be3d1ad57d572b0450be1f984c8c9625321c23b63c24310ed5a1526ff192b78d

ensimple/4946.html.txt

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+A rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the lengths of the pairs of sides opposite each other must be equal.
+
+People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".
+
+A rectangle with all four sides equal in length is called a square.
+
+If a rectangle has length 
+
+
+
+ℓ
+
+
+{\displaystyle \ell }
+
+ and width w

ensimple/4947.html.txt

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+A rectangle is a shape with four sides and four corners. The corners are all right angles. It follows that the lengths of the pairs of sides opposite each other must be equal.
+
+People make many rectangular things, including most tables, boxes, books, and papers. The word comes from Latin words meaning "right" and angle".
+
+A rectangle with all four sides equal in length is called a square.
+
+If a rectangle has length 
+
+
+
+ℓ
+
+
+{\displaystyle \ell }
+
+ and width w

ensimple/4948.html.txt

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+Recycling is the process of recovering scrap or waste  and reprocessing the material into useful products. Glass, paper, plastic, and metals such as aluminum and steel are all commonly recycled. Dead plants, fruit and vegetable scraps can be recycled through composting. It is important, however, not to confuse recycling with reusing, which is where old things, such as clothes, are donated or given a new use instead of being thrown out.
+
+[1]
+
+One reason that people give for recycling is that it reduces trash in landfills and incinerators. Another reason people recycle is to reduce the amount of raw materials and energy used in making things. Most of the time, it takes less energy to recycle trash than to throw it away, The Economist says. Recycling can reduce your carbon footprints and it would help to minimize the whole size of landfills around the world.
+
+The 3 R's are Reduce, Reuse, and Recycle..
+
+Most people make about two kilograms of waste (trash) every day, and about 7% of this waste is made up of plastic products that can be recycled. Today, plastic can be recycled into products like picnic tables, park benches, and even high-chairs.[2]
+
+First, plastic is collected and taken to a recycling center, where it is sorted out. When plastic is sorted out, symbols have to be printed on every recyclable plastic product used. There are two types of plastic: polyethylene and polymer. There are two kinds of polyethylene plastic, too: high density polyethylene (HDPE), and low density polyethylene (LDPE). HDPE plastic is usually used to make furniture, and LDPE plastic are usually things like milk jugs, plastic and grocery bags.
+
+HDPE plastic is ground into a small powder.[2] LDPE plastic, which are usually thin films, need to be ground by a special machine.[2] After that, both plastics are washed with hot water and detergent.[2] Dirt and other things, like labels, are taken off.[2] After the wash, the powder is dried with hot air.[2]
+
+Sometimes, the powder is sold. But other times, the powder is heated, colored, and then put into a pelletizer.[2] The pelletizer makes the powder into little pellets, which are bought by a company that shapes the pellets into pieces of plastic "wood".[2] This plastic wood is used to make flowerpots, trash cans, pipes, picnic tables, benches, toys, mats, and many other things.[2]
+

ensimple/4949.html.txt

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+A writing system is a system of symbols that are used to represent language.
+
+There are different kinds of writing systems, with symbols that represent different things: logographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Beside natural scripts, there are also constructed scripts.
+
+A logographic system, is a writing system with symbols that mean whole words, symbols that represent things or ideas. These symbols are called logogram or logograph. Examples of logographic writing systems are those used for the Chinese language and for various hieroglyphs. Both these systems use logographs only partly.
+
+A syllabary is a writing system with symbols that mean a syllable. Examples of syllabaries are the hiragana and katakana used for the Japanese language and the Cherokee syllabary used for the Cherokee language.
+
+Alphabets are writing systems that write individual sounds (phonemes).
+
+A true alphabet is a writing system with symbols that mean all sorts of individual sounds, both consonants and vowels. Examples of alphabetic writing systems are the Roman alphabet, which is used in large parts of the world, the Greek alphabet, which is used in Greece and Cyprus, and the Cyrillic alphabet, which is used in many countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where Russia had a major influence during the days of the Soviet Union.
+
+Alphabets that do not show vowels but only consonants are called abjads. Examples of abjads are the Arabic alphabet, which is used in much of the Muslim world, and the Hebrew alphabet used for Jewish languages like Hebrew and Yiddish. Both of these abjads are written in lines that run from right to left.
+
+Abugidas are alphabets where sequences of consonant+vowel are written as a unit based on the consonant letter, and one of the vowels is never written but understood by the consonant letter if no other vowel is written. Examples of abugidas are writing systems of India and Southeast Asia like Devanagari used for Hindi and Sanskrit.
+

ensimple/495.html.txt

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+Fighter aircraft are small military planes that are made to fight other airplanes. They are often fast, having aerodynamic shapes (shapes that make them move through air easily) and very powerful engines for their size. They also usually are maneuverable (turn well). Fighters can carry many different kinds of weapons, including missiles, machine guns, and bombs. While fighters may be used as attack aircraft to attack vehicles, soldiers, or buildings on the ground, they are different from bombers because they are mainly designed to attack other airplanes.

ensimple/4950.html.txt

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+A writing system is a system of symbols that are used to represent language.
+
+There are different kinds of writing systems, with symbols that represent different things: logographic, syllabic and alphabetic. Beside natural scripts, there are also constructed scripts.
+
+A logographic system, is a writing system with symbols that mean whole words, symbols that represent things or ideas. These symbols are called logogram or logograph. Examples of logographic writing systems are those used for the Chinese language and for various hieroglyphs. Both these systems use logographs only partly.
+
+A syllabary is a writing system with symbols that mean a syllable. Examples of syllabaries are the hiragana and katakana used for the Japanese language and the Cherokee syllabary used for the Cherokee language.
+
+Alphabets are writing systems that write individual sounds (phonemes).
+
+A true alphabet is a writing system with symbols that mean all sorts of individual sounds, both consonants and vowels. Examples of alphabetic writing systems are the Roman alphabet, which is used in large parts of the world, the Greek alphabet, which is used in Greece and Cyprus, and the Cyrillic alphabet, which is used in many countries in Eastern Europe and Central Asia, where Russia had a major influence during the days of the Soviet Union.
+
+Alphabets that do not show vowels but only consonants are called abjads. Examples of abjads are the Arabic alphabet, which is used in much of the Muslim world, and the Hebrew alphabet used for Jewish languages like Hebrew and Yiddish. Both of these abjads are written in lines that run from right to left.
+
+Abugidas are alphabets where sequences of consonant+vowel are written as a unit based on the consonant letter, and one of the vowels is never written but understood by the consonant letter if no other vowel is written. Examples of abugidas are writing systems of India and Southeast Asia like Devanagari used for Hindi and Sanskrit.
+

ensimple/4951.html.txt

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+Red Hot Chili Peppers are an American rock band. The band started in 1983 in Los Angeles, California. The state of California has been a theme in many of their songs. The members of the band are singer Anthony Kiedis, bass guitarist Flea, guitarist John Frusciante, and drummer Chad Smith.
+
+The Red Hot Chili Peppers have released eleven studio albums. Their early albums were a mix of Rock and Funk, and were not very successful. The band's membership changed several times during this period, but Kiedis and Flea have been with the band since it started. When Frusciante and Smith joined in 1989, Red Hot Chili Peppers' next album, Mother's Milk, was successful. It was the band's first album to appear on the Billboard music chart. While Red Hot Chili Peppers were on tour in 1992 after their fifth and most successful album, Blood Sugar Sex Magik, Frusciante left the band because of a drug addiction.
+
+Dave Navarro became the new guitarist after Frusciante. Navarro and the other members of Red Hot Chili Peppers did not work together very well. The other members asked Navarro to leave the band in 1998, after one album, called One Hot Minute. At this time, Frusciante had been making albums by himself. He was also suffering from a heroin addiction. When he was feeling better, Flea asked him to join Red Hot Chili Peppers again and Frusciante said yes. The band's next album, Californication (1999), was one of their most popular so far. Red Hot Chili Peppers kept recording and released another album soon afterwards. In 2002, they released By the Way, which was also successful. After this, the band went on a concert tour around the world. While they were doing so they released a best of album. After the tour, the band recorded and released the album Stadium Arcadium in 2006, which consisted of twenty-eight songs. After the tour of this album, the band activity was paralyzed for some time, because Frusciante left the band to, again, focus on his career. The band went out to find a new guitarist, with Klinghoffer joining them. They have produced a new album, called I'm With You, and another album called The Getaway. Frusciante has since rejoined the group replacing Klinghoffer as the guitarist.
+
+Red Hot Chili Peppers were originally called Tony Flow and the Miraculously Majestic Masters of Mayhem.[1] The band was started in 1983 for a single performance. They were so popular that they were asked to come back again the next week.[2] The first members of the band were Anthony Kiedis (singer), Flea (bass), Hillel Slovak (guitar), and Jack Irons (drums). They all knew each other from Fairfax High School in Los Angeles.[3]
+
+After becoming popular in Los Angeles, Red Hot Chili Peppers got a recording contract with record label EMI. Irons and Slovak thought Red Hot Chili Peppers was a  side project. They left just before the first album to work more on their original band, "What Is This?". Kiedis and Flea did not think their band was a side project, and decided to look for new members.[4] They hired guitarist Jack Sherman and drummer Cliff Martinez.[3] Andy Gill, usually a guitarist, was hired to be a producer for the band's first album.[5]
+
+Their first album was called The Red Hot Chili Peppers. It did not sell many copies, but it got the band a small number of dedicated fans.[3][6] Critics such as Robert Christgau liked the album,[7] but the tour that came after it did not do well.[8][9] Sherman was fired by the band after the tour, and Slovak came back to replace him.[3]
+
+Red Hot Chili Peppers hired George Clinton to produce their second album, Freaky Styley. They released the album in 1985. It was only a little bit more successful than the one before it.[6][10] After the album, Martinez was fired from the band. After firing him, Kiedis said he thought that Martinez had wanted to leave. Red Hot Chili Peppers hired another drummer, Chuck Biscuits, but Irons came back to replace him. The band began work with producer Michael Beinhorn on a new album.[11]
+
+The album The Uplift Mofo Party Plan was released in 1987. It was the band's most successful so far. The album entered the Billboard 200 chart, but only at number 148.[6] During this time, Kiedis and Slovak had problems with drugs. Slovak died on June 25, 1988.[3][12][13] Because of this, Irons left the band. He said that he did not want to be part of a band where his friends were dying.[14] Kiedis and Flea agreed to keep going with the band.[3]
+
+After Slovak died and Irons left the band, D. H. Peligro (from the band Dead Kennedys) and DeWayne "Blackbyrd" McKnight joined Red Hot Chili Peppers. Neither of these two worked very well with the band, so they were replaced. Peligro told a friend of his, John Frusciante, to audition to join the band. His audition went well and he joined as guitarist. A friend of the band then told them about Chad Smith. Smith had a very good audition and joined.[15][16] During the recording of their next album, Frusciante argued with Michael Beinhorn, the producer. Beinhorn wanted Frusciante to play his guitar very loud, like heavy metal music, but Frusciante did not like this style.[17]
+
+Red Hot Chili Peppers' next album, Mother's Milk, became very successful. It sold well and songs from it played often on radio.[18] It also appeared on MTV, because the band did a popular cover of Stevie Wonder's song "Higher Ground".[3] The album reached number 52 on the Billboard 200 chart,[6] and was certified "gold" by the RIAA.[19]
+
+After Mother's Milk, Red Hot Chili Peppers changed their record label to Warner Music. The band chose to work with Rick Rubin as their next producer. Rubin thought they needed to work outside a studio. They recorded their next album in Rubin's mansion. Smith did not stay in the mansion because he thought it was a haunted house. The rest of the band did not leave the house for a month.[20]
+
+The name of the new album, Blood Sugar Sex Magik, was taken from the tenth song on the album. Rubin chose the name because the band could not agree on a title. He chose the name because he thought "Blood Sugar Sex Magik" was the best song on the album.[21] The first single from the album, "Give It Away", won a Grammy Award for "Best Hard Rock Performance". It was the band's first Grammy Award.[22] "Give It Away" did well on the music charts. It was the band's first song to go to number one on the Billboard Modern Rock Tracks chart. The second single, "Under the Bridge", was the band's most successful song; it charted on the Billboard Hot 100 chart at number two.[23] The other singles from the album also did well.
+
+The band's success made life difficult for Frusciante, who also had a drug addiction. He quit the band while they were on tour in May 1992.[3] He was replaced by Arik Marshall. Marshal was later replaced by Jesse Tobias. The band played at the Lollapalooza festival in 1992. They also appeared on an episode of The Simpsons. Neither of the band's new members stayed for long. Tobias was replaced in 1993 by Dave Navarro, from the band Jane's Addiction.[24]
+
+Dave Navarro first appeared with the band at the 1994 Woodstock Festival. They found it hard to work with him. Flea said it was because of "the fact that we grew up listening to different music".[24] Red Hot Chili Peppers spent three months in Hawaii making a new album, and One Hot Minute was released in 1995. Its content was sadder than the band's earlier albums. It also sounded more like hard rock than the band's earlier work.[24]
+
+During this time, Kiedis had troubles with heroin again. Navarro also took drugs. At one practice session with the band, he fell over his amplifier because he was over-excited  because he had taken too many drugs—he was "high".[25] Because of this, the band asked Navarro to leave.[26] They told the media it was "mutual" because the band members disagreed on the music they liked to make.[27]
+
+After leaving Red Hot Chili Peppers, Frusciante made some albums by himself. He was also addicted to heroin. He was so addicted that he was close to poverty and death at times. Frusciante went into a clinic for therapy. His life slowly improved. In April 1998, Flea asked Frusciante to join the band again. The rest of the band were happy to see him return. Kiedis called it the "defining moment" of the band's career so far.[28][29][30][31]
+
+The band were happy to have Frusciante rejoin, but it was a while before they began making songs again. This was because he had sold all of his guitars for money to buy drugs. It also took him a while to get used to playing music as part of a band again.[28] The band released their seventh album, Californication, in 1999. It had fewer songs based on rap and funk than their previous albums. The album focused more on melodic guitar riffs.[32] Californication was very popular.[6] It sold over 15 million copies.[33] Three of the singles on the album, "Scar Tissue", "Otherside", and "Californication", reached number one on the Modern Rock Tracks chart.[23]
+
+After touring in Spring 2001, Red Hot Chili Peppers began recording a new album. The band worked with Rubin again. They recorded in band members' homes. Frusciante did a lot more work on recording the new album, By the Way, than he had done on Californication.[34] By the Way was released in 2002. It was the best seller of any album by the band so far. It sold over one million copies in the first week in which it could be bought. The album was rated very highly on charts.[6][35] Some people thought that the music on By the Way was similar to the music on Californication. A review by Blender magazine called it "Californication 2, a reprise of their last album".[36] However, Entertainment Weekly said By the Way was a lot more serious than Californication.[37] A review from Stylus Magazine said that Red Hot Chili Peppers showed no passion in making the album and that it was "stunningly awful".[38]
+
+In 2003, Red Hot Chili Peppers released a "best of" compilation album called Greatest Hits. It had songs from the last five albums they released. It also had two new songs. The album got to number 18 on the Billboard 200 chart.[6] The band also released two live video albums in 2003 and 2004; Live at Slane Castle and Live in Hyde Park. The Red Hot Chili Peppers concerts at Hyde Park were the most profitable in 2004.[39]
+
+After releasing By the Way, Red Hot Chili Peppers played concerts around the world for two years. In 2004, the band began recording a new album with Rubin. They first wrote 38 songs for this album. They had planned to release three different albums; one every six months. They later changed their minds and decided to make one album with two discs, and 28 songs in total. The two-disc album was called Stadium Arcadium. The discs were called "Jupiter" and "Mars".[40][41]
+
+Red Hot Chili Peppers released Stadium Arcadium in 2006. It was their first album to be number one in the United States. It was also number one on two other Billboard charts and in 12 other countries.[6][42] The album won the Grammy Award for "Best Rock Album" in 2006. "Dani California", the first single, won the award for "Best Rock Performance By A Duo Or Group With Vocal".[22] The music on Stadium Arcadium was more mature than on previous albums, according to Tim Chester from NME. He said this was because most of the band members had families.[43] He also said, and Brian Hiatt from Rolling Stone agreed, that the songs on Stadium Arcadium were similar to the band's other work, and were not very original. However, both reviewers said the music was very good.[44] In an Allmusic review, Stephen Thomas Erlewine said Flea and Frusciante did excellent work on the album. He also said that "the string instruments are the reason to listen to Stadium Arcadium". Erlewine agreed that the band had not done a lot of new things on the album, but instead did what they were good at.[45]
+
+After the tour of Stadium Arcadium, the band took a break. During this break, Frusciante decided to leave the band to work on his solo recording. The band chose Josh Klinghoffer to be their new guitarist in 2009 and began working on a new album, called I'm With You. According to their producer, the band wrote enough songs to make a double album, like the previous one, but the band decided not to. Released in 2011, the album received good reviews from the critics, who said that the album was very different. The members of the band stated that the album was a revolutionary album, as it consisted on elements as samba and funk. The critics also praised the new member of the band, saying that it was adequate and that he played a lot of new elements in his guitar that led to a whole new sound of the album.
+
+In 2016, the band released another album, called The Getaway, their second with Josh Klinghoffer. It was not a large chart success, but it sold fairly well.
+
+In December 2019, the band announced that John Frusciante would return to the group and would replace Josh Klinghoffer as the guitarist.[46]
+
+A dash (—) means it did not appear on the chart.
+

ensimple/4952.html.txt

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+A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country.[1] Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.[2]
+
+There are two types of result
+
+It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.[3]
+
+In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.
+
+An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled.
+
+Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.
+
+The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.
+
+Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:

ensimple/4953.html.txt

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+A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country.[1] Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.[2]
+
+There are two types of result
+
+It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.[3]
+
+In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.
+
+An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled.
+
+Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.
+
+The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.
+
+Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:

ensimple/4954.html.txt

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+A plebiscite or referendum is a type of voting, or of proposing laws. Some definitions of 'plebiscite' suggest that it is a type of vote to change the constitution or government of a country.[1] Others define it as the opposite. Australia defines 'referendum' as a vote to change the constitution and 'plebiscite' as a vote that does not affect the constitution.[2]
+
+There are two types of result
+
+It usually depends on the country's history and constitution what sort of referendum/plebiscite is used.  In Switzerland a referendum is usually mandatory, because the people are seen as the source of the government's mandate (power) to govern. For example, during Switzerland's basic income campaign the country utilized a national referendum for the polling.[3]
+
+In the United Kingdom referendums have only been advisory, because the government says that the people elected to Parliament make the decisions. The referendum on the independence of Scotland was an exception. It was legally binding, but it was not a referendum of the UK electorate. It was restricted to present residents of Scotland.
+
+An example of a proposed plebiscite was the 2011 decision by Greek Prime Minister George Papandreou to let the Greek people vote on whether the heavily indebted nation would accept a €130 billion bailout package from the European Union. The idea shocked eurozone nations, as a "no" vote could mean Greece defaulting on its national debt, and leaving the European Union and the eurozone. However, the vote was cancelled.
+
+Another example was the voting on the European Constitution in 2005. The vote took place in some countries. France and The Netherlands had a referendum on the subject. In both states, the voters said no to the proposal and no constitution was made.
+
+The separate simultaneous referendums held on 24 April 2004 in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus and the Republic of Cyprus on the comprehensive settlement plan of the UN Secretary-General provides yet another example of such a vote. The Plan was approved in the Turkish Cypriot referendum by 65%, while it was rejected in the Greek Cypriot referendum by 75%.
+
+Many political problems can be solved by asking the people their opinion because the supporters of the argument will be forced to accept the decision of the people. However:

ensimple/4955.html.txt

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+Protestantism is a form of Christian faith and practice. It began in northern Europe in the early 16th century.[1] At that time, they were against some parts of Roman Catholicism. Together with Eastern Orthodoxy and Roman Catholicism, Protestantism became one of the three greatest forces in Christianity. Protestantism much influenced the culture, beliefs, and economy of the place it became important in.[1]
+
+The word Protestantism had its origin when German princes and free cities at the Diet of Speyer (1529), petitioned or "protested" against the the imperial ban adopted by the Diet against Martin Luther and its stance against the Reformation.[2] [3] Lutherans in Germany began using it. Swiss and French more often used Reformed.[2] The Anglicans use Catholic, Reformed and Protestant, however the Anglican Church is not always regarded as part of Protestantism because it kept most of the doctrine of the Roman Catholic Church from which it separated.[4]
+
+Martin Luther, a doctor of theology and a monk, said that the church should return to its roots, and give more weight to what is written in the Bible (Sola scriptura). Luther thought that the Church had gone too far away from the original teachings. He published 95 theses on the way the Catholic Church was then. Some say, he stuck them onto the door of the church of Wittenberg, but others say this is not true. The 95 theses were published in 1516 or 1517. With the theses, he started the Protestant Reformation.
+
+Protestant churches with a big following are:
+
+Often but not always:
+
+Media related to Protestantism at Wikimedia Commons
+
+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian

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+Refraction is the change in direction of a wave, caused by the change in the wave's  speed. Examples of waves include sound waves and light waves. Refraction is seen most often when a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium. Different types of medium include air and water.
+
+When a wave passes from one transparent medium to another transparent medium, the wave will change its speed and its direction. For example, when a light wave travels through air and then passes into water, the wave will slow and change direction.
+
+As light goes into a medium which is denser, the light ray will 'bend' toward the normal.[1] When it goes back into the less dense medium (with a lower refractive index), it will bend back through the same angle as when it came in (if the surface at exit is parallel to the surface at entry).
+
+An example of how refraction works is placing a straw in a cup of water, with part of the straw in the water. When looking at a certain angle, the straw appears to bend at the water's surface. This is because of the change in density of the medium and thus, bending of light rays as they move from the air to water.
+
+A good and simple way to understand how light works is to think of it like a car. When the car hits the gravel surface (this is the medium) on an angle, the tire that hits it first will slow, causing it to turn in that direction. Therefore, if light hits a medium on the right having a greater refractive index, it will bend right. The amount of bending is given by Snell's law. Lenses work by refraction.
+
+When light refracts in a prism, it splits into colours of the rainbow because some wavelengths bend more than others.
+
+In optics the refractive index or index of refraction n of a substance is a dimensionless number that describes how light, or other radiation, goes through that medium.[2] It is defined as
+
+where c is the speed of light in a vacuum and v is the phase velocity of light in the medium. Snell's law uses refractive indexes to calculate the amount of refraction.

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+A refrigerator is a machine for keeping things cold. It is sometimes called a fridge or an icebox. It is normally maintained at 4-5  degree Celsius for household use. People put food and drinks in it, to keep those items cold or good (unspoiled) for a longer time. A refrigerator has a heat pump. It takes heat away from the air inside the fridge. The heat gets added to the air outside. The heat pump is usually driven by an electric motor.
+
+There are also ice boxes available that do not use electricity because they are filled with ice to provide the colder temperature. The ice can keep things cold until the ice melts. These ice boxes can be taken on camping trips. Sometimes they are called coolers. Refrigerator-sized iceboxes were used before electricity was available.
+
+Most modern refrigerators are available in a variety of colours, although normally fridges are white, as shown in the picture. Smaller versions of the popular refrigerator are also used. These are mainly used in hotels and college dorm rooms.
+
+A freezer is a special type of refrigerator that stores food at freezing temperatures. Inside a freezer, it is normally −18 °C (0 °F). Freezers can be found in household refrigerators, as well as in industry and commerce. When stored in a freezer, frozen food can be stored safely for a longer time than storing at room temperatures.[1]
+
+Domestic freezers can be a separate compartment in a refrigerator, or can be a separate appliance. Household refrigerators usually have a separate compartment where the heat pump is used to pump even colder temperatures to the contents. Most household freezers maintain temperatures from −23 to −18 °C (−9 to 0 °F). Some freezer-only units can achieve −34 °C (−29 °F) and lower. Most household refrigerators generally do not achieve a temperature lower than −23 °C (−9 °F), because it is difficult to control the temperature for two different compartments. This is because both compartments shares the same coolant loop.
+
+Domestic freezers normally stand upright, resembling refrigerators. Sometimes a domestic freezer is laid on its back to look like a chest. Many modern upright freezers come with an ice dispenser built into their door. Many commercial freezers stand upright and have glass doors so shoppers can see the contents.

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+Reggae is a music genre that began in Jamaica in the late 1960s. Most music from Jamaica comes from the reggae style.[1]
+
+The music has regular chops on the back beat (off-beat).  These are called “skank”, and are played by a rhythm guitarist.  The bass drum hits on the second and fourth beat of each measure (each bar). These are called the “drop”. Reggae bands also use a bass, a keyboard or organ, and horns.
+
+Reggae music is often used by Rastafarian groups. They are usually songs about religion, love and social problems. Bob Marley (1945-1981) was a famous reggae artist.
+
+Famous instruments in reggae music are drums, guitar, saxophone, trumpet and trombone.
+
+Reggae was started in 1960 but became famous in the 1970s.
+
+Reggae songs often have lots of backing singers.
+
+Rapper Snoop Dogg released an album of reggae music in 2013.[2]
+
+Some recent songs, like Cheerleader and Rude are reggae.
+
+Reggae is related to ska and dancehall.

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+Communism  is a social political movement. Its aim is to set up a version of society based on the common ownership of the means of production and would not rely on social classes, or money.[1][2]
+
+According to communist writers and thinkers, the goal of communism is to create a stateless, classless society and to end capitalism. Communist thinkers believe this can happen if the people take away the power of the bourgeoisie (the ruling class, who own the means of production) and establish worker control of the means of production.
+
+Communism is not anti-individualist.  However, it does say that decisions should be good for the population as a whole, instead of just being good for only some part of people in the country.
+
+Since 1992, there have been five nations remaining governed officially by communist ideologies. Four of these follow different forms of Marxism-Leninism - Vietnam, China, Cuba and Laos. The fifth, North Korea, now officially follows Juche communism, but also called itself Marxist-Leninist before 1991. Many other nations abandoned Marxism around that time because most people thought it had failed. In many cases it caused a corruption of ideals and led to authoritarianism, mass poverty and violent conflict.
+
+In 1848, Karl H. Marx and Friedrich Engels wrote The Communist Manifesto. It was a short book with the basic ideas of communism. Most socialists and communists today still use this book to help them understand politics and economics. Many non-communists read it too, even if they do not agree with everything in it.
+
+Karl Marx said that for society to change into a communist way of living, there would have to be a period of change. During this period, the workers would govern society. Marx was very interested in the experience of the Paris Commune of 1870, when the workers of Paris ran the city following the defeat of the French Army by the Prussian Army. He thought that this practical experience was more important than the theoretical views of the various radical groups.
+
+Many groups and individuals liked Marx's ideas. By the beginning of the twentieth century, there was a worldwide socialist movement called Social Democracy. It was influenced by his ideas. They said that the workers in different countries had more in common with each other than the workers had in common with the bosses within their own countries. In 1917, Vladimir Lenin and Leon Trotsky led a Russian group called the Bolsheviks in the October Revolution. They got rid of the temporary government of Russia, which was formed after the February Revolution against the Tsar (Emperor). They established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, also called the Soviet Union or USSR.
+
+The Soviet Union was the first country claiming to have established a workers' state. In reality, the country never became communist in the way that Marx and Engels described.
+
+During the 20th century, many people tried to establish workers' states. In the late 1940s, China also had a revolution and created a new government with Mao Zedong as its leader. In the 1950s, the island of Cuba had a revolution and created a new government with Fidel Castro as its leader. At one time, there were many such countries, and it seemed as though communism would win. But communist party governments didn't use democracy in their governments, a very important part of socialism and communism. Because of this, the governments became separated from the people, making communism difficult. This also led to disagreements and splits between countries.
+
+By the 1960s, one-third of the world had overthrown capitalism and were trying to build communism. Most of these countries followed the model of the Soviet Union. Some followed the model of China. The other two-thirds of the world still lived in capitalism, and this led to a worldwide divide between capitalist countries and communist countries. This was called the "Cold War" because it was not fought with weapons or armies, but competing ideas. However, this could have turned into a large war. During the 1980s, the United States and the Soviet Union were competing to have the biggest army and having the most dangerous weapons. This was called the "Arms Race". President Ronald Reagan called communist countries like the Soviet Union the "Evil Empire" because he did not agree with communist ideas.
+
+Since 1989, when the Berlin Wall was torn down, most countries that used to be communist have returned to capitalism. Communism now has much less influence around the world. In 1991, the Soviet Union broke up. However, around a fifth of the world's people still live in states controlled by a communist party. Most of these people are in China. The other countries include Cuba, Vietnam, Laos, and North Korea. There are also communist movements in Latin America and South Africa.
+
+Many people have written their own ideas about communism. Vladimir Lenin of Russia thought that there had to be a group of hard-working revolutionaries (called a vanguard) to lead a socialist revolution worldwide and create a communist society everywhere. Leon Trotsky, also from Russia, argued that socialism had to be international, and it was not important to make it happen first in Russia. He also did not like Joseph Stalin, who became the leader of the USSR after Lenin's death in 1924. Trotsky was made to leave the Soviet Union by Stalin in 1928, and then killed in 1940. This scared many people, and lots of communists argued about whether this was right and whose ideas should be followed.
+
+Mao Zedong of China thought that other classes would be important to the revolution in China and other developing countries because the working classes in these countries were small. Mao's ideas on communism are usually called Maoism or Mao Zedong Thought. After Stalin's death in 1953, Mao saw himself as the leader of worldwide communism until he died in 1976. Today the Chinese government is still ruled by the Communist Party, but they actually have what is called a mixed economy. They have borrowed many things from capitalism. The government in China today does not follow Maoism. However, few revolutionaries in other countries like India and Nepal still like his ideas and are trying to use them against in their own countries.
+
+The word "communism" is not a very specific description of left-wing political organizations. Many political parties calling themselves "communist" may actually be more reformist (supportive of reforms and slow change instead of revolution) than some parties calling themselves "socialists". Many communist parties in Latin America have lost many members because these parties do different things than what they promised once they get into power. In Chile, between 1970-1973, under the left-wing Coalition (groups of parties) of Popular Unity, led by Salvador Allende, the Communist Party of Chile was to the right of the Socialist Party of Chile.  This means it was more reformist than the socialist party.
+
+Many communist parties will use a reformist strategy. They say working-class people are not organized enough to make big changes to their societies. They put forward candidates that will be elected democratically. Once communists become elected to parliament or the Senate, then they will fight for the working class. This will allow working-class people to change their capitalist society into a socialist one.
+
+The color red is a symbol of communism around the world. A red five-pointed star sometimes also stands for communism. The hammer and sickle is a well-known symbol of communism. It was on the flags of many communist countries (see top of article). Some communists also like to use pictures of famous communists from history, such as Marx, Lenin, and Mao Zedong, as symbols of the whole philosophy of communism.
+
+A song called The Internationale was the international song of communism. It has the same music everywhere, but the words to the song are translated into many languages. The Russian version was the national anthem of the Soviet Union from 1922 until 1944.
+
+The sickle in the Soviet Union's flag shows the struggle of the worker. The hammer in the flag represents the struggle for the workers. Both of them crossing shows their support for each other.
+
+There is also a special kind of art and architecture found in many communist and former communist countries. Paintings done in the style of socialist realism are often done for propaganda to show a perfect version of a country's people and political leader. Art done in the socialist realism style, such as plays, movies, novels, and paintings show hard-working, happy, and well-fed factory workers and farmers. Movies, plays and novels in this style often tell stories about workers or soldiers who sacrifice themselves for the good of their country. Paintings often showed heroic portraits of the leader, or landscapes showing huge fields of wheat. Stalinist architecture was supposed to represent the power and glory of the state and its political leader. Some non-communists also enjoy this kind of art.

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+A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of aircraft. An aircraft is a machine that can fly, but is heavier than air. Fixed-wing aircraft are sometimes called airplanes, aeroplanes or sometimes just "planes". All fixed-wing aircraft have wings that use forward airspeed to generate lift.[1] Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines.[2]
+
+A steam-powered unmanned fixed-wing aircraft, that weighed 9 lb (4.1 kg),[3] was built by John Stringfellow, in Chard, Somerset, England in 1848. It could fly by itself without needing to be dropped from high up. There were gliders before this, but they had to fly by being pushed off a building or hill.
+
+The first man who flew (took off, steered, and landed) a motor-powered aircraft was Orville Wright in 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA.[4]
+
+Today, fixed-wing aircraft fly between many cities all over the world, carrying people and cargo.  Big cities usually have an international airport, where large fixed-wing aircraft can land and take off safely.  Some large cities like New York City and London have more than one airport.  Two major makers of fixed-wing aircraft are Airbus and Boeing.
+
+Advances in technology have made fixed-wing aircraft more efficient.  Things like winglets and more efficient turbofans have helped to do this.
+
+Most fixed-wing aircraft have certain parts in common.
+
+Fixed-wing aircraft have long been used as airliners for moving passengers from place to place.  Cargo aircraft carry cargo across seas and long distances, and passenger aircraft also carry some cargo.
+
+The first aircraft for war bombing was used in Libya in 1911 by Italy against the Ottoman Empire. Some fixed-wing aircraft are used by air forces to defend countries.  These may be fighter aircraft, using guns or missiles for combat with other aircraft.  They may be bombers, dropping bombs on ground targets.
+
+Fixed-wing aircraft allow people to travel longer distances, and faster than ships or trains. Aircraft can fly from New York to London in about 7 hours. It would take one week or more on a ship. Militaries use airplanes to carry their soldiers quickly from place to place.
+
+Airplanes are also used by the military to see many things on the ground easily. This is called surveillance or reconnaissance.  Often, fixed-wing aircraft will take photographs as well, which can be used for military planning later.
+
+Statistics show that riding in a plane is safer than driving in a car.[5]
+
+Military airplanes in Russia
+
+An airplane used for research by NASA
+
+Early airplanes in a battle in France
+
+A private airplane

ensimple/4960.html.txt

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+A parliament is a type of legislature.
+
+The most famous parliament is probably the Parliament of the United Kingdom, which is sometimes called the "Mother of all Parliaments".[1]  The word "parliament" comes from the French word parler, which means a talk.
+
+The Althing, the national parliament of Iceland, was founded earlier (930 AD), so it is the oldest legislature in the world still existing. However, the Althing did not function as a legislature for four centuries, and its role as a primary legislature is modern.[2][3]
+
+Other parliaments have copied the UK and work similarly. They have three levels - a lower house which makes the law, an upper house which reviews the law (Decides if they like it or not, and suggest changes to it), and a head of state who is mostly for show and who starts and ends each year of parliament. The Prime Minister is almost always the person whose party has the most seats, but if the lower house does not think he is doing a good job they can call a vote of no confidence and ask him to leave his job as Prime Minister or have an election.
+
+Sometimes people use the word "parliament" to describe a legislature, even if it is not a real parliament. A "parliament" is a type of legislature which has a Prime Minister.
+
+A parliament is a lot like a congress but a congress cannot ask the head of the government to leave his job. Also, a congress runs for a number of years according to the country's constitution, but a parliament can be stopped as long as enough members agree. Elections are held after this happens.

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+Joseph Stalin was born as Ioseb Besarionis dze Jughashvili in Gori, Georgia, Russian Empire (18 December 1878  – 5 March 1953). was a Georgian politician who became leader of the Soviet Union from 1922 until his death.  He replaced Vladimir Lenin as leader of the Soviet Union. His ideas and policies turned the Soviet Union into a powerful, relatively modern nation, as the largest on Earth.  His form of government was later called Stalinism.
+
+Stalin invaded Poland on 18 September 1939. In the subsequent World War II, Stalin stayed neutral but signed a peace deal with Germany's leader Adolf Hitler.  He then led a bloody war after Germany invaded the Soviet Union. And after the end of the war Stalin gained control of all Eastern Europe including part of Germany. There, a series of loyal Marxist-Leninist single-party states were set up, extending his power and determining the Soviet Union's position as a superpower.
+
+Stalin was born as Ioseb Besarionis dzе Jughashvili or Iosif Dzhugashvili. He began calling himself "Stalin" in 1912.
+
+Ioseb Vissarionovich Jugashvili was born in a small one room house in Gori, Georgia. His father made and repaired shoes.[1] His father was often drunk and used to hit his wife and his son until his death in a fight in 1890. Joseph had smallpox when he was young. This left his face scarred. Later, photographs were often changed to hide the scars.[2] His left arm was also shorter because of an accident. He was educated at the Gori church school. Stalin studied to be a priest at a seminary (school for priests) in Tbilisi.[3] He was an active student reading many books, especially books that were not allowed by the seminary. This included books by Karl Marx. He joined a Marxist group in 1898, the Mesame Dasi, or Group Three.[2]
+
+He left school in 1899 and got a job at the Tbilisi Physical Institute.[2] He joined groups that were trying to start a revolution to remove the Tsar. They wanted a different type of government. The police raided his house in 1901 while hunting for people who opposed the government. Stalin escaped but went into hiding so the police could not find him. He organized anti-government activities such as May Day marches and protests. He became a Bolshevik. He supported a violent revolution, and did not support the Mensheviks. The secret police caught him in April 1902 and exiled him without trial to Siberia.[1] He lived in the village of Novaya Uda.[4]
+
+He soon escaped from Siberia. This led to many later claims that he was a police spy. The arrest of another Bolshevik, Stephan Shaumyan, a rival of Stalin, increased these beliefs.[2] At the end of 1905, he went to a meeting in Finland and met Vladimir Ilyich Lenin. Lenin was not what Stalin had expected.[2] The government arrested and exiled Stalin several times in the next ten years. This increased his power in the Bolshevik party and he was elected to the Central Committee of the party in 1912.[5] He was promoted to a position at St.Petersburg.
+
+Stalin was a member of the Bolshevik Party, but did not do much in the Russian Revolution of 1917.[1] He was writing and editing Pravda, the party newspaper.[6] He had a number of organizational jobs in the Communist Party. In 1922 he became General Secretary. He was able to give jobs to people he liked in the Communist Party.[1] These supporters helped him become the leader after Vladimir Lenin died in 1924.
+
+Stalin tried to collectivize farms. Collectivization meant taking the land from owners of all farms and joining it into large farms run by the government. Communist officials then let farmers work the new farms and told them to turn the harvest over to the government.
+
+Collectivization did not work well.[7] There was a famine 1932–33, in which millions died. Because farmers were not paid much money, and whatever they grew went to the state, the workers did not try their best. The best farming worked on very small bits of land given to the peasants to grow what they liked. On these pieces of land, farmers could keep what they grew. In 1938 these parts of land were 4% of Soviet farmland.[7] However, they grew 20% of its produce.[7]
+
+There was a second great famine in the Soviet Union in 1946–1947. The conditions were caused by drought, made worse by the devastation caused by World War II. The grain harvest in 1946 totaled 39.6 million tons - barely 40% of the yield in 1940.
+
+To eliminate "enemies of the working class", Stalin instituted the "Great Purge". Over a million people were imprisoned and at least 700,000 executed between 1934 and 1939.[8] Those executed included most of the generals in the Red Army, whom Stalin saw as a threat to his rule. This greatly weakened the army in the early months of the Wehrmacht's offensive against the Soviet Union in 1941.[8]
+
+Stalin cooperated with German Nazi leader Adolf Hitler. However, Hitler hated communism. After invading and neutralising France, Germany attacked the Soviet Union. After the Operation Barbarossa invasion, the USSR began working with the Western Allies to defeat Germany. In the end, Germany lost, but the USSR had more casualties than any other country during the war.
+
+When World War II was over, the Soviet army occupied many countries in Europe, such as Poland, Czechoslovakia, Hungary, and part of Germany. They imposed Marxism-Leninism on these countries. This was done against the wishes, and over the protests, of the American and British governments.
+
+Stalin continued to rule over the Soviet Union until he died. He also militarized Russia by focusing the country's time and energy towards weapons, vehicles, and the armed forces.
+
+Stalin died on March 5, 1953. It was officially said to be because of a stroke.[1] In 2003, however, a group of Russian and American historians said that Stalin had been poisoned with powerful rat poison warfarin, possibly by the men who took over the government after Stalin died.[9] Led by Lavrentiy Beria, these were Vyacheslav Molotov and Georgy Malenkov. Nikita Krushchev later began a process called "De-Stalinization", which meant taking apart much of the political system that Stalin made. Stalin was denounced as a tyrant. After outsmarting and defeating his rivals, Krushchev established a personal control over the government comparable to Stalin's own, even if he never went as far in murdering millions of people.
+
+Stalin is a  controversial figure in history. Many historians see him as a ruthless dictator, though others praise him as the Father of the Soviet State.[10] He has been criticized for his role in the Holodomor. A recent poll in Russia (2008) listed him as the third most popular person in Russian history.[11] In 2006, a poll stated that almost half the adults in Russia thought Joseph Stalin was a good person.[12][13]

ensimple/4962.html.txt

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+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4963.html.txt

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+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4964.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Flanders (Dutch: Vlaanderen [ˈvlaːndərə(n)]  ( listen), French: Flandre [flɑ̃dʁ], German: Flandern, [flɑndɛɹn]) is the Dutch-speaking northern portion of Belgium, although there are several overlapping definitions, including ones related to culture, language, politics and history.

ensimple/4965.html.txt

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+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4966.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4967.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4968.html.txt

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+Île-de-France is a region of France. The capital city is Paris. It is also the capital city of France. In 2013 about 12 million people lived in the region. About 2.1 million people live in the city of Paris.
+
+There are 8 departments in the region. They are:
+
+
+

ensimple/4969.html.txt

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+Italy is a country in the south of Europe. It is divided into 20 regions. A region is a part of the country with a government and a president.
+
+In Italy, regions can decide some things. They can give money to local business. They can decide some things about hospitals, schools, and transport.
+
+In some regions, people speak other languages. In Alto Adige/Südtirol a lot of people speak mainly German. So this region is "special" and can decide more things.
+
+Sardinia and Sicily are islands. They have different problems than other regions. They have also some different laws.
+These regions are called "regions with special laws" (Italian: Regione a statuto speciale).
+
+Every region has a capital. Here is the list of the regions, the capital and other information.

ensimple/497.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,29 @@
+A fixed-wing aircraft is a kind of aircraft. An aircraft is a machine that can fly, but is heavier than air. Fixed-wing aircraft are sometimes called airplanes, aeroplanes or sometimes just "planes". All fixed-wing aircraft have wings that use forward airspeed to generate lift.[1] Gliders are fixed-wing aircraft that do not have engines.[2]
+
+A steam-powered unmanned fixed-wing aircraft, that weighed 9 lb (4.1 kg),[3] was built by John Stringfellow, in Chard, Somerset, England in 1848. It could fly by itself without needing to be dropped from high up. There were gliders before this, but they had to fly by being pushed off a building or hill.
+
+The first man who flew (took off, steered, and landed) a motor-powered aircraft was Orville Wright in 1903 in Kitty Hawk, North Carolina, USA.[4]
+
+Today, fixed-wing aircraft fly between many cities all over the world, carrying people and cargo.  Big cities usually have an international airport, where large fixed-wing aircraft can land and take off safely.  Some large cities like New York City and London have more than one airport.  Two major makers of fixed-wing aircraft are Airbus and Boeing.
+
+Advances in technology have made fixed-wing aircraft more efficient.  Things like winglets and more efficient turbofans have helped to do this.
+
+Most fixed-wing aircraft have certain parts in common.
+
+Fixed-wing aircraft have long been used as airliners for moving passengers from place to place.  Cargo aircraft carry cargo across seas and long distances, and passenger aircraft also carry some cargo.
+
+The first aircraft for war bombing was used in Libya in 1911 by Italy against the Ottoman Empire. Some fixed-wing aircraft are used by air forces to defend countries.  These may be fighter aircraft, using guns or missiles for combat with other aircraft.  They may be bombers, dropping bombs on ground targets.
+
+Fixed-wing aircraft allow people to travel longer distances, and faster than ships or trains. Aircraft can fly from New York to London in about 7 hours. It would take one week or more on a ship. Militaries use airplanes to carry their soldiers quickly from place to place.
+
+Airplanes are also used by the military to see many things on the ground easily. This is called surveillance or reconnaissance.  Often, fixed-wing aircraft will take photographs as well, which can be used for military planning later.
+
+Statistics show that riding in a plane is safer than driving in a car.[5]
+
+Military airplanes in Russia
+
+An airplane used for research by NASA
+
+Early airplanes in a battle in France
+
+A private airplane

ensimple/4970.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,10 @@
+Italy is a country in the south of Europe. It is divided into 20 regions. A region is a part of the country with a government and a president.
+
+In Italy, regions can decide some things. They can give money to local business. They can decide some things about hospitals, schools, and transport.
+
+In some regions, people speak other languages. In Alto Adige/Südtirol a lot of people speak mainly German. So this region is "special" and can decide more things.
+
+Sardinia and Sicily are islands. They have different problems than other regions. They have also some different laws.
+These regions are called "regions with special laws" (Italian: Regione a statuto speciale).
+
+Every region has a capital. Here is the list of the regions, the capital and other information.

ensimple/4971.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+Île-de-France is a region of France. The capital city is Paris. It is also the capital city of France. In 2013 about 12 million people lived in the region. About 2.1 million people live in the city of Paris.
+
+There are 8 departments in the region. They are:
+
+
+

ensimple/4972.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4973.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4974.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1 @@
+Wikipedia does not yet have an article with this name.

ensimple/4975.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,5 @@
+France is split into 18 administrative regions (régions). These regions are a kind of local government.
+
+Thirteen regions are in Metropolitan France (the part of the country that is in Europe). Corsica has a different status than the other 12 metropolian regions. It is called collectivité territoriale. Five regions are overseas.
+
+There used to be 27 regions. In 2016, some regions were combined and there are now 18. Each Metropolitan region contains between 2 and 13 of the 101 Departments of France.

ensimple/4976.html.txt

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+A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a damp climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). 
+Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon. The Tropical climate is humid and wet. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest
+
+
+

ensimple/4977.html.txt

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+In geography, temperate latitudes of the Earth lie between the subtropics and the polar circles.[1] Average yearly temperatures in these regions are not extreme, not burning hot nor freezing cold. Temperate means moderate.
+
+Unlike in the tropics, temperatures can change greatly here, between summer and winter. So, most places with a temperate climate have four seasons: summer, autumn, winter and spring. Other areas with a temperate climate can have very unpredictable weather. One day it may be sunny, the next may be rainy, and after that it may be cloudy. This is normal in summer as well as in winter. These are the main types of temperate climate:

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+A tropical climate is a type of climate typical in the tropics. It is a damp climate in which all twelve months have mean temperatures above 18°C (64.4 °F). 
+Some tropical areas have rainfall throughout the year, usually in the afternoon. Others have a wet season and a dry season, for example because of monsoon. The Tropical climate is humid and wet. One famous area of tropical climate is the Amazon rainforest
+
+
+

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+Menstruation, or menses, is when an unfertilized female has blood come out of her vagina for 2–7 days every month. A more common word for menstruation is a "period".
+
+Inside the thick part of the uterus are blood vessels and other nutrients that a baby will need to grow. If an ovum in the uterus gets fertilized, it sticks to the wall of the uterus and starts to grow. However, if the ovum is not fertilized, it does not stick. The uterus then gets rid of the ovum and the extra tissue by releasing it from the body. The tissue and blood flows out of the uterus through the vagina. This is called menstruation or having a period. The bleeding normally lasts about 3-5 days, though some girls may bleed longer or have a bit of bleeding between periods.[1] The uterus then starts preparing for another ovum. For most girls, the time between their periods is about one month. For about 2 years after menstruation starts, the time between periods is not always the same.[2] Some girls may skip a month, or have 2 periods close to each other. It is also normal to have cramps (rather painful squeezing feelings) or to feel bloated (swollen up) in the abdomen at periods.[1] When many girls start having periods, they begin using sanitary napkins or tampons to soak up the blood and tissue. A sanitary napkin is a piece of material that absorbs (takes in) liquids which is worn between the vulva and underpants. A tampon is a stick of absorbent material that is placed in the vagina.
+
+Most women menstruate for 3–5 days every month. However, anywhere from 2–7 days is normal. The amount of blood lost is normally about 50ml. Women usually use a pad or a tampon to keep the blood from staining their undergarments.
+
+Menopause is menstruation stopping at the age of around 45-70, which is caused by hormones. Symptoms include irritability, heat, vaginal burning and/or discomfort, and vaginal dryness. A slang word for it is called "the change". Most women must take a few months to adjust to the dryness. After they stop their period they can no longer produce babies.
+
+The fluid that comes out looks like blood, but it is more than just blood. It also has endometrial tissue. This is the tissue that lines the inside of the uterus (womb).
+
+Menses happens in the first days of the menstrual cycle. This is the changes that happen in a woman's body every month. These changes are started by changes in hormone levels in the blood. These changes also cause a woman to ovulate and make an ovum (also called "egg"). Menstruation usually starts around the age of 11, even as early as 9 years old, and ends when the woman is too old to have children. However, some women can still have children from the age of 50-70.
+
+Some women have pain in the low part of the abdomen when they menstruate. This is called dysmenorrhea, or cramps. The hormones that are produced before and during a period can also make a woman feel moody, or just strange. This is called premenstrual syndrome (PMS), or premenstrual tension (PMT). A women can feel bloated or swollen and have long cramps. Some women have extremely bad reactions to menstruation and may even feel suicidal. This is called premenstrual dysphoric disorder, or PMDD.
+
+Most women use something to absorb or catch their menses. There are a number of different methods available. The most common methods of absorbing the flow are sanitary towels (sometimes called "pads"), tampons and padded underwear. Some women use sea sponges, towels and other reusable absorbing items.
+
+In addition to products to contain the menstrual flow, pharmaceutical companies likewise provide products — commonly non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) — to relieve menstrual cramps. Some herbs, such as dong quai, raspberry leaf and crampbark, are also claimed to relieve menstrual pain, however there is no documented scientific evidence.

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+Rowing is about moving a boat on water using human muscle power. It can be a sport. The goal in rowing is to move as fast as possible on top of the water. The athletes use a boat. They move the boat forward by using two sculls or one oar. There are different types of rowing. The types depend on how many people are in the boat and if they have a coxswain or not. Rowing is a very popular sport in England, the Commonwealth, and the Northeastern United States. The old universities of the United States and England have yearly rowing matches.
+
+Football (soccer)
+Basketball
+Rugby
+Gymnastics
+Baseball
+American football
+Cycling·Auto racing
+Cricket·Golf
+Field hockey·Handball
+Archery·Shooting
+Fencing·Weightlifting
+Pentathlon·Triathlon
+Horseback riding
+
+Swimming· Diving
+Water polo·Sailing
+Canoeing·Rowing
+
+Boxing·Wrestling
+Karate·Taekwondo
+
+Tennis· Volleyball
+Table tennis· Badminton
+
+Winter sports
+
+Skiing·Curling
+Bobsled·Luge
+Snowboarding·Biathlon
+Ice sledge hockey
+

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+
+
+Animalia is a kingdom of multicellular eukaryotic organisms. Animalia has eukaryotic organisms with many cells. They do not use light to get energy as plants do. Animals use different ways to get energy from other living things. They may eat other living things, though some are parasites or have photosynthetic protists as symbionts.
+
+Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide.[1] This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.
+The study of animals is called zoology.[2][3][4]
+
+Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.
+
+There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. They think several million species exist but they have only identified about one million.
+
+Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not.
+
+Vertebrates are:
+
+Some invertebrates are:
+
+In scientific usage, humans are considered animals, in everyday nonscientific usage, humans are often not considered to be animals.
+
+The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores.
+
+The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.
+
+The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier.[5] During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.

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+
+
+Plants are one of six big groups (kingdoms) of living things. They are autotrophic eukaryotes, which means they have complex cells, and make their own food. Usually they cannot move (not counting growth).
+
+Plants include familiar types such as trees, herbs, bushes, grasses, vines, ferns, mosses, and green algae. The scientific study of plants, known as botany, has identified about 350,000 extant (living) species of plants. Fungi and non-green algae are not classified as plants.
+
+Most plants grow in the ground, with stems in the air and roots below the surface. Some float on water. The root part absorbs water and some nutrients the plant needs to live and grow. These climb the stem and reach the leaves. The evaporation of water from pores in the leaves pulls water through the plant. This is called transpiration.
+
+A plant needs sunlight, carbon dioxide, minerals and water to make food by photosynthesis. A green substance in plants called chlorophyll traps the energy from the Sun needed to make food. Chlorophyll is mostly found in leaves, inside plastids, which are inside the leaf cells. The leaf can be thought of as a food factory. Leaves of plants vary in shape and size, but they are always the plant organ best suited to capture solar energy. Once the food is made in the leaf, it is transported to the other parts of the plant such as stems and roots.[5][6]
+
+The word "plant" can also mean the action of putting something in the ground. For example, farmers plant seeds in the field.
+
+Photosynthesis is a process that is taken place by the leaves on the plant. The leaves are the only parts of a plant that can do this process (as they adapted). This is also known as how the plant gets its food.You can make the process quicker by adding more CO2, light and chlorophyll.
+
+Green algae:
+
+Land plants (embryophyte)
+
+At least some plant cells contain photosynthetic organelles (plastids) which enable them to make food for themselves. With sunlight, water, and carbon dioxide, the plastids make sugars, the basic molecules needed by the plant. Free oxygen (O2) is produced as a by-product of photosynthesis.[7]
+
+Later, in the cell cytoplasm, the sugars may be turned into amino acids for proteins, nucleotides for DNA and RNA, and carbohydrates such as starch. This process needs certain minerals: nitrogen, potassium, phosphorus, iron and magnesium.[8]
+
+Plant nutrition is the study of the chemical elements that are necessary for plant growth.
+
+Macronutrients:
+
+Micronutrients (trace elements) include:
+
+The roots of plants perform two main functions. First, they anchor the plant to the ground. Second, they absorb water and various nutrients dissolved in water from the soil. Plants use the water to make food. The water also provides the plant with support. Plants that lack water become very limp and their stems cannot support their leaves. Plants which specialise in desert areas are called xerophytes or phreatophytes, depending on the type of root growth.
+
+Water is transported from the roots to the rest of the plant through special vessels in the plant. When the water reaches the leaves, some of it evaporates into the air. Many plants need the help of fungi to make their roots work properly. This plant/fungi symbiosis is called mycorrhiza. Rhizobia bacteria in root nodules help some plants get nitrogen.[9]
+
+Flowers are the reproductive organ only of flowering plants (Angiosperms). The petals of a flower are often brightly colored and scented to attract insects and other pollinators. The stamen is the male part of the plant. It is composed of the filament (a stalk) that holds the anther, which produces the pollen. Pollen is needed for plants to produce seeds. The carpel is the female part of the flower. The top part of the carpel contains the stigma. The style is the neck of the carpel. The ovary is the swollen area at the bottom of the carpel. The ovary produces the seeds. The sepal is a leaf that protects a flower as a bud.
+
+The process by which pollen gets transferred from one flower to another flower is called pollination. This transfer can happen in different ways. Insects such as bees are attracted to bright, scented flowers. When bees go into the flower to gather nectar, the spiky pollen sticks to their back legs. The sticky stigma on another flower catches the pollen when the bee lands or flies nearby it.
+
+Some flowers use the wind to carry pollen. Their dangling stamens produce lots of pollen that is light enough to be carried by the wind. Their flowers are usually small and not highly coloured. The stigmas of these flowers are feathery and hang outside the flower to catch the pollen as it falls.[10]
+
+A plant produces many spores or seeds. Lower plants such as moss and ferns produce spores. The seed plants are the Gymnosperms and Angiosperms. If all the seeds fell to the ground besides the plant, the area might become overcrowded. There might not be enough water and minerals for all the seeds. Seeds usually have some way to get to new places. Some seeds can be dispersed by the wind or by water. Seeds inside juicy fruits are dispersed after being eaten. Sometimes, seeds stick to animals and are dispersed that way.[11]
+
+The question of the earliest plant fossils depends on what is meant by the word "plant".
+
+By the Silurian, fossils of whole plants are preserved, including the lycophyte Baragwanathia. From the Devonian, detailed fossils of rhyniophytes have been found. Early fossils of these ancient plants show the individual cells within the plant tissue. The Devonian period also saw the evolution of the first tree in the fossil record, Wattezia. This fern-like tree had a trunk with  fronds, and produced spores.
+
+The coal measures are a major source of Palaeozoic plant fossils, with many groups of plants in existence at this time. The spoil heaps of coal mines are the best places to collect; coal itself is the remains of fossilised plants, though structural detail of the plant fossils is rarely visible in coal. In the Fossil Forest at Victoria Park in Glasgow the stumps of Lepidodendron trees are found in their original growth positions.

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+This article is about the Egyptian Sun god Ra or Re. For the chemical element, see Radium
+
+
+
+In Egyptian mythology, Ra was the god of the sun. He was the most important god in Ancient Egypt. He had many names, such as Amun-Ra, and Ra-Horakhty. It was said he was born each morning in the East, and died each night in the West. In the night he traveled through the underworld. This is why the west side of the Nile was known as the land of the dead. He was the king of the gods.
+
+Ra was thought to be the god of the sun and creation. Ra’s name came from Re and Amun. The name Re was from Upper Egypt and the name Amun came from Lower Egypt. When Upper and Lower Egypt came together they changed the name to Amun-Re. Over thousands of years the name Amun-Re evolved into Amun-Ra and then just to Ra. From then on people called him Re or Ra. Ra used to mean “mouth” in the Egyptian language. Some names are:Re, the Creator, Khepry, etc.
+
+Ra has many forms. His best-known form is the man with the head of a Hawk and the sun disk above him. He may also be depicted as a scarab beetle or a man. One is Amun-Ra, which is a ram and the other, Ra-Hakorthaty which is a sky sun god.
+
+Some time around the Middle Kingdom, Ra and Osiris became friends. This was unusual because Osiris lived in the Underworld and Ra lived in the Heavens. All the other gods wanted to be friends with Ra. They hoped that if they were friends with Ra, Ra would tell them his hidden name. But Ra did have some enemies. Seth was sometimes Ra’s enemy, but Seth did help Ra fight Apep, a snake god. The fact that Seth helped Ra reminded all of the gods that Seth was not all bad. Isis was another enemy of Ra, she had tricked him into giving her his hidden name so her husband Osiris could be king of the gods.
+
+The cult of Ra began to grow from around the time of the II Dynasty, establishing Ra as the sun god. By the IV Dynasty, the Pharaohs were seen as "Sons of Ra". His worship increased much in the V Dynasty, when he became a state deity. Pharaohs had pyramids, obelisks, and solar temples built in his honor.
+
+Ra was believed to be the greatest Egyptian god when it came to powers. His powers live in his hidden name. Only he knew his hidden name so only he could use the powers. It was said that he had the best powers throughout the land. He could make anything, he made people, he made the world, and he made the heavens. That is how great his powers were. One day Isis wanted to have his powers so she sent a serpent to poison him on his daily walk. The serpents venomous bite was so painful that Ra gave in and told her his secret name of creation.Then Isis banished Ra to the Duat, (Spirit World), so Osiris her husband could be king.
+
+Ra's daughter with Nut (his granddaughter) was named Hathor, the goddess of love. Ra had two children Shu, the god of air and Tefnut, the goddess of morning dew. They had two children named Nut, the goddess of the sky and Geb, the god of earth. They had four children named Isis, the goddess of home, Nephthys, the goddess of mourning, Set, the god of the desert, and Osiris, god of the afterlife. They paired up and had two more children, Anubis, god of embalming, and Horus, god of the sky.

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+A king is a man who rules a country, because of inheritance. A king usually comes to power when the previous monarch dies, who is usually a family member of his. Sometimes a person may become king due to the previous monarch's abdication, for example George VI. For most of history, most countries were ruled in this way, especially in Europe. Some countries, such as France, are no longer monarchies. Some, such as the United Kingdom, still have a royal family. In some countries, people chose a new king from other people to decide from.
+
+The wife of a king is called a queen. A woman who becomes a ruler because of inheritance is also called a queen.
+
+If a country has a king or a queen, that means it is a monarchy. A country which a king or queen rules is called a kingdom.

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+Queen Victoria (born Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 to 1901. She was born in London to a German princess and an English prince in 1819. She became queen at the age of 18, on the death of her uncle, William IV.
+
+She was educated by her governess, Louise Lehzen and Reverend George Davys. She learned to speak and read German and French well.
+
+In 1840, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert who encouraged science, trade and art. They had nine children, and made it clear they believed that a good family life and Christianity were very important. In general, English people followed their example. In 1851, the Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace was opened. It happened partly because of Albert's hard work. The exhibition featured the achievements of British people in the Victorian era.
+
+In 1861, Prince Albert died and Victoria began to keep away from public life; this made her less popular. During the years that followed, Britain became more powerful, and in 1877, Victoria was given the title of "Empress of India". She became more popular with her people. In 1897, she had her Diamond Jubilee to celebrate 60 years of being on the throne.
+
+Many of Victoria's children became monarchs, princes and princesses of other countries, and late in life she was called the "grandmother of Europe". Queen Victoria was always very interested in India, although she never went there. Queen Victoria enjoyed dancing, sketching, horse riding and singing; she was given  lessons as a child by the famous opera singer Luigi LaBlache.  She liked to paint and could play the piano.[1] She kept a regular diary throughout her life.
+
+Sophia, Queen in Prussia
+
+Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange · The Princess Amelia · The Princess Caroline · Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Cassel · Louise, Queen of Denmark and Norway
+
+Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick · Princess Elizabeth · Princess Louisa · Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway
+
+Charlotte, Queen of Württemberg · The Princess Augusta Sophia · Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg · Sophia of Gloucester ·  Caroline of Gloucester · Mary, Duchess of Gloucester · The Princess Sophia · The Princess Amelia
+
+Charlotte Augusta, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld ·  Frederica of Hanover · Charlotte of Clarence · Victoria · Elizabeth of Clarence · Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz · Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck
+
+Victoria, Princess Royal and German Empress · Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse · Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein · Frederica, Baroness Alfons von Pawel-Rammingen · Louise, Duchess of Argyll · Marie of Cumberland · Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg
+
+Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife · The Princess Victoria · Maud, Queen of Norway · Marie, Queen of Romania · Victoria Melita, Grand Duchess of Hesse · Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg · Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden · Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden · Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin · Alice, Countess of Athlone · Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera · Olga of Hanover · Patricia of Connaught
+
+Alexandra, Duchess of Fife · Maud, Countess of Southesk · Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood · Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten · Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha · Frederica, Queen of the Hellens
+
+Elizabeth II · Margaret, Countess of Snowdon · Alexandra, The Hon Lady Ogilvy
+
+Anne, Princess Royal
+
+Beatrice of York · Eugenie of York · Louise Windsor
+
+Princess Charlotte of Cambridge

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+Kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates that are shaped like beans. They make urine (the yellow waste water that comes out of the urethra.) They are part of the urinary system. When medical professionals discuss the kidneys, they typically refer to the word renal. For example, renal failure is when the kidneys are sick and do not work.
+
+The prefix nephro- is also used in words to mean "kidneys". For example, a nephrologist is a doctor who studies kidneys.
+
+The kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin.
+
+Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin tells the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. So this means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.
+
+Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.
+
+The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.
+
+If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.
+
+There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. Severe kidney failure means very bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure always have symptoms. They may need special care from doctors.
+
+The main kinds of kidney diseases are:
+
+If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.
+
+There are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation.
+
+Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
+
+Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.
+
+Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a haemodialyser, and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time.
+
+Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.
+
+A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.
+
+Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.
+
+It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role.
+
+
+

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+Kidneys are two organs in the abdomen of vertebrates that are shaped like beans. They make urine (the yellow waste water that comes out of the urethra.) They are part of the urinary system. When medical professionals discuss the kidneys, they typically refer to the word renal. For example, renal failure is when the kidneys are sick and do not work.
+
+The prefix nephro- is also used in words to mean "kidneys". For example, a nephrologist is a doctor who studies kidneys.
+
+The kidney makes hormones. The two most important ones that it makes are erythropoetin and renin.
+
+Erythropoetin is made by the kidneys if there is less oxygen in the kidney. Erythropoetin tells the bone marrow to make more red blood cells. So this means there will be more oxygen carried in the blood.
+
+Renin is made by the kidney if there is low blood pressure, low volume of blood, or too low salts in the blood. Renin makes the blood vessels smaller and tells the adrenal gland to make aldosterone (which tells the kidneys to save salts). It also makes a person feel thirsty. All of this makes the blood pressure go up.
+
+The kidney's most important work is keeping homeostasis. Homeostasis means that the body keeps a stable environment inside itself. The body needs to have the consistent and proper amount of water, salt, and acid in the blood. The kidney keeps these things constant.
+
+If there is too much water, the kidney puts more water in the urine. If there is not enough water, the kidney uses less water in the urine. This is why people make less urine when they are dehydrated.
+
+There are many types of kidney diseases. A kidney disease makes the kidneys unable to work perfectly but they do work in part. People can have mild kidney failure and have no symptoms. As long as it does not become worse, people may not even know they have it. Severe kidney failure means very bad failure. The kidneys do not work very much at all. People with severe kidney failure always have symptoms. They may need special care from doctors.
+
+The main kinds of kidney diseases are:
+
+If a person's kidneys do not work properly, they are very sick. If they have severe kidney failure, they cannot live unless they have a replacement for their kidneys.
+
+There are two ways to replace the kidneys: dialysis and transplantation.
+
+Dialysis is when doctors use a machine and medicines to do the work of the kidneys. There are two kinds of dialysis: hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis.
+
+Peritoneal dialysis is when doctors put a plastic tube into the person's abdomen. Every day the person fills the abdomen with fluid. The extra salts, waste, and water that the body does not need goes into the fluid. Then the fluid comes out and takes the wastes with it. This does part of the job that kidneys do.
+
+Hemodialysis is when doctors take blood from a person, clean the blood with a special kind of filter, called a haemodialyser, and put it back in the person. When the blood is cleaned; water, salts and wastes are taken out of it. This must be done 2–4 times every week (usually 3 times.) It takes 2–4 hours to do this each time.
+
+Hemodialysis and peritoneal dialysis are not perfect. They do some of the work of the kidney, but it is not as good as a real kidney. So people who need dialysis are not as healthy. They must take medicines. For example, in kidney failure, the kidneys do not make any erythropoetin. Doctors have to give people erythropoetin so they make enough red blood cells.
+
+A better way to do the kidneys' work is to give the person another kidney. This is called a kidney transplant. Kidney transplants are the most common type of organ transplant. It is the most common because we have two kidneys, but only need one kidney to live. People who are alive can donate a kidney to another person.
+
+Even transplanted kidneys are not the same as kidneys people were born with. A person who gets a renal transplant must take strong medicines to stop their body from attacking the new kidney. Sometimes, after years, the transplanted kidney stops working. But sometimes a patient can get a new transplanted kidney after the first one stops working.
+
+It was widely believed in Europe that the conscience was actually located in the kidneys. This idea was taken from the Hebrew Bible. In modern times, medical scientists have shown kidneys do not have this kind of psychological role.
+
+
+

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+Sexual intercourse (or simply called sex) is the insertion and thrusting of a male's penis into a female's vagina.[1][2] People and animals that sexually reproduce use sexual intercourse to have an offspring. Sometimes sexual intercourse is called coitus or copulation and is more casually known as having sex or sleeping together. The two animals may be of opposite sexes or they may be hermaphroditic, as is the case with snails.[3] Sexual intercourse may also be between individuals of the same sex.
+
+Humans sometimes engage in behaviors that do not include the penetration of sexual organs, such as oral intercourse or anal intercourse or by non-sexual organs (fingering, fisting). These behaviors are sometimes included in the definition of sexual intercourse.[2] Sex is usually teleiophilic (between adults).[4]
+
+Two animals coming together for the purposes of sexual reproduction is called mating. Most mammals only mate when the female is at the point of estrus, which is the most fertile period of time in its reproductive cycle.[5][6] In certain animals, sexual intercourse is not only used for reproduction, but has taken other functions as well. These animals include bonobos,[7] dolphins,[8] and chimpanzees  which also have sexual intercourse even when the female is not in estrus, and to engage in sex acts with same-sex partners.[9] In most instances, humans have sex primarily for pleasure.[10] This behavior in the above mentioned animals is also presumed to be for pleasure,[11] which in turn strengthens social bonds.
+
+Many governments have laws relating to sex. Forcing someone to have sex who does not want to, called rape, is a serious crime in many countries. There are other forms of sex that may also be against the law, such as incest, sex with minors, sex outside of a marriage, prostitution, homosexual sex, sex with animals, as well as others.
+
+Sexual intercourse is the natural and most common way to make a baby.  It involves a man and woman having sex without birth control until the man ejaculates, or releases, semen from his penis into the woman's vagina.  The semen, containing sperm (which is made in his testicles), moves to the Fallopian tubes, and if it finds an ovum on its way, it will try to fertilize it.  If this works, the now fertilized ovum sticks to the side of the uterus and the woman becomes pregnant. The fertilized ovum then develops into a human. Medically, it is called a pregnancy until birth.
+
+Certain species of animals also have sex for other purposes than to bear offspring. These include Humans, bonobos,[7] chimpanzees and dolphins.[8] These species also are among those known to engage in homosexual behaviors.[9]
+In both humans and bonobos, the female has a relatively concealed ovulation.  Neither male or female partners commonly know whether she is fertile at any given moment. One reason for this may be that sex partners of these species form strong emotional bonds. The partners come together for more than just sexual intercourse. In the case of humans, long-term partnership is more important than immediate sexual reproduction.[10]
+
+Humans, bonobos and dolphins show cooperative behaviour. In many cases, this behaviour has shown better results than what an individual can achieve alone.  In these animals, the use of sex has evolved beyond reproduction and has taken additional social functions. Sex reinforces intimate social bonds between individuals. Overall, such cooperation also benefits each member of the group in that they are better able to survive.
+
+In humans, sexual intercourse seems to serve three types of purposes,which do not exclude one another:
+
+In the late 20th century, very effective forms of contraception (birth control) were developed allowing a man and women to help prevent a baby from being made when they have sex. One type of contraception is a condom. This is a piece of rubber that covers the penis that a man can wear during intercourse, which stops the man's semen from going into the woman's vagina. This does not always work though because the condom may rip or tear. Another well-known type of contraception is called the Pill, which a woman takes every day. When a woman is "on the Pill," she and her partner may have sex any time they wish with very little chance of making a baby. It is recommended that a couple who have a sexual relationship use two forms of contraception. That way if one fails the other is a 'backup'. 
+Contraception allows people to keep "sex for fun" separate from "sex to make children". For example, a fertile couple may use contraception to experience sexual pleasure (recreational). At the same time, this experience may strengthen their relationship, and a stronger relationship may mean that they will better be able to raise children in the future.
+
+Who people like to have sex with depends on their sexuality. Men who like to have sex with women, and women who like to have sex with men are heterosexual or "straight". Men who only like to have sex with other men, and women who only like to have sex with other women are homosexual or "gay". A different word to describe a woman who only likes to have sex with other women is "lesbian". Some people like both men and women, which is called being bisexual. Others do not feel sexual attraction at all, and are referred to as asexual.
+Approximately 1.5% of the UK's population in 2010 was bisexual or gay.[13]
+
+Some diseases can be caught by having sex. These diseases are called sexually-transmitted infections (STIs).[14]
+
+Some examples of STIs include chlamydia infection, syphilis and gonorrhoea. A virus called HIV causes AIDS, which cannot be cured and can lead to death.
+
+Using Latex condoms or oral dams reduce the chance that a few types of diseases will be passed on, but it not entirely effective for all STIs. Birth control (like "the Pill") can prevent pregnancy, but won't prevent sexual infections.
+
+Some STIs can also be spread in ways other than having sex. For example, herpes simplex and hepatitis B could be caught by a virgin without having sex, but can also be caught through sex. Some types of STIs can spread from contact between the genitals, mouth, anus, skin, eyes, and (rarely) infected surfaces; this depends a lot on the type of STI and how it spreads. Some common diseases like HPV can cause warts and cancer in the genitals or anus or throat.
+
+There exists an HPV vaccine that prevents some sexually-transmitted strains of HPV; however, the vaccine only works if you get vaccinated before becoming infected. The vaccine is approved of for both men and women, but is often not required in the U.S. due to politics.
+
+There are many other kinds of sex. Two of them are oral sex and anal sex.
+
+Oral sex is when one partner uses the tongue, mouth, or throat to excite the other partner's sex organs.
+
+Slangs for oral sex is common in Western cultures, for example: "going down on", "giving a blowjob", "giving head", or "eating out".  The technical term for oral sex is fellatio if performed on a male and cunnilingus if performed on a female. When a man performs fellatio on himself, it is called autofellatio, and autocunnilingus if a woman performs cunnilingus on herself. Few men and women are able to do this.
+
+People can get sexually transmitted infections from oral sex, such as herpes (which can be passed between the mouth and groin), HIV and even oral cancer.
+
+Anal sex is when an erect penis or other device made for sexual pleasure is inserted into the sexual partner's anus. Anal sex with a female does not lead to pregnancy by itself, however, semen can leak out of the anus and enter into the vagina, and pregnancy may rarely occur. Anal sex can still pass sexually transmitted diseases from one partner to another. It can also be very unhealthy for the body because the skin around the anus can tear, bleed and get infected with bacteria.[15] For safety and pleasure partners often use condoms, female condoms and/or lubrication.
+
+A painful sexual act is a condition of repeated or persistent genital pain before, during, or after sexual intercourse due to physical, psychogenic and emotional causes. Doctors call the condition as "dyspareunia". It occurs in women and men. The condition affects up to one-fifth of women at some point in their lives.[16]

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+Terrain, or relief, is the third or vertical dimension of land surface (aka "up and down" dimension.) When relief is described underwater, the term bathymetry is used. Topography has recently become an additional synonym, though in many parts of the world it retains its original more general meaning of description of place.
+
+Terrain is used as a general term in physical geography, referring to the lie of the land. This is usually expressed in terms of the elevation (height of the land,) slope (angle of the elevation,) and orientation of terrain features. Terrain affects surface water flow and distribution. Over a large area, it can affect weather and climate patterns

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+Catholicism is the traditions and beliefs of Catholic Churches. It refers to their theology, liturgy, morals and spirituality. The term usually refers to churches, both western and eastern, that are in full communion with the Holy See.
+
+In 2012, there were more than 1.1 billion Catholics worldwide. This makes up more than 17% of the world population.[1]
+
+The word "Catholicism" comes from the Greek word catholikismos (καθολικισμός). This means "according to the whole".
+
+The word "Catholicism" refers to many things, including its religious beliefs (called "theologies" and "doctrines"), and its form of religious worship (called liturgies).  The word also refers to Catholic religious beliefs about ethics (things that are right and wrong). It also refers to the ways that members of the Catholic religion live and practice their religion.[2][3]
+
+Many people use the word "Catholicism " to talk about religious beliefs of the Catholic Church, whose leader is called the "Bishop of Rome" and often called the "Pope". The Catholic Church is based in the Vatican City, a small independent country in the city of Rome, Italy.[4] Sometimes the word also refers to beliefs of other Christian churches, including the Eastern Orthodox Churches, who have many beliefs similar to the Catholic Church, but do not believe the Bishop of Rome is their leader.
+
+The word "Catholicism" is often used to tell the difference between the beliefs of Catholic Christians and the beliefs of others called Protestant Christians. Catholic and Orthodox churches use church leaders, called bishops, to determine beliefs. Protestants, however, often use each member's own understanding of the Bible to determine beliefs. Protestants use guidelines from the 16th-century Protestant Reformation to understand the Bible.[5] It is the world's second largest religious denomination after Sunnism.[6]
+
+The oldest document that uses the name "Catholic Church" is a letter written by a man named Ignatius. Ignatius lived in the ancient city of Antioch. In the year 107, Ignatius wrote a letter addressed to the Christian community in the ancient city of Smyrna. In this letter, Ignatius encouraged the Christian Community to be loyal to their leader, the Bishop. Ignatius wrote:
+
+"Wherever the bishop shall appear, there let the multitude of the people also be; even as, wherever Jesus Christ is, there is the Catholic Church."[7][8]
+
+Many different denominations (groups) of Christians call themselves "catholic". Often these groups have special beliefs about their leaders, called bishops. They believe Jesus of Nazareth (whom Christians believe is the Son of God) appointed the first bishops, who appointed future bishops, who eventually appointed each community's current bishops. This appointing of leaders is called "Apostolic Succession".
+
+The groups that use the term "Catholic" to talk about themselves are the:
+
+Not all communities believe that other communities use the term "catholic" properly. Also, not all communities believe that the other communities have apostolic succession either. For example, the Catholic Church believes that the Eastern Orthodox have apostolic succession. However, the Catholic Church does not believe that the Anglicans or Lutherans have it.
+
+Eastern Orthodox have similar beliefs about Anglicans and Lutherans. Not all Eastern Orthodox believe that the Catholic Church has apostolic succession. Different members of the Eastern Orthodox churches have different opinions.
+
+However, the Anglicans and Lutherans generally believe that all Christians are part of the "catholic" church. These groups have a very different understanding of the term "Catholic".[11][12]
+
+Catholicism was started as a result of Jesus of Nazareth, a Jewish man whom Christians believe is the Son of God, a Christian belief known as the Trinity (Father, Son, and Holy Spirit). Catholics believe Jesus to be a descendant of David, a Jewish king from a long time ago. Jesus was crucified by the Romans in the year 33 AD. Catholics believe Jesus rose from the dead, and spoke to his followers, called the twelve Apostles. They also believe that Jesus rose into Heaven, and then sent the Holy Spirit to guide his followers at an event known as Pentecost.
+
+One of his followers, the apostle named Saint Peter, was appointed leader by Jesus and later became recognized as the first Pope, or Bishop of Rome, soon after that he was captured and was martyred in Rome. Catholics believe that Saint Peter was given the "keys of the Kingdom of Heaven," meaning that Jesus made him and the apostles in charge of forgiving sins. Catholics believe that Saint Peter passed the Apostolic Power (the ability to ordain priests and consecrate the Eucharist), given to him by Christ, to the Popes, who continue to pass the power through the papacy to this day. At the current time, the pope is Pope Francis, who is the leader of the Catholic Church. The word pope comes from the Latin word for "father."
+
+In 325, the First Council of Nicaea agreed on how to organize the church. The council agreed the Church had five patriarchs (patriarch was the highest type of church leader). The five leaders were the archbishops of Rome (the Pope), Alexandria, Antioch, Constantinople, and Jerusalem. The Patriarch of Rome, was honored as "first among equals."
+
+In time, several groups split off from the Catholic Church because of differing opinions of theology. This caused breaks from the Church called schisms. Most schisms happened because people had different beliefs about what is true.
+
+In 451, a church division happened when all the church leaders meeting at the Church Council in the city of Chalcedon excommunicated (cut off) three leaders, because they held to monophysitism and would not accept the view that Jesus had two natures (fully divine and fully human). These three were the bishops of Egypt, Syria, and Armenia. Of course, these three bishops did not accept being excommunicated either, so the churches under them are still known today as Oriental Orthodox Churches.
+
+In 1054, an Eastern part of the Catholic Church severed itself, in the East-West Schism. The church in Western Europe which followed the Pope, became known as the Roman Catholic Church. The churches in the rest of the world, which did not think that the Pope should lead all Christians, became known as the Orthodox Church. "Orthodox" means "correct belief;" as they believe that they have kept the teachings of the early church, and the Roman Catholics have not.
+
+The next big secession was the Protestant Reformation. Protestants resisted the valid central authority of the Church in Rome and rejected many practices, beliefs and disciplines. The Reformation started in Germany, where Martin Luther sent his demands for change to the Church. Because of politics in Europe, many nations supported Luther. The Lutheran Church was started. Later the Calvinist or Presbyterian Church started.
+
+In England, King Henry VIII started the Anglican church. He wanted to divorce his first wife; but the Pope wouldn't allow it, as the marriage was valid. At first, the church of King Henry VIII, the Church of England, was very similar to the Catholic Church. The major difference was that the king was head of the church, instead of the Pope. Later, under his son, Edward VI, the Anglican Church became more reformed or Protestant. Anglicans, and several other Protestant denominations, still believe they are reformed Catholics. Puritanism arose among Anglicans who thought the reforms didn't go far enough.
+
+After the Reformation, many other Churches began because of disagreements over beliefs and practices of earlier Protestant doctrine. According to the 2010 U.S. Religious Congregations and Membership Study,[13] this accounts for most of the Protestant denominations in the United States. There are about 314,000 of these. Two examples of these Protestant (or Reformed) churches are Methodist and Baptist.

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+
+
+Oats (Avena sativa) are a type of cereal grain. People use them as food for themselves and other animals, for example, chickens and horses. Oatmeal is made from oats. Oat straw is used as bedding for animals.
+
+Porridge is made only from whole grain oats. It forms an excellent part of a balanced diet for the following reasons:
+
+The wild ancestor of Avena sativa and the similar minor crop, A. byzantina, is the hexaploid wild oat A. sterilis. Science of DNA shows that the ancestor forms of A. sterilis grew in the Fertile Crescent of the Near East. Domesticated oats appear later. They are also far from the Near East, in Bronze Age Europe. Oats are like rye. They are normally thought as a less important crop, i.e. coming from a weed out of the main cereals wheat and barley   As these cereals spread into cooler, wetter places, this may have favored the oat weed. This quickly leads to its common use.[1]
+
+Oats are grown all over temperate places. They have a lower summer heat need and are able to survive more rain than other cereals like wheat, rye or barley. Oats are an annual plant, and can be planted either in autumn (for late summer harvest) or in the spring (for early autumn harvest).
+
+Historical attitudes towards oats are very different. Oat bread was first made in England, where the first oat bread factory was made in 1899. In Scotland, are well liked, as a good part of the national diet. The English writer Samuel Johnson, famously wrote in A Dictionary of the English Language that the oat was a grain, which in England is generally given to horses, but in Scotland supports the people. Which the Scottish quickly said back "and England has the best horses, and Scotland the best men."
+
+Oats have many uses in food. Most of the time they are rolled or crushed into oatmeal, or ground into oat flour. Oatmeal is also eaten as porridge, but may also be used in many of baked goods, such as oat cakes, oatmeal cookies, and oat bread. Oats are also an substance used in many cold cereals, in particular muesli and granola. Without cooking, oats may also be taken as food.
+
+Oats are also sometimes used in drinks. In Britain, it is used for making beer. Oatmeal stout is one of many beers using some oats.  A cold, sweet drink made of ground oats and milk is a well liked drink in  Latin America. 'Oatmeal caudle', made of ale and oatmeal with spices was a usual British drink and well-liked by Oliver Cromwell.[2][3]
+
+In Scotland a dish called Sowans was made by putting the husks from oats in water for a week so that the fine, dusty part of the meal remained at the bottom to be strained off, boiled and taken as food (Gauldie 1981). Oats are also widely used there as a thickener in soups, as barley or rice might be used in other countries.
+
+Oats are also commonly used as feed for horses - as  whole or rolled oats or as part of  food bits. Cattle are also fed oats, either whole, or ground into a  flour using a mill.
+
+Oat straw is prized by cattle and horse makers as bedding, because its soft, almost dust-free, and takes in liquid. The straw can also be used for making corn dollies. Tied in a cotton bag, oat straw was used to soften bath-water.
+
+Things take out of oatscan also be used to make pain less sharp in the skin, as in skin lotions. It is the main substance in the Aveeno line of products.[4]
+
+Oats are mostly thought as "healthy" food. The finding of the healthy cholesterol-lowering properties has led to more liking of oats as human food.
+
+Oat is the only cereal having a globulin or legume-like protein, avenalin, as the major (80%) storage protein.[5] Globulins can be taken up by weak salt water. The more common cereal proteins are gluten and zein. The minor protein of oat is avenin.
+
+Oat protein is almost the same in quality as soy bean protein, which has been shown by the World Health Organization to be equal to meat, milk, and egg protein.[6] The amount of protein of the hull-less oat kernel ranges from 12–24%, which is the highest among cereals.

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+
+
+Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite) · Assyrian
+
+Jehovah's Witness · Latter Day Saint · Unitarian · Christadelphian · Oneness Pentecostal
+
+Christianity is the largest world religion by number of adherents (around 2.4 billion). Members of the religion are called Christians. Christians generally believe Jesus to be son of God, the second person of the Trinity.[1] It is a monotheistic religion, meaning it has only one God.[2]. It is based on the life and teachings of Jesus of Nazareth.
+
+Though there are many religious people and sects that call themselves Christians, true Christian Faith is rooted in Salvation by Faith, through Grace Alone. Trinity, the diviniy of Christ etc. are foundational truths.
+
+To most of the people of his time Jesus was a preacher, teacher, healer, and prophet from ancient Judea. However, his disciples believed him to be much more than that: they believed that Jesus was God's one and only son who was sent down to earth to die on a cross for their sins. The man said to be his father, Joseph, was a carpenter. Jesus was executed by being nailed to a cross (or crucified) under Pontius Pilate, the local Roman governor at the time.[3] His life and followers are written about in the New Testament, part of the Bible.  Christians consider the Bible, both the Old Testament and New Testament, as sacred.[4] The Gospels or "The Good News" are the first four books of the New Testament and are about the life of Jesus, his death, and him rising from the dead.
+
+God created the world. Jesus is the name of God the Son. Christians believe Him to be the Son of God. They believe that He was the human son of the Virgin Mary and the divine Son of God. They believe he suffered and died to free humans from their sin[5] and was later raised from the dead. He then went up into Heaven. At the end of time, Jesus will come back to Earth to judge all mankind, both alive and dead, giving everlasting life to those who believe in him.  The Holy Spirit is the spirit of God on the Earth that spoke through prophets.
+
+The prophets foretold in the Old Testament of Jesus as the Savior. Christians think of Jesus Christ as a teacher, a role model, and someone who revealed who the Christian God was.
+
+Just like Judaism and Islam, Christianity is an Abrahamic religion.[6][7] Christianity started out as a Jewish sect[8][9] in the eastern Mediterranean. It quickly grew in number of believers and influence over a few decades, and by the 4th Century it had become the dominant religion in the Roman Empire. The Kingdom of Aksum became the first empire to adopt Christianity. During the Middle Ages, the rest of Europe mostly was Christianized. At that time, Christians were mostly a religious minority in the Middle East, North Africa, and parts of India.[10] Following the Age of Discovery, through missionary work and colonization, Christianity spread to Africa, the Americas, and the rest of the world.
+
+Christianity has been an important part of the shaping of the world.[11] As of the early 21st century, Christianity has approximately 2.2 billion followers.[12][13]
+
+The most basic part of Christianity is the belief in Jesus as the Son of God and Messiah (Christ). The title "Messiah" comes from the Hebrew word מָשִׁיחַ (māšiáħ) meaning anointed one. The Greek translation Χριστός (Christos) is the source of the English word "Christ". Joshua is English for the Hebrew word Yeshua.
+
+Christians believe that, as the Messiah, Jesus was anointed by God as ruler and savior of all people. Christians also believe that Jesus' coming was the fulfillment of prophecies of the Old Testament. The Christian belief of the Messiah is much different than the contemporary Jewish concept. The main Christian belief is that, through the death and resurrection of Jesus, sinful humans can be reconciled to God. Through this, they believe they are given salvation and eternal life.[14]
+
+There have been many theological disagreements over the nature of Jesus over the first centuries of Christian history. But Christians generally believe that Jesus is God incarnate and "true God and true man." Jesus, having become fully human, suffered the pain and temptations of a mortal man, but he did not sin. As fully God, he defeated death and came back to life again. According to the Bible, "God raised him from the dead,"[15] he ascended to heaven, is "seated at the right hand of the Father"[16] and will return again[17] to fulfill the rest of Messianic prophecy such as the Resurrection of the Dead, the Last Judgment, and the final creation of the Kingdom of God.
+
+The Gospels of Matthew and Luke say that Jesus was conceived by the Holy Spirit and born from the Virgin Mary. Only a little of Jesus' childhood is written in the canonical gospels, but infancy gospels were popular in antiquity. However, the time of Jesus' adulthood the week before his death is written much about in the gospels. Some of the Biblical writings of Jesus' ministry are: his baptism, miracles, preaching, teaching, and deeds.
+
+Christians believe the resurrection of Jesus to be the main part of their faith (see 1 Corinthians 15) and the most important event in human history because it would show that Jesus has power over death and has the authority to give people eternal life.[18][19]
+
+Among Christian beliefs, the death and resurrection of Jesus are two main events of Christian doctrine and theology.[20][21] From what the New Testament says, Jesus was crucified, died a physical death, was buried in a tomb, and rose from the dead on the third day afterwards.[22] Most Christians place his death on a Friday each year, which is the first day of his death. Saturday is the second day, and Sunday is the third day. The New Testament writes that several times Jesus appeared many times before his Twelve Apostles and disciples, and one time before "more than five hundred brethren at once,"[23] before Jesus' Ascension to heaven. Jesus' death and resurrection are remember by Christians in their worship services, and most commonly during Holy Week, which has Good Friday and Easter Sunday in the week
+
+Protestantism teaches that eternal salvation is a gift that is given to a person by God's grace. It is sometimes called "unmerited favor." This would mean that Salvation is God bringing humans into a right relationship with God through faith in Jesus Christ. It is the belief that one can be saved (rescued) from sin and forever death. Many Protestants believe in the "assurance of salvation"—that God can put confidence in a believer that he has truly received salvation from Jesus Christ.
+
+Catholicism teaches that although in most cases someone must be baptized a Catholic to be saved,[24] it is sometimes possible for people to be saved who have not fully joined the Catholic Church.[25] Catholics normally believe in the importance of "faith working through love" and sacraments in receiving salvation. The Catholic Church teaches that good works and piety, such as obedience to commands, taking the sacraments, going to church, doing penance giving alms, saying prayers, and other things, are important in becoming holy, but strongly emphasize that salvation is through God's grace alone, and all we can do is receive it.[26]
+
+Different denominations and traditions of Christianity believe in forms divine grace. Roman Catholicism and Eastern Orthodoxy teach the complete importance of the free will to work together with grace.[27] Reformed theology teaches the importance of grace by teaching that a person is completely incapable of self-redemption, but the grace of God overcomes even the unwilling heart.[28] Arminianism believes in a synergistic view, while Lutheran and most other Protestant denominations teach justification by grace through faith alone.[29]
+
+Christianity uses the Bible, a collection of many canonical books in two parts, the Old Testament and the New Testament. It is believed by Christians that they were written by people who were inspired by the Holy Spirit, and therefore it is most often believed to be the word of God.[30] The Bible has been translated into over 600 languages. The translators are able to verify accuracy by using thousands of handwritten copies of the scriptures which are in the original languages of Hebrew Aramaic, and Greek.
+
+Creeds (from Latin credo meaning "I believe") are direct doctrinal statements or confessions, usually of religious beliefs. They started as formulas used when someone was baptised. During the Christological controversies of the 4th and 5th centuries they became statements of faith.
+
+Some main Christian creeds are:
+
+Many Christians accept the use of creeds, and often use at least one of the creeds given above.[31] A smaller number of Protestants, notably Restorationists, a movement formed in the wake of the Second Great Awakening in the 19th century of the 19th century United States, oppose the use of creeds.[32]
+
+The Bible mentions God the Father, God the Son, and the Holy Spirit, and yet Christian believe that there is only one God. This idea, called Trinity, was started at the First Council of Nicaea, in 325, and developed during several church meetings or councils. Today, many Christian groups agree with it. Oriental Orthodox Churches did not agree with the idea, and split after the council. The biggest of the Oriental Orthodox is the  Coptic Orthodox Church[33]. The Oriental Orthodox Churches agree with the ideas in the First Council of Nicaea, but they disagree with other councils.
+Trinitarianism is the teaching that God is three different persons, or has three different relations, within One God; the Father, the Son (Jesus Christ), and the Holy Spirit. In the words of the Athanasian Creed, "the Father is God, the Son is God, and the Holy Spirit is God, and yet there are not three Gods but one God."[34]
+
+Trinitarianism is the group of Christians who believe in the doctrine of Trinity. Today, most Christian denominations and Churches believe this. Churches have different teachings about the trinitarian formula. Some say the Spirit comes only from the Father. Others say the Spirit comes both from the Father and the Son. This is known as filioque. Nontrinitarianism (also called Oneness) is the beliefs systems that reject the Trinity. Many different Nontrinitarian views, such as adoptionism or modalism, existed in early Christianity, leading to the disputes about Christology.[35]
+
+An example of a more recent Christian movement that rejects trinitarianism is the Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints[36]. The Latter Day Saints started in the first half of the 19th century, in the United States. There are other smaller Christian groups who also reject trinitarianism.
+
+Christians  believe that human beings will receive judgement from God and are given either eternal life or eternal damnation. This includes the "Last Judgment" as well as the belief of a judgement particular to the soul after death.
+
+There are also some differences among Christians in this belief. For example, in Roman Catholicism, those who die in a state of grace, go into purgatory, where they are cleansed before they can go into heaven.[37]
+
+Christians believe that at the second coming of Christ at the end of time, all who have died will be raised up from the dead for the Last Judgment, when Jesus will establish the Kingdom of God.[38] There is also the belief of Universal Reconciliation. That is the belief that all people will someday be saved, and that hell is not forever.[39] Christians who believe in this view are known as Universalists.[40]
+
+Christians have different ways to talk about the purpose of Jesus' coming:
+
+Worship is thought by most Christians to be a very important part of Christianity all through its history. Many Christian theologians have called humanity homo adorans, which means "worshiping ," and so the worship of God is at the very center of what it means to be human. This would mean that because God created all humanity, Christians should worship and give praise to God.
+
+Most Christian worship has Scripture reading, talk about Scripture from a leader, singing, prayer together, and a small time for Church work. Christians may meet in special buildings, also called Churches, or outdoors, or at schools, or anywhere Christians feel they are needed.
+
+The main worship service in Catholic Churches is the Mass and the main worship service in many Orthodox Churches is called the Divine Liturgy. In both of these Churches, along with the other parts of worship, the Eucharist or Communion is central. Here a priest by prayer asks God to change a small amount of bread and wine into what Catholics and Orthodox believe is Jesus's real body and blood, but without changing the accidents (appearance, taste, colour, etc.) of the bread and wine. Then the people each may receive a portion. Many Protestant churches have worship services similar to the Mass, some every week, others a few times a year. Some Protestants believe Jesus is really present at the Communion service, and some believe the bread and wine are symbols to help them remember what Jesus did
+
+The Catholic Church has developed a short ceremony, Eucharistic Benediction, worshiping Jesus present in the Eucharist. They also may visit a Church building to pray in the presence of the Eucharist, Eucharistic Adoration.
+
+The Orthodox and Catholic Churches spirituality place importance on the use of human senses such as sight and on the use of beautiful things. Catholic spirituality often involves the use of statues and other artistic representations, candles, incense, and other physical items as reminders or aids to prayer. The Orthodox Churches also use candles, incense, bells, and icons, but not statues. Orthodox and Catholic worship also makes use of movements, such as the Sign of the Cross, made by each person touching first the forehead, then chest, one shoulder, then the other shoulder. There is also bowing, kneeling, and prostration in Catholic and Orthodox worship.
+
+In Catholic belief and practice, a sacrament is a religious symbol or often a rite which shows divine grace, blessing, or sanctity for the Christian who receives it. Examples of sacraments are Baptism and the Mass." [42] The word is taken from the Latin word sacramentum, which was used to translate the Greek word for mystery.
+
+The two most regularly used sacraments are Baptism and Eucharist (communion). Most Catholics use seven Sacraments: Baptism, the ritual immersion of a candidate to welcome them into the church; Confirmation, the sealing of the Covenant; the Eucharist, a ritual where consecrated bread (discs of unleavened, toasted bread) and wine representing Jesus' body and blood are consumed; Holy Orders, Reconciliation of a Penitent (confession), Anointing of the Sick, and Marriage. Some Christian denominations prefer to call them ordinances. These are the Orders from Christ to all believers found in the New Testament.
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+Roman Catholics, Anglicans, Eastern Christians, and traditional Protestant groups center their worship around a liturgical calendar. Some events that are part of this calendar are the "holy days", such as solemnities which honor an event in the life of Jesus or the saints, times of fasting such as Lent, and other events, such as memoria. Christian groups that do not follow a liturgical tradition often keep some celebrations, such as Christmas, Easter,and Pentecost. A few churches do not use a liturgical calendar.[43]
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+These are some symbols that some denominations or individual churches may use:
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+Christianity has had a large history from the time of Jesus and his apostles to the present time. Christianity began in the 1st century AD as a Jewish sect but quickly spread throughout the Greco-Roman world. Although it was originally persecuted under the Roman Empire, it later became the state religion. In the Middle Ages it spread into Northern Europe and Russia. During the Age of Exploration, Christianity expanded throughout the world, and is now the largest religion of the world.[44]
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+The religion had schisms and theological disputes that had as result ten main branches or groupings: Catholicism, Eastern Orthodoxy, the Church of the East (Nestorianism), Oriental Orthodoxy (Miaphysitism), Lutheranism, the Reformed churches (Calvinism), Anglicanism, Anabaptism, Evangelicalism—these last five often grouped and labeled as Protestant—and Nontrinitarianism.[45]
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+People who call themselves Christians may show or live their faith in different ways. They may also believe different things. Through history the ten main groups or "denominations" of Christianity have been the (Eastern) Orthodox, the Church of the East (Nestorian), the Oriental Orthodox (Miaphysite), the Catholic, the Anglican, the Lutheran, the Reformed, the Anabaptist, the Evangelical, and the Nontrinitarian churches. These latter six are often grouped together as Protestant, but Nontrinitarians are also more commonly grouped separately. Not all Christians use these titles. Some believe Christianity is bigger and includes others. Some believe Christianity is smaller and does not include all these churches.[46]
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+Some of these groups could not agree on certain points about Christian teaching (called “doctrine”) or practice. The first split was in the 5th century after the Church Council of Ephesus. The council agreed Nestorianism was wrong. The Assyrian Church of the East did not agree and split from the rest. The argument was about the nature of Jesus. Should he be regarded as God and human in one combined nature, or in two separate natures? Most of the bishops, following the Pope (the Bishop of Rome), refused to stay in communion with any bishop who would not say "two separate natures". This was also discussed at the Council of Chalcedon, about 20 years later. The Christians who did not agree with the decision of the Council to excommunicate them, became the non-Chalcedonian Orthodox. The largest Non-Chalcedonian Churches are the Coptic Orthodox in Egypt, the Ethiopian Orthodox, the Armenian, and some Lebanese Orthodox Churches. In general, these churches are known as Oriental Orthodox Churches. Recent discussions between the Roman Catholic Pope John Paul II and the Coptic Orthodox Pope Shenouda III concluded that they believe many of the same things after all, even though the Coptic Church does not recognize the Pope of Rome as its leader.
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+The third split happened in the 11th century. It is called the Great Schism. It was mostly based on the creed being translated incorrectly from Greek into Latin. The disagreements were made worse because the two cultures often did not understand one another. Also, many Crusaders from Western Europe behaved badly. The Christians in Western Europe were led by the Bishop of Rome, known also as the Pope. They are called the Catholic Church. Most Christians in Eastern Europe, Russia, the Middle East and South Asia, and northeast Africa belong to Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite Christianity, led by the Bishops of other cities or areas.
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+In the 15th century the invention of the printing press made it easier for more people to read and study the Bible. This led many thinkers over the years to return to biblical ideas and to break away from the Catholic Church. They started the Protestant Reformation. The most important Protestant leaders were Jan Hus, Martin Luther, and John Calvin. Later some of these groups disagreed amongst themselves so that these denominations split again into smaller groups. The largest Protestant denominations today are within Evangelical, Lutheran, and Reformed Christianity. In England, a similar protest against the Pope, first political and later religious, led to the Church of England which has bishops and officially calls itself Reformed Catholic but is often referred to as Protestant. The Anglican communion of churches includes several churches called "Episcopal" or "Episcopalian" because they have bishops. Some Anglican Churches have a style of worship that is closer to the Protestant services, others worship more like Catholics, but none of them accept the Pope, or are accepted by him. The Anabaptists also arose from disagreements with Lutheran and Reformed Protestants during what is often called the Radical Reformation. The Evangelical churches arose in reaction to what they views as needs for reform within mainstream Protestantism. This can be seen in the rise of non-conformist movements against the Anglican church in Britain and during revivalist movements, prominently in the several Great Awakenings in Britain and North America. Denominations that arose or surged as a result of these Evangelical reform, renewal, and revival movements include Quakers, Baptists, Moravians, Methodists, the Restoration (Stone-Campbell) movement, Adventists, the Holiness movement, Pentecostals, the Fundamentalist movement, the Charismatic movement, Messianic Judaism, among others including many independent and non-denominational churches. In general, some Protestant denominations, especially within Anabaptism and Evangelicalism, differ from the Catholic, Orthodox, Nestorian, and Miaphysite churches in having given up some of the traditional sacraments, having no ordained priesthood, and not having the same fondness for Mary, the mother of Jesus, that the Catholic and Eastern churches have.
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+With an estimated number of Christians being somewhere around to 2.2 billion,[13][47] split into around 34,000 different denominations, Christianity is the world's largest religion.[48] The Christian share of the world's population has been around 33% for the last hundred years. This has caused Christianity to spread throughout the world, mainly in Europe and North America.[49] It is still the main religion of Europe, the Americas, the Philippines, and Southern Africa.[50] However it is becoming smaller in some areas, some of them are; Oceania (Australia and New Zealand), Northern Europe (with Great Britain,[51] Scandinavia and other places), France, Germany, the Canadian provinces of Ontario, British Columbia, and Quebec, the Western and Northern parts of the United States, and parts of Asia (especially the Middle East,[52][53][54] South Korea,[55] Taiwan[56] and Macau[57]).
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+In most countries in the developed world, the number of people going to church who claim to be Christians has been dropping over the last few decades.[58] Some believe that this is only because many no longer use regular membership in places, for example, churches,[59] while others believe it is because people may be thinking that religion is no longer important.[60]
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+Most churches have for a long time showed that they want to be tolerant with other belief systems, and in the 20th century Christian ecumenism (the uniting of Christians from different backgrounds), advanced in two ways.[61] One way was more cooperation between groups, such as the Edinburgh Missionary Conference of Protestants in 1910, the Justice, Peace and Creation Commission of the World Council of Churches started in 1948 by Protestant and Orthodox churches, and similar national councils, for example the National Council of Churches in Australia with Roman Catholics.[61]
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+The other way was creating unions for different churches to join together. Congregationalist, Methodist, and Presbyterian churches joined together in 1925 to form the United Church of Canada,[62] and in 1977 to form the Uniting Church in Australia. The Church of South India was formed in 1947 by the union of Anglican, Methodist, Congregationalist, Presbyterian, and Reformed churches.[63] And other such formations have been done by different Christian groups throughout the years.
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+Catholic: Roman Catholic · Eastern Catholic · Independent Catholic · Old Catholic
+Protestant: Lutheran · Reformed · Anabaptist · Baptist · Anglican · Methodist · Evangelical · Holiness · Pentecostal
+Eastern: Eastern Orthodox · Oriental Orthodox · Assyrian