The Republic of Cyprus, an island in the Eastern Mediterranean, has been independent since 1960, yet its history and culture are about 12.000 years old.
Its position in the Mediterranean was of great significance both as a copper-producing island and as a strategically vital territory.
Cyprus' geographical position between the Orient and the Occident considerably influenced its cultural development.
The earliest archaeological period discovered in Cyprus is the Pre-Neolithic which dates back to ca. 10.000 BC. It is attested recently in two areas of southern and western Cyprus, that is, Pareklishia (Limassol District) and Kissonerga (Paphos District). The island is very rich in important Aceramic and Ceramic Neolithic sites located in Choirokoitia, Petra tou Limniti, Cape Andreas, Kalavassos, Paralimni, Sotira (Limassol District) and Agios Epiktitos, which almost cover the whole island of Cyprus. During the above-mentioned period (8200-4000 BC) the islanders lived in small farming communities in single-roomed houses; at the Aceramic Neolithic they were circular and at the Ceramic phase rectangular with curved corners.
Idols of clay or stone representing human and animal figures are the earliest specimens of Cypriot sculpture. They are sometimes crude and simple but often rendered with considerable taste in abstract form.
Anthropologists have not yet determined the origin of these early Cypriots. It seems that the island was inhabited by a united Mediterranean race originating in the Levant.
The next period, which is called Chalcolithic (4000-2300 BC), derives its name from the appearance of copper (in Greek chalkos). During this period there were changes in many fields. The burial customs of the Cypriots changed and the deceased were now buried in separate cemeteries. Several clay figurines were produced representing the goddess of fertility. New forms in pottery were introduced and new styles in decoration appeared. The pottery was decorated with red and brown paint on a white background with complicated geometric motifs. The finest expression of their developed artistic creation is evident in the picrolite idols. They represent the human body in a cruciform shape with stylised characteristics and high levels of abstraction that often remind us of creations of modern sculptors. Several sites dated in the Chalcolithic period are found in southwestern Cyprus in the Districts of Limassol and Paphos (Erimi, Lemba, Kissonerga).
Cypriot Prehistory continues with the Early Bronze Age (2300-1950 BC) which is remarkably important. There is evidence that during the earliest phase of that period there was an influx of people from Anatolia, who migrated to Cyprus after a major catastrophe in about 2300 BC. These newcomers introduced new forms in pottery often recalling Anatolian prototypes. The most significant event in that period was the extensive exploitation of copper mines on the island. Gradually copper mixed with tin produced a much harder material called bronze which brings a revolution in the island's economy and commerce. Cypriots now buried their deceased in chamber tombs containing various gifts, among them precious jewellery. Cyprus began to have relations with neighbouring countries not only in the East but also in the West (Crete).
The Middle Bronze Age is the next stage in the island's Prehistory. It is a transitional period between the Early and Late Bronze Age. The valleys along the northeast coast flourished at the beginning although gradually the importance shifted to the plain of Mesaoria and the Karpass peninsula. Cyprus' foreign relations developed considerably. Cypriot goods appeared in Asia Minor, Syria, Palestine and Crete.
Towards the end of the Middle Bronze Age (1850-1650 BC), about 1600 BC, there was evidence of a war. Fortresses appeared in many parts of the island. Some scholars believe that these disturbances may have been caused by Hyksos who dominated Egypt and caused trouble in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The early phases of the Late Bronze Age show continuity from the Middle Bronze Age period. The latter phases of that period, that is the 13th century BC, was marked by the trade and cultural expansion of the Hellenic culture of the Mycenaeans. The prosperity of Cyprus during that period and especially the rich ores of copper may have been one of the attractions that led the Mycenaeans to establish commercial centres (emporia) along the east and south coast of Cyprus. Extensive archaeological excavations and research prove that the most important of those ports was Enkomi and Kition. From these centres Mycenaean Greeks traded with Syro-Palestine and the Aegean. At this first stage of Mycenaean colonisation (13th century) considerable Mycenaean pottery appeared in Cypriot tombs. Some scholars believe that traders brought with them Mycenaean pottery, from the Aegean to the coastal towns, which was later copied and produced in Cyprus. These wares were occasionally influenced by local Cypriot forms. Ostrich eggs and other exotic goods such as faience and alabaster vases, scarabs and seals were imported from Syria and Egypt.
Local artistic production reached high standards. In pottery, local wares were exported to various parts of the Eastern Mediterranean. Some precious masterpieces of art were found in the tombs of Enkomi and Kition. Worth mentioning is the silver bowl from Enkomi dating to the 14th century BC. It has an inlaid decoration in gold and niello and consists of bucrania and lotus flowers. The faience rhyton from Kition Ñ a specimen of the mixed Aegeo-Oriental art of the 13th century BC Ñ has an enamelled surface decorated in polychromy with galloping animals, hunting scenes and running spirals. Remarkable bronze statuettes were also produced such as the Horned God and the God on the ingot, both of them excavated at Enkomi.
References to Cyprus appeared in the texts of the Near East clay tablets found in Tell-el-Amarna in Egypt that recorded the correspondence of the King of Alashiya, which is considered by most scholars to be Cyprus. These tablets mention that the King of Alashiya was obliged to send copper to the Pharaoh to maintain peace in the Eastern Mediterranean. Reference to a Hittite domination over Cyprus about 1400 BC is not confirmed by archaeological evidence.
The Late Bronze Age provides the first written documents on baked clay tablets. The earliest, about 1500 BC, was found in Enkomi. The script, known as Cypro-Minoan, is related to the Linear A script of Crete. It has not been deciphered and the language is still unidentified.
Towards the end of the 13th century a catastrophe caused the decline of Mycenaean culture in the Greek mainland. Refugees emigrated from these regions and settled in Cyprus as colonists. Successive waves of colonists in the 12th century BC complete what is known as the Achaean colonisation and Hellenisation of Cyprus. This important event influenced the arts and crafts in the island. The newcomers brought their own culture and religion, which spread widely on the island of Cyprus.
The cities were fortified with cyclopean walls. New techniques in metallurgy appeared and flourished. Bronze statuettes and other bronze artefacts such as tripods and weapons indicate that metallurgy must have played an important role in Cypriot economic life. The end of this period and of the Bronze Age in general was marked by the raids from the ÇPeople of the SeaÈ. They were adventurers from many Mediterranean lands who roamed the sea coasts, looting and destroying, until some of them finally settled in Palestine. There is evidence that after those destructions Achaeans appeared on the island. Their appearance could be associated with the mythical founders of Cypriot cities, heroes of the Trojan War.
In about 1075 BC a natural phenomenon, probably an earthquake, destroyed the major Late Bronze Age towns in Cyprus. This event marks the beginning of the Iron Age.
During the early stages of the Iron Age, which is also called the Cypro-Geometric period, the islandÕs culture was by then firmly based on Mycenaean foundations which continued to influence its development. Unlike Greece, Cyprus was never invaded by the Dorians, therefore the island preserved the Mycenaean substratum of its culture.
During the first stage of the Early Iron Age, which is called Protogeometric or Cypro-Geometric I, certain positive economic developments can be observed in Cyprus in comparison with the mainland of Greece. This period is characterised as the Dark Ages. With respect to this particular period there is still an unclear picture of the historical developments because of the complete absence of written sources.
However there are a number of indications which lead to the conclusion that a certain amount of Aegean influences reached the island of Cyprus during this period as for example certain forms of pottery (kalathos, stirrup jar, cylindrical pyxis) and the goddess of the upraised arms which is typically Cretan.
Other objects that have a minor relation with the Aegean and are found in Cyprus are the bronze tripods and obeloi which were also excavated in Olympia and Eleutherna in Peloponnesos and Crete.
Furthermore, there is an introduction of the use of bath-tubs made of clay or limestone which are closely related to the Greek aristocracy of the Homeric poems and are called asamynthoi.
It is evident that in the social structure of the island an aristocratic class appeared which was influenced considerably by the Hellenic prototypes.
During the 10th century BC we have signs of the first imports from Euboia, a new commercial and historical development in the Levant and Cyprus. This particular island of Greece leads the commercial contacts of the Greek world with the Levant. Clear indications of this campaign are pottery vessels found in Cyprus and a number of emporia established by Euboeans on the Levantine coast.
These strong relations with the West were considerably affected by the appearance of Phoenicians in the historical developments of Cyprus in the 9th century BC. They arrived in Kition and started to colonise Cyprus. They seized political power in this coastal town and then extended their influence over a large part of the island. This important political event has a primary influence on the art and culture of Cyprus. An oriental taste in the arts and crafts was generally introduced and the first Phoenician imports appeared in the island, particularly of pottery.
These historical developments took place in parallel with the considerable expansion of the mainland Greeks to the East. Among the Greeks, the Eretrians play in that respect the most significant role, establishing in the Levant the important cities of Tarsus, Al Mina and Poseidion in Syria. It is worth mentioning that those developments can be observed at the time the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet which they further developed by adding to it the vowels.
In the 19th century a stele was found in Kition, which is now in the Vorderasiatisches Museum in Berlin. It depicts King Sargon II of Assyria and bears an engraved inscription that records the domination of the Assyrians over the Kingdom of Cyprus in ca. 707 BC. In this period of Assyrian domination the oriental elements in Cypriot art were developed further and we can now speak about the ÇorientalisingÈ period in the art of Cyprus. More elements of Eastern iconography are introduced in the art of the island, especially in bronzes and jewellery.
In ca. 560 BC Cyprus was occupied by the Egyptians. Amasis was the first Pharaoh who occupied Cyprus and he is well known in history as a philhellenic personality. The Egyptian occupation influences to a certain extent Cypriot art.
By 545 BC the power of Persia swept over Cyprus and the Cypriot kings recognised the Great King of Persia. According to the famous Greek historian Herodotus the Cypriot kings accepted without resistance the Persian occupation. It was a clever political strategy that allowed them to maintain relative independence and they were even allowed to strike their own coins. Cyprus belongs from now on to the 5th satrapy and, together with Syria, Palestine and Phoenicia, pays tribute.
It is worth mentioning that the Persian occupation had not influenced the art and the culture of Cyprus. Persia ruled Cyprus from Ça distanceÈ and did not interfere in the cultural and social developments. The influence of Persian art is almost insignificant in Cyprus and mainly concerns the production of the so-called ÇachemenidianÈ type of bowls and some types of jewellery.
On the contrary, in that period we can observe a revival of the political and cultural connections of Cyprus with the eastern Greek world and specifically Ionia.
Cypriot sculpture during the Persian domination has a lot in common with other Greek Ionic creations and during that period the diagnostic type of Greek Ionic kouros was introduced in Cypriot sculpture. In parallel the Ionic and eastern Greek pottery appeared more intensively in the archaeological strata of Cyprus.
At this point it is useful to refer to the coinage of Cyprus and the initial striking and use of coins. The first king of Cyprus who struck coins was the King of Salamis Evelthon, ca. 538 BC. His coins were struck according to the Persian numismatic system. The coins had a rather ÇEgyptianisingÈ influence in their iconography and were made of silver.
King Evelthon had also special connections with the Greek world and Herodotus mentions that he offered a bronze incense-burner (thymiaterion) to Delphi.
The close connections of Cyprus with the Ionic Greek world led to the participation of Cyprus in the Ionic revolution in 498 BC. However the Ionic and Cypriot revolutions failed and as a result Persian domination became more oppressive in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The antagonism among the ten kingdoms of Cyprus, encouraged by the Persians, divided the island in two parts, that is the pro-Persian and pro-Greek.
But let us leave aside for a while political developments and turn to the economic and cultural developments of that period.
At the end of the Cypro-Archaic period the commercial relations of Cyprus with the Greek world increased considerably. Many Greek goods, especially pottery, reached the ports of Cyprus and especially the port of Marion, a city at the northwest of Cyprus. Marion, the modern city of Polis in the Paphos District, was the most important port connecting the island with the western Mediterranean world and the Aegean. Moreover, there were other Cypriot ports such as Amathous, Kition and Salamis, where Greek pottery was imported. It seems that at the time of Persian rule we have proof of intensive Greek influence in the arts, crafts and everyday life.
The connection with Greek civilisation leads to commercial competition, especially regarding pottery products. Cypriot pottery makers tried to compete with their colleagues in Athens and the Greek islands. As a result, a new type of hydria appeared, clearly of Cypriot inspiration, decorated with a figurine or figurines in the place of the spout.
This type of hydria was probably used in funerary practices and feasts (choes). It bears painted decoration often influenced from decorative motifs of Greek origin. The above-mentioned type of vessel was developed further and became more popular during the Cypro-Classical period.
During the Cypro-Archaic period we have evidence that in various areas of the island of Cyprus local workshops and styles were developed, especially as regards pottery production. This particular period is characterised by the ability of the Cypriot craftsmen not to imitate slavishly foreign prototypes but adapt them to their taste and produce something genuinely Cypriot. As a result, we can observe a Cypriot diagnostic character in the arts and crafts of the island which considerably differs from the production of the rest of the Eastern Mediterranean, although it bears elements both from the East and the West.
The Cypro-Classical period is characterised by the antagonism between Greece and Persia for domination of the Aegean and the Eastern Mediterranean. The Cypriots, after their submission to Persia and the failure of the Ionic revolution, participated with the rest of the army of the Persian king in the attack against the Ionian city of Miletus and even against mainland Greece.
After the subsequent defeats of the Persian army in Greece, the Greeks, especially the Athenians and Spartans, started an offensive war which passed through several phases and was decisive in the political developments in the Eastern Mediterranean.
The most important campaign of the Greek army and fleet in the east under the leader Kimon in 450 BC failed and Kimon died during the siege of Kition in Cyprus. According to the Treaty of Kallias and the peace that followed in 448 BC it was agreed that the Athenians would not have any claims in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Persians would withdraw their army from Cyprus.
In 411 BC there appeared on the political scene of Cyprus an important politician and leader, King Evagoras I of Salamis. He seized the throne of Salamis when he overthrew the Phoenician Abdemon, who had usurped the throne.
The first years of EvagorasÕ rule were not so pro-Greek. However, he aided the Athenians during the Peloponnesian war and in recognition of his help the Athenians proclaimed him honorary citizen of Athens.
A second cycle of his pro-Athenian policy started after the end of the Peloponnesian war and the defeat of the Athenian admiral Conon at the Aigos Potamoi. The defeated admiral found refuge in Salamis and with the help of Evagoras planned the liberation of Athens from the Persians. The opportunity was given at the sea battle of Cnidus in 394 BC where Conon defeated the Spartans and the Athenians honoured him together with Evagoras. They erected the statues of both men near the statue of Zeus Soter and honoured them in the Dionysia and in theatrical performances.
In the meantime Evagoras, with the help of the Athenians, tried to unite Cyprus against the Persian Empire. He seized most of the kingdoms of Cyprus although Kition, Amathous and Soloi did not accept his leadership and appealed to the Persians for help. So Cyprus was divided again in pro-Athenian and pro-Persian kingdoms and Evagoras sought the help not only of the Athenians but also of his personal friend, Pharaoh Akoris of Egypt. The Athenians sent a fleet under admiral Hermias who helped Evagoras seize the whole of Cyprus, including the Phoenician city of Kition.
However, the ideas and plans of Evagoras would not be fulfilled. In 306 BC the Peace of Antalcidas was signed, a treaty which gave to Artaxerxes all the Ionian cities of Asia Minor, the islands of Clazomenae and Cyprus. This particular peace treaty was described by Plato as Ça shameful political actionÈ because although it safeguarded a part of Hellenism it left another part of it unprotected.
The Persian Empire was now able to attack Cyprus and overthrow Evagoras. The king remained almost without allies but he resisted the Persians, causing them many casualties and even occupying for a short time the Phoenician city of Tyre on the Levantine coast.
The loss of a naval battle near Kition by Evagoras weakened him considerably, and the Persians were able to lay siege to his own town Salamis. In 380 BC he signed a peace treaty with the Persians but Cyprus still remained under Persian rule.
As a result, Salamis went through an economic crisis after this long war. Also, in 374 BC Evagoras was murdered together with his son Pnytagoras. Historical sources are not very clear about this incident but it seems that the king and his son were victims of a scandal in which a woman and eunuch were involved.
The culture of the Cypro-Classical period was strongly influenced by Greek art and customs. There is information from ancient written sources that king Evagoras invited many Greek artists and intellectuals to visit Cyprus and teach the Greek way of life and spirit.
Evagoras was the first king in Cyprus who struck gold coins on which the Greek alphabet appears. Moreover, he introduced the Rhodian and Eubo-Attic numismatic weight system, which replaced the Persian one. This king was very popular in the Greek world and was honoured and praised by many important Athenians and other Greeks, especially by the well known Athenian orator Isocrates.
Apart from Salamis, which was the philhellenic city par excellence, there were other cities in Cyprus which were eventually influenced by the Greeks (Athenians). For example Idalion, where a more democratic system was established in the administration of the city. The well known Idalion bronze plaque with incised cypro-syllabic text on both sides was found here. The inscription on the plaque refers to the siege of Idalion by the Persians and Kitians. Among other things, it mentions the treatment of wounded soldiers covered financially by the state. It can be considered as a forerunner of the modern social security system. This extremely important document relating to the history of Cyprus is kept today in the Cabinet des MŽdailles in Paris.
As regards the arts and crafts of the 4th century, we observe an intensive import of Attic pottery. Workshops in Cyprus produced terracotta figurines imitating moulds and types of Greek origin. Apart from Salamis, the Attic influence is stronger in Marion and Soloi on the northwestern coast of Cyprus, where the Hellenic influence has a somewhat older tradition.
However, other cities in Cyprus were not without Greek influence, as for example Amathous and Kition where the Phoenician elements were very strong.
Generally the 4th century BC in Cyprus includes strong Greek influences on Cypriot art which seems to have been affected considerably by political developments both within the island and in the Middle East. The absence of Persian cultural influences made possible in the end the spreading of Hellenic prototypes in Cyprus.
The Hellenic expansion to the east by Alexander the Great brought to Cyprus its freedom from the Persians and its definite orientation from the east to the west. When Alexander besieged Tyre, a famous and important Phoenician port on the Levantine coast, the kings of Cyprus decided to support him by sending 100 ships. Alexander captured Tyre and in recognition of their help granted them autonomy.
This was the first time in many centuries that the city kingdoms of Cyprus became autonomous. But this political situation did not last long, because soon after AlexanderÕs death Cyprus became entangled in the antagonisms between his successors. It became the bone of contention between the two main successors of Alexander in the Eastern Mediterranean, Ptolemy and Antigonus. A victim of this antagonism was the last king of Salamis, Nicocreon, whose tragic story was narrated by the Greek writer Diodorus.
However, Demetrius Poliorcetes, son of Antigonus, who ruled Cyprus for a while after defeating Ptolemy ca. 306 BC, ordered a cenotaph to be built for the king and members of the royal family. Among the finds from this cenotaph were a number of clay human heads mounted on wooden poles. Scholars have suggested that these heads were actually portraits of the royal family. All the heads are rendered in the style of the famous Greek sculptor Lysippos who lived during the second half of the 4th century BC and who is known to have made a portrait of Alexander the Great.
Moreover, at about the time of NicocreonÕs death, that is in 312 BC, Ptolemy I seized Kition and killed its last king Melikiathon and then destroyed Marion and moved its inhabitants to Paphos.
Finally, Cyprus came under the control of the Ptolemies who became kings of Egypt and Cyprus. A very important political event was that the 10 kingdoms of Cyprus were abolished and for the first time in Cypriot history a single state was formed under a unified civil and military command. The royal mints of the city kingdoms ceased to exist and the Ptolemies introduced to the island their own coinage.
This was the beginning of a new peaceful era for Cyprus. The Ptolemies exploited CyprusÕ wealth and especially copper and timber which they used for ship-building. They appointed a military governor who also became later Çchief priestÈ and was therefore able to use the funds from the several sanctuaries which until that time had their own independent management. The first well known Ptolemaic chief priest was Polycrates (203 BC) who accumulated a considerable amount of money from this office.
The position of the military governor of Cyprus was extremely respected in Ptolemaic circles and was often occupied by a member of the royal family. The Ptolemies maintained on the island a large number of soldiers for its defence. The islandÕs capital was also transferred from Salamis to Paphos.
During that period cultural life in various cities concentrated around gymnasia, that is educational institutions of clearly Greek inspiration which trained the mind and body. We know from several inscriptions that most of the major cities of Cyprus had such gymnasia. Wealthy citizens contributed to the expenses related to the maintenance of the gymnasia as was often customary in Hellenic tradition.
Cultural life developed further and art was not neglected. Theatres were built in the major cities of the island and there were performances of comedies and tragedies. Inscriptions and other archaeological finds tell us that Cyprus also had important groups of actors.
However, Cypriot arts and crafts lost their originality and depended entirely on the Hellenistic koine, a common style based on Greek models that had developed in the whole of the Eastern Mediterranean. Cypriot artists imitated the style of famous Greek artists of that period such as Lysippos and Praxiteles and Cyprus, as was natural, was greatly influenced by Hellenistic Alexandria. The individuality of Cypriot art was over.
Greek gods continued to be worshipped in the island but a new element was introduced, the cult of the Ptolemaic ruler, by a specially established association known as the ÇConfederation of CypriotsÈ. Another important religious development in the island was the introduction of the cult of Arsinoe by Ptolemy Philadelphus. It seems that there were several sanctuaries dedicated to Arsinoe, especially in Amathous, Ledra, Marion and Salamis, which were renamed after her.
Funerary architecture, especially rock-cut tombs, was influenced by Alexandrian prototypes (Tombs of the Kings in Kato Paphos).
Moreover, remarkable Greek-style temples must have been built, as suggested by a marble frieze from Soloi representing Amazonomache which is in the Cyprus Museum in Nicosia.