f91964f81824c05a6e77df819d5423981e9a7f1eb500870a2b742f7ec681522b

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+Phoenix (pronounce: "FEE-niks") most often refers to:
+
+Phoenix may also refer to:
+
+In the United States:

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+
+
+The earless seals or true seals are marine mammals of the family Phocidae, one of the three pinniped families.
+

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+
+
+The earless seals or true seals are marine mammals of the family Phocidae, one of the three pinniped families.
+

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+
+
+The earless seals or true seals are marine mammals of the family Phocidae, one of the three pinniped families.
+

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+An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.
+
+An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole it is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles far.
+
+Auroras can happen at any time, however they can only be seen at night because their light is not as strong as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.
+
+Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.
+
+An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons,[1] with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most of the solar wind.
+
+At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess energy gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME), when the charged particles rip through the electromagnetic field because of their power.
+
+Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, Saturn and more recently Mars. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

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+Phosphorus has the chemical symbol P, and its atomic number is 15. Its mass number is 30.97. It is not found in nature as an element but as compounds, such as phosphates. It can be a red or a white waxy solid.
+
+Phosphorus comes in several forms. White and red phosphorus are the most common forms. White phosphorus is a waxy white solid. When pure, it is colourless. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulfide, an organic solvent. It turns light yellow when in air. It glows in the dark because it "burns" very slowly in air.
+
+When exposed to sunlight, or when heated in its own vapour to 250 °C, it is converted to the red variety. This form does not ignite spontaneously and it is less toxic and less flammable than white phosphorus. The red modification is fairly stable and sublimes with a vapor pressure of 1 atmosphere at 417 °C.
+
+White phosphorus is more reactive than red phosphorus. White phosphorus catches fire spontaneously in air, burning to make smoke of phosphorus(V) oxide. If it burns in a little air, it produces poisonous phosphorus(III) oxide. When white phosphorus is heated in an alkali, it disproportionates to produce hypophosphites and phosphine. Red phosphorus can burn but needs to be ignited. Phosphorus reacts with the halogens to make phosphorus halides. It reacts with some metals to make phosphides.
+
+Phosphorus compounds are chemical compounds containing phosphorus. They are listed below with some of their properties. Phosphorus comes in several oxidation states, the number of electrons moved during a redox reaction. -3 is flammable, powerful reducing agent, and toxic; +1 is a strong reducing agent and is rare; +3 is a weaker reducing agent that is poisonous; +5 is not a reducing agent and is very common.
+
+Phosphoric acid
+
+Trisodium phosphate
+
+Phosphorus pentachloride (left) and phosphorus trichloride (right)
+
+It is an essential component of living systems and is found as phosphate in nervous tissue, bones and cell protoplasm. It is also found in the earth as phosphate rock. Phosphate rock is the main source of phosphorus and phosphorus compounds. Many body tissues have calcium phosphates in them.
+
+Phosphorus was first made by heating a mixture of phosphates and carbon in an iron pot. The phosphates were made by dissolving bones in strong acids and evaporating the solution.
+
+Phosphorus is made now by heating calcium phosphate, carbon, and silicon dioxide in an electric arc furnace. The heat of the electric arc melts the mixture of materials, and phosphorus gas is given off. It is absorbed under water. This makes white phosphorus.
+
+White phosphorus is used in incendiary weapons and smoke grenades. It is also used to make organic compounds that have phosphorus in them. Phosphorus is used to dope semiconductors. Phosphorus is used to remove oxygen from copper. It is also used in making alloys. Red phosphorus is used in matches and flares.
+
+Phosphorus compounds are used for fertilizers, soft drinks, toothpaste, and detergents. Most of these are phosphates. Phosphides can be used to kill rodents.
+
+White phosphorus is very dangerous. It is very toxic and ignites easily, burning with a very hot flame. Red phosphorus is much safer. Some phosphorus compounds are toxic, but the common phosphates are not toxic.

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+Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.[1] A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.[1] A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.[1] Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype. Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented. Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
+
+A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it. There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens. To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera. The lens does this by focusing light. A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass. One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
+
+To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressing the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It covers the hole in the camera box. The shutter is behind the lens. When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box. When the shutter is open light can enter the camera. When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes. This happens very fast. The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed. The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds. Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
+
+Some cameras have an aperture ring.  It controls how much light enters the camera box.
+
+The photograph in a camera may be made on film or, if it is a digital camera, using an electronic sensor.
+
+The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film. Film is placed inside the camera box. Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it. Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
+
+There are many different types of photographic film.  There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.  There are different sizes of film.  The most common size is 35 mm. It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
+
+Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light. Films have a code number, called an ISO number.  The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
+
+Once the film has been exposed it is processed. Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost. Processing stops the film reacting to light any more. After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
+
+A photographic print is a photograph made on paper. A light sensitive paper is used. The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger. An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (The more light, the darker the area.) Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph. Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more. This is called "fixing". Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried. Then it is finished.
+
+Digital photography uses a digital camera. Sometimes it is called digital imaging. Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter. The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor. A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture. Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards. They can later be transferred to a computer. Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures. Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
+
+One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens. If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry. Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed. There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
+
+Three other things are important when taking a photograph. These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
+
+A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture. A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture. A good picture is not too bright and not too dark. When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed". An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.

ensimple/4592.html.txt

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+Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.[1] A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.[1] A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.[1] Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype. Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented. Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
+
+A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it. There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens. To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera. The lens does this by focusing light. A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass. One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
+
+To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressing the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It covers the hole in the camera box. The shutter is behind the lens. When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box. When the shutter is open light can enter the camera. When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes. This happens very fast. The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed. The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds. Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
+
+Some cameras have an aperture ring.  It controls how much light enters the camera box.
+
+The photograph in a camera may be made on film or, if it is a digital camera, using an electronic sensor.
+
+The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film. Film is placed inside the camera box. Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it. Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
+
+There are many different types of photographic film.  There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.  There are different sizes of film.  The most common size is 35 mm. It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
+
+Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light. Films have a code number, called an ISO number.  The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
+
+Once the film has been exposed it is processed. Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost. Processing stops the film reacting to light any more. After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
+
+A photographic print is a photograph made on paper. A light sensitive paper is used. The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger. An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (The more light, the darker the area.) Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph. Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more. This is called "fixing". Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried. Then it is finished.
+
+Digital photography uses a digital camera. Sometimes it is called digital imaging. Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter. The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor. A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture. Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards. They can later be transferred to a computer. Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures. Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
+
+One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens. If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry. Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed. There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
+
+Three other things are important when taking a photograph. These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
+
+A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture. A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture. A good picture is not too bright and not too dark. When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed". An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.

ensimple/4593.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.[1] A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.[1] A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.[1] Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype. Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented. Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
+
+A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it. There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens. To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera. The lens does this by focusing light. A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass. One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
+
+To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressing the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It covers the hole in the camera box. The shutter is behind the lens. When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box. When the shutter is open light can enter the camera. When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes. This happens very fast. The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed. The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds. Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
+
+Some cameras have an aperture ring.  It controls how much light enters the camera box.
+
+The photograph in a camera may be made on film or, if it is a digital camera, using an electronic sensor.
+
+The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film. Film is placed inside the camera box. Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it. Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
+
+There are many different types of photographic film.  There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.  There are different sizes of film.  The most common size is 35 mm. It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
+
+Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light. Films have a code number, called an ISO number.  The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
+
+Once the film has been exposed it is processed. Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost. Processing stops the film reacting to light any more. After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
+
+A photographic print is a photograph made on paper. A light sensitive paper is used. The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger. An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (The more light, the darker the area.) Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph. Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more. This is called "fixing". Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried. Then it is finished.
+
+Digital photography uses a digital camera. Sometimes it is called digital imaging. Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter. The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor. A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture. Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards. They can later be transferred to a computer. Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures. Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
+
+One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens. If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry. Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed. There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
+
+Three other things are important when taking a photograph. These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
+
+A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture. A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture. A good picture is not too bright and not too dark. When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed". An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.

ensimple/4594.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,27 @@
+Photography is a way of making a picture using a camera.[1] A person who makes pictures using a camera is called a photographer.[1] A picture made using a camera is called a photograph or photo.[1] Photography became popular in the middle 19th century with Daguerreotype. Later wet plate and dry plate methods were invented. Most photography in the 20th century was on photographic film and most in the 21st uses digital cameras.
+
+A "camera" is, in its simplest form, like a box with a hole in front of it. There is a special piece of glass in front of the hole called a lens. To take a photograph of something, the lens makes a small picture of the object inside the camera. The lens does this by focusing light. A lens in a camera works like a lens in glasses (spectacles) or a magnifying glass. One type of camera called the Pinhole camera has no lens but uses a very small hole to focus light.
+
+To make a photograph with a camera the shutter release button is pressed. Pressing the button opens the shutter. The shutter is like a door. It covers the hole in the camera box. The shutter is behind the lens. When the shutter is closed no light can enter the camera box. When the shutter is open light can enter the camera. When the button is pressed the shutter opens and then closes. This happens very fast. The amount of time the shutter stays open for is called the shutter speed. The shutter speed can change between 1/1000th of a second (0.001 s) to a few seconds. Normally the time taken for the shutter to open and close is far less than 1 second.
+
+Some cameras have an aperture ring.  It controls how much light enters the camera box.
+
+The photograph in a camera may be made on film or, if it is a digital camera, using an electronic sensor.
+
+The picture the lens makes is recorded on photographic film. Film is placed inside the camera box. Light coming through the lens, aperture and open shutter shines on the film. Photographic film is coated with chemicals that react when light shines on it. Letting light shine on the film is called exposing the film.
+
+There are many different types of photographic film.  There are films for taking colour photographs and films for taking black and white photographs.  There are different sizes of film.  The most common size is 35 mm. It is called 35 mm because the width of the film is 35 millimetres.
+
+Another difference between films is how sensitive they are to light. Films have a code number, called an ISO number.  The number tells how fast a film reacts when light shines on it.
+
+Once the film has been exposed it is processed. Processing has to be done in total darkness or the film will be exposed too much and the picture will be lost. Processing stops the film reacting to light any more. After the film has been processed the picture can be seen on the film.
+
+A photographic print is a photograph made on paper. A light sensitive paper is used. The picture on the film is placed in an enlarger. An enlarger is a machine that shines light through the film and makes a bigger picture on the light sensitive paper. A chemical reaction happens in the paper, which turns the areas hit with light black when the paper is 'developed'. (The more light, the darker the area.) Developing makes the picture appear on the paper – now it is a photograph. Then the paper is put into other chemicals that make it not sensitive to light any more. This is called "fixing". Last, the paper is washed so that there are no more chemicals on it and then dried. Then it is finished.
+
+Digital photography uses a digital camera. Sometimes it is called digital imaging. Like other cameras a digital camera has a lens, aperture, and shutter. The picture the lens makes is recorded by a light-sensitive electronic sensor. A digital camera does not use photographic film to record a picture. Digital photographs are stored in storage devices such as SD cards. They can later be transferred to a computer. Paper prints can also be made from digital pictures. Digital cameras are also not expensive to use, as there is no film to buy.
+
+One of the most important things when taking a photograph is focusing the lens. If the lens is not focused well, the photograph will be blurry. Autofocus cameras focus automatically when the shutter release is pressed. There are also manual focus cameras (usually older ones).
+
+Three other things are important when taking a photograph. These control how bright or dark the photograph will be.
+
+A slower shutter speed, a bigger aperture, and faster film/higher ISO sensor all make a brighter picture. A faster shutter speed, a smaller aperture, and a slower film/lower ISO sensor all make a darker picture. A good picture is not too bright and not too dark. When it is too bright it would be called "overexposed". An automatic camera changes these things by itself when the shutter release is pressed.

ensimple/4595.html.txt

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+Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other things make food.[1] It is an endothermic (takes in heat) chemical process that uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars that the cell can use as energy. As well as plants, many kinds of algae, protists and bacteria use it to get food. Photosynthesis is very important for life on Earth. The exception are certain organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs.
+
+Photosynthesis can happen in different ways, but there are some parts that are common.
+
+Photosynthesis occurs in the Chloroplast (found in leaf cells) which contain Chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy. In leaves, Palisade cells have lots of chloroplasts to capture more light. This way, the plant can do more photosynthesis.
+
+Oxygen is a waste product: it is used for respiration or diffuses back out of the leaf through the stomata.
+
+Glucose is used for respiration (to release energy in cells). It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark). Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.
+
+Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions. Light-dependent reactions need light to do work; and light-independent reactions, which do not need light to do work.
+
+Light energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant, giving the energy for an enzyme to split the water. Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.
+[2]
+
+Hydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions. Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.
+
+During this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.
+
+There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis:
+
+If there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently. This means that photolysis ( breakdown of light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made. This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.
+
+Increasing the light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis, so long as there is enough carbon dioxide and the temperature isn't too cold.
+
+The light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed. The oxygen bubbles  given off can easily be counted or the volume measured. By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity will vary.
+Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis .
+Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.
+
+Carbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions. It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals (such as Ribulose Bisphosphate) to form glucose. Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a buildup of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.
+
+You can enrich the carbon dioxide concentration in enclosed environments by using gas burners. This has a dual function: will increase the temperature as well as producing carbon dioxide.
+
+There are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions – such as the enzyme in photolysis.All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature.  These enzymes will not work as well, or stop working at all at high or low temperatures (above or below optimum tempareture ) and therefore, all light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum tempareture.  Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.
+
+When the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases. If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become denatured and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.
+
+Greenhouses must maintain the optimum temperature for normally functioning of plants.
+
+The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life. They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.[3] Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe.[4] This made the evolution of complex life possible.
+
+Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts,[5][6] which is about six times larger than the current power used by human civilization.[7]
+Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.[8][9]

ensimple/4596.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,43 @@
+Photosynthesis is the process by which plants and other things make food.[1] It is an endothermic (takes in heat) chemical process that uses sunlight to turn carbon dioxide into sugars that the cell can use as energy. As well as plants, many kinds of algae, protists and bacteria use it to get food. Photosynthesis is very important for life on Earth. The exception are certain organisms that directly get their energy from chemical reactions; these organisms are called chemoautotrophs.
+
+Photosynthesis can happen in different ways, but there are some parts that are common.
+
+Photosynthesis occurs in the Chloroplast (found in leaf cells) which contain Chlorophyll, the green pigment that absorbs light energy. In leaves, Palisade cells have lots of chloroplasts to capture more light. This way, the plant can do more photosynthesis.
+
+Oxygen is a waste product: it is used for respiration or diffuses back out of the leaf through the stomata.
+
+Glucose is used for respiration (to release energy in cells). It is stored in the form of starch (which is converted back to glucose for respiration in the dark). Glucose can also be converted into other compounds for growth and reproduction e.g. cellulose, nectar, fructose, amino acids and fats.
+
+Photosynthesis has two main sets of reactions. Light-dependent reactions need light to do work; and light-independent reactions, which do not need light to do work.
+
+Light energy from the sun is used to split water molecules (photolysis). The sunlight hits chloroplasts in the plant, giving the energy for an enzyme to split the water. Water, when split, gives oxygen, hydrogen, and electrons.
+[2]
+
+Hydrogen, along with electrons energized by light, converts NADP into NADPH which is then used in the light-independent reactions. Oxygen gas diffuses out of the plant as a waste product of photosynthesis, and ATP is synthesized from ADP and inorganic phosphate. This all happens in the grana of chloroplasts.
+
+During this reaction, sugars are built up using carbon dioxide and the products of the light-dependent reactions (ATP and NADPH) and various other chemicals found in the plant in the Calvin Cycle. Therefore, the light-independent reaction cannot happen without the light-dependent reaction. Carbon dioxide diffuses into the plant and along with chemicals in the chloroplast, ATP, and NADPH, glucose is made and finally, transported around the plant by translocation.
+
+There are three main factors affecting photosynthesis:
+
+If there is little light shining on a plant, the light-dependent reactions will not work efficiently. This means that photolysis ( breakdown of light) will not happen quickly, and therefore little NADPH and ATP will be made. This shortage of NADPH and ATP will lead to the light-independent reactions not working as NADPH and ATP are needed for the light-independent reactions to work.
+
+Increasing the light intensity will increase the rate of photosynthesis, so long as there is enough carbon dioxide and the temperature isn't too cold.
+
+The light intensity required is easily investigated in an aquatic plant such as pondweed. The oxygen bubbles  given off can easily be counted or the volume measured. By changing the distance between light and plant, the light intensity will vary.
+Change in light intensity will affect the change in rate of photosynthesis .
+Artificial lighting can be used in the dark to maximise the photosynthetic rate.
+
+Carbon dioxide is used in the light-independent reactions. It combines with NADPH and ATP and various other chemicals (such as Ribulose Bisphosphate) to form glucose. Therefore, if there is not enough carbon dioxide, then there will be a buildup of NADPH and ATP and not enough glucose will be formed.
+
+You can enrich the carbon dioxide concentration in enclosed environments by using gas burners. This has a dual function: will increase the temperature as well as producing carbon dioxide.
+
+There are many enzymes working in photosynthetic reactions – such as the enzyme in photolysis.All enzymes work best at their optimum temperature.  These enzymes will not work as well, or stop working at all at high or low temperatures (above or below optimum tempareture ) and therefore, all light-dependent and light-independent reactions will occur normally at average or optimum tempareture.  Tropical plants have a higher temperature optimum than the plants adapted to temperate climates.
+
+When the temperatures are too low, there is little kinetic energy, so the reaction rate decreases. If the temperatures are too high, the enzymes become denatured and the catalysis of photosynthesis reaction stops.
+
+Greenhouses must maintain the optimum temperature for normally functioning of plants.
+
+The first photosynthetic organisms probably evolved early in the history of life. They may have used reducing agents such as hydrogen or hydrogen sulfide as sources of electrons, rather than water.[3] Cyanobacteria appeared later, and the excess oxygen they produced contributed to the oxygen catastrophe.[4] This made the evolution of complex life possible.
+
+Today, the average rate of energy capture by photosynthesis globally is approximately 130 terawatts,[5][6] which is about six times larger than the current power used by human civilization.[7]
+Photosynthetic organisms also convert around 100–115 thousand million metric tonnes of carbon into biomass per year.[8][9]

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+A sentence is a group of words that are put together to mean something. A sentence is the basic unit of language which expresses a complete thought. It does this by following the grammatical basic rules of syntax. For example: 'Angela is the cutest girl in the class'.
+
+A complete sentence has at least a subject and a main verb to state (declare) a complete thought. Short example: Walker walks. A subject is the noun that is doing the main verb. The main verb is the verb that the subject is doing. In English and many other languages, the first word of a written sentence has a capital letter. At the end of the sentence there is a full stop or full point (American: 'period').
+
+A phrase or clause is part of a sentence.[1]p773–777
+
+This is an example of a sentence:
+
+In this sentence, 'The dog' is the subject, and 'is' is the verb.
+
+This is an example of a phrase:
+
+There is no verb, so we do not know anything about what the happy dog is doing. Therefore, it is not a sentence.
+
+A clause is a sentence within a sentence. Example:
+
+Sentences have different purposes:
+
+Here are some sentences written in Basic English:
+
+The sky is blue.
+
+Today is Monday.
+
+Tomorrow is Tuesday.
+
+The baby is smiling.
+
+Sheila is reading a book.
+
+This is the road to take.
+
+Read a book about the history of America.
+
+There are beautiful flowers growing in the garden.
+
+The cushions are new and I feel the comfort they give me.
+
+They are playing in the grounds.

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+Physics is a branch of science. It is one of the most fundamental scientific disciplines. The main goal of physics is to explain how things move in space and time and understand how the universe behaves. It studies matter, forces and their effects.
+
+The word  physics comes from the Greek word ἡ φύσις, meaning "nature".[1] Physics can also be defined as "that department of knowledge which relates to the order of nature, or, in other words, to the regular succession of events".[2]
+
+Astronomy, a part of physics, is the oldest natural science. In the past it was a part of 'natural philosophy' with other fields of science, such as chemistry and biology. During the scientific revolution, these fields became separate, and physics became a distinct field of knowledge.
+
+Physics is very important in the development of new technologies, such as airplanes, televisions, computers and nuclear weapons. Mechanics, a branch of physics, helped develop the mathematical field of calculus.
+
+Modern physics connects ideas about the four laws of symmetry and conservation of energy, momentum, charge, and parity.
+
+Astronomy is the oldest natural science. The Sumerians, and Ancient Egyptians studied the stars, mostly with a view to prediction and religion. The first Babylonian star maps date from about 1200 BC. That astronomical events are periodic also dates back to the Babylonians.[3]  Their understanding was not scientific, but their observations influenced later astronomy. Much astronomy came from Mesopotamia, Babylonia, Ancient Egypt, and Ancient Greece. Astronomers from Egypt built monuments that showed how objects in the sky moved, and most of the names for the constellations in the Northern hemisphere came from Greek astronomers.
+
+Natural philosophy started in Greece around 650 BC when a movement of philosophers replaced superstition with naturalism, which refuted the spiritual. Leucippus and his student Democritus suggested the idea of the atom around this period.
+
+Islamic scholars continued to study Aristotelian physics during the Islamic Golden Age. One main contribution was to observational astronomy. Some, like Ibn Sahl, Al-Kindi, Ibn al-Haytham, Al-Farisi and Avicenna, worked  on optics and vision. In The Book of Optics, Ibn al-Haytham rejected previous Greek ideas concerning vision and proposed a new theory. He studied how light enters the eye, and  developed the camera obscura. European scientists later built eyeglasses, magnifying glasses, telescopes, and cameras from this book.
+
+Physics became a separate field of study after the scientific revolution.[4] Galileo's experiments helped to create classical physics. Although he did not invent the telescope, he used it when he looked into the night sky. He supported Copernicus' idea that the Earth moved around the Sun (heliocentrism). He also investigated gravity. Isaac Newton used Galileo's ideas to create his three laws of motion and his law of universal gravitation.  Together these laws explained the motion of falling bodies near the earth and the motion of earth and planets around the sun.[5]
+
+In a couple centuries, the Industrial Revolution was in full swing and many more discoveries were made in many fields of science. The laws of classical physics are good enough to study objects that move much slower than the speed of light, and are not microscopic. When scientists first studied quantum mechanics, they had to create a new set of laws, which was the start of modern physics.
+
+As scientists researched particles, they discovered what classical mechanics could not explain. Classical mechanics predicted that the speed of light varied, but experiments showed the speed of light stayed the same. This was predicted by Albert Einstein's theory of special relativity. Einstein predicted that the speed of electromagnetic radiation through empty space would always be the same. His view of space-time replaced the ancient idea that space and time were quite separate things.
+
+Max Planck came up with quantum mechanics to explain why metal releases electrons when you shine a light at it, and why matter emits radiation. Quantum mechanics applies for very small things like the electrons, protons, and neutrons that make up an atom. People like Werner Heisenberg, Erwin Schrödinger, and Paul Dirac continued to work on quantum mechanics and eventually we got the Standard Model.[6][7]
+
+Physics is the study of energy and matter in space and time and how they are related to each other. Physicists assume the existence of mass, length, time and electric current and then define (give the meaning of) all other physical quantities in terms of these basic units. Mass, length, time, and electric current are never defined but the standard units used to measure them are always defined. In the International System of Units (abbreviated SI from the French Système International), the kilogram is the basic unit of mass, the metre is the basic unit of length, the second is the basic unit of time, and the ampere is the basic unit of electric current.
+In addition to these four units, there are three other ones: the mole, which is the unit of the quantity of matter, the candela which measures the luminous intensity (the power of lighting) and the kelvin, the unit of temperature.
+
+Physics studies how things move, and the forces that make them move. For example, velocity and acceleration are used by physics to show how things move. Also, physicists study the forces of gravity, electricity, magnetism and the forces that hold things together.
+
+Physics studies very large things, and very small things. For instance, physicists can study stars, planets and galaxies but could also study small pieces of matter, such as atoms and electrons.They may also study sound, light and other waves. As well as that, they could examine energy, heat and radioactivity, and even space and time. 
+Physics not only helps people understand how objects move, but how they change form, how they make noise, how hot or cold they will be, and what they are made of at the smallest level.
+
+Physics is a quantitative science because it is based on measuring with numbers. Mathematics is used in physics to make models that try to predict what will happen in nature. These predictions are compared to the way the real world works. Physicists are always working to make their models of the world better.
+
+Classical mechanics contains major topics such as Newton's laws of motion, Lagrangian mechanics, Hamiltonian mechanics, kinematics, statics, dynamics, chaos theory, acoustics, fluid dynamics, continuum mechanics.  Classical mechanics is all about forces acting on a body in nature, balancing forces, maintaining equlibrium state, etc .
+
+Electromagnetism is study of charges on a particular body.  It contains subtopics such as Electrostatics, electrodynamics, electricity, magnetism, magnetostatics, Maxwell's equations, optics .
+
+Thermodynamics and statistical mechanics are related with temperature.  It includes main topics such as Heat engine, kinetic theory.  It uses terms such as heat(Q), work(W), and internal energy (U).  First law of thermodynamics gives us the relation them by the following equation (ΔU = Q − W)
+
+Quantum mechanics is the study of particle at the atomic level taking into consideration the atomic model.  It includes subtopics Path integral formulation, scattering theory, Schrödinger equation, quantum field theory, quantum statistical mechanics.
+
+Physics is the science of matter and how matter interacts. Matter is any physical material in the universe. Everything is made of matter. Physics is used to describe the physical universe around us, and to predict how it will behave. 
+Physics is the science concerned with the discovery and characterization of the universal laws which govern matter, movement and forces, and space and time, and other features of the natural world.
+
+The sweep of physics is broad, from the smallest components of matter and the forces that hold it together, to galaxies and even larger things. There are only four forces that appear to operate over this whole range. However, even these four forces (gravity, electromagnetism, the weak force associated with radioactivity, and the strong force which holds protons and neutrons in an atom together) are believed to be different parts of a single force.
+
+Physics is mainly focused on the goal of making ever simpler, more general, and more accurate rules that define the character and behavior of matter and space itself. 
+One of the major goals of physics is making theories that apply to everything in the universe. In other words, physics can be viewed as the study of those universal laws which define, at the most basic level possible, the behavior of the physical universe.
+
+Physics uses the scientific method. That is, data from experiments and observations are collected. Theories which attempt to explain these data are produced. Physics uses these theories to not only describe physical phenomena, but to model physical systems and predict how these physical systems will behave. Physicists then compare these predictions to observations or experimental evidence to show whether the theory is right or wrong.
+
+The theories that are well supported by data and are especially simple and general are sometimes called scientific laws. Of course, all theories, including those known as laws, can be replaced by more accurate and more general laws, when a disagreement with data is found.[8]
+
+Physics is more quantitative than most other sciences. That is, many of the observations in physics may be represented in the form of numerical measurements. Most of the theories in physics use mathematics to express their principles. Most of the predictions from these theories are numerical. This is because of the areas which physics has addressed work better with quantitative approaches than other areas. Sciences also tend to become more quantitative with time as they become more highly developed, and physics is one of the oldest sciences.
+
+Classical physics normally includes the fields of mechanics, optics, electricity, magnetism, acoustics and thermodynamics. Modern physics is a term normally used to cover fields which rely on quantum theory, including quantum mechanics, atomic physics, nuclear physics, particle physics and condensed matter physics, as well as the more modern fields of general and special relativity, but these last two are often considered fields of classical physics as they do not rely on quantum theory. Although this difference can be found in older writings, it is of little new interest as quantum effects are now understood to be of importance even in fields that before were called classical.
+
+There are many approaches to studying physics, and many different kinds of activities in physics. There are two main types of activities in physics; the collection of data and the development of theories.
+
+The data in some subfields of physics is amenable to experiment. For example, condensed matter physics and nuclear physics benefit from the ability to perform experiments. Experimental physics focuses mainly on an empirical approach. Sometimes experiments are done to explore nature, and in other cases experiments are performed to produce data to compare with the predictions of theories.
+
+Some other fields in physics like astrophysics and geophysics are mostly observational sciences because most of their data has to be collected passively instead of through experimentation. However, observational programs in these fields use many of the same tools and technology that are used in the experimental subfields of physics.
+
+Theoretical physics often uses quantitative approaches to develop the theories that attempt to explain the data. In this way, theoretical physicists often use tools from mathematics. Theoretical physics often can involve creating quantitative predictions of physical theories, and comparing these predictions quantitatively with data. Theoretical physics sometimes creates models of physical systems before data is available to test and support these models.
+
+These two main activities in physics, data collection, theory production and testing, use many different skills. This has led to a lot of specialization in physics, and the introduction, development and use of tools from other fields. For example, theoretical physicists use mathematics and numerical analysis and statistics and probability and computer software in their work. Experimental physicists develop instruments and techniques for collecting data, using engineering and computer technology and many other fields of technology. Often the tools from these other areas are not quite appropriate for the needs of physics, and need to be changed or more advanced versions have to be made.
+
+It is frequent for new physics to be discovered if experimental physicists do an experiment that current theories cannot explain, or for theoretical physicists to generate theories which can then be put to the test by experimental physicists.
+
+Experimental physics, engineering and technology are related. Experiments often need specialized tools such as particle accelerators, lasers, and important industrial applications such as transistors and magnetic resonance imaging have come from applied research.
+
+Famous theoretical physicists include

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+A piano (also called a pianoforte) is a musical instrument classified as a percussion instrument that is played by pressing keys on a keyboard. A person who plays the piano is called a pianist.
+
+The piano has been an extremely popular instrument in Western classical music since the late 18th century. The piano was invented by Bartolomeo Cristofori of Padua, Italy.  He made his first piano in 1709. It developed from the clavichord which looks like a piano but the strings of a clavichord are hit by a small blade of metal called a “tangent”.[1]  In the piano the strings are hit by a block of wood called a hammer. The early keyboarded instruments, such as the clavichords, harpsichords and organs that were used at that time, had a much shorter keyboard than they do today.  Gradually the keyboard became longer until it had the 88 notes (7 octaves plus three notes) of the modern piano.
+
+At first the instrument was called the “fortepiano”.  This means “loud-soft” in Italian.  It was given this name because it could be played either loudly or softly, depending on how hard the note was hit (the harpsichord could not do this, and the clavichord could only make a tiny difference between louder and softer).  Later this name changed to “pianoforte”.  This is normally shortened to “piano”.  The word “fortepiano” is sometimes used to describe the pianos of the late 18th and early 19th centuries.  In some languages, such as Russian, “fortepiano” is the normal word for a piano.
+
+Although the piano was invented at the beginning of the 18th century, it was not until 50 years later that it started to become popular.  The first time the piano was played in a public concert in London was in 1768 when it was played by Johann Christian Bach.[2]  The upright piano was invented in 1800 by John Isaac Hawkings.  Seven years later T. Southwell invented “over-stringing”.  This means that the strings for the low notes go diagonally across the soundboard so that they can be longer and make a much bigger sound.
+
+The early pianos had strings that were fastened to a frame made of wood.  They were not very heavy, but they were not very strong or loud, so they could not be heard very well in a big concert hall.   In 1825 the cast-iron frame was invented in America.  This made the piano much stronger so that it could make a bigger sound and the strings were not likely to break.
+
+A piano has a keyboard with white keys and black keys. When a key is pressed down, the damper comes off the string and a hammer hits the string.  It hits it very quickly and bounces off so that the string is free to vibrate and make a sound.  Each key is a level that makes a hammer inside the piano hit a string inside, producing a sound. Each string has a different length and so produces-a different note. When the player takes their finger off the key the damper falls back onto the string and the sound stops.  The strings are stretched very tightly across the frame, passing over a bridge on the way.  The bridge touches the soundboard.  This means that the vibrations are sent to the soundboard.  The soundboard is a very important part of the piano.  If it is damaged the piano will not make a sound.
+
+The mechanism which makes the hammer bounce off the string very quickly is called the “escapement”.  In 1821 Sebastian Erard invented a kind of double escapement.  This made it possible to repeat the note very quickly.  The hammer only touches the string for about one thousandth of a second.  The hammers are covered with felt which is a mixture of wool, silk and hair.
+
+At the bottom of every modern piano, there are at least two pedals, which are levers that the pianist presses down with his or her feet to change the sound. Many pianos have three pedals, but a few have even more. Each pedal changes the sound in a different way.
+
+The damper pedal is the most important pedal, and so many composers often write down in a piece of music when the pianist should press and when he or she should let go of the damper pedal. In most classical music, there is a sign that says Ped. where the pedal should be pressed, and one that looks like an asterisk where the pedal should be let go. Pedal marks can also appear as a straight line under the staff. Often, the pianist will let go of the pedal and press it again right away; this is called changing pedal. Sometimes, the music will simply say con pedale, which in Italian means with pedal. It means that the damper pedal should be used, but the pianist should know when to change the pedal.
+
+
+
+Another sign, which tells a pianist to press the soft pedal is una corda, (Italian for one string). It is held down until another sign, tre corde (meaning three strings), appears, telling the pianist to let go of the soft pedal. In early pianos, it was possible to press the pedal a little way so that the hammers hit two strings, then press it further so that they hit only one string.
+
+There is no sign for the sostenuto pedal, so it is up to the pianist on whether to use it in a specific piece of music.
+
+Once the piano became popular in the late 18th century many composers wrote music for the piano.  Wolfgang Amadeus Mozart started to learn on harpsichords when he was very small, but the piano was becoming popular when he was a young man and he wrote many sonatas and concertos for the piano.  Franz Joseph Haydn also wrote a lot of piano music.  Ludwig van Beethoven was a very famous pianist before he became very famous as a composer.  His piano compositions include 5 concertos and 32 sonatas.   In the Romantic period many composers wrote for the piano.  They include Franz Schubert, Robert Schumann, Johannes Brahms, Franz Liszt and Frederic Chopin.  Later composers include Sergei Rachmaninoff, Claude Debussy, Maurice Ravel, Sergei Prokofiev, Dmitri Shostakovich and Bela Bartok.
+
+Some famous piano players from the early days of the piano include Dussek, Mozart, Muzio Clementi, John Field and Chopin.  In the 19th century Franz Liszt was a very great influence on the piano by composing and performing very difficult music.  Other great pianists include Clara Schumann and Anton Rubinstein.  20th century pianists include Artur Schnabel, Vladimir Horowitz, Josef Hofmann, Wilhelm Kempff, Dinu Lipati, Claudio Arrau, Artur Rubinstein,  Sviatoslav Richter and Alfred Brendel.  Among the greatest pianists today are Vladimir Ashkenazy, Daniel Barenboim, Leif Ove Andsnes, Boris Berezovsky and Evgeny Kissin.Connor Farrow
+
+Pianists who play popular music include  Liberace, Jerry Lee Lewis, Little Richard, Elton John, Billy Joel, Thelonious Monk, Tori Amos and Ray Charles.  Perhaps the greatest jazz pianist was Fats Waller.
+
+The piano has been a very popular instrument ever since the mid 18th century when it soon replaced the clavichord and the harpsichord.  By the early 19th century the sound that the piano made was big enough to fill large concert halls.  Smaller pianos were made for use in people’s homes.  At first these included square pianos and giraffe pianos, later on the upright pianos became popular for home use.  Pianos are not often used in orchestras (if they are, they are part of the percussion section).  They may, however, be used for piano concertos (pieces for solo pianist accompanied by orchestra).  There is a vast amount of music written for piano solo.  The piano can also be used together with other instruments, in jazz groups, and for accompanying singing.

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+DNA, short for deoxyribonucleic acid, is the molecule that contains the genetic code of organisms. This includes animals, plants, protists, archaea and bacteria.
+
+DNA is in each cell in the organism and tells cells what proteins to make. Mostly, these proteins are enzymes. DNA is inherited by children from their parents. This is why children share traits with their parents, such as skin, hair and eye color. The DNA in a person is a combination of the DNA from each of their parents.
+
+Part of an organism's DNA is "non-coding DNA" sequences. They do not code for protein sequences. Some noncoding DNA is transcribed into non-coding RNA molecules, such as transfer RNA, ribosomal RNA, and regulatory RNAs. Other sequences are not transcribed at all, or give rise to RNA of unknown function. The amount of non-coding DNA varies greatly among species. For example, over 98% of the human genome is non-coding DNA,[1] while only about 2% of a typical bacterial genome is non-coding DNA.
+
+Viruses use either DNA or RNA to infect organisms.[2] The genome replication of most DNA viruses takes place in the cell's nucleus, whereas RNA viruses usually replicate in the cytoplasm.
+
+DNA has a double helix shape, which is like a ladder twisted into a spiral. Each step of the ladder is a pair of nucleotides.
+
+A nucleotide is a molecule made up of:
+
+DNA is made of four types of nucleotide:
+
+The 'rungs' of the DNA ladder are each made of two bases, one base coming from each leg. The bases connect in the middle: 'A' only pairs with 'T', and 'C' only pairs with 'G'. The bases are held together by hydrogen bonds.
+
+Adenine (A) and thymine (T) can pair up because they make two hydrogen bonds, and cytosine (C) and guanine (G) pair up to make three hydrogen bonds. Although the bases are always in fixed pairs, the pairs can come in any order (A-T or T-A; similarly, C-G or G-C). This way, DNA can write 'codes' out of the 'letters' that are the bases. These codes contain the message that tells the cell what to do.
+
+On chromosomes, the DNA is bound up with proteins called histones to form chromatin. This association takes part in epigenetics and gene regulation. Genes are switched on and off during development and cell activity, and this regulation is the basis of most of the activity which takes place in cells.
+
+When DNA is copied,this is called DNA replication. Briefly, the hydrogen bonds holding together paired bases are broken and the molecule is split in half: the legs of the ladder are separated. This gives two single strands. New strands are formed by matching the bases (A with T and G with C) to make the missing strands.
+
+First, an enzyme called DNA helicase splits the DNA down the middle by breaking the hydrogen bonds. Then after the DNA molecule is in two separate pieces, another molecule called DNA polymerase makes a new strand that matches each of the strands of the split DNA molecule. Each copy of a DNA molecule is made of half of the original (starting) molecule and half of new bases.
+
+When DNA is copied, mistakes are sometimes made – these are called mutations. There are three main types of mutations:
+
+Mutations may also be classified by their effect on the structure and function of proteins, or their effect on fitness. Mutations may be bad for the organism, or neutral, or of benefit. Sometimes mutations are fatal for the organism – the protein made by the new DNA does not work at all, and this causes the embryo to die. On the other hand, evolution is moved forward by mutations, when the new version of the protein works better for the organism.
+
+A section of DNA that contains instructions to make a protein is called a gene. Each gene has the sequence for at least one polypeptide.[3] Proteins form structures, and also form enzymes. The enzymes do most of the work in cells. Proteins are made out of smaller polypeptides, which are formed of amino acids. To make a protein to do a particular job, the correct amino acids have to be joined up in the correct order.
+
+Proteins are made by tiny machines in the cell called ribosomes.  Ribosomes are in the main body of the cell, but DNA is only in the nucleus of the cell. The codon is part of the DNA, but DNA never leaves the nucleus. Because DNA cannot leave the nucleus, the cell makes a copy of the DNA sequence in RNA. This is smaller and can get through the holes – pores – in the membrane of the nucleus and out into the cell.
+
+Genes encoded in DNA are transcribed into messenger RNA (mRNA) by proteins such as RNA polymerase. Mature mRNA is then used as a template for protein synthesis by the ribosome. Ribosomes read codons, 'words' made of three base pairs that tell the ribosome which amino acid to add. The ribosome scans along an mRNA, reading the code while it makes protein. Another RNA called tRNA helps match the right amino acid to each codon.
+
+DNA was first isolated (extracted from cells) by Swiss physician Friedrich Miescher in 1869, when he was working on bacteria from the pus in surgical bandages. The molecule was found in the nucleus of the cells and so he called it nuclein.[4]
+
+In 1928, Frederick Griffith discovered that traits of the "smooth" form of Pneumococcus could be transferred to the "rough" form of the same bacteria by mixing killed "smooth" bacteria with the live "rough" form.[5] This system provided the first clear suggestion that DNA carries genetic information.
+
+The Avery–MacLeod–McCarty experiment identified DNA as the transforming principle in 1943.[6][7]
+
+DNA's role in heredity was confirmed in 1952, when Alfred Hershey and Martha Chase in the Hershey–Chase experiment showed that DNA is the genetic material of the T2 bacteriophage.[8]
+
+In the 1950s, Erwin Chargaff [9] found that the amount of thymine (T) present in a molecule of DNA was about equal to the amount of adenine (A) present. He found that the same applies to guanine (G) and cytosine (C). Chargaff's rules summarises this finding.
+
+In 1953, James D. Watson and Francis Crick suggested what is now accepted as the first correct double-helix model of DNA structure in the journal Nature.[10] Their double-helix, molecular model of DNA was then based on a single X-ray diffraction image "Photo 51", taken by Rosalind Franklin and Raymond Gosling in May 1952.[11]
+
+Experimental evidence supporting the Watson and Crick model was published in a series of five articles in the same issue of Nature.[12] Of these, Franklin and Gosling's paper was the first publication of their own X-ray diffraction data and original analysis method that partly supported the Watson and Crick model;[13] this issue also contained an article on DNA structure by Maurice Wilkins and two of his colleagues, whose analysis and in vivo B-DNA X-ray patterns also supported the presence in vivo of the double-helical DNA configurations as proposed by Crick and Watson for their double-helix molecular model of DNA in the previous two pages of Nature. In 1962, after Franklin's death, Watson, Crick, and Wilkins jointly received the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine.[14] Nobel Prizes were awarded only to living recipients at the time. A debate continues about who should receive credit for the discovery.[15]
+
+In 1957, Crick explained the relationship between DNA, RNA, and proteins, in the central dogma of molecular biology.[16]
+
+How DNA was copied (the replication mechanism) came in 1958 through the Meselson–Stahl experiment.[17] More work by Crick and coworkers showed that the genetic code was based on non-overlapping triplets of bases, called codons.[18] These findings represent the birth of molecular biology.
+
+How Watson and Crick got Franklin's results has been much debated. Crick, Watson and Maurice Wilkins were awarded the Nobel Prize in 1962 for their work on DNA – Rosalind Franklin had died in 1958.
+
+Police in the United States used DNA and family tree public databases to solve cold cases. The American Civil Liberties Union  raised concerns over this practice.[19]

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+An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.
+
+An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole it is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles far.
+
+Auroras can happen at any time, however they can only be seen at night because their light is not as strong as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.
+
+Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.
+
+An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons,[1] with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most of the solar wind.
+
+At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess energy gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME), when the charged particles rip through the electromagnetic field because of their power.
+
+Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, Saturn and more recently Mars. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

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+
+
+Pablo Ruiz Picasso (October 25 1881 – April 8 1973) was a Spanish painter and sculptor.[2] He created over 20,000 images.[3]
+
+He is considered one of the greatest artists of the 20th century.[4][5][6] He is best known as the co-founder of cubism.[4] A work of art is cubist when the artist opts to break up objects and reassemble them in abstract and geometric form.[7][8] Picasso could draw and paint when he was very young. His first word was lápiz, the Spanish word for "pencil".[9][10]
+
+Perhaps his most famous painting is Guernica, which shows the horrors of war after the bombing of the town of Guernica.[11] He spent most of his life in France when he was an adult.
+
+He was 90 years old when a number of his works were shown in an exhibition at the Louvre in Paris. He was the first living artist to have an exhibition at the Louvre.[12]
+
+Picasso had four children with three women. He died of heart failure in Mougins, France, on April 8 1973.
+
+Pablo Picasso was born on October 25 1881 in Málaga, Spain.[13] His father was the painter and teacher José Ruiz Blasco and his mother was María Picasso López. His original name was Esteban Julio Ricardo Montoya de la Rosa Ramírez but was later changed for convenience. Until 1898, he signed his pictures with the names of his father and of his mother. After around 1901, he only used his mother's name.[3] At the age of eight, Picasso created his first oil painting called "The Picador". In 1891, Pablo moved with his family to Northern Spain, where his father taught at the Instituto da Guarda. One year later, Pablo studied at this institute.[14] Pablo's father was his teacher at this time.[4] In 1896, he started to attend the art school in Barcelona after passing the entrance examination.[15] One year later in 1897, Picasso started to study at the Academia San Fernando in Madrid.[16] In 1898, he left the academy and went to a rest to Horta de Ebro. In 1900, he published his first illustrations in a newspaper in Barcelona.[12] This exhibition had over 60 portraits.[4]
+
+Picasso made his first trip to Paris[13] in 1900, where he lived with Max Jacob, a poet and journalist. When Max was working during the day, Pablo slept and when Max slept at night, Pablo worked. Picasso had to burn his paintings to keep himself warm.[6] Lovers in the Street and Moulin de la Galette are examples of his Paris work from this time. Both pictures were painted in 1900.[4]
+
+He went back to Madrid in 1901 where he worked for a newspaper called Arte Joven.[4][6] He was responsible for illustrations. At this time, he shortened his signature from "Pablo Ruiz y Picasso"[6][12] to "Picasso". This is the time his so-called Blue Period started. The two 1903 paintings, The Soup and Crouching Woman, are examples. His Blue Period ended in 1904 when he settled in Paris.
+
+In 1905, Picasso made a trip to Holland.[14] In the same year, Pablo's "Rosa Period" started. During this period, Picasso mostly painted circus motives.[13] Girl Balancing on a Ball and The Actor are two early paintings from this time. This period lasted until 1907.[13]
+
+Picasso's Cubism period started in 1909 and ended around 1912. This period was inspired by the French painter Paul Cézanne. This period is called Cubism because of the use of cubes and other shapes. During this time, Picasso painted musical instruments, still life objects, and also his friends.[3]
+
+Picasso had his first exhibition in the United States in 1911. One year later in 1912, he had his first exhibition in Great Britain.[12] Pablo's father died in May 1913.[14]
+
+From 1912 to 1919 was Picasso's so called Synthetic Cubism Period. During this time, he started to use collages in his paintings.[6] His works from this time are called papiers collés.[13] He has spent his time during the First World War in Rome.[12] In 1914, Picasso spent the whole summer in Avignon.[17] In 1915, he started to paint realistic again.[13][17] At the end of the same year, his wife Eva died.[18] During the World War, he also worked as a designer for Sergey Diaghilev.[3]
+
+In 1917, Picasso met Olga Koklova, a Russian dancer. In the same year, he painted several realistic portraits of her and their friends. One year later, he married her.[3] The last summer of the wartime, Picasso and his wife spent in Barcelona and Biarritz.[12]
+
+In 1921, Picasso's son Paul was born. Due to this occasion, he painted several paintings with his wife and his son on it.[12] Paul was Picasso's only legitimate son.[19] In 1925, he took part in the first Surrealist exhibition in Paris.[12] Between 1924 and 1926, Picasso preferred to paint abstract still lives. In 1927, he got known to Marie-Thérèse Walter. She became his model and mistress.[13] In 1928, he started a new period where he began to make sculptural works.[12] In 1931, he left his wife and moved with his mistress to Boisgeloup. There they lived in a country home. There, Picasso had a room for his sculptures only.[20] Since 1932, he used Marie-Thérèse as a model.[12] During a travel in Spain, he started to use the bullfight as a new topic of his paintings.[13] In 1935, Picasso's daughter, Maïa, was born.[3] At this time, he got divorced from his wife because of the birth of Maïa.[12] In 1936, Picasso got a job as director of the Prado-Museum in Madrid.[13] During this time, the Spanish Civil War started. German bombs fell on Guernica in Spain on 26 April 1937. Picasso used this impact to paint one of his most famous paintings, Guernica.[21] This painting was completed in about 2 months. It was first shown in the Spanish Pavilion in Paris in 1937.[3]
+
+In 1938, Picasso's mother died. After the Second World War started on 1 September 1939, Picasso returned to Paris.[12] Around 1943, he got known to the painter Françoise Gilot. She bore to him one son and one daughter.[3] In 1941, he wrote his first play "Le désir attrapé par la queue" (English: Desire Caught by the Tail). It was first shown in 1944.[13][22] Also in 1944, Picasso joined the communist Party.[12] Picasso spent almost the full war time in Paris.[23][24]

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+Scrooge McDuck or Uncle Scrooge is a fictional character first appearing in the comic book Christmas on Bear Mountain. The character was created by Carl Barks and has appeared in many comic books, television shows, movies, and video games. Since 1952 Scrooge McDuck has appeared in his own comic book series, called Uncle Scrooge.
+
+Scrooge was born in Scotland in 1867, the son of Fergus McDuck. His family is very poor, so Scrooge emigrates to USA where he finds gold and becomes rich. In 1902 he moves to Duckburg and builds the Money Bin on Killmotor Hill in the center of Duckburg. Over the next years, Scrooge travels the world, learning about many cultures. In 1930, Scrooge became the richest duck on Earth.
+
+In 1942, Scrooge retires and buys a mansion called the Manor McDuck. In 1947, he invites his nephew Donald Duck and his grand-nephews Huey, Dewey and Louie to spend Christmas at his mansion. A criminal gang called the Beagle Boys keep trying to steal Scrooge's money.

ensimple/4602.html.txt

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+A coin is normally a round piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. Coins have been made for about 2600 years; the first place to make coins was Lydia (modern Turkey).[citation needed] These coins were made of Precious metals and allowed people to trade with a standard amount of metal.
+
+Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.
+
+Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a famous or important person's head on it.
+
+The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin".  A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.  You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.
+
+Some people see coins as a sign of greed, such as some Communists and Puritans, who sometimes condemn over-hoarding of coins, and ascetics, who often keep little in the ways of money (coins), leading a "poor"-lifestyle.
+
+Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.

ensimple/4603.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+The word "play" has more than one meaning. It could mean:

ensimple/4604.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,11 @@
+A coin is normally a round piece of metal that is used as currency, or money. Coins have been made for about 2600 years; the first place to make coins was Lydia (modern Turkey).[citation needed] These coins were made of Precious metals and allowed people to trade with a standard amount of metal.
+
+Most people use coins as currency. They usually have lower value than banknotes. Most are made in government mints.
+
+Many coins have unique or complicated decorations; one side often has the picture of a famous or important person's head on it.
+
+The different decorations on each side of a coin might be used to decide things randomly. This is called "tossing a coin".  A person can throw the coin into the air and catch it.  You then look at which side is facing up. If the head is facing up it is called "heads", if the other side is facing up it is called "tails". Before tossing the coin someone has to decide what each side means. Tossing a coin can be a type of gambling, which is illegal (against the law) in some countries.
+
+Some people see coins as a sign of greed, such as some Communists and Puritans, who sometimes condemn over-hoarding of coins, and ascetics, who often keep little in the ways of money (coins), leading a "poor"-lifestyle.
+
+Because coins have been made for a very long time, some people collect old coins. They can be much cheaper than other old things, especially if they are made of cheap metals like copper. Older coins normally cost more than newer ones, but rarity matters more-some coins from the 1920s cost vast sums, while some Roman coins cost very little.

ensimple/4605.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+The word "play" has more than one meaning. It could mean:

ensimple/4606.html.txt

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+A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
+
+People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole. Half the bones in our body are in the foot. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists.
+
+Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, we often call it a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.
+
+Many people like to use footwear, especially outside. It has special names, for example sandals, shoes, and boots.  When people always wear footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour).  Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet.  People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
+
+People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in much of Europe and Canada, people usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home or visiting. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials, too soft for shoes. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially for children's feet.
+
+Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked.
+
+In a human foot, there are 26 bones. They are made up of 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (sole bones) and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).

ensimple/4607.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
+
+People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole. Half the bones in our body are in the foot. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists.
+
+Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, we often call it a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.
+
+Many people like to use footwear, especially outside. It has special names, for example sandals, shoes, and boots.  When people always wear footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour).  Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet.  People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
+
+People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in much of Europe and Canada, people usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home or visiting. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials, too soft for shoes. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially for children's feet.
+
+Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked.
+
+In a human foot, there are 26 bones. They are made up of 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (sole bones) and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).

ensimple/4608.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
+
+People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole. Half the bones in our body are in the foot. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists.
+
+Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, we often call it a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.
+
+Many people like to use footwear, especially outside. It has special names, for example sandals, shoes, and boots.  When people always wear footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour).  Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet.  People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
+
+People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in much of Europe and Canada, people usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home or visiting. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials, too soft for shoes. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially for children's feet.
+
+Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked.
+
+In a human foot, there are 26 bones. They are made up of 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (sole bones) and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).

ensimple/4609.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+A foot (one foot, two or more feet) is a body part on the end of a leg. It is used when walking. It is also important for balance: it helps people stand straight. People also use it to kick, in both fighting and sports, football being an example.
+
+People's hands and feet have the same shape: they both have five digits (the fingers and toes). Many other animals with backbones also have five digits. The part of the foot which joins it to the leg is called the heel. The bottom of the foot is called the sole. Half the bones in our body are in the foot. Doctors who work with people's feet are podiatrists or chiropodists.
+
+Most land vertebrates have feet, and there are many different sorts of foot. The feet of monkeys are much like the hands. The hard foot of an ungulate is a hoof. When an animal has soft feet, or feet with soft parts on the underside, we often call it a paw. Many invertebrates also have feet.
+
+Many people like to use footwear, especially outside. It has special names, for example sandals, shoes, and boots.  When people always wear footwear, especially in hot places or when they are very active, their feet can smell badly (foot odour).  Wearing footwear that is too big or small can be bad for the feet.  People who have foot, leg, and back problems can also get help from special shoes.
+
+People have different traditions in different parts of the world for when to wear footwear. For example, in much of Europe and Canada, people usually do not wear their shoes or boots in a home or visiting. In the United States people often wear shoes inside a home. In Japan, people do not wear shoes in homes, and floors are often made of very soft materials, too soft for shoes. In cultures where people always wear shoes, people sometimes think it is bad not to wear them. Not wearing shoes can be good for the feet, especially for children's feet.
+
+Conditions like Athlete's foot affect the feet, causing the feet to feel dry and cracked.
+
+In a human foot, there are 26 bones. They are made up of 14 phalanges (toes), 5 metatarsals (sole bones) and 7 tarsals (ankle bones).

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+An aurora, also called polar light, northern light or southern light, is a natural light display in the sky. They are usually seen in the high latitudes (Arctic and Antarctic) regions. Auroras are produced when the Earth's magnetosphere is disturbed by the solar wind.
+
+An aurora around the North Pole is called the Aurora borealis or 'northern lights'. Around the South Pole it is the Aurora australis or 'dawn of the south' or 'southern lights'. It can be seen from long distances, stretching in the sky many hundreds of miles far.
+
+Auroras can happen at any time, however they can only be seen at night because their light is not as strong as the light of day. Faint stars can even be seen through the aurora.
+
+Many legends are associated with the aurora in all countries where this phenomenon regularly occurs.
+
+An aurora occurs when the Sun sends off small particles into space. These particles are mainly electrons,[1] with charge and energy, which means they contribute to electricity. Earth has a protective shield of energy around it. This is called the "magnetic field" and forms an elongated sphere around the Earth called the "magnetosphere". The Earth’s magnetic field keeps off most of the solar wind.
+
+At high-latitude areas (polar areas), the magnetic field is vertical. It does not keep off particles of the solar wind which can come from the magnetosphere and hit the particles of the air (Earth's atmosphere). When they hit, the atmosphere is heated and excited and the excess energy gets away, a phenomenon which we see as moving lights in the sky above 100 km altitude typically. An aurora can be especially bright following a solar flare and coronal mass ejection (CME), when the charged particles rip through the electromagnetic field because of their power.
+
+Auroral phenomena have been observed on other planets that have a magnetic field, such as Jupiter, Saturn and more recently Mars. It is believed to be a widespread phenomenon in the Solar System and beyond.

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+Pope Pius IX (Latin: Pius PP. IX, Italian: Pio IX; May 13, 1792 – February 7, 1878), born Giovanni Maria Mastai-Feretti, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 256th Pope, from 1846 until his death.[1]  Only Saint Peter himself led the church longer than the 32-year reign of Pius IX.
+
+In 2000, he was beatified, which is a step in the process of naming a saint of the Catholic Church.[2]
+
+Mastai-Feretti was ordained as a priest in 1819.[3]
+
+Father Mastai-Feretti was named Bishop of Spoletto in 1827.[3]  In 1877, the Golden Jubilee celebrations recalled the 50 years since he was named a bishop.[4]
+
+In 1840, Pope Gregory XVI made Bishop Mastai-Feretti a cardinal.[3]
+
+Cardinal Mastai-Feretti was elected Pope in 1846; and he took the name Pius IX.[3]
+
+In 1846, Piux IX declared an amnesty for political prisoners.[2]
+
+In 1848 he ordered that the gates to the Jewish ghetto in Rome be knocked down.[2]
+
+Pius formally defined the dogma of the Immaculate Conception.[5]
+
+In 1849, Pius was deposed as the temporal ruler of the Papal States.[3]  As a result of Italian nationalism and the Risorgimento, the Papal States and all of the pope's land outside the Apostolic Palace were seized in 1870 and pope spent his last years a virtual prisoner within the Vatican.[2]
+
+In 1869-1870, Pope Pius brought together the church's bishops and cardinals in a meeting called the Vatican Council.[6]    The council defined the dogma of papal infallibility.[7]
+
+Pius died at age 85.[8]
+
+The process of recognizing Pius IX as a saint began in 1907.[2]
+
+The body of Pope Pius IX was exhumed in 1956.[9]  This was part of a ceremony of "recognition".[5]
+
+Preparations for beatification were almost finished in 1962;[10] and they were completed in 1984.[2]
+
+Media related to Pius IX at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis

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+Pierre-Auguste Renoir (25 February 1841–3 December 1919) was a French artist. He was a leading painter who helped to create the Impressionist style. He painted portraits, and still life, but above all, he painted social scenes of the day.
+
+As a painter of women, it has been said that "Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau".[1]
+
+Pierre-Auguste Renoir was born in Limoges, Haute-Vienne, France, the child of a working class family. As a boy, he worked in a porcelain factory where his drawing talents led to him being chosen to paint designs on fine china.[2] He also painted hangings for overseas missionaries and decorations on fans before he enrolled in art school.[3] During those early years, he often visited the Louvre to study the French master painters.
+
+In the late 1860s, through the practice of painting light and water en plein air (in the open air), he and his friend Claude Monet discovered that the color of shadows is not brown or black, but the reflected color of the objects surrounding them, an effect today known as diffuse reflection. Several pairs of paintings exist in which Renoir and Monet, working side-by-side, depicted the same scenes (La Grenouillère, 1869).[4][5]
+
+Renoir experienced his initial acclaim when six of his paintings hung in the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874. In the same year, two of his works were shown with Paul Durand-Ruel in London.[6]
+
+One of the best known Impressionist works is Renoir's 1876 Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Bal du moulin de la Galette). The painting depicts an open-air scene, crowded with people, at a popular dance garden on the Butte Montmartre, close to where he lived.
+The works of his early maturity were typically Impressionist snapshots of real life, full of sparkling colour and light.
+
+A trip to Italy in 1881, when he saw works by Raphael and other Renaissance masters, that convinced him that he was on the wrong path. For the next several years he painted in a more severe, classical, style.[7] After 1890, however, he changed direction again, returning to thinly brushed colour to dissolve outlines as in his earlier work. From this period onward he concentrated on nudes and domestic scenes.
+
+A prolific artist, he made several thousand paintings. The warm sensuality of Renoir's style made his paintings some of the most well-known and reproduced works in the history of art. The single largest collection of his works—181 paintings in all—is at the Barnes Foundation, near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
+
+In 1890, he married Aline Victorine Charigot. She, with a number of the artist's friends, had been a model for Le Déjeuner des canotiers (Luncheon of the Boating Party, 1881). They already had a child, Pierre, in 1885.[6] After his marriage, Renoir painted many scenes of his wife and daily family life, including their children and their nurse, Aline's cousin. The Renoirs had three sons, one of whom, Jean, became a film director of note and another, Pierre, became a stage and film actor.
+
+Around 1892, Renoir developed rheumatoid arthritis. In 1907, he moved to the warmer climate of "Les Collettes," a farm at Cagnes-sur-Mer, close to the Mediterranean coast.[6] Renoir painted during the last twenty years of his life, even when arthritis severely limited his movement, and he was wheelchair-bound. He developed progressive deformities in his hands and ankylosis of his right shoulder, requiring him to adapt his painting technique. It has often been reported that in the advanced stages of his arthritis, he painted by having a brush strapped to his paralyzed fingers,[8] but this is erroneous; Renoir remained able to grasp a brush, although he required an assistant to place it in his hand.[9] The wrapping of his hands with bandages, apparent in late photographs of the artist, served to prevent skin irritation.[9]
+
+During this period, he created sculptures by cooperating with a young artist, Richard Guino, who worked the clay. Renoir also used a moving canvas, or picture roll, to help him paint large works.[9]
+
+In 1919, Renoir visited the Louvre to see his paintings hanging with the old masters. He died in the village of Cagnes-sur-Mer, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, on 3 December.
+
+Le Ponte-Neuf 1872
+
+Claude Monet painting in his garden at Argenteuil 1873
+
+Dancer 1874
+
+Bal au moulin de la Galette (Montmatre) 1876
+
+Oarsmen at Chatou 1879
+
+Le Déjeuner des canotiers, 1881
+
+Self-portrait 1910

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+Pierre-Auguste Renoir (25 February 1841–3 December 1919) was a French artist. He was a leading painter who helped to create the Impressionist style. He painted portraits, and still life, but above all, he painted social scenes of the day.
+
+As a painter of women, it has been said that "Renoir is the final representative of a tradition which runs directly from Rubens to Watteau".[1]
+
+Pierre-Auguste Renoir was born in Limoges, Haute-Vienne, France, the child of a working class family. As a boy, he worked in a porcelain factory where his drawing talents led to him being chosen to paint designs on fine china.[2] He also painted hangings for overseas missionaries and decorations on fans before he enrolled in art school.[3] During those early years, he often visited the Louvre to study the French master painters.
+
+In the late 1860s, through the practice of painting light and water en plein air (in the open air), he and his friend Claude Monet discovered that the color of shadows is not brown or black, but the reflected color of the objects surrounding them, an effect today known as diffuse reflection. Several pairs of paintings exist in which Renoir and Monet, working side-by-side, depicted the same scenes (La Grenouillère, 1869).[4][5]
+
+Renoir experienced his initial acclaim when six of his paintings hung in the first Impressionist exhibition in 1874. In the same year, two of his works were shown with Paul Durand-Ruel in London.[6]
+
+One of the best known Impressionist works is Renoir's 1876 Dance at Le Moulin de la Galette (Bal du moulin de la Galette). The painting depicts an open-air scene, crowded with people, at a popular dance garden on the Butte Montmartre, close to where he lived.
+The works of his early maturity were typically Impressionist snapshots of real life, full of sparkling colour and light.
+
+A trip to Italy in 1881, when he saw works by Raphael and other Renaissance masters, that convinced him that he was on the wrong path. For the next several years he painted in a more severe, classical, style.[7] After 1890, however, he changed direction again, returning to thinly brushed colour to dissolve outlines as in his earlier work. From this period onward he concentrated on nudes and domestic scenes.
+
+A prolific artist, he made several thousand paintings. The warm sensuality of Renoir's style made his paintings some of the most well-known and reproduced works in the history of art. The single largest collection of his works—181 paintings in all—is at the Barnes Foundation, near Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
+
+In 1890, he married Aline Victorine Charigot. She, with a number of the artist's friends, had been a model for Le Déjeuner des canotiers (Luncheon of the Boating Party, 1881). They already had a child, Pierre, in 1885.[6] After his marriage, Renoir painted many scenes of his wife and daily family life, including their children and their nurse, Aline's cousin. The Renoirs had three sons, one of whom, Jean, became a film director of note and another, Pierre, became a stage and film actor.
+
+Around 1892, Renoir developed rheumatoid arthritis. In 1907, he moved to the warmer climate of "Les Collettes," a farm at Cagnes-sur-Mer, close to the Mediterranean coast.[6] Renoir painted during the last twenty years of his life, even when arthritis severely limited his movement, and he was wheelchair-bound. He developed progressive deformities in his hands and ankylosis of his right shoulder, requiring him to adapt his painting technique. It has often been reported that in the advanced stages of his arthritis, he painted by having a brush strapped to his paralyzed fingers,[8] but this is erroneous; Renoir remained able to grasp a brush, although he required an assistant to place it in his hand.[9] The wrapping of his hands with bandages, apparent in late photographs of the artist, served to prevent skin irritation.[9]
+
+During this period, he created sculptures by cooperating with a young artist, Richard Guino, who worked the clay. Renoir also used a moving canvas, or picture roll, to help him paint large works.[9]
+
+In 1919, Renoir visited the Louvre to see his paintings hanging with the old masters. He died in the village of Cagnes-sur-Mer, Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur, on 3 December.
+
+Le Ponte-Neuf 1872
+
+Claude Monet painting in his garden at Argenteuil 1873
+
+Dancer 1874
+
+Bal au moulin de la Galette (Montmatre) 1876
+
+Oarsmen at Chatou 1879
+
+Le Déjeuner des canotiers, 1881
+
+Self-portrait 1910

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+Pierre de Frédy, Baron de Coubertin (French: [pjɛʁ də kubɛʁtɛ̃]; 1 January 1863 – 2 September 1937) was a French teacher and historian. He was very interested in physical education and he loved the idea of a gymnasium as the ancient Greeks had, were young and old learned and sported together. He is the founder of the International Olympic Committee.

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+Pierre de Fermat (17 August 1601 – 12 January 1665) was a French lawyer at the Parlement of Toulouse, southern France, and a mathematician. Many people see him as the father of modern calculus.
+
+His method of finding the biggest and smallest ordinates of curved lines also makes him a contributor to differential calculus, which was not known at that time. His studies in the theory of numbers give him the rank of the founder of the modern theory. He also made notable contributions to analytic geometry and probability.
+
+He is also famous for making a simple mathematical statement (known as Fermat's Last Theorem) that he said he could prove, but he never wrote down his proof. Mathematicians tried to prove it for hundreds of years before finally managing it. Fermat probably did not really have a proof for this theorem, and only thought he did.
+
+He proposed his principle on light which states that light selects the path which takes least time to travel.This principle was famous as Fermat principle.
+

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+The Rosetta Stone is a stone with writing carved into it.  French soldiers found it in Egypt in 1799. It helped people get a better understanding of the Ancient Egyptian writing system called hieroglyphics. Its discovery led to the translation of Ancient Egyptian writing.
+The stone is named after the city where it was found, Rosetta. Today, that city is called "Rashid". The stone is now in the British Museum in London.
+
+It had three pieces of writing on it that said the same thing in three different languages. One was in an Ancient Egyptian script called demotic, the local language of the people in Egypt at that time.  The other two languages were hieroglyphics and Ancient Greek.
+
+The historians could already read the Greek. Using this knowledge they were able to work out how to read the Egyptian scripts.
+
+The complete Greek text, in English,[1] is about 1600–1700  words in length. The text is a royal decree from the Hellenistic period about the taxes of temple priests. It gives them back the tax privileges they had earlier. Some scholars believe that several copies of the Rosetta Stone might exist, as this proclamation must have been made at many temples.
+
+The soldiers who discovered the stone were part of Napoleon Bonaparte's 1798 campaign in Egypt. It was transferred to the British as part of the surrender arrangements when French forces were caught in Alexandria by the Battle of the Nile and a larger force of British and Ottoman troops. The surrender and treaty is called the Capitulation of Alexandria. Under the treaty, the French had to hand over their archaeological discoveries to the British, and that included the Rosetta Stone.[2]
+
+The discovered part of the stone is 114.4 centimeters (45 in) high at its tallest point, 72.3 centimeters (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimeters (11 in) thick.
+
+These are some of the translated words on the stone:
+
+In the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, and also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
+
+In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
+
+THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared:
+Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osirus, who came to the help of his Father Osirus; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[3]

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+The Rosetta Stone is a stone with writing carved into it.  French soldiers found it in Egypt in 1799. It helped people get a better understanding of the Ancient Egyptian writing system called hieroglyphics. Its discovery led to the translation of Ancient Egyptian writing.
+The stone is named after the city where it was found, Rosetta. Today, that city is called "Rashid". The stone is now in the British Museum in London.
+
+It had three pieces of writing on it that said the same thing in three different languages. One was in an Ancient Egyptian script called demotic, the local language of the people in Egypt at that time.  The other two languages were hieroglyphics and Ancient Greek.
+
+The historians could already read the Greek. Using this knowledge they were able to work out how to read the Egyptian scripts.
+
+The complete Greek text, in English,[1] is about 1600–1700  words in length. The text is a royal decree from the Hellenistic period about the taxes of temple priests. It gives them back the tax privileges they had earlier. Some scholars believe that several copies of the Rosetta Stone might exist, as this proclamation must have been made at many temples.
+
+The soldiers who discovered the stone were part of Napoleon Bonaparte's 1798 campaign in Egypt. It was transferred to the British as part of the surrender arrangements when French forces were caught in Alexandria by the Battle of the Nile and a larger force of British and Ottoman troops. The surrender and treaty is called the Capitulation of Alexandria. Under the treaty, the French had to hand over their archaeological discoveries to the British, and that included the Rosetta Stone.[2]
+
+The discovered part of the stone is 114.4 centimeters (45 in) high at its tallest point, 72.3 centimeters (28.5 in) wide, and 27.9 centimeters (11 in) thick.
+
+These are some of the translated words on the stone:
+
+In the reign of the new king who was Lord of the diadems, great in glory, the stabilizer of Egypt, and also pious in matters relating to the gods, superior to his adversaries, rectifier of the life of men, Lord of the thirty-year periods like Hephaestus the Great, King like the Sun, the Great King of the Upper and Lower Lands, offspring of the Parent-loving gods, whom Hephaestus has approved, to whom the Sun has given victory, living image of Zeus, Son of the Sun, Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah;
+
+In the ninth year, when Aëtus, son of Aëtus, was priest of Alexander and of the Savior gods and the Brother gods and the Benefactor gods and the Parent-loving gods and the god Manifest and Gracious; Pyrrha, the daughter of Philinius, being athlophorus for Bernice Euergetis; Areia, the daughter of Diogenes, being canephorus for Arsinoë Philadelphus; Irene, the daughter of Ptolemy, being priestess of Arsinoë Philopator: on the fourth of the month Xanicus, or according to the Egyptians the eighteenth of Mecheir.
+
+THE DECREE: The high priests and prophets, and those who enter the inner shrine in order to robe the gods, and those who wear the hawk's wing, and the sacred scribes, and all the other priests who have assembled at Memphis before the king, from the various temples throughout the country, for the feast of his receiving the kingdom, even that of Ptolemy the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, which he received from his Father, being assembled in the temple in Memphis this day, declared:
+Since King Ptolemy, the ever-living, beloved by Ptah, the god Manifest and Gracious, the son of King Ptolemy and Queen Arsinoë, the Parent-loving gods, has done many benefactions to the temples and to those who dwell in them, and also to all those subject to his rule, being from the beginning a god born of a god and a goddess—like Horus, the son of Isis and Osirus, who came to the help of his Father Osirus; being benevolently disposed toward the gods, has concentrated to the temples revenues both of silver and of grain, and has generously undergone many expenses in order to lead Egypt to prosperity and to establish the temples... the gods have rewarded him with health, victory, power, and all other good things, his sovereignty to continue to him and his children forever.[3]

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+Pieter Pauwel (Peter Paul) Rubens (June 28, 1577 – May 30, 1640) was a painter. Many people think he is one of the most popular Flemish and European painters of the 17th century. He painted in Baroque style. His style was to emphasise movement and colour. Many of his paintings have a sensual touch. Some of them can be seen as erotic.

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+Pieter Pauwel (Peter Paul) Rubens (June 28, 1577 – May 30, 1640) was a painter. Many people think he is one of the most popular Flemish and European painters of the 17th century. He painted in Baroque style. His style was to emphasise movement and colour. Many of his paintings have a sensual touch. Some of them can be seen as erotic.

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+Piet Mondrian (7 March 1872 – 1 February 1944) was a Dutch modern artist of the De stijl group. His early paintings show abstract landscapes in post-impressionist and cubist style.
+
+He painted in an increasingly abstract style, until he finally achieved the style which made him famous. By 1920, he adopts a totally abstract motif, with an irregular checkerboard drawn with black lines, and with the spaces paints mostly white or sometimes in the primary colors of blue, red and yellow. This style is geometric abstraction with primary color.
+
+Mondrian painted about 250 of these geometric abstracts, from 1917 to 1944. Mondrian called his style “neoplasticism”.
+
+Escaping in 1940 from a Europe at war, Mondrian spent the last four years of his life in New York City. His paintings of that time express exuberance at city life. In his final painting, Broadway Boogie Woogie (1942/43), the checkerboard lines, previously black, are now painted blue, gray, red and yellow. The yellow was apparently inspired by New York’s Yellow cabs.

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+Australia, formally the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country and sovereign state in the southern hemisphere, located in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney.
+
+Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania.
+
+25 million[10] people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. [11] The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.
+
+Australia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals), its production of wool, and as the world's largest producer of bauxite.[12] Its emblem is a flower called the Golden Wattle.
+
+Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometers is on the Indo-Australian plate.[13] The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, the kookaburra, and the platypus.
+
+People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the Australian Aborigines. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia.
+
+Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on 1 January 1901. The first Prime Minister of Australia was Edmund Barton in 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia and Head of State and a Governor-General who is chosen by the Prime Minister to carry out all the duties of the Queen in Australia.
+
+Australia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.[14] The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
+
+In 2013 according to world bank Australia had just over 23.13 million people. Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Darwin, Hobart and Adelaide. The largest inland city is Canberra, which is also the nation's capital. The largest city is Sydney.[15]
+
+Australia is a very big country, but much of the land is very dry, and the middle of the continent is mostly desert. Only the areas around the east, west and south coast have enough rain and a suitable climate (not too hot) for many farms and cities.
+
+The Australian Aboriginal people arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago or even earlier.[16][17][18] Until the arrival of British settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They lived in all sorts of climates and managed the land in different ways. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees.[19] This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people. Sometimes, Aborigines would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population.
+
+Aboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, and there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in Victoria and Tasmania.[20][21][22] The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The boomerang was used in some areas for sport and for hunting.
+
+The Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land.
+
+In the 1600s, Dutch merchants traded with the islands of Batavia (now Indonesia), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch governor, van Diemen, sent Abel Tasman on a voyage of discovery and he found Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it.
+
+The British Government was sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that had not been explored. They sent Captain James Cook to the Pacific Ocean. His ship, HMS Endeavour, carried the famous scientists, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander who were going to Tahiti where they would watch the planet Venus pass in front of the Sun. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find "Terra Australis" (the Land of the South).
+
+The voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found New Zealand and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the horizon. Captain Cook named that bit of land Point Hicks. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw "New South Wales". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collected hundreds of plants to take back to England.
+
+Captain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people did not own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the government that no-one owned the land. This would later cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people.
+
+In the 1700s, in England, laws were tough, many people were poor and gaols (jails) were full. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hung for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British colonies in America. But by the 1770s, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more, so England needed to find a new and less populated place.
+
+By the 1780s the gaols of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the First Fleet of eleven ships set sail from Portsmouth carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain Arthur Phillip. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay because of all the unknown plants found there by the two scientists.
+
+Captain Phillip found that Botany Bay was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbor which he said was "the finest harbor in the world!" There were many small bays on the harbor so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On 26 January 1788, the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney.
+
+For the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brick-maker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. All of the cattle escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. It was probable that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation.
+
+Somehow, the little group of tents with a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food, grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and wharves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to Norfolk Island and to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England.
+
+While the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there.
+
+Because Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a very large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on.
+When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the Blue Mountains. They were not very high and did not look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813 Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and a 17-year-old called William Charles Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the governor, Lachlan Macquarie founded the town of Bathurst on the other side, 100 miles from Sydney.
+
+Some people, like Captain Charles Sturt were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like Burke and Wills. Ludwig Leichhardt got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major Thomas Mitchell was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from Tasmania, had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine.
+
+The gold rushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the gold rushes had made some poor people, very rich.
+
+The transportation of convicts to Australia ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. The first governments in the colonies were run by governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. William Wentworth started the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government. In 1840, the city councils started and some people could vote. New South Wales Legislative Council had its first elections in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. In 1855, limited self-government was given by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections.[23][24]
+
+Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament.
+
+Until 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They voted to join together to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901. Australia was still part of the British Empire, and at first wanted only British or Europeans to come to Australia. But soon it had its own money, and its own Army and Navy.
+
+In Australia at this time, the trade unions were very strong, and they started a political party, the Australian Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the workers.[26]
+
+In 1914, the First World War started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in the Ottoman Empire. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought on the Western Front. More than 60,000 Australians were killed.
+
+Australia had a really hard time in the Great Depression of the 1930s and joined Britain in a war against Nazi Germany when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. But in 1941 lots of Australian soldiers were captured in the Fall of Singapore by Japan. Then Japan started attacking Australia and people worried about invasion. But with help from the United States Navy, the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States.
+
+When the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people from Europe who had lost their homes in the war. It did things like building the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came especially from Italy and Greece, other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like Turkey and Lebanon. An important new party, the Liberal Party of Australia was made by Robert Menzies in 1944 and it won lots of elections from 1949 until in 1972, then Gough Whitlam won for the Labor Party. Whitlam made changes, but he made the Senate unhappy and the Governor-General sacked him and forced an election in 1975. Then Malcolm Fraser won a few elections for the Liberal Party.
+
+In the 1960s many people began coming to Australia from China, Vietnam, Malaysia and other countries in Asia. Australia became more multicultural. In the 1950s and 1960s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, helped by mining and wool. Australia started trading more with America, than Japan. Australia supported the United States in wars against dictatorships in Korea and Vietnam and later Iraq. Australian soldiers also helped the United Nations in countries like East Timor in 1999.
+
+In 1973, the famous Sydney Opera House opened. In the 1970s, 80s and 90s lots of Australian movies, actors and singers became famous around the world. In the year 2000, Sydney had the Summer Olympics.
+
+In the 1980s and 90s, the Labor Party under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating, then the Liberal Party under John Howard made lots of changes to the economy. Australia had a bad recession in 1991, but when other Western countries had trouble with their economies in 2008, Australia stayed strong.
+
+Today Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has problems. Around 4-5% of Australians could not get a job in 2010. A lot of land in Australia (like Uluru) has been returned to Aboriginal people, but lots of Aborigines are still poorer than everybody else. Every year the government chooses a big number of new people from all around the world to come as immigrants to live in  Australia. These people may come because they want to do business, or to live in a democracy, to join their family, or because they are refugees. Australia took 6.5 million immigrants in the 60 years after World War Two, including around 660,000 refugees.[27]
+
+Julia Gillard became the first woman Prime Minister of Australia in 2010 when she replaced her colleague Kevin Rudd of the Labor Party.
+
+Australia is made up of six states, and two mainland territories. Each state and territory has its own Parliament and makes its own local laws. The Parliament of Australia sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or Federation.
+
+The Federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Australia, who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison.
+
+The leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the Governor-General represents the Queen of Australia, who is also the Queen of Great Britain, as head of state. The Governor-General, currently His Excellency David Hurley, is chosen by the Prime Minister.
+
+Australia was colonised by people from Britain,[28] but today people from all over the world live there. English is the main spoken language, and Christianity is the main religion, though all religions are accepted and not everybody has a religion. Australia is multicultural, which means that all its people are encouraged to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning English and joining in with other Australians.
+
+Famous Australian writers include the bush balladeers Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson who wrote about life in the Australian bush. More modern famous writers include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Colleen McCullough. In 1973, Patrick White won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is seen as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century.
+
+Australian music has had lots of world-wide stars, for example the opera singers Nellie Melba and Joan Sutherland, the rock and roll bands Bee Gees, AC/DC and INXS, the folk-rocker Paul Kelly (musician), the pop singer Kylie Minogue and Australian country music stars Slim Dusty and John Williamson. Australian Aboriginal music is very special and very ancient: it has the famous digeridoo woodwind instrument.
+
+Australian TV has produced many successful programs for home and overseas - including Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, Home and Away and Neighbours - and produced such well known TV stars as Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), Steve Irwin (The Crocodile Hunter) and The Wiggles. Major Australian subgroups such as the Bogan have been shown on Australian TV in shows such as Bogan Hunters and Kath & Kim.[29]
+
+Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multi-cultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has its daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.
+
+Australian movies have a very long history. The world's first feature movie was the Australian movie The Story of the Kelly Gang of 1906.[30]  In 1933, In the Wake of the Bounty, directed by Charles Chauvel, had Errol Flynn as the main actor.[31] Flynn went on to a celebrated career in Hollywood. The first Australian Oscar was won by 1942's Kokoda Front Line!, directed by Ken G. Hall.[32] In the 1970s and 1980s lots of big Australian movies and movie stars became world famous with movies like Picnic at Hanging Rock, Gallipoli (with Mel Gibson), The Man From Snowy River and Crocodile Dundee.[33] Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger became global stars during the 1990s and Australia starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman made a lot of money in 2008.
+
+Australia is also a popular destination for business conferences and research, with Sydney named as one of the top 20 meeting destinations in the world.[34]
+
+Sport is an important part of Australian culture because the climate is good for outdoor activities. 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly take part in organised sporting activities.[35] In international sports, Australia has very strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Local popular sports include Australian Rules Football, horse racing, soccer and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games since 1896, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked in the top five medal-winners since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and are to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest-rated television programs include the Summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.
+
+The main sporting leagues for males are the Australian Football League, National Rugby League, A-League and NBL.
+For women, they are ANZ Netball Championships, W-League and WNBL.
+
+Famous Australian sports players include the cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, the swimmer Ian Thorpe and the athlete Cathy Freeman.
+
+Just 60 years ago, Australia had only one big art festival. Now Australia has hundreds of smaller community-based festivals, and national and regional festivals that focus on specific art forms.[36]
+
+Australia is home to many animals that can be found nowhere else on Earth, which include: the Koalas,the Kangaroos, the Wombat, the Numbat, the Emu, among many others. Most of the marsupials in the world are found only on the continent.
+
+Africa
+
+Antarctica
+
+Asia
+
+Australia
+
+Europe
+
+North America
+
+South America
+
+Afro-Eurasia
+
+Americas
+
+Eurasia
+
+Oceania
+

ensimple/4620.html.txt

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+Pope Pius X (Latin: Pius PP. X; Italian: Pio X, 2 June 1835 – 20 August 1914), born Giuseppe Melchiorre Sarto, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 258th Pope from 1903 to 1914.[5]   He is a saint of the Catholic Church,[6] well known as being strongly against members of the Catholic Church trying to make it follow modern ideas, a movement called modernism.[7]
+
+Giuseppe Sarto was born in 1835 in Riese in the Kingdom of Lombardy-Venetia.  He studied at the University of Padua.[8]
+
+Sarto was ordained as a priest on 18 September 1858.[6]
+
+In 1884, Pope Leo XIII made Sarto the Bishop of Mantua.[8]
+
+In 1893, Pope Leo XIII made Sarto a cardinal and the Patriarch of Venice.[6]
+
+On 20 4 August 1903, Cardinal Sarto was elected pope; and he chose to be called Pius X.[8]
+
+In 1951, he was beatified, which is a step in the process of naming a saint of the Catholic Church.
+
+In 1954, he was canonized as a saint.
+
+Media related to Pius X at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis

ensimple/4621.html.txt

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+Pope Pius XI (Latin: Pius PP. XI; Italian: Pio XI, 31 May 1857–10 February 1939),  born Achille Ratti, was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 260th Pope from 1922 to 1939.[1]
+
+Ratti was ordained as a priest in 1875.[2]
+
+Father Ratti was a professor at the Padua Seminary from 1882 to 1888. He worked at Ambrosian Library of Milan from 1888 to 1911; and at the Vatican Library from 1911-1914.[2]
+
+In 1919, Pope Benedict XV made Ratti a Bishop of Lepanto.[3]
+
+In 1921, Benedict named him Archbishop of Milan.[2]
+
+In 1921, Ratti was made a cardinal.[4]
+
+Cardinal Ratti was elected pope on February 6, 1922; and he chose the name Pope Pius XI.[3]
+
+Some of his decisions were controversial. He made 18 concordats (treaties) with foreign governments. They included the Lateran Concordat with Italy in 1929; and the Reichskoncordat with Germany in 1933.[5]
+
+Media related to Pius XI at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis
+

ensimple/4622.html.txt

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+Pope Pius XII (Latin: Pius PP. XII; Italian: Pio XII), born Eugenio Maria Giuseppe Giovanni Pacelli (March 2, 1876 – October 9, 1958), was an Italian priest of the Roman Catholic Church and the 261st Pope from 1939 to 1958.[1]
+
+Pacelli was born on 2 March 1876 in Rome, Italy. He studied at the Capranica Seminary and the Pontifical Gregorian University. In 1895, he earned a degree in Theology.[2]
+
+Pacelli was ordained as a priest on 2 April 1899. In 1904, he was raised to the rank of Monsignor.  He worked at the Office of the Congregation of Extraordinary Ecclesiastical Affairs.[2]
+
+In 1917, Pope Benedict XV appointed him an archbishop and nuncio to Bavaria, Germany.[2]
+
+Pope Pius XI raised Pacelli to the rank of Cardinal in December 1929.[3]
+
+In February 1930, Cardinal Pacelli became the Vatican Secretary of State.[3]
+
+Cardinal Pacelli was elected Pope on 2 March 1939,[2] which was his 63th birthday.
+
+Pius  XII wrote forty-one official papal letters (encylicals).
+
+Pius XII named forty-two new cardinals.
+
+Media related to Pius XII at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Peter Linus Anacletus (Cletus) Clement I Evaristus Alexander I Sixtus I Telesphorus Hyginus Pius I Anicetus Soter Eleuterus Victor I Zephyrinus Callixtus I Urban I Pontian Anterus Fabian Cornelius Lucius I Stephen I Sixtus II Dionysius Felix I Eutychian Caius Marcellinus Marcellus I Eusebius Miltiades Sylvester I Mark
+
+Julius I Liberius Damasus I Siricius Anastasius I Innocent I Zosimus Boniface I Celestine I Sixtus IIILeo I Hilarius Simplicius Felix III Gelasius I Anastasius II Symmachus Hormisdas  John I Felix IV Boniface II John II Agapetus I Silverius Vigilius Pelagius IJohn III Benedict I Pelagius II Gregory I Sabinian Boniface III Boniface IV Adeodatus I
+
+Boniface V Honorius I Severinus John IV Theodore I Martin I Eugene IVitalian Adeodatus II Donus Agatho Leo II Benedict II John V Conon Sergius I John VI John VII Sisinnius Constantine Gregory II Gregory IIIZachary Stephen II Paul I Stephen III Adrian I Leo III Stephen IV Paschal I Eugene II Valentine Gregory IV
+
+Sergius II Leo IV Benedict III Nicholas I Adrian II John VIII Marinus I Adrian III Stephen V Formosus Boniface VI Stephen VI Romanus Theodore II John IX Benedict IV Leo V Sergius III Anastasius III Lando John X Leo VI Stephen VII John XI Leo VII Stephen VIII Marinus II Agapetus II John XII Benedict V Leo VIII John XIII Benedict VI
+
+Benedict VII John XIV John XV Gregory V Sylvester II John XVII John XVIII Sergius IV  Benedict VIII John XIX Benedict IXa Sylvester III Benedict IXa Gregory VI Clement II Benedict IXa Damasus II Leo IX Victor II Stephen IX Nicholas II Alexander II Gregory VII Victor III Urban II Paschal II Gelasius II Callixtus II Honorius II Innocent II Celestine II Lucius II Eugene III
+
+Anastasius IV Adrian IV Alexander III Lucius III Urban III Gregory VIII Clement III Celestine III Innocent III Honorius III Gregory IX Celestine IV Innocent IV Alexander IV Urban IV Clement IV Gregory X Innocent V Adrian V John XXIb Nicholas III Martin IV Honorius IV Nicholas IV Celestine V Boniface VIII Benedict XIb Clement V John XXII Benedict XII Clement VI Innocent VI Urban V
+
+Gregory XI Urban VI Boniface IX Innocent VII Gregory XII Martin V Eugene IV Nicholas V Callixtus III Pius II Paul II Sixtus IV Innocent VIII Alexander VI Pius III Julius II Leo X Adrian VI Clement VII Paul III Julius III Marcellus II Paul IV Pius IV Pius V Gregory XIII Sixtus V Urban VII Gregory XIV Innocent IX Clement VIII Leo XI Paul V
+
+Gregory XV Urban VIII Innocent X Alexander VII Clement IX Clement X Innocent XI Alexander VIII Innocent XII Clement XI Innocent XIII Benedict XIII Clement XII Benedict XIV Clement XIII Clement XIV Pius VI Pius VII Leo XII Pius VIII Gregory XVI Pius IX Leo XIII Pius X Benedict XV Pius XI Pius XII John XXIII Paul VI John Paul I John Paul IIBenedict XVIFrancis

ensimple/4623.html.txt

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+Pi (or π) is a mathematical constant. It is the ratio of the distance around a circle to the circle's diameter. This produces a number, and that number is always the same. However, the number is rather strange. The number starts as 3.141592653589793... and continues without end. Numbers like this are called irrational numbers.
+
+The diameter is the largest chord which can be fitted inside a circle. It passes through the center of the circle. The distance around a circle is known as the circumference. Even though the diameter and circumference are different for different circles, the number pi remains constant: its value never changes. This is because the relationship between the circumference and diameter is always the same.[1]
+
+Pi is often written formally as π or the Greek letter π as a shortcut.  Pi is also an irrational number, meaning it cannot be written as a fraction (
+
+
+
+
+a
+
+b
+
+
+{\displaystyle a \over b}
+
+), where 'a' and 'b' are integers (whole numbers). This basically means that the digits of pi that are to the right of the decimal go forever without repeating in a pattern, and that it is impossible to write the exact value of pi as a number. Pi can only be approximated, or measured to a value that is close enough for practical purposes.[2]
+
+A value close to pi is 3.141592653589793238462643...[3] A common fraction approximation of pi is 
+
+
+
+
+22
+
+7
+
+
+{\displaystyle 22 \over 7}
+
+, which yields approximately 3.14285714. This approximation is 0.04% away from the true value of pi. While this approximation is accepted for most of its use in real life, the fraction 
+
+
+
+
+355
+
+113
+
+
+{\displaystyle 355 \over 113}
+
+ is more accurate (giving about 3.14159292), and can be used when a value closer to pi is needed.[4] Computers can be used to get better approximations of pi.
+
+In March 2019 Emma Haruka Iwao calculated the value of pi to 31.4 trillion digits.[5][6][7][8][9]
+
+The value of pi was known to Ancient Indian mathematicians like Bhaskaracharya and Aryabhatta.
+
+Mathematicians have known about pi for thousands of years because they have been working with circles for the same amount of time. Civilizations as old as the Babylonians have been able to approximate pi to many digits, such as the fraction 25/8 and 256/81. Most historians believe that ancient Egyptians had no concept of π and that the correspondence is a coincidence.[10]
+
+The first written reference to pi dates to 1900 BC.[11] Around 1650 BC the Egyptian Ahmes gave a value in the Rhind Papyrus. The Babylonians were able to find that the value of pi was slightly greater than 3 by simply making a big circle and then sticking a piece of rope onto the circumference and the diameter, taking note of their distances, and then dividing the circumference by the diameter.
+
+Knowledge of the number pi passed back into Europe and into the hands of the Hebrews, who made the number important in a section of the Bible called the Old Testament. After this, the most common way of trying to find pi was to draw a shape of many sides inside any circle and use the area of the shape to find pi. The Greek philosopher Archimedes, for example, used a polygon shape that had 96 sides in order to find the value of pi, but the Chinese in 500 CE were able to use a polygon with 16,384 sides to find the value of pi. The Greeks, like Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, were also busy with finding out other properties of the circle, such as how to make squares of circles and squaring the number pi. Since then, many people have been trying to find out more and more exact values of pi.[12]
+
+In the 16th century, better and better ways of finding pi became available such as the complicated formula that the French lawyer François Viète developed. The first use of the Greek symbol "π" was in an essay written in 1706 by William Jones.
+
+A mathematician named Lambert also showed in 1761 that the number pi was irrational; that is, it cannot be written as a fraction by normal standards. Another mathematician named Lindeman was also able to show in 1882 that pi was part of the group of numbers known as transcendentals, which are numbers that cannot be the solution to a polynomial equation.[13]
+
+Pi can also be used for figuring out many other things beside circles.[10] The properties of pi have allowed it to be used in many other areas of math besides geometry, which studies shapes. Some of these areas are complex analysis, trigonometry, and series.
+
+Today, there are different ways to calculate many digits of π. This is of limited use though.
+
+Pi can sometimes be used to work out the area or the circumference of any circle. To find the circumference of a circle, use the formula C (circumference) = π times diameter. To find the area of a circle, use the formula π (radius²). This formula is sometimes written as 
+
+
+
+A
+=
+π
+
+r
+
+2
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle A=\pi r^{2}}
+
+, where r is the variable for the radius of any circle and A is the variable for the area of that circle.
+
+To calculate the circumference of a circle with an error of 1 mm:
+
+People generally celebrate March 14 as Pi Day because March 14 is also written as 3/14, which represents the first three numbers 3.14 in the approximation of pi.[2] Pi day started during 2001.

ensimple/4624.html.txt

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+Hair is something that grows from the skin of mammals. Animal hair is usually called fur. Sheep and goats have curly hair, which is usually called wool. Hair is made of keratins, which are proteins.
+
+Humans and some other animals have lost much of their hair through evolution, and some other mammals, such as the elephant and the whale, have almost none at all.
+
+Hair can have different functions:[1]
+
+Some animals, for example certain insects and spiders also have hairs. However, these are not hair in the biological sense, but are actually bristles. The hairs found on certain plants are also not true hair, but trichomes.
+
+In humans, hair grows mostly on the head, and the amount of body hair is different from race to race. Asians and native North Americans have the least amount of body hair, while Caucasians tend to have the most.[4]
+
+Hair color is passed down by parents only. Natural hair color can be given only by genes. It is impossible to have a hair color that is not passed down genetically by both mother and father. This relies on dominant and recessive genes carried by a parent.  These genes may not be the color of their hair, however, many people carry genes that are recessive and do not show in their traits or features.
+
+Dyeing hair is to change the color of hair. It consists of a chemical mixture which can change the color of hair by a chemical reaction. Many people dye their hair to hide gray or white hairs.  This is because most people gain white or gray hairs as they grow older.
+
+Two types of melanin pigment give hair its color: eumelanin and pheomelanin. Pheomelanin colors hair red. Eumelanin determines the darkness of the hair color. A low concentration of brown eumelanin results in blond hair, but more brown eumelanin will color the hair brown. High amounts of black eumelanin result in black hair, while low concentrations give gray hair. All humans have some pheomelanin in their hair.
+
+The genetics of hair colors are not yet firmly established. According to one theory, at least two gene pairs control human hair color.
+
+One phenotype (brown/blond) has a dominant brown allele and a recessive blond allele. A person with a brown allele will have brown hair; a person with no brown alleles will be blond. This explains why two brown-haired parents can produce a blond-haired child.
+
+The other gene pair is a non-red/red pair, where the not-red allele  is dominant and the allele for red hair is recessive. A person with two copies of the red-haired allele will have red hair, but it will be either auburn or bright reddish orange depending on whether the first gene pair gives brown or blond hair, respectively.
+
+The two-gene model does not account for all possible shades of brown, blond, or red (for example, platinum blond versus dark blonde/light brown), nor does it explain why hair color sometimes darkens as a person ages. Several other gene pairs control the light versus dark hair color in a cumulative effect (quantitative genetics).
+
+Hair texture is also inherited genetically. The thickness of hair, its color and its tendency to curl are all inherited. There are also genetic differences between men and women. Body hair is limited in women, and thicker in men.
+
+People have about 100,000 hairs on their head.  About 100 fall out each day, but they usually grow back. Some men are bald but girls and women may become bald if they lose their hair from a disease called alopecia.
+
+Men often lose some of their hair as they grow older. This is known as baldness. Doctors call it "male pattern baldness" because hairs often fall out in similar places. It often begins by hair falling out first from the front of the head, and then from the top of the head. After a while, all that may be left is a some hair running above the ears and around the lower back of the head. Even though it is unusual for women to go bald, many women suffer from thinning hair over the top of their head as they grow old.
+
+People have tried to find cures for hair loss for thousands of years. In an effort to get their hair back, men have tried "cures" like applying strange lotions or even having their heads packed in chicken manure.[5] Many unproven "cures" are still marketed today. It is only in the last decade or so that treatments have been developed which do sometimes work. Some doctors do hair transplants, where they take tiny plugs of hair from areas like the back of the neck and plant them in the bald spots on the head. Some drugs have been tested and approved for sale as hair loss treatments. They encourage hair regrowth and thickening, but work better if applied before hair loss turns to baldness.
+
+People have been interested in hair on their heads for hundreds of thousands of years. For both men and women, styling and coloring hair have been ways to look good, and get attention. Sometimes society makes rules about hair, for example by not allowing people to cut their hair or beards, like in Sikhism (it is also good to do this in Islam, but not a requirement).[6]
+
+zygomycota: Zygomycosis

ensimple/4625.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+
+Table tennis, also known as Ping Pong (a trademarked name), is one of the most popular sports in the world, with players in many countries. It is played by two or four people on a table. To play this game, people use bats and small celluloid balls. You need also a net and a table. Table tennis was invented in England in 1880.
+
+The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), the worldwide organization, was founded in 1926. Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988.
+Many of the best players in the world today come from China.
+
+The sport comes from England during the Victorian era, where it was played by the upper-class as a game to be played after meals. It has been suggested that simpler versions of the game should be developed by British military officers living in India during the 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them. A row of books stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball.
+
+The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd coined the term in 1901. The name "ping-pong" then came to describe the game played using the rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change their names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but trademarked, name.
+
+The next most important innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British addict of the sport, who discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing a sheet of rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was becoming more popular by 1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written on the subject, and an unofficial world championship was to be held in 1902.
+
+In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded, and in 1926 renamed the English Table Tennis Association. The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926. London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926. In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.
+
+In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for the English game of table tennis" which he found "bizarre". On the other hand, the popularity of the sport waned in 1930s Soviet Union, partly because of the promotion of team and military sports, and partly because of a theory that the game had adverse health effects.
+
+In the 1950s, paddles that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed the game dramatically, introducing greater spin and speed. These were introduced to Britain by sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue beginning in the mid 1980s increased the spin and speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.
+

ensimple/4626.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,48 @@
+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+
+Table tennis, also known as Ping Pong (a trademarked name), is one of the most popular sports in the world, with players in many countries. It is played by two or four people on a table. To play this game, people use bats and small celluloid balls. You need also a net and a table. Table tennis was invented in England in 1880.
+
+The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF), the worldwide organization, was founded in 1926. Table tennis has been an Olympic sport since 1988.
+Many of the best players in the world today come from China.
+
+The sport comes from England during the Victorian era, where it was played by the upper-class as a game to be played after meals. It has been suggested that simpler versions of the game should be developed by British military officers living in India during the 1860s or 1870s, who brought it back with them. A row of books stood up along the center of the table as a net, two more books served as rackets and were used to continuously hit a golf-ball.
+
+The name "ping-pong" was in wide use before British manufacturer J. Jaques & Son Ltd coined the term in 1901. The name "ping-pong" then came to describe the game played using the rather expensive Jaques's equipment, with other manufacturers calling it table tennis. A similar situation arose in the United States, where Jaques sold the rights to the "ping-pong" name to Parker Brothers. Parker Brothers then enforced its trademark for the term in the 1920s making the various associations change their names to "table tennis" instead of the more common, but trademarked, name.
+
+The next most important innovation was by James W. Gibb, a British addict of the sport, who discovered novelty celluloid balls on a trip to the US in 1901 and found them to be ideal for the game. This was followed by E.C. Goode who, in 1901, invented the modern version of the racket by fixing a sheet of rubber to the wooden blade. Table tennis was becoming more popular by 1901 to the extent that tournaments were being organized, books being written on the subject, and an unofficial world championship was to be held in 1902.
+
+In 1921, the Table Tennis Association was founded, and in 1926 renamed the English Table Tennis Association. The International Table Tennis Federation (ITTF) followed in 1926. London hosted the first official World Championships in 1926. In 1933, the United States Table Tennis Association, now called USA Table Tennis, was formed.
+
+In the 1930s, Edgar Snow commented in Red Star Over China that the Communist forces in the Chinese Civil War had a "passion for the English game of table tennis" which he found "bizarre". On the other hand, the popularity of the sport waned in 1930s Soviet Union, partly because of the promotion of team and military sports, and partly because of a theory that the game had adverse health effects.
+
+In the 1950s, paddles that used a rubber sheet combined with an underlying sponge layer changed the game dramatically, introducing greater spin and speed. These were introduced to Britain by sports goods manufacturer S.W. Hancock Ltd. The use of speed glue beginning in the mid 1980s increased the spin and speed even further, resulting in changes to the equipment to "slow the game down". Table tennis was introduced as an Olympic sport at the Olympics in 1988.
+

ensimple/4627.html.txt

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+Pink Floyd were an English rock band that became famous in the 1960s and 1970s. They performed for more than 30 years, and have sold more than 200 million (200,000,000) albums. They are famous for their live shows and deep music. Most of their albums are concept albums, which means every song is linked through a theme. Their first album was The Piper at the Gates of Dawn, which was released in 1967. Their latest album is The Endless River, which was released in November 2014. The band were named after the blues artists Pink Anderson and Floyd Council by Syd Barrett, one of the band's founder members. In 2005, they played at a concert called Live Aid after 24 years of not playing together. The line up was David Gilmour, Roger Waters, Nick Mason and Richard Wright. They have made some very popular albums including The Dark Side of the Moon, which was released in 1973 and The Wall, which was released in 1979. After Richard Wright died in 2008, David Gilmour has said that he does not want to reunite, despite Roger saying he might want to. It is now believed that David Gilmour and Roger Waters are friends after becoming enemies for a long time.
+
+Syd Barrett started the group, and played guitar and sang in the band.  He left soon after, at the start of 1968, because of a mental illness that was made worse by heavy drug use. The other people in the band were Roger Waters (bass guitar and vocals), David Gilmour (lead guitar and vocals), Richard Wright (keyboard and vocals), and Nick Mason (drums). David Gilmour joined the band in 1968.  Roger Waters quit the band in 1985.
+
+During most of their career, they played a kind of rock music that some people call progressive rock.
+
+The original members of Pink Floyd met in an architectural college. The band started as a blues band.  Later, under Syd Barrett's leadership, they played music that was psychedelic in style.  After Barrett left the band, they started to play longer and more complicated songs, and to play at a lot of colleges and universities.  Soon, they were famous as studio musicians who loved to experiment with music.  On the album Atom Heart Mother, from 1970, they used a brass band and a choir.
+
+They used a lot of things to make their concerts interesting to watch. They had a round movie screen on the stage. They would show videos on the screen when they played. They also used lighting and lasers in a much fancier way than many bands do. They also had big balloon puppets. The most famous is in the shape of a pig, which first appeared on the cover for their album, Animals. The pig has since become a symbol of Pink Floyd. Another symbol that reminds people of Pink Floyd is a prism with light shining through it. This was on the cover of Dark Side of the Moon, one of their most popular albums. The album was released in 1973, and stayed on music charts for a very long time. Millions of people bought it.
+
+The album The Wall, recorded in 1979, was also famous.  It was made into a movie, directed by Alan Parker, in 1982. That album is important to the history of the group.  It talks about the distance they put between them and their fans.  It was the last album they all worked on together before starting to split up.
+
+Roger Waters forced Richard Wright to leave the band in 1979, but Wright came back in 1987, after Waters quit.  Waters tried to sue the other members so that they could not call themselves Pink Floyd without him, but he did not succeed.  Because of this and other reasons, there was a lot of anger and bitterness between Waters and the other members of the band, especially Gilmour.
+
+The last album of new songs that Pink Floyd released is called The Division Bell. It was made in 1994, when Pink Floyd also played their last concert tour. The very last time that Pink Floyd played was in 2005, as part of the Live 8 concerts for charity. Waters sang with the band for the first time since leaving the band. It was a big surprise to many people who thought Pink Floyd would never play together again, especially not with Roger Waters.
+
+Syd Barrett died of pancreatic cancer in 2006.  Richard Wright died of cancer in 2008.
+
+In 2014, Pink Floyd released their first album in over 20 years: The Endless River.

ensimple/4628.html.txt

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+Pi (or π) is a mathematical constant. It is the ratio of the distance around a circle to the circle's diameter. This produces a number, and that number is always the same. However, the number is rather strange. The number starts as 3.141592653589793... and continues without end. Numbers like this are called irrational numbers.
+
+The diameter is the largest chord which can be fitted inside a circle. It passes through the center of the circle. The distance around a circle is known as the circumference. Even though the diameter and circumference are different for different circles, the number pi remains constant: its value never changes. This is because the relationship between the circumference and diameter is always the same.[1]
+
+Pi is often written formally as π or the Greek letter π as a shortcut.  Pi is also an irrational number, meaning it cannot be written as a fraction (
+
+
+
+
+a
+
+b
+
+
+{\displaystyle a \over b}
+
+), where 'a' and 'b' are integers (whole numbers). This basically means that the digits of pi that are to the right of the decimal go forever without repeating in a pattern, and that it is impossible to write the exact value of pi as a number. Pi can only be approximated, or measured to a value that is close enough for practical purposes.[2]
+
+A value close to pi is 3.141592653589793238462643...[3] A common fraction approximation of pi is 
+
+
+
+
+22
+
+7
+
+
+{\displaystyle 22 \over 7}
+
+, which yields approximately 3.14285714. This approximation is 0.04% away from the true value of pi. While this approximation is accepted for most of its use in real life, the fraction 
+
+
+
+
+355
+
+113
+
+
+{\displaystyle 355 \over 113}
+
+ is more accurate (giving about 3.14159292), and can be used when a value closer to pi is needed.[4] Computers can be used to get better approximations of pi.
+
+In March 2019 Emma Haruka Iwao calculated the value of pi to 31.4 trillion digits.[5][6][7][8][9]
+
+The value of pi was known to Ancient Indian mathematicians like Bhaskaracharya and Aryabhatta.
+
+Mathematicians have known about pi for thousands of years because they have been working with circles for the same amount of time. Civilizations as old as the Babylonians have been able to approximate pi to many digits, such as the fraction 25/8 and 256/81. Most historians believe that ancient Egyptians had no concept of π and that the correspondence is a coincidence.[10]
+
+The first written reference to pi dates to 1900 BC.[11] Around 1650 BC the Egyptian Ahmes gave a value in the Rhind Papyrus. The Babylonians were able to find that the value of pi was slightly greater than 3 by simply making a big circle and then sticking a piece of rope onto the circumference and the diameter, taking note of their distances, and then dividing the circumference by the diameter.
+
+Knowledge of the number pi passed back into Europe and into the hands of the Hebrews, who made the number important in a section of the Bible called the Old Testament. After this, the most common way of trying to find pi was to draw a shape of many sides inside any circle and use the area of the shape to find pi. The Greek philosopher Archimedes, for example, used a polygon shape that had 96 sides in order to find the value of pi, but the Chinese in 500 CE were able to use a polygon with 16,384 sides to find the value of pi. The Greeks, like Anaxagoras of Clazomenae, were also busy with finding out other properties of the circle, such as how to make squares of circles and squaring the number pi. Since then, many people have been trying to find out more and more exact values of pi.[12]
+
+In the 16th century, better and better ways of finding pi became available such as the complicated formula that the French lawyer François Viète developed. The first use of the Greek symbol "π" was in an essay written in 1706 by William Jones.
+
+A mathematician named Lambert also showed in 1761 that the number pi was irrational; that is, it cannot be written as a fraction by normal standards. Another mathematician named Lindeman was also able to show in 1882 that pi was part of the group of numbers known as transcendentals, which are numbers that cannot be the solution to a polynomial equation.[13]
+
+Pi can also be used for figuring out many other things beside circles.[10] The properties of pi have allowed it to be used in many other areas of math besides geometry, which studies shapes. Some of these areas are complex analysis, trigonometry, and series.
+
+Today, there are different ways to calculate many digits of π. This is of limited use though.
+
+Pi can sometimes be used to work out the area or the circumference of any circle. To find the circumference of a circle, use the formula C (circumference) = π times diameter. To find the area of a circle, use the formula π (radius²). This formula is sometimes written as 
+
+
+
+A
+=
+π
+
+r
+
+2
+
+
+
+
+{\displaystyle A=\pi r^{2}}
+
+, where r is the variable for the radius of any circle and A is the variable for the area of that circle.
+
+To calculate the circumference of a circle with an error of 1 mm:
+
+People generally celebrate March 14 as Pi Day because March 14 is also written as 3/14, which represents the first three numbers 3.14 in the approximation of pi.[2] Pi day started during 2001.

ensimple/4629.html.txt

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+People's Republic of China
+ Republic of China (Taiwan)
+ Singapore (one of four official languages)
+ Wa State (alongside the Wa language)
+
+Information:
+     Countries identified Chinese as a primary, administrative or native language
+     Countries with more than 5,000,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 1,000,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 500,000 Chinese speakers
+     Countries with more than 100,000 Chinese speakers
+
+The Chinese language is the group of languages used by Chinese people in China and elsewhere. It forms part of a language family called the Sino-Tibetan family of languages.
+
+Chinese includes many regional language varieties, the main ones being Mandarin, Wu, Yue and Min. These are not mutually intelligible[4] and many of the regional varieties are themselves a number of non-mutually-intelligible subvarieties.[5] As a result, many linguists refer to these varieties as separate languages.[6]
+
+'Chinese' can refer to the written or the spoken languages. Although there are many spoken Chinese languages, they use the same writing system.[7] Differences in speaking are reflected in differences in writing. Official China adopts a similar policy to the one in the Soviet Union, using one official language so people can understand each other. The Standard Chinese language is referred to as Mandarin in English, "Pǔtōnghuà" or "common to everybody speech" in mainland China and "Guóyǔ" or "language of the whole country" in Taiwan. All official documents are written in Mandarin and Mandarin is taught all over China. It is also a standard for language teaching in some other countries.
+
+Chinese is used by the Han people in China and other ethnic groups in China who are declared Chinese by the Chinese government. Chinese is almost always written in Chinese characters. They are symbols that have meaning, called logograms. They also give some indication of pronunciation, but the same character can get very different pronunciations among the different kinds of Chinese.  Since Chinese characters have been around for at least 3500 years, people in places far from each other say them differently, just as "1, 2, 3" can be read differently in different languages.
+
+Chinese people needed to write down pronunciations in dictionaries. Chinese does not have an alphabet, so how to write down sounds was a big problem in the beginning. Nowadays the Mandarin language uses Hanyu Pinyin to represent the sounds in Roman letters.
+
+All the Chinese languages (or dialects) use tones. This means that they use high and low pitches to help make differences in meaning clear.
+
+The Chinese language is like a big tree. The base of the tree started thousands of years ago. It now has several main limbs. Some people call "just a branch" what other people call a main limb, so you can say there are six or seven main limbs. Each of these main limbs splits off into branches about the way there are branches of English spoken in Great Britain, the United States, Australia, India, and so forth.  Just as the Romance languages all come from the area around Rome and are based on Latin, the Chinese languages all have some common source, so they keep many common things among them.
+
+Here are the main seven main groups of languages/dialects of Chinese by size:
+
+In 1956, the government of the People's Republic of China made public a set of simplified Chinese characters to make learning, reading and writing the Chinese language easier. In Mainland China and Singapore, people use these simpler characters. In Hong Kong, Taiwan and other places where they speak Chinese, people still use the more traditional characters. The Korean language also uses Chinese characters to represent certain words. The Japanese language uses them even more often. These characters are known in Korean as Hanja and in Japanese as Kanji.
+
+A Chinese person with a good education today knows 6,000-7,000 characters. About 3,000 Chinese characters are needed to read a Mainland newspaper. However, people who have learned only the 400 most frequently used characters can read a newspaper—but they will have to guess some less-used words.
+
+Here are some samples of some words and sentences in Mandarin Chinese. Simplified Characters are on the left, and Traditional characters are on the right. The pronunciation is given in the pinyin system, which may not always be as simple as it looks for those who have not studied it.
+
+The Traditional Characters are now used in Hong Kong and Taiwan. Chinese from Mainland China uses the Simplified Characters, but may recognize Traditional Characters.
+
+Before 1956, Chinese was written using only Traditional Characters. At that time most Chinese people could not read or write at all. The government of the People's Republic of China thought that the Traditional characters were very hard to understand. They also thought that if they made the characters simpler more people could learn how to read and write. Today, many people in China can read and write with the new Simplified Characters.

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+Australia, formally the Commonwealth of Australia, is a country and sovereign state in the southern hemisphere, located in Oceania. Its capital city is Canberra, and its largest city is Sydney.
+
+Australia is the sixth biggest country in the world by land area, and is part of the Oceanic and Australasian regions. Australia, New Zealand, New Guinea and other islands on the Australian tectonic plate are together called Australasia, which is one of the world's great ecozones. When other Pacific islands are included with Australasia, it is called Oceania.
+
+25 million[10] people live in Australia, and about 85% of them live near the east coast. [11] The country is divided up into six states and two territories, and more than half of Australia's population lives in and around the cities of Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth and Adelaide.
+
+Australia is known for its mining (coal, iron, gold, diamonds and crystals), its production of wool, and as the world's largest producer of bauxite.[12] Its emblem is a flower called the Golden Wattle.
+
+Australia's landmass of 7,617,930 square kilometers is on the Indo-Australian plate.[13] The continent of Australia, including the island of Tasmania, was separated from the other continents of the world many millions of years ago. Because of this, many animals and plants live in Australia that do not live anywhere else. These include animals like the kangaroo, the koala, the emu, the kookaburra, and the platypus.
+
+People first arrived in Australia more than 50,000 years ago. These native Australians are called the Australian Aborigines. For the history of Australia, see History of Australia.
+
+Most of the Australian colonies, having been settled from Britain, became mostly independent democratic states in the 1850s and all six combined as a federation on 1 January 1901. The first Prime Minister of Australia was Edmund Barton in 1901. Australia is a member of the United Nations and the Commonwealth of Nations. It is a parliamentary democracy and a constitutional monarchy with Elizabeth II as Queen of Australia and Head of State and a Governor-General who is chosen by the Prime Minister to carry out all the duties of the Queen in Australia.
+
+Australia has six states, two major mainland territories, and other minor territories. The states are New South Wales, Queensland, South Australia, Tasmania, Victoria, and Western Australia.[14] The two major mainland territories are the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory (ACT).
+
+In 2013 according to world bank Australia had just over 23.13 million people. Most Australians live in cities along the coast, such as Sydney, Melbourne, Brisbane, Perth, Darwin, Hobart and Adelaide. The largest inland city is Canberra, which is also the nation's capital. The largest city is Sydney.[15]
+
+Australia is a very big country, but much of the land is very dry, and the middle of the continent is mostly desert. Only the areas around the east, west and south coast have enough rain and a suitable climate (not too hot) for many farms and cities.
+
+The Australian Aboriginal people arrived in Australia about 50,000 years ago or even earlier.[16][17][18] Until the arrival of British settlers in 1788, the Aboriginal people lived by hunting and gathering food from the land. They lived in all sorts of climates and managed the land in different ways. An example of Aboriginal land management was the Cumberland Plain where Sydney is now. Every few years the Aboriginal people would burn the grass and small trees.[19] This meant that a lot of grass grew back, but not many big trees. Kangaroos like to live on grassy plains, but not in forests. The kangaroos that lived on the plain were a good food supply for the Aboriginal people. Sometimes, Aborigines would name a person after an animal, and they could not eat that animal to help level out the food population.
+
+Aboriginal people did not usually build houses, except huts of grass, leaves and bark. They did not usually build walls or fences, and there were no horses, cows or sheep in Australia that needed to be kept in pens. The only Aboriginal buildings that are known are fish-traps made from stones piled up in the river, and the remains of a few stone huts in Victoria and Tasmania.[20][21][22] The Aboriginal people did not use metal or make pottery or use bows and arrows or weave cloth. In some parts of Australia the people used sharp flaked-stone spearheads, but most Aboriginal spears were made of sharply pointed wood. Australia has a lot of trees that have very hard wood that was good for spear making. The boomerang was used in some areas for sport and for hunting.
+
+The Aboriginal people did not think that the land belonged to them. They believed that they had grown from the land, so it was like their mother, and they belonged to the land.
+
+In the 1600s, Dutch merchants traded with the islands of Batavia (now Indonesia), to the north of Australia and several different Dutch ships touched on the coast of Australia. The Dutch governor, van Diemen, sent Abel Tasman on a voyage of discovery and he found Tasmania, which he named Van Diemen's Land. Its name was later changed to honour the man who discovered it.
+
+The British Government was sure that there must be a very large land in the south, that had not been explored. They sent Captain James Cook to the Pacific Ocean. His ship, HMS Endeavour, carried the famous scientists, Sir Joseph Banks and Dr Solander who were going to Tahiti where they would watch the planet Venus pass in front of the Sun. Captain Cook's secret mission was to find "Terra Australis" (the Land of the South).
+
+The voyage of discovery was very successful, because they found New Zealand and sailed right around it. Then they sailed westward. At last, a boy, William Hicks, who was up the mast spotted land on the horizon. Captain Cook named that bit of land Point Hicks. They sailed up the coast and Captain Cook named the land that he saw "New South Wales". At last they sailed into a large open bay which was full of fish and stingrays which the sailors speared for food. Joseph Banks and Dr. Solander went ashore and were astonished to find that they did not know what any of the plants or birds or animals that they saw were. They collected hundreds of plants to take back to England.
+
+Captain Cook saw the Aboriginal people with their simple way of life. He saw them fishing and hunting and collecting grass seeds and fruit. But there were no houses and no fences. In most parts of the world, people put up a house and a fence or some marker to show that they own the land. But the Aboriginal people did not own the land in that way. They belonged to the land, like a baby belongs to its mother. Captain Cook went home to England and told the government that no-one owned the land. This would later cause a terrible problem for the Aboriginal people.
+
+In the 1700s, in England, laws were tough, many people were poor and gaols (jails) were full. A person could be sentenced to death for stealing a loaf of bread. Many people were hung for small crimes. But usually they were just thrown in gaol. Often they were sent away to the British colonies in America. But by the 1770s, the colonies in America became the United States. They were free from British rule and would not take England's convicts any more, so England needed to find a new and less populated place.
+
+By the 1780s the gaols of England were so full that convicts were often chained up in rotting old ships. The government decided to make a settlement in New South Wales and send some of the convicts there. In 1788 the First Fleet of eleven ships set sail from Portsmouth carrying convicts, sailors, marines, a few free settlers and enough food to last for two years. Their leader was Captain Arthur Phillip. They were to make a new colony at the place that Captain Cook had discovered, named Botany Bay because of all the unknown plants found there by the two scientists.
+
+Captain Phillip found that Botany Bay was flat and windy. There was not much fresh water. He went with two ships up the coast and sailed into a great harbor which he said was "the finest harbor in the world!" There were many small bays on the harbor so he decided on one which had a good stream of fresh water and some flat shore to land on. On 26 January 1788, the flag was raised and New South Wales was claimed in the name of King George III of England, and the new settlement was called Sydney.
+
+For the first few years of the settlement, things were very difficult. No-one in the British Government had thought very hard about what sort of convicts should be sent to make a new colony. Nobody had chosen them carefully. There was only one man who was a farmer. There was no-one among the convicts who was a builder, a brick-maker or a blacksmith. No-one knew how to fix the tools when they broke. All of the cattle escaped. There were no cooking pots. All the plants were different so no-one knew which ones could be eaten. It was probable that everyone in the new colony would die of starvation.
+
+Somehow, the little group of tents with a hut for the Governor, Arthur Phillip, and another hut for the supply of food, grew into a small town with streets, a bridge over the stream, a windmill for grinding grain and wharves for ships. By the 1820s there was a fine brick house for the Governor. There was also a hospital and a convict barracks and a beautiful church which are still standing today. Settlements had spread out from Sydney, firstly to Norfolk Island and to Van Diemen's Land (Tasmania), and also up the coast to Newcastle, where coal was discovered, and inland where the missing cattle were found to have grown to a large herd. Spanish Merino sheep had been brought to Sydney, and by 1820, farmers were raising fat lambs for meat and also sending fine wool back to the factories of England.
+
+While the settlement was growing in New South Wales, it was also growing in Tasmania. The climate in Tasmania was more like that in England, and farmers found it easy to grow crops there.
+
+Because Australia is such a very large land, it was easy to think that it might be able to hold a very large number of people. In the early days of the colony, a great number of explorers went out, searching for good land to settle on.
+When the settlers looked west from Sydney, they saw a range of mountains which they called the Blue Mountains. They were not very high and did not look very rugged but for many years no-one could find their way through them. In 1813 Gregory Blaxland, William Lawson and a 17-year-old called William Charles Wentworth crossed the Blue Mountains and found land on the other side which was good for farming. A road was built and the governor, Lachlan Macquarie founded the town of Bathurst on the other side, 100 miles from Sydney.
+
+Some people, like Captain Charles Sturt were sure that there must be a sea in the middle of Australia and set out to find it. Many of the explorers did not prepare very well, or else they went out to explore at the hottest time of year. Some died like Burke and Wills. Ludwig Leichhardt got lost twice. The second time, he was never seen again. Major Thomas Mitchell was one of the most successful explorers. He mapped the country as he went, and his maps remained in use for more than 100 years. He travelled all the way to what is now western Victoria, and to his surprise and annoyance found that he was not the first white person there. The Henty brothers had come from Tasmania, had built themselves a house, had a successful farm and fed the Major and his men on roast lamb and wine.
+
+The gold rushes of New South Wales and Victoria started in 1851 leading to large numbers of people arriving to search for gold. The population grew across south east Australia and made great wealth and industry. By 1853 the gold rushes had made some poor people, very rich.
+
+The transportation of convicts to Australia ended in the 1840s and 1850s and more changes came. The people in Australia wanted to run their own country, and not be told what to do from London. The first governments in the colonies were run by governors chosen by London. Soon the settlers wanted local government and more democracy. William Wentworth started the Australian Patriotic Association (Australia's first political party) in 1835 to demand democratic government. In 1840, the city councils started and some people could vote. New South Wales Legislative Council had its first elections in 1843, again with some limits on who could vote. In 1855, limited self-government was given by London to New South Wales, Victoria, South Australia and Tasmania. In 1855, the right to vote was given to all men over 21 in South Australia. The other colonies soon followed. Women were given the vote in the Parliament of South Australia in 1895 and they became the first women in the world allowed to stand in elections.[23][24]
+
+Australians had started parliamentary democracies all across the continent. But voices were getting louder for all of them to come together as one country with a national parliament.
+
+Until 1901, Australia was not a nation, it was six separate colonies governed by Britain. They voted to join together to form one new country, called the Commonwealth of Australia, in 1901. Australia was still part of the British Empire, and at first wanted only British or Europeans to come to Australia. But soon it had its own money, and its own Army and Navy.
+
+In Australia at this time, the trade unions were very strong, and they started a political party, the Australian Labor Party. Australia passed many laws to help the workers.[26]
+
+In 1914, the First World War started in Europe. Australia joined in on the side of Britain against Germany, Austria-Hungary and the Ottoman Empire. Australian soldiers were sent to Gallipoli, in the Ottoman Empire. They fought bravely, but were beaten by the Turks. Today Australia remembers this battle every year on ANZAC Day. They also fought on the Western Front. More than 60,000 Australians were killed.
+
+Australia had a really hard time in the Great Depression of the 1930s and joined Britain in a war against Nazi Germany when Hitler invaded Poland in 1939. But in 1941 lots of Australian soldiers were captured in the Fall of Singapore by Japan. Then Japan started attacking Australia and people worried about invasion. But with help from the United States Navy, the Japanese were stopped. After the war, Australia became a close friend of the United States.
+
+When the war ended, Australia felt that it needed many more people to fill the country up and to work. So the government said it would take in people from Europe who had lost their homes in the war. It did things like building the Snowy Mountains Scheme. Over the next 25 years, millions of people came to Australia. They came especially from Italy and Greece, other countries in Europe. Later they also came from countries like Turkey and Lebanon. An important new party, the Liberal Party of Australia was made by Robert Menzies in 1944 and it won lots of elections from 1949 until in 1972, then Gough Whitlam won for the Labor Party. Whitlam made changes, but he made the Senate unhappy and the Governor-General sacked him and forced an election in 1975. Then Malcolm Fraser won a few elections for the Liberal Party.
+
+In the 1960s many people began coming to Australia from China, Vietnam, Malaysia and other countries in Asia. Australia became more multicultural. In the 1950s and 1960s Australia became one of the richest countries in the world, helped by mining and wool. Australia started trading more with America, than Japan. Australia supported the United States in wars against dictatorships in Korea and Vietnam and later Iraq. Australian soldiers also helped the United Nations in countries like East Timor in 1999.
+
+In 1973, the famous Sydney Opera House opened. In the 1970s, 80s and 90s lots of Australian movies, actors and singers became famous around the world. In the year 2000, Sydney had the Summer Olympics.
+
+In the 1980s and 90s, the Labor Party under Bob Hawke and Paul Keating, then the Liberal Party under John Howard made lots of changes to the economy. Australia had a bad recession in 1991, but when other Western countries had trouble with their economies in 2008, Australia stayed strong.
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+Today Australia is a rich, peaceful and democratic country. But it still has problems. Around 4-5% of Australians could not get a job in 2010. A lot of land in Australia (like Uluru) has been returned to Aboriginal people, but lots of Aborigines are still poorer than everybody else. Every year the government chooses a big number of new people from all around the world to come as immigrants to live in  Australia. These people may come because they want to do business, or to live in a democracy, to join their family, or because they are refugees. Australia took 6.5 million immigrants in the 60 years after World War Two, including around 660,000 refugees.[27]
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+Julia Gillard became the first woman Prime Minister of Australia in 2010 when she replaced her colleague Kevin Rudd of the Labor Party.
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+Australia is made up of six states, and two mainland territories. Each state and territory has its own Parliament and makes its own local laws. The Parliament of Australia sits in Canberra and makes laws for the whole country, also known as the Commonwealth or Federation.
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+The Federal government is led by the Prime Minister of Australia, who is the member of Parliament chosen as leader. The current Prime Minister is Scott Morrison.
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+The leader of Australia is the Prime Minister, although the Governor-General represents the Queen of Australia, who is also the Queen of Great Britain, as head of state. The Governor-General, currently His Excellency David Hurley, is chosen by the Prime Minister.
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+Australia was colonised by people from Britain,[28] but today people from all over the world live there. English is the main spoken language, and Christianity is the main religion, though all religions are accepted and not everybody has a religion. Australia is multicultural, which means that all its people are encouraged to keep their different languages, religions and ways of life, while also learning English and joining in with other Australians.
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+Famous Australian writers include the bush balladeers Banjo Paterson and Henry Lawson who wrote about life in the Australian bush. More modern famous writers include Peter Carey, Thomas Keneally and Colleen McCullough. In 1973, Patrick White won the Nobel Prize in Literature, the only Australian to have achieved this; he is seen as one of the great English-language writers of the twentieth century.
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+Australian music has had lots of world-wide stars, for example the opera singers Nellie Melba and Joan Sutherland, the rock and roll bands Bee Gees, AC/DC and INXS, the folk-rocker Paul Kelly (musician), the pop singer Kylie Minogue and Australian country music stars Slim Dusty and John Williamson. Australian Aboriginal music is very special and very ancient: it has the famous digeridoo woodwind instrument.
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+Australian TV has produced many successful programs for home and overseas - including Skippy the Bush Kangaroo, Home and Away and Neighbours - and produced such well known TV stars as Barry Humphries (Dame Edna Everage), Steve Irwin (The Crocodile Hunter) and The Wiggles. Major Australian subgroups such as the Bogan have been shown on Australian TV in shows such as Bogan Hunters and Kath & Kim.[29]
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+Australia has two public broadcasters (the ABC and the multi-cultural SBS), three commercial television networks, three pay-TV services, and numerous public, non-profit television and radio stations. Each major city has its daily newspapers, and there are two national daily newspapers, The Australian and The Australian Financial Review.
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+Australian movies have a very long history. The world's first feature movie was the Australian movie The Story of the Kelly Gang of 1906.[30]  In 1933, In the Wake of the Bounty, directed by Charles Chauvel, had Errol Flynn as the main actor.[31] Flynn went on to a celebrated career in Hollywood. The first Australian Oscar was won by 1942's Kokoda Front Line!, directed by Ken G. Hall.[32] In the 1970s and 1980s lots of big Australian movies and movie stars became world famous with movies like Picnic at Hanging Rock, Gallipoli (with Mel Gibson), The Man From Snowy River and Crocodile Dundee.[33] Russell Crowe, Cate Blanchett and Heath Ledger became global stars during the 1990s and Australia starring Nicole Kidman and Hugh Jackman made a lot of money in 2008.
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+Australia is also a popular destination for business conferences and research, with Sydney named as one of the top 20 meeting destinations in the world.[34]
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+Sport is an important part of Australian culture because the climate is good for outdoor activities. 23.5% Australians over the age of 15 regularly take part in organised sporting activities.[35] In international sports, Australia has very strong teams in cricket, hockey, netball, rugby league and rugby union, and performs well in cycling, rowing and swimming. Local popular sports include Australian Rules Football, horse racing, soccer and motor racing. Australia has participated in every summer Olympic Games since 1896, and every Commonwealth Games. Australia has hosted the 1956 and 2000 Summer Olympics, and has ranked in the top five medal-winners since 2000. Australia has also hosted the 1938, 1962, 1982 and 2006 Commonwealth Games and are to host the 2018 Commonwealth Games. Other major international events held regularly in Australia include the Australian Open, one of the four Grand Slam tennis tournaments, annual international cricket matches and the Formula One Australian Grand Prix. Corporate and government sponsorship of many sports and elite athletes is common in Australia. Televised sport is popular; some of the highest-rated television programs include the Summer Olympic Games and the grand finals of local and international football competitions.
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+The main sporting leagues for males are the Australian Football League, National Rugby League, A-League and NBL.
+For women, they are ANZ Netball Championships, W-League and WNBL.
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+Famous Australian sports players include the cricketer Sir Donald Bradman, the swimmer Ian Thorpe and the athlete Cathy Freeman.
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+Just 60 years ago, Australia had only one big art festival. Now Australia has hundreds of smaller community-based festivals, and national and regional festivals that focus on specific art forms.[36]
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+Australia is home to many animals that can be found nowhere else on Earth, which include: the Koalas,the Kangaroos, the Wombat, the Numbat, the Emu, among many others. Most of the marsupials in the world are found only on the continent.
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+Africa
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+Antarctica
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+Asia
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+Australia
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+Europe
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+North America
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+South America
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+Afro-Eurasia
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+Americas
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+Eurasia
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+Oceania
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