to the digambara sect of Jainism and is a holy tirtha or pilgrimage centre for Jains
= = = Mosques = = =
There are 15 mosques of significant historical value in Varanasi . Of particular note are the Abdul Razzaq , Alamgir , Bibi Razia , Chaukhambha , Dhai Nim Kangore , Fatman , Ganje Shahada , Gyanavapi and Hazrat Sayyed Salar Masud Dargah . Many of these mosques were constructed from the components of the Hindu shrines which were destroyed under the auspices of subsequent Muslim invaders or rulers . The two well known mosques are the Gyanvapi Mosque and the Alamgiri Mosque .
The Gyanvapi Mosque was built by the Mughal emperor Aurangzeb in 1664 CE , after destroying a Hindu temple . Gyan Vapi ( Sanskrit : " the well of knowledge " ) , the name of the mosque , is derived from a well of the same name located within the precincts of the mosque . The remains of an erstwhile temple can be seen in the foundation , the columns and at the rear part of the mosque The façade of the mosque is modelled partially on the Taj Mahal 's entrance . The mosque is administered by the Anjuman Inthazamiya Masajid ( AIM ) .
The Alamgiri Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple . The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and had been built by Beni Madhur Rao Scindia , a Maratha chieftain . When emperor Aurangzeb had captured Banaras , he had ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there . Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as Alamagir Mosque in the name of his own honorific title " Alamgir " which he had adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire . The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges . The mosque is architecturally a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque having been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple . The mosque has high domes and minarets . Two of its minarets had been damaged ; one minaret crashed killing a few people and the other minaret was officially brought down because of stability concerns . Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque . The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .
= = = Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan = = =
Shri Guru Ravidass Janam Asthan , at Seer Goverdhanpur is the ultimate place of pilgrimage or religious headquarters for followers of the Ravidasi religion . The foundation stone of this Mandir was laid on 14 June 1965 on Ashad Sankranti day at the birthplace of Guru Ravidass . The temple was completed in 1994 .
= = Culture = =
= = = Literature = = =
Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature . Renowned Indian writers who have resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram Charit Manas here . Kulluka Bhatt wrote the best known account of Manusmṛti in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city have included Acharya Shukla , Baldev Upadhyaya , Bharatendu Harishchandra , Devaki Nandan Khatri , Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Jaishankar Prasad , Munshi Premchand , Tegh Ali , Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar , Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya , Sudama Pandey ( Dhoomil ) , Vagish Shastri , and Vidya Niwas Mishra .
Several newspapers and journals are or were published in Varanasi such as Varanasi Chandroday and its successor Kashivartaprakashika , which became a weekly journal , first published on 1 June 1851 . The main newspaper is Aj , a Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper first published in 1920 . The newspaper was the bulwark of the Indian National Congress and is still a major newspaper of Hindi northern India .
= = = Art = = =
Varanasi is a major centre of arts and designs . It is a producer of silks and brocades with gold and silver thread work , carpet weaving , wooden toys , bangles made of glass , ivory work , perfumes , artistic brass and copper ware and a variety of handicrafts . The former cantonment graveyard during the British Raj is now the location of Varanasi 's Arts and Crafts .
Artists ( musicians and dancers ) and historians of repute who belonged to this city were : Anand Krishna , Anokhelal Mishra , Bismillah Khan , musicians Omkarnath Thakur , Ravi Shankar , Girija Devi , Gopal Shankar Misra , Gopi KrishnaKanthe Maharaj , Kishan Maharaj , Lalmani Misra , N. Rajam , Rai Krishnadasa , Siddheshwari Devi , Samta Prasad , Sitara Devi , Thakur Rajbhan Singh , and Pandit Vikash Maharaj .
= = = Music = = =
Varanasi ’ s music tradition is traced to the Pauranic days . According to ancient legend , Shiva is credited with evolving music and dance forms . During the medieval era , Vaishnava , a Bhakthi movement , grew in popularity , and Varanasi became a thriving centre for musicians such as Surdas , Kabir , Raidas , Meera and Tulsidas . During the monarchic rule of Govind Chandra in the 16th century , the Dhrupad style of singing received royal patronage and led to other related forms of music such as Dhamar , Hori , and Chaturang . Presently the Dhrupad maestro Pandit Ritwik Sanyal from Varanasi is working for the revival of this art @-@ music .
In recent times , Girija Devi , the native famous classical singer of thumris , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings . Varanasi is also associated with many great instrumentalists such as Ustad Bismillah Khan , Pandit Vikash Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous sitar player and musicologist who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat Ratna . Varanasi has joined the global bandwagon of UNESCO " Cities of Music " under the Creative Cities Network . Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .
= = = Festivals = = =
On Mahashivaratri ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . Dhrupad Mela is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to dhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March . The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman Jayanti ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman . A special puja , aarti , and a public procession is organised . Since 1923 , the temple has organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .
The Ramlila of Ramnagar is a dramatic enactment of Rama 's legend , as told in Ramacharitamanasa . The plays , sponsored by Kashi Naresh , are performed in Ramnagar every evening for 31 days . On the last day , the festivities reach a crescendo as Rama vanquishes the demon king Ravana . Kashi Naresh Udit Narayan Singh started this tradition around 1830 .
Nag Nathaiya is celebrated on the fourth lunar day of the dark fortnight of the Hindu month of Kartik ( October – November ) . It commemorates the victory of Krishna over the serpent Kaliya . On this occasion , a large Kadamba tree ( Neolamarckia cadamba ) branch is planted on the banks of the Ganges so that a boy , playing the role of Krishna , can jump into the river on to the effigy representing Kaliya . He stands over the effigy in a dancing pose playing the flute , while an audience watches from the banks of the river or from boats . Bharat Milap celebrates the meeting of Rama and his younger brother Bharata after the return of the former after 14 years of exile . It is celebrated during October – November , a day after the festival of Vijayadashami . Kashi Naresh attends this festival in his regal attire . The festival attracts a large number of devotees .
Ganga Mahotsav is a five @-@ day music festival organised by the Uttar Pradesh Tourism Department , held in November – December . It culminates a day before Kartik Poornima , also called the Ganges festival . On this occasion the Ganges is attended by thousands of pilgrims , release lighted lamps to float in the river from the ghats .
Every year , the primary Muslim festivals celebrated in the city are the ld @-@ ul @-@ fitr ' ( Ramzan ) , Bakrid , Shab @-@ e @-@ Barat , Bara Wafat and Muharram . Additional festivals include Alvida and Chehlum . A non @-@ religious festival observed by Muslims is Ghazi @-@ miyan @-@ ka @-@ byaha ( " the marriage of Ghazi Miyan " ) .
= = Education = =
Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country . Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) . It is home to a number of colleges and universities . Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students . The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology . Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include Imania Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( IIMT ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , Nav Sadhana Kala Kendra , Sampurnanand Sanskrit University , Sri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College , and Udai Pratap Autonomous College . Various engineering colleges have been established in the outskirts of the city .
St. Joseph 's Convent School , in Shivpur , in Varanasi was established by the Sisters of Our Lady of Providence of France as a Catholic ( Christian ) minority institution with due approval of the Government of Uttar Pradesh . It is an autonomous organisation under the Bishop of Varanasi Diocese . It provides education not only to the Catholic Christian children but also to others who abide by its rules .
Another important institution is the Central Hindu School ( CHS ) , Varanasi which was established by Annie Besant in July 1898 with the objective of imparting secular education , is located in Kamachha . It is one of the reputed schools in the country and is also one of the largest such schools . It is affiliated to the Central Board of Secondary Education ( CBSE ) It is open to students of all culture .
Schools in Varanasi are affiliated with the Indian Certificate of Secondary Education ( ICSE ) , the CBSE , or the Uttar Pradesh Board of Technical Education ( U.P Board ) . The overall " state of education in Varanasi is ... not good . " Schools in Varanasi vary widely in quality , with private schools outperforming government schools . In government schools , many teachers fail to come to class or to teach children . Some government schools lack basic equipment , such as blackboards and sufficient desks and chairs for all students . Private schools vary in quality , with the most expensive conducting lessons in English ( seen as a key to children 's success ) and having computers in classrooms . Pupils attending the more expensive private schools , tended to come from upper @-@ class families . Lower @-@ cost private schools attracted children from lower @-@ income families or those lower @-@ income families with higher education aspirations . Government schools tend to serve lower @-@ class children with lower education aspirations .
= = Sport = =
Basketball , cricket , and field hockey are popular sports in Varanasi . The main stadium in the city is the Sigra Stadium , also known as Dr Sampurnanda Stadium , where first @-@ class cricket matches are held . Local cricket matches are also played on the BHU Ground Dr. Bheeem Rao sports complex .
The Physical Education Faculty of Arts of BHU offers diploma courses in Sports Management , Sports Physiotherapy , Sports Psychology and Sports Journalism .
Gymnastics is also popular in Varanasi , and many Indian girls practice outdoors at the ghats in the mornings which hosts akhadas , where " morning exercise , a dip in the Ganges and a visit to Lord Hanuman " forms a daily ritual . Despite concerns regarding water quality , two swimming clubs offer swimming lessons in the Ganges .
The Varanasi District Chess Sports Association ( VDCSA ) is based in Varanasi , affiliated to the regional Uttar Pradesh Chess Sports Association ( UPCSA ) . Udai Pratap Autonomous College is also known for its world class athletes like Prashanti Singh .
= = Transport = =
Varanasi is well @-@ connected by air , rail and road . One of the major factors in Varanasi 's is its access to all parts of the country . Within the city mobility is provided by taxis , rickshaws , cycle rickshaws and three wheelers but with certain restrictions in the old town area of the city .
Varanasi is served by Lal Bahadur Shastri International Airport , which is approximately 26 km ( 16 mi ) from the city centre in Babatpur . The airport inaugurated a new terminal in 2010 , and it was granted international airport status on 4 October 2012 . Air India , Buddha Air , Jet Airways , Jet Konnect , IndiGo , and SpiceJet operate flights from Varanasi to Delhi , Gaya , Kathmandu , Khajuraho , Sharjah , Lucknow , Mumbai , Hyderabad , Bangalore , and Kolkata . Over 330 @,@ 000 passengers pass through the airport each year .
Varanasi Junction , commonly known as Varanasi Cant Railway Station , is the city 's largest train station . More than 360 @,@ 000 passengers and 240 trains pass through each day . Some of the important express trains operating from the Varanasi Junction railway station are : the Udhna Varanasi Express that runs between Udhna ( Surat ) junction and Varanasi , a distance of 1 @,@ 398 kilometres ( 869 mi ) ; the Kashi Vishwanath Express that runs between Varanasi and New Delhi Railway Station ; the Kanpur Varanasi InterCity express , also called Varuna express , which runs over a distance of 355 kilometres ( 221 mi ) and connects with Lucknow ( the capital city of Uttar Pradesh ) and Kanpur ; and the Sabarmati Express which runs between Varanasi and Ahmedabad . Varanasi lies along National Highway 2 , which connects it to Kolkata , Kanpur , Agra , and Delhi . National Highway 29 connects Varanasi to Gorakhpur via Ghazipur to the northeast . National Highway 56 connects Varanasi to Lucknow via Jaunpur and Sultanpur , to the northwest . National Highway 7 , the longest National Highway in India , is the most important road connecting Varanasi to southern India , passing through the cities of Hyderabad , Bangalore , Salem , Madurai , Tirunelveli , and Kanyakumari . Auto rickshaws and cycle rickshaws are the most widely available forms of public transport in old city . In the outer regions of the city , buses are common , and taxis are available .
= = Twin towns – Sister cities = =
Varanasi is twinned with :
Kyoto , Japan
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= Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory =
The Toronto Magnetic and Meteorological Observatory is a historical observatory located on the grounds of the University of Toronto , in Toronto , Ontario , Canada . The original building was constructed in 1840 as part of a worldwide research project run by Edward Sabine to determine the cause of fluctuations in magnetic declination . Measurements from the Toronto site demonstrated that sunspots were responsible for this effect on Earth 's magnetic field . When this project concluded in 1853 , the observatory was greatly expanded by the Canadian government and served as the country 's primary meteorological station and official timekeeper for over fifty years . The observatory is considered the birthplace of Canadian astronomy .
= = Sabine 's study = =
Compasses tended to " wander " from north when measurements were taken at different locations or even at a single location over a period of time . The astronomer Edmund Halley noted this and the problems it would cause for navigation in 1701 . It was also believed that whatever was causing this effect might be causing changes in the weather , and that studying magnetic variations might lead to better weather prediction .
In 1833 the British Association for the Advancement of Science commissioned a series of magnetic measurements across the United Kingdom . Under the direction of Major Edward Sabine of the Royal Artillery , a multi @-@ year measuring project began , with the results to be published in 1838 . As the measurements were being made a number of proposals were put forth to expand the program worldwide . In 1836 the German explorer and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt wrote to Prince Augustus Frederick , Duke of Sussex , then President of the Royal Society , stating that a formal program was important to a nation with dominions spread across the globe . At the seventh meeting of the British Association in Liverpool in 1837 , Sabine declared that " the magnetism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical history of the planet we inhabit " and mapping its variations would be " regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achievement of a nation which has ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous undertaking " .
In 1837 , the British Government funded the installation of a magnetic observatory at Greenwich . The Association continued to press for the construction of similar observatories around the world , and in 1838 their suggestions were accepted by the Government and funds were provided . In 1839 the British Government and the Royal Society prepared four expeditions to build magnetic observation stations in Cape Town ; St. Helena ; Hobart , Tasmania and ( eventually ) Toronto . Teams of Royal Artillery officers were sent out to take the measurements . The team assigned to Canada originally planned to build their observatory on Saint Helen 's Island off Montreal , but the local rocks proved to have a high magnetic influence , and the decision was made to move to Toronto instead . The team arrived in 1839 , and set up camp at Fort York in a disused barracks while construction started on new buildings . The observatory was given 10 acres ( 4 @.@ 0 ha ) of land to the west of King 's College ; the Ontario Legislature now occupies the area on which the college was located .
The observatory , officially " Her Majesty 's Magnetical and Meteorological Observatory at Toronto " , was completed the following year . It consisted of two log buildings , one for the magnetic instruments and the other a smaller semi @-@ buried building nearby for " experimental determinations " . The north end of the main building was connected to a small conical dome which contained a theodolite used to make astronomical measurements for the accurate determination of the local time . The buildings were constructed with as little metal as possible ; when metal was required , non @-@ magnetic materials such as brass or copper were used . A small barracks was built nearby to house the crew .
Using the measurements from the Toronto and Hobart sites , Sabine noticed both short @-@ term fluctuations in magnetic declination over a period of hours , and longer @-@ term variations over months . He quickly concluded that the short term variations were due to the day / night cycle , while the longer term ones were due to the number of visible sunspots . He published two introductory papers on the topic in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . The first , in 1851 , was a collection of early measurements ; the second in 1852 correlated with Heinrich Schwabe 's sunspot measurements , which had been made widely available in Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos , also published in 1851 . With further data collected from the Toronto site , Sabine was able to demonstrate conclusively that the eleven @-@ year sunspot cycle caused a similarly periodic variation in the Earth 's magnetic field . He presented a third and conclusive paper on the topic in 1856 , " On Periodical Laws Discoverable in the Mean Effects of the Larger Magnetic Disturbances " , in which he singled out the Toronto site for particular praise .
Sir John Henry Lefroy , a pioneer in the study of terrestrial magnetism served as director of the magnetic observatory from 1842 to 1853 ; In 1960 , the Ontario Heritage Foundation , Ministry of Citizenship and Culture erected a Provincial Military Plaque in his honour on the University of Toronto campus .
= = Meteorological service = =
In 1853 the Royal Society 's project was concluded , and the observatory was set to be abandoned . After a lengthy debate , the fledgling colonial government decided to take over its operation . Rather than disappearing like its three counterparts , the Toronto observatory was upgraded , and its mission was expanded as it became a meteorological station ( see Meteorological Service of Canada ) under the direction of the Ministry of Marine and Fisheries . During the expansion , the original buildings were replaced with a permanent structure .
The new building was designed in 1853 by local architect Frederick Cumberland , who was also working on the design of University College , which was being built just north of the Observatory to replace King 's College . The new observatory design called for a stone building , with an attached tower containing the theodolite . The new building was completed in 1855 , and stood directly opposite the entrance of today 's Convocation Hall .
During its time as a meteorological station , the observatory collected reports from 312 observation stations in Canada and another 36 in the United States . Each station was equipped with a " Mercurial Barometer , two Thermometers ( a maximum and a minimum Thermometer ) , an Anemometer to measure the velocity of the wind , a Wind Vane and a Rain Gauge " . Reports were sent in coded form to the Observatory at 8 am and 8 pm every day , Eastern Standard Time ( then known as " 75th meridian time " ) , and used to produce a chart predicting the weather for the following 36 hours . These predictions were then telegraphed across the country , and charts were distributed to newspapers and the Board of Trade , where they could be viewed by the public . With the installation of telephones , the Observatory also offered weather reports on demand , which was an important service to fruit vendors , who used the reports to plan shipping .
Among its other uses , in 1880 , measurements from the site were used as part of the effort to develop standard time . The observatory remained the official timekeeper for Canada until 1905 , when that responsibility was transferred to Ottawa 's Dominion Observatory . At exactly 11 : 55 am the clocks in Toronto fire halls were rung by an electrical signal from the Observatory .
In 1881 the observatory 's director , Charles Carpmeal , suggested adding a high @-@ quality telescope to the observatory . He felt that direct solar observations would lead to a better understanding of sunspot effects on weather ( as late as 1910 the observatory 's then @-@ director , R. F. Stupart , noted that " sun spots have more to do with our weather conditions than have the rings around the moon . " ) . Coincidentally , the Canadian government ( having formed in 1867 ) was interested in taking part in the major international effort to accurately record the December 1882 Transit of Venus .
Funds were provided for the purchase of a 6 @-@ inch ( 150 mm ) refracting telescope from T. Cooke & Sons . The dome was originally designed to mount a small transit , and the lengthy telescope , over 2 metres long , had a limited field of view though the dome 's opening . A large stone pillar was constructed inside the tower , raising the telescope to bring it closer to the dome and improve its field of view . Unfortunately , the new telescope was unable to take part in the transit measurements due to bad weather , and missed the 1895 Transit of Mercury for the same reason .
= = Relocation = =
By the 1890s , the observatory had become crowded by the rapidly growing university . Electrification of the tramways along College Street just to the south , and the large quantities of metal used in the modern buildings surrounding the site threw off the instruments . A new magnetic observatory opened in 1898 in Agincourt , at that time largely empty fields , [ 1 ] leaving the downtown campus location with its meteorological and solar observation duties .
By 1907 , new university buildings completely surrounded the observatory ; dust from the construction clogged meteorological instruments , and at night electric lighting made astronomical work impossible . The Meteorological Office decided to abandon the site and move to a new building at the north end of campus on Bloor Street , trading the original Observatory to the University in exchange for the new parcel of land . There was some discussion regarding what to do with the Cooke telescope , since the Meteorological Office had little use for this purely astronomical instrument . No other use was immediately forthcoming , and the telescope moved along with the Meteorological Office to their new Bloor Street Observatory .
The university assumed ownership of the now @-@ disused observatory building and was originally going to abandon it . Louis Beaufort Stewart , a lecturer in the Faculty of Applied Science and Engineering , campaigned for it to be saved for the Department of Surveying and Geodesy . He eventually arranged for the building to be re @-@ constructed on a more suitable site . Demolition work was carried out in 1907 : the stones were simply left in place over the winter , and were used the following year to construct a re @-@ arranged building just east of the main University College building ( south of Hart House ) .
In 1930 the Meteorological Office no longer used the Cooke telescope , and agreed to donate it to the university if they would handle its removal . Both the telescope and the observatory dome were moved to the observatory building . The telescope moved once again in 1952 to the David Dunlap Observatory north of the city , and in 1984 it was donated to the Canada Science and Technology Museum . The Department of Surveying and Geodesy used the observatory until the 1950s . Since then the office areas have been used for a variety of purposes , including a police substation and a telephone switchboard . Renamed as the Louis Beaufort Stewart Observatory , the building was handed over to the Students ' Administrative Council ( now University of Toronto Students ' Union ) in 1953 , which has used the building since then . The dome , now unused , receives a yearly multi @-@ colour paint job by engineering students .
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= 1973 Atlantic hurricane season =
The 1973 Atlantic hurricane season was the first season to use the Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , a scale developed in 1971 by Herbert Saffir and Robert Simpson to rate the intensity of tropical cyclones . The season produced 24 tropical and subtropical cyclones , of which only 8 reached storm intensity , 4 became hurricanes , and only 1 reached major hurricane status . Although more active than the 1972 season , 1973 brought few storms of note . Nearly half of the season 's storms affected land , one of which resulted in severe damage .
The season officially began on June 1 , 1973 , and lasted until November 30 , 1973 . These dates conventionally delimit the period of each year when most tropical cyclones form in the Atlantic basin . However , the first system formed on April 18 , more than a month before the official start . Three more depressions formed before June 1 ; however , none attained storm intensity . The first named storm of the year was Hurricane Alice which formed on July 1 and became the first known cyclone to affect Bermuda during July . More than a month later , the second hurricane , Brenda , formed and was considered the worst storm to strike Mexico along the eastern coast of the Bay of Campeche , killing 10 people .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone on record when it developed formed over Guinea . The most intense storm of the season was Hurricane Ellen , a Category 3 cyclone that remained over open water . The final named storm was meteorologically significant in that it became the first recorded tropical cyclone to transition into a subtropical cyclone . No names were retired during the season ; however , due to the addition of male names into the list of Atlantic hurricane names in 1979 , several of the names were removed and have not been used since .
= = Season summary = =
The first storm of the 1973 hurricane season , forming in mid @-@ April , developed more than a month before the official start of the season . Several other short @-@ lived , weak depressions formed before and during June ; however , none reached storm intensity . The first named storm , Alice , formed on July 1 . Tracking generally to the north , Alice also became the first hurricane of the season as well as the first known cyclone to impact Bermuda during July . Shortly after Alice dissipated over Atlantic Canada , another depression formed . By the end of July , two more non @-@ developing depressions formed and the first subtropical cyclone , given the name Alfa , developed off the east coast of the United States . This storm was short @-@ lived and dissipated on August 2 just offshore southern Maine . The first half August was relatively quiet , with only one depression forming . However , later in the month , the season 's second hurricane , Brenda , formed in the northwestern Caribbean . Peaking just below Category 2 status on the newly introduced Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , Brenda made the first recorded landfall in the Mexican State of Campeche .
Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record , developing over the western African country of Guinea on August 25 . The system traveled for several thousand miles before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea in early September . At the start of the month , a new tropical storm formed in the Gulf of Mexico . This storm , named Delia , became the first known cyclone to make landfall in the same city twice . After moving inland a second time , Delia eventually dissipated on September 7 . As Delia dissipated another depression formed in the same region , eventually making landfall in the same city as Delia , Freeport , Texas . Another brief depression formed several days later . On September 13 , the strongest storm of the season , Ellen , formed over the eastern Atlantic . After tracking northwest for several days , Ellen eventually attained hurricane status as it turned westward . Several days later , the hurricane turned northeast due to an approaching frontal system . Shortly before becoming extratropical , Ellen reached major hurricane intensity at a record northerly latitude .
In late September , a brief depression affected northern Florida before dissipating . After a week of inactivity , the second subtropical storm of the year formed over the central Atlantic . This storm , named Bravo , gradually intensified , becoming fully tropical , at which time it was renamed Fran , a few days later . Upon being renamed , Fran had intensified into a hurricane and maintained this intensity for several days before dissipating east of the Azores on October 12 . A few days after Fran dissipated , the final named storm of the year formed in the central Caribbean Sea . A slow moving system , Gilda gradually intensified just below hurricane @-@ intensity before striking Cuba and moving over the Bahamas . A few days after passing through the islands , Gilda became the first storm on record to transition from a tropical cyclone into a subtropical cyclone . A large storm , Gilda eventually became extratropical near Atlantic Canada and dissipated later that month . Around the time Gilda was dissipating , a weak depression briefly existed near the Azores . The final storm of the year was a strong depression in the southern Caribbean Sea . This system was active for less than two days but may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity as it made landfall in southern Nicaragua .
= = Storms = =
= = = Hurricane Alice = = =
The first named storm formed out of the interaction between tropical wave and a mid @-@ level tropospheric trough northeast of the Bahamas in late @-@ June . A well @-@ defined circulation became apparent by June 30 and satellite images depicted cyclonic banding features . The following day , the system intensified into a tropical depression and shortly thereafter became a tropical storm as reconnaissance aircraft recorded gale @-@ force winds . An area of high pressure to the east of Alice steered the storm generally to the north . Decreasing wind shear allowed the storm to become increasingly organized and a well @-@ defined eye developed by July 3 . By this time , reconnaissance had determined that the storm had intensified into a hurricane , with maximum winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .
On July 4 , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) , as the eastern portion of the eyewall brushed Bermuda . After passing the island , Alice began to accelerate in response to a mid @-@ level trough over the eastern United States and weakened . By July 6 , winds head decreased below hurricane intensity as the storm neared Atlantic Canada . Later that day , Alice made landfall in eastern Newfoundland with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .
During its passage of Bermuda , Alice produced sustained winds up to 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) and gusts to 87 mph ( 140 km / h ) . No major damage was recorded on the island , though the winds blew down a few trees and powerlines . The heavy rainfall , peaking at 4 @.@ 57 in ( 116 mm ) , ended a three @-@ month drought in Bermuda . Although Alice tracked through Atlantic Canada , no impact was recorded .
= = = Subtropical Storm Alfa = = =
During late July , an upper @-@ level low , with a non @-@ tropical cold core , formed near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and tracked southward . Gradually , the circulation lowered to the surface and developed subtropical characteristics . On July 31 , the system attained gale @-@ force winds off the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast and was named Alfa , the first name from the list of subtropical storm names for the 1973 season . Tracking north @-@ northeast , the system intensified very little as it paralleled the coastline . By August 1 , the system weakened below subtropical storm intensity as it neared New England . The following day , Alfa dissipated just off the southern coast of Maine . The only effects from Alfa was light to moderate rainfall in New England , peaking at 5 @.@ 03 in ( 128 mm ) in Turners Falls , Massachusetts . Most of southern Maine recorded around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with a maximum of 2 @.@ 59 in ( 66 mm ) in Saco .
= = = Hurricane Brenda = = =
Hurricane Brenda originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 9 ; however , the initial wave quickly weakened upon entering the Atlantic Ocean . By August 13 , the wave began to regenerate as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . Several days later , convection associated with the system consolidated into a central , organized mass and on August 18 , the system had become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression while situated near the Yucatán Channel . Early the next day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda as it made landfall in the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . After moving inland , a strong ridge of high pressure over Texas forced the storm to take an unusual track , eventually leading it to enter the Bay of Campeche on August 20 .
Once back over water , Brenda began to intensify , attaining hurricane status late on August 20 . The next day , a well @-@ defined eye had developed and the storm attained its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . The storm made landfall later that day near Ciudad del Carmen , Mexico at this intensity , becoming the first hurricane on record to strike the region . After moving inland , Brenda rapidly weakened to a depression by the morning of August 22 and dissipated later that day .
Already suffering from severe flooding that killed at least 18 people and left 200 @,@ 000 homeless , Hurricane Brenda worsened the situation with torrential rainfall and additional flooding . The storm killed at least 10 people in the country . Following the damage wrought by Brenda , a large earthquake struck the region , hampering relief efforts and collapsing numerous structures . Winds on land gusted up to 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) , leading to severe wind damage . Two of the fatalities occurred in Campeche after 80 % of the city was flooded . This was considered the worst flooding in the city in over 25 years . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as a direct result of Brenda throughout Mexico . Offshore , a freighter with 25 crewman became trapped in the storm after its engines failed . They were safely rescued several days later once the storm had dissipated .
= = = Tropical Storm Christine = = =
The easternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , Tropical Storm Christine , originated as a tropical wave over Africa in mid @-@ August . As it neared the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned a tropical depression at 14 @.@ 0 ° W , over the country of Guinea , unlike most cyclone producing waves which travel several hundred miles over water before spawning a depression . Although it was already a depression , advisories on the storm were not issued until August 30 , five days after its formation . For several days , the depression maintained its intensity as it steadily tracked west across the Atlantic . It eventually attained tropical storm intensity on August 28 . Despite the lack of aircraft reconnaissance in the region , the intensity was determined by wind readings from a German cargo ship that passed through the storm .
On August 30 , the first reconnaissance mission into the storm found tropical storm @-@ force winds and the first advisory was issued that day , immediately declaring the system as Tropical Storm Christine . Three days later , Christine attained its peak intensity just below hurricane @-@ status with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 996 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Shortly thereafter , increasing wind shear caused the storm to weaken as it neared the Leeward Islands . As it passed over Antigua on September 3 , Christine weakened to a tropical depression and eventually dissipated near the Dominican Republic later that day .
During its passage through the Leeward Islands , Christine produced torrential rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 74 in ( 298 mm ) in southeastern Puerto Rico . These rains led to flooding on several islands . One person was killed during the storm after being electrocuted by a downed power line on a flooded road . Schools were closed ahead of the storm in Puerto Rico and the United States Virgin Islands as a precaution following the issuance of flood warnings . Six scientists had to be evacuated from the small island of Aves once the storm posed a threat to them . No major damage was reported on any of the affected islands in the wake of Christine .
= = = Tropical Storm Delia = = =
On August 27 , a tropical wave formed over the central Caribbean and tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . The system gradually developed organized shower and thunderstorm activity . By September 1 , a tropical depression developed from the wave . By September 3 , the depression had intensified into a tropical storm , receiving the name Delia , and began tracking more towards the west . A complex steering patter began to take place later on that day , resulting in the creation of a more hostile environment for tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico . As Delia neared the Texas coastline , it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) at this time . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone made its first landfall in Freeport , Texas late on September 4 . After executing a counterclockwise loop , the storm made landfall in Freeport again on September 5 . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened , becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico .
Due to the erratic track of the storm along the Texas coastline , widespread heavy rains fell in areas near the storm and in Louisiana . Tides up to 6 ft ( 1 @.@ 8 m ) , in addition to rainfall up to 13 @.@ 9 in ( 350 mm ) , caused significant flooding in the Galveston @-@ Freeport area . Up to $ 3 million was reported in damages to homes due to the flooding . Throughout Louisiana , there was substantial flooding of farmland . Damages to crops amounted to $ 3 million . In addition to the flooding rains produced by Delia , eight tornadoes also touched down due to the storm , injuring four people . Five people were killed during Delia , two drowned during floods , two died in a car accident and the other died from a heart attack while boarding up his home .
= = = Tropical Depression Eleven = = =
On September 6 , a tropical depression formed over the northwestern Caribbean Sea within a trough of low pressure extended southeastward from Delia , which was situated over southeast Texas at the time . The depression remained weak until it reached the Texas coastline on September 10 . Once onshore , it produced significant rainfall , causing significant damage that was attributed to Tropical Storm Delia . After turning northeast and tracking inland , the depression quickly increased in forward speed before dissipating over North Carolina on September 14 .
Along the coasts of Texas and Louisiana , the depression produced significant amounts of rainfall , peaking at 11 @.@ 15 in ( 283 mm ) near Freeport . Several areas in southern Louisiana recorded rainfall exceeding 5 in ( 130 mm ) with a maximum amount of 9 @.@ 2 in ( 230 mm ) falling in Kinder . Significant rainfall was also recorded in the Carolinas and Georgia , with numerous areas recording over 3 in ( 76 mm ) . A maximum of 9 @.@ 35 in ( 237 mm ) fell near Whitmire , South Carolina before the system dissipated . In all , the depression resulted in an additional $ 22 million in crop losses in southern Louisiana .
= = = Hurricane Ellen = = =
The strongest storm of the season , Hurricane Ellen , began as a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on September 13 . On the following day , the wave spawned an area of low pressure south of the Cape Verde Islands that quickly became a tropical depression . Tracking northeast , the system intensified into a tropical storm on September 15 after sustained winds of 45 mph ( 75 km / h ) were reported by a French naval vessel ; however , due to sparse data on the storm , the first advisory on Ellen was not issued for two more days . A slightly elongated storm , Ellen gradually intensified over the open Atlantic and was steered by two troughs of low pressure . On September 18 , the storm took a nearly due west track and the system became increasingly organized , with an ill @-@ defined eye becoming present on satellite imagery .
The next day , Ellen intensified into a hurricane before taking a sharp turn to the north @-@ northwest in response to a weak trough moving northeast from the Bahamas . Gradually , the hurricane turned more towards the northeast and began to accelerate as well as intensify . Despite being at an unusually high latitude for development , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane on September 23 . At that time , Ellen attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Upon attaining this intensity at 42 @.@ 1 ° N , Ellen had become a major hurricane farther north than any other tropical cyclone on record , and is one of two storms to become a major hurricane north of 38 ° N , the other being Hurricane Alex in 2004 . Shortly after peaking , Ellen transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before merging with a frontal system several hundred miles east of Newfoundland on September 23 .
= = = Tropical Depression Thirteen = = =
On September 24 , a depression formed northeast of the Bahamas . The following day , the NHC issued their first advisory on the system , declaring it a subtropical depression . The depression was displayed an asymmetrical structure , with most winds being recorded up to 300 mi ( 480 km ) north of the center . Later that day , the subtropical depression organized into a tropical depression . Upon doing so , the NHC issued small craft advisories for coastal areas between North Carolina and St. Augustine , Florida . Tracking north @-@ northwestward in response to a break in a subtropical ridge to the north , the depression eventually made landfall near Marineland , Florida and quickly weakened , dissipating before reaching the Gulf of Mexico .
Heavy rain fell in association with the depression in parts of Florida and Georgia . A maximum of 6 @.@ 74 in ( 171 mm ) fell in Orlando while several other areas recorded over 3 in ( 76 mm ) of rain . Over land , wind gusts reached 40 mph ( 65 km / h ) in some locations . Offshore , swells produced by the system reached 10 ft ( 3 @.@ 0 m ) , impacting several vessels in the region . Minor beach erosion and coastal flooding was reported in parts of South Carolina as a result of the storm . In parts of coastal Georgia , high water resulted in several road closures and flooded a few homes . Police officers in Savannah reported that wave were topping the local seawall ; however , no damage was reported .
= = = Hurricane Fran ( Bravo ) = = =
The final hurricane of the season , Fran , originated from an area of convection north of Hispaniola on October 1 . By October 4 , the system interacted with a mid @-@ tropospheric trough near the southeast United States , resulting in the formation of a surface low . Tracking eastward , showers and thunderstorms began to develop around the circulation ; however , the structure of the system was not fully tropical . Late on October 8 , the cyclone had become sufficiently organized to be classified a subtropical depression . Cold air from the remnants of a cold front became entrained within the circulation ; however , the cold air gradually warmed . The following day , winds increased to gale @-@ force and the depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm , at which time it was given the name Bravo .
By October 10 , Bravo had intensified substantially , as hurricane hunters recorded hurricane @-@ force winds roughly 15 mi ( 25 km ) from the center of the storm . Following this finding , the National Hurricane Center reclassified the system as a tropical system and renamed it Fran , dropping its previous designation of Bravo . Steered generally eastward by a deep surface low in the westerlies , Fran accelerated towards the Azores Islands . Shortly after bypassing the islands on October 12 , the central pressure of Fran decreased to 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the hurricane . Shortly after reaching this intensity , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and quickly merged with a cold front off the coast of France . Although Fran passed near the Azores , no impact was recorded on any of the islands .
= = = Tropical Storm Gilda = = =
The precursor to Tropical Storm Gilda was a large convective system partially due to a tropical wave . It gradually became better organized over the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and on October 15 , a tropical depression formed off the coast of Nicaragua . As it drifted to the northeast , it strengthened to a tropical storm , peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . Before it hit the coast of Cuba , it weakened enough to cause only minor damage . By the time it struck the island , it had become very disorganized in nature .
On October 24 , cool , dry air entered the newly developed convection , and as a result it transitioned into a subtropical cyclone . Gilda became the first tropical system to pass through a subtropical stage prior to becoming extratropical . The large circulation continued northeast before becoming extratropical on October 27 . The remnants of Gilda intensified as they tracked near Atlantic Canada , attaining a central pressure of 968 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 58 inHg ) near Cape Race , Newfoundland . The system eventually dissipated near southern Greenland on October 29 .
Gilda caused heavy rain and mudslides in Jamaica , destroying six homes and killing six people . In Cuba , Gilda dropped over 6 in ( 150 mm ) of rain , while 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) winds were reported in the northern part of the country . In the Bahamas , Gilda caused significant crop damage from heavy rainfall and high tides . The storm 's persistent strong currents and easterly winds caused moderate beach erosion on the East Coast of the United States , mostly along the Florida coast . The extratropical remnants of the storm produced hurricane @-@ force wind gusts over parts of Atlantic Canada , peaking at 75 mph ( 120 km / h ) ; however , no damage was reported .
= = = Other storms = = =
In addition to the eight named storms of 1973 and two notable tropical depressions , there were several minor systems that were classified as depressions by the National Hurricane Center . The first four systems of the year were not classified as fully tropical , rather they were associated with the remnants of decaying cold fronts . On April 18 , the first of these depressions formed northeast of the Bahamas and tracked in a curved motion before dissipating over open water on April 21 . Several days later , on April 24 , another depression formed in the same general region ; however , this system was shorter lived and dissipated two days later without significant movement . On May 2 , another partially tropical system formed over open waters . The cyclone tracked northeast and dissipated late on May 5 east @-@ southeast of the Azores . On May 11 , a brief depression formed near Bermuda but dissipated the following day . Roughly a week into the official hurricane season , the fifth depression of the year formed just offshore southeast Florida , near Miami . The system tracked northwest across the peninsula and briefly entered the Gulf of Mexico on June 8 before making landfall along the Florida Panhandle . The depression eventually dissipate on June 10 over South Carolina .
On June 23 , another depression formed along Florida , this time just onshore near the Georgia border . The system slowly tracked northeastward before dissipating on June 26 southeast of the North – South Carolina border . As Hurricane Alice neared Bermuda on July 9 , a depression formed near the east coast of the United States ; however , the storm dissipated the following day . On July 19 , the first Cape Verde storm formed over the central Atlantic . This system did not intensify , remaining a weak depression and dissipated on July 21 without affecting land . The next day , a new depression formed over the southwestern Caribbean Sea near the coast of Nicaragua . The depression tracked over Central America , briefly moving back over water in the Gulf of Honduras before making a second landfall in Belize . The system persisted over land for a few days before entering the eastern Pacific late on July 25 .
Only one non @-@ developing depression formed during the month of August , an unusually eastward forming system . The depression was first identified just offshore eastern Africa on September 8 , near where Tropical Storm Christine formed later in the month . Tracking rapidly towards the west , the depression dissipated on September 11 over open waters . In addition to the two notable tropical depressions and two named storms in September , a slow @-@ moving depression formed south @-@ southeast of Bermuda on September 8 . Tracking generally northward , the depression dissipated early on September 10 without affecting land . Upon the declaration of Hurricane Fran on October 10 , a new depression formed southwest of the strengthening hurricane . This system rapidly tracked northeast and dissipated two days later . Later that month , a slow @-@ moving depression formed near the Azores . This system tracked southeast and dissipated on October 30 without affecting land . The final system of the year formed near the northern coast of Panama on November 17 . The depression was noted as a " ... strong depression ... " by the National Hurricane Center and may have briefly attained tropical storm intensity before making landfall in southern Nicaragua on November 18 ; the system dissipated later that day over land .
= = Storm names = =
The following names were used for named storms ( tropical storms and hurricanes ) that formed in the North Atlantic in 1973 . Storms were named Christine , Delia , Ellen and Fran for the first time in 1973 . Due to the relatively minimal impact caused by storms during the season , no names were retired in the spring of 1974 ; however , due to the addition of male names in 1979 , the list was removed and replaced with a new set of names .
= = = Subtropical storm names = = =
The following names were used for subtropical storms in the Atlantic basin for this year . This year was the second and last year to use the phonetic alphabet . Although a storm was given the name Bravo , it was renamed Fran after acquiring tropical characteristics .
= = Season effects = =
This is a table of the storms in 1973 and their landfall ( s ) , if any . Deaths in parentheses are additional and indirect ( an example of an indirect death would be a traffic accident ) , but are still storm @-@ related . Damage and deaths include totals while the storm was extratropical or a wave or low .
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= 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion ( Australia ) =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was an Australian Army unit raised for service with the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) during the Second World War . Formed in late 1940 as part of the 8th Division , the battalion was established to provide direct fire support to the division ’ s infantry brigades . It was the fourth , and last , such unit raised within the 2nd AIF . The unit 's personnel were largely drawn from the state of Western Australia and after formation , the battalion concentrated near Perth for basic individual training before moving to the Adelaide Hills to complete more advance manouevres .
In late 1941 , amidst concerns of war in the Pacific , the unit was deployed north to Darwin in the Northern Territory , where they undertook garrison duties in the weeks following Japan 's entry into the war . Following Japanese landings in Malaya , the 2 / 4th embarked from Darwin and were transferred to Malaya , arriving in Singapore in the final days of the fighting on the peninsula . In the wake of the withdrawal of British and Commonwealth forces to the island , the battalion was hastily deployed in support of the two Australian brigades — the 22nd and 27th Brigades — in the north @-@ western sector of the island . During the initial Japanese landing , elements of the battalion were heavily engaged around the landing beaches but they were outnumbered and over the course of the week the defenders were pushed back towards the centre of the island , towards the city of Singapore . They suffered heavy casualties during this time , before subsequently becoming prisoners of war after the fall of Singapore .
Meanwhile , a detachment of about 100 men from the battalion , who had been left behind in Australia when it deployed to Singapore , also took part in the fighting on Java . After a brief campaign , the majority of these personnel were taken into captivity when the Allied forces were overwhelmed around Buitenzorg in mid @-@ March 1942 , although some attempted to fight on as guerillas . Eventually these men were either killed or captured ; prisoners remained in Japanese captivity until the end of the war in August 1945 . During the three @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half years they were held by the Japanese , members of the 2 / 4th were sent to prison camps around the Pacific , where they were used as slave labour and subjected to harsh conditions and extreme brutality . After the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised .
= = History = =
= = = Formation and training = = =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion was one of four machine gun battalions raised as part of the all volunteer Second Australian Imperial Force ( 2nd AIF ) for service overseas during the Second World War . Motorised infantry units , equipped with wheeled motor vehicles and tracked carriers , the machine gun battalions were formed to provide a greater level of fire support than that ordinarily available within infantry battalions . Developed by the British Army , the concept had its genesis in the Australian Army during the Gallipoli Campaign in 1915 , when the machine guns assigned to the infantry battalions — initially two and then four — had been grouped together and co @-@ ordinated at brigade level , to help compensate for the lack of artillery support . On the Western Front , the concept had evolved through the establishment of machine gun companies in 1916 and finally , in 1918 , to the establishment of machine gun battalions . Similar formations had also been established among the Australian Light Horse units serving in the Sinai and Palestine Campaign . During the inter @-@ war years , the machine gun battalions had been deemed unnecessary . They were not re @-@ raised when the Army was reorganised in 1921 but in 1937 , as the Australian Army looked to expand owing to fears of war in Europe , four such units were formed within the part @-@ time Militia , by converting light horse units and motorising them . Several other Militia machine gun battalions were also raised as new units later after the Second World War began . These were formed by consolidating the machine gun companies assigned to a number of infantry battalions , and other light horse units were also converted into the role for use as garrison forces . Within the 2nd AIF — Australia 's overseas expeditionary force — the decision was made to raise four machine gun battalions as corps troops that were usually allocated at a rate of one per division ; several of the Militia units were also later designated Australian Imperial Force units , after the majority of their personnel volunteered for overseas service . This meant that they could be deployed outside of Australian territory even though they were not 2nd AIF units .
In mid @-@ 1940 , amid the tide of German successes in Europe , there was an influx of volunteers for the 2nd AIF . As a result , the Australian government decided to raise a third volunteer division for overseas service , named the 8th Division . Established around three infantry brigades — the 22nd , 23rd and 27th — the division was supported by corps troops including engineers , cavalry , artillery , pioneers and a machine gun battalion for direct fire support . Within this formation , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion came into being on 25 November 1940 , when Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell , a First World War veteran who had commanded a Militia infantry battalion before the war , established his headquarters at Northam Camp , near Perth , Western Australia . While the rest of the 8th Division had drawn its personnel mainly from the more populous eastern states of New South Wales and Victoria , the decision was made to select personnel for the 2 / 4th only from those who were already enlisted and conducting training in the west . While potentially parochial , it was a primarily a pragmatic decision to reduce the time it would take to concentrate the unit and complete its training .
Like most 2nd AIF units , the 2 / 4th drew its cadre staff of officers and senior non @-@ commissioned officers ( NCOs ) from volunteers from local Militia units . These were augmented by partially trained Other Ranks ( ORs ) from the three local recruit training depots ; the first batch of these , numbering 394 men , arrived at Northam on 27 November and a further 262 marched in on 4 December . As the battalion was brought up to its authorised strength of around 800 men , personnel were formed into four machine gun companies , ' A ' to ' D ' , under a headquarters company consisting of several specialist platoons — including signals and anti @-@ aircraft platoons — and battalion headquarters . There were no platoon commanders until a contingent arrived from the regional Officer Training Units . Initially training was hampered by a lack of equipment — only 12 of 48 Vickers machine guns assigned to the battalion were available — so at the start the focus was on individual rather than collective training . As more stores arrived , training accelerated with the help of experienced Militia NCOs and First World War veterans , who were brought in to share their experiences with the new troops . Just before Christmas and New Year 's leave , the battalion received its distinctive Unit Colour Patch : a black and gold triangle .
Early in the New Year , the establishment of the battalion 's command formation was completed with the appointment of subalterns as platoon commanders , following their return from their first appointment courses . The training continuum evolved with the establishment of an NCO school and various specialist courses , including range finding and transport ; a bugle and drum band was also raised . In February 1941 , training focused upon skill @-@ at @-@ arms , before undertaking a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) march from Northam to Perth , which was conducted over the course of three days and was undertaken , according to the Australian War Memorial , to test the " physical fitness and endurance of the personnel and officers " and " the efficiency of the battalion 's motor transport and administration personnel " . Upon their return , training progressed to field firing , night manoeuvres , portage , defensive exercises and further specialised training , continuing until July , by which time the battalion was considered ready for deployment . That month it received orders to move to Adelaide , South Australia . Proceeding in four drafts — one each on the transports Katoomba and Duntroon and two by rail — they were established at Woodside , in the Adelaide Hills , by the end of the month . The battalion endured a bitter winter , conducting field exercises amidst the steep wooded slopes of the Mount Lofty Range ; these became more tactically complex and physically demanding as Anketell worked the battalion up to a peak of efficiency , in preparation for deployment amidst growing tensions in the Pacific .
= = = Garrison duties in northern Australia = = =
In August 1941 , the 27th Brigade was sent to Malaya to reinforce the 22nd , which had been serving there in a garrison role since February , having been dispatched while the 2 / 4th Machine Battalion had been forming . With this , the only 2nd AIF troops remaining in Australia were those of the 23rd Brigade . As a result of concerns about Japanese intentions in the region , the decision was made to move the brigade north to bolster the defences around Darwin in the Northern Territory . In the event of fighting in the Pacific , the government planned to split infantry battalions , to defend the island chain to Australia ’ s north , dispatching forces to Rabaul , Ambon and Timor . The role of the corps troops from the 2 / 4th Pioneers and 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion remained uncertain . The 8th Division ’ s commander , Major General Gordon Bennett , unhappy with the dispersal of his command , had been agitating for the dispatch of the machine gunners to Malaya to support his two infantry brigades , arguing that they would be valuable for beach defence . Bennett 's request had been rejected initially in March , due to the limited numbers of recruits enlisting but by mid @-@ September , elements at Army headquarters in Melbourne had also begun to advocate for it . In early October , following a War Cabinet decision to split the command of the 8th Division in two , removing the elements in Australia from Bennett 's command , the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to move north to Darwin , where it was to serve in a home defence role in case of a Japanese attack .
On 11 October 1941 , the battalion entrained at Oakbank and began the journey north . They detrained at Alice Springs , where they camped overnight before continuing the journey by road in a 44 @-@ vehicle convoy , which took them further north to Larrimah . There they once again entrained for the final journey to Winnellie , which they reached on 19 October , after overnighting in Katherine .
At Winnellie , the battalion was allocated a large defensive zone between Nightcliff , Lee Point and Shoal Bay , which included a large beach frontage , as well as extensive swamp lands and creeks further inland . Throughout November , extensive work was undertaken improving the camp and preparing this position with fortified emplacements . They also undertook various other garrison duties such as guarding ammunition dumps , and road and railway construction . Heavy summer rains flooded the camp and surrounding area and as well as hampering construction , brought a wave of dengue fever amongst the battalion and the threat of crocodile attacks as the creeks within the battalion position swelled ; the battalion ’ s mascot , a dog named " Gunner " , fell victim . News of the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor and invasion of Malaya came in early December and with it a need to bolster Australian forces in the Pacific . As Bennett pressed harder for reinforcements , on 23 December the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received orders to embark for Malaya .
= = = Embarkation = = =
On 30 December 1941 , after transferring responsibility for their defensive area to a Militia Light Horse machine gun regiment from South Australia , the battalion embarked upon two troopships , Westralia and Marella , bound for Malaya via Port Moresby . Arriving on 4 January 1942 , they were transferred to the transport Aquitania , which was to take them the rest of the way . Before they had completed transferring the battalion ’ s equipment , news was received that Rabaul , about 500 miles ( 800 km ) north @-@ east , had been bombed by carrier @-@ based aircraft . Due to concerns that the aircraft may have been looking for the convoy , or US warships fleeing the Philippines , and that Port Moresby might be bombed next , the convoy ’ s departure was advanced and so they sailed immediately . Instead of proceeding to Malaya , though , they were taken to Sydney , New South Wales , as it was decided that it would be safer to proceed via the southern route .
After a brief stay in Sydney where the battalion ’ s equipment deficiencies were made good and some reinforcements were received from local recruit training depots , they embarked again on 10 January in company with HMAS Canberra , and proceeded through the Bass Strait . As they were under way , the troops were kept occupied with training on the Bren light machine gun and the Thompson sub @-@ machine gun , quantities of which were hastily added to the battalion ’ s equipment scale . They reached Fremantle , Western Australia , on 15 January and overnight , a large number of 2 / 4th men defied orders to stay aboard ship and went ashore to spend time with their families ; when the Aquitania sailed the next day , 94 men were left behind . The situation in Malaya was grave as the Japanese were steadily pushing the British and Commonwealth defenders south down the peninsula and as the gravity of the situation dawned upon the Australian government , a knee @-@ jerk reaction saw the dispatch of 150 partially trained reinforcements from Northam . They arrived just as the Aquitania departed , being ferried out to Rottnest Island where they joined the ship ’ s company late in the afternoon of 16 January . Although the reinforcements made good the men that had been left behind , they were only partially trained and ill @-@ prepared for the fighting that would follow .
After departing Fremantle , the convoy steamed towards Java and reached Ratai Bay early on 20 January . Proceeding on to the Sunda Strait , which was reached mid @-@ morning on 21 January and the men were then transferred to a number of smaller , faster Dutch ships to run the gauntlet of Japanese bombers that were attacking Allied shipping in the area . In concert with several Australian , British and Indian escorts and two Dutch Catalina flying boats , the convoy entered Keppel Harbour on 25 January 1942 . Upon arrival in Singapore , consisting of 942 personnel of all ranks , the battalion was allocated to the task of preparing machine gun positions on Singapore ’ s north coast and around the naval base . They stepped into a maelstrom , the Japanese were bombing the naval base — where the 2 / 4th were accommodated — every day and the fighting on the Malay Peninsula was all but over . Having been pushed back down the peninsula over the course of seven weeks , in the final week of January , the Allies withdrew from Johore , on the mainland , to Singapore , where they would make a final stand . Covering the withdrawal , the 22nd Brigade was the last Australian unit to cross the 70 @-@ foot ( 21 m ) wide Causeway before it was blown up , early on the morning of 31 January , to prevent the Japanese from capturing it and to slow their advance .
One of only two machine gun battalions available for the defending British and Commonwealth forces , as preparations were made to repulse the expected Japanese assault across the Johore Strait , the battalion was split up to provide support to troops from the 22nd and 27th Australian Infantry Brigades and the 44th Indian Infantry Brigade around the western part of the island , where the Japanese assault was expected . On 7 February , due to concerns about the lack of defending infantry , about 90 machine gun reinforcements , who had been hastily formed into a sixth company — ' E ' — were detached at this time to form part of a 400 @-@ strong Special Reserve Battalion , initially under the command of an officer from the 2 / 19th Infantry Battalion and later taken over by Major Albert Saggers , formerly of the 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion .
= = = Fall of Singapore = = =
The Japanese attack came in the night of 8 / 9 February , after a heavy artillery and aerial bombardment that had lasted throughout the day . ' D ' Company , positioned in various locations in support of the Australian 22nd Brigade in the north @-@ western area , found themselves in the thick of the fighting as the Japanese concentrated their landing on the Australian 8th Division front . Understrength and stretched out across a large frontage over ground that was unsuited to defence , the Australians were almost immediately under pressure . Shortly after 8 : 00 pm , 13 Platoon , supporting the 2 / 20th Infantry Battalion around the head of the Lim Chu Kang Road , was confronted by a large number of landing barges filled with Japanese assault troops . For almost six hours , the platoon , under Lieutenant Eric Wankey , fought a desperate action to repel the invaders . With four machine guns , as well as personal small arms and grenades , the platoon inflicted heavy casualties on the Japanese and sank several barges . Despite heavy casualties from Japanese mortar and machine gun fire , they kept fighting until early in the morning on 9 February when , threatened with being outflanked and low on ammunition — each gun had fired over 10 @,@ 000 rounds — and having had one gun knocked out , the platoon was forced to withdraw . Destroying their equipment as they went to prevent it from being captured , the platoon was forced to withdraw in contact , taking their wounded with them ; the action was later rewarded with a Military Cross for the platoon commander , who was badly wounded after taking over one of the machine guns after its crew had been wounded .
Near the Sungei Murai ( Murai River ) , 15 Platoon — under Lieutenant John Meiklejohn — had been stationed in support of a company from the 2 / 18th Infantry Battalion , in a thickly wooded area with low hills and many inlets . 15 Platoon established an enfilade formation near the shore , with its machine guns distributed in two sections on a north – south axis , facing a narrow peninsula , between the mouth of the Murai and a small inlet . According to the official history by Lionel Wigmore , after a Japanese landing party approached , the southern section under Meiklejohn " opened fire against six approaching barges , and kept on firing for two hours , despite retaliation by hand grenades , as the Japanese landed and crossed the neck of the peninsula " . As was the case elsewhere in the extremely wide sector assigned to the 22nd Brigade , many Japanese landing parties were able to outflank the thinly @-@ spread Australian positions . At risk of being cut off and with ammunition running low , Meiklejohn ordered the southern section to retreat . According to Wigmore : " Meiklejohn led his section along a jungle path where they came upon a party of Japanese resting . He shot some with his revolver , and another was knocked out with a swing from a [ machine gun ] tripod , but Meiklejohn lost his life in attempting to cover his section 's withdrawal . " The northern section of 15 Platoon held its ground " until it was informed that a near @-@ by infantry platoon was almost surrounded , and about to withdraw " . Forced to retreat without its machine guns , the northern section also found Japanese troops blocking its path . When Private Cliff Spackman was attacked by a Japanese officer wielding a sword , Spackman " bayoneted him " , took the sword and used it against another Japanese soldier .
As the situation worsened , early on 9 February ' A ' Company , which had been in reserve , and HQ Company were sent forward to provide further assistance to the 22nd Infantry Brigade , which was slowly being pushed back towards the tactically important Tengah airfield , via the village of Ama Keng . They took up positions at Bulim , east of the airfield ; shortly afterwards they were joined by 7 Platoon , from ‘ B ’ Company , which had been detached from the Causeway sector . The remnants of the 22nd , numbering around only 500 men from its original 2 @,@ 500 , with a further 500 or so isolated and attempting to fight their way through , was pushed further back throughout the day . Orders were passed for a counter @-@ attack around the airfield but as the size of Japanese forces in the area grew to around 20 @,@ 000 men , they were later cancelled in favour of establishing a line between Bulim and Jurong , to the east of the airfield . Established in the early afternoon , within this line , the 2 / 4th 's ' A ' Company was positioned east of Bulim with 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , while the remnants of ' D ' Company , amounting to only 47 men , were moved south , where they joined with ' C ' Company , which was supporting the Indian 44th Brigade , which although it had not yet been engaged , had fallen back from the south @-@ west coast to avoid being cut off and had established itself west of Ulu Pandan , behind the Sungei Jurong .
Late on 9 February , the Japanese made more landings , in the Causeway sector , held by the 27th Infantry Brigade . Despite having been reduced to just two infantry battalions due to the transfer of the 2 / 29th to the hard @-@ pressed 22nd Infantry Brigade , they were able to mount a stiff defence , supported by the machine guns of ‘ B ’ Company . 8 Platoon inflicted many casualties in the Japanese landing craft coming ashore at the mouth of the Sungei Mandi . With casualties mounting and pressure being placed on the brigade 's rear due to a large gap that had developed around Kranji , by the Japanese advances in the 22nd Infantry Brigade 's area , the decision was made to withdraw from the beach and realign north – south along the Woodlands Road . Further south , the Australian 22nd and Indian 44th , 6th / 15th and 12th Infantry Brigades also established themselves along this axis between Bukit Panjang and Pasir Panjang on the south coast and by early evening on 10 February the Japanese had secured the entire west coast of the island .
For the next four days , the Allied troops were pushed south @-@ east towards the city of Singapore . Throughout this time , the battalion ’ s companies were in almost constant action , either — in the case of ' B ' , ' C ' , ' D ' and ' E ' Companies — under separate command , or ' A ' and ' HQ ' Companies with Battalion Headquarters . The reinforcements of ' E ' Company , detached to the Special Reserve Battalion , suffered heavily . In three days , they lost 43 men killed or missing , before the ad hoc formation was disbanded and the men returned to the 2 / 4th . 7 Platoon , ' B ' Company , took on a mounted role , procuring four Bren carriers , with which they began patrolling in support . On 12 February they were engaged along the Buona Vista Road , while supporting the Malayan Regiment . The following day , they were attacked by a Japanese light tank , which knocked out one of the carriers before the platoon extricated themselves .
By 14 February , the Allied troops had withdrawn into a small perimeter around the city . The 8th Division were holding a position 2 miles ( 3 @.@ 2 km ) east of the city , centred upon the axis of the Holland Road , with its headquarters at Tanglin Barracks . With the Japanese gaining ground to their north and south through the porous lines of the Indian 44th and British 54th Brigades , the situation became critical . Threatened with being cut off , Anketell began to plan a last stand ; moving forward to survey the situation he was badly wounded by mortar and small arms fire and after being evacuated to Alexandra Hospital , died of his wounds late in the evening of 14 February . Despite his loss , the battalion kept on fighting to the very end , sending out patrols throughout the following day and severely mauling a Japanese vehicle convoy that came too close to their position . Late on 15 February , the British commander , Lieutenant General Arthur Percival gave the order to surrender . The physical process of the surrender was slow , and despite orders to surrender weapons and ammunition , the men proceeded to destroy the majority of their equipment the following morning , before the Japanese arrived . Later , they were marched to Changi prison , during which several men from the battalion attempted to escape after the Japanese began executing several prisoners ; one , the regimental sergeant major , Fred Airey , successfully made it to Sumatra but was later recaptured there , while another , Private Les McCann , remained on the run for eight days before being recaptured after collapsing from bullet wounds he had received during the attempt .
= = = Java detachment = = =
While the majority of the battalion was fighting on Singapore , a small detachment of 106 men were sent to Java . The majority of these were the 94 men that had failed to return in time from their unofficial leave in Fremantle . After missing their ship , they had been arrested by the military police and were confined to quarters in Karrakatta Camp for two weeks . On 30 January they were released and under the command of two officers and a small group of NCOs , they embarked upon Marella , which set out for Singapore via Palembang in Batavia , escorted by Canberra .
After reaching Tanjong Priok on 10 February , the detachment found itself placed under Dutch command and formed into a composite infantry company , within the reserve battalion of the ad hoc formation known as " Blackforce " , which had been formed under Brigadier Arthur Blackburn . At the end of the month , having taken Sumatra , the Japanese invaded Java with three divisions and a strong naval task force . Fierce fighting at sea ensued , during which 14 out of a force of 18 Allied ships were sunk . Several Japanese transports were also sunk but the majority of Japanese troops were landed . The detachment from the 2 / 4th found itself around Buitenzorg , where the majority of the 2 / 4th personnel formed part of an ad hoc infantry force , known as the Reserve Group , or 3rd Battalion , consisting of eight platoons , under Major John Champion de Crespigny . They fought several defensive actions before being overwhelmed and taken into captivity on 12 March 1942 . A small number continued to fight as guerrillas but were eventually all captured . Some of the men were held in camps in Java and Sumatra , although the majority were later sent to Singapore before being transported to camps elsewhere in south @-@ east Asia .
= = = Internment and disbandment = = =
During the fighting , out of a total of 976 men deployed , the battalion lost 137 men killed in action and 106 wounded , while a further 24 suffered from shell shock . A total of 808 men were taken into captivity , including most of the wounded . Four men managed to escape to Australia but of the remaining men , 263 died while prisoners of war . Following their capture , the men from the 2 / 4th in Singapore were concentrated in Changi prison , before being split up and sent to various prison camps around the Pacific , including Borneo , Burma , Thailand , Java , Sumatra , Japan and Formosa . There they were used as slave labour on the Burma – Thai Railway , in coal mines and on wharves , during which they were subjected to harsh treatment , starvation , disease and extreme brutality , which took a heavy toll . Many soldiers from the 2 / 4th were also killed while being taken to Japan , when the ships were sunk by Allied submarines .
Throughout their captivity , some soldiers continued to contribute to the Allied war effort , building a series of home @-@ made radios with which they transmitted Japanese shipping movements to British forces in India and through which they were able to gain news from home . They were liberated in August 1945 and after the war , the surviving members of the battalion were returned to Australia but the 2 / 4th was not re @-@ raised . Members of the battalion received the following decorations : one Military Cross , one Distinguished Conduct Medal , two British Empire Medals and nine Mentions in Despatches ; in addition one member of the battalion was appointed as a Member of the Order of the British Empire .
After the war , the Australian Army moved away from the machine gun battalion concept and no similar units were raised . The machine gun role was subsumed into the support companies of individual infantry battalions . The idea was arguably misunderstood by Australian commanders throughout the war and this may have influenced the decision to move away from the concept . When the units had been established , the intent had been for machine gun battalions to provide highly mobile fire support but this only worked where the principles of open warfare worked . Once the focus of Australian Army combat operations shifted to the Pacific , the machine gun battalions were largely misused , being employed in a static defensive capacity against short and medium range targets or for menial tasks , rather than as offensive weapons for long range fire support . The medium machine guns were also largely used in the same manner as light machine guns , such as the Bren . Other reasons identified for the concept 's limited use include distrust of overhead fire by some commanders , a preference for organic fire support over attached sub @-@ units , over @-@ estimating the difficulty of transporting Vickers guns in the jungle and a tendency to ignore targets that could not be seen . The difficulties of target acquisition in dense jungle also contributed .
= = Commanding officers = =
Lieutenant Colonel Michael Anketell .
= = Battle honours = =
The 2 / 4th Machine Gun Battalion received the following battle honours for its service during the Second World War :
Malaya 1942 , and Singapore .
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= Richard Nixon presidential campaign , 1968 =
The 1968 presidential campaign of Richard Nixon , the 36th Vice President of the United States , began when Nixon , the Republican nominee of 1960 , formally announced his candidacy following a year 's preparation and five years ' political reorganization following defeats in the 1960 presidential election , and the 1962 California gubernatorial election .
En route to the Republican Party 's presidential nomination , Nixon faced challenges from Governor George Romney of Michigan , Governor Nelson Rockefeller of New York , Governor Ronald Reagan of California , and Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . Nixon won nine of the thirteen state primaries held that season , although due to the population of his state , Governor Reagan won the popular vote while carrying only California . These victories , along with pledged delegate support from states not holding primaries , secured Nixon the nomination on the first ballot of the Republican National Convention , where he named Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate .
In the general election , Nixon emphasized " law and order , " positioning himself as the champion of what he called the " silent majority . " Running well ahead of his opponent , incumbent Vice President Hubert Humphrey , his support slipped in the polls following his refusal to partake in presidential debates , and following an announcement from President Lyndon B. Johnson that a halt in bombing of Vietnam had been negotiated .
Winning a close election on November 5 , 1968 , Nixon and Agnew were inaugurated as the 37th President of the United States and 39th Vice President of the United States , respectively , on January 20 , 1969 . He was the first Vice President elected President since Martin Van Buren in 1836 , and the only one to do so while not an incumbent .
= = Background = =
Nixon was elected to the United States House of Representatives in 1946 , representing California 's 12th congressional district from 1947 until his election to the Senate in 1950 . As a member of Congress , he gained a reputation as a firm anti @-@ Communist . In 1952 , he was selected by General Dwight D. Eisenhower , the Republican nominee for president , as his vice presidential nominee . Elected together with Eisenhower , he served as Vice President during the height of the Cold War . In office , he traveled the world on " goodwill tours " , promoting pro @-@ American policies ; he was re @-@ elected with Eisenhower in 1956 . At the end of Eisenhower 's second term in 1960 , Nixon ran unopposed for the Republican nomination , which he received . He lost a close race to Senator John F. Kennedy of Massachusetts , which many credited in part to his unhealthy appearance during the first televised debate .
Nixon ran for Governor of California against incumbent Pat Brown , and was defeated handily , leading the media to label him as a " loser . " This defeat was widely believed to be the end of his career ; in an impromptu concession speech the morning after the election , Nixon famously blamed the media for favoring his opponent , saying , " you won 't have Nixon to kick around anymore because , gentlemen , this is my last press conference . " In September , the New York Post published an article claiming that campaign donors were buying influence with Nixon by providing him with a secret cash fund for his personal expenses . He moved to New York , joining the Mudge Rose Guthrie Alexander & Ferdon law firm , and regrouped , considering but decided against a run for president in 1964 , beginning to plan for a 1968 presidential campaign .
= = Campaign developments = =
= = = Early stages = = =
On January 7 , 1967 , Nixon held a secret meeting with his closest advisers to discuss a potential campaign , brainstorming strategies to obtain sufficient delegates to win the Republican nomination . He asked the attendees not to discuss the meeting with anyone , but to spread subtle hints that he would run for president . The next month , during an interview with the Saturday Evening Post , Nixon flatly denied he was running for president . Nevertheless , polls suggested that he was the front @-@ runner for the nomination . The Gallup poll from February 1967 showed Nixon leading Governor George Romney , his closest rival , 52 % to 40 % . At this time , he quietly began efforts to organize in Indiana , Nebraska , New Hampshire , Oregon , and Wisconsin , positioning to secure victories in those states ' primaries the following year . In March , he gained the support of the 1964 Republican nominee , Senator Barry Goldwater of Arizona A " Nixon for President Committee " formed that month , and headquarters for the organization opened in Washington D.C. in late May .
During the spring and summer , Nixon traveled to Eastern Europe and Latin America to bolster his foreign policy credentials . He returned in August to conduct meetings with his advisers to formulate a solid campaign strategy . Two days later , his campaign manager , Gaylord Parkinson , left his position to care for his ailing wife . Political commentators speculated that the vacancy built " an element of instability " for the campaign . The position was soon temporarily filled by former Governor Henry Bellmon of Oklahoma . The next week , five staff members were fired after private investigators determined that information had been leaked to the campaigns of potential primary rivals Governors Rockefeller and Reagan . The news did not stall the progression of the campaign , and soon Nixon , Mudge , Rose , Guthrie & Alexander member Leonard Garment assembled an advertising team that included CBS Television president Frank Shakespeare .
= = = = Fall 1967 = = = =
By mid @-@ September 1967 , the Nixon campaign had organized headquarters in four states deemed critical to the Republican primaries . Nixon hoped the moves would increase his delegate strength and demonstrate his " ability to win . " He notified the media that his decision on whether to run for president would be formally announced anytime between early December and February . Meanwhile , Nixon and his staff discussed handling the topic of the Vietnam War . They advised him to soften his stance on the war , and encouraged him to shift his focus from foreign affairs to domestic policy to avoid the divisive war issue . Observers noted that this move potentially hurt Nixon by straying from his reputation " as a foreign policy expert . "
In October , political experts predicted that Nixon would gain delegates in the important states of New Hampshire , Wisconsin and Nebraska during the primary season , scheduled to begin in March 1968 . They noted that in the other critical state of Oregon , Ronald Reagan would have an advantage due to the proximity of his home state . Like Nixon , rival George Romney began to organize in these states . Romney officially announced his candidacy in November , prompting Nixon to step up his efforts . He spent most of this period on the campaign trail in New Hampshire . Those following Nixon noted that during this period , he seemed more relaxed and easygoing than in his past political career . One commentator examined that he was not " the drawn , tired figure who debated Jack Kennedy or the angry politician who conceded his California [ gubernatorial ] defeat with such ill grace . " Making appearances at fundraisers in his adopted home state of New York , Nixon helped to raise $ 300 @,@ 000 for the re @-@ election campaign of Senator Jacob K. Javits . At the end of December , Time labeled Nixon as the " man to beat . "
= = = = 1968 begins = = = =
Nixon entered 1968 as the front @-@ runner for the Republican nomination . However , polls suggested that in a head @-@ to @-@ head match up with incumbent President Lyndon Johnson , Nixon trailed 50 % to 41 % . Later in January , Nixon embarked on a tour of Texas , where he lampooned President Johnson 's State of the Union address , asking : " Can this nation afford to have four more years of Lyndon Johnson 's policies that have failed at home and abroad ? " At this time , reports suggested that Nixon would formally announce his bid in February .
= = = Primary campaign = = =
On February 1 in New Hampshire , Nixon announced his candidacy for the Republican nomination , commenting that problems " beyond politics " needed to be addressed . Immediately following his entrance , the media team prepared for an advertising campaign . They analyzed video of Nixon , determining that he was at his best when speaking spontaneously . The team organized a question and answer session with seven members of the New Hampshire Republican Party , taping Nixon 's responses for editing and use in advertisements . He campaigned in the state , although polls suggested that he would easily win its primary . As a result , he began campaigning in Wisconsin where the second primary would be held . During a stop , he briefly discussed Vietnam , although not in detail , stating that the United States " must prevent [ such ] confrontations , " but that the nation must also " help people in the free world fight against aggression , but not do their fighting for them . " He used those dictatorships in Latin America as an example , stating : " I am talking not about marching feet but helping hands . " As military operations increased in Vietnam in mid @-@ February , Nixon 's standing against President Johnson improved . A Harris poll showed that he trailed the president 43 % to 48 % . Near the end of the month , Nixon 's opponent George Romney exited the race , mostly due to comments he made about being " brainwashed " during a visit to Vietnam . This left Nixon nearly unopposed for the upcoming primaries , narrowing his opponents to Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , neither of whom had announced their candidacies .
Due to Romney 's exit , Nixon declared in early March that he would " greatly expand [ his ] efforts in the non @-@ primary states , " with Time observing that Nixon could now focus his political attacks solely on President Johnson . However , the void also caused problems for Nixon ; Time argued that the prospect of soundly defeating second @-@ tier candidates such as former Governor Harold Stassen of Minnesota in the primaries , would not " electrify the voters . " The Nixon campaign countered this claim stating that Romney 's withdrawal was a " TKO " at the hands of Nixon . Meanwhile , Rockefeller began to be viewed more as a candidate , articulating that while not wishing to split the party , he was " willing to serve ... if called . " As talks of other candidates persisted , Nixon continued to campaigning and discussion of the issues . He pledged to end the war in Vietnam , but would not go into detail , drawing some criticism . Nixon easily won the New Hampshire primary on March 12 , pulling in 80 % of the vote with a write @-@ in campaign for Rockefeller receiving 11 % . At the end of March , Rockefeller announced that he would not campaign for the presidency , but would be open to being drafted . Nixon doubted a draft stating that it would only be likely if " I make some rather serious mistake . " Reports suggested that the decision caused " Nixon 's political stock [ to ] skyrocket . " Polling by Gallup at this time revealed that Nixon led President Johnson 41 % to 39 % in a three @-@ way race with American Independent Party candidate and former Governor George Wallace of Alabama .
As the Wisconsin primary loomed in early April , Nixon 's only obstacle seemed to be preventing his supporters from voting in the Democratic primary for Senator Eugene McCarthy of Minnesota as a protest against President Johnson . However , Johnson withdrew from the race before the primary , meanwhile Governor Reagan 's name was on the ballot in Wisconsin , but he did not campaign in the state and was still not a declared candidate . Nixon won the primary with 80 % followed by Reagan with 11 % and Stassen with 6 % . With Johnson removed from the race , Nixon fell behind Democratic candidates Eugene McCarthy , Hubert Humphrey and Robert Kennedy in head @-@ to @-@ head match @-@ ups . At the end of April , Nixon called for a moratorium on criticism of the Johnson policy in Vietnam as negotiations were underway : " The one man who can do anything about peace is Lyndon Johnson , and I 'm not going to do anything to undercut him . " However , the Democratic candidates for president remained fair game for criticism . He argued that " A divided Democratic Party cannot unite a divided country ; a united Republican Party can . " He also began to discuss economics more frequently , announcing plans to cut spending while criticizing the Democrats ' policy of raising taxes . During a question and answer session with the American Society of Newspaper Editors , Nixon spoke out of turn , receiving numerous interruptions of applause . The largest came when he addressed the issue of crime , proclaiming that " there cannot be order in a free society without progress , and there cannot be progress without order . "
On the last day of April , Rockefeller announced that he would campaign for the presidency , despite his previous statement to the contrary . Immediately following his entrance , he defeated Nixon in the Massachusetts primary 30 % to 26 % . New Harris polls found that Rockefeller fared better against Democratic candidates than Nixon , but the outlook started to appear better for Nixon after he won the Indiana primary over Rockefeller . Off the victory , Nixon campaigned in Nebraska where he criticized the three leading Democratic candidates as " three peas in a pod , prisoners of the policies of the past . " He then proposed a plan to tackle crime that included wiretapping , legislation to reverse previous Supreme Court decisions , and the formation of a congressional committee targeting crime and reforms to the criminal justice system . He did not connect crime to racial rioting , drawing praise from Civil Rights leaders . Nixon won the primary in Nebraska , defeating the undeclared Reagan 71 % to 22 % . At the following primary in Oregon , Reagan seemed more willing to compete with Nixon , and Rockefeller sat out . But Nixon won with 72 % , fifty points ahead of Reagan .
In early June , Nixon continued to be regarded as the favorite to win the nomination , but observers noted that he had not yet locked up the nomination . He still faced challenges from Nelson Rockefeller and Ronald Reagan , and was not on the ballot in California , where Reagan won a large slate of delegates . Behind the scenes , Nixon staff lobbied for delegates from " favorite son " candidates , resulting , in the backing of Senator Howard Baker of Tennessee , and his 28 pledged delegates , as well as those 58 delegates supporting Senator Charles Percy of Illinois . After the assassination of Robert Kennedy , like the other candidates , Nixon took a break from campaigning . Reports suggested that the assassination all but assured his nomination . Upon returning to the trail , Nixon found that Rockefeller had begun attacking him . Rockefeller described Nixon as a man " of the old politics " who has " great natural capacity not to do the right thing , especially under pressure . " Nixon refused to respond to the jabs , stating that he would not participate in attacks . As he edged closer to the nomination , discussions about his running mate arose . Republicans in the Midwest pushed for Mayor John Lindsay of New York City . The endorsement of Nixon by Senator Mark Hatfield of Oregon raised speculation that he might be chosen . Congressman George Bush of Texas and Senator Percy were also mentioned as possible selections . At the end of the month , Nixon had two thirds of the required 667 delegates necessary to win the nomination .
On July 1 , Nixon received the endorsement of Senator John G. Tower of Texas , handing him at least 40 delegates . With his nomination all but assured , Nixon 's ad team began preparing for the general election . A series of advertisements featuring question and answer sessions with Nixon and friends of campaign staffers were filmed in New York . The tapes were sent to the swing states of Illinois , Michigan , and Ohio , giving Nixon the advantage of advertising long before the Democratic Party settled on a candidate . At this time , Nixon decided with a group of legislators that " crime and disorder " would be presented as the number one issue in the nation . This continued to be a major theme of the Nixon campaign , and would continue to be used extensively during the general election . Nixon publicly announced his opposition to the military draft , proposing to replace the current system with a volunteer army encouraged with higher pay . President Eisenhower endorsed Nixon in mid @-@ July , breaking his tradition of waiting until after the primary , due to the election 's importance . By July 's end , reports circulated that Nixon had 691 probable delegates for the convention , placing him over the 667 delegate threshold , Rockefeller , however , disputed these numbers . Sources within Washington reported that Reagan caused greater concern for the Nixon campaign than Rockefeller . A possible scenario surfaced where Nixon 's southern delegates would drop their support to back the more conservative Reagan . Nonetheless , Nixon staffers believed that if such a scenario occurred , liberal Rockefeller delegates in the Northeast would support Nixon to prevent a Reagan nomination .
= = Republican National Convention = =
The 1968 Republican National Convention was held from August 5 to 9 at the Miami Beach Convention Center in Miami Beach , Florida . At the convention , Richard Nixon won the nomination for President on the first ballot with 692 delegates . Behind him finished Governor Rockefeller , second with 277 delegates , followed by Governor Ronald Reagan , in third place , having just entered the race , accruing 182 delegates . Nixon 's early nomination occurred partly because he held on to delegates in the South largely influenced by Senator Strom Thurmond of South Carolina , and delegate Charlton Lyons of Louisiana .
Following nomination , Nixon held his hands in the air with his trademark " V " sign of victory , delivering an acceptance speech written over the preceding weeks . In his speech , he remarked :
" Tonight I do not promise the millennium in the morning . I don 't promise that we can eradicate poverty and end discrimination in the space of four or even eight years . But I do promise action . And a new policy for peace abroad , a new policy for peace and progress and justice at home . " - Fmr . Vice President Richard Nixon , 1968 Republican Nominee for President
He called for a new era of negotiation with communist nations , and a strengthening of the criminal justice system to restore law and order . Marking himself as a champion of the American Dream , he stressed greater unity , invoking the silent majority . Nixon also discussed economics , articulating his opposition to social welfare , advocating programs designed to help African Americans start their own small businesses . By the end of his address , he promised that " the long dark night for America is about to end . "
Following the speech , Nixon formally selected Governor Spiro Agnew of Maryland as his running mate , who received 1119 delegate votes , with the distant second being Governor Romney with 186 . Agnew was relatively unknown nationally , and was selected due to his purported appeal to African Americans , and work for the Nixon campaign after an embarrassing experience as the head of the Draft Rockefeller movement . It was later noted that the convention had featured Nixon as the centrist candidate with Rockefeller to his left and Reagan to his right . The same analysis applied to the general campaign , as commentators noted that Nixon would stand to the right of the still undecided Democratic nominee but would fall to the left of American Independent Party candidate George Wallace .
= = General election = =
As the general election season began , Nixon focused his efforts on the " big seven " states : California , Illinois , Michigan , New York , Ohio , Pennsylvania , and Texas . He hired Roger Ailes , whom he had first encountered during an appearance on the The Mike Douglas Show , to produce one hour television programs to advertise the campaign in strategic regions . The campaign also continued to use televised town hall segments throughout the campaign , which aired live , featuring real voters whom were instructed to ask tough questions , following the campaign 's belief that Nixon would respond well to such questions . Starting the ground campaign tour , during his first stop in Springfield , Illinois , he discussed the importance of unity , stating that " America [ now ] needs to be united more than any time since Lincoln . " He then traveled to Michigan , Ohio and Pennsylvania before returning to New York , meeting with Governor Rockefeller . In those Gallup polls following the convention , Nixon led Humphrey 45 % to 29 % and topped McCarthy 42 % to 37 % . At the end of the month , Hubert Humphrey narrowly won Democratic presidential nominee over McCarthy at the Democratic convention , which was filled with protest and riots . Analysts saw the Democrat 's split , along with lacking " law and order " at the convention , positioning Nixon well . Shortly before the convention and throughout the general election , Nixon received regular briefings from President Johnson on developments in the Vietnam War . The President made it clear to Nixon that he did not want the war to be politicized , to which Nixon agreed , although questioning Humphrey 's eventual compliance .
Following the Democratic convention , Nixon was consistently labeled the favorite , described as " relaxed [ and ] confident , " counter to his " unsure " self from 1960 . Even observers speculated as to the President 's possible favoring Nixon to Humphrey . In a visit to Chicago shortly after the Democratic convention , Nixon received a large welcome and ticker tape parade , with crowds estimated at several hundred thousand .
Before his visit , he called upon Senator Edward Brooke of Massachusetts , the highest ranking African American in U.S. government , to campaign with him on trips to Illinois and California . Referring to Brooke as " one of my top advisers , " he accompanied campaign stops in Chicago and San Francisco , a move critics described as an attempt to further gain favor within the African American community .
= = = September = = =
In mid @-@ September , Nixon 's running mate Spiro Agnew went on the offensive against Humphrey ; he referred to the Vice President as being " soft on Communism , " along with softness on inflation , and " law and order , " comparing him to former British Prime Minister Neville Chamberlain . At this time , Nixon sent his adviser , former Governor William Scranton of Pennsylvania , on a fact finding trip to Europe to gather intelligence on Western alliance and Soviet issues . In response to Humphrey 's calls for a face to face debate , Nixon remarked : " Before we can have a debate between Nixon and Humphrey , Humphrey 's got to settle his debate with himself . " Nixon campaigned in San Francisco , in front of 10 @,@ 000 supporters amidst an array of protests . The candidate took on the protesters first hand , and delivered his " forgotten American " speech , declaring that election day would be " a day of protest for the forgotten American , " a group which included those that " obey the law , pay their taxes , go to church , send their children to school , love their country and demand new leadership . " By month 's end , many in the Nixon campaign believed his election was guaranteed , beginning to prepare for the transition period , despite Nixon 's warning that " the one thing that can beat us now is overconfidence . " Gallup showed Nixon leading Humphrey 43 % to 28 % at the end of September .
= = = October = = =
In early October , commentators weighed Nixon 's advantage , arguing that placement of blame for the Vietnam War strictly on the Johnson administration was acceptable — avoiding discussion of war with the excuse that he did not want to disrupt the peace talks in Paris . However , anti @-@ war protesters heckled Nixon repeatedly on the campaign trail . Nixon addressed the American Conservative Union on October 9 , and argued that George Wallace 's American Independent Party candidacy could split the anti @-@ Administration vote , and help the Democrats . The Union decided to back Nixon over Wallace , labeling the third party candidate 's beliefs as " Populist . " As Democratic Vice Presidential nominee Edmund Muskie criticized Nixon for his connections to Strom Thurmond , Nixon continued to oppose a possible debate with Humphrey and Wallace , as well as between running mates , on the basis that he did not want to give Wallace more exposure . It was also argued that Nixon opposed debating due to his experience during the 1960 encounter with John F. Kennedy , which many cited as a factor in his defeat . In another lesson learned from 1960 , the campaign employed 100 @,@ 000 workers to oversee election day polling sites to prevent a recurrence of what many Republicans viewed as 1960 's stolen election . Nixon went on a whistle @-@ stop train tour of Ohio near the end of October . From the back of the " Nixon Victory Special " car , he bashed Vice President Humphrey as well as the Secretary of Agriculture and Attorney General of the Johnson cabinet , for farmers ' debt and rising crime . At this time , the campaign released two controversial television advertisements , juxtaposing a smiling Humphrey with images of the Vietnam War and the chaos at the 1968 Democratic National Convention ; the advertisements aroused protests from the Humphrey campaign . By October 's end , Nixon began to lose his edge over Humphrey ; Gallup showing he led 44 % to 36 % , down five points from a few weeks earlier , a decline observers attributed to Nixon 's refusal for a debate with Humphrey .
= = = November = = =
At the beginning of November , President Johnson announced that a bombing had been halted in Vietnam ; observers noted that the development significantly helped Humphrey although Nixon had endorsed such talks . At this time , Nixon operative Anna Chennault secretly spoke with the South Vietnamese , explaining that they could receive a better deal under Nixon . The charge that , along with remarks from Nixon supporter and future Secretary of Defense Melvin Laird , Johnson had deliberately misinformed Nixon during briefs angered the President . He spoke with Nixon supporters Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen and Senator George Smathers of Florida , informing Nixon of the President 's frustration . On the Sunday preceding the election , Nixon appeared on Meet the Press , explaining that he would cooperate completely with Johnson , phoning the President shortly thereafter to personally reassure him . The final Harris poll before the election indicated that Nixon was trailing Humphrey 43 % to 40 % , but Gallup 's final poll showed Nixon leading 42 % to 40 % . On the eve of the election , Nixon and Humphrey bought time on rival television networks , Nixon appearing on NBC , Humphrey on ABC , where each made his final appeal to voters . Nixon used this appearance to counter Humphrey 's ' October surprise ' , a polling surge following the bombing halt , claiming that he had just received " a very disturbing report " , which detailed that tons of supplies were being moved into South Vietnam by the North . Humphrey labeled this charge as " irresponsible " , causing Nixon to counter that Humphrey " doesn 't know what 's going on . " Overall , Nixon spent $ 6 @,@ 270 @,@ 000 on television advertising , most of which was judged to have only reinforced supporters .
= = = Election Day = = =
On November 5 , it was a three way race between Nixon , Humphrey , and Wallace . The results were very close , and not until early the following morning could news organizations call the election . In the end , Nixon won 301 electoral votes , with Humphrey receiving 191 , and Wallace receiving 46 . In a margin 43 @.@ 42 % to 42 @.@ 72 % , Nixon edged Humphrey in the popular vote , with Wallace earning 13 @.@ 53 % . Nixon 's victory came with a margin of less than three percent in California , Illinois , and Ohio ; had Humphrey carried these three , Nixon would have lost his election . Nixon won most of the West and mid @-@ West but lost parts of the Northeast and Texas to Humphrey and lost the deep South to Wallace . After the election was conceded by Vice President Humphrey , Nixon said the following in his press conference :
" As you will probably have heard , I have received a very gracious message from the Vice President , congratulating me for winning the election . I congratulated him for his gallant and courageous fight against great odds ... I also told him that I know exactly how he felt . I know how it feels to lose a close one . " - President @-@ Elect Richard Nixon
= = Aftermath = =
Nixon and Agnew took office as President and Vice President during their inauguration on January 20 , 1969 . Following the election , the slogan " Bring Us Together " , referencing a poster held by a 13 @-@ year @-@ old girl at a rally during his campaign , was used as a basis for the theme of his inauguration , although it would later be seized by Democrats to attack later Nixon policies . In his inaugural address , Nixon said that " the greatest honor history can bestow is the title of peacemaker , " outlining the direction Nixon sought to take , such as his visit to the People 's Republic of China in 1972 , opening diplomatic relations between the two nations , and détente plus the Anti @-@ Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union , all in his first term .
While overseeing an initial escalation of American involvement in the Vietnam War , he subsequently ended U.S. involvement in 1973 , and eliminated the draft . Domestically , his administration generally embraced policies that transferred power from Washington to the states . Among other things , he initiated wars on cancer and drugs , imposed wage and price controls , enforced desegregation of Southern schools and established the Environmental Protection Agency . Though he presided over Apollo 11 and the subsequent lunar landings , he later scaled back manned space exploration . In 1972 , he was reelected by a landslide , the largest to that date . The Watergate scandal , which would consume the larger part of his second term , resulted in his ultimate resignation on August 4 , 1974 .
= = Endorsements = =
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= Cyclone Herbie =
Tropical Cyclone Herbie was the only known tropical system to impact Western Australia during the month of May on record . The final cyclone of the 1987 – 88 Australian region cyclone season , Herbie was first identified northwest of the Cocos Islands on 17 May . The following day , the system was classified as a tropical low by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology and intensified into a Category 1 cyclone later that day . Several hours after this upgrade , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) . Around the same time , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center classified Herbie as Tropical Storm 21S .
On 19 May , the cyclone formed a new low pressure center and relocated roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south . Shortly thereafter , the storm began to accelerate towards the southeast and started to undergo an extratropical transition . Early on 21 May , Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay before losing its identity the following day over the Great Australian Bight . Although a weak storm , Herbie brought flooding rains and severe dust storms to portions of Western Australia . Additionally , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter broke in half amidst rough seas produced by the storm . Total losses from the storm reached A $ 20 million ( $ 15 @.@ 6 million USD ) . Due to the significant damage wrought by Herbie , the name was retired following its use .
= = Meteorological history = =
Tropical Cyclone Herbie originated from an area of low pressure on 17 May 1988 northwest of the Cocos Islands . Later that day , the Australian Bureau of Meteorology began monitoring the system as a tropical low . Several hours after , the Joint Typhoon Warning Center ( JTWC ) classified the system as Tropical Depression 21S , having attained winds of 45 km / h ( 30 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . Following slight development , the system intensified into a Category 1 cyclone and was given the name Herbie by the Australian Bureau of Meteorology early on 18 May . Several hours after being named , the storm attained its initial peak intensity with winds of 75 km / h ( 45 mph 10 @-@ minute sustained ) and a barometric pressure of 990 hPa ( mbar ) .
Around the same time , the JTWC upgraded the system to a tropical storm , estimating the cyclone to have attained peak winds of 65 km / h ( 40 mph 1 @-@ minute sustained ) . On 19 May , satellite imagery of the system depicted that a new low pressure centre had developed roughly 300 km ( 190 mi ) south of the original low . Several hours after the relocation , the JTWC downgraded Herbie to a tropical depression as the system 's movement began to accelerate towards the southeast . As the storm moved at a rapid speed towards the coastline of Western Australia , it began to undergo an extratropical transition . During a 24 @-@ hour period ( 20 – 21 May ) Herbie tracked roughly 1 @,@ 500 km ( 930 mi ) , with the movement of the storm reaching 70 km / h ( 43 mph ) at times .
Late on 20 May , the JTWC ceased advisories on the system as it weakened below tropical depression status offshore . However , the Bureau of Meteorology continued to monitor the system . Early on 21 May , the center of Herbie made landfall in Shark Bay with wind gusts up to 120 km / h ( 75 mph ) and a pressure of 980 hPa ( mbar ) . Due to the rapid movement of the storm , it reached the Great Australian Bight while retaining tropical characteristics despite its low @-@ latitude . Early on 22 May , the system lost its identity south of Australia as an extratropical cyclone .
= = Impact = =
Although a weak storm , its fast approach allowed for little preparation . According to officials in the coastal town of Denham , " .. the cyclone struck virtually without warning . " Most tourists staying in the region evacuated the day before Herbie 's arrival . Herbie caused moderate structural damage across Western Australia in coastal areas between Carnarvon and Denham . Banana plantations within this area also sustained extensive damage . In Denham , a storm surge of 2 m ( 6 @.@ 6 ft ) broke the town 's retaining wall and flooded low @-@ lying areas along the shore . Several fishing vessels were brought inland by the surge and left beached on streets once the water subsided . About 15 homes in Denham lost their roofs after wind gusts estimated at 160 km / h ( 99 mph ) battered the town . Due to the storms extratropical transition , areas south of Herbie received moderate to heavy rainfall while areas north of the center reported severe dust storms fueled by the cyclone 's high winds . Most areas affected by the storms rain recorded around 50 mm ( 2 @.@ 0 in ) with isolated totals near 100 mm ( 3 @.@ 9 in ) . The Irwin and Greenough Rivers overflowed their banks , inundating parts of Dongara . In all , the storm wrought approximately A $ 20 million worth of structural and agricultural damage in Western Australia .
Offshore , a 30 @,@ 000 ton freighter , the Korean Star , sustained extreme damage during the storm . Rough seas caused the hull of the ship to break and the vessel was separated into two pieces . Although the freighter was in two pieces , the ship did not sink and the wreckage of it came ashore near Cape Cuvier . No one on the ship sustained injury as all 19 crew members abandoned ship . The crew was rescued within a day of sustaining the damage and flown to Carnarvon .
In the wake of the storm , the town hall in Denham was converted into a temporary shelter for the homeless . Repair to damaged roofs and downed power lines began on 22 May . Within a few days of the storm 's passage , appeals were made for relief funds in regions affected by Herbie . As of January 2010 , Cyclone Herbie is the most recent tropical system to either directly or indirectly impact the town of Geraldton , a region that is struck by tropical cyclones once every six to eight years . Although the storm caused relatively little damage , the name Herbie was retired following its usage and will never be used again to name a tropical cyclone in the Australian region .
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= Croatian independence referendum , 1991 =
Croatia held an independence referendum on 19 May 1991 , following the Croatian parliamentary elections of 1990 and the rise of ethnic tensions that led to the breakup of Yugoslavia . With 83 percent turnout , voters approved the referendum , with 93 percent in favor of independence . Subsequently , Croatia declared independence and the dissolution of its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 , but it introduced a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision when urged to do so by the European Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe through the Brioni Agreement . The war in Croatia escalated during the moratorium , and on 8 October 1991 , the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . In 1992 , the countries of the European Economic Community granted Croatia diplomatic recognition and Croatia was admitted to the United Nations .
= = Background = =
After World War II , Croatia became a one @-@ party Socialist federal unit of the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia . Croatia was ruled by the Communists and enjoyed a degree of autonomy within the Yugoslav federation . In 1967 , a group of Croatian authors and linguists published the Declaration on the Status and Name of the Croatian Literary Language , demanding greater autonomy for the Croatian language . The declaration contributed to a national movement seeking greater civil rights and decentralization of the Yugoslav economy , culminating in the Croatian Spring of 1971 , which was suppressed by Yugoslav leadership . The 1974 Yugoslav Constitution gave increased autonomy to federal units , essentially fulfilling a goal of the Croatian Spring and providing a legal basis for independence of the federative constituents .
In the 1980s , the political situation in Yugoslavia deteriorated , with national tension fanned by the 1986 Serbian SANU Memorandum and the 1989 coups in Vojvodina , Kosovo and Montenegro . In January 1990 , the Communist Party fragmented along national lines , with the Croatian faction demanding a looser federation . In the same year , the first multi @-@ party elections were held in Croatia , with Franjo Tuđman 's win resulting in further nationalist tensions . The Croatian Serb politicians boycotted the Sabor , and local Serbs seized control of Serb @-@ inhabited territory , setting up road blocks and voting for those areas to become autonomous . The Serb " autonomous oblasts " would soon unite to become the internationally unrecognized Republic of Serbian Krajina ( RSK ) , intent on achieving independence from Croatia .
= = Referendum and declaration of independence = =
On 25 April 1991 , the Croatian Parliament decided to hold an independence referendum on 19 May . The decision was published in the official gazette of the Republic of Croatia and made official on 2 May 1991 . The referendum offered two options . In the first , Croatia would become a sovereign and independent state , guaranteeing cultural autonomy and civil rights to Serbs and other minorities in Croatia , free to form an association of sovereign states with other former Yugoslav republics . In the second , Croatia would remain in Yugoslavia as a unified federal state . Serb local authorities called for a boycott of the vote , which was largely followed by Croatian Serbs . The referendum was held at 7 @,@ 691 polling stations , where voters were given two ballots — blue and red , with a single referendum option each , allowing use of either or both of ballots . The referendum question proposing independence of Croatia , presented on the blue ballot , passed with 93 @.@ 24 % in favor , 4 @.@ 15 % against , and 1 @.@ 18 % of invalid or blank votes . The second referendum question , proposing that Croatia should remain in Yugoslavia , was declined with 5 @.@ 38 % votes in favor , 92 @.@ 18 % against and 2 @.@ 07 % of invalid votes . The turnout was 83 @.@ 56 % .
Croatia subsequently declared independence and dissolved ( Croatian : razdruženje ) its association with Yugoslavia on 25 June 1991 . The European Economic Community and the Conference on Security and Cooperation in Europe urged Croatian authorities to place a three @-@ month moratorium on the decision . Croatia agreed to freeze its independence declaration for three months , initially easing tensions . Nonetheless , the Croatian War of Independence escalated further . On 7 October , the eve of expiration of the moratorium , the Yugoslav Air Force attacked Banski dvori , the main government building in Zagreb . On 8 October 1991 , the moratorium expired , and the Croatian Parliament severed all remaining ties with Yugoslavia . That particular session of the parliament was held in the INA building on Pavao Šubić Avenue in Zagreb due to security concerns provoked by recent Yugoslav air raid ; Specifically , it was feared that the Yugoslav Air Force might attack the parliament building . 8 October is now celebrated as Croatia 's Independence Day .
= = Recognition = =
The Badinter Arbitration Committee was set up by the Council of Ministers of the European Economic Community ( EEC ) on 27 August 1991 to provide legal advice and criteria for diplomatic recognition to former Yugoslav republics . In late 1991 , the Commission stated , among other things , that Yugoslavia was in the process of dissolution , and that the internal boundaries of Yugoslav republics could not be altered unless freely agreed upon . Factors in the preservation of Croatia 's pre @-@ war borders , defined by demarcation commissions in 1947 , were the Yugoslav federal constitutional amendments of 1971 and 1974 , granting that sovereign rights were exercised by the federal units , and that the federation had only the authority specifically transferred to it by the constitution .
Germany advocated quick recognition of Croatia , stating that it wanted to stop ongoing violence in Serb @-@ inhabited areas . It was opposed by France , the United Kingdom , and the Netherlands , but the countries agreed to pursue a common approach and avoid unilateral actions . On 10 October , two days after the Croatian Parliament confirmed the declaration of independence , the EEC decided to postpone any decision to recognize Croatia for two months , deciding to recognize Croatian independence in two months if the war had not ended by then . As the deadline expired , Germany presented its decision to recognize Croatia as its policy and duty — a position supported by Italy and Denmark . France and the UK attempted to prevent the recognition by drafting a United Nations resolution requesting no unilateral actions which could worsen the situation , but backed down during the Security Council debate on 14 December , when Germany appeared determined to defy the UN resolution . On 17 December , the EEC formally agreed to grant Croatia diplomatic recognition on 15 January 1992 , relying on opinion of the Badinter Arbitration Committee . The Committee ruled that Croatia 's independence should not be recognized immediately , because the new Croatian Constitution did not provide protection of minorities required by the EEC . In response , the President Franjo Tuđman gave written assurances to Robert Badinter that the deficit would be remedied . The RSK formally declared its separation from Croatia on 19 December , but its statehood and independence were not recognized internationally . On 26 December , Yugoslav authorities announced plans for a smaller state , which could include the territory captured from Croatia , but the plan was rejected by the UN General Assembly .
Croatia was first recognized as an independent state on 26 June 1991 by Slovenia , which declared its own independence on the same day as Croatia . Lithuania followed on 30 July , and Ukraine , Latvia , Iceland , and Germany in December 1991 . The EEC countries granted Croatia recognition on 15 January 1992 , and the United Nations admitted them in May 1992 .
= = Aftermath = =
Although it is not a public holiday , 15 January is marked as the day Croatia won international recognition by Croatian media and politicians . On the day 's 10th anniversary in 2002 , the Croatian National Bank minted a 25 kuna commemorative coin . In the period following the declaration of independence , the war escalated , with the sieges of Vukovar and Dubrovnik , and fighting elsewhere , until a ceasefire of 3 January 1992 led to stabilization and a significant reduction of violence . The war effectively ended in August 1995 with a decisive victory for Croatia as a result of Operation Storm . Present day borders of Croatia were established when the remaining Serb @-@ held areas of Eastern Slavonia were restored to Croatia pursuant to the Erdut Agreement of November 1995 , with the process concluded in January 1998 .
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= Georgian scripts =
The Georgian scripts are the three writing systems used to write the Georgian language : Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli . Although the systems differ in appearance , all three are unicase , their letters share the same names and alphabetical order , and are written horizontally following the standard left @-@ to @-@ right direction . Of the three Georgian writing systems , Mkhedruli ( literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " script ) was the civilian royal script of the Georgian Kingdom used for charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli is therefore the standard script for modern Georgian and its related Kartvelian languages , whereas Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are used only in ceremonial religious texts and iconography .
Georgian scripts are unique in their appearance and their exact origin has never been established ; however , in strictly structural terms , their alphabetical order largely corresponds to the Greek alphabet , with the exception of letters denoting uniquely Georgian sounds , which are grouped at the end . Originally consisting of 38 letters , Georgian is presently written in a 33 @-@ letter alphabet , as five letters are currently obsolete in that language . The number of Georgian letters used in other Kartvelian languages varies . The Mingrelian language uses 36 , 33 of which are current Georgian letters , one obsolete Georgian letter , and two additional letters specific to Mingrelian and Svan . That same obsolete letter , plus a letter borrowed from Greek ( making 35 letters total ) , are used in writing the Laz language . The fourth Kartvelian language , Svan , is not commonly written , but when it is , it uses Georgian letters as utilized in Mingrelian , with an additional obsolete Georgian letter and sometimes supplemented by diacritics for its many vowels .
Georgian scripts hold the national status of cultural heritage in Georgia , and are currently nominated for inclusion in the UNESCO 's list of the Intangible Cultural Heritage of Humanity .
= = Preview = =
= = Origins = =
The origins of the Georgian script are to this date poorly known , and no full agreement exists among Georgian and foreign scholars as to its date of creation , who designed the script and the main influences on that process .
The first version of the script attested is Asomtavruli which dates back to at least the 5th century ; the other scripts were formed in the following centuries . Most scholars link the creation of the Georgian alphabet to the process of Christianisation of a core Georgian @-@ speaking kingdom , that is , Kartli ( or Iberia in Classical sources ) . The alphabet was therefore most probably created between the conversion of Iberia under King Mirian III ( 326 or 337 ) and the Bir el Qutt inscriptions of 430 , contemporaneously with the Armenian alphabet . It was first used for translation of the Bible and other Christian literature into Georgian , by monks in Georgia and Palestine . Professor Levan Chilashvili 's dating of fragmented Asomtavruli inscriptions , discovered by him at the ruined town of Nekresi , in Georgia 's easternmost province of Kakheti , in the 1980s , to the 1st or 2nd century has not been universally accepted .
A Georgian tradition first attested in the medieval chronicle Lives of the Kings of Kartli ( ca . 800 ) , assigns a much earlier , pre @-@ Christian origin to the Georgian alphabet , and names King Pharnavaz I ( 3rd century BC ) as its inventor . This account is now considered legendary , and is rejected by scholarly consensus , as no archaeological confirmation has been found . Rapp considers the tradition to be an attempt by the Georgian Church to rebut the earlier tradition that the alphabet was invented by Mesrop Mashtots , and is a Georgian application of an Iranian model in which primordial kings are credited with the creation of basic social institutions . Georgian linguist Tamaz Gamkrelidze offers an alternate interpretation of the tradition , in the pre @-@ Christian use of foreign scripts ( alloglottography in the Aramaic alphabet ) to write down Georgian texts .
A point of contention among scholars is the role played by Armenian clerics in that process . According to a number of scholars and medieval Armenian sources , Mesrop Mashtots , generally acknowledged as the creator of the Armenian alphabet , also created the Georgian and Caucasian Albanian alphabets . This tradition originates in the works of Koryun , a fifth century historian and biographer of Mashtots , and has been quoted by Donald Rayfield and James R. Russell , but has been criticized by scholars , both Georgian and Western , who judge the passage in Koryun unreliable or even a later interpolation . Other scholars quote Koryun 's claims without taking a stance on its validity . Many agree , however , that Armenian clerics , if not Mashtots himself , must have played a role in the creation of the Georgian script .
Another controversy regards the main influences at play in the Georgian alphabet , as scholars have debated whether it was inspired more by the Greek alphabet , or by Semitic alphabets such as Aramaic . Recent historiography focuses on greater similarities with the Greek alphabet than in the other Caucasian writing systems , most notably the order and numeric value of letters . Some scholars have also suggested as a possible inspiration for particular letters certain pre @-@ Christian Georgian cultural symbols or clan markers .
= = Asomtavruli = =
Asomtavruli ( Georgian : ასომთავრული ) is the oldest Georgian script . The name Asomtavruli means " capital letters " , from aso ( ასო ) " letter " and mtavari ( მთავარი ) " principal / head " . It is also known as Mrgvlovani ( Georgian : მრგვლოვანი ) " rounded " , from mrgvali ( მრგვალი ) " round " , so named because of its round letter shapes . Despite its name , this " capital " script is unicameral , just like the modern Georgian script , Mkhedruli .
The oldest Asomtavruli inscriptions found so far date from the 5th century and are Bir el Qutt and the Bolnisi inscriptions .
From the 9th century , Nuskhuri script starting becoming dominant , and the role of Asomtavruli was reduced . However , epigraphic monuments of the 10th to 18th centuries continued to be written in Asomtavruli script . Asomtavruli in this later period became more decorative . In the majority of 9th @-@ century Georgian manuscripts which were written in Nuskhuri script , Asomtavruli was used for titles and the first letters of chapters . Although , some manuscripts written completely in Asomtavruli can be found until the 11th century .
= = = Form of Asomtavruli letters = = =
In early Asomtavruli , the letters are of equal height . Georgian historian and philologist Pavle Ingorokva believes that the direction of Asomtavruli , like that of Greek , was initially boustrophedon , though the direction of the earliest surviving texts is from left to the right .
In most Asomtavruli letters , straight lines are horizontal or vertical and meet at right angles . The only letter with acute angles is Ⴟ ( ჯ jani ) . There have been various attempts to explain this exception . Georgian linguist and art historian Helen Machavariani believes jani derives from a monogram of Christ , composed of the Ⴈ ( ი ini ) and Ⴕ ( ქ kani ) . According to Georgian scholar Ramaz Pataridze , the cross @-@ like shape of letter jani indicates the end of the alphabet , and has the same function as the similarly shaped Phoenician letter taw ( ) , Greek chi ( Χ ) , and Latin X , though these letters do not have that function in Phoenician , Greek , or Latin .
Coins of Queen Tamar of Georgia and King George IV of Georgia minted using Asomtavruli script , 1200 – 1210 AD .
From the 7th century , the forms of some letters began to change . The equal height of the letters was abandoned , with letters acquiring ascenders and descenders .
Note : Some fonts show " capitalized " ( tall ) variants of Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli letters rather than Asomtavruli .
= = = Asomtavruli illumination = = =
In Nuskhuri manuscripts , Asomtavruli are used for titles and illuminated capitals . The latter were used at the beginnings of paragraphs which started new sections of text . In the early stages of the development of Nuskhuri texts , Asomtavruli letters were not elaborate and were distinguished principally by size and sometimes by being written in cinnabar ink . Later , from the 10th century , the letters were illuminated . The style of Asomtavruli capitals can be used to identify the era of a text . For example , in the Georgian manuscripts of the Byzantine era , when the styles of the Byzantine Empire influenced Kingdom of Georgia , capitals were illuminated with images of birds and other animals .
Decorative Asomtavruli capital letters , მ ( m ) , ნ ( n ) and თ ( t ) , 12 – 13th century .
From the 11th @-@ century " limb @-@ flowery " , " limb @-@ arrowy " and " limb @-@ spotty " decorative forms of Asomtavruli are developed . The first two are found in 11th- and 12th @-@ century monuments , whereas the third one is used until the 18th century .
Importance was attached also to the colour of the ink itself .
Asomtavruli letter დ ( doni ) is often written with decoration effects of fish and birds .
The " Curly " decorative form of Asomtavruli is also used where the letters are wattled or intermingled on each other , or the smaller letters are written inside other letters . It was mostly used for the headlines of the manuscripts or the books , although there are compete inscriptions which were written in the Asomtavruli " Curly " form only .
The title of Gospel of Matthew in Asomtavruli " Curly " decorative form .
= = = Handwriting of Asomtavruli = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Asomtavruli letter :
= = Nuskhuri = =
Nuskhuri ( Georgian : ნუსხური ) is the second Georgian script . The name nuskhuri comes from nuskha ( ნუსხა ) , meaning " inventory " or " schedule " . Nuskhuri was soon augmented with Asomtavruli illuminated capitals in religious manuscripts . The combination is called Khutsuri ( Georgian : ხუცური , " clerical " , from khutsesi ( ხუცესი " cleric " ) , and it was principally used in hagiography .
Nuskhuri first appeared in the 9th century as a graphic variant of Asomtavruli . The oldest inscription is found in the Ateni Sioni Church and dates to 835 AD . The oldest surviving Nuskhuri manuscripts date to 864 AD . Nuskhuri becomes dominant over Asomtavruli from the 10th century .
= = = Form of Nuskhuri letters = = =
Nuskhuri letters vary in height , with ascenders and descenders , and are slanted to the right . Letters have an angular shape , with a noticeable tendency to simplify the shapes they had in Asomtavruli . This enabled faster writing of manuscripts .
→ → Asomtavruli letters ო ( oni ) and ჳ ( vie ) . A ligature of these letters produced a new letter in Nuskhuri , უ uni .
Note : Without proper font support , you may see question marks , boxes or other symbols instead of Nuskhuri letters .
= = = Handwriting of Nuskhuri = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Nuskhuri letter :
= = Use of Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri today = =
Asomtavruli is used intensively in iconography , murals , and exterior design , especially in stone engravings . Georgian linguist Akaki Shanidze made an attempt in the 1950s to introduce Asomtavruli into the Mkhedruli script as capital letters to begin sentences , as in the Latin script , but it didn 't catch on . Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri are officially used by the Georgian Orthodox Church alongside Mkhedruli . Patriarch Ilia II of Georgia called on people to use all three Georgian scripts .
= = Mkhedruli = =
Mkhedruli ( Georgian : მხედრული ) is the third and current Georgian script . Mkhedruli , literally meaning " cavalry " or " military " , derives from mkhedari ( მხედარი ) meaning " horseman " , " knight " , " warrior " and " cavalier " .
Like the two other scripts , Mkhedruli is purely unicameral . Mkhedruli first appears in the 10th century . The oldest Mkhedruli inscription is found in Ateni Sioni Church dating back to 982 AD . The second oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written text is found in the 11th @-@ century royal charters of King Bagrat IV of Georgia . Mkhedruli was mostly used then in the Kingdom of Georgia for the royal charters , historical documents , manuscripts and inscriptions . Mkhedruli was used for non @-@ religious purposes only and represented the " civil " , " royal " and " secular " script .
Mkhedruli became more and more dominant over the two other scripts , though Khutsuri ( Nuskhuri with Asomtavruli ) was used until the 19th century . Since the 19th century , with the establishment and development of the printed Georgian fonts , Mkhedruli became universal writing Georgian outside the Church .
= = = Form of Mkhedruli letters = = =
Mkhedruli inscriptions of the 10th and 11th centuries are characterized in rounding of angular shapes of Nuskhuri letters and making the complete outlines in all of its letters . Mkhedruli letters are written in the four @-@ linear system , similar to Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli becomes more round and free in writing . It breaks the strict frame of the previous two alphabets , Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri . Mkhedruli letters begin to get coupled and more free calligraphy develops .
Example of one of the oldest Mkhedruli @-@ written texts found in the royal charter of King Bagrat IV of Georgia , 11th century .
" Gurgen : King : of Kings : great @-@ grandfather : of mine : Bagrat Curopalates "
Coin of Queen Tamar of Georgia in Mkhedruli , 1187 AD .
= = = Modern Georgian alphabet = = =
The modern Georgian alphabet consists of 33 letters :
= = = Letters removed from the Georgian alphabet = = =
The Society for the Spreading of Literacy among Georgians , founded by Prince Ilia Chavchavadze in 1879 , discarded five letters from the Georgian alphabet that had become redundant :
ჱ ( he ) , sometimes called " ei " or " e @-@ merve " ( " eighth e " ) , was equivalent to ეჲ ey , as in ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey ' Christ ' .
ჲ ( hie ) , also called iota , appeared instead of ი ( ini ) after a vowel , but came to have the same pronunciation as ი ( ini ) and was replaced by it . Thus ქრისტჱ ~ ქრისტეჲ krist 'ey " Christ " is now written ქრისტეი krist 'ei .
ჳ ( vie ) came to be pronounced the same as ვი vi and was replaced by that sequence , as in სხჳსი > სხვისი skhvisi " others ' " .
ჴ ( qari , hari ) came to be pronounced the same as ხ ( khani ) , and was replaced by it. e.g. ჴლმწიფე became ხელმწიფე " sovereign " .
ჵ ( hoe ) was used for the interjection hoi ! and is now spelled ჰოი .
All but ჵ ( hoe ) continue to be used in the Svan alphabet ; ჲ ( hie ) is used in the Mingrelian and Laz alphabets as well , for the y @-@ sound / j / . Several others were used for Abkhaz and Ossetian in the short time they were written in Mkhedruli script .
= = = Letters added to other alphabets = = =
Mkhedruli has been adapted to languages besides Georgian . Some of these alphabets retained letters obsolete in Georgian , while others required additional letters :
ჶ ( fi " phi " ) is used in Laz and Svan , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian . It derives from the Greek letter Φ ( phi ) .
ჷ ( shva " schwa " ) , also called yn , is used for the schwa sound in Svan and Mingrelian , and formerly in Ossetian and Abkhazian .
ჸ ( elifi " alif " ) is used in for the glottal stop in Svan and Mingrelian . It is a reversed 〈 ყ 〉 ( q 'ari ) .
ჹ ( turned gani ) was once used for [ ɢ ] in evangelical literature in Dagestanian languages .
ჺ ( aini " ain " ) is occasionally used for [ ʕ ] in Bats . It derives from the Arabic letter 〈 ﻋ 〉 ( ‘ ain ) .
= = = Handwriting of Mkhedruli = = =
The following table shows the stroke order and direction of each Mkhedruli letter :
ზ , ო , and ხ ( zeni , oni , khani ) are almost always written without the small tick at the end , while the handwritten form of ჯ ( jani ) often uses a vertical line , ( sometimes with a taller ascender , or with a diagonal cross bar ) ; even when it is written at a diagonal , the cross @-@ bar is generally shorter than in print .
Only four letters are x @-@ height , with neither ascenders nor descenders : ა , თ , ი , ო .
Thirteen have ascenders , like b or d in English : ბ , ზ , მ , ნ , პ , რ , ს , შ , ჩ , ძ , წ , ხ , ჰ
An equal number have descenders , like p or q in English : გ , დ , ე , ვ , კ , ლ , ჟ , ტ , უ , ფ , ღ , ყ , ც
Three letters have both ascenders and descenders , like þ in Old English : ქ , ჭ , and ( in handwriting ) ჯ . წ has both ascender and descender in print , and sometimes in handwriting .
= = = = Variation = = = =
There is individual and stylistic variation in many of the letters . For example , the top circle of ზ ( zeni ) and the top stroke of რ ( rae ) may go in the other direction than shown in the chart ( that is , counter @-@ clockwise starting at 3 o 'clock , and upwards – see the external @-@ link section for videos of people writing ) . Other common variants :
გ ( gani ) may be written like ვ ( vini ) with a closed loop at the bottom .
დ ( doni ) is frequently written with a simple loop at top , .
კ , ც , and ძ ( k 'ani , tsani , dzili ) are generally written with straight , vertical lines at the top , so that for example ც ( tsani ) resembles a U with a dimple in the right side .
ლ ( lasi ) is frequently written with a single arc , . Even when all three are written , they 're generally not all the same size , as they are in print , but rather riding on one wide arc like two dimples in it .
Rarely , ო ( oni ) is written as a right angle , .
რ ( rae ) is frequently written with one arc , , like a Latin 〈 h 〉 .
ტ ( t 'ari ) often has a small circle with a tail hanging into the bowl , rather than two small circles as in print , or as an O with a straight vertical line intersecting the top . It may also be rotated a bit clockwise , with the small circles further to the right and not as close to the top .
წ ( ts 'ili ) is generally written with a round bowl at the bottom , . Another variation features a triangular bowl .
ჭ ( ch 'ari ) may be written without the hook at the top , and often with a completely straight vertical line .
ჱ ( he ) may be written without the loop , like a conflation of ს and ჰ .
ჯ ( " jani " ) is sometimes written so that it looks like a hooked version of the Latin " X "
= = = = Similar letters = = = =
Several letters are similar and may be confused at first , especially in handwriting .
For ვ ( vini ) and კ ( k 'ani ) , the critical difference is whether the top is a full arc or a ( more @-@ or @-@ less ) vertical line .
For ვ ( vini ) and გ ( gani ) , it is whether the bottom is an open curve or closed ( a loop ) . The same is true of უ ( uni ) and შ ( shini ) ; in handwriting , the tops may look the same . Similarly ს ( sani ) and ხ ( khani ) .
For კ ( k 'ani ) and პ ( p 'ari ) , the crucial difference is whether the letter is written below or above x @-@ height , and whether it 's written top @-@ down or bottom @-@ up .
ძ ( dzili ) is written with a vertical top .
= = Ligatures , abbreviations and calligraphy = =
Asomtavruli is often highly stylized and writers readily formed ligatures , intertwined letters , and placed letters within letters .
A ligature of the Asomtavruli initials of King Vakhtang I of Iberia , Ⴂ Ⴌ ( გნ , GN )
A ligature of the Asomtavruli letters Ⴃ Ⴀ ( და , da ) " and "
Nuskhuri , like Asomtavruli is also often highly stylized . Writers readily formed ligatures and abbreviations for nomina sacra , including diacritics called karagma , which resemble titla . Because writing materials such as vellum were scarce and therefore precious , abbreviating was a practical measure widespread in manuscripts and hagiography by the 11th century .
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of რომელი ( romeli ) " which "
A Nuskhuri abbreviation of იესუ ქრისტე ( iesu kriste ) " Jesus Christ "
Mkhedruli , in the 11th to 17th centuries also came to employ digraphs to the point that they were obligatory , requiring adhesion to a complex system .
A Mkhedruli ligature of და ( da ) " and "
Mkhedruli calligraphy of Prince Garsevan Chavchavadze and King Archil of Imereti
= = Type faces = =
Georgian scripts come in only a single type face , though word processors can apply automatic ( " fake " ) oblique and bold formatting to Georgian text . Traditionally , Asomtavruli was used for chapter or section titles , where Latin script might use bold or italic type .
= = Punctuation = =
In Asomtavruli and Nuskhuri punctuation , various combinations of dots were used as word dividers and to separate phrases , clauses , and paragraphs . In monumental inscriptions and manuscripts of 5th to 10th centuries , these were written as dashes , like − , |
= and =
− . In the 10th century , clusters of one ( · ) , two ( : ) , three ( ჻ ) and six ( ჻ ჻ ) dots ( later sometimes small circles ) were introduced by Ephrem Mtsire to indicate increasing breaks in the text . One dot indicated a " minor stop " ( presumably a simple word break ) , two dots marked or separated " special words " , three dots for a " bigger stop " ( such as the appositive name and title " the sovereign Alexander " , below , or the title of the Gospel of Matthew , above ) , and six dots were to indicate the end of the sentence . Starting in the 11th century , marks resembling the apostrophe and comma came into use . An apostrophe was used to mark an interrogative word , and a comma appeared at the end of an interrogative sentence . From the 12th century on , these were replaced with the semicolon ( the Greek question mark ) . In the 18th century , Patriarch Anton I of Georgia reformed the system again , with commas , single dots , and double dots used to mark " complete " , " incomplete " , and " final " sentences , respectively . For the most part , Georgian today uses the punctuation as in international usage of the Latin script .
Signature of King Alexander II of Kakheti , with the divider 〈 ჻ 〉
ჴლმწიფე ჻ ალექსანდრე
" The sovereign Alexander "
= = Summary = =
This table lists the three scripts in parallel columns , including the letters that are now obsolete in all alphabets ( shown with a blue background ) , obsolete in Georgian but still used in other alphabets ( green background ) , or additional letters in languages other than Georgian ( pink background ) . The " national " transliteration is the system used by the Georgian government , whereas " Laz " is the Latin Laz alphabet used in Turkey . The table also shows the traditional numeric values of the letters .
= = Use for other non @-@ Kartvelian languages = =
Ossetian language during the 1940s .
Abkhaz language during the 1940s .
Ingush language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Chechen language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Avar language ( historically ) , later replaced in the 17th century by Arabic and by the Cyrillic script in modern times .
Turkish language and Tatar language . A Turkish Gospel , dictionary , poems , medical book dating from the 18th century .
Persian language . The 18th @-@ century Persian translation of the Arabic Gospel is kept at the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Armenian language . In the Armenian community in Tbilisi , the Georgian script was occasionally used for writing Armenian in the 18th and 19th centuries , and some samples of this kind of texts are kept at the Georgian National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi .
Russian language . In the collections of the National Center of Manuscripts in Tbilisi there are also a few short poems in the Russian language written in Georgian script dating from the late 18th and early 19th centuries .
Other Northeast Caucasian languages . The Georgian script was used for writing North Caucasian and Dagestani languages in connection with Georgian missionary activities in the areas starting in the 18th century .
Old Avar crosses with Avar inscriptions in Asomtavruli script .
= = Computing = =
= = = Unicode = = =
The first Georgian script was added to the Unicode Standard in October , 1991 with the release of version 1 @.@ 0 . In creating the Georgian Unicode block , important roles were played by German Jost Gippert , a linguist of Kartvelian studies , and American @-@ Irish linguist and script @-@ encoder Michael Everson , who created the Georgian Unicode for the Macintosh systems . Significant contributions were also made by Anton Dumbadze and Irakli Garibashvili . ( not the former Prime Minister of Georgia Irakli Garibashvili )
Georgian Mkhedruli script received an official status for being Georgia 's internationalized domain name script for ( .გე ) .
= = = = Blocks = = = =
The Unicode block for Georgian is U + 10A0 – U + 10FF . Mkhedruli ( modern Georgian ) occupies the U + 10D0 – U + 10FF range and Asomtavruli occupies the U + 10A0 – U + 10CF range . The Unicode block for Georgian Supplement is U + 2D00 – U + 2D2F and it encodes Nuskhuri .
= = = Keyboard layouts = = =
Below is the standard Georgian @-@ language keyboard layout , the traditional layout of manual typewriters .
= = Gallery = =
Gallery of Asomtavruli , Nuskhuri and Mkhedruli scripts .
= = = Gallery of Asomtavruli = = =
= = = Gallery of Nuskhuri = = =
= = = Gallery of Mkhedruli = = =
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= Banai ( goddess ) =
Banai ( Marathi : बाणाई Bāṇāi , sometimes बानाई ) , also known as Banu ( Bāṇu , बानू ) and Banu @-@ bai ( Bāṇu @-@ bāī , बानू @-@ बाई ) , is a Hindu goddess and the second wife of Khandoba , a form of the god Shiva worshipped in the Deccan – predominantly in the Indian states of Maharashtra and Karnataka . Khandoba is portrayed as a king of Jejuri , where his chief temple stands . Some traditions do not give her the status of a legal wife and treat her as a concubine of Khandoba .
While scriptures related to Khandoba do not mention Banai , she is a central subject of folk songs . Banai is considered as a Dhangar , a sheep herding caste , and is sometimes regarded to be of celestial origin . Oral traditions chiefly discuss the tale of her marriage to Khandoba and her conflicts with his first wife Mhalsa . Banai is an antithesis of Mhalsa ; together they complete the god . Banai is generally depicted with Khandoba and often is also accompanied by Mhalsa .
Banai does not enjoy independent worship , but is worshipped as Khandoba 's consort in most of his temples . She is the patron goddess of the Dhangar community and is worshipped as a protector of their herds .
= = Development and symbolism = =
Though Khandoba is a god with five wives , his first two consorts Mhalsa and Banai are the most important . The tale of the King or god with two wives is retold with some variation across India : Murugan and his wives Devasena and Valli ; Venkateswara , Lakshmi and Padmavati being some examples . The motif of Shiva and his wives Parvati and Ganga is told in the Puranas .
The theme of the god marrying a tribal girl like Banai recurs across the Deccan region ; another example being Valli 's marriage to Murugan . Deities across the Deccan ( even extending to Kerala and Tamil Nadu ) often have two wives ; one wife from a high caste and another from the lower social strata : a lower caste or a tribal . Khandoba 's wives who come from various communities establish cultural linkages of the god to these communities , who worship them as their patron god .
While Banai is considered as a legal wife of Khandoba in Maharashtra ( especially with the Dhangars ) , the Kurubas of Karnataka regard her as a concubine . While Mhalsa is from the high @-@ caste Lingayat merchant ( Vani ) community , Banai is described as a Dhangar ( shepherd caste ) , representing the " outside " and associates Khandoba with non @-@ elite herding castes like Dhangars , Gavli and Kuruba ( Gowda ) who live in the forest . Some traditions consider Banai as a Gavli ( cowherd caste ) or Koli ( fisherman caste ) . In Karnataka , she is called Kurbattyavva and is a Kuruba .
Banai is an antithesis Mhalsa . Mhalsa has a regular ritualistic marriage with Khandoba . Banai , on the other hand , has a love marriage after being captured by the god . Mhalsa is described as pure , ugly , jealous and a good cook ; Banai is impure , erotic , resolute , but does not even know to cook . Mhalsa represents " culture " while Banai " nature " ; together they aid the god @-@ king Khandoba .
The oral legends and texts initiate a process of Sanskritization of the folk deity Khandoba by elevating him to the classical Hindu god Shiva ; his two principal wives Mhalsa and Banai are equated to Parvati and Ganga . Banai does not appear in the Sanskrit Malhari Mahatmya , the main scripture related to Khandoba , however it mentions Ganga arriving from heaven . Banai ( Ganga ) has a quarrel with Mhalsa ( Parvati ) , ultimately ending with the message that both are the same . Some Dhangars consider Banai also to be a form of Parvati .
The chief source of legends related to Banai are ovi ( pada ) or folk songs sung by Vaghyas and Muralis , the male and female bards of Khandoba . They sing at jagrans ( a vigil ) where the bards sing in praise of Khandoba through the night . The songs talk about the relationship of Khandoba to his consorts and the mutual relationships of the wives . They are centred on Mhalsa and Banai and often narrate about their quarrels . The tale of the marriage of Khandoba and Banai is a central theme in many Dhangar folk songs . The Varkari saint Sheikh Muhammad ( 1560 @-@ 1650 ) disparages Khandoba in his Yoga @-@ samgrama and calls him the " mad " god that searches for Banai due to " sexual passion " , an allusion to the tale of Banai 's marriage , indicating that the tale was well @-@ established by this era .
According to scholar Günther @-@ Dietz Sontheimer , the legend of Banai has close parallels with the story of King Dushyanta and Shakuntala from the Hindu epic Mahabharata . The tale of another folk god Mhaskoba ( Bhairava ) to gain his wife Balurani or Balai despite obstacles is also similar to Khandoba 's endeavour to win over Banai .
= = Legends = =
Banai does not appear in the Malhari Mahatmya originating from the Brahmin ( high @-@ priest caste ) tradition , which glorifies Khandoba as Shiva and de @-@ emphasizes his earthly connections . In contrast , Banai occupies the central position in the Dhangar folk narrative and Mhalsa 's marriage to Khandoba is reduced to a passing mention ; Marathas and other settled castes give more importance to Mhalsa .
= = = Early life = = =
Generally , Banai 's birth is not discussed in the folk songs . Few regard her as an avatar of the apsara ( celestial nymph ) Rambha , while others consider her as one of the seven daughters of Indra , the king of the gods . She is found by a Dhangar in a golden box in the forest , hidden in a termite mound or a pit . Her Dhangar father ( sometimes named Yamu ) is the chief of shepherds , who owns nine lakh sheep and goats , nine lakh lambs and numerous barren ones . Yamu is said to have prayed for a child and finds Banai in a box . A virgin ewe is said to have fed Banai her milk , as Yamu does not have a wife and does not know how to feed the infant . In another miracle , a three @-@ storeyed house appears at the place of Yamu 's tent for the young Banai to reside , while the rest of the Dhangars live in tents . She grows up as a rich shepherdess and becomes the overseer of twelve Dhangar vadas ( pastoral settlements or camps , inhabited by different Dhangar clans ) . She cares for her sheep , grazes them and learns how to breed them .
= = = Marriage = = =
Once , Khandoba and Mhalsa play a game of saripat ( translated as game of dice or chess ) . Khandoba loses everything to Mhalsa in the wager , except his dhoti , his flag , his staff ( wand ) and his bhandari , the bag of magical bhandara ( turmeric powder ) . In a dream , he sees Banai and falls in love with her . He goes on a hunt in the forest , gets away from the army and stays with Banai for twelve years . He marries her in non @-@ ritualistic marriage and brings her back to Jejuri . A variant describes how Khandoba arrives in Chandanpur on a hunting expedition and becomes thirsty . A Dhangar directs him to Banai 's vada . Banai offers him water or sends a pot of water , in which Khandoba reads Banai 's name . In another version , the pot with nine jewels is a sign for Khandoba to recognise Banai , the girl he saw in his dream . He falls for her and loses purposefully in saripat with Mhalsa and accepts a twelve @-@ year exile . In this period , he disguises himself as an impoverished , old leper and becomes a man @-@ servant of Banai 's father . Some folk songs have erotic overtones , for example , some songs give erotic descriptions of Banai 's beauty which maddens Khandoba .
Khandoba is described as doing odd jobs under Banai 's orders . Banai first assigns him the task of sweeping the entire vada . He is responsible for cleaning the sheep pens and taking the sheep and lambs for grazing . He completes all tasks by spreading his magical bhandara . The shepherds are astonished how a single old man can handle all the animals . Their vanity is crushed . Banai assigns him the additional responsibility of taking care of five hundred children . She commands if any sheep or lamb is lost or a child cries , she will not give him his food . But Khandoba fulfils the tasks again by spraying his bhandara . She assigns him the job of washing the sheep and lambs . Instead , Khandoba kills all her sheep and lambs to humble the shepherds and Banai . He skins the sheep and separates the meat . A repentant Banai begs his forgiveness ; he agrees to revive her flock on the condition that Banai marries him . Khandoba revives the sheep by spreading his bhandara and reveals his true form .
The wedding is deemed not in accordance to Hindu rituals . Banai and Khandoba marry in a simple , un @-@ Brahmanical ceremony , where sheep droppings are showered on the couple , instead of rice as in the ritualistic weddings of classical ( Brahmanical ) Hinduism . The wedding is conducted without a Brahmin officiating priest . Shepherds read the mantras ( the responsibility of the Brahmin in a normal wedding ) and the bleating of sheep replaces the traditional wedding band . The wedding is sometimes described as a gandharva marriage . Due to the unceremonious nature of the wedding , she is sometimes considered as a rakh ( concubine ) of Khandoba .
= = = After marriage = = =
In all versions , Khandoba returns to Jejuri with his new wife and faces the wrath of Mhalsa . Many songs tell about the confrontations of Mhalsa and Banai . In some songs , Mhalsa complains about Khandoba 's infatuation with the impure Banai . The cantankerous Mhalsa grumbles how Banai has polluted the house by her uncouth ways and suggests that Banai should be returned to the wilderness again . The songs sing how the vegetarian , high @-@ caste Mhalsa is forced to catch fish and eat in the same plate as the non @-@ vegetarian low @-@ caste Banai . Mhalsa is portrayed blaming Banai for the problems in the palace and talking about her superiority to Banai . Banai retorts by saying that Khandoba came to her , mesmerized by her beauty and became her servant . A frustrated Khandoba leaves the palace on a hunting trip after Mhalsa and Banai quarrel about who will embroider a shawl for him and marries Rambhai . The songs also narrate how ultimately the wives have to remain in harmony and aid each other . For example , a song sings how Mhalsa and Banai come together and celebrate the festival of Diwali with Khandoba at Jejuri .
Rarely , Banai also appears in Khandoba 's chief legend where he slays the demons Mani and Malla . Mhalsa and Banai ( or Ganga ) futilely help Khandoba in the battle to collect the blood of Mani , every drop of which was creating a new demon . Finally , the dog of Khandoba swallows all the blood . Rarely , Banai is described as seated behind Khandoba on the horse and fighting with a sword or spear , a role generally assigned to Mhalsa .
= = Worship and iconography = =
While traces of Banai / Balai 's association with the folk god Biroba as a " mother " remain , Banai rarely enjoys independent worship in modern times . She is generally worshipped as Khandoba 's consort . While in Karnataka , her temple is outside the village and Mailara ( as Khandoba is known in Karnataka ) journeys every year to visit it for ten nights from his temple in the village . In Maharashtra , Banai 's temple is inside the village , but outside the chief temple , as in Khandoba 's chief temple at Jejuri . Mhalsa - who is installed in the main temple - is said to resist the arrival of Khandoba 's new wife Banai and thus , Banai does not reside in the chief temple . Frustrated by the constant quarrels between the two wives , Khandoba is said to have divided the hill of Jejuri into two halves : the lower half belongs to Banai , where she has a separate shrine while Mhalsa rules the upper half where she stays with Khandoba in the main temple . It is customary to pay respects to Banai on the way up to the main shrine , before worshipping Khandoba and Mhalsa there . It is said that Khandoba bestowed the honour of first worship on Banai , while sending her off to a separate residence .
Banai is the patron goddess of the Dhangars and the protector goddess of flock and herds . She takes care of the well @-@ being of the community and is worshipped for increasing the herd . Stone votive images of sheep and other cattle are offered to her for plentiful animals . No animal sacrifice or non @-@ vegetarian offerings are presented to Khandoba directly , instead non @-@ vegetarian offerings intended for Khandoba are offered to Banai . Dhangars sacrifice rams in her honour and offer her a naivedya ( food offering ) of liver , meat and rice , especially on the holy days : Vijayadashami ( when warriors traditionally set off on war or on a journey ) and the full moon days in the Hindu months of Magha and Chaitra .
Khandoba is often depicted with two identical goddesses accompanying him , representing Mhalsa and Banai . In brass images , Banai is depicted holding a lamb and offering water to Khandoba , while Mhalsa rides with Khandoba on his horse . In metal plaques worshipped by the Dhangars , Banai accompanies Khandoba on his horse and is depicted with sheep .
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= Europium =
Europium is a chemical element with symbol Eu and atomic number 63 . It was isolated in 1901 and is named after the continent of Europe . It is a moderately hard , silvery metal which readily oxidizes in air and water . Being a typical member of the lanthanide series , europium usually assumes the oxidation state + 3 , but the oxidation state + 2 is also common : all europium compounds with oxidation state + 2 are slightly reducing . Europium has no significant biological role and is relatively non @-@ toxic compared to other heavy metals . Most applications of europium exploit the phosphorescence of europium compounds . Europium is one of the least abundant elements in the universe ; only about 5 × 10 − 8 % of all matter in the universe is europium .
= = Characteristics = =
= = = Physical properties = = =
Europium is a ductile metal with a hardness similar to that of lead . It crystallizes in a body @-@ centered cubic lattice . Some properties of europium are strongly influenced by its half @-@ filled electron shell . Europium has the second lowest melting point and the lowest density of all lanthanides .
Europium becomes a superconductor when it is cooled below 1 @.@ 8 K and compressed to above 80 GPa . This is because europium is divalent in the metallic state , and is converted into the trivalent state by the applied pressure . In the divalent state , the strong local magnetic moment ( J |
= 7 / 2 ) suppresses the superconductivity , which is induced by eliminating this local moment ( J =
0 in Eu3 + ) .
= = = Chemical properties = = =
Europium is the most reactive rare earth element . It rapidly oxidizes in air , so that bulk oxidation of a centimeter @-@ sized sample occurs within several days . Its reactivity with water is comparable to that of calcium , and the reaction is
2 Eu + 6 H2O → 2 Eu ( OH ) 3 + 3 H2
Because of the high reactivity , samples of solid europium rarely have the shiny appearance of the fresh metal , even when coated with a protective layer of mineral oil . Europium ignites in air at 150 to 180 ° C to form europium ( III ) oxide :
4 Eu + 3 O2 → 2 Eu2O3
Europium dissolves readily in dilute sulfuric acid to form pale pink solutions of the hydrated Eu ( III ) , which exist as a nonahydrate :
2 Eu + 3 H2SO4 + 18 H2O → 2 [ Eu ( H2O ) 9 ] 3 + + 3 SO2 −
4 + 3 H2
= = = = Eu ( II ) vs. Eu ( III ) = = = =
Although usually trivalent , europium readily forms divalent compounds . This behavior is unusual to most lanthanides , which almost exclusively form compounds with an oxidation state of + 3 . The + 2 state has an electron configuration 4f7 because the half @-@ filled f @-@ shell gives more stability . The + 2 state is highly reducing . In terms of size and coordination number , europium ( II ) and barium ( II ) are similar . For example , the sulfates of both barium and europium ( II ) are also highly insoluble in water . Divalent europium is a mild reducing agent , oxidizing in air to form Eu ( III ) compounds . In anaerobic , and particularly geothermal conditions , the divalent form is sufficiently stable that it tends to be incorporated into minerals of calcium and the other alkaline earths . This ion @-@ exchange process is the basis of the " negative europium anomaly " , the low europium content in many lanthanide minerals such as monazite , relative to the chondritic abundance . Bastnäsite tends to show less of a negative europium anomaly than does monazite , and hence is the major source of europium today . The development of easy methods to separate divalent europium from the other ( trivalent ) lanthanides made europium accessible even when present in low concentration , as it usually is .
= = = Isotopes = = =
Naturally occurring europium is composed of 2 isotopes , 151Eu and 153Eu , with 153Eu being the most abundant ( 52 @.@ 2 % natural abundance ) . While 153Eu is stable , 151Eu was recently found to be unstable to alpha decay with half @-@ life of 5 + 11
− 3 × 1018 years , giving about 1 alpha decay per two minutes in every kilogram of natural europium . This value is in reasonable agreement with theoretical predictions . Besides the natural radioisotope 151Eu , 35 artificial radioisotopes have been characterized , the most stable being 150Eu with a half @-@ life of 36 @.@ 9 years , 152Eu with a half @-@ life of 13 @.@ 516 years , and 154Eu with a half @-@ life of 8 @.@ 593 years . All the remaining radioactive isotopes have half @-@ lives shorter than 4 @.@ 7612 years , and the majority of these have half @-@ lives shorter than 12 @.@ 2 seconds . This element also has 8 meta states , with the most stable being 150mEu ( t1 / 2 = 12 @.@ 8 hours ) , 152m1Eu ( t1 / 2 = 9 @.@ 3116 hours ) and 152m2Eu ( t1 / 2 = 96 minutes ) .
The primary decay mode for isotopes lighter than 153Eu is electron capture , and the primary mode for heavier isotopes is beta minus decay . The primary decay products before 153Eu are isotopes of samarium ( Sm ) and the primary products after are isotopes of gadolinium ( Gd ) .
= = = = Europium as a nuclear fission product = = = =
Europium is produced by nuclear fission , but the fission product yields of europium isotopes are low near the top of the mass range for fission products .
Like other lanthanides , many isotopes , especially isotopes with odd mass numbers and neutron @-@ poor isotopes like 152Eu , have high cross sections for neutron capture , often high enough to be neutron poisons .
151Eu is the beta decay product of samarium @-@ 151 , but since this has a long decay half @-@ life and short mean time to neutron absorption , most 151Sm instead ends up as 152Sm .
152Eu ( half @-@ life 13 @.@ 516 years ) and 154Eu ( half @-@ life 8 @.@ 593 years ) cannot be beta decay products because 152Sm and 154Sm are non @-@ radioactive , but 154Eu is the only long @-@ lived " shielded " nuclide , other than 134Cs , to have a fission yield of more than 2 @.@ 5 parts per million fissions . A larger amount of 154Eu is produced by neutron activation of a significant portion of the non @-@ radioactive 153Eu ; however , much of this is further converted to 155Eu .
155Eu ( half @-@ life 4 @.@ 7612 years ) has a fission yield of 330 parts per million ( ppm ) for uranium @-@ 235 and thermal neutrons ; most of it is transmuted to non @-@ radioactive and nonabsorptive gadolinium @-@ 156 by the end of fuel burnup .
Overall , europium is overshadowed by caesium @-@ 137 and strontium @-@ 90 as a radiation hazard , and by samarium and others as a neutron poison .
= = = Occurrence = = =
Europium is not found in nature as a free element . Many minerals contain europium , with the most important sources being bastnäsite , monazite , xenotime and loparite .
Depletion or enrichment of europium in minerals relative to other rare earth elements is known as the europium anomaly . Europium is commonly included in trace element studies in geochemistry and petrology to understand the processes that form igneous rocks ( rocks that cooled from magma or lava ) . The nature of the europium anomaly found helps reconstruct the relationships within a suite of igneous rocks .
Divalent europium ( Eu2 + ) in small amounts is the activator of the bright blue fluorescence of some samples of the mineral fluorite ( CaF2 ) . The reduction from Eu3 + to Eu2 + is induced by irradiation with energetic particles . The most outstanding examples of this originated around Weardale and adjacent parts of northern England ; it was the fluorite found here that fluorescence was named after in 1852 , although it was not until much later that europium was determined to be the cause .
= = Production = =
Europium is associated with the other rare earth elements and is , therefore , mined together with them . Separation of the rare earth elements is a step in the later processing . Rare earth elements are found in the minerals bastnäsite , loparite , xenotime , and monazite in mineable quantities . The first two are orthophosphate minerals LnPO
4 ( Ln denotes a mixture of all the lanthanides except promethium ) , and the third is a fluorocarbonate LnCO3F . Monazite also contains thorium and yttrium , which complicates handling because thorium and its decay products are radioactive . For the extraction from the ore and the isolation of individual lanthanides , several methods have been developed . The choice of method is based on the concentration and composition of the ore and on the distribution of the individual lanthanides in the resulting concentrate . Roasting the ore and subsequent acidic and basic leaching is used mostly to produce a concentrate of lanthanides . If cerium is the dominant lanthanide , then it is converted from cerium ( III ) to cerium ( IV ) and then precipitated . Further separation by solvent extractions or ion exchange chromatography yields a fraction which is enriched in europium . This fraction is reduced with zinc , zinc / amalgam , electrolysis or other methods converting the europium ( III ) to europium ( II ) . Europium ( II ) reacts in a way similar to that of alkaline earth metals and therefore it can be precipitated as carbonate or is co @-@ precipitated with barium sulfate . Europium metal is available through the electrolysis of a mixture of molten EuCl3 and NaCl ( or CaCl2 ) in a graphite cell , which serves as cathode , using graphite as anode . The other product is chlorine gas .
A few large deposits produce or produced a significant amount of the world production . The Bayan Obo iron ore deposit contains significant amounts of bastnäsite and monazite and is , with an estimated 36 million tonnes of rare earth element oxides , the largest known deposit . The mining operations at the Bayan Obo deposit made China the largest supplier of rare earth elements in the 1990s . Only 0 @.@ 2 % of the rare earth element content is europium . The second large source for rare earth elements between 1965 and its closure in the late 1990s was the Mountain Pass rare earth mine . The bastnäsite mined there is especially rich in the light rare earth elements ( La @-@ Gd , Sc , and Y ) and contains only 0 @.@ 1 % of europium . Another large source for rare earth elements is the loparite found on the Kola peninsula . It contains besides niobium , tantalum and titanium up to 30 % rare earth elements and is the largest source for these elements in Russia .
= = Compounds = =
Europium compounds tend to exist trivalent oxidation state under most conditions . Commonly these compounds feature Eu ( III ) bound by 6 – 9 oxygenic ligands , typically water . These compounds , the chlorides , sulfates , nitrates , are soluble in water or polar organic solvent . Lipophilic europium complexes often feature acetylacetonate @-@ like ligands , e.g. , Eufod .
= = = Halides = = =
Europium metal reacts with all the halogens :
2 Eu + 3 X2 → 2 EuX3 ( X = F , Cl , Br , I )
This route gives white europium ( III ) fluoride ( EuF3 ) , yellow europium ( III ) chloride ( EuCl3 ) , gray europium ( III ) bromide ( EuBr3 ) , and colorless europium ( III ) iodide ( EuI3 ) . Europium also forms the corresponding dihalides : yellow @-@ green europium ( II ) fluoride ( EuF2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) chloride ( EuCl2 ) , colorless europium ( II ) bromide ( EuBr2 ) , and green europium ( II ) iodide ( EuI2 ) .
= = = Chalcogenides and pnictides = = =
Europium forms stable compounds with all of the chalcogens , but the heavier chalcogens ( S , Se , and Te ) stabilize the lower oxidation state . Three oxides are known : europium ( II ) oxide ( EuO ) , europium ( III ) oxide ( Eu2O3 ) , and the mixed @-@ valence oxide Eu3O4 , consisting of both Eu ( II ) and Eu ( III ) . Otherwise , the main chalcogenides are europium ( II ) sulfide ( EuS ) , europium ( II ) selenide ( EuSe ) and europium ( II ) telluride ( EuTe ) : all three of these are black solids . EuS is prepared by sulfiding the oxide at temperatures sufficiently high to decompose the Eu2O3 :
Eu2O3 + 3 H2S → 2 EuS + 3 H2O + S
The main nitride is europium ( III ) nitride ( EuN ) .
= = History of study = =
Although europium is present in most of the minerals containing the other rare elements , due to the difficulties in separating the elements it was not until the late 1800s that the element was isolated . William Crookes observed the phosphorescent spectra of the rare elements and observed spectral lines later assigned to europium .
Europium was first found in 1890 by Paul Émile Lecoq de Boisbaudran , who obtained basic fractions from samarium @-@ gadolinium concentrates which had spectral lines not accounted for by samarium or gadolinium . However , the discovery of europium is generally credited to French chemist Eugène @-@ Anatole Demarçay , who suspected samples of the recently discovered element samarium were contaminated with an unknown element in 1896 and who was able to isolate it in 1901 ; he then named it europium .
When the europium @-@ doped yttrium orthovanadate red phosphor was discovered in the early 1960s , and understood to be about to cause a revolution in the color television industry , there was a scramble for the limited supply of europium on hand among the monazite processors , as the typical europium content in monazite is about 0 @.@ 05 % . However , the Molycorp bastnäsite deposit at the Mountain Pass rare earth mine , California , whose lanthanides had an unusually high europium content of 0 @.@ 1 % , was about to come on @-@ line and provide sufficient europium to sustain the industry . Prior to europium , the color @-@ TV red phosphor was very weak , and the other phosphor colors had to be muted , to maintain color balance . With the brilliant red europium phosphor , it was no longer necessary to mute the other colors , and a much brighter color TV picture was the result . Europium has continued to be in use in the TV industry ever since as well as in computer monitors . Californian bastnäsite now faces stiff competition from Bayan Obo , China , with an even " richer " europium content of 0 @.@ 2 % .
Frank Spedding , celebrated for his development of the ion @-@ exchange technology that revolutionized the rare earth industry in the mid @-@ 1950s , once related the story of how he was lecturing on the rare earths in the 1930s when an elderly gentleman approached him with an offer of a gift of several pounds of europium oxide . This was an unheard @-@ of quantity at the time , and Spedding did not take the man seriously . However , a package duly arrived in the mail , containing several pounds of genuine europium oxide . The elderly gentleman had turned out to be Herbert Newby McCoy who had developed a famous method of europium purification involving redox chemistry .
= = Applications = =
Relative to most other elements , commercial applications for europium are few and rather specialized . Almost invariably , they exploit its phosphorescence , either in the + 2 or + 3 oxidation state .
It is a dopant in some types of glass in lasers and other optoelectronic devices . Europium oxide ( Eu2O3 ) is widely used as a red phosphor in television sets and fluorescent lamps , and as an activator for yttrium @-@ based phosphors . Color TV screens contain between 0 @.@ 5 and 1 g of europium oxide . Whereas trivalent europium gives red phosphors , the luminescence of divalent europium depends on the host lattice , but tends to be on the blue side . The two classes of europium @-@ based phosphor ( red and blue ) , combined with the yellow / green terbium phosphors give " white " light , the color temperature of which can be varied by altering the proportion or specific composition of the individual phosphors . This phosphor system is typically encountered in helical fluorescent light bulbs . Combining the same three classes is one way to make trichromatic systems in TV and computer screens . Europium is also used in the manufacture of fluorescent glass . One of the more common persistent after @-@ glow phosphors besides copper @-@ doped zinc sulfide is europium @-@ doped strontium aluminate . Europium fluorescence is used to interrogate biomolecular interactions in drug @-@ discovery screens . It is also used in the anti @-@ counterfeiting phosphors in euro banknotes .
An application that has almost fallen out of use with the introduction of affordable superconducting magnets is the use of europium complexes , such as Eu ( fod ) 3 , as shift reagents in NMR spectroscopy . Chiral shift reagents , such as Eu ( hfc ) 3 , are still used to determine enantiomeric purity .
A recent ( 2015 ) application of europium is in quantum memory chips which can reliably store information for days at a time ; these could allow sensitive quantum data to be stored to a hard disk @-@ like device and shipped around the country .
= = Precautions = =
There are no clear indications that europium is particularly toxic compared to other heavy metals . Europium chloride , nitrate and oxide have been tested for toxicity : europium chloride shows an acute intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 550 mg / kg and the acute oral LD50 toxicity is 5000 mg / kg . Europium nitrate shows a slightly higher intraperitoneal LD50 toxicity of 320 mg / kg , while the oral toxicity is above 5000 mg / kg . The metal dust presents a fire and explosion hazard .
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