f17399f317468994e496a3e8762d3a3a9f11edd6963a66de8e7484b4c20dbe8a

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+Puerto Rico, or the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a U.S. territory in the Caribbean Sea.[6] This means that it is part of the United States and citizens of Puerto Rico are citizens of the United States as well. Puerto Rico is not an independent country. Because it is not a state, citizens cannot vote in U.S. national elections unless they have an address in one of the 50  US states.
+
+Puerto Rico has almost 4 million (4,000,000) people. Its political system is based on a republican system. It has two official languages: Spanish and English. The currency used is the United States dollar. Puerto Rico means "rich port" in Spanish.
+
+The Commonwealth of Puerto Rico includes the largest, main island and a number of smaller islands, including Mona, Vieques, and Culebra. Of those three smaller islands, only Culebra and Vieques are populated all year. Mona is unpopulated, but employees of the Puerto Rico Department of Natural Resources sometimes visit the island to inspect it and its wildlife. People can visit the island for hiking and camping by getting the permission needed. San Juan, on the northern side of the main island, is the island's largest city and the capital of the territory. The common languages are Spanish spoken by 94.7% of the population and English, spoken by 5.3%.
+
+On May 3, 2017, Puerto Rico filed for bankruptcy after a massive debt and weak economy.[7] It is the largest bankruptcy case in American history.[7]
+
+Puerto Rico is one of the unincorporated territories of the USA. These are organized, self-governing territories with locally elected governors and legislatures. Puerto Rico elects a  Resident Commissioner to the U.S. House of Representatives.[8]
+
+The history of Puerto Rico began when the Ortoiroid people started living in the island between 3000 and 2000 BC. Other tribes, for example the Saladoid and Arawak Indians, lived in the island between 430 BC and 1000 AD. When Christopher Columbus arrived at the island in 1492 and named it San Juan Bautista,[9] the people living there were the Taínos.[10][11]
+
+Since it is in the northeastern Caribbean Sea, Puerto Rico formed an important part of the Spanish Empire from the early years of the exploration, conquest, and colonization of the New World.
+
+The island was a major military post during many wars between Spain and other European countries for control of the region in the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. In 1898, during the Spanish-American war, Puerto Rico was invaded and became a possession of the United States.
+
+During the 20th century, Puerto Rico's political status changed from time to time. The Foraker Act of 1900 created a civil government to replace the military government made after the Spanish–American war, and the Jones Act of 1917 gave Puerto Rican people United States citizenship. Afterwards, in 1952, the drafting of Puerto Rico's own Constitution and democratic elections were established.
+
+The political status of Puerto Rico, a Commonwealth controlled by the United States, is still not completely defined. Many people want to resolve this status, while others want the status to remain the same. Of the people who want to change the status, some want Puerto Rico to become a new U.S. state, while others want Puerto Rico to become a fully independent country.
+
+Puerto Rico is an archipelago, with a main island where most of the population lives, two smaller islands (Vieques and Culebra) with residents, and many other smaller islands. The main island has a mountain range in the center, which covers most of the island. The highest point is 4,390 feet (1,338 meters)
+
+Puerto Rico has three main political parties: the Puerto Rican Independence Party, which favors Puerto Rico becoming an independent nation; the New Progressive Party, which supports Puerto Rico's transition to becoming a state of the U.S; and the Popular Democratic Party, which supports Colonialism.
+
+The issue of the political status of the island (meaning whether it's a country, a U.S state, or a colony) is an issue of debate amongst the Puerto Rican people. In the past there have been many attempts to clearly define the island's political status by means of voting. Most of the time the majority of the people have chosen to remain a colony. However, in the last "status voting" the colonial option appeared to have lost well over 90% of its support, while the U.S state option has only gained strength in the last few decades. The Puerto Rican Independence party, on the other hand, has mainly lost a great deal of support within the last six decades.
+
+Puerto Rico is said to comprise a White majority, an extinct Amerindian population, persons of mixed ancestry, Africans and a small Asian minority. Recent genetic research, however, contradicts that information. According to the 2010 US Census, 99% of the population consider themselves of Puerto Rican descent (regardless of race or skin color), making Puerto Rico one of the most culturally unified societies in the world.
+
+The population of Puerto Rico is nearly about 4 million people. The ethnic composition of the population is:

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+Pulsars [1] are neutron stars which spin rapidly and produce huge electromagnetic radiation along a narrow beam. Neutron stars are very dense, and have short, regular spins. This produces a very precise interval between pulses that range from roughly milliseconds to seconds for an individual pulsar. The pulse can only be seen if the Earth is close enough to the direction of the beam. Similar to how you can only see a lighthouse when the beam is shining at your direction.
+
+The pulses match the star's turns. The spinning causes a lighthouse effect, as the radiation is only seen at short intervals. Werner Becker of the Max Planck Institute for Extraterrestrial Physics recently said,
+
+The first pulsar was discovered in 1967. It was discovered by Jocelyn Bell Burnell and Antony Hewish. They worked at the University of Cambridge.[3] The observed emission had pulses separated by 1.33 seconds. The pulses all came from the same place in the sky. The source kept to sidereal time.[4] At first, they did not understand why pulsars have a regular change in the strength of radiation. The word pulsar is short for "pulsating star".
+
+This original pulsar, now called CP 1919, produces radio wavelengths, but pulsars have later been found to produce radiation in the X-ray and/or gamma ray wavelengths.
+
+In 1974, Antony Hewish became the first astronomer to be awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics. Controversy occurred because he was awarded the prize while Bell was not. She had made the initial discovery while she was his Ph.D student. Bell claims no bitterness upon this point, supporting the decision of the Nobel prize committee.[5] "Some people call it the No-Bell prize because they feel so strongly that Jocelyn Bell Burnell should have shared in the award".[6]
+
+In 1974, Joseph Hooton Taylor Jr. and Russell Hulse discovered for the first time a pulsar in a binary system. This pulsar orbits another neutron star with an orbital period of just eight hours. Einstein's theory of general relativity predicts that this system should emit strong gravitational radiation, causing the orbit to continually contract as it loses orbital energy. Observations of the pulsar soon confirmed this prediction, providing the first ever evidence of the existence of gravitational waves. As of 2010, observations of this pulsar continue to agree with general relativity.[7] In 1993, the Nobel Prize in Physics was awarded to Taylor and Hulse for the discovery of this pulsar.[8]
+
+Astronomers know that there are three different kinds of pulsars:
+
+Although all three kinds of objects are neutron stars, the things that they can be seen to do and the physics that causes this are very different. But there are some things that are similar. For example, X-ray pulsars are probably old rotation-powered pulsars that have already lost most of their energy, and can only be seen again after their binary companions expanded and matter from them started falling onto the neutron star. The process of accretion (matter falling onto the neutron star) can in turn give enough angular momentum energy to the neutron star to change it into a rotation-powered millisecond pulsar.
+
+Precise clock
+For some millisecond pulsars, the regularity of pulsation is more precise than an atomic clock.[9]
+This stability allows millisecond pulsars to be used in establishing ephemeris time,[10][11]or building pulsar clocks.[12]
+
+Timing noise is the name for rotational irregularities observed in all pulsars.  This timing noise is observable as random wandering in the pulse frequency or phase.[13]  It is unknown whether timing noise is related to pulsar glitches.
+
+The study of pulsars has resulted in many uses in physics and astronomy. Major examples include the proof of gravitational radiation as forecasted by general relativity and the first proof of exoplanets. In the 1980s, astronomers measured pulsar radiation to prove that the North American and European continents are drifting away from one another. This movement is evidence of plate tectonics.

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+
+
+Pumas (Puma concolor), also called cougars, mountain lions or brown panthers, are large wild cats that live in the western half of North America, along with Florida, and most of Central and South America. Pumas are mainly tan-color, and can be up to 9 feet long, although average length is 6 – 8 feet. They can weigh from 29 kilograms to 90 kilograms.  (The males are larger.)  Most pumas live up to 21 years.[source?] Although pumas are very large and some are larger than humans, the puma is classified as a small cat. That means that, in scientific terms, the puma is more closely related to the domestic cat than they are to lions. Unlike the big cats in the genus Panthera, the puma cannot roar. Instead, it can growl, hiss, screech, and purr. Since pumas are, in the biological sense, small cats, they are capable of purring continuously. The big cats can only purr while breathing out.
+
+Pumas are carnivores because they eat only meat. Pumas are apex predators. They hunt deer, raccoons, squirrels, foxes, rabbits and skunks.  They can also eat mice, beavers, coyotes, bobcats, birds, porcupines, cattle, goats, fish and bear cubs. They hunt at night. Cougars can see better at night than people can.  They can hear well too.  Pumas stalk their prey, which means they walk slowly and quietly, they hide and then when close, they jump or run fast to catch their prey by surprise.  They live and hunt alone. Female cougars take care of their babies until they are old enough to take care for themselves. Baby cougars are called cubs or kittens.
+
+Pumas live in the mountains and forests far from people. However, encounters with humans happen sometimes. 26 people have been killed by cougars in North America in the last 30 years. However, many more cougars have been killed by humans. Cougars used to be found all in eastern North America, but they were hunted to extinction there by the beginning of the 1900s. Also, recent sightings of cougars have been reported from Michigan, New Brunswick, southern Indiana, Kentucky, and Vermont. For now, the only confirmed, population of cougars east of the Mississippi River is in Florida, where a subspecies of the cougar called the Florida Panther lives.
+
+Schools that have a cougar as their mascot include:

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+Pyŏngyang (평양 직할시 in hangul, 平壤直轄市 in hanja) is the capital and biggest city in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea or DPRK (North Korea). The government does not want people from outside the country to know anything about North Korea, so Pyongyang is one of the few places in North Korea that foreigners (people from other countries) can travel to.
+
+Pyongyang is a closed city meaning that North Koreans can't just go there. They must apply for a permit or be high up in the military. It is the most advanced city in the country which allows tourists to go there. Pyongyang does not really show what North Korea is really like, because the government uses it to pretend to tourists that the country is not poor. The city is kept very clean and littering is strictly not allowed. The city is home to the DPRK's only fast food restaurant which only the most privileged North Koreans go to (a meal would be worth around a weeks wages for the average person there). Many shops there have plastic food on display in the windows to make tourists think that there is lots of food in the country when in fact, food is scarce.
+
+The city has lots of nice attractions like the statues of Kim Il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il at Mansudae hill. The Juche tower is one of the most recognisable landmarks in the country, towering over the Taedong River across from Kim Il-Sung square. It also has the world's deepest subway system. Pyongyang has many large parks and wide avenues as well as the largest sports stadium in the world, the Rungrado May Day Stadium. The city is also the location of the embalmed bodies of the two leaders, Il-Sung and Jong-Il in the Kumsusan Palace of the sun.
+
+Pyongyang is home to the 105-storey hotel, Ryugyong Hotel. The construction started in 1987 and the exterior was completed twenty-four years later in 2011. It was originally intended as a propaganda device to make North Korea look wealthy when a South Korean recently built the world's then-tallest building. The hotel to this day remains empty and unopened. It is a scary monument to the government's problems.
+
+The population of Pyongyang is 3,255,388.

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+A stroke is an illness in which part of the brain loses its blood supply. This can happen if an artery that feeds blood to the brain gets clogged, or if it tears and leaks.
+
+A stroke is when there is a lack of blood flow to the brain. There are two types of strokes. One is when there is a blood clot blocking the artery. The other type of stroke is when a blood vessel bursts and there is blood moving around freely in the brain.[1]
+
+A stroke is the rapid loss of brain function(s) due to disturbance in the blood supply to the brain. This can happen because of ischemia (lack of blood flow) caused by blockage (thrombosis, arterial embolism), or a haemorrhage (leakage of blood).[2]
+
+As a result, the affected area of the brain cannot work properly. Symptoms might include: hemiplegia (an inability to move one or more limbs on one side of the body), aphasia (inability to understand or use language), or an inability to see one side of the visual field.[3]
+
+A stroke is a medical emergency. It can cause permanent damage. If it is not quickly treated, it may lead to death. It is the third most common cause of death and the most common cause of disability for adults in the United States and Europe.
+
+Strokes happen on both the left and right side of the brain. When a stroke happens on the left side of someone’s brain, it affects the right side of the body. It can also cause problems with the patient’s speech and language. If a stroke affects the right side of the brain, it affects the left side of the body. It also changes patient’s spatial (relating to space) perceptions. Getting a stroke on the right side of the brain can also cause people to not acknowledge their illness. Patients behave impulsively and neglect the side of their body.[4]
+
+Factors that increase the risk of a stroke include old age, high blood pressure, a previous stroke, diabetes, high cholesterol, smoking, atrial fibrillation, migraine with aura, and thrombophilia (a tendency to thrombosis). Of those factors, the most easy to fix are high blood pressure and smoking.
+
+The Cincinnati Prehospital Stroke Scale was designed to help "pre-hospital" medical professionals (like EMTs) identify a possible stroke before the patient gets to the hospital.[5] It tests three basic signs.  If any of these signs are not normal, the patient may be having a stroke and should be transported to a hospital as soon as possible.[5]
+
+About 72% of patients who cannot do one of these three tasks normally are having an ischemic stroke.  More than 85% of patients who cannot do all three tasks are having an acute stroke.[6]
+
+The 'spot a stroke' campaign, created by the American Heart Association and the American Stroke Association, teaches everyday people how to recognize a stroke. It teaches the basic tests from the Cincinnati Stroke Scale, using the acronym FAST:[7]
+
+Once the patient is in the hospital, doctors can find out for sure whether they are having a stroke by looking at their brain with special scanning machines, like an MRI or a CT scanner.[8]
+
+Strokes can kill. To prevent a stroke, doctors advise people to:

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+
+
+Breeding
+     Breeding, eagles during summer only
+     Eagles during winter
+     On migration only
+
+The bald eagle (Latin name: Haliaeetus leucocephalus) is a bird of prey that lives in North America. It is the national bird of the United States of America. The bald eagle is a kind of sea eagle. It can be found in most of Canada, all of the United States, and the northern part of Mexico. It lives near big areas of water, where there are trees to nest in and there is a lot of food to eat. It is called bald because of its white head and neck. (There is more information on the bald eagle's name in the section below called "Name.")
+
+The species almost died in the United States (while its numbers were growing in Alaska and Canada) late in the 20th century. Now it has a more stable population.
+
+The bald eagle is a large bird. It is usually as tall as 70 to 102 centimetres (28 to 40 in) and its wingspan is 2.44 metres (96 in). Female eagles are about 25 percent larger than males.[2][3] Adult females weigh 5.8 kilograms (13 lb), while males weigh 4.1 kilograms (9.0 lb).[4] The adult bald eagle has a brown body, and its head and tail are white. It also has yellow feet with large talons, and a hooked yellow beak. The males and the females' wings have the same colors.
+
+Before bald eagles become adults, their wings are brown. Their wings are usually speckled with white dots until the fifth year.[2][5]
+The size of the bird depends on where it lives. The smallest birds are in Florida, where an adult male is only about 2.3 kilograms (5.1 lb). The largest Bald Eagles are in Alaska, where large females may be as much as 7.5 kilograms (17 lb).[6]
+
+The bald eagle is closely related to a species called the golden eagle. The bald eagle is physically and mentally different from the golden eagle. The bald eagle has a bigger head and a bigger beak, and its legs do not have feathers.[5][7]
+
+When bald eagles "call," (make sounds), they chirp weakly and whistle. The young birds whistle more shrilly than adults.[7]
+
+Bald eagles usually live for around 20 years if they live in nature. The oldest ones sometimes live for 30 years. When bald eagles live in captivity, such as in zoos, they can live much longer.[8]
+
+This sea eagle gets both its common and scientific names from its head. Bald in the English name is from the word piebald, which means, "one with a white head".[9] The scientific name is from Haliaeetus, which is Latin for "sea eagle".[10][11]
+
+The bald eagle was one of the many species written in Carolus Linnaeus's 18th century book Systema Naturae.[12] Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist, physician and zoologist who made the binomial nomenclature system.
+
+There are two main subspecies of the bald eagle:[2][13]
+
+The bald eagle's natural home is in most of North America, including most of Canada, all of the United States, and northern Mexico.[18]
+
+The most bald eagles live near seas, rivers, large lakes, oceans, and other large places with open water and a lot of fish.[19]
+
+Bald eagles need old trees with hard wood to live, sleep, and make nests. They like trees that have holes and are safe from predators. However, the height or kind of tree is not as important as its distance from a body of water.[19] Bald eagles need to live near water.
+
+The bald eagle does not like to be near humans. It is are found mostly in places where there are no humans, or very few of them. However, a few bald eagles live in places with trees inside of big cities. They may live in city parks. Bald eagles live in a city in Oregon.[20] A family of bald eagles recently moved into Harlem, which is a place in the middle of New York city.[21]
+
+The bald eagle flies very fast. It can move at speeds of 56–70 kilometers per hour (35–43 mph) when gliding or flapping its wings. However, when it is carrying fish, it flies about 48 km/h (30 mph).[22] Its dive speed is 120–160 kilometers per hour (75–99 mph), though it does not dive a lot.[23] The bald eagle is usually migratory, which means that it travels (migrates) between homes which are very far away from each other. In some places, bald eagles are not migratory. If a bald eagle's territory has water near by, it will remain there all year. But if the water where it lives freezes in the winter, it must migrate to the south or to the coast to find something to eat.
+
+The bald eagle eats mostly fish. In the Pacific Northwest, spawning trout and salmon are the main food of the Bald Eagle.[24]
+
+Sometimes, eagles may eat a lot of carrion, especially in winter. They will also scavenge dead bodies up to the size of whales. However, eagles eat more large dead fish than whales. They also sometimes eat the leftover food from campsites or garbage dumps. The mammals they eat include rabbits, hares, raccoons, muskrats, beavers, and deer fawns. Some of the birds they eat include grebes, ducks, gulls, and geese. Reptiles, amphibians and crustaceans (especially crabs) are also eaten.
+
+To hunt fish the eagle swoops down over the water and snatches the fish out of the water with its talons.[22] They eat by holding the fish in one claw and tearing the flesh with the other. Eagles have special things on their toes called spiricules that help them hold the fish more easily.[22] Bald eagles have powerful talons. They have been seen flying with a 7 kg fawn.[25] Sometimes, when the fish is too heavy, the eagle will be dragged into the water with it. Sometimes, eagles swim back to the shore and live, but sometimes they may drown or die because of hypothermia (a condition when one’s body gets so cold the body temperature drops below normal). Other times, bald eagles steal fish and other kinds of food away from other animals.[26] Healthy adult bald eagles are not eaten anywhere in the wild. This makes them thought as one of the top animals of the food chain.[27]
+
+Bald eagles become adults when they are four or five years old. When they are old enough to mate, they usually come back to the place where they were born. It is thought that bald eagles mate for life. However, if one of the pair dies or disappears, the other will choose a new mate. A pair which can not get a chick after trying for a long time, may split up and look for new mates.[28] When bald eagles court, they call and show their flying skills. When they do so, two mates may fly high, and then lock their talons together, and fall, parting again right before hitting the ground.[29]
+The nest of the bald eagle is larger than any other nest in North America.[2] This is because it is used again and again, and every year more is added to the nest until it may soon become as large as 4 meters (13 ft) deep, 2.5 meters (8.2 ft) across and weigh 1 tonne.[2] One nest in Florida was found to be 6.1 meters (20 ft) deep, 2.9 meters (9.5 ft) across, and to weigh 3 short tons (2.7 t).[30] The nest is built out of branches, usually in large trees near water. If there are no trees, the bald eagle will make its nest on the ground. Eagles have between one and three eggs per year. Both the male and female take turns incubating the eggs. The other parent will hunt for food or look for more to add onto the nest. The eggs are about 73 millimeters (2.9 in) long.[22]
+
+Once easily seen on the continental United States, the bald eagle was close to becoming extinct because of the use of the pesticide DDT.[31] The DDT destroyed an adult bird's calcium, and it would become unable to lay more healthy eggs. Female eagles laid eggs that were too weak to withstand the weight of its parents.[18] In the early 1700s, the number of bald eagles were 300,000–500,000,[32] but by the 1950s there were only 412 nesting pairs in the United States.
+Other things that stopped bald eagles from producing well was the loss of habitat and illegal hunting of bald eagles. Also, oil and lead were other big reasons why bald eagles began to die out.[33]
+
+The species was first protected in the United States and Canada by the 1918 Migratory Bird Treaty. The 1940 Bald Eagle Protection Act in the United States also tried to stop the killing of the bald eagle and the golden eagle. The bald eagle was an endangered species in 1967, and the penalties for people who killed the species grew more and more. Also, in 1972, DDT was banned in the United States.[34] DDT was completely banned in Canada in 1989.[35]
+
+Because of all this hard work, the bald eagle's population began to rise again. It was officially taken out from the United States list of endangered species on July 12, 1995.[36]
+
+To keep bald eagles in captivity, the workers had to be experienced in caring for eagles. The bald eagle can live a long time in captivity if well cared for, but does not mate well, even under the best care.[37]
+
+The bald eagle is the national bird of the United States. It appears on most of its seals, including the Seal of the President of the United States.[38] The Continental Congress made the design for the Great Seal of the United States with a bald eagle holding thirteen arrows and an olive branch with thirteen leaves in its talons on June 20, 1782.[39][40]
+
+The bald eagle can be found on both national seals and on the back of several coins (including the quarter dollar coin until 1999). Between 1916 and 1945, the Flag of the President of the United States showed an eagle facing to its left.[41]
+
+There is a popular legend that Benjamin Franklin once supported the wild turkey as a symbol of the United States instead of the bald eagle. However, there is no evidence that this is true. The legend comes from the letter Franklin wrote to his daughter in 1784 from Paris. However, this letter was about the Society of the Cincinnati, and it did not say anything about the bald eagle or the wild turkey.[42]
+
+The Bald Eagle is a holy bird in some North American cultures. Its feathers are thought to be special. They are used very much in spiritual customs among the Native Americans. Eagles are thought as messengers between gods and humans.[43] Eagle feathers are often used in traditional things, especially in fans. The Lakota people, for instance, give an eagle feather as a symbol of honor to a person who achieves a task. In modern times, it may be given on an event such as a graduation from college.[44] The Pawnee people thought eagles as symbols of nature and fertility. This is because their nests are built high off the ground, and because they protect their young very bravely.[45] The Choctaw explained that the bald eagle, who can see the sun more directly, is a symbol of peace.[46]
+
+During the Sun Dance, which is danced by a lot of Native American tribes, the eagle is included in many different ways. A whistle made from the wing bone of an eagle is used during the dance. Also during the dance, a medicine man may direct his fan, which is made of eagle feathers, to people who need healing. The fan is then held up toward the sky, so that the eagle may send all the sick prayers to the god.[47]
+
+However, Native American tribes cannot use bald or golden eagle feathers for their religious or spiritual use anymore. This is because of a law called the eagle feather law. The eagle feather law usually defends Native Americans by providing many exceptions to wildlife laws, but it presently does not yet allow Native American tribes to use them yet. This made the Native American groups angry because they insisted that it was stopping their ability to use their religion freely.[48][49]

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+Pyŏngyang (평양 직할시 in hangul, 平壤直轄市 in hanja) is the capital and biggest city in the Democratic People's Republic of Korea or DPRK (North Korea). The government does not want people from outside the country to know anything about North Korea, so Pyongyang is one of the few places in North Korea that foreigners (people from other countries) can travel to.
+
+Pyongyang is a closed city meaning that North Koreans can't just go there. They must apply for a permit or be high up in the military. It is the most advanced city in the country which allows tourists to go there. Pyongyang does not really show what North Korea is really like, because the government uses it to pretend to tourists that the country is not poor. The city is kept very clean and littering is strictly not allowed. The city is home to the DPRK's only fast food restaurant which only the most privileged North Koreans go to (a meal would be worth around a weeks wages for the average person there). Many shops there have plastic food on display in the windows to make tourists think that there is lots of food in the country when in fact, food is scarce.
+
+The city has lots of nice attractions like the statues of Kim Il-Sung and Kim Jong-Il at Mansudae hill. The Juche tower is one of the most recognisable landmarks in the country, towering over the Taedong River across from Kim Il-Sung square. It also has the world's deepest subway system. Pyongyang has many large parks and wide avenues as well as the largest sports stadium in the world, the Rungrado May Day Stadium. The city is also the location of the embalmed bodies of the two leaders, Il-Sung and Jong-Il in the Kumsusan Palace of the sun.
+
+Pyongyang is home to the 105-storey hotel, Ryugyong Hotel. The construction started in 1987 and the exterior was completed twenty-four years later in 2011. It was originally intended as a propaganda device to make North Korea look wealthy when a South Korean recently built the world's then-tallest building. The hotel to this day remains empty and unopened. It is a scary monument to the government's problems.
+
+The population of Pyongyang is 3,255,388.

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+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

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+The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stands near Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years.  Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 m. The pyramid was probably built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu.[1] It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 2570 BC.
+
+When it was built, 
+Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones  can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core of 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.  Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.[2]
+
+There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them.[3] The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.
+
+The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.
+

ensimple/4864.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4865.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4866.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+The Great Pyramid of Giza is a huge pyramid built by the Ancient Egyptians. It stands near Cairo, Egypt. It is the oldest of the Seven Wonders of the Ancient World, and the only one to remain mostly intact. When it was built it was 146.5 metres (481 feet) tall. It was the tallest building in the world for over 3,800 years.  Erosion and other causes have shrunk it to 138.8 m. The pyramid was probably built for Khufu, an Egyptian pharaoh. It was perhaps built by Khufu's vizier, Hemiunu.[1] It is believed that it took about 20 years to build, and was completed around 2570 BC.
+
+When it was built, 
+Great Pyramid was covered by white stones that formed a smooth outer surface. Some of these stones  can still be seen around the base. Most of what can be seen of the pyramid now is its basic core of 2,300,000 blocks of limestone and granite. There have been many different theories to explain how the pyramid was built. Most accepted building ideas are based on the idea of moving huge stones from a quarry and dragging and lifting them into place.  Archaeologists found that the Pyramids of Giza were not built by slaves, but workers who were paid for working. Their graves were found near the pyramid in 1990.[2]
+
+There are three known rooms, or chambers, inside the Great Pyramid. The lowest chamber is cut into the rock on which the pyramid was built. This chamber was not finished. The other two chambers are higher up inside the pyramid. They are called the Queen's Chamber and the King's Chamber, but these are modern labels as we do not know how the Egyptians were going to use them.[3] The Great Pyramid has two passages, one leading up, and the other down. It is the only Egyptian pyramid to have the two passages.
+
+The Great Pyramid is part of a group of buildings, called the Giza Necropolis. This includes two mortuary temples in honour of Khufu. One is close to the pyramid and one near the Nile. There are three smaller pyramids for Khufu's wives. Other buildings include an even smaller "satellite" pyramid, and a raised causeway which joins the two temples. There are other tombs, called mastaba, probably for other important people.
+

ensimple/4867.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4868.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4869.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/487.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,16 @@
+Fossil fuels are fuels that come from old life forms that decomposed over a long period of time.  The three most important fossil fuels are coal, petroleum, and natural gas.
+
+Oil and gas are hydrocarbons (molecules that have only hydrogen and carbon in them).  Coal is mostly carbon. These fuels are called fossil fuels because they are dug up from underground. Coal mining digs up solid fuel; gas and oil wells bring up liquid fuel. Fossil fuel was not much used until the Middle Ages. Coal became the main kind of fuel with the Industrial Revolution.
+
+Most of the fuels people burn are fossil fuels. A big use is to make electricity. In power plants fossil fuels, usually coal, are burned to heat water into steam, which pushes a fan-like object called a turbine. When the turbine spins around, magnets inside the turbine make electricity.
+
+Crude oil can be separated to make various fuels such as LPG, gasoline, kerosene, jet fuel, and diesel fuel.  These substances are made by fractional distillation in an oil refinery.  They  are the main fuels in transportation. That means that they are burned in order to move cars, trucks, ships, airplanes, trains and even spacecraft.  Without them, there wouldn't be much transport.
+
+People also burn fossil fuels to heat their homes. They use coal less for this than they did long ago, because it makes things dirty. In many homes, people burn natural gas in a stove for cooking.
+
+Fossil fuels are widely used in construction. 
+.
+
+Most air pollution comes from burning fossil fuels. This can be reduced by making the combustion process more efficient, and by using various techniques to reduce the escape of harmful gases. This pollution is responsible for causing the earth to get warmer, called global warming. They are also non-renewable resources, there is only a limited amount of coal, gas, and oil, and it is not possible to make more. Eventually all the fossil fuels will be used. Some scientists think that coal will have run out by 2200 and oil by 2040.
+
+Renewable energy sources like biomass energy such as firewood are being used.  Countries are also increasing the use of wind power, tidal energy, and solar energy to generate electricity.  Some governments are helping automobile makers to develop electric cars and hybrid cars that will use less oil.

ensimple/4870.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4871.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4872.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,17 @@
+The Pyramids of Egypt are among the largest structures ever built and are one of the most important examples of Ancient Egyptian civilisation.[1] Most were built during the Old and Middle Kingdom periods.[2]
+
+The pyramid were mostly made of limestone. The top layers were casing blocks of especially good white limestone laid on top of the main blocks. Each casing block was then trimmed so that the outer surface of the pyramid would be smooth and white. Some capstones were covered with metal leaf.
+
+The casing blocks from the Great Pyramid of Giza were all removed in the 14th and 15th  centuries A.D. and used to build the city of Cairo. Some casing blocks still remain on the top of the pyramid next to Khufu's (belonging to Khafra).
+
+The ancient Egyptians built pyramids as tombs for the pharaohs and their queens. The pharaohs were buried in pyramids of different sizes from before the beginning of the Old Kingdom to the end of the Middle Kingdom.
+
+Three small pyramids were built on the eastern side of the great pyramid. These pyramids were built for Khufu's queens.
+
+A small satellite pyramid was built near the queens' pyramids. Some experts believe that this may have been built as a symbolic tomb for Khufu's ka (spirit).
+
+Surrounding the pyramid there are several hundred mastaba tombs of nobles. The nobles wanted to be buried close to their pharaoh so that they would stay close to him in the next life.
+
+There are about eighty pyramids known today from ancient Egypt. The three largest and best-preserved of these were built at Giza in the Old Kingdom.  The best-known of these pyramids was built for the pharaoh Khufu. It is known as the 'Great Pyramid'.
+
+The following table lays out the dates of construction of most of the major pyramids. Each pyramid is identified by the pharaoh who ordered it built, their approximate reign and its place.

ensimple/4873.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+The Pyrenees (Catalan: Pirineus; French: Pyrénées; Spanish: Pirineos; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés; Basque: Pirinioak) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the Iberian Peninsula from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).
+
+
+

ensimple/4874.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+The Pyrenees (Catalan: Pirineus; French: Pyrénées; Spanish: Pirineos; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés; Basque: Pirinioak) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the Iberian Peninsula from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).
+
+
+

ensimple/4875.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+The Pyrenees (Catalan: Pirineus; French: Pyrénées; Spanish: Pirineos; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés; Basque: Pirinioak) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the Iberian Peninsula from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).
+
+
+

ensimple/4876.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,4 @@
+The Pyrenees (Catalan: Pirineus; French: Pyrénées; Spanish: Pirineos; Occitan: Pirenèus; Aragonese: Perinés; Basque: Pirinioak) are a range of mountains in southwest Europe that form a natural border between France and Spain. They separate the Iberian Peninsula from France, and extend for about 430 km (267 mi) from the Atlantic Ocean (Bay of Biscay) to the Mediterranean Sea (Cap de Creus).
+
+
+

ensimple/4877.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,6 @@
+Pyrotechnics is often thought to be synonymous with the manufacture of fireworks, but it includes also items for military and industrial uses.
+
+Items such as safety matches, oxygen candles, explosive bolts and fasteners and the automobile safety airbag all fall under pyrotechnics. Without pyrotechnics, modern aviation and spaceflight would be impracticable.
+
+This is because pyrotechnic devices combine high reliability with very compact and efficient energy storage.
+

ensimple/4878.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,13 @@
+Pythagoras of Samos was a famous Greek mathematician, not philosopher (c. 570 – c. 495 BC).[1][2] He is known best for the proof of the important Pythagorean theorem, which is about right angle triangles. He started a group of mathematicians, called the Pythagoreans, who worshiped numbers and lived like monks. He had an influence on Plato.
+
+He had a great impact on mathematics, theory of music and astronomy. His theories are still used in mathematics today. He was one of the greatest thinkers of his time.
+
+Pythagoras was born in Samos, a little island off the western coast of Asia Minor. There is not much information about his life. It is said that he had a good childhood. Growing up with two or three brothers, he was well educated. He did not agree with the government and their schooling, so he moved to Crotone and set up his own cult (little society) of followers under his rule. His followers did not have any personal possessions, and they were all vegetarians. Pythagoras taught them all, and they had to obey strict rules.
+
+Some say he was the first person to use the term philosophy. Since he worked very closely with his group, the Pythagoreans, it is sometimes hard to tell his works from those of his followers.
+
+Religion was important to the Pythagoreans.  They swore their oaths by "1+2+3+4" (which equals 10).  They also believed the soul is immortal and goes through a cycle of rebirths until it can become pure.  They believed that these souls were in both animal and plant life.
+
+Pythagoras' most important belief was that the physical world was mathematical and that numbers were the real reality.[2]
+
+Pythagoras is most famous for his theorem to do without right triangles. He said that the length of  the longest side of the right angled triangle called the hypotenuse (C) squared would equal the sum of the other sides squared. And so a² + b² = c² was born. There are many different proofs for this Pythagorean theorem.

ensimple/4879.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,98 @@
+Qatar (/ˈkæˌtɑːr/,[8] /ˈkɑːtɑːr/ (listen), /ˈkɑːtər/ or /kəˈtɑːr/ (listen);[9] Arabic: قطر‎ Qaṭar [ˈqɑtˤɑr]; local vernacular pronunciation: [ɡɪtˤɑr]),[10][11] officially the State of Qatar (Arabic: دولة قطر‎ Dawlat Qaṭar), is a sovereign country in Western Asia. It is on the small Qatar Peninsula on the northeastern coast of the Arabian Peninsula. Its only land border is with Saudi Arabia to the south, with the rest of its territory surrounded by the Persian Gulf. A strait in the Persian Gulf separates Qatar from the nearby island country of Bahrain, as well as sharing maritime borders with the United Arab Emirates and Iran.
+
+Following Ottoman rule, Qatar became a British protectorate in the early 20th century until gaining independence in 1971. Qatar has been ruled by the House of Thani since the early 19th century. Sheikh Jassim bin Mohammed Al Thani was the founder of the State of Qatar. Qatar is a hereditary monarchy and its head of state is Emir Sheikh Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani.  Whether it should be called a  constitutional[12][13] or an absolute monarchy[14][15][16] is a matter of opinion. In 2003, the constitution was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum, with almost 98% in favour.[17][18] As of early 2017, Qatar's total population was around 2.6 million: 313,000 Qatari citizens and 2.3 million expatriates.[19]
+
+Qatar is a high income economy and is a developed country, with the world's third largest natural gas reserves and oil reserves.[20] The country has the highest per capita income in the world. Qatar is classified by the UN as a country of very high human development and is the most advanced Arab state for human development.[21] Qatar is a significant power in the Arab world, supporting several rebel groups during the Arab Spring both financially and through its globally expanding media group, Al Jazeera Media Network.[22][23][24] For its small size, Qatar has a lot of influence in the world, and has been identified as a middle power.[25][26] Qatar will host the 2022 FIFA World Cup, becoming the first Arab country to do so.[27]
+
+Qatar is either a constitutional[12][13] or an absolute monarchy[14][16] ruled by the Al Thani family.[28][29] The Al Thani dynasty has been ruling Qatar since the family house was established in 1825.[1] In 2003, Qatar adopted a constitution that provided for the direct election of 30 of the 45 members of the Legislative Council.[1][30][31] The constitution was overwhelmingly approved in a referendum, with almost 98% in favour.[17][18]
+
+The eighth Emir of Qatar is Tamim bin Hamad Al Thani, whose father Hamad bin Khalifa Al Thani handed power to him on June 25, 2013.[32] The supreme chancellor has the exclusive power to appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers who, together, constitute the Council of Ministers, which is the supreme executive authority in the country.[33] The Council of Ministers also initiates legislation. Laws and decrees proposed by the Council of Ministers are referred to the Advisory Council (Majilis Al Shura) for discussion after which they are submitted to the Emir for ratification.[33] A Consultative Assembly has limited power to draft and approve laws, but the Emir has final say on all matters.[1] The current Council is made up entirely of members appointed by the Emir,[1] as no legislative elections have been held since 1970 when there were partial elections to the body.[1] Legislative elections are expected to be held in 2016.[source?]
+
+Qatari law does not permit the establishment of political bodies or trade unions.[34]
+
+Sharia law is the main source of Qatari legislation according to Qatar's Constitution.[35][36] In practice, Qatar's legal system is a mixture of civil law and Sharia law.[37][38] Sharia law is applied to laws pertaining to family law, inheritance, and several criminal acts (including adultery, robbery and murder). In some cases in Sharia-based family courts, a female's testimony is worth half a man's.[39] Codified family law was introduced in 2006.  Islamic polygamy is allowed in the country.
+
+Flogging is used in Qatar as a punishment for alcohol consumption or illicit sexual relations.[40] Article 88 of Qatar's criminal code declares the punishment for adultery is 100 lashes.[41] In 2006, a Filipino woman was sentenced to 100 lashes for adultery.[41] In 2010, at least 18 people (mostly foreign nationals) were sentenced to flogging of between 40 and 100 lashes for offences related to "illicit sexual relations" or alcohol consumption.[42] In 2011, at least 21 people (mostly foreign nationals) were sentenced to floggings of between 30 and 100 lashes for offences related to "illicit sexual relations" or alcohol consumption.[43] In 2012, six expatriates were sentenced to floggings of either 40 or 100 lashes.[40] Only Muslims considered medically fit were liable to have such sentences carried out. It is unknown if the sentences were implemented.[44] More recently in April 2013, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for alcohol consumption.[45][46][47] In June 2014, a Muslim expatriate was sentenced to 40 lashes for consuming alcohol and driving under the influence.[48] Judicial corporal punishment is common in Qatar due to the Hanbali interpretation of Sharia Law.
+
+Stoning is a legal punishment in Qatar.[49] Apostasy is a crime punishable by the death penalty in Qatar.[50] Blasphemy is punishable by up to seven years in prison and proselytizing can be punished by up to 10 years in prison.[50] Homosexuality is a crime punishable by the death penalty.[51]
+
+Alcohol consumption is partially legal in Qatar; some five-star luxury hotels are allowed to sell alcohol to their non-Muslim customers.[52][53] Muslims are not allowed to consume alcohol in Qatar and Muslims caught consuming alcohol are liable to flogging or deportation. Non-Muslim expatriates can obtain a permit to purchase alcohol for personal consumption. The Qatar Distribution Company (a subsidiary of Qatar Airways) is permitted to import alcohol and pork; it operates the one and only liquor store in the country, which also sells pork to holders of liquor licences.[54][55] Qatari officials have also indicated a willingness to allow alcohol in "fan zones" at the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[56]
+
+Until recently, restaurants on the Pearl-Qatar (a man-made island near Doha) were allowed to serve alcoholic drinks.[52][53] In December 2011, however, restaurants on the Pearl were told to stop selling alcohol.[52][57] No explanation was given for the ban.[52][53] Speculation about the reason includes the government's desire to project a more pious image in advance of the country's first election of a royal advisory body and rumours of a financial dispute between the government and the resort's developers.[57]
+
+In 2014, Qatar launched a modesty campaign to remind tourists of the modest dress code.[58] Female tourists are advised not to wear leggings, miniskirts, sleeveless dresses and short or tight clothing in public. Men are advised against wearing only shorts and singlets.[59]
+
+According to the U.S. State Department, expatriate workers from nations throughout Asia and parts of Africa voluntarily migrate to Qatar as low-skilled laborers or domestic servants, but some subsequently face conditions indicative of involuntary servitude. Some of the more common labor rights violations include beatings, withholding of payment, charging workers for benefits for which the employer is responsible, restrictions on freedom of movement (such as the confiscation of passports, travel documents, or exit permits), arbitrary detention, threats of legal action, and sexual assault.[60] Many migrant workers arriving for work in Qatar have paid exorbitant fees to recruiters in their home countries.[60]
+
+As of 2014, certain provisions of the Qatari Criminal Code allows punishments such as flogging and stoning to be imposed as criminal sanctions. The UN Committee Against Torture found that these practices constituted a breach of the obligations imposed by the UN Convention Against Torture.[61][62] Qatar retains the death penalty, mainly for threats against national security. Use of the death penalty is rare and no state executions have taken place in Qatar since 2003.[63]
+
+Under the provisions of Qatar's sponsorship law, sponsors have the unilateral power to cancel workers' residency permits, deny workers' ability to change employers, report a worker as "absconded" to police authorities, and deny permission to leave the country.[60] As a result, sponsors may restrict workers' movements and workers may be afraid to report abuses or claim their rights.[60] According to the ITUC, the visa sponsorship system allows the exaction of forced labour by making it difficult for a migrant worker to leave an abusive employer or travel overseas without permission.[64] Qatar also does not maintain wage standards for its immigrant labourers. Qatar commissioned international law firm DLA Piper to produce a report investigating the immigrant labour system. In May 2014 DLA Piper released over 60 recommendations for reforming the kafala system including the abolition of exit visas and the introduction of a minimum wage which Qatar has pledged to implement.[65]
+
+In May 2012, Qatari officials declared their intention to allow the establishment of an independent trade union.[66] Qatar also announced it will scrap its sponsor system for foreign labour, which requires that all foreign workers be sponsored by local employers.[66] Additional changes to labour laws include a provision guaranteeing that all workers' salaries are paid directly into their bank accounts and new restrictions on working outdoors in the hottest hours during the summer.[67] New draft legislation announced in early 2015 mandates that companies that fail to pay workers' wages on time could temporarily lose their ability to hire more employees.[68]
+
+In October 2015 Qatar's Emir signed into law new reforms to the country's sponsorship system, with the new law taking effect within one year.[69] Critics claim that the changes could fail to address some labour rights issues.[70][71][72]
+
+The country enfranchised women at the same time as men in connection with the 1999 elections for a Central Municipal Council.[30][73] These elections—the first ever in Qatar—were deliberately held on March 8, 1999, International Women's Day.[30]
+
+As a small country with larger neighbors, Qatar seeks to project influence and protect its state and ruling dynasty.[74] The history of Qatar's alliances provides insight into the basis of their policy. Between 1760 and 1971, Qatar sought formal protection from the high transitory powers of the Ottomans, British, the Al-Khalifa's from Bahrain, the Arabians, and the Wahhabis from Saudi Arabia.[75][page needed] Qatar's rising international profile and active role in international affairs has led some analysts to identify it as a middle power. Qatar was an early member of OPEC and a founding member of the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC). It is a member of the Arab League. The country has not accepted compulsory International Court of Justice jurisdiction.[1]
+
+Qatar also has bilateral relationships with a variety of foreign powers. Qatar hosts the Al Udeid Air Base, a joint U.S.-British base, which acts as the hub for all American and British air operations in the Persian Gulf.[76] It has allowed American and British forces to use an air base to send supplies to Iraq and Afghanistan.[77] Despite hosting this strategic military installation, Qatar is not always a strong Western ally. Qatar has allowed the Afghan Taliban to set up a political office inside the country and has close ties to Iran, including a shared natural gas field.[78] According to leaked documents published in The New York Times, Qatar's record of counter-terrorism efforts was the "worst in the region".[79] The cable suggested that Qatar's security service was "hesitant to act against known terrorists out of concern for appearing to be aligned with the U.S. and provoking reprisals".[79]
+
+Qatar has mixed relations with its neighbors in the Persian Gulf region. Qatar signed a defence co-operation agreement with Iran,[80] with whom it shares the largest single non-associated gas field in the world. It was the second nation, the first being France, to have publicly announced its recognition of the Libyan opposition's National Transitional Council as the legitimate government of Libya amidst the 2011 Libyan civil war.[81]
+
+In 2014, Qatar's relations with Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the United Arab Emirates came to a boiling point over Qatar's support for the Muslim Brotherhood and extremist groups in Syria.[82]
+This culminated in the three aforementioned countries withdrawing their ambassadors from Qatar in March 2014.[83] When the ambassadors withdrew, the GCC was reportedly on the verge of a crisis linked to the emergence of distinct political blocs with conflicting interests. Saudi Arabia, the UAE and Bahrain were engaged in a political struggle with Qatar, while Oman and Kuwait represent a non-aligned bloc within the GCC.[83] Relations between the countries improved after the Gulf Cooperation Council (GCC) announced Bahrain, Saudi Arabia, and the UAE returned their diplomats to Qatar.[84] Islam Hassan, a researcher in Persian Gulf Studies at Qatar University, claims that, with the resolution of the GCC crisis, Qatar reached a new level of political maturity. He goes on to assert that Qatar managed to bring an end to the crisis without changing any of its foreign policy principles or abandoning its allies.[83]
+
+In recent years, Qatar has been using Islamist militants in a number of countries including Egypt, Syria, Libya, Somalia and Mali to further its foreign policy. Courting Islamists from the Muslim Brotherhood to Salafist groups has served as a power amplifier for the country, as it believes since the beginning of the Arab Spring that these groups represented the wave of the future.[74][79][85] David Cohen, the Under Secretary for terrorism and financial intelligence at the U.S. Treasury, said that Qatar is a "permissive jurisdiction for terrorist financing."[86] There is evidence that these groups supported by Qatar include the hard-line Islamic militant groups active in northern Syria.[79] As of 2015[update], Qatar, Saudi Arabia and Turkey are openly backing the Army of Conquest,[87][88] an umbrella group of anti-government forces fighting in the Syrian Civil War that reportedly includes an al-Qaeda linked al-Nusra Front and another Salafi coalition known as Ahrar ash-Sham.[86][89]
+
+Qatar supported the democratically elected President Mohamed Morsi with diplomatic support and the state-owned Al Jazeera network before he was deposed in a military coup.[90][91] Qatar offered Egypt a $7.5 billion loan during the year he was in power.[92]
+
+Qatar's alignment with Hamas, first reported in early 2012,[93] has drawn criticism from Israel, the United States, Egypt and Saudi Arabia, "who accuse Qatar of undermining regional stability by supporting Hamas."[94] However, the Foreign Minister of Qatar has denied supporting Hamas, stating "We do not support Hamas but we support the Palestinians."[95] Following a peace agreement, Qatar pledged $1 billion in humanitarian aid to Gaza.[96]
+
+Qatar has hosted academic, religious, political, and economic conferences. The 11th annual Doha Forum recently brought in key thinkers, professionals of various backgrounds, and political figures from all over the world to discuss democracy, media and information technology, free trade, and water security issues. In addition, the forum has featured the Middle East Economic Future conference since 2006.[97] In more recent times, Qatar has hosted peace talks between rival factions across the globe. Notable among these include the Darfur Agreement. The Doha Declaration is the basis of the peace process in Darfur and it has achieved significant gains on the ground for the African region. Notable achievements included the restoration of security and stability, progress made in construction and reconstruction processes, return of displaced residents and uniting of Darfur people to face challenges and push forward the peace process.[98] Qatar donated £88.5million in funds to finance recovery and reconstruction in Darfur.[99]
+
+The Qatar Armed Forces are the military forces of Qatar. The country maintains a modest military force of approximately 11,800 men, including an army (8,500), navy (1,800) and air force (1,500). Qatar's defence expenditures accounted for approximately 4.2% of gross national product in 1993.  In 2008 Qatar spent US$2.355 billion on military expenditures, 2.3% of the gross domestic product.[100] Qatari special forces have been trained by France and other Western countries, and are believed to possess considerable skill.[101] They also helped the Libyan rebels during the 2011 Battle of Tripoli.[101]
+
+Qatar has signed defence pacts with the United States and United Kingdom, as well as with France earlier in 1994.  Qatar plays an active role in the collective defence efforts of the Gulf Cooperation Council; the other five members are Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, the UAE, and Oman.  The presence of a large Qatari Air Base, operated by the United States and several other UN nations, provides a guaranteed source of defence and national security.
+
+The Stockholm International Peace Research Institute, SIPRI, found that in 2010–14 Qatar was the 46th largest arms importer in the world. However, SIPRI writes, Qatar's plans to transform and significantly enlarge its armed forces have accelerated. Orders in 2013 for 62 tanks and 24 self-propelled guns from Germany were followed in 2014 by a number of other contracts, including 24 combat helicopters and 3 AEW aircraft from the USA, and 2 tanker aircraft from Spain.[102]
+
+Qatar's military participated in Saudi Arabian-led intervention in Yemen against the Shia Houthis. In 2015, Al Jazeera America reported: "Numerous reports suggest that the Saudi-led coalition against opposition groups in Yemen has indiscriminately attacked civilians and used cluster bombs in civilian-populated areas, in violation of international law."[103]
+
+Since 2004, Qatar has been divided into seven municipalities (Arabic: baladiyah).[104]
+
+For statistical purposes, the municipalities are further subdivided into 98 zones (as of 2010[update]),[105] which are in turn subdivided into blocks.[106]
+
+Qatar is a peninsula (a strip of land sticking out into the sea). It is joined to Saudi Arabia to the south, and all the other sides of it are surrounded by the waters of the Arabian Gulf.
+
+Qatar is quite a small country and has an area of only 10,360 km². The peninsula is 160 km long. Much of the country is a low, barren plain, covered with sand. The Jebel Dukhan area has Qatar’s main onshore oil deposits. The natural gas fields lie offshore, to the northwest of the peninsula.
+
+The capital of Qatar is Doha. Over 90% of the people live in Doha.  The other large city is Al Wakrah.
+
+Qatar has an unelected, monarchic, emirate-type government. The position of emir is hereditary.[1]
+
+The Emir is the only one who can appoint and remove the prime minister and cabinet ministers. Together the ministers make up the Council of Ministers.  They are the highest executive authority in the country.[107]
+
+People from Qatar are called Qataris. They are Arabs. The official language of Qatar is Arabic, but many people also speak English, especially when they are doing business.
+
+About 2.6 million people live in Qatar; however, about 88% of these are guest workers (people from another country who are living and working there for a short time), mostly coming from South Asia, South East Asia and other Arab countries. 650,000 are Indians, 350,000 Nepalis, 260,000 Filipinos among a lot of other nationalities.[108]
+
+Nearly all of Qatar's economy comes from producing petroleum and natural gas.
+
+The currency of Qatar is called the Qatari Riyal.
+
+Almost all Qataris follow the religion of Islam. However, many of the guest workers follow other religions.
+
+Football is the most popular sport in Qatar, closely followed by cricket. The Qatar under-20 national football team finished second in the 1981 FIFA World Youth Championship.
+
+The Asian Football Confederation's 2011 AFC Asian Cup finals were held in Qatar in January 2011. It was the second time it has been hosted by Qatar, the other being the 1988 AFC Asian Cup.
+
+Doha, Qatar, is also home to Qatar Racing Club a Drag Racing facility.
+
+Khalifa International Tennis and Squash Complex in Doha, Qatar, hosted the WTA Tour Championships in women's tennis between 2008 and 2010. Doha holds the WTA Premier tournament Qatar Ladies Open each year.
+
+On December 2, 2010, Qatar won their bid to host the 2022 FIFA World Cup.[109]
+
+Nasser Al-Attiyah of Qatar won the 2011 Dakar Rally and the Production World Rally Championship in 2006. In addition, he has also won gold medals at the 2002 Asian Games and 2010 Asian Games as part of the Qatari skeet shooting team.
+
+Since 2002, Qatar has hosted the yearly Tour of Qatar, a cycling race in six stages. Every February, riders are racing on the roads across Qatar's flat land for six days. Each stage covers a distance of more than 100 km.[110]

ensimple/488.html.txt

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+
+
+Birds (Aves) are a group of vertebrates which evolved from dinosaurs. They are endothermic, with feathers.
+
+Modern birds are toothless: they have beaked jaws. They lay hard-shelled eggs. They have a high metabolic rate, a four-chambered heart and a strong yet lightweight skeleton.
+
+Birds live all over the world. They range in size from the 5 cm (2 in) bee hummingbird to the 2.70 m (9 ft) ostrich. They are the class of tetrapods with the most living species: about ten thousand. More than half of these are passerines, sometimes known as perching birds.
+
+Birds are the closest living relatives of the Crocodilia. The fossil record shows that birds evolved from feathered theropod dinosaurs.
+
+Modern birds are not descended from Archaeopteryx. According to DNA evidence, modern birds (Neornithes) evolved in the Middle to Upper Cretaceous.[2] More recent estimates, using a new way of calibrating molecular clocks, showed that  modern birds originated early in the Upper Cretaceous. However, diversification occurred around the Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event.[3]
+
+The Cretaceous–Palaeogene extinction event 66 million years ago killed off all the non-avian dinosaur lines. Birds, especially those in the southern continents, survived this event and then migrated to other parts of the world.[4]
+
+Primitive bird-like dinosaurs are in the broader group Avialae.[5] They have been found back to the mid-Jurassic period, around 170 million years ago.[1] Many of these early "stem-birds", such as Anchiornis, were not yet capable of fully powered flight. Many had primitive characteristics like teeth in their jaws and long bony tails.[2]
+
+Birds have wings which are more or less developed depending on the species. The only known groups without wings are the extinct moa and elephant birds. Wings, which evolved from forelimbs, gave birds the ability to fly. Later many groups evolved with reduced wings, such as ratites, penguins and many island species of birds. The digestive and respiratory systems of birds are also adapted for flight. Some bird species in aquatic environments, particularly seabirds and some waterbirds, have evolved as good swimmers.
+
+Some birds, especially crows and parrots, are among the most intelligent animals. Several bird species make and use tools. Many social species pass on knowledge across generations, a form of culture. Many species annually migrate great distances. Birds are social. They communicate with visual signals, calls and bird songs. They have social behaviours such as cooperative breeding and hunting, flocking and mobbing of predators.
+
+Most bird species are socially monogamous, usually for one breeding season at a time, sometimes for years, but rarely for life. Other species are polygynous (one male with many females) or, rarely, polyandrous (one female with many males). Birds produce offspring by laying eggs which are fertilised by sexual reproduction. They are often laid in a nest and incubated by the parents. Most birds have an extended period of parental care after hatching. Some birds, such as hens, lay eggs even when not fertilised, though unfertilised eggs do not produce offspring.
+
+Many species of birds are eaten by humans. Domesticated and undomesticated birds (poultry and game) are sources of eggs, meat, and feathers. Songbirds, parrots and other species are popular as pets. Guano is harvested for use as a fertiliser. Birds figure throughout human culture. About 120–130 species have become extinct due to human activity since the 17th century and hundreds more before then. Human activity threatens about 1,200 bird species with extinction, though efforts are underway to protect them. Recreational bird-watching is an important part of the ecotourism industry.
+
+Birds come in a huge range of colours. These colours can be useful to a bird in two ways. Camouflage colours help to hide the bird, and bright colours identify the bird to others of the same species. Often the male is brightly coloured while the female is camouflaged.
+
+Many birds are brown, green or grey. These colours make a bird harder to see; they camouflage the bird.[6] Brown is the most common colour. Brown birds include: sparrows, emus, thrushes, larks, eagles and falcons and the female birds of many species such as: wrens, ducks, blackbirds and peafowls. When a brown bird is in long grass or among tree trunks or rocks, it is camouflaged.[7] Birds that live in long grass often have brown feathers streaked with black which looks like shadows. A bittern is almost invisible in long reeds. Other birds, including starlings and minahs, are quite dark in colour, but are flecked with little spots that look like raindrops on leaves. Bird may also camouflage their nests.
+
+Many birds from hot countries are green or have some green feathers, particularly parrots. Birds that live in green trees often have green backs, even if they have bright-coloured breasts. From the back, the birds are camouflaged. This is very useful when sitting on a nest.[8] The bird's bright-coloured breast is hidden. Budgerigars are bred in different colours such as blue, white and mauve, but in the wild, they are nearly all green and yellow. Even though they fly very well, they normally spend a lot of time on the ground, eating grass seeds. Their yellow and black striped back helps to hide them in the shadows made by long dry grass, while their green breasts are a similar colour to the leaves of gum trees.
+
+Grey birds include most pigeons and doves, cranes, storks and herons. Grey birds are often rock-living birds like pigeons or birds that sit on dead tree trunks looking like a broken branch. Water birds like herons often have a pale grey colour which makes it harder for a fish to notice that the bird is standing, looking down for something to catch. Water birds, no matter what colour they are on top, are often white underneath, so that when a fish looks up, the bird looks like part of the sky.
+
+Black birds include crows, ravens and male blackbirds. Some birds that are dark colours spend quite a lot of time on the ground, hopping around in the shadows under bushes. Among these birds are the male blackbird and the Satin Bowerbird which is not black but very dark blue. Crows and ravens often perch high on bare trees in the winter, where their black shape against the sky looks like the dark bare branches.
+
+Many birds are not camouflaged, but stand out with vivid colours. They are usually male birds whose females are dull and camouflaged. The function of the colours is two-fold.[6] First, the colours help them get mates, and second, the colours identify them to other males of the same species. Many birds are territorial, especially in the nesting season. They give out territory sounds and are easily seen. This lets other males know they will defend their territory. It sends out a "look elsewhere" signal to their competitors.
+
+Some birds are famous for their colour and are named for it, such as the bluebird, the azure kingfisher, the golden pheasant, the scarlet macaw, the violet wren and the robin.
+
+Many other birds are very brightly coloured, in countless combinations. Some of the most colourful birds are quite common, like pheasants, peacocks, domestic fowl and parrots. Colourful small birds include blue tits, the gold finches, humming birds, fairy wrens and bee eaters (which are also called rainbow birds). Some birds, like those of the bird of paradise in Papua New Guinea have such beautiful feathers that they have been hunted for them.
+
+The peafowl is the best example of a display of colour to attract a mate. Also the male domestic fowl and junglefowl have long shiny feathers above his tail and also long neck feathers that may be a different colour to his wings and body. There are only a very few types of birds (like the eclectus parrot) where the female is more colourful than the male.
+
+''Pied birds'' are black and white. Black and white birds include magpies, pied geese, pelicans and Australian magpies (which are not really magpies at all). Pied birds often have brightly coloured beaks and legs of yellow or red. The silver pheasant, with its long white tail striped with fine bars of black, has a brightly coloured face.
+
+King parrot, Australia
+
+Common shelduck
+
+Kingfisher
+
+Flamingo
+
+Golden oriole.
+
+Himalayan bluetail
+
+Malayan banded pitta
+
+Most birds can fly. They do this by pushing through the air with their wings. The curved surfaces of the wings cause air currents (wind) which lift the bird. Flapping keeps the air current moving to create lift and also moves the bird forward.
+
+Some birds can glide on air currents without flapping. Many birds use this method when they are about to land. Some birds can also hover and remain in one place. This method is used by birds of prey such as falcons that are looking for something to eat. Seagulls are also good at hovering, particularly if there is a strong breeze. The most expert hovering birds are tiny hummingbirds which can beat their wings both backwards and forwards and can stay quite still in the air while they dip their long beaks into flowers to feed on the sweet nectar.
+
+A flock of tundra swans fly in V-formation.
+
+This osprey at Kennedy Space Centre is hovering.
+
+A wandering albatross can sleep while flying.
+
+The large broad wings of a vulture allow it to soar without flapping.
+
+The soft feathers of an owl allow it to fly quietly.
+
+Some birds, such as the quail, live mainly on the ground.
+
+A cassowary cannot fly but can defend itself.
+
+Penguin's flippers are good for swimming.
+
+Different types of birds have different needs. Their wings are adapted to suit the way they fly.
+
+Large birds of prey, such as eagles, that spend a lot of time soaring on the wind have wings that are large and broad. The main flight feathers are long and wide. They help the eagle to stay on rising air currents without using much energy, while the eagle looks at the ground below, to find the next meal. When the eagle sees some small creature move, it can close its wings and fall from the sky like a missile, opening its great wings again to slow down as it comes to land. The world's largest eagle, the Philippine eagle has a wingspan of about 2 m (6.7 ft) wide.
+
+Birds that live in grassland areas or open forests and feed on fruit, insects and reptiles often spend a lot of time flying short journeys looking for food and water. They have wings that are shaped in a similar way to eagles, but rounder and not as good for soaring. These include many Australian birds like cockatoos.
+
+Birds such as geese that migrate from one country to another fly very long distances. Their wings are big and strong, because the birds are large and they stock up on food for the long flight. Migrating water birds usually form family groups of 12-30 birds. They fly very high, making use of long streams of air that blow from north to south in different seasons. They are very well organised, often flying in a V pattern. The geese at the back do not have to flap so hard; they are pulled on by the wind of the ones at the front. Every so often, they change the leader so that the front bird, who does most work and sets the pace, can have a rest. Geese and swans are the highest-flying birds, reaching 8,000 metres or more when on migration. Geese often honk loudly while they are flying. It is thought that they do this to support the leader and help the young ones.
+
+Birds that fly very quickly, such as swifts and swallows, have long narrow pointed wings. These birds need great speed because they eat insects, catching most of them while they are flying. These birds also migrate. They often collect in huge flocks of thousands of birds that move together like a whirling cloud.
+
+Birds that live in bushes and branches have triangular wings that help the bird change direction. Many forest birds are expert at getting up speed by flapping and then gliding steadily among the trees, tilting to avoid things as they go. Members of the kingfisher family are expert at this type of flying.
+
+Birds such as owls that hunt at night have wings with soft rounded feathers so that they do not flap loudly. Birds that are awake at night are called nocturnal birds. Birds that are awake during the day are diurnal.
+
+A wandering albatross and Arctic tern might spend several years without coming to land. They can sleep while gliding and have wings which, when they are stretched right out, look like the wings of a jet plane.
+
+Bird like chickens that feed mainly on the ground and only use their wings to fly to safety have small wings.
+
+Flocks of birds can be very highly organised in a way that takes care of all the flock members. Studies of small flocking birds like tree sparrows show that they clearly communicate with each other, as sometimes thousands of birds may fly in close formation and spiral patterns without colliding (or flying into each other).
+
+Two common behaviours in flocking birds are guarding and reconnaissance. When a flock of birds is feeding it is common for one bird to perch on a high place to keep guard over the flock. In the same way, when a flock is asleep, often, one bird will remain awake. It is also common for large flocks to send one or two birds ahead of them when they are flying to a new area. The look-out birds can spy the lie of the land to find food, water and good places to perch.[9]
+
+Some birds do not fly. These include running birds like ostriches and emus and ocean-living birds, the large penguin family.
+
+Ostriches and emus do not need to fly because although they feed and nest on the ground, their great size and their speed is their protection. Some other ground-feeding birds have not been so lucky. Some birds such as the dodo and the kiwi were ground-feeding birds that lived in safety on islands where there was nothing dangerous to eat them. They lost the power of flight. Kiwis are endangered because European settlement to New Zealand brought animals like cats, dogs and rats which kill kiwis and eat their eggs. However, kiwis and also the rare New Zealand ground parrot have survived. In the case of dodos, they were fat and delicious. They were killed and eaten by sailors until there was none left. Other flightless birds which have disappeared are the great auk and the moa.
+
+Penguins spend a great deal of time at sea, where they are in danger from seals. On land, they usually live in areas where there were few dangers, until the arrival of European settlers with dogs and cats. Their wings have adapted to life in the sea and have become flippers which help them in swimming very fast.
+
+Modern birds do not have teeth, and many swallow their prey whole. Nevertheless, they must break up food before it is digested. First of all, along their throat (oesophagus) they have a crop. This stores food items before digestion. That way a bird can eat several items, and then fly off to a quiet spot to digest them.
+
+Their stomach comes next, with two very different parts. One part is like a straight hollow rod which secretes mild hydrochloric acid and an enzyme to break down protein. The other part of the stomach is the gizzard. This is muscular, and grinds up the contents. In herbivorous birds the gizzard contains some gastroliths (small stones or pieces of grit). Bones of fish will mostly be dissolved by the stomach acid. The partly digested and ground-up food now goes to the intestine, where digestion is completed, and most contents are absorbed. Anything indigestible, for example remains of feathers, is regurgitated via the mouth, not the cloaca.
+
+The system is effective, and carnivorous birds can swallow quite large prey. A blue heron can swallow a fish as large as a carp successfully.[10] Raptors eat by holding the prey down with a foot, and tearing it apart with their beak.
+
+Although birds are warm-blooded creatures like mammals, they do not give birth to live young. They lay eggs as reptiles do, but the shell of a bird's egg is hard. The baby bird grows inside the egg, and after a few weeks hatches (breaks out of the egg).
+
+Birds in cold climates usually have a breeding season once a year in the spring. Migratory birds can have two springs and two mating seasons in a year.
+
+When the breeding season arrives, the birds choose partners. Some birds are mated for life, like married couples. These birds include pigeons, geese, and cranes. Other birds look for new partners each year and sometimes a male bird or cock will have several wives.
+
+For birds that choose new mates, part of the breeding season is display. The male bird will do all sorts of things to attract females. These include singing, dancing, showing off the feathers and building a beautiful nest. Some male birds have splendid feathers for attracting females. The most famous is the peacock who can spread the feathers above his tail into a huge fan.
+
+A peacock display
+
+The sarus crane, like most cranes, mates for life and pairs dance together.
+
+Emu nest.
+
+A nest of house sparrows.
+
+Once the birds have found partners, they find a suitable place to lay eggs. The idea of what is a suitable place differs between species, but most build bird nests. Robins will make a beautiful little round nest of woven grass and carefully line it with feathers, bits of fluff and other soft things. Swallows like to nest near other swallows. They make nests from little blobs of clay, often on a beam near the roof of a building where it is well sheltered. Many birds like a hollow tree to nest in. Eagle's nests are often just piles of dead wood on the top of the tallest tree or mountain. Scrub turkeys scratch together a huge pile of leaves that may be 10 metres across. Guillemots lay their eggs on rock shelves with no nest at all. Their eggs are shaped so that they roll around in circles and do not fall off cliffs. A cuckoo does not make its own nest. It lays its egg in the nest of another bird and leaves it for them to care for. The cuckoo eggs are camouflaged to look like the host's eggs.
+
+When the nest has been prepared, the birds mate so that the eggs are fertilised and the chicks will start growing. Unlike mammals, birds only have one opening as the exit hole for body fluids, and for reproduction. The opening is called the cloaca. A female bird, called a hen, has two ovaries, of which the left one usually produces eggs.
+
+Most male birds have no sex organs that can be seen. But inside the male are two testes which produce sperm which is stored in the cloaca. Birds mate by rubbing their cloacas together, although with some birds, particularly large water birds, the male has a sort of a penis inside the cloaca.
+
+Once the hen has mated, she produces fertile eggs which have chicks growing inside them. She lays the eggs in the nest. There might be just one egg or a number of them, called a clutch. Emus might lay as many as fifteen huge dark green eggs in a clutch. After the eggs are laid, they are incubated, or kept warm so the chicks form inside. Most birds stay together for the whole nesting season, and one advantage is that the work is shared. Many birds take turns sitting on the eggs, so that each adult can feed.
+
+This is not always the case. With emus, the male does all the sitting and all the baby-minding. With emperor penguins it is also the male that cares for the egg. There is only one egg, which he keeps on his feet and under his feathers, standing in a big group of males without feeding until the chick is hatched. While the eggs are hatching, the females are at sea, feeding, so that they can care for the chicks when they return.
+
+Some birds put the eggs inside or on top of the mound of leaves and twigs. The mound acts like a compost heap. The decomposition of the rotting leaves causes the temperature to rise. This is heat released by the chemical action of bacterial and fungal respiration. It is the same reaction as that which keeps mammals and birds at a high temperature. The parents leave the mound. When the chicks hatch, they are able to feed themselves.
+
+Many small birds take 2–4 weeks to hatch eggs. Albatrosses take 80 days. During this time the female loses a lot of her body weight.
+
+The quickest hatching time is for the cuckoo. Some types of cuckoos take only 10 days. This means that when they hatch in the nest of their ''foster parents'', the eggs that the parents have laid are not yet ready. Newborn cuckoos are naked, blind and ugly, but they are strong. They get under any eggs that are in the nest and throw them out before they hatch. That means that the cuckoo has the whole care of both parents. Baby cuckoos grow fast and often get bigger than the parents who feed them.
+
+When baby birds hatch, in most types of birds, they are fed by both parents, and sometimes by older aunties as well. Their mouths are open all the time and are often very brightly coloured, which acts as a ''releaser'', a trigger which stimulates the parent to feed them. For birds that eat grain and fruit, the parents eat and partly digest the food for the babies. It is then vomited carefully into the baby's mouth.
+
+A black redstart feeding chicks
+
+Black swan and cygnets
+
+A reed warbler feeding a baby cuckoo
+
+Two sulphur crested cockatoos from a big flock are on the lookout
+
+Many birds, particularly those that mate for life, are very sociable and keep together in a family group which might be anything from 4 or 6 adult birds and their young to a very large flock.
+
+As chicks grow they change the fluffy down that covers them as babies for real feathers. At this stage they are called fledglings. Other family members may help care for fledgling chicks, feeding them and protecting them from attack while parents are feeding. When the fledglings have their new feathers, they come out of the nest to learn to fly. In some types of birds, like pigeons, the parents watch over this and as the young ones get stronger, will give them flying lessons, teaching them how to glide, how to fly in spirals and how to land like an expert.
+
+Most birds are social animals, at least part of the time. They communicate to each other using sounds and displays.
+
+Almost all birds make sounds to communicate. The types of noises that vary greatly. Some birds can sing, and  they are called songbirds or passerines. Examples are robins, larks, canaries, thrushes, nightingales. Corvids are passerines, but they do not sing. Birds that are not songbirds include: pigeons, seagulls, eagles, owls and ducks. Parrots are not songbirds, even though they can be taught to sing human songs.
+
+A favourite songbird, the European robin.
+
+The crow of the rooster is a familiar bird call.
+
+The pied currawong, an outstanding singer.
+
+The jackdaws helped Lorenz to understand bird communication.
+
+All birds make noises (''bird vocalisation''), but not all sing. Songbirds are passerines, many of which have beautiful melodic songs. Songs have different functions. Danger cries are different from territorial songs and mating calls are a third type. Fledgling may also have different calls from adults. Recognition calls for partners are quite common.
+
+As to where the song comes from, there are three kinds of species:
+
+Most singing birds that are kept as pets, like canaries, have several tunes and some variations.
+
+The same species of bird will sing different songs in different regions. A good example of this is the currawong. This is an Australia bird which is like a black and white crow. In the autumn, families get together in large flocks and do a lot of singing. Currawongs from some areas sing much more complex songs than others. Generally, currawongs from the Blue Mountains are the finest singers. The song of the currawong can be sung as a solo, but is often performed as a choir. One bird will take the lead and sing "Warble-warble-warble-warble!" All the other birds will join in and sing "Wooooooo!". When all the birds know the song, the choir will sing the "Warble" part and the soloist will sing the "Woo!". The song changes from year to year and from place to place.
+
+The Austrian naturalist Konrad Lorenz studied the way in which birds communicate, or talk to each other. He found that each type of bird had a number of sounds which they made automatically, when ever they felt a certain way. Every sound had an action that went with it. So, if the bird was frightened, it acted frightened and made a frightened sound. This told the other birds around it that something frightening was happening.
+
+If a flock of birds were flying over a field, they would be calling "Fly! Fly!" But a hungry bird, seeing something good to eat down below might start calling "Food! Food!" If other birds were also hungry, they would make the same call until more birds were calling "Food! Food!" than "Fly! Fly!". At this point, the mind of the flock would be changed. Some of the birds would start to yell "Fly downwards! Fly downwards!" as they sank from the sky, until the whole flock was all noisily calling the same thing.
+
+These communication sounds are often short hard sounds like: chirps, squeaks, squawks and twitters. Sometimes the calls are longer and more musical. They include the "Rookety-coo" sound of a pigeon and the "Cockadoodledoo!" of a rooster. The bird cannot change these sounds. They always make them in the same way. The bird is locked into making each sound every time a particular idea comes into its head. The connection between how they feel and how they call is innate: they are born with it. Some calls in some species are learnt. Then, it is the tendency to learn which is inherited.
+
+Konrad Lorenz noticed that when birds sing, they often use a lot of their regular calls as part of the song. Lorenz had a flock of jackdaws which were scattered during World War II. One day, an old bird returned. For many months she sat on the chimney singing her song, but in the song she kept making the call which Lorenz knew meant "Come home! Come home!" One day, to the great surprise of Lorenz, a male bird flew from a passing flock and joined her on the chimney. Lorenz was sure that it was her long-lost "husband" who had found his way home at last.[11]
+
+Palaeontologists have found some exceptional places (lagerstätten) where fossils of early birds are found. The preservation is so good that on the best examples impressions of their feathers can be seen, and sometimes even the remains of meals they have eaten. From these remains we know that birds evolved from small carnivorous dinosaurs (theropods) in the Jurassic period.[12] They radiated into a huge variety in the Lower Cretaceous. At the same time, their direct competitors, the pterosaurs, dwindled in numbers and variety, and became extinct at the end of the Mesozoic.
+
+Birds are classified by taxonomists as 'Aves' (Avialae). Birds are the only living descendants of dinosaurs (strictly speaking, they are dinosaurs). Birds and Crocodilia are the only living members of the once-dominant Archosaur reptiles.
+
+The class Aves is now defined as all the descendants of the most recent common ancestor of modern birds and Archaeopteryx lithographica.[13]
+
+Archaeopteryx, from the Upper Jurassic (some 150–145 million years ago), is the earliest bird which could fly. It is famous, because it was one of the first important fossils found after Charles Darwin published his ideas about evolution in the 19th century. By modern standards, Archaeopteryx could not fly very well.[14] Other early fossil birds are, for example, Confuciusornis, Anchiornis huxlei and other Paraves.
+
+Many fossils of early birds and small dinosaurs have been discovered in the Liaoning Province of Northeast China. The fossils show that most small theropod dinosaurs had feathers. These deposits have preserved them so well that the impressions of their feathers can be clearly seen. This leads us to think that feathers evolved first as heat insulation and only later for flight. The origin of birds lies in these small feathered dinosaurs.
+
+Palaeontologists now agree that birds evolved from Maniraptora group of dinosaurs. This explains why one might say birds are living dinosaurs.
+
+Canaries are often kept as pets for their beautiful songs.
+
+The African grey parrot is a renowned talker.
+
+Blue-winged teal Ducks used to be shot for sport.
+
+In many countries storks are thought to bring good luck.
+
+Some birds are eaten as food. Most usually it is the chicken and its eggs, but people often also eat geese, pheasants, turkeys and ducks. Other birds are sometimes eaten are: emus, ostriches, pigeons, grouse, quails, doves, woodcocks and even songbirds. Some species have died out because they have been hunted for food, for example the dodo and the passenger pigeon.
+
+Many species have learned how to get food from people. The number of birds of these species has grown because of it. Seagulls and crows find food from garbage dumps. The feral pigeon (Columba livia), sparrows (Passer domesticus and starlings (Sturnus vulgaris) live in large numbers in towns and cities all over the world.
+
+Sometimes people also use working birds. For example, homing pigeons carry messages. Nowadays people sometimes race them for sport. People also use falcons for hunting, and cormorants for fishing. In the past, people in mines often used a canary to see if there were bad gas methane in the air.
+
+People often have colorful birds such as parrots and mynahs as pets. These intelligent birds are popular because they can copy human talking. Because of this, some people trap birds and take them to other countries to sell. This is not usually allowed these days. Most pet birds are specially bred and are sold in pet shops.
+
+People can catch some bird diseases, for example: psittacosis, salmonellosis, campylobacteriosis, Newcastle's disease, mycobacteriosis, influenza, giardiasis and cryptosporiadiosis. In 2005, there was an epidemic of bird influenza spreading through some parts of the world, often called avian flu.
+
+Some people have birdboxes in their gardens to give birds a place to nest and bird tables where birds can get food and water in very cold or very dry weather. This lets people see some small birds close up which are normally hidden away in bushes and trees.
+
+
+
+Blue tit
+
+Male house sparrow
+
+Male chaffinch
+
+White-breasted nuthatch
+
+A report produced by BirdLife International every five years measures the population of birds worldwide. In 2018 the number of bird species has decreased by 40%.One in every eight types of birds is now almost extinct.
+
+The report highlighted the reduction of the number of Snowy Owls, Atlantic Puffin, European Turtle-Dove andseveral species of vultures.[15]

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+An intelligence quotient (acronym: IQ) is a number. This number is the score (result) of a standard test to measure intelligence. There are several different tests designed to measure the intelligence of a person. Measuring intelligence in any way is an idea developed by British scientist Francis Galton in the book Hereditary genius published in the late 19th century.
+
+IQ is a comparative measure: it tells one how much above or below the average a person is.[1] The idea of the test was developed at the start of the 20th century.[2][3] The tests try to avoid specific knowledge, and try to ask questions which, in principle, anyone might be able to answer.
+
+One modern IQ test is the Wechsler Adult Intelligence Scale. It says where the subject's score is on the Gaussian bell. The bell curve used has a center value of 100 and a standard deviation of 15; other tests may have different standard deviations.
+
+IQ scores can tell some things about a person, as well as intelligence. This is because intelligence is linked to other aspects of life. "All the cognitive tests completed in 1983 predicted onset of dementia and Alzheimer’s disease up to 11 years later".[4] They can predict the social status of the parents,[5] and the parents' IQ.
+
+There is still disagreement about to what extent IQ is inherited. People still disagree about how much of a person's IQ comes from his parents and how much depends on his environment (what his home is like).[6][7]
+
+IQ scores are used in various ways:
+
+The average IQ scores for many populations have been rising about three points per decade since the early 20th century. Most of the increase is in the lower half of the IQ range. This is called the Flynn effect. People who study it disagree whether these changes in scores are really happening, or it they mean that there were mistakes in how people were tested in the past.
+
+There are associations of people who have scored high on IQ tests, such as Mensa International.
+
+There are many different kinds of intelligence tests that use many methods. Some kinds of tests are
+
+The different tests are strongly correlated with each other. psychologist Charles Spearman in 1904 first studied how the scores from different kinds of intelligence tests are related to each other. He did factor analysis of correlations between the tests, and found a single common factor explained the positive correlations among tests.
+
+Spearman found that if a person got a high (or low) score on one kind of test, he probably (but not always) would get a similar score on the other kinds of tests. Because of this, he said that a person's intelligence could be described with one number. He called this number g (for general factor). Tests that use abstract reasoning are usually the best to tell what the scores on the other kinds of tests probably will be. Because of that, Spearman thought that a person's abstract reasoning ability (how good he was at solving puzzles or problems) was what other kinds of intelligence are based on.
+
+Therefore, the number g is what an IQ test is supposed to measure. One of the most commonly used measures of g is Raven's Progressive Matrices, which is a test of visual reasoning.[8]
+
+During World War I, the military needed a way to test recruits and decide what kind of job they could do best. They used IQ tests.[9]
+
+The testing generated controversy and much public debate. Nonverbal or "performance" tests were developed for those who could not speak English or were suspected of malingering.[10] After the war, positive publicity on army psychological testing helped to make psychology a respected field.[11] Afterwards, there was an increase in jobs and funding in psychology in the United States.[12] Group intelligence tests were developed and became widely used in schools and industry.[13][14]
+
+There are a number of problems with intelligence quotients. They relate to different fields of the subject. The problems can be grouped:
+
+Alfred Binet, a French psychologist (who designed one of the first tests in 1905) had this opinion. He used the test to see which pupils would need special help with the school curriculum. He believed that the test scales were not able to measure intelligence:
+
+The scale, properly speaking, does not permit the measure of intelligence, because intellectual qualities are not superposable, and therefore cannot be measured as linear surfaces are measured.
+
+He argued that with good education programs, most students could catch up and perform quite well in school. This was independent of the background of the pupil. He did not believe that intelligence was a measurable fixed entity.
+
+Some dispute psychometrics entirely. Paleontologist Stephen Jay Gould argued that intelligence tests were based on faulty assumptions and showed their history of being used as the basis for scientific racism. In his opinion, the general intelligence factor g (which these tests measure), is simply a mathematical artifact.
+
+…the abstraction of intelligence as a single entity, its location within the brain, its quantification as one number for each individual, and the use of these numbers to rank people in a single series of worthiness, invariably to find that oppressed and disadvantaged groups—races, classes, or sexes—are innately inferior and deserve their status.(pp. 24–25)
+
+However, as explained above, IQ tests were highly successful in assessing recruits during wartime. Therefore, it must be true that they are measuring a relevant mental capability. Therefore, IQs are not simply a mathematical fiction: they relate to the ability of individuals to perform certain functions. Even if experts do not agree on a definition of intelligence, that does not disprove the usefulness (or otherwise) of the tests. In every day life people do notice the relative intelligence of others. The issue is central to human nature and evolutionary psychology, because humans evolved the characteristics which helped them survive and reproduce.[15]
+
+The American Psychological Association's report Intelligence: knowns and unknowns states that IQ tests as predictors of social achievement are not biased against people of African descent. They predict future performance, such as school achievement, similarly to the way they predict future performance for European descent.[16]
+
+However, IQ tests may well be biased when used in other situations. A 2005 study stated that "differential validity in prediction suggests that the WAIS-R test may contain cultural influences that reduce the validity of the WAIS-R as a measure of cognitive ability for Mexican American students",[17] indicating a weaker positive correlation relative to sampled white students. Other recent studies have questioned the culture-fairness of IQ tests when used in South Africa.[18] Standard intelligence tests, such as the Stanford-Binet test, are often inappropriate for children with autism and dyslexia; the alternative of using developmental or adaptive skills measures are relatively poor measures of intelligence in autistic children, and have resulted in incorrect claims that a majority of children with autism are mentally retarded.[19]
+
+Claimed low intelligence has historically been used to justify the feudal system and unequal treatment of women. In contrast, others claim that the refusal of "high-IQ elites" to take IQ seriously as a cause of inequality is itself immoral.[20]
+
+The American Psychological Association's Board of Scientific Affairs established a task force in 1995 to write a consensus statement on the state of intelligence research which could be used by all sides as a basis for discussion. The full text of the report is available through several websites.[21]
+
+In this paper the representatives of the association regret that IQ-related works are frequently written with a view to their political consequences: "research findings were often assessed not so much on their merits or their scientific standing as on their supposed political implications".
+
+The task force concluded that IQ scores do have high predictive validity for individual differences in school achievement. They confirm the predictive validity of IQ for adult occupational status, even when variables such as education and family background have been statistically controlled. They found that individual differences in intelligence are substantially influenced by genetics. Both genes and environment, in complex interplay, are essential to the development of intellectual competence.
+
+They state there is little evidence to show that childhood diet influences intelligence except in cases of severe malnutrition. The task force agrees that large differences do exist between the average IQ scores of blacks and whites, and that these differences cannot be attributed to biases in test construction. The task force suggests that explanations based on social status and cultural differences are possible, and that environmental factors have raised mean test scores in many populations.
+
+The APA journal that published the statement, American Psychologist, later published responses in January 1997. Several of these argued that the report failed to examine adequately the evidence for partly-genetic explanations.

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+In Greek mythology, Odysseus was the great grandson of the Greek god Hermes. He was the king of the island Ithaca. He was married to Penelope. Odysseus and Penelope had a son called Telemachos. Odysseus is a major character in Homer's Iliad and Odyssey.
+
+Odysseus fought in the Trojan War. He invented the Trojan Horse, which helped the Greeks win the war. After the war, his adventurous journey home took 10 years. The story of that journey is told in the Odyssey. Odysseus angered Poseidon, the god of seas, when he half blinded his cyclops son Polyphemos. In anger, Poseidon stopped him from leaving the island. The Latin name for Odysseus is "Ulysses".
+
+There have been many movies about Odysseus, because of his heroic and intelligent battle strategies.
+
+Media related to Odysseus at Wikimedia Commons
+

ensimple/4882.html.txt

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+Quartz is a tectosilicate mineral that is the second most common mineral in Earth's continental crust.[1] Its crystal structure is a framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra. Each shares an oxygen atom with another tetrahedron, so the overall chemical formula is SiO2 or silica.
+
+There are many different varieties of quartz, some of which are semi-precious gemstones.  They have been used for a long time to make jewelry and hardstone carvings.  Agate, amethyst, rose quartz are all forms of quartz.
+
+Quartz crystals are used in oscillators, for example in quartz clocks. People also extract the silicon to make semiconductors.
+The majority of sand is small quartz bits. Quartz has a mineral hardness of 7. (mohs scale).
+
+The word "quartz" comes from the German word "quarz".[2]
+
+'Fused quartz' is glass made of silica in non-crystalline form. It does not contain other ingredients that are added to other glass to lower the melting point. Fused silica has high working and melting temperatures. For some purposes, fused quartz is better than other types of glass due to its purity. The glass is used in a number of high-tech products.[3]
+
+Shocked quartz is a form of quartz that has a microscopic structure different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes show up as lines under a microscope.
+
+Shocked quartz is found worldwide, especially in impact craters and in the thin Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary layer. This is at the contact between Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks. It is further evidence (in addition to iridium enrichment) that the transition between the two geologic periods was caused by a large impact. Eugene Shoemaker discovered it in building stones in the Bavarian town of Nördlingen. The stones were from shocked metamorphic rocks, such as breccia, of a meteor crater.[4]

ensimple/4883.html.txt

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+Quartz is a tectosilicate mineral that is the second most common mineral in Earth's continental crust.[1] Its crystal structure is a framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra. Each shares an oxygen atom with another tetrahedron, so the overall chemical formula is SiO2 or silica.
+
+There are many different varieties of quartz, some of which are semi-precious gemstones.  They have been used for a long time to make jewelry and hardstone carvings.  Agate, amethyst, rose quartz are all forms of quartz.
+
+Quartz crystals are used in oscillators, for example in quartz clocks. People also extract the silicon to make semiconductors.
+The majority of sand is small quartz bits. Quartz has a mineral hardness of 7. (mohs scale).
+
+The word "quartz" comes from the German word "quarz".[2]
+
+'Fused quartz' is glass made of silica in non-crystalline form. It does not contain other ingredients that are added to other glass to lower the melting point. Fused silica has high working and melting temperatures. For some purposes, fused quartz is better than other types of glass due to its purity. The glass is used in a number of high-tech products.[3]
+
+Shocked quartz is a form of quartz that has a microscopic structure different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes show up as lines under a microscope.
+
+Shocked quartz is found worldwide, especially in impact craters and in the thin Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary layer. This is at the contact between Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks. It is further evidence (in addition to iridium enrichment) that the transition between the two geologic periods was caused by a large impact. Eugene Shoemaker discovered it in building stones in the Bavarian town of Nördlingen. The stones were from shocked metamorphic rocks, such as breccia, of a meteor crater.[4]

ensimple/4884.html.txt

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+Quartz is a tectosilicate mineral that is the second most common mineral in Earth's continental crust.[1] Its crystal structure is a framework of SiO4 silicon–oxygen tetrahedra. Each shares an oxygen atom with another tetrahedron, so the overall chemical formula is SiO2 or silica.
+
+There are many different varieties of quartz, some of which are semi-precious gemstones.  They have been used for a long time to make jewelry and hardstone carvings.  Agate, amethyst, rose quartz are all forms of quartz.
+
+Quartz crystals are used in oscillators, for example in quartz clocks. People also extract the silicon to make semiconductors.
+The majority of sand is small quartz bits. Quartz has a mineral hardness of 7. (mohs scale).
+
+The word "quartz" comes from the German word "quarz".[2]
+
+'Fused quartz' is glass made of silica in non-crystalline form. It does not contain other ingredients that are added to other glass to lower the melting point. Fused silica has high working and melting temperatures. For some purposes, fused quartz is better than other types of glass due to its purity. The glass is used in a number of high-tech products.[3]
+
+Shocked quartz is a form of quartz that has a microscopic structure different from normal quartz. Under intense pressure (but limited temperature), the crystalline structure of quartz is deformed along planes inside the crystal. These planes show up as lines under a microscope.
+
+Shocked quartz is found worldwide, especially in impact craters and in the thin Cretaceous–Paleogene boundary layer. This is at the contact between Cretaceous and Paleogene rocks. It is further evidence (in addition to iridium enrichment) that the transition between the two geologic periods was caused by a large impact. Eugene Shoemaker discovered it in building stones in the Bavarian town of Nördlingen. The stones were from shocked metamorphic rocks, such as breccia, of a meteor crater.[4]

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+Quasars or quasi-stellar radio sources are the most energetic and distant active galactic nuclei (AGN).
+
+They are quite small in comparison with the energy they put out. Quasars are not much larger than the Solar System.[3] The mechanism of brightness changes probably involves relativistic beaming of jets pointed nearly directly toward us.[4] The highest redshift quasar known (as of June 2011[update]) has a redshift of 7.085, which means it is about 29 billion light-years from Earth. This estimate is made using the concept of comoving distance.
+
+Scientists now agree that a quasar is a compact region in the center of a massive galaxy surrounding a central supermassive black hole.[5] Its size is 10–10,000 times the Schwarzschild radius of the black hole. The energy emitted by a quasar is gravitational energy, created from mass falling onto the accretion disc around the black hole.
+
+Quasars are extremely luminous. They were first identified as being high redshift sources of electromagnetic radiation, including radio waves and visible light. The light (and other energy) appeared to be similar to stars, rather than large sources like galaxies. On the other hand, their spectra had very broad emission lines, unlike any known from stars, hence "quasi-stellar". Their luminosity can be 100 times greater than that of the Milky Way.[6]
+
+The accretion discs of central supermassive black holes can convert about 10% of the mass of an object into energy.[7]
+This mechanism explains why quasars were more common in the early universe, as this energy production ends when the supermassive black hole consumes all of the gas and dust near it.
+
+This means that most galaxies, including our own Milky Way, may have gone through an active stage as a quasar or some other class of active galaxy. They are now dormant because they lack a supply of matter to feed into their central black holes to generate radiation.

ensimple/4886.html.txt

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+The number four is a number and a numeral. It comes after the number three, and before the number five. In Roman numerals, it is IV.
+
+In mathematics, the number four is an even number and the smallest composite number. Four is also the second square number after one.
+A small minority of people have four fingers and four toes, on each hand and foot, respectively.  This proves difficult to count on your fingers. Four squared is 16, and four doubled is 8.

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+Quebec (/kəˈbɛk/ or /kwɪˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] (listen))[1] is a province in the eastern part Canada situated between the Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is the largest of Canada's ten provinces by size. It also has the second-highest number of people, after Ontario. Most of Quebec's inhabitants live along or close to the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. Not many people live in the north part of the province.
+
+Unlike the other provinces, most people in Quebec speak French (Canadian French) and French is the only official language. There is a strong French-language culture, which includes French-language newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio shows. Their culture and language, though, is different from that of France mainly because of anglicisation, having words that come from the larger English-speaking parts of Canada.
+
+The government of Quebec has its offices in the capital, Quebec City, which is one of the oldest cities in North America. But the city with the most people in the province is Montreal, which is also the second-largest city in all of Canada.
+
+Quebec has many natural resources that are used to create jobs. Quebec also has many companies that create products for information and communication technologies, aerospace, biotechnology, and health industries. It has also developed close relations with the Northeastern United States.
+
+Quebec was part of New France until 1760, then under British control. Quebec became a province in the Canadian Confederation in 1867. Since then, some people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada. Since Quebec is a mainly French-speaking province, most of the people there feel that it is very different from the rest of Canada, and want to keep it that way. Some feel that for this to happen, Quebec must leave Canada and become its own country. However, the people of Quebec are still divided as to its place in Canada.
+
+Quebec held democratic votes in 1980 and 1995 to decide whether to leave Canada. In 1995, the people of Quebec chose to stay in Canada by a 1% margin.
+
+Aboriginal people and Inuit groups were the first peoples who lived in what is now Québec. These Aboriginal people lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing. Some of the Aboriginal people, called Iroquoians, planted squash and maize. The Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals for fur and food. Sometimes they warred with each other.
+
+Vikings came in longboats from Scandinavia in 1000 AD. Basque whalers and fishermen traded furs with Aboriginal people throughout the 1500s.
+
+The first French explorer to reach Quebec was Jacques Cartier. He sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City.
+
+Samuel de Champlain came from France and traveled into the St. Lawrence River. In 1608, he founded Quebec City as a permanent fur trading outpost. Champlain signed trading and military agreements with the Aboriginal people. Voyageurs, coureurs des bois, and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior of the North American continent.
+
+After 1627, King Louis XIII of France made a rule that only Roman Catholics could go to live in New France. Jesuit clerics tried to convert New France's Aboriginal people to Catholicism. New France became a Royal Province of France in 1663. The population grew from about 3,000 to 60,000 people between 1666 and 1760. Colonists built farms on the banks of St. Lawrence River.
+
+In 1753 France began building a series of forts in the British Ohio Country. Britain asked the French to remove the forts, and the French refused. By 1756, France and Britain were at war. In 1758, the British attacked New France by sea and captured the French fort at Louisbourg.
+
+In 1759, British General James Wolfe defeated General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm outside Quebec City. France gave its North American land to Great Britain in 1763. In 1764, New France was renamed the Province of Quebec.
+
+In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, giving recognition to French law, Catholic religion, and French language in the colony. The Quebec Act gave the Quebec people their first Charter of rights. The Quebec Act made American colonists angry, so they launched the American Revolution. A 1775 invasion by the American Continental Army was stopped at Quebec City. In 1783, Quebec gave the territory south of the Great Lakes to the new United States of America. In 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, which brought most of the provinces together.
+
+The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic Church. The Quiet Revolution was a period of social and political change. During the Quiet Revolution, English Canadians lost their control over the Quebec economy, the Roman Catholic Church became less important, and the Quebec government took over the hydro-electric companies.
+
+In 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) began doing bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices. In 1970 the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada. The FLQ also kidnapped and assassinated Pierre Laporte, Minister of Labour and Deputy Premier of Québec. Laporte's body was found in the trunk of Paul Rose's car, on the South Shore of Montreal on October 17 1970. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, and 497 people were arrested.
+
+The Quiet Revolution was so named because it was not marked by protests or violence.
+
+In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language. Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.
+
+The government is based in the provincial capital, Quebec City. The government is led by a lieutenant-governor (pronounced "lef-") who represents the Crown. As of 2019, he is Michel Doyon. The political leader of the province is the premier. He is François Legault of the Coalition Avenir de Quebec (CAQ), elected in 2018.

ensimple/4888.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+Quebec (/kəˈbɛk/ or /kwɪˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] (listen))[1] is a province in the eastern part Canada situated between the Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is the largest of Canada's ten provinces by size. It also has the second-highest number of people, after Ontario. Most of Quebec's inhabitants live along or close to the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. Not many people live in the north part of the province.
+
+Unlike the other provinces, most people in Quebec speak French (Canadian French) and French is the only official language. There is a strong French-language culture, which includes French-language newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio shows. Their culture and language, though, is different from that of France mainly because of anglicisation, having words that come from the larger English-speaking parts of Canada.
+
+The government of Quebec has its offices in the capital, Quebec City, which is one of the oldest cities in North America. But the city with the most people in the province is Montreal, which is also the second-largest city in all of Canada.
+
+Quebec has many natural resources that are used to create jobs. Quebec also has many companies that create products for information and communication technologies, aerospace, biotechnology, and health industries. It has also developed close relations with the Northeastern United States.
+
+Quebec was part of New France until 1760, then under British control. Quebec became a province in the Canadian Confederation in 1867. Since then, some people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada. Since Quebec is a mainly French-speaking province, most of the people there feel that it is very different from the rest of Canada, and want to keep it that way. Some feel that for this to happen, Quebec must leave Canada and become its own country. However, the people of Quebec are still divided as to its place in Canada.
+
+Quebec held democratic votes in 1980 and 1995 to decide whether to leave Canada. In 1995, the people of Quebec chose to stay in Canada by a 1% margin.
+
+Aboriginal people and Inuit groups were the first peoples who lived in what is now Québec. These Aboriginal people lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing. Some of the Aboriginal people, called Iroquoians, planted squash and maize. The Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals for fur and food. Sometimes they warred with each other.
+
+Vikings came in longboats from Scandinavia in 1000 AD. Basque whalers and fishermen traded furs with Aboriginal people throughout the 1500s.
+
+The first French explorer to reach Quebec was Jacques Cartier. He sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City.
+
+Samuel de Champlain came from France and traveled into the St. Lawrence River. In 1608, he founded Quebec City as a permanent fur trading outpost. Champlain signed trading and military agreements with the Aboriginal people. Voyageurs, coureurs des bois, and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior of the North American continent.
+
+After 1627, King Louis XIII of France made a rule that only Roman Catholics could go to live in New France. Jesuit clerics tried to convert New France's Aboriginal people to Catholicism. New France became a Royal Province of France in 1663. The population grew from about 3,000 to 60,000 people between 1666 and 1760. Colonists built farms on the banks of St. Lawrence River.
+
+In 1753 France began building a series of forts in the British Ohio Country. Britain asked the French to remove the forts, and the French refused. By 1756, France and Britain were at war. In 1758, the British attacked New France by sea and captured the French fort at Louisbourg.
+
+In 1759, British General James Wolfe defeated General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm outside Quebec City. France gave its North American land to Great Britain in 1763. In 1764, New France was renamed the Province of Quebec.
+
+In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, giving recognition to French law, Catholic religion, and French language in the colony. The Quebec Act gave the Quebec people their first Charter of rights. The Quebec Act made American colonists angry, so they launched the American Revolution. A 1775 invasion by the American Continental Army was stopped at Quebec City. In 1783, Quebec gave the territory south of the Great Lakes to the new United States of America. In 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, which brought most of the provinces together.
+
+The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic Church. The Quiet Revolution was a period of social and political change. During the Quiet Revolution, English Canadians lost their control over the Quebec economy, the Roman Catholic Church became less important, and the Quebec government took over the hydro-electric companies.
+
+In 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) began doing bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices. In 1970 the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada. The FLQ also kidnapped and assassinated Pierre Laporte, Minister of Labour and Deputy Premier of Québec. Laporte's body was found in the trunk of Paul Rose's car, on the South Shore of Montreal on October 17 1970. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, and 497 people were arrested.
+
+The Quiet Revolution was so named because it was not marked by protests or violence.
+
+In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language. Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.
+
+The government is based in the provincial capital, Quebec City. The government is led by a lieutenant-governor (pronounced "lef-") who represents the Crown. As of 2019, he is Michel Doyon. The political leader of the province is the premier. He is François Legault of the Coalition Avenir de Quebec (CAQ), elected in 2018.

ensimple/4889.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+Quebec (/kəˈbɛk/ or /kwɪˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] (listen))[1] is a province in the eastern part Canada situated between the Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is the largest of Canada's ten provinces by size. It also has the second-highest number of people, after Ontario. Most of Quebec's inhabitants live along or close to the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. Not many people live in the north part of the province.
+
+Unlike the other provinces, most people in Quebec speak French (Canadian French) and French is the only official language. There is a strong French-language culture, which includes French-language newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio shows. Their culture and language, though, is different from that of France mainly because of anglicisation, having words that come from the larger English-speaking parts of Canada.
+
+The government of Quebec has its offices in the capital, Quebec City, which is one of the oldest cities in North America. But the city with the most people in the province is Montreal, which is also the second-largest city in all of Canada.
+
+Quebec has many natural resources that are used to create jobs. Quebec also has many companies that create products for information and communication technologies, aerospace, biotechnology, and health industries. It has also developed close relations with the Northeastern United States.
+
+Quebec was part of New France until 1760, then under British control. Quebec became a province in the Canadian Confederation in 1867. Since then, some people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada. Since Quebec is a mainly French-speaking province, most of the people there feel that it is very different from the rest of Canada, and want to keep it that way. Some feel that for this to happen, Quebec must leave Canada and become its own country. However, the people of Quebec are still divided as to its place in Canada.
+
+Quebec held democratic votes in 1980 and 1995 to decide whether to leave Canada. In 1995, the people of Quebec chose to stay in Canada by a 1% margin.
+
+Aboriginal people and Inuit groups were the first peoples who lived in what is now Québec. These Aboriginal people lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing. Some of the Aboriginal people, called Iroquoians, planted squash and maize. The Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals for fur and food. Sometimes they warred with each other.
+
+Vikings came in longboats from Scandinavia in 1000 AD. Basque whalers and fishermen traded furs with Aboriginal people throughout the 1500s.
+
+The first French explorer to reach Quebec was Jacques Cartier. He sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City.
+
+Samuel de Champlain came from France and traveled into the St. Lawrence River. In 1608, he founded Quebec City as a permanent fur trading outpost. Champlain signed trading and military agreements with the Aboriginal people. Voyageurs, coureurs des bois, and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior of the North American continent.
+
+After 1627, King Louis XIII of France made a rule that only Roman Catholics could go to live in New France. Jesuit clerics tried to convert New France's Aboriginal people to Catholicism. New France became a Royal Province of France in 1663. The population grew from about 3,000 to 60,000 people between 1666 and 1760. Colonists built farms on the banks of St. Lawrence River.
+
+In 1753 France began building a series of forts in the British Ohio Country. Britain asked the French to remove the forts, and the French refused. By 1756, France and Britain were at war. In 1758, the British attacked New France by sea and captured the French fort at Louisbourg.
+
+In 1759, British General James Wolfe defeated General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm outside Quebec City. France gave its North American land to Great Britain in 1763. In 1764, New France was renamed the Province of Quebec.
+
+In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, giving recognition to French law, Catholic religion, and French language in the colony. The Quebec Act gave the Quebec people their first Charter of rights. The Quebec Act made American colonists angry, so they launched the American Revolution. A 1775 invasion by the American Continental Army was stopped at Quebec City. In 1783, Quebec gave the territory south of the Great Lakes to the new United States of America. In 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, which brought most of the provinces together.
+
+The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic Church. The Quiet Revolution was a period of social and political change. During the Quiet Revolution, English Canadians lost their control over the Quebec economy, the Roman Catholic Church became less important, and the Quebec government took over the hydro-electric companies.
+
+In 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) began doing bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices. In 1970 the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada. The FLQ also kidnapped and assassinated Pierre Laporte, Minister of Labour and Deputy Premier of Québec. Laporte's body was found in the trunk of Paul Rose's car, on the South Shore of Montreal on October 17 1970. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, and 497 people were arrested.
+
+The Quiet Revolution was so named because it was not marked by protests or violence.
+
+In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language. Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.
+
+The government is based in the provincial capital, Quebec City. The government is led by a lieutenant-governor (pronounced "lef-") who represents the Crown. As of 2019, he is Michel Doyon. The political leader of the province is the premier. He is François Legault of the Coalition Avenir de Quebec (CAQ), elected in 2018.

ensimple/489.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,9 @@
+Blindness is to not see anything. Some people are called blind, even though they can see a little bit. This is because they cannot see clearly, but only see unfocused shapes or colors.
+
+In modern countries, few young people are blind. In all the world, blindness is mostly caused by malnutrition and diseases of old people, like cataracts and trachoma. People can become blind because of diseases or accidents, but sometimes people are born blind.
+
+Some people are color blind, which means they can see, but cannot tell certain colors apart.
+
+When people are blind they use such things as the alphabet in braille and guide dogs to do every day life things.
+
+Famous blind people have included Louis Braille, the inventor of the braille alphabet, Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and Helen Keller.

ensimple/4890.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,37 @@
+Quebec (/kəˈbɛk/ or /kwɪˈbɛk/; French: Québec [kebɛk] (listen))[1] is a province in the eastern part Canada situated between the Hudson Bay and the Gulf of Saint Lawrence. It is the largest of Canada's ten provinces by size. It also has the second-highest number of people, after Ontario. Most of Quebec's inhabitants live along or close to the banks of the Saint Lawrence River. Not many people live in the north part of the province.
+
+Unlike the other provinces, most people in Quebec speak French (Canadian French) and French is the only official language. There is a strong French-language culture, which includes French-language newspapers, magazines, movies, television and radio shows. Their culture and language, though, is different from that of France mainly because of anglicisation, having words that come from the larger English-speaking parts of Canada.
+
+The government of Quebec has its offices in the capital, Quebec City, which is one of the oldest cities in North America. But the city with the most people in the province is Montreal, which is also the second-largest city in all of Canada.
+
+Quebec has many natural resources that are used to create jobs. Quebec also has many companies that create products for information and communication technologies, aerospace, biotechnology, and health industries. It has also developed close relations with the Northeastern United States.
+
+Quebec was part of New France until 1760, then under British control. Quebec became a province in the Canadian Confederation in 1867. Since then, some people in Quebec have wanted to leave Canada. Since Quebec is a mainly French-speaking province, most of the people there feel that it is very different from the rest of Canada, and want to keep it that way. Some feel that for this to happen, Quebec must leave Canada and become its own country. However, the people of Quebec are still divided as to its place in Canada.
+
+Quebec held democratic votes in 1980 and 1995 to decide whether to leave Canada. In 1995, the people of Quebec chose to stay in Canada by a 1% margin.
+
+Aboriginal people and Inuit groups were the first peoples who lived in what is now Québec. These Aboriginal people lived by hunting, gathering, and fishing. Some of the Aboriginal people, called Iroquoians, planted squash and maize. The Inuit fished and hunted whales and seals for fur and food. Sometimes they warred with each other.
+
+Vikings came in longboats from Scandinavia in 1000 AD. Basque whalers and fishermen traded furs with Aboriginal people throughout the 1500s.
+
+The first French explorer to reach Quebec was Jacques Cartier. He sailed into the St. Lawrence River in 1534 and established a colony near present-day Quebec City.
+
+Samuel de Champlain came from France and traveled into the St. Lawrence River. In 1608, he founded Quebec City as a permanent fur trading outpost. Champlain signed trading and military agreements with the Aboriginal people. Voyageurs, coureurs des bois, and Catholic missionaries used river canoes to explore the interior of the North American continent.
+
+After 1627, King Louis XIII of France made a rule that only Roman Catholics could go to live in New France. Jesuit clerics tried to convert New France's Aboriginal people to Catholicism. New France became a Royal Province of France in 1663. The population grew from about 3,000 to 60,000 people between 1666 and 1760. Colonists built farms on the banks of St. Lawrence River.
+
+In 1753 France began building a series of forts in the British Ohio Country. Britain asked the French to remove the forts, and the French refused. By 1756, France and Britain were at war. In 1758, the British attacked New France by sea and captured the French fort at Louisbourg.
+
+In 1759, British General James Wolfe defeated General Louis-Joseph de Montcalm outside Quebec City. France gave its North American land to Great Britain in 1763. In 1764, New France was renamed the Province of Quebec.
+
+In 1774, the British Parliament passed the Quebec Act, giving recognition to French law, Catholic religion, and French language in the colony. The Quebec Act gave the Quebec people their first Charter of rights. The Quebec Act made American colonists angry, so they launched the American Revolution. A 1775 invasion by the American Continental Army was stopped at Quebec City. In 1783, Quebec gave the territory south of the Great Lakes to the new United States of America. In 1867 the Parliament of the United Kingdom passed the British North America Act, which brought most of the provinces together.
+
+The conservative government of Maurice Duplessis dominated Quebec politics from 1944 to 1960 with the support of the Catholic Church. The Quiet Revolution was a period of social and political change. During the Quiet Revolution, English Canadians lost their control over the Quebec economy, the Roman Catholic Church became less important, and the Quebec government took over the hydro-electric companies.
+
+In 1963, a terrorist group that became known as the Front de Libération du Québec (FLQ) began doing bombings, robberies and attacks on government offices. In 1970 the FLQ kidnapped James Cross, the British trade commissioner to Canada. The FLQ also kidnapped and assassinated Pierre Laporte, Minister of Labour and Deputy Premier of Québec. Laporte's body was found in the trunk of Paul Rose's car, on the South Shore of Montreal on October 17 1970. Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau invoked the War Measures Act, and 497 people were arrested.
+
+The Quiet Revolution was so named because it was not marked by protests or violence.
+
+In 1977, the newly elected Parti Québécois government of René Lévesque introduced the Charter of the French Language. Often known as Bill 101, it defined French as the only official language of Quebec.
+
+The government is based in the provincial capital, Quebec City. The government is led by a lieutenant-governor (pronounced "lef-") who represents the Crown. As of 2019, he is Michel Doyon. The political leader of the province is the premier. He is François Legault of the Coalition Avenir de Quebec (CAQ), elected in 2018.

ensimple/4891.html.txt

@@ -0,0 +1,28 @@
+Quebec City (Ville de Québec in French) is the capital of the Canadian province of Quebec. It is the second largest city in Quebec, behind Montreal. It is known for its winter fair, beautiful churches, and an old hotel called Château Frontenac. It is next to the Saint Lawrence River. There are almost 700,000 people in the whole area.
+
+The city was created in 1608 at a First Nations (native) Canadian place called Stadacona. People came from France to live there. The English captured the city in 1759 during the Battle of the Plains of Abraham. The walls made to keep the city safe are still there. The walls that surrounded Old Quebec are the only remaining fortified city walls that still exist in the Americas north of Mexico. They were declared a World Heritage Site by UNESCO in 1985.[1]
+
+Quebec City has a humid continental climate (Dfb in the Köppen climate classification).
+
+Most people in Quebec City speak French.  Many also speak English.
+
+Quebec City Stations
+
+CKMI Global Television Network
+
+CFCM TVA
+
+CBVT SRC
+
+CFAP TQS
+
+CHMG Telemag
+
+CIVQ Tele-Quebec
+
+
+
+
+
+
+

ensimple/4892.html.txt

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+The Inca were a pre-Columbian civilization and empire in the Andes of South America. The word Inca can also mean the emperor or king of the Inca people. It was the largest empire in the Americas, and was large even by world standards. It existed shortly before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas.
+
+The Inca ruled along the western coast of South America for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. The empire was centred around the city of Cusco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru. This was the administrative, political and military center of the empire. In later years, it was also centred around Quito. The Inca were ruled by an Emperor known as the Sapa Inca. Throughout their empire, they built many roads and bridges to make travel  between their communities easy.
+
+The Inca Empire was called Tawantinsuyo in Quechua, which means "four regions". The empire only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the conquering Spaniards in 1532 AD marked the end of their reign. Their main language was Quechua, but as the Empire was made up of many different groups there were probably many different languages as well.
+
+The Inca Empire began around Lake Titicaca in about 1197. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America. Their empire centered on the Andean mountain ranges. It included large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.
+
+In 1533, Atahualpa, the last sovereign emperor, was executed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro. That meant the beginning of Spanish rule in South America. The Inca Empire was supported by an economy based on the collective ownership of the land.

ensimple/4893.html.txt

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+Queen are  a British rock band that formed in London in 1970. They are one of the most commercially successful music acts of all time, selling over 300 million records worldwide. The members were Freddie Mercury (lead vocals, piano), Brian May (lead guitar, vocals), Roger Taylor (drums, vocals), and John Deacon (bass guitar).
+
+Freddie Mercury died of an AIDS-related bronchopneumonia on November 24, 1991.[1] In 1997 John Deacon retired to spend more time with his family. The other two former members toured with Paul Rodgers from 2005 to 2009. In December 2018 it was announced Queen & Lambert will bring its Rhapsody Tour to The Forum[2] in 2019. Three of their biggest hits were "Bohemian Rhapsody, "We Will Rock You", and "We Are the Champions".
+
+Queen was inducted into the Rock and Roll Hall of Fame in 2001.[2]
+
+With his friend Tim Staffell, Brian May started a band called 1984 in the mid 1960's. The band broke up after a little bit and then May decided to make another band and teamed up with two other college students named Tim Staffell and Roger Taylor. They called themselves "Smile" with Roger Taylor on drums and vocals, Tim Staffell on vocals and bass and Brian May on guitar and vocals. They did a few hits such as "April Lady". Tim Staffell became friends with another college student, Farrokh Bulsara (to be later known as Freddie Mercury) and Farrokh became a big fan of "Smile" and encouraged them a lot. Later on, Tim left "Smile" to join "Humpy Bongs" and Farrokh Bulsara subsequently joined the band on vocals and piano in 1970. Then Farrokh came up with the name "Queen", so they changed it from "Smile" to "Queen". They then started auditions for a new bassist. They were going through several bassists during this time and none of them stuck, only lasting for about a few minutes. None of the auditioners managed to suit the place of the new bassist, but finally in 1971, they settled on John Deacon. Queen's first album was released in 1973 and it was called "Queen" with songs such as "Seven Seas Of Rhye" and "Liar". Farrokh Bulsara changed his name to Freddie Mercury after the lyrics "Mother Mercury, look what they've done to me" in "My Fairy King". Brian May has a degree in Astrophysics.

ensimple/4894.html.txt

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+Queen Victoria (born Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was the Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 to 1901. She was born in London to a German princess and an English prince in 1819. She became queen at the age of 18, on the death of her uncle, William IV.
+
+She was educated by her governess, Louise Lehzen and Reverend George Davys. She learned to speak and read German and French well.
+
+In 1840, Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert who encouraged science, trade and art. They had nine children, and made it clear they believed that a good family life and Christianity were very important. In general, English people followed their example. In 1851, the Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace was opened. It happened partly because of Albert's hard work. The exhibition featured the achievements of British people in the Victorian era.
+
+In 1861, Prince Albert died and Victoria began to keep away from public life; this made her less popular. During the years that followed, Britain became more powerful, and in 1877, Victoria was given the title of "Empress of India". She became more popular with her people. In 1897, she had her Diamond Jubilee to celebrate 60 years of being on the throne.
+
+Many of Victoria's children became monarchs, princes and princesses of other countries, and late in life she was called the "grandmother of Europe". Queen Victoria was always very interested in India, although she never went there. Queen Victoria enjoyed dancing, sketching, horse riding and singing; she was given  lessons as a child by the famous opera singer Luigi LaBlache.  She liked to paint and could play the piano.[1] She kept a regular diary throughout her life.
+
+Sophia, Queen in Prussia
+
+Anne, Princess Royal and Princess of Orange · The Princess Amelia · The Princess Caroline · Mary, Landgravine of Hesse-Cassel · Louise, Queen of Denmark and Norway
+
+Augusta, Duchess of Brunswick · Princess Elizabeth · Princess Louisa · Caroline Matilda, Queen of Denmark and Norway
+
+Charlotte, Queen of Württemberg · The Princess Augusta Sophia · Elizabeth, Landgravine of Hesse-Homburg · Sophia of Gloucester ·  Caroline of Gloucester · Mary, Duchess of Gloucester · The Princess Sophia · The Princess Amelia
+
+Charlotte Augusta, Princess Leopold of Saxe-Coburg-Saalfeld ·  Frederica of Hanover · Charlotte of Clarence · Victoria · Elizabeth of Clarence · Augusta, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Strelitz · Mary Adelaide, Duchess of Teck
+
+Victoria, Princess Royal and German Empress · Alice, Grand Duchess of Hesse · Helena, Princess Christian of Schleswig-Holstein · Frederica, Baroness Alfons von Pawel-Rammingen · Louise, Duchess of Argyll · Marie of Cumberland · Beatrice, Princess Henry of Battenberg
+
+Louise, Princess Royal and Duchess of Fife · The Princess Victoria · Maud, Queen of Norway · Marie, Queen of Romania · Victoria Melita, Grand Duchess of Hesse · Alexandra, Princess of Hohenlohe-Langenburg · Marie Louise, Princess Maximilian of Baden · Margaret, Crown Princess of Sweden · Alexandra, Grand Duchess of Mecklenburg-Schwerin · Alice, Countess of Athlone · Beatrice, Duchess of Galliera · Olga of Hanover · Patricia of Connaught
+
+Alexandra, Duchess of Fife · Maud, Countess of Southesk · Mary, Princess Royal and Countess of Harewood · Sibylla, Duchess of Västerbotten · Caroline Mathilde of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha · Frederica, Queen of the Hellens
+
+Elizabeth II · Margaret, Countess of Snowdon · Alexandra, The Hon Lady Ogilvy
+
+Anne, Princess Royal
+
+Beatrice of York · Eugenie of York · Louise Windsor
+
+Princess Charlotte of Cambridge

ensimple/4895.html.txt

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+A star is a very large ball of bright glowing hot matter in space. That matter is called plasma. Stars are held together by gravity. They give out heat and light because they are very hot.
+
+Stars are hot because nuclear reactions happen inside them. Those reactions are called nuclear fusion.  Nuclear fusion makes light and heat and makes bigger and bigger chemical elements. Stars have a lot of hydrogen. Nuclear fusion changes hydrogen into helium. When a star gets old, it starts to change the helium into other bigger chemical elements, like carbon and oxygen. Fusion makes a lot of energy. The energy makes the star very hot. The energy produced by stars moves (radiates) away from them. Much of the energy leaves as light. The rest leaves as other kinds of electromagnetic radiation.
+
+The star nearest to Earth is the Sun. The energy from the Sun supports almost all life on Earth by providing light for plants. Plants turn the light into energy in a process called photosynthesis.[1] The energy from the Sun also causes weather and humidity on Earth.
+
+We can see other stars in the night sky when the Sun goes down. Like the Sun, they are made mostly of hydrogen and a little bit of helium plus other elements. Astronomers often compare those other stars to the Sun. For example, their mass is given in solar masses. A small star may be 0.2 solar masses, a big one 4.0 solar masses.
+
+The Earth and other planets move around (orbit) the Sun. The Sun and all things that orbit the Sun are called the Solar System. Many other stars have planets orbiting them: those planets are called exoplanets. If you were on an exoplanet, our Sun would look like a star in the sky, but you could not see the Earth because it would be too far away.
+
+Proxima Centauri is the star that is closest to our Sun. It is 39.9 trillion kilometres away. This is 4.2 light years away. This means that light from Proxima Centauri takes 4.2 years to reach Earth.
+
+Astronomers think there is a very large number of stars in the Universe. The observable Universe contains more than 2 trillion (1012) galaxies[2] and, overall, as many as an estimated 1×1024 stars[3][4] (more stars than all the grains of sand on planet Earth).[5] That is, 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 stars, which is many times more than the few hundred billion stars in the Milky Way (our galaxy).
+
+Most stars are very old. They are usually thought to be between 1 billion and 10 billion years old. The oldest stars are 13.7 billion years old. That is as old as the Universe. Some young stars are only a few million years old. Young stars are mostly brighter than old ones.
+
+Stars are different sizes. The smallest stars are neutron stars, which are actually dead stars. They are no bigger than a city. A neutron star has a large amount of mass in a very small space.
+
+Hypergiant stars are the largest stars in the Universe. They have a diameter over 1,500 times bigger than the Sun. If the Sun was a hypergiant star, it would reach out to as far as Jupiter.
+
+The star Betelgeuse is a red supergiant star. Although these stars are very large, they also have low density.
+
+Some stars look brighter than other stars. This difference is measured in terms of apparent magnitude. There are two reasons why stars have different apparent magnitude. If a star is very close to us it will appear much brighter. This is just like a candle. A candle that is close to us appears brighter. The other reason a star can appear brighter is that it is hotter than another cooler star.
+
+Stars give off light but also give off a solar wind and neutrinos. These are very small particles of matter.
+
+Stars are made of mass and mass makes gravity. Gravity makes planets orbit stars. This is why the Earth orbits the Sun. The gravity of two stars can make them go around each other. Stars that orbit each other are called binary stars. Scientists think there are many binary stars. There are even groups of three or more stars that orbit each other. Proxima Centauri is a small star that orbits other stars.
+
+Stars are not spread evenly across all of space. They are grouped into galaxies. A galaxy contains hundreds of billions of stars.
+
+Stars have been important to people all over the world for all of history. Stars have been part of religious practices. Long ago, people believed that stars could never die.
+
+Astronomers organized stars into groups called constellations. They used the constellations to help them see the motion of the planets and to guess the position of the Sun.[6] The motion of the Sun and the stars was used to make calendars. The calendars were used by farmers to decide when to plant crops and when to harvest them.[8]
+
+Stars are made in nebulae. These are areas that have more gas than normal space. The gas in a nebula is pulled together by gravity. The Orion nebula is an example of a place where gas is coming together to form stars.
+
+Stars spend most of their lives combining (fusing) hydrogen with hydrogen to make energy. When hydrogen is fused it makes helium and it makes a lot of energy. To fuse hydrogen into helium it must be very hot and the pressure must be very high. Fusion happens at the center of stars, called "the core".
+
+The smallest stars (red dwarfs) fuse their hydrogen slowly and live for 100 billion years. Red dwarfs live longer than any other type of star. At the end of their lives, they become dimmer and dimmer. Red dwarfs do not explode.
+
+When very heavy stars die, they explode. This explosion is called a supernova. When a supernova happens in a nebula, the explosion pushes the gas in the nebula together. This makes the gas in the nebula very thick (dense). Gravity and exploding stars both help to bring the gas together to make new stars in nebulas.
+
+Most stars use up the hydrogen at their core. When they do, their core becomes smaller and becomes hotter. It becomes so hot it pushes away the outer part of the star. The outer part expands and it makes a red giant star. Astro-physicists think that in about 5 billion years, the Sun will be a red giant. Our Sun will be so large it will eat the Earth. After our Sun stops using hydrogen to make energy, it will use helium in its very hot core. It will be hotter than when it was fusing hydrogen. Heavy stars will also make elements heavier than helium. As a star makes heavier and heavier elements, it makes less and less energy. Iron is a heavy element made in heavy stars.
+
+Our star is an average star. Average stars will push away their outer gases. The gas it pushes away makes a cloud called a planetary nebula. The core part of the star will remain. It will be a ball as big as the Earth and called a white dwarf. It will fade into a black dwarf over a very long time.
+
+Later in large stars,  heavier elements are made by fusion. Finally the star makes a supernova explosion. Most things happen in the universe so slowly we do not notice. But supernova explosions happen in only 100 seconds. When a supernova explodes its flash is as bright as a 100 billion stars. The dying star is so bright it can be seen during the day. Supernova means "new star" because people used to think it was the beginning of a new star. Today we know that a supernova is the death of an old star. The gas of the star is pushed away by the explosion. It forms a giant cloud of gas called a planetary nebula. The crab nebula is a good example. All that remains is a neutron star. If the star was very heavy, the star will make a black hole. Gravity in a black hole is extremely strong. It is so strong that even light cannot escape from a black hole.
+
+The heaviest elements are made in the explosion of a supernova. After billions of years of floating in space, the gas and dust come together to make new stars and new planets.  Much of the gas and dust in space comes from supernovae. Our Sun, the Earth, and all living things are made from star dust.
+
+Astronomers have known for centuries that stars have different colors. When looking at an electromagnetic spectrum, ultraviolet waves are the shortest, and infrared are the longest.[9]   The visible spectrum has wavelengths between these two extremes.
+
+Modern instruments can measure very precisely the color of a star.  This allows astronomers to determine that star's temperature, because a hotter star's black-body radiation has shorter wavelengths.  The hottest stars are blue and violet, then white, then yellow, and the coolest are red.[10] Knowing the color and absolute magnitude, astronomers can place the star on the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram, and estimate its habitable zone and other facts about it.
+
+For example, our Sun is white, and the Earth is the perfect distance away for life. If our Sun was a hotter, blue star, however, Earth would have to be much farther away or else it would be too hot to have water and sustain life.

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+Iran officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (Persian: ايران‎), historically known as Persia, is a country in Western Asia.[8][9][10] It is part of the Middle East region. It shares borders  with Afghanistan, Armenia, Azerbaijan, Iraq, Pakistan, Turkey, and Turkmenistan.
+
+Tehran is the capital and biggest city. Iran is the eighteenth largest country in the world. It has more than 80 million people. Iran has been a member of the United Nations since 1945. It is a member of the Organization of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC).[11] It is an Islamic republic.
+
+In Iran, Persians, Azerbaijanis, Kurds, Mazandaranis, Gilaks, Lurs and Bakhtiaris make up the nations minority ethnic groups.
+
+In the past, Iran was called "Persia" by people outside of the country. The people that lived there called the country "Iran". The official name was Persia, a region in Iran. The name Persia was used when dealing with other countries and in government papers.
+
+In 1935, Reza Shāh Pahlavi was Shah of Iran. He officially asked foreigners to call the country "Iran". This was done to show that Iran belongs to all the non-Persian Iranians as well as to Persian Iranians. The name Iran means land of the Aryans. It is used in the ancient book of the Zoroastrians, the Avesta. In the 19th and early 20th century, the name Aryan was used by Europeans to mean all Indo-Europeans.  The "Aryan Race" was a term that Hitler used to describe his "Superior" or "perfect" race, but it first meant Iranians.[12] "Aryan" means "noble" in Iranian languages.
+
+Around 500 BC, the area that is now Iran was the center of the Achaemenid Empire. The Greek city states fought against the Persian armies led by Darius the Great and Xerxes. Then Alexander the Great took the country by fighting the Achaemenid dynasty of Persia. He ruled until he died,then the Greek Seleucids ruled until they were defeated by the Parthian Empire which later fought the Roman Empire.
+
+After the Parthians, the Sassanian dynasty (224-651) took over. Other people took Persia by fi\ghting, like the Arabs (7th century), Turks (10th century) and Mongols (13th century).  However, Iran has always had a different culture and continued to survive.
+
+The Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) worked in Iran to create 1953 riots which led to the removal of Prime Minister Mosaddegh. The United States and Great Britain then made the Shah Mohammad Reza Pahlavi the most powerful person in Iran, again. The Shah left Iran in 1979 in the face of a revolt. The Iranian government was changed to an Islamic Republic by Islamic Revolution.  Soon afterwards, the Iranian Students Movement (Tahkim Vahdat), with the backing of the new government, took over the U.S. Embassy in Tehran. They held most of the diplomats hostage for 444 days.
+
+Relations between the two countries have not been good since. For example, the United States claims that Iran supports terrorist groups against Israel. Iran does not see Israel as a country. Iran, along with most Arab countries, believes that Israel does not have the right to exist. However, Iran has collaborated with the West at times. These deals have been about energy or about fighting terrorism.
+
+Iran fought the Iran–Iraq War in the 1980s.  Many foreign countries supported Iraq.
+
+Now, the West is trying to prevent Iran from using nuclear technology, even though Iran is a member of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. The International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) has reported many times that there is no evidence that Iran is developing nuclear weapons. However, it also says that it can not say for sure that Iran is not doing so in secret.
+
+A December 2007 CIA report on nuclear activity in Iran said that Iran's secret program to get nuclear weapons technology was stopped in 2003. It said that Iran will probably not be able to build a nuclear weapon soon.
+
+Iran has the natural resource of oil. It is a member of OPEC. Oil is one of its main exports. Rice, handicrafts, carpets and crocus are important local products. Iran is the world's largest exporter and producer of caviar.[13] Iran is also one of the world's biggest exporters of pistachio nuts.
+
+Iran has factories that produce industrial products. Iran is also involved in the field of biomedical sciences.
+
+Rial is the money used in Iran.
+
+About 90% of Iranian people are Muslim. The state religion is Shia Islam.  It has been the state religion since the Safavid dynasty in the 16th century.[14] This is the religion of about 75% of Iranians.[15] They belong to the Twelver branch. About 9% of Iranians Muslim belong to the Sunni branch of Islam. The 9% of Iranians who are not Muslim are Bahá'ís, Mandeans, Zoroastrians, Christians and Jews.[15] It is thought that there are between 300,000 and 350,000 Persian (Iranian) Jews.

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+The Inca were a pre-Columbian civilization and empire in the Andes of South America. The word Inca can also mean the emperor or king of the Inca people. It was the largest empire in the Americas, and was large even by world standards. It existed shortly before Christopher Columbus arrived in the Americas.
+
+The Inca ruled along the western coast of South America for a little over 100 years, until the Spanish invasion in the 16th century. The empire was centred around the city of Cusco, or Qosqo, in what is now southern Peru. This was the administrative, political and military center of the empire. In later years, it was also centred around Quito. The Inca were ruled by an Emperor known as the Sapa Inca. Throughout their empire, they built many roads and bridges to make travel  between their communities easy.
+
+The Inca Empire was called Tawantinsuyo in Quechua, which means "four regions". The empire only lasted for about 100 years as the arrival of the conquering Spaniards in 1532 AD marked the end of their reign. Their main language was Quechua, but as the Empire was made up of many different groups there were probably many different languages as well.
+
+The Inca Empire began around Lake Titicaca in about 1197. From 1438 to 1533, the Incas used conquest and non-violent assimilation to gain a large portion of western South America. Their empire centered on the Andean mountain ranges. It included large parts of what is now Ecuador, Peru, Bolivia, Argentina and Chile.
+
+In 1533, Atahualpa, the last sovereign emperor, was executed by the conquistador Francisco Pizarro. That meant the beginning of Spanish rule in South America. The Inca Empire was supported by an economy based on the collective ownership of the land.

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+A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body. Most animals have tails, like cats, dogs, whales, fish, cheetahs, and monkeys.

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+A tail is the section at the rear end of an animal's body. Most animals have tails, like cats, dogs, whales, fish, cheetahs, and monkeys.

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+Adolescence is the time between being a child and a mature adult, that is the period of time during which a person grows into an adult, but are emotionally not mature. Adolescence in the English speaking world usually corresponds to the teenage years of 13-19 which are so named because of the end of the English words "thirteen" to "nineteen".  [1]
+
+The ages when one is no longer a child, and when one becomes an adult, vary by culture. In many cultures they are marked by rites of passage. The word comes from the  Latin verb adolescere meaning "to grow up." During this time, a person's body, emotions and academic standing change a lot. When adolescence starts, in America, children usually finish elementary school and enter secondary education, such as middle school or high school.
+
+During this period of life, most children go through the physical stages of puberty, which can often begin before a person has reached the age of 13. Most cultures think of people as becoming adults at various ages of the teenage years. For example, Jewish tradition thinks that people are adults at age 13, and this change is celebrated in the Bar Mitzvah (for boys) and the Bat Mitzvah (for girls) ceremony. Usually, there is a formal age of majority when adolescents formally (under the law) become adults.

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+Blindness is to not see anything. Some people are called blind, even though they can see a little bit. This is because they cannot see clearly, but only see unfocused shapes or colors.
+
+In modern countries, few young people are blind. In all the world, blindness is mostly caused by malnutrition and diseases of old people, like cataracts and trachoma. People can become blind because of diseases or accidents, but sometimes people are born blind.
+
+Some people are color blind, which means they can see, but cannot tell certain colors apart.
+
+When people are blind they use such things as the alphabet in braille and guide dogs to do every day life things.
+
+Famous blind people have included Louis Braille, the inventor of the braille alphabet, Stevie Wonder, Ray Charles and Helen Keller.