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most points in a game by lebron james

List of 40 - plus point games by LeBron James - wikipedia LeBron James is an American professional basketball player who currently plays for the Cleveland Cavaliers of the National Basketball Association. He spent his first seven seasons with the Cavaliers (2003 -- 2010), played with the Miami Heat from 2010 to 2014, and signed a one - year max contract with the Cavaliers for the 2014 - 15 NBA season. The list does not include any pre-season games.

where does the last name freitas come from

Freitas (Portugal) - Wikipedia Freitas is a village and a former civil parish in the municipality of Fafe, Portugal. In 2013, the parish merged into the new parish Freitas e Vila Cova. The civil parish has an area 6, 24 km2, with 745 inhabitants for a density of 119, 4 people / km2 (2001 census). The first lord of the village, a contemporary of the first king of Portugal, around 1164, became known as João das Freitas, hence initiating the surname Freitas. In an adjacent civil parish, Travassós, there is a second, smaller village named Freitas. A small family 's last name originates from this village with the last name: Freyta Coordinates: 41 ° 30 ′ 47 '' N 8 ° 12 ′ 40 '' W  /  41.513 ° N 8.211 ° W  / 41.513; - 8.211

who is the president of south africa 2018

President of South Africa - Wikipedia The President of the Republic of South Africa is the head of state and head of government under the Constitution of South Africa. From 1961 to 1994, the head of state was called the State President. The President is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of Parliament, and is usually the leader of the largest party, which has been the African National Congress since the first non-racial elections were held on 27 April 1994. The Constitution limits the president 's time in office to two five - year terms. The first president to be elected under the new constitution was Nelson Mandela. The incumbent is Cyril Ramaphosa, who was elected by the National Assembly on 15 February 2018 following the resignation of Jacob Zuma. Under the interim constitution (valid from 1994 to 1996), there was a Government of National Unity, in which a Member of Parliament (MP) from the largest opposition party was entitled to a position as Deputy President. Along with Thabo Mbeki, the last State President, F.W. de Klerk also served as Deputy President, in his capacity as the leader of the National Party which was the second - largest party in the new Parliament. But De Klerk later resigned and went into opposition with his party. A voluntary coalition government continues to exist under the new constitution (adopted in 1996), although there have been no appointments of opposition politicians to the post of Deputy President. The President is required to be a member of the National Assembly at the time of his election. Upon his election, he immediately resigns his seat for the duration of his term. The President may be removed either by a motion of no - confidence or an impeachment trial. The office of the President, and the roles that come with it, were established by Chapter Five of the Constitution of South Africa which was formed by a Constituent Assembly upon the dissolution of apartheid as state policy. A number of manifestations of the office have existed. Aspects of these offices exist within the presidency today. The executive leadership of the British colonies of Natal and of the Cape of Good Hope were invested in their Governors, likewise was invested in the Presidents of the Boer republics of the Transvaal and the Orange Free State. Alternating sovereignty as a result of wars culminated in the Vereeniging Treaty signed in which concluded the South African War. The Union of South Africa, a British Dominion, was established on 31 May 1910 with the British monarch as titular head of state, represented by a viceroy, the Governor - General. Upon the declaration of the Republic of South Africa on 31 May 1961, the office of State President was created. It was originally a ceremonial post, but became an executive post in 1984 when a new constitution abolished the post of Prime Minister and transferred its powers to the State President. South Africa has an almost unique system for the election of its president. Unlike other former British colonies and dominions who have adopted a parliamentary republican form of government and those that follow the Westminster system, South Africa 's President is both head of state and head of government and Commander - in - Chief of the South African National Defence Force (SANDF). Contrary to presidential systems around the world, the President of South Africa is elected by the Parliament of South Africa rather than by the people directly. He is thus answerable to it in theory and able to influence legislation in practice as head of the majority party (presently the ANC). The President is elected at the first sitting of Parliament after an election, and whenever a vacancy arises. The President is elected by the National Assembly, the lower house of parliament, from among its members. The chief justice must oversee the election. Once elected, a person is no longer a member of the National Assembly. They must then be sworn in as President within five days of the election. Should a vacancy arise, the date of a new election must be set by the chief justice, but not more than 30 days after the vacancy occurs. The Constitution has thus prescribed a system combining both parliamentary and presidential systems in a unique manner. Only Botswana and a few other countries use a similar system. Between 1996 and 2003 Israel combined the two systems in an opposite way, with an elected prime minister. Although the presidency is the key institution, it is hedged about with numerous checks and balances that prevent its total dominance over the government, as was the case in many African countries. The presidential term is five years, with a limit of two terms. Thus the electoral system attempts (at least on paper) to prevent the accumulation of power in the president as was during Apartheid or in many other African countries. The President - elect will, before formally assuming office, make and subscribe an oath or solemn affirmation in the terms set out in Schedule 3 before the Chief Justice or a Judge of the Supreme Court. The President elected in terms of section 77 (1) (a) is subjected to sections 87 and 93 (2), hold office: (a) for the period terminating on a date five years as from the date of the date of the first sitting of the National Assembly under the Constitution; or (b) if the Parliament is dissolved during such period, for the period until a President has been elected in terms of section 77 (1) (b) after such dissolution and has assumed office. (1) The President is responsible for the observance of the provision of the Constitution as the supreme law of the land (2) The President provides with dignity the executive leadership in the interest of national unity in accordance with the Constitution and the law of the country. (3) The President can not hold any other public office and can not perform remunerative work outside the duties of the president 's office. According to chapter five of the constitution, the President can only exercise the powers of his or her office while within the Republic of South Africa. Should the president be outside of the country, or unable to fulfil the duties of the office, they may appoint an acting president. The presidential vacancy should be filled first by the Deputy President, then cabinet minister selected by the President, then a cabinet minister selected by the cabinet, and finally by the Speaker of the National Assembly. The President is the head of state, head of government and commander - in - chief of the armed forces of the Republic of South Africa. The rights, responsibilities and remuneration of the President are enumerated in Chapter V of the Constitution of South Africa and subsequent amendments and laws passed by the Parliament of South Africa. The executive powers of the Republic are vested in the President. He appoints various officials to positions listed in the Constitution however the most significant are the ministers and justices of the Supreme Court of Appeal and the Constitutional Court. Through the Cabinet, the President implements and enforces the constitution and laws and enforces his or her political objectives. Judges are appointed on the advice of the Judicial Service Commission. The President plays a role in the formation of legislation. He or she signs bills into laws and can do the opposite, veto them (although subject to an override), refers bills back to Parliament or to the Constitutional Court or can call for a referendum. The president summons parliament, often delivering his or her objectives and agenda in a State of the Nation Address at the beginning of each session. The President is the Commander - in - Chief of the South African National Defence Force thereby possessing influence or control over foreign and security policy. He or she is accorded the constitutional powers to declare war and make peace, negotiate and sign (although not ratify) treaties (and the alliances that may come with them), and receives and appoints diplomatic officials, confers honours and grants pardons. (1) The President performs the following powers and functions: (a) Sign bills duly passed by parliament. (b) Convey meetings with Cabinet (c) Refer disputes of a constitutional nature between parties represented in Parliament or between organs of state at any level of government to the Constitutional Court. (d) Confer honours. (e) Appoint, accredit, receive and recognise ambassadors, diplomatic representatives and other diplomatic officials. (f) Appoint commissions of inquiry. (g) Negotiate and sign international agreements (2) The President shall consult the Executive Deputy President. (a) In development and execution of the policies of the international government. (b) All matters relating to the management of the Cabinet and performance of Cabinet business. (c) Assign and allocation of functions contemplated in section 84 (5) to an Executive Deputy President. (3) The President exercises and performs all powers and functions assigned to him by the Constitution or any other law, except those specified in subsections (1) and (2) or where otherwise expressly or by implication provided in this Constitution in consultation with the cabinet. Provided that the cabinet may delegate it 's consultation functions in terms of the subsection, with reference to any particular power or function of the president, to any Minister of Ministers. (4) (a) The President in the Commander - in - Chief of the National Defence Force (b) The President may - (ii) With approval of the Parliament, declare a state of national defence. (iii) Employ the national defence force in accordance with and subject to sections 227 and 228. The President is addressed as "Your Excellency '' or "Mr / Madam President '' and referred to as "The Honourable (name) ''. The official seat of the President are the Union Buildings in Pretoria and the Tuynhuys in Cape Town. His living residences are Mahlamba Ndlopfu in Pretoria, Genadendal in Cape Town and Dr John L Dube House in Durban. African National Congress

who played the mad hatter on the batman series

List of Batman television series cast members - wikipedia Batman, a fictional superhero appearing in publications by DC Comics, has appeared in numerous filmed works, with a variety of casts. The list below presents the casts of the television series in which Batman was the eponymous starring character.

who played the murderer in silence of the lambs

Buffalo Bill (character) - wikipedia Jame Gumb (known by the nickname Buffalo Bill) is a character and the primary antagonist of Thomas Harris 's 1988 novel The Silence of the Lambs and its 1991 film adaptation, in which he is played by Ted Levine. In the film and the novel, he is a serial killer who murders overweight women and skins them so he can make a "woman suit '' for himself. According to the novel, Gumb was born in California on October 25, 1949, and abandoned by his mother -- an alcoholic sex worker who misspelled "James '' on his birth certificate -- and taken into foster care at age two. The screenplay omits Gumb 's backstory, but does imply that he had a traumatic childhood. Lecter summarizes Gumb 's life thus: "Billy was not born a criminal, but made one by years of systematic abuse. '' The novel goes on to tell of Gumb living in foster homes until the age of 10 before being adopted by his grandparents, who became his first victims. The story then puts him in Tulare Vocational Rehabilitation, a psychiatric hospital where he learns to be a tailor. Later, Gumb has a relationship with Benjamin Raspail. After Raspail leaves him, he kills Raspail 's new lover, Klaus, and flays him. Both the novel and film depict Gumb as a tortured and self - hating individual. Believing himself to be transgender, he wants to become a woman but is too psychologically disturbed to qualify for gender reassignment surgery. He kills women so he can skin them and create a "woman suit '' for himself. Gumb 's modus operandi is to approach a woman, pretending to be injured and asking for help, then knock her out in a surprise attack and kidnap her. He takes her to his house and leaves her in a well in his basement, where he starves her until her skin is loose enough to easily remove. In the first three cases, he leads the victims upstairs, slips nooses around their necks and pushes them from the stairs, strangling them. He then skins parts of their body (a different section on each victim), and then dumps each body into a different river, destroying any trace evidence. This MO caused the homicide squad to nickname him Buffalo Bill (Buffalo Bill 's Wild West show typically claimed that Buffalo Bill Cody had scalped a Cheyenne warrior). One officer quipped it was because he "skins his humps. '' In the case of Gumb 's first victim, Fredrica Bimmel, he weighed down her body, so she ends up being the third victim found. In the case of the fourth victim, he shoots her instead of strangling her, then inserts a moth into her throat and dumps the body. At the start of the novel, Gumb has already murdered five women. Behavioral Science Unit Chief Jack Crawford assigns gifted trainee Clarice Starling to question incarcerated serial killer Hannibal Lecter about the case. (Lecter had met Gumb while treating Raspail.) When Gumb kidnaps Catherine Martin, the daughter of U.S. Senator Ruth Martin, Lecter offers to give Starling a psychological profile of the killer in return for a transfer to a federal institution; this profile is mostly made up of cryptic clues designed to help Starling figure it out for herself, although Lecter does directly inform Clarice about Gumb wanting to have a sex change operation. This is highlighted in one of the most famous scenes from the movie where Gumb dances to the song "Goodbye Horses '' by Q Lazzarus, putting on makeup and other women 's accessories to complete his "transformation '' into a woman. Starling eventually deduces from Lecter 's riddles that Gumb knew his first victim, Frederica Bimmel, and goes to Bimmel 's hometown of Belvedere, Ohio to gather information. By this time, Crawford has already found out the killer 's true identity and gone with a SWAT team to his house to arrest him, but they find that it is only a business address. Meanwhile, Starling goes to the home of Bimmel 's employer, Mrs. Lippman, only to find Gumb -- calling himself "Jack Gordon '' -- living there. (Gumb had murdered Mrs. Lippman earlier.) When Starling sees a moth flutter by, she realizes she has found her man and orders him to surrender. Gumb flees into the basement and stalks her with a revolver and night vision goggles. Just as he is about to shoot Starling, she hears him behind her, turns around and opens fire, killing him. Harris based various elements of Gumb 's MO on six real - life killers: Marjorie Garber, author of Vested Interests: Cross-Dressing and Cultural Anxiety, asserts that despite the book and the film indicating that Buffalo Bill merely believes himself to be transsexual, they still imply negative connotations about transsexualism. Garber says, "Harris 's book manifests its cultural anxiety through a kind of baroque bravado of plot, '' and calls the book "a fable of gender dysphoria gone spectacularly awry ''. Barbara Creed, writing in Screening the Male: Exploring Masculinities in the Hollywood Cinema, says that Buffalo Bill wants to become a woman "presumably because he sees femininity as a more desirable state, possibly a superior one ''. For Buffalo Bill, the woman is "(a) totem animal ''. Not only does he want to wear women 's skin, he wants to become a woman; he dresses in women 's clothes and tucks his penis behind his legs to appear female. Creed writes, "To experience a rebirth as woman, Buffalo Bill must wear the skin of woman not just to experience a physical transformation but also to acquire the power of transformation associated with woman 's ability to give birth. '' Buffalo Bill wears the skin of his totem animal to assume its power. Judith Halberstam, author of Skin Shows: Gothic Horror and the Technology of Monsters, writes, "The cause for Buffalo Bill 's extreme violence against women lies not in his gender confusion or his sexual orientation but in his humanist presumption that his sex and his gender and his orientation must all match - up to a mythic norm of white heterosexual masculinity. '' Halberstam says Buffalo Bill symbolizes a lack of ease with one 's skin. She writes that the character is also a combination of Victor Frankenstein and his monster in how he is the creator gathering body parts and experimenting with his own body. Halberstam writes, "He does not understand gender as inherent, innate; he reads it only as a surface effect, a representation, an external attribute engineered into identity. '' Buffalo Bill challenges "the interiority of gender '' by taking skin and remaking it into a costume. The film adaptation of Silence of the Lambs was criticized by some gay rights groups for its portrayal of the psychopathic Gumb as bisexual and transgender. A Johns Hopkins sex - reassignment surgeon, present in the book but not the film (his scene was deleted and is found in bonus materials on the DVD), protests exactly the same thing. FBI Director Jack Crawford pacifies him by repeating that Gumb is not in fact transsexual, but merely believes himself to be. In the film, a similar scene is shown with Starling and Lecter in the same roles as the surgeon and Crawford, respectively. In the director 's commentary for the 1991 film, director Jonathan Demme draws attention to various Polaroids taken of Buffalo Bill in the company of strippers; these are visible in Gumb 's basement in the film.

who is the current government of the central bank of nigeria

Central Bank of Nigeria - wikipedia The Central Bank of Nigeria (CBN) was established by the CBN Act of 1958 and commenced operations on July 1, 1959. The major regulatory objectives of the bank as stated in the CBN Act are to: maintain the external reserves of the country, promote monetary stability and a sound financial environment, and to act as a banker of last resort and financial adviser to the federal government. The central bank 's role as lender of last resort and adviser to the federal government has sometimes pushed it into murky regulatory waters. After the end of imperial rule the desire of the government to become pro-active in the development of the economy became visible especially after the end of the Nigerian civil war, the bank followed the government 's desire and took a determined effort to supplement any short falls in credit allocations to the real sector. The bank soon became involved in lending directly to consumers, contravening its original intention to work through commercial banks in activities involving consumer lending. However, the policy was an offspring of the indigenisation policy at the time. Nevertheless, the government through the central bank has been actively involved in building the nation 's money and equity centers, forming securities regulatory board and introducing treasury instruments into the capital market. In 1948, an inquiry under the leadership of G.D Paton was established by the colonial administration to investigate banking practices in Nigeria. Prior to the inquiry, the banking industry was largely uncontrolled. The G.D Paton report, an offshoot of the inquiry became the cornerstone of the first banking legislation in the country: the banking ordinance of 1952. The ordinance was designed to prevent non viable banks from mushrooming, and to ensure orderly commercial banking. The banking ordinance triggered a rapid growth in the industry, with growth also came disappointment. By 1958, a few number of banks had failed. To curtail further failures and to prepare for indigenous control, in 1958, a bill for the establishment of Central Bank of Nigeria was presented to the House of Representatives of Nigeria. The Act was fully implemented on July 1, 1959, when the Central Bank of Nigeria came into full operation. In April 1960, the Bank issued its first treasury bills. In May 1961 the Bank launched the Lagos Bankers Clearing House, which provided licensed banks a framework in which to exchange and clear checks rapidly. By July 1, 1961 the Bank had completed issuing all denominations of new Nigerian notes and coins and redeemed all of the West African Currency Board 's previous money. The CBN 's early functions were mainly to act as the government 's agency for the control and supervision of the banking sector, to monitor the balance of payments according to the demands of the federal government and to tailor monetary policy along the demands of the federal budget. The central bank 's initial lack of financial competence over the finance ministry led to deferment of major economic decisions to the finance ministry. A key instrument of the bank was to initiate credit limit legislation for bank lending. The initiative was geared to make credit available to neglected national areas such as agriculture and manufacturing. By the end of 1979, most of the banks did not adhere to their credit limits and favored a loose interpretation of CBN 's guidelines. The central bank did not effectively curtail the prevalence of short term loan maturities. Most loans given out by commercial banks were usually set within a year. The major policy to balance this distortion in the credit market was to create a new Bank of Commerce and industry, a universal bank. However, the new bank did not fulfill its mission. Another policy of the bank in concert with the intentions of the government was direct involvement in the affairs of the three major expatriate commercial banks in order to forestall any bias against indigenous borrowers and consumers. By 1976, the federal government had acquired 40 % of equity in the three largest commercial banks. The bank 's slow reaction to curtail inflation by financing huge deficits of the federal government has been one of the sore points in the history of the central bank. Coupled with its failure to control the burgeoning trade arrears in 1983, the country was left with huge trade debts totaling $6 billion. Governors of the Central Bank since independence: The central bank was instrumental in the growth and financial credibility of Nigerian commercial banks by making sure that all the financial banks operating in the country had a capital base (required reserves). This helped to make sure that bank customers just did not bear losses alone, in the event of bank failures. However, this policy led to the failure of some Nigerian commercial banks; some banks could not meet up with the new capital base requirements, which was 25,000,000,000.00 Naira at the time. Those banks that could not meet the new capital base requirements had to fold up, while some that could not come up with the money on their own, had to merge with other banks in order to raise the money. This policy helped solidify the commercial banks of Nigeria, and made it impossible for individuals or organizations without financial stability to operate a bank in the country. Today Nigeria has one of the most advanced financial sectors in Africa, with most of its commercial banks having branches in other countries. The Central Bank is active in promoting financial inclusion policy and is a leading member of the Alliance for Financial Inclusion. It is also one of the original 17 regulatory institutions to make specific national commitments to financial inclusion under the Maya Declaration during the 2011 Global Policy Forum held in Mexico. The CBN has ensured all Banks in Nigeria to have a uniform year end. The various commercial bank includes Access Bank Plc, Citibank Nigeria Plc, Diamond Bank Plc, First Bank of Nigeria Plc, Guaranty Trust Bank Plc, Zenith Bank plc, Wema Bank, StanbicIbtc Bank, Fidelity Bank, United Bank for Africa etc. Mr. Godwin Emefiele, the former Zenith Bank Plc Chief Executive assumed the mantle as the 11th CBN chief as well as its 10th indigenous governor. Emefiele, who replaced Mallam Sanusi Lamido Sanusi, whose tenure elapsed on June 1 brings to the job over 20 years of banking experience. He has held several strategic positions in his 18 years in the banking industry. Before becoming the Managing Director of Zenith Bank Plc, he had worked in corporate banking, treasury and financial controls. Before that, he was a lecturer in Finance and Insurance at the University of Port Harcourt, as well as his alma mater, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, where he obtained both BSc and MBA degrees in Finance. He is also an alumnus of Executive Education at Stanford University, Harvard University and Wharton Graduate Schools of Business. Emefiele in his maiden press briefing two days after his resumption of office gave a presentation titled "ENTRENCHING MACROECONOMIC STABILITY AND ENGENDERING ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA ''. He acknowledged the excellent work that the Bank had done to achieve financial system stability, low inflation, exchange rate stability, an efficient payment system, and a consistent monetary policy in the last couple of years. He maintained that the vision of the Central Bank of Nigeria is to create a people - centered Central Bank by "delivering price and financial system stability and promoting sustainable economic development ''. The name of the Central Bank of Nigeria has been used in a series of so - called ' Nigerian 419 Scams '. The fraudster sends an e-mail that appears to come from a Central Bank employee to millions of people saying the Bank has found an excess of money, or a debt owing to, a person or persons who have since died, and they wish to export it. The victim submits his own bank account so that the money may be placed therein, however this information is only used to add credibility to the scam, in order to lure the victim in further. Bank details and other personal information is used to create fake certificate or document that are allegedly from the Bank. Contrary to popular belief, the victim 's bank account can not be emptied in this fashion. And, if money was taken from an account, it could be reimbursed as it can be traced Instead, the fraudster will ask the victim to send money via wire transfer services such as Western Union or MoneyGram. A wire transfer sent abroad is untraceable and not reversible. The bank is in no way associated with such scams.

presently the highest rates of natural increase in population are found in which region of the world

World population - wikipedia In demographics, the world population is the total number of humans currently living, and was estimated to have reached 7.63 billion as of May 2018. World population has experienced continuous growth since the end of the Great Famine of 1315 -- 17 and the Black Death in 1350, when it was near 370 million. The highest population growth rates -- global population increases above 1.8 % per year -- occurred between 1955 and 1975, peaking to 2.06 % between 1965 and 1970. The growth rate has declined to 1.18 % between 2010 and 2015 and is projected to decline further in the course of the 21st century. Total annual births were highest in the late 1980s at about 139 million, and as of 2011 were expected to remain essentially constant at a level of 135 million, while deaths numbered 56 million per year and were expected to increase to 80 million per year by 2040. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 30.4 years in 2018. Six of the Earth 's seven continents are permanently inhabited on a large scale. Asia is the most populous continent, with its 4.54 billion inhabitants accounting for 60 % of the world population. The world 's two most populated countries, China and India, together constitute about 36 % of the world 's population. Africa is the second most populated continent, with around 1.28 billion people, or 16 % of the world 's population. Europe 's 742 million people make up 10 % of the world 's population as of 2018, while the Latin American and Caribbean regions are home to around 651 million (9 %). Northern America, primarily consisting of the United States and Canada, has a population of around 363 million (5 %), and Oceania, the least - populated region, has about 41 million inhabitants (0.5 %). Though it is not permanently inhabited by any fixed population, Antarctica has a small, fluctuating international population based mainly in polar science stations. This population tends to rise in the summer months and decrease significantly in winter, as visiting researchers return to their home countries. Estimates of world population by their nature are an aspect of modernity, possible only since the Age of Discovery. Early estimates for the population of the world date to the 17th century: William Petty in 1682 estimated world population at 320 million (modern estimates ranging close to twice this number); by the late 18th century, estimates ranged close to one billion (consistent with modern estimates). More refined estimates, broken down by continents, were published in the first half of the 19th century, at 600 to 1000 million in the early 1800s and at 800 to 1000 million in the 1840s. Estimates of the population of the world at the time agriculture emerged in around 10,000 BC have ranged between 1 million and 15 million. Even earlier, genetic evidence suggests humans may have gone through a population bottleneck of between 1,000 and 10,000 people about 70,000 BC, according to the Toba catastrophe theory. By contrast, it is estimated that around 50 -- 60 million people lived in the combined eastern and western Roman Empire in the 4th century AD. The Plague of Justinian, which first emerged during the reign of the Roman emperor Justinian, caused Europe 's population to drop by around 50 % between the 6th and 8th centuries AD. The population of Europe was more than 70 million in 1340. The Black Death pandemic of the 14th century may have reduced the world 's population from an estimated 450 million in 1340 to between 350 and 375 million in 1400; it took 200 years for population figures to recover. The population of China decreased from 123 million in 1200 to 65 million in 1393, presumably due to a combination of Mongol invasions, famine, and plague. Starting in AD 2, the Han Dynasty of ancient China kept consistent family registers in order to properly assess the poll taxes and labor service duties of each household. In that year, the population of Western Han was recorded as 57,671,400 individuals in 12,366,470 households, decreasing to 47,566,772 individuals in 9,348,227 households by AD 146, towards the End of the Han Dynasty. At the founding of the Ming Dynasty in 1368, China 's population was reported to be close to 60 million; toward the end of the dynasty in 1644, it may have approached 150 million. England 's population reached an estimated 5.6 million in 1650, up from an estimated 2.6 million in 1500. New crops that were brought to Asia and Europe from the Americas by Portuguese and Spanish colonists in the 16th century are believed to have contributed to population growth. Since their introduction to Africa by Portuguese traders in the 16th century, maize and cassava have similarly replaced traditional African crops as the most important staple food crops grown on the continent. The pre-Columbian North American population probably numbered somewhere between 2 million and 18 million. Encounters between European explorers and populations in the rest of the world often introduced local epidemics of extraordinary virulence. According to the most extreme scholarly claims, as many as 90 % of the Native American population of the New World died due to Old World diseases such as smallpox, measles and influenza. Over the centuries, the Europeans had developed high degrees of immunity to these diseases, while the indigenous peoples had no such immunity. During the European Agricultural and Industrial Revolutions, the life expectancy of children increased dramatically. The percentage of the children born in London who died before the age of five decreased from 74.5 % in 1730 -- 1749 to 31.8 % in 1810 -- 1829. Between 1700 and 1900, Europe 's population increased from about 100 million to over 400 million. Altogether, the areas populated by people of European descent comprised 36 % of the world 's population in 1900. Population growth in the West became more rapid after the introduction of vaccination and other improvements in medicine and sanitation. Improved material conditions led to the population of Britain increasing from 10 million to 40 million in the 19th century. The population of the United Kingdom reached 60 million in 2006. The United States saw its population grow from around 5.3 million in 1800 to 106 million in 1920, exceeding 307 million in 2010. The first half of the 20th century in Imperial Russia and the Soviet Union was marked by a succession of major wars, famines and other disasters which caused large - scale population losses (approximately 60 million excess deaths). After the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia 's population declined significantly -- from 150 million in 1991 to 143 million in 2012 -- but by 2013 this decline appeared to have halted. Many countries in the developing world have experienced extremely rapid population growth since the early 20th century, due to economic development and improvements in public health. China 's population rose from approximately 430 million in 1850 to 580 million in 1953, and now stands at over 1.3 billion. The population of the Indian subcontinent, which was about 125 million in 1750, increased to 389 million in 1941; today, India, Pakistan and Bangladesh are collectively home to about 1.63 billion people. Java had about 5 million inhabitants in 1815; its present - day successor, Indonesia, now has a population of over 140 million. In just one hundred years, the population of Brazil decupled (x10), from about 17 million in 1900, or about 1 % of the world population in that year, to about 176 million in 2000, or almost 3 % of the global population in the very early 21st century. Mexico 's population grew from 13.6 million in 1900 to about 112 million in 2010. Between the 1920s and 2000s, Kenya 's population grew from 2.9 million to 37 million. It is estimated that the world population reached one billion for the first time in 1804. It was another 123 years before it reached two billion in 1927, but it took only 33 years to reach three billion in 1960. Thereafter, the global population reached four billion in 1974, five billion in 1987, six billion in 1999 and, according to the United States Census Bureau, seven billion in March 2012. The United Nations, however, estimated that the world population reached seven billion in October 2011. According to current projections, the global population will reach eight billion by 2024, and will likely reach around nine billion by 2042. Alternative scenarios for 2050 range from a low of 7.4 billion to a high of more than 10.6 billion. Projected figures vary depending on underlying statistical assumptions and the variables used in projection calculations, especially the fertility variable. Long - range predictions to 2150 range from a population decline to 3.2 billion in the "low scenario '', to "high scenarios '' of 24.8 billion. One extreme scenario predicted a massive increase to 256 billion by 2150, assuming the global fertility rate remained at its 1995 level of 3.04 children per woman; however, by 2010 the global fertility rate had declined to 2.52. There is no estimation for the exact day or month the world 's population surpassed one or two billion. The points at which it reached three and four billion were not officially noted, but the International Database of the United States Census Bureau placed them in July 1959 and April 1974 respectively. The United Nations did determine, and commemorate, the "Day of 5 Billion '' on July 11, 1987, and the "Day of 6 Billion '' on October 12, 1999. The Population Division of the United Nations declared the "Day of 7 Billion '' to be October 31, 2011. As of 2012, the global sex ratio is approximately 1.01 males to 1 female. The greater number of men is possibly due to the significant sex imbalances evident in the Indian and Chinese populations. Approximately 26.3 % of the global population is aged under 15, while 65.9 % is aged 15 -- 64 and 7.9 % is aged 65 or over. The median age of the world 's population was estimated to be 29.7 years in 2014, and is expected to rise to 37.9 years by 2050. According to the World Health Organization, the global average life expectancy is 70.5 years as of 2012, with women living an average of 73 years and men approximately 68 years. In 2010, the global fertility rate was estimated at 2.52 children per woman. In June 2012, British researchers calculated the total weight of Earth 's human population as approximately 287 million tonnes, with the average person weighing around 62 kilograms (137 lb). The CIA estimated nominal 2013 gross world product at US $74.31 trillion, giving an annual global per capita figure of around US $10,500. Around 1.29 billion people (18.4 % of the world population) live in extreme poverty, subsisting on less than US $1.25 per day; approximately 870 million people (12.25 %) are undernourished. 83 % of the world 's over-15s are considered literate. In June 2014, there were around 3.03 billion global Internet users, constituting 42.3 % of the world population. The Han Chinese are the world 's largest single ethnic group, constituting over 19 % of the global population in 2011. The world 's most - spoken first languages are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by 12.44 % of the world 's population), Spanish (4.85 %), English (4.83 %), Arabic (3.25 %) and Hindustani (2.68 %). The world 's largest religion is Christianity, whose adherents account for 31 % of the global population; Islam is the second - largest religion, accounting for 24.1 %, and Hinduism the third, accounting for 13.78 %. In 2005, around 16 % of the global population were reported to be non-religious. Approximately 4.3 billion people live in these ten countries, representing around 58 % of the world 's population as of March 2016. Approximately 3.7 billion people, or half of the world population, live in the six most populous countries. The tables below list the world 's most densely populated countries, both in absolute terms and in comparison to their total populations. Population size fluctuates at differing rates in differing regions. Nonetheless, population growth is the long - standing trend on all inhabited continents, as well as in most individual states. During the 20th century, the global population saw its greatest increase in known history, rising from about 1.6 billion in 1900 to over 6 billion in 2000. A number of factors contributed to this increase, including the lessening of the mortality rate in many countries by improved sanitation and medical advances, and a massive increase in agricultural productivity attributed to the Green Revolution. In 2000, the United Nations estimated that the world 's population was growing at an annual rate of 1.14 % (equivalent to around 75 million people), down from a peak of 88 million per year in 1989. By 2000, there were approximately ten times as many people on Earth as there had been in 1700. Globally, the population growth rate has been steadily declining from its peak of 2.19 % in 1963, but growth remains high in Latin America, the Middle East, and Sub-Saharan Africa. During the 2010s, Japan and some countries in Europe began to encounter negative population growth (i.e. a net decrease in population over time), due to sub-replacement fertility rates. In 2006, the United Nations stated that the rate of population growth was visibly diminishing due to the ongoing global demographic transition. If this trend continues, the rate of growth may diminish to zero by 2050, concurrent with a world population plateau of 9.2 billion. However, this is only one of many estimates published by the UN; in 2009, UN population projections for 2050 ranged between around 8 billion and 10.5 billion. An alternative scenario is given by the statistician Jorgen Randers, who argues that traditional projections insufficiently take into account the downward impact of global urbanization on fertility. Randers ' "most likely scenario '' reveals a peak in the world population in the early 2040s at about 8.1 billion people, followed by decline. Adrian Raftery, a University of Washington professor of statistics and of sociology, states that "there 's a 70 percent probability the world population will not stabilize this century. Population, which had sort of fallen off the world 's agenda, remains a very important issue. '' Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC -- AD 2000 Estimated world population figures, 10,000 BC -- AD 2000 (in log y scale) World population figures, 1950 -- 2000 Estimated global growth rates, 1950 -- 2050 Estimated and projected populations of the world and its continents (except Antarctica) from 1950 to 2100. The shaded regions correspond to the range of projections by the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs. The table below shows historical and predicted regional population figures in millions. The availability of historical population figures varies by region. The following table gives estimates, in millions, of population in the past. The data for 1750 to 1900 are from the UN report "The World at Six Billion '' whereas the data from 1950 to 2015 are from a UN data sheet. Using the above figures, the change in population from 2010 to 2015 was: Long - term global population growth is difficult to predict. The United Nations and the US Census Bureau both give different estimates -- according to the UN, the world population reached seven billion in late 2011, while the USCB asserted that this occurred in March 2012. The UN has issued multiple projections of future world population, based on different assumptions. From 2000 to 2005, the UN consistently revised these projections downward, until the 2006 revision, issued on March 14, 2007, revised the 2050 mid-range estimate upwards by 273 million. Average global birth rates are declining fast, but vary greatly between developed countries (where birth rates are often at or below replacement levels) and developing countries (where birth rates typically remain high). Different ethnicities also display varying birth rates. Death rates can change rapidly due to disease epidemics, wars and other mass catastrophes, or advances in medicine. 2012 United projections show a continued increase in population in the near future with a steady decline in population growth rate; the global population is expected to reach between 8.3 and 10.9 billion by 2050. 2003 UN Population Division population projections for the year 2150 range between 3.2 and 24.8 billion. One of many independent mathematical models supports the lower estimate, while a 2014 estimate forecasts between 9.3 and 12.6 billion in 2100, and continued growth thereafter. Some analysts have questioned the sustainability of further world population growth, highlighting the growing pressures on the environment, global food supplies, and energy resources. In 1975, Sebastian von Hoerner proposed a formula for population growth which represented hyperbolic growth with an infinite population in 2025. The hyperbolic growth of the world population observed until the 1970s was later correlated to a non-linear second order positive feedback between demographic growth and technological development. This feedback can be described as follows: technological advance → increase in the carrying capacity of land for people → demographic growth → more people → more potential inventors → acceleration of technological advance → accelerating growth of the carrying capacity → faster population growth → accelerating growth of the number of potential inventors → faster technological advance → hence, the faster growth of the Earth 's carrying capacity for people, and so on. The transition from hyperbolic growth to slower rates of growth is related to the demographic transition. According to the Russian demographer Sergey Kapitsa, the world population grew between 67,000 BC and 1965 according to the following formula: where According to linear interpolation and extrapolation of UNDESA population estimates, the world population has doubled, or will double, in the years listed in the tables below (with two different starting points). During the 2nd millennium, each doubling took roughly half as long as the previous doubling, fitting the hyperbolic growth model mentioned above. However, after 2024, it is unlikely that there will be another doubling of the global population in the 21st century. In his 1798 work An Essay on the Principle of Population, the British scholar Thomas Malthus incorrectly predicted that continued population growth would exhaust the global food supply by the mid-19th century. Malthus wrote the essay to refute what he considered the unattainable utopian ideas of William Godwin and Marquis de Condorcet, as presented in Political Justice and The Future Progress of the Human Mind. In 1968, Paul R. Ehrlich reprised Malthus ' argument in The Population Bomb, predicting that mass global famine would occur in the 1970s and 1980s. The predictions of Ehrlich and other neo-Malthusians were vigorously challenged by a number of economists, notably Julian Lincoln Simon, and advances in agriculture, collectively known as the Green Revolution, forestalled any potential global famine in the late 20th century. Between 1950 and 1984, as the Green Revolution transformed agriculture around the world, grain production increased by over 250 %. The world population has grown by over four billion since the beginning of the Green Revolution, but food production has so far kept pace with population growth. Most scholars believe that, without the Revolution, there would be greater levels of famine and malnutrition than the UN presently documents. However, neo-Malthusians point out that fossil fuels provided the energy for the Green Revolution, in the form of natural gas - derived fertilizers, oil - derived pesticides, and hydrocarbon - fueled irrigation, and that many crops have become so genetically uniform that a crop failure in any one country could potentially have global repercussions. In 2004, a meta - analysis of 70 quantitative studies estimating a sustainable limit to the world population generated a meta - estimate of 7.7 billion people. In May 2008, the price of grain was pushed up severely by the increased cultivation of biofuels, the increase of world oil prices to over $140 per barrel ($880 / m), global population growth, the effects of climate change, the loss of agricultural land to residential and industrial development, and growing consumer demand in the population centres of China and India. Food riots subsequently occurred in some countries. However, oil prices then fell sharply. Resource demands are expected to ease as population growth declines, but it is unclear whether mass food wastage and rising living standards in developing countries will once again create resource shortages. David Pimentel, professor of ecology and agriculture at Cornell University, estimates that the sustainable agricultural carrying capacity for the United States is about 200 million people; its population as of 2015 is over 300 million. In 2009, the UK government 's chief scientific advisor, Professor John Beddington, warned that growing populations, falling energy reserves and food shortages would create a "perfect storm '' of shortages of food, water, and energy by 2030. According to a 2009 report by the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organisation (FAO), the world will have to produce 70 % more food by 2050 to feed a projected extra 2.3 billion people. The observed figures for 2007 showed an actual increase in absolute numbers of undernourished people in the world, with 923 million undernourished in 2007, versus 832 million in 1995. The 2009 FAO estimates showed an even more dramatic increase, to 1.02 billion. A number of scientists have argued that the current global population expansion and accompanying increase in resource consumption threatens the world 's ecosystem. The InterAcademy Panel Statement on Population Growth, which was ratified by 58 member national academies in 1994, states that "unprecedented '' population growth aggravates many environmental problems, including rising levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide, global warming, and pollution. Indeed, some analysts claim that overpopulation 's most serious impact is its effect on the environment. The situation has continued to worsen, as at the time of the 1994 IAP statement, the world population stood at 5.5 billion and lower - bound scenarios predicted a peak of 7.8 billion by 2050, a number that current estimates state will be reached in the late 2020s. Scientists contend that human overpopulation, continued human population growth and overconsumption, particularly by the wealthy, are the primary drivers of mass species extinction. By 2050 population growth, along with profligate consumption, could result in oceans containing more plastic than fish by weight. In November 2017, a statement by 15,364 scientists from 184 countries asserted that rapid human population growth is the "primary driver behind many ecological and even societal threats. '' A July 2017 study published in Environmental Research Letters argued that the most significant way individuals could mitigate their own carbon footprint is to have fewer children, followed by living without a vehicle, forgoing air travel and adopting a plant - based diet. Human population control is the practice of intervening to alter the rate of population growth. Historically, human population control has been implemented by limiting a region 's birth rate, by voluntary contraception or by government mandate. It has been undertaken as a response to factors including high or increasing levels of poverty, environmental concerns, and religious reasons. The use of abortion in some population control strategies has caused controversy, with religious organizations such as the Roman Catholic Church explicitly opposing any intervention in the human reproductive process. The University of Nebraska publication Green Illusions argues that population control to alleviate environmental pressures need not be coercive. It states that "Women who are educated, economically engaged, and in control of their own bodies can enjoy the freedom of bearing children at their own pace, which happens to be a rate that is appropriate for the aggregate ecological endowment of our planet. '' The book Fatal Misconception by Matthew Connelly similarly points to the importance of supporting the rights of women in bringing population levels down over time. Lists: Historical: Further reading Organizations Statistics and maps Population clocks

characters of grim adventures of billy and mandy

List of the Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy characters - wikipedia The American animated television series The Grim Adventures of Billy & Mandy features a cast of fictional characters created by Maxwell Atoms. The series, which originally aired on Cartoon Network from June 13, 2003 to October 12, 2008, follows two children, a dimwitted boy named Billy (voiced by Richard Steven Horvitz) and a remorseless girl named Mandy (voiced by Grey DeLisle). After winning a limbo game to save Billy 's pet hamster, the two gain the Grim Reaper (voiced by Greg Eagles) as their best friend for eternity, and come across a variety of supernatural or otherworldly characters and locations throughout the series. Voiced By Richard Steven Horvitz Billy is a 10 - year - old boy. He has an extremely low IQ of - 5, having been outperformed by a shovel and two candy bracelets on an IQ test. He has an extremely large, pink nose inherited from his father, Harold, wears a blue and white - striped shirt and covers his ginger orange hair (which is inherited from his mother, Gladys) with a red cap. His main affiliations are Grim and Mandy. Mandy is Billy 's best friend, though she treats him more like a servant than a friend. It has been hinted several times that Billy may have underlying feelings for Mandy that even he (in his stupidity) may not fully realize. Billy is far kinder to Grim than Mandy is, and while he almost always goes against the Reaper 's advice and uses him as a plaything, he appears to genuinely like him and often tells Grim that he 's his "best friend ''. Due to Billy 's foolish desires, which he orders Grim to bring about, he is often the cause of Grim and Mandy 's mishaps. Although generally good - natured, he has occasional fits of stubbornness, violence, and rage, which shows insanity that even Mandy seems to fear. It is suggested that while Billy is the most innocent character of the three, he ends up causing the most problems due to his irrational and often impulsive choice of actions. Billy has a wide curiosity which gets him into situations he often ca n't get himself out of without Grim and Mandy coming to his rescue. Billy is terrified of clowns to the point of having recurring nightmares about them, although eventually, due to an encounter with his inner frat boy, his fear is transformed into a psychotic loathing and hate for them. He is also scared of spiders, which is quite unfortunate because a huge Spider named Jeff believes that Billy is his "Father '', and of the mailman. His greatest fears were combined by Horror 's Hand into a monstrous clown - spider - mailman hybrid in the Big Boogey Adventure movie. In Underfist, the origin of his fear of spiders is shown through in a flashback. A yellow marshmallow bunny named Bun - Bun used to sneak into Billy 's room when he was a baby and tormented him with real spiders. This is explained by Bun - Bun during the flashback so as to torment Jeff about his problems with his dad. Billy 's family is Harold (his father), Gladys (his mother), Nergal (his uncle), Aunt Sis (his aunt), Nergal Jr. (his cousin), and his grandmother, who lives in the Netherworld (for reasons unknown). He is also very good friends with Irwin and, occasionally, with Pud'n, however his best friends are Mandy and Grim. During the end credits of Billy & Mandy Save Christmas, Billy mentions that his family celebrates Hanukkah ("that way we get 's more presents ''), and apparently they also celebrate Christmas, too. Tom Kenny was asked for the role of Billy, but he declined. Voiced by Grey DeLisle Mandy is a 10 - year - old girl of vast intelligence and a sinister, manipulative nature. Demanding, rude, and misanthropic, Mandy 's antagonistic behavior has left her parents in trembling, quavering perpetual intimidation, and her frightening, cold nature has left her virtually fearless in times of severe supernatural danger or while being faced with menacing, bloodthirsty otherworldly monsters. Mandy 's thorough emotionlessness, however, has sometimes been touched in a few scenarios, such as at one point when Billy was thought to be dead and Mandy 's reaction appeared quite nervous and partially mournful. She also possesses a strong lust for power as revealed in an episode providing insight to the future of the town of Endsville, in which Mandy has enslaved all of its citizens and evolved herself into a large, anthropomorphic being resembling a giant caterpillar (a reference to the Dune book series), and Grim 's abilities have helped her gain access to satisfaction of her desires. Oddly though she keeps Billy as her companion and makes clones of him whenever he is killed accidentally due to his stupidity. Mandy has been known to domineer everybody around her without fear, and the few things that she likes include junk food, dark chocolate, television and all things dark and melancholy. She also does not appear to have a visible nose, which has been pointed out a few times throughout the series. Throughout the series, Mandy rarely smiles, and her facial expression remains perpetually disgruntled. Mandy smiling is shown to be the end of the world; in the episode "My Fair Mandy '', after entering a local beauty contest against the queen bee of her classroom, it was revealed that all of reality would be humorously, psychedelically distorted, resulting in the series swapping premises with that of The Powerpuff Girls, another Cartoon Network animated series. Despite this, Mandy is seen to crack an evil sneer at the end of a few episodes, such as when she becomes the only person left on Earth, and after winning the contest which gave her a servant in Grim. Mandy also despises Billy 's best friend Irwin, who is strongly infatuated with her, and it was revealed in the Big Boogey Adventure that one of her worst nightmares would be to grow into an obese, kind woman marrying a handsome version of Irwin. Her other deepest fear was shown in the episode Heartburn where she feared losing her true heart after hearing Irwin 's sad story about how he was originally born to be a really bad boy, but then experienced a change of heart after his father showed him how to love and respect other people. This caused her to seriously doubt if she could withstand a change of heart and at the thought of just losing it, caused her to scream really loudly out loud. She is also scared of an extremely angry Billy and will run from him when need be. Billy says that she never smiles in her life. It is revealed that she is 10 years old and is around Billy 's age. Voiced by Greg Eagles Grim is over one hundred and thirty - seven thousand years old (as had been born at the time of the Stone Age) and speaks using a Jamaican accent. The continuity of how Grim got his reaper status and tremendously strong and powerful supernatural powers comes up quite a few times and it is unknown which way he really got his supernatural powers (for example, in The Wrath of the Spider Queen movie, he was elected to his position as the Grim Reaper back while he was in middle school; however, in A Grim Prophecy, it is shown that he was the Grim Reaper since his childhood with his parents forcing him to be the Reaper, which is further contradicted in a later episode where he is seen stumbling over his scythe to become the Grim Reaper). His long scythe is the source of nigh - all of his supernatural and magical abilities, and possesses many magical capabilities and qualities; although he is still capable of using some incredibly powerful magic spells without it, though these instances are quite rare. By losing a limbo contest to Billy and Mandy, Grim is fated to be their "best friend '' forever. Unfortunately for the Reaper, the contract legally binds him to them, such that (as revealed in the episode "Hurter Monkey '') if he were to ever breaks his friendship with them pre-maturely, he would be forced to spend eternity in Underworld Jail (much to his terror, as he does n't know what kind of inmates lurk there) as a result of violating his contract. Despite this however, he has often tried various ways to get out of this servitude (in the Big Boogey Adventure, Boogey notes this as "invalidating a legal and binding contract ''). Though Billy is friendly towards him, Mandy treats him dominantly, and this angers and irritates him to the point where he constantly fantasizes about killing both of them. However, there have been instances that show that he does indeed care for them. He is often forced to do their chores and create supernatural fun for them. Grim is slowly adapting to modern life and is usually seen in his free time watching television (mainly horror movies or soap operas). His adaption to daily life also leads him to neglect his duties as a Master of the Underworld and, eventually, not even care about who uses his enormously powerful scythe, seeing as how it is constantly stolen. He also has a bottomless trunk, where all types of dark magical and mystical objects are found; Billy usually abuses them, creating extensive damage, chaos, ruin, death, and destruction. His friend - and - hate relationship with Billy and Mandy seems to vary from each other. He seems to be more annoyed with Billy than Mandy, due to his idiocy and stupidity. Although Billy abuses Grim 's magical and supernatural powers as much as Mandy, Billy treats Grim with much more fairness, generosity, and kindness, resulting in Grim actually caring and liking Billy. In Mandy 's case, although they both share the same cold - hearted cynical and misanthropic view of humanity and apathy for the welfare of Billy and other characters, Grim tends to dislike her more than Billy due to her abusive, cruel and disrespectful actions towards him. Like most other characters, Grim greatly is afraid of Mandy, but is able to openly rebel against her when she becomes too obnoxious and abusive. Grim owns the giant three - headed dog Cerberus but has no control over it whatsoever and is terrified of it. Mandy seems to be the only person capable of taming and commanding it effectively. He is immune to the effects of Horror 's Hand as he already lives his greatest fear everyday living with Billy and Mandy, but he stated he turned it off upon obtaining it, so there may be something he fears more. While it is shown that Grim does care for his scythe, he often makes the mistake of letting Billy (and in rare instances Mandy and Irwin) use it, or loses it in other ways. In Billy and Mandy 's Jacked - Up Halloween, Grim let Billy use his scythe as an accessory for his costume, only to have it stolen by Jack - o - Lantern, who as it turns out is an old enemy of Grim 's. Another element to the show is how characters from Grim 's past often show up and often take revenge on him for what he had done to them. Voiced by Vanessa Marshall Irwin is a pudgy, nerdy boy and a close friend of Billy 's. He says the word "yo '' regularly. Unlike Mandy and Billy, who show no signs of fear for the frightening, supernatural and magical beings and settings around them when using Grim 's magic to venture into the underworld (Mandy because of her fearless, sinister and smart personality and Billy because of his ignorance), Irwin has displayed more signs of cowardice in such situations and seems to be more easily terrified than his friends when he accompanies them on such trips (such as in Big Boogey Adventure and Keeper of the Reaper). In one episode, it was revealed that Irwin 's mother is a mummy (as is his maternal grandfather) and that his paternal grandfather (on his father 's side of the family) is the bloodthirsty Dracula, who is married to Irwin 's saucy paternal grandmother Tanya. Because of being related to such peculiar monsters, Irwin has been shown to possess superpowers which he displayed basically just in a single episode. In Underfist, when using his newly discovered powers Bun - Bun and Mindy remark in a very impressed way that Irwin 's supernatural abilities and dark powers are truly amazing. Irwin is famous for his deep romantic infatuation with Mandy, in spite of her extraordinary hatred of him. His deepest fear is shown in Big Boogey Adventure; telling jokes to wild bears. In rare instances Irwin is shown to have an evil, darker and power hungry side to his personality. In the episode called Halls of Time, it is mentioned by Irwin that he has an older brother named Melvin who picks on him so much that when they get a hold of Melvin 's hourglass, Irwin destroys it while laughing in an evil manner. In another episode after Irwin 's mummy grandpa shows up to commission a pyramid for his grandson, Irwin first agrees to it because of impressing Mandy, but later gives in to it after developing a very strong taste for power. He then shows his more sinister side when enslaving all of the people of Endsville and zombifying them. In another episode, Irwin uses Grim 's scythe to make Mandy into his love - slave and he even mentions that he knows that is wrong, but he quickly disregards this fact. He then really enjoys his power over Mandy 's mind and when Grim and Billy try to take back the scythe, Irwin does n't give - up without a good fight. This very rare darker side of his personality was finally explained in the series last episode called Heartburn. In it, Mandy discovers everyone 's true heart through the use of Grim 's special camera, but is greatly shocked when she discovers that one side of Irwin 's heart looks like hers in a very creepy way. Irwin explains that when he was a baby he was born evil, but had a change of heart when his father showed him the meaning of respect, friendship, and love. Voiced by Richard Steven Horvitz Harold is Billy 's father and Gladys 's husband. He is an overweight man with a large, bulbous nose and a lofty black pompadour, which houses his brain. Harold resembles his son in appearance and personality, sometimes displaying even more stupidity than Billy himself. Harold 's employment is unknown and varies from episode to episode (he reveals in the Big Boogey Adventure that he gets fired all the time, for even the smallest of dumb acts). Despite his low IQ, Harold was accepted in Harvard and was a former Navy Seal. Harold is also known to be afraid of Santa Claus. Harold was much more intelligent in the first season but has grown in stupidity in recent seasons. Voiced by Jennifer Hale Gladys is Billy 's mother and Harold 's wife. She is a loving, tolerant, and patient, yet mentally unstable woman. This is brought on by having to deal with her family, and Grim as an eternal guest. Gladys has reddish - orange hair and is usually seen wearing a floor - length, lavender dress. She considers Grim a constant threat to her son 's safety. In multiple instances, Gladys is seen attacking Grim to protect her son. She has a severe facial tic, which usually appears when Billy is misbehaving, when her authority is challenged, or whenever Grim is present, and has also developed nervous breakdowns. Despite so, Gladys cares deeply for Billy and Harold, although when Harold gets fired for doing something so stupid or whenever Billy is really disobeying her or acting up, she does have large outbursts of rage. She wants Billy to grow up to be a chiropractor, even though she knows that is very unlikely to happen. She is prone to small fits of insanity and obsessive - compulsive episodes. Because of all of the stress caused by Billy, Harold, Grim and, to a lesser extent, Mandy, Gladys is the only character in the series to demonstrate having more control over herself when Mandy uses her own strong willpower. It is possible that she has passed on her mental instability to her son Billy who has shown similar outbursts of rage and insanity. Voiced by Phil LaMarr Dick is Irwin 's father. He is a middle - aged Dhampir (the word meaning half - human and half - vampire), (his mother, Tanya, being a human and his father being the vampire, Dracula, who thinks that his son is a huge nerd), but he is never referred to as a vampire. Dick ends a lot of his sentences with the word "dude ''. He is married to a mummy named Judy, who is Irwin 's mother and due to her being a mummy makes Irwin half - mummy, one quarter human and one quarter vampire. Irwin 's father insists that their unusual pairing leaves "a lot of questions that do n't need to be answered. '' Dick is also known for having a 1970s taste in style and sometimes gives Irwin really bad dating and attracting girls advice, although he does so out of good intentions. Once in a while he is seen scolding Irwin when he thinks Irwin did something disrespectful or rude, but is more often seen doing something nice with Irwin like going to a baseball game or on a picnic. Voiced by Phil LaMarr Grand - mama (her real name being Tanya) is Dick 's mother and Irwin 's paternal grandmother. She usually ends sentences with "baby '', as Irwin does with "yo '' and his father with "dude '', which seems to be suggesting a family trait. She is also Dracula 's wife. Despite her angry demeanor, she seems to care for Irwin, but will sometimes embarrass him. She does n't like to be challenged or insulted, and has a hatred of hip hop music. She seems to have grown up in The Dozens, as she has a mastery of "yo mama '' jokes. In Dracula Must Die, it is revealed that when she was young, Tanya was a very lovely young woman who could really kick - butt with karate and that she married Dracula because he was a great dancer despite him being a blood - sucking vampire. Voiced by Rachael MacFarlane Mindy is the queen bee of the school attended by all of the child characters featured in the program (and is always shown in her school clothes regardless of being outside of school). Mindy shares a rivalry with Mandy, whom she looks down upon and considers to be unattractive and inferior in comparison with her. Being very self - important, Mindy snubs her peers and possesses a powerful competitive edge. This could perhaps be credited with her combined strong desire to top those who she perceives as inferior and her love of winning. This is seen in one episode, where a possible main reason for wanting to win a local child beauty pageant appeared to be her desire to prove herself lovelier than Mandy who was a fellow contestant in the pageant. Mindy seems to be pampered by her unseen father, the benefactor who she credits with giving her expensive, high - quality presents and material gifts. Her mother is her only parent to make an appearance in the series. Albeit she seems to support her overindulged and snobby daughter, Mindy was seen tearfully lamenting in one episode that her mother did not love her, but her reasons for feeling this way are unknown. Voiced by Greg Eagles Sperg is the local bully, who picks on Billy, Irwin, Pud'n, and other kids to no end. He is a husky boy whose preferred method of terrorizing other kids is by administering his lethal wedgies. Despite his physical strength, he is frightened of Mandy because of her toughness and cynical attitude. On his shoulder, he has a heart tattoo that says "Mom '' and in "Ecto Cooler '' is shown to become furious when Billy reads a poem about Sperg 's mother being so ugly that it can cause peoples faces to melt. Ironically, Sperg 's mother is shown to actually be a highly attractive woman with dark hair and a more realistic face than other characters, however Principal Goodvibes ' face does in fact melt when he sees her, though it is implied that this is due to her attractiveness. She is shown to be quite sensitive about her appearance as she is driven to tears by the cruel words in Billy 's poem, which further enrages Sperg, showing that he really loves his mother. Like his mother, Sperg tends to be very emotionally sensitive, though he tends to keep this side of him under wraps, to maintain his image as a bully. He has dreams of moving to New York City and having a career on Broadway when he grows up. Voiced by Dee Bradley Baker Phil is Mandy 's father. Like Claire, he is very afraid of Mandy and she seems to have a mental control over him. He and Claire are the only known relatives that Mandy has. He wears a white shirt, dark - yellow glasses and grey pants. Not much else is known about him because he does not appear in the series often. In Keeper Of The Reaper, he did state in court that when Mandy was born, wolves came and tried to take her as their own, but he sometimes wonders if they were right to stop them. Voiced by Vanessa Marshall Claire is Mandy 's mother. She, like her husband, is also terrified of her daughter and does not appear that much in the series. She wears a red - striped sweater and gray pants. In a few early episodes however, Claire is seen giving orders to Mandy whenever the house gets dirty and in Keeper Of The Reaper is seen trying to love Mandy after she was born and admits that she and her husband love Mandy very much. Voiced by Armin Shimerman General Skarr first appeared in the show Evil Con Carne, where he was Hector Con Carne 's paramilitary commander. He is usually a cold - hearted, hateful, and harsh man, with big interests in power and world domination. He is missing an eye and has a scar on his face, giving Billy the assumption that he is a pirate. Retired from villainy, due to Evil Con Carne being bought out by a big entertainment corporation, he moves into Billy and Mandy 's neighborhood and is constantly struggling with the temptation to return to his evil ways. He attempts to distract himself and channel his hunger for power, usually by gardening. Whilst he is no longer a member of Evil Con Carne, Skarr has many weapons and mementos from his past which he stores in his private study. Among these are his military outfit and a large picture of himself with Hector and Ghastly. In one episode Hector and Ghastly reteam with Skarr who agrees to help them, but goes totally bonkers when they destroy his garden and show no respect for it. In Underfist: Halloween Bash, which takes place a year later after the series ended, he has grown facial hair. General Skarr 's appearance is based on that of SS Obersturmbannführer Otto Skorzeny. Voiced by Jane Carr A weak and easily frightened classmate of Billy, Mandy, and Irwin, Pud'n is often the victim and / or sometimes the instigator of some traumatic event. He is a red - headed, freckled boy with buck teeth and a hoodie. Supposedly, he has no parents, but was raised by wolves. However, he lives in a house and is a next - door neighbor and a good friend of Billy. Pud'n loves dolls, bunnies and flowers. At times, Pud'n can also be a terrifying force and show his dark side. Pud'n shows a fear of toilets and became even more scared when discovered skeleton 's bones in one. He has also been known to have an allergy to pies, which causes his face to swell up. In one episode, it is revealed that Pud'n thinks that General Skarr has the prettiest lawn on the whole block, but later reveals a powerful hatred for Skarr himself due to an earlier event in the episode involving Grim causing trouble and turning Pud'n's bunny friends into big, huge scary - looking monsters. He later takes his anger out on Skarr because he believed that Skarr was the one who did it. Voiced by Renee Raudman Ms. Eleanor Butterbean is Billy and Mandy 's uncaring teacher. She often takes naps in class on her desk and detests her job as a teacher. While she is mean to everyone, in a few episodes, she is slightly more sensitive, as one time she changes Billy 's F to an A, causing the universe to turn inside out, causing her to act like this alter ego of hers. In the episode where the bus broke down in the desert, despite the extreme heat, she had them dig while she sat in the shade of an umbrella and drank lemonade. Voiced by Chris Cox Principal Goodvibes is the Paul Lynde - esqe principal of Billy and Mandy 's school. His name was legally changed to Goodvibes, and he makes sure that his students feel good to the point of absurdity. It is later revealed in one episode that he sleeps in his car (though in another, he was shown to live in an apartment). He also bears a rather uncanny resemblance to politician Ron Paul, in both appearance and speech, who may have also influenced the character. He appears to be on good terms with Mandy, being one of the few authority figures for whom she has full respect. In Billy & Mandy: Wrath of the Spider Queen, at the end of the movie, he was captured by the spider army. It 's unknown what happened to him after this. Voiced by Diedrich Bader Hoss is a 33 - year - old spectral exterminator; a hunter of paranormal creatures. He possesses one real hand and a mechanical one, the latter of which can seemingly produce any tool he desires, most commonly a metal fist or a chainsaw - launching crossbow. He is the take - no - prisoner figure from the show, though in most episodes he acts in a clumsy and / or goofy manner. For a while he dated Eris, and their relationship was very dysfunctional. Hoss is known to make incredibly odd and usually completely irrelevant metaphors, often when talking to someone who is either cowardly or stupid. Similarly, he uses exclamatory phrases which are different, but recognizable from their original form. In his first appearances he distrusts Grim, but this dissipates as the series progresses. He resembles Kurt Russell 's character Snake Plissken from Escape from New York and his chainsaw hand is inspired by Ash Williams from the Evil Dead series. His name is a parody of Jose Delgado, also known as Gangbuster in the DC Comics continuity. He is madly head - over-heels in love with Eris. Voiced by Rachael MacFarlane Eris, based on the Greek deity of the same name, here is portrayed as a curvaceous and beautiful, but vindictive, blonde woman with a gap in her teeth. She delights in causing all kinds of chaos, and does a multitude of destructive things. She possesses the powerful Apple of Discord, a golden apple which can transform into any shape to perpetuate chaos (though Billy calls it a "magic banana ''). Her accent and behavior are prone to sudden shifts, from a stereotypical valley girl to a refined British woman, parodying Madonna 's change in image over the years. It is revealed in "Wrath of the Spider Queen '' that Eris attended the same school as Grim, Velma, Nergal, Lord Pain, and Boogey. Grim used to have a crush on her during earlier episodes, but later changes his mind, claiming her to be a "psychopath. '' She is also in love with Hoss Delgado. After her rupture with Hoss, the scrapped characters Nice Eris & Naughty Eris werer created. They were set to appear in the unmade Underfist: The Series. Voiced by Maxwell Atoms Jeff is a giant spider who thinks Billy is his father. When Billy opens Grim 's magical trunk one day, he finds an egg, which he incubates himself and raises. When it hatches, Jeff appears and believes Billy is his father. Unfailingly friendly, caring and kind, Jeff wants more than anything to gain Billy 's fatherly love despite Billy 's arachnophobia - based fear and hatred for him. Billy frequently beats him with blunt objects. Jeff blames himself for Billy 's hatred toward him and constantly tries to win his fatherly love and affection. With Mandy 's help, he finally manages to scare Billy into loving him. In the episode called Spider - Mandy the sickness that Billy contracts from Jeff turns Mandy into huge spider - like creature and when Jeff sees her like this, he thinks that she 's his mommy. The toxins that Jeff 's fangs produce help to turn Mandy back into her old - self. At one point, Jeff rejects Billy when he refuses to love his "son '', but it just turns out the spider was possessed by a cow - spider demon. Jeff was engaged to Grim 's ex-best friend Velma Green the Spider Queen in Billy and Mandy: Wrath of the Spider Queen. Voiced by David Warner and later Martin Jarvis Loosely based on the Mesopotamian deity of the same name. He is a black - skinned supernatural being with green eyes and wears a business suit. With the ability to shapeshift he can create several tentacles from his back that can electrocute his victims or turn them into beings looking like himself. What Nergal desires most is having friends, once stating that it is quite lonely in the center of the world. He is generally considered something of a loser and he often becomes histrionic over his failings. In his first appearances, Nergal was one of the main enemies of Billy, Mandy, and Grim, but now as a member of Billy 's family because he married Billy 's Aunt Sis, he is a friend of them and Billy 's uncle, by marriage. Voiced by Grey DeLisle Aunt Sis is Harold 's sister, Gladys ' sister - in - law, Billy 's paternal aunt, Nergal 's wife, and Nergal Jr. 's human mother. She is a sullen - looking woman with glasses, a large nose, and a hairstyle similar to Gladys. She was a spinster who had experienced four - and - a-half - minutes of love in her "pathetic, lonely life '' before finally finding her match in the equally - lonely demon Nergal. Voiced by Debi Derryberry Nergal Junior is the son of Nergal and Billy 's aunt Sis. He is also Billy 's first cousin. He looks more like his father than his mother. Like his father, he has the power to shapeshift and most of the time he appears in the form of a kid who rejected his offer of friendship when he first came to the surface. When he takes another shape, he keeps his lime eyes, glasses, green tongue, and sharp, light green teeth. It is revealed in the episode "Son of Nergal '' that his true form resembled a hideous black octopus - like creature, which is rather blobbish in shape. Like his father, he is lonely and ca n't find friends, and because of his desperation, he developed evil tendencies and terrorizes everyone who stands in his way, except for Billy and Mandy. An example of this is the fact that he froze people with supernatural powers, trapping them into ice, captures Sperg and made him his "pet '' and sticking his teacher to the ceiling. However, he does form a close friendship with Billy, Mandy, and Irwin later in the series, and even showed a little affection towards Mandy and asking her to the school dance. Voiced by Fred Willard An old arch - enemy of Grim 's since junior high school, and a former school bully, Boogey played pranks on Grim throughout his school career (one such prank involved publicly humiliating Grim in front of the whole class by giving him a nuclear wedgie from off - stage whilst Grim was reciting a scene from Hamlet; Grim never lived that incident down since everyone called him "Wedgie Shakespeare '' afterwards). Boogey is, in fact, the Boogeyman himself, and can shapeshift in order to scare people. Boogey is Grim 's rival in scaring people, but usually fails in doing so. Being constantly frustrated by his inability to scare modern - day children (he blames cartoons, video games and for some reason, the tuba), Boogey visits Grim in the episode Bully Boogie. Mandy suggests a challenge of a scaring contest, which Boogey promptly loses, and is banished to the Pit of Terror / Nightmare Realm. Ironically, it is the same dimension to which he sent Billy, one filled with spiny plants and a creature similar to the plants. The Boogey Man is prominently featured as the main villain in the television movie Billy & Mandy 's Big Boogey Adventure where he testified against Grim in front of the Underworld Court. After getting his old nemesis fired from his position as reaper, he volunteers to take Grim and his accomplices out for a sail with his pirate crew in order to dispose of the former reaper. Boogey also revealed his plan to claim a very powerful artifact known as Horror 's Hand, under the belief that its powers will make children fear him again. In the end, he discovers that he is not scary at all and after a series of painful humiliations (and a few too many hits on the head) becomes afraid of everything himself. Now living in fear, Boogey has not been seen ever since. However, he recovers his memory in the videogame, but later, he loses his memory again. It 's unknown what happened with he after this. The Boogey Man later appears in the flashbacks of Billy & Mandy: Wrath of the Spider Queen. He attempts to cheat in the Grim Reaper election by stuffing the ballot box, but Grim catches him and tries to undo what he 's done. Velma then finds Grim with the ballot box, assumes that he is trying to cheat and runs away in tears. Angry at Boogey, Grim grabs the scythe and attacks him in a horrifying display. This prompts everyone else in the school that had n't already voted to support Grim, meaning that Boogey was inadvertently responsible for him becoming the Grim Reaper. Voiced by Phil LaMarr Judge Roy Spleen is the judge of the Underworld Court. He and the whole Underworld Court first appeared briefly in the episode "Home of the Ancients '', but had a greater role in the episode "Keeper of the Reaper ''. He is also seen in Billy & Mandy: Wrath of the Spider Queen as Grim 's school teacher and officiated Jeff 's wedding in the same film. He hates Fred Fredburger, who pestered him constantly during "Keeper of the Reaper ''. He also was the court judge in Billy & Mandy 's Big Boogey Adventure. He, in "Keeper '', paternally allowed both Billy and Mandy have Grim on the condition that Billy does n't leave his house for one week. His name is a pun on legendary Old West Judge Roy Bean Voiced by Jake Thomas A spoof of Harry Potter, Nigel Planter is a boy with glasses and an "L '' - shaped scar on his forehead (it was later revealed to be nothing more than a pen mark). He 's a young whiny wizard from Weaselthorpe House at Toadblatt 's School of Sorcery. He is often overconfident and holds a deluded self - image, often taking credit for things he did not do (like Mandy 's sabotage of rival house Gunderstank 's efforts of winning the house championship). Later in the series, it is implied that he holds mild romantic affections for Mandy. In the episode Order of the Peanuts, it was stated that Nigel was the last heir to the Planters Peanuts Company, giving an explanation to his terrible track record as a wizard. Voiced by John Vernon and Ronnie Schell (for Order of the Peanuts) Dean Toadblatt is the headmaster of Toadblatt 's School of Sorcery, and a spoof of Albus Dumbledore (and Severus Snape). Toadblatt is a large, humanoid toad wearing a purple wizard 's robe. He hates Nigel Planter with a passion, and goes to various lengths to remove him from his school. After John Vernon 's passing, Toadblatt 's voice and entire character design was entirely changed for the next cartoon. Only one character noticed the change, and was dragged away to an unknown end. This was a parody of the fact that two actors portrayed Albus Dumbledore in the Harry Potter films (when Richard Harris died, the role went to Michael Gambon). Voiced by John Kassir A spoof of Harry Potter villain Lord Voldemort. He is first mentioned in "The Chamber Pot of Secrets '', and is believed to be out to kill Nigel. At the end of the episode it is revealed that it was Toadblatt in disguise who wanted to get rid of Nigel. Later, in "The Order of the Peanuts '', the real Lord Moldybutt reveals that he is not out to kill Nigel, but he is a real estate attorney, and wishes to sign over the Planter 's peanut farm left to Nigel from his dead parents. He gave Nigel an L - shaped pen mark (which Nigel thought to be a scar) when he was young, referring to Harry Potter 's lightning scar. Saying Lord Moldybutt 's name causes things to break, even if said by Moldybutt himself. In consequence, people call him "he - who - should - never - ever - be-named ''. However, many characters, especially Billy, carelessly say his name with disastrous consequences. Voiced by C.H. Greenblatt Fred Fredburger is a dimwitted, pale green, bipedal furry otherworldly creature resembling an elephant with stubby horns and the tail of a devil. He is depicted as being generally idiotic, infantile, and harmless; he dwells on subjects such as his recent defecation, small facts about himself, and spelling his own name aloud. He debuted in the episode "Keeper of the Reaper '' presiding on the court case between Billy and Mandy regarding the Grim Reaper 's custody due to Billy 's upcoming move. He would later appear in a different episode as the winner of a competition, being rewarded with a day spent with Grim that wound up ending poorly (with Fred being cast into the arctic). Aside from this, Fred has been shown to harbor an adoration of frozen yogurt and nachos, and wound up overtaking the future as a powerful overlord. Fred 's name may be a play on the name Fred Freiburger, a producer of several 1960s television programs. Fredburger 's voice actor is C.H. Greenblatt, a friend of Maxwell Atoms and the creator of the Cartoon Network TV show Chowder, as well as the more recent Nickelodeon TV show Harvey Beaks. Also, Chowder made a little cameo in Underfist: Halloween Bash. Voiced by Phil LaMarr Dracula is a vampire that was Grim 's childhood hero who has normal ears and is the biological father of Dick and therefore is Irwin 's grandpa. Dracula talks in the third - person. He is a selfish old man that calls Grim "Skeleton - Man '' or "Big Dummy ''. He gets angry at people for wanting to do things for him. He always wants people to see him dance. When he danced for Tanya she instantly fell in love with him, but he ran away from her when she beat him up, thinking he was a bat. Dracula 's appearance and mannerisms are patterned after the blaxploitation movies of the early 70 's, most notably Blacula. Voiced by Henry Gibson Lord Pain is a demonic being who rules over the realm known as The Plane of Eternal Suffering. His head is constantly covered by a spiked helmet, obscuring his eyes, and wields a large mace and shield. He swears eternal and single - minded loyalty to his chosen master, tattooing their image on his body along with anything else he feels particularly passionate about. He first appears in "House of Pain '', declaring himself to be Grim 's servant, and attempts to kill the kids to free Grim, but ends up taking Mandy as his new master instead. In "Everything Breaks '', he brings Billy with him to the Plane of Eternal Suffering on Mandy 's orders to help cure him of his destructive habits. According to Wrath of the Spider Queen, he formerly attended Junior High alongside many of the other characters. Voiced by Grey DeLisle A minor character, Milkshakes is Billy 's endearing pink pet cat. In spite of his lack of significance in the series, on a couple of occasions he has played a key role; his body has been overtaken supernaturally on two occasions in the past; once by an intellectual tutoring spirit known as a bookworm to help Billy in school and on the other instance by an enraged, vindictive Mandy, whose body had been possessed by a clowning Billy earlier in the episode. Voiced by Jess Harnell and Richard Horvitz Mandy 's pet dog. He drools a lot, thus his name. He appears here and there, as well in the theme song along with Milkshakes and Mr. Snuggles, even though Mandy is disgusted and annoyed with him, she does care about him. Voiced by Jess Harnell, Greg Eagles and Danny Mann Grim 's pet demon dog from the Underworld, with two heads of a doberman and one of a poodle. He however has no control of him whatsoever, which often terrifies him. But as Billy and Mandy love their pets, Grim loves him. Voiced by Richard Horvitz Billy 's elderly pet hamster who is seven years old ("like a gillion in hamster years '', Billy claims). He is the exact reason why Grim became Billy and Mandy 's friend. He appeared in the pilot, "Meet the Reaper ''. In one episode of the series, Mr. Snuggles saved Milkshakes, but Milkshakes eats him anyway. Near the end of that same episode, Mr. Snuggles escapes by breaking Milkshakes ' teeth, followed immediately by a fourth wall break courtesy of Billy saying, "What? You did n't think we 'd let Mr. Snuggles get eaten, did you? '' Mr. Snuggles has brown fur and black spots on his back. Voiced by Weird Al Yankovic A squid used by Toadblatt to allocate his new students to the school 's various houses. He also appears to be a singer and guitarist. He makes his first appearance in "Toadblatt 's School of Sorcery ''. After sending the first three students to Gunderstank, he sends Billy and Mandy (who threatens him should he touch her by saying she 's "in the mood for calamari '') to Weaselthorp. It was also revealed in "One Crazy Summoner '' that Squidhat was gay with Dean Toadblatt.

what was the budget for charlie and the chocolate factory

Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (film) - wikipedia Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is a 2005 musical fantasy comedy film directed by Tim Burton and written by John August, based on the 1964 British novel of the same name by Roald Dahl. The film stars Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka and Freddie Highmore as Charlie Bucket. The storyline follows Charlie, who wins a contest and is along with four other contest winners, subsequently led by Wonka on a tour of his chocolate factory, the most magnificent in the world. Development for another adaptation of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory (filmed previously as Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory in 1971) began in 1991, which resulted in Warner Bros. providing the Dahl Estate with total artistic control. Prior to Burton 's involvement, directors such as Gary Ross, Rob Minkoff, Martin Scorsese and Tom Shadyac had been involved, while actors Bill Murray, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Adam Sandler, and many others, were either in discussion with or considered by the studio to play Wonka. Burton immediately brought regular collaborators Depp and Danny Elfman aboard. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory represents the first time since The Nightmare Before Christmas that Elfman contributed to a film score using written songs and his vocals. Filming took place from June to December 2004 at Pinewood Studios in the United Kingdom. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was released to positive critical reception and was a box office success, grossing $475 million worldwide. Charlie Bucket is a kind and loving boy living in poverty with his parents and four bedridden grandparents. They all rely on his father for income, employed at a toothpaste factory, responsible for putting the caps on the tubes. Mr. Bucket is later laid off when the factory replaces him with a machine that puts the caps on the tubes. Down the street is Willy Wonka 's chocolate factory, which reopened after industrial espionage forced him into seclusion and sacking his employees. Charlie 's Grandpa Joe worked for Wonka before the termination. Wonka announces a contest whereby children that find Golden Tickets hidden in five Wonka bars will be given a tour of the factory and a lifetime supply of chocolate, and one a chance to be presented with an unknown grand prize. Four tickets are quickly found: the greedy and gluttonous Augustus Gloop from Düsseldorf, who found the ticket while eating a bar; the spoiled and rotten Veruca Salt from Buckinghamshire, who made her father buy as many Wonka bars as possible; the gum chewing and boastful Violet Beauregarde from Atlanta, who gave up gum and started buying bars after hearing of the tickets; and the arrogant and aggressive Mike Teavee from Denver, who retracked the manufacturing dates and hacked the system. Charlie hopes to find a ticket, but his chances are small as money is tight, and the best has to be made of his annual birthday present of one Wonka bar and a bar bought by Grandpa Joe 's money, both of which yield no tickets. All hope is seemingly gone when the last ticket is apparently claimed in Russia. Charlie, on finding some money in the street, just intends to enjoy one chocolate bar when news breaks that the ticket was fake. To Charlie 's surprise, he finds the bar he just bought has the real last Golden Ticket. Bystanders attempt to separate him from it, only for the shopkeeper to see that he keeps the ticket, and gets back home with it. When Grandpa Joe sees the ticket, he jumps out of bed and dances with joy. He offers to accompany Charlie on the tour, but Charlie explains how he was offered money for the ticket, and intends to sell it. Grandpa George reminds Charlie that money is far more common than the tickets, and convinces Charlie to keep it. Upon meeting him on the day of the tour, the visitors find Wonka to be peculiar, lonely, and acting odd at the mention of "parents ''. The tour shows how the fantastical factory operates under the efforts of the short humans called Oompa - Loompas. As Charlie seems to enjoy the entire tour, the other four children succumb to temptation, ending up being caught in the factory workings, and have to be safely recovered by the Oompa - Loompas, albeit in worse shape than at the start of the tour: Augustus falls into a river of chocolate and is pulled in by a pipe before being rescued from the fudge processing center; Violet expands into an oversized blueberry when she tries an experimental piece of chewing gum despite Wonka 's warning; Veruca is thrown away as a "bad nut '' by trained squirrels down the garbage chute; and Mike is shrunk down after being the first person transported by Wonka 's new television advertising invention. The four leave the factory revealing their deformities; a chocolate - covered Augustus, a much more flexible but still blue Violet, a garbage - covered Veruca and her father, and a taller and paper - thin Mike who was overstretched with the "taffy puller ''. During the tour, flashbacks reveal Wonka 's troubled childhood; his strict father, Wilbur, a prominent dentist, forbade Wonka from candy consumption, but after managing to sneak a taste, he became hooked, and later ran away from home to live his dream. He then returned several days later to find his father and home completely gone. Wonka then brings Charlie and Grandpa Joe home using the Great Glass Elevator. Upon arrival, Charlie is congratulated as the only remaining child and the winner of the grand prize: being named heir to Wonka 's factory (and presumably, his company). Unfortunately, Wonka stipulates that Charlie 's family has to stay behind; therefore, to Wonka 's dismay, Charlie rejects the offer. Wonka then sadly flies back to the factory in his great glass elevator, leaving a hole in the roof. Mr. Bucket is later given a new job at the toothpaste factory as a technician. Some days later, Wonka 's candies are selling poorly, and he comes to associate his unhappiness with the financial state of his company, so he makes an effort to find Charlie. After discovering Wonka 's troubled past, Charlie helps him locate his father. When they visit, it appears that despite his strict prohibition of candy, the dentist has followed Willy 's success, and they reconcile. Wonka allows Charlie 's family to move into the factory, while he and Charlie plan new product lines to produce. Author Roald Dahl disapproved of the 1971 film adaptation and declined the film rights to produce the sequel, Charlie and the Great Glass Elevator. Warner Bros. and Brillstein - Grey Entertainment entered discussions with the Dahl estate in 1991, hoping to purchase the rights to produce another film version of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory. The purchase was finalized in 1998, with Dahl 's widow, Felicity ("Liccy ''), and daughter, Lucy, receiving total artistic control and final privilege on the choices of actors, directors and writers. The Dahl Estate 's subsequent protection of the source material was the main reason that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had languished in development hell since the 1990s. Scott Frank was hired to write the screenplay in February 1999, after approaching Warner Bros. for the job. Frank, a recent Oscar nominee for the R - rated crime film Out of Sight, wanted to work on a film that his children could enjoy. As an enthusiastic fan of the book, he intended to remain more truthful to Dahl 's vision than the 1971 film had been. Nicolas Cage was under discussions for Willy Wonka, but lost interest. Gary Ross signed to direct in February 2000, which resulted in Frank completing two drafts of the screenplay, before leaving with Ross in September 2001. Both Warner Bros. and the Dahl Estate wanted Frank to stay on the project, but he faced scheduling conflicts and contractual obligations with Minority Report (2002) and The Lookout (2007). Rob Minkoff entered negotiations to take the director 's position in October 2001, and Gwyn Lurie was hired to start from scratch on a new script in February 2002. Lurie said she would adapt the original book and ignore the 1971 film adaptation. Dahl 's estate championed Lurie after being impressed with her work on another Dahl adaptation, a live - action adaptation of The BFG, for Paramount Pictures, which was never made (Paramount distributed the earlier 1971 film version of Charlie, and later sold the rights to WB). In April 2002, Martin Scorsese was involved with the film, albeit briefly, but opted to direct The Aviator instead. Warner Bros. president Alan F. Horn wanted Tom Shadyac to direct Jim Carrey as Willy Wonka, believing the duo could make Charlie and the Chocolate Factory relevant to mainstream audiences, but Liccy Dahl opposed this. After receiving enthusiastic approval from the Dahl Estate, Warner Bros. hired Tim Burton to direct in May 2003. Burton compared the project 's languishing development to Batman (1989), which he directed, in how there had been varied creative efforts with both films. He said, "Scott Frank 's version was the best, probably the clearest, and the most interesting, but they had abandoned that. '' Liccy Dahl commented that Burton was the first and only director the estate was happy with. He had previously produced another of the author 's adaptations with James and the Giant Peach (1996), and, like Roald and Liccy, disliked the 1971 film because it strayed from the book 's storyline. During pre-production Burton visited Dahl 's former home in the Buckinghamshire village of Great Missenden. Liccy Dahl remembers Burton entering Dahl 's famed writing shed and saying, "This is the Buckets ' house! '' and thinking to herself, "Thank God, somebody gets it. '' Liccy also showed Burton the original handwritten manuscripts, which Burton discovered were more politically incorrect than the published book. The manuscripts included a child named Herpes, after the sexually transmitted disease. Burton immediately thought of Johnny Depp for the role of Willy Wonka, who in August 2003 joined the film, his fourth collaboration with the director. Lurie 's script received a rewrite by Pamela Pettler, who worked with Burton on Corpse Bride, but the director hired Big Fish screenwriter John August in December 2003 to start from scratch. Both August and Burton were fans of the book since their childhoods. August first read Charlie and the Chocolate Factory when he was eight years old, and subsequently sent Dahl a fan letter. He did not see the 1971 film prior to his hiring, which Burton believed would be fundamental in having August stay closer to the book. The writer updated the Mike Teavee character into an obsessive video game player, as compared to the novel, in which he fantasized about violent crime films. The characters Arthur Slugworth and Prodnose were reduced to brief cameo appearances, while Mr. Beauregarde was entirely omitted. Burton and August also worked together in creating Wilbur Wonka, Willy 's domineering dentist father. Burton thought the paternal character would help explain Willy Wonka himself and that otherwise he would be "just a weird guy ''. The element of an estranged father - son relationship had previously appeared in Big Fish, similarly directed by Burton and written by August. Warner Bros. and the director held differences over the characterizations of Charlie Bucket and Willy Wonka. The studio wanted to entirely delete Mr. Bucket and make Willy Wonka the idyllic father figure Charlie had longed for his entire life. Burton believed that Wonka would not be a good father, finding the character similar to a recluse. Burton said, "In some ways, he 's more screwed up than the kids. '' Warner Bros. also wanted Charlie to be a whiz kid, but Burton resisted the characterization. He wanted Charlie to be an average child who would be in the background and not get in trouble. Prior to Burton 's involvement, Warner Bros. considered or discussed Willy Wonka with Bill Murray, Christopher Walken, Steve Martin, Robin Williams, Nicolas Cage, Jim Carrey, Michael Keaton, Robert De Niro, Brad Pitt, Will Smith, Mike Myers, Ben Stiller, Leslie Nielsen, John Cleese, Eric Idle, Michael Palin, Patrick Stewart, and Adam Sandler. Dustin Hoffman and Marilyn Manson reportedly wanted the role as well. Pitt 's production company, Plan B Entertainment, however, stayed on to co-finance the film with Warner Bros. Coincidentally, Cleese, Idle and Palin (as well as the other three Monty Python members) had all previously expressed interest in playing Wonka in the 1971 film adaptation. Johnny Depp was the only actor Burton considered for the role, although Dwayne Johnson was Burton 's second choice in case Depp was unavailable. Depp signed on without reading the script under the intention of going with a completely different approach than what Gene Wilder did in the 1971 film adaptation. Depp said regardless of the original film, Gene Wilder 's characterization of Willy Wonka stood out as a unique portrayal. Depp and Burton derived their Willy Wonka from children 's television show hosts such as Bob Keeshan (Captain Kangaroo), Fred Rogers, and Al Lewis from The Uncle Al Show, and Depp also took inspiration from various game show hosts. Burton recalled from his childhood that the characters were bizarre but left lasting impressions. He said, "It was kind of a strange amalgamation of these weird children 's TV show hosts. '' Depp based Wonka 's look (over-exaggerated bob cut and sunglasses) on Vogue magazine editor Anna Wintour. Comparisons were drawn between Willy Wonka and Michael Jackson. Burton disagreed with the comparisons and said Jackson, unlike Wonka, liked children. Depp said the similarities with Jackson never occurred to him. Instead, he compared Wonka to Howard Hughes due to his "reclusive, germaphobe, controlling '' nature. Burton agreed with the similarity to Hughes. He also cited Charles Foster Kane from Citizen Kane as an inspiration for Wonka, as Kane is "somebody who was brilliant but then was traumatized and then retreats into their own world ''. Depp wanted to sport prosthetic makeup for the part and have a long, elongated nose, but Burton believed it would be too outrageous. During production, Gene Wilder, in an interview with The Daily Telegraph, accused the filmmakers of only remaking the 1971 film for the purpose of money. Depp said he was disappointed by Wilder 's comment, and responded that the film was not a remake, but a new adaptation of Dahl 's 1964 book. The casting calls for Charlie Bucket, Violet Beauregarde, Veruca Salt, and Mike Teavee took place in the United States and United Kingdom, while Augustus Gloop 's casting took place in Germany. Burton said he sought actors "who had something of the character in them '', and found Mike Teavee the hardest character to cast. Burton was finding trouble casting Charlie, until Depp, who had worked with Freddie Highmore on Finding Neverland, suggested Highmore for the part. Highmore had already read the book before, but decided to read it once more prior to auditioning. The actor did not see the original film adaptation, and chose not to see it until after Burton 's production, so his portrayal would not be influenced. Before Adam Godley was officially cast as Mr. Teavee, Dan Castellaneta, Tim Allen, Ed O'Neill, Bob Saget, and Ray Romano were all considered for the role. It has been rumored that Gregory Peck was considered for the role of Grandpa Joe. Other actors that were considered for Grandpa Joe included Richard Attenborough, Kirk Douglas, Albert Finney, Anthony Hopkins, Paul Newman, Max von Sydow, David Warner, Christopher Lloyd and Peter Ustinov. Principal photography for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory started on June 21, 2004 at Pinewood Studios in England. Director Tim Burton and composer Danny Elfman found filming somewhat difficult because they were simultaneously working on Corpse Bride. The Wonka Factory exterior was coincidentally constructed on the same backlot Burton had used for Gotham City in Batman (1989). The ceremonial scene required 500 local extras. The Chocolate Room / River setpiece filled Pinewood 's 007 Stage. As a consequence of British Equity rules, which state that children can only work four and a half hours a day, filming for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory took six months, ending in December 2004. The architecture of the Bucket family home was influenced by Burton 's visit to Roald Dahl 's writing hut. Like the book, the film has a "timeless '' setting and is not set in a specific country. "We 've tried not to pinpoint it to any place, '' production designer Alex McDowell explained. "The cars, in fact, drive down the middle of the road. '' The town, whose design was shaped by the black and white urban photography of Bill Brandt, as well as Pittsburgh and Northern England, is arranged like a medieval village, with Wonka 's estate on top and the Bucket shack below. The filmmakers also used fascist architecture for Wonka 's factory exterior, and designed most of the sets on 360 ° sound stages, similar to cycloramas. Burton biographer Mark Salisbury wrote that Charlie and the Chocolate Factory "melds 1950s and ' 70s visuals with a futuristic sensibility that seems straight out of a 1960s sense of the future. '' The "TV Room '' was patterned after photographs from the films 2001: A Space Odyssey, Danger: Diabolik, and THX 1138. Danger Diabolik also served as inspiration for the Nut Room and Inventing Room. Tim Burton avoided using too many digital effects because he wanted the younger actors to feel as if they were working in a realistic environment. As a result, forced perspective techniques, oversized props and scale models were used to avoid computer - generated imagery (CGI). Deep Roy was cast to play the Oompa - Loompas based on his previous collaborations with Burton on Planet of the Apes and Big Fish. The actor was able to play various Oompa - Loompas using split screen photography, digital and front projection effects. "Tim told me that the Oompa - Loompas were strictly programmed, like robots -- all they do is work, work, work, '' Roy commented. "So when it comes time to dance, they 're like a regiment; they do the same steps. '' A practical method was considered for the scene in which Violet Beauregarde turns blue and swells up into a giant 10 - foot blueberry. A suit with an air hose was considered at one point for the beginnings of the swelling scene, before the decision was made to do the entire transformation in CGI. The visual effects house Cinesite was recruited for this assignment. In some shots of AnnaSophia Robb 's head, a facial prosthetic was worn to give the impression that her cheeks had swelled up as well. Because this decision was made late in the film 's production, any traces of Violet 's blueberry scene were omitted from trailers or promotional material. Rather than rely on CGI, Burton wanted the 40 squirrels in the Nut Room to be real. The animals were trained every day for 10 weeks before filming commenced. They began their coaching while newborns, fed by bottles to form relationships with human trainers. The squirrels were each taught how to sit upon a little blue bar stool, tap and then open a walnut, and deposit its meat onto a conveyor belt. "Ultimately, the scene was supplemented by CGI and animatronics, '' Burton said, "but for the close - ups and the main action, they 're the real thing. '' Wonka 's Viking boat for the Chocolate River sequence floats down a realistic river filled with 192,000 gallons of faux melted chocolate. "Having seen the first film, we wanted to make the chocolate river look edible, '' McDowell said. "In the first film, it 's so distasteful. '' The production first considered a CGI river, but Burton was impressed with the artificial substance when he saw how it clung to the boat 's oars. Nine shades of chocolate were tested before Burton settled on the proper hue. The original music score was written by Danny Elfman, a frequent collaborator with director Tim Burton. Elfman 's score is based around three primary themes: a gentle family theme for the Buckets, generally set in upper woodwinds; a mystical, string - driven waltz for Willy Wonka; and a hyper - upbeat factory theme for full orchestra, Elfman 's homemade synthesizer samples and the diminutive chanting voices of the Oompa - Loompas. Elfman also wrote and performed the vocals for four songs, with pitch changes and modulations to represent different singers. The lyrics to the Oompa - Loompa songs are adapted from the original book, and are thus credited to Roald Dahl. Following Burton 's suggestion, each song in the score is designed to reflect a different archetype. "Wonka 's Welcome Song '' is a maddeningly cheerful theme park ditty, "Augustus Gloop '' a Bollywood spectacle (per Deep Roy 's suggestion), "Violet Beauregarde '' is 1970s funk, "Veruca Salt '' is 1960s bubblegum pop / psychedelic pop, and "Mike Teavee '' is a tribute to late 1970s hard rock (such as Queen) and early 1980s hair bands. The original motion picture soundtrack was released on July 12, 2005 by Warner Bros. Records. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory had its premiere at the Grauman 's Chinese Theatre, on July 10, 2005, where money for the Make - a-Wish Foundation was raised. The film was released in the United States on July 15, 2005 in 3,770 theaters (including IMAX theaters). Early in the development of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory in February 2000, Warner Bros. announced their intention of marketing the film with a Broadway theatre musical after release. The studio reiterated their interest in May 2003, however, the idea was postponed by the time filming began in June 2004. The main tie - in for Charlie and the Chocolate Factory focused on The Willy Wonka Candy Company, a division of Nestlé. A small range of Wonka Bars were launched, utilizing their prominence in the film. The release of Charlie and the Chocolate Factory also rekindled public interest in Roald Dahl 's 1964 book, and appeared on the New York Times Best Seller list from July 3 to October 23, 2005. Charlie and the Chocolate Factory earned $56,178,450 in its opening weekend, the fifth - highest opening weekend gross for 2005, and stayed at # 1 for two weeks. The film eventually grossed $206,459,076 in US totals and $268,509,687 in foreign countries, coming to a worldwide total of $474,968,763. It was the fifty - eighth highest - grossing film of all time when released, as well as seventh - highest for the US and eighth - highest worldwide for the year of 2005. Review aggregator Rotten Tomatoes gives the film an approval rating of 83 % based on 222 reviews, with an average rating of 7.2 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Closer to the source material than 1971 's Willy Wonka & the Chocolate Factory, Charlie and the Chocolate Factory is for people who like their Chocolate visually appealing and dark. '' On Metacritic the film has a weighted average score of 72 out of 100, based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews ''. Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "A -- '' on an A+ to F scale. Owen Gleiberman of Entertainment Weekly praised Charlie and the Chocolate Factory, writing "Johnny Depp as Willy Wonka may be a stone freak, but he is also one of Burton 's classic crackpot conjurers, like Beetlejuice or Ed Wood. '' Roger Ebert gave an overall positive review and enjoyed the film. He was primarily impressed by Tim Burton 's direction of the younger cast members, but was disappointed with Depp 's performance: "What was Depp thinking of? In Pirates of the Caribbean he was famously channeling Keith Richards, which may have primed us to look for possible inspirations for this performance. '' Mick LaSalle from the San Francisco Chronicle found Charlie and the Chocolate Factory Burton 's "best work in years. If all the laughs come from Depp, who gives Willy the mannerisms of a classic Hollywood diva, the film 's heart comes from Highmore, a gifted young performer whose performance is sincere, deep and unforced in a way that 's rare in a child actor. '' Peter Travers wrote in Rolling Stone magazine that "Depp 's deliciously demented take on Willy Wonka demands to be seen. Depp goes deeper to find the bruises on Wonka 's secret heart than what Gene Wilder did. Depp and Burton may fly too high on the vapors of pure imagination, but it 's hard to not get hooked on something this tasty. And how about that army of Oompa - Loompas, all played by Deep Roy, in musical numbers that appear to have been choreographed by Busby Berkeley on crack. '' Ann Hornaday of The Washington Post criticized Depp 's acting. "The cumulative effect is n't pretty. Nor is it kooky, funny, eccentric or even mildly interesting. Indeed, throughout his fey, simpering performance, Depp seems to be straining so hard for weirdness that the entire enterprise begins to feel like those excruciating occasions when your parents tried to be hip. Aside from Burton 's usual eye - popping direction, the film 's strenuous efforts at becoming a camp classic eventually begin to wear thin. '' In 2007, Gene Wilder said he chose not to see the film. "The thing that put me off... I like Johnny Depp, I like him, as an actor I like him very much... but when I saw little pieces in the promotion of what he was doing, I said I do n't want to see the film, because I do n't want to be disappointed in him. '' In 2013, when Wilder was asked about the Burton remake, he said "I think it 's an insult. It 's probably Warner Bros. ' insult. '' He also criticized the choices that Burton made as a director, saying "I do n't care for that director. He 's a talented man, but I do n't care for him doing stuff like he did. '' Costume designer Gabriella Pescucci received an Academy Award nomination, but lost to Colleen Atwood for Memoirs of a Geisha. Johnny Depp lost the Golden Globe Award for Best Actor in a Musical or Comedy to Joaquin Phoenix in Walk the Line. More nominations followed from the British Academy Film Awards for Visual Effects, Costume Design (Pescucci), Makeup & Hair (Peter Owen and Ivana Primorac) and Production Design (Alex McDowell). Charlie and the Chocolate Factory was also nominated for the Saturn Award for Best Fantasy Film, as well as Performance by a Younger Actor (Freddie Highmore), Music (Danny Elfman) and Costume (Pescucci). Elfman and screenwriter John August were nominated for a Grammy Award with "Wonka 's Welcome Song ''.

when was ok first used in the uk

OK - wikipedia "OK '' (/ oʊ keɪ /; spelling variations include "okay '', "O.K. '', "ok '') is an English word denoting approval, acceptance, agreement, assent, or acknowledgment. "OK '' is frequently used as a loanword in other languages. It has been described as the most frequently spoken or written word on the planet. As an adjective, "OK '' principally means "adequate '' or "acceptable '' as a contrast to "bad '' ("The boss approved this, so it is OK to send out ''); it can also mean "mediocre '' when used in contrast with "good '' ("The french fries were great, but the burger was just OK ''). It fulfills a similar role as an adverb ("Wow, you did OK for your first time skiing! ''). As an interjection, it can denote compliance ("OK, I will do that ''), or agreement ("OK, that is fine ''). It can mean "assent '' when it is used as a noun ("the boss gave his OK to the purchase '') or, more colloquially, as a verb ("the boss OKed the purchase ''). "OK '', as an adjective, can express acknowledgment without approval. As a versatile discourse marker or back - channeling item, it can also be used with appropriate voice tone to show doubt or to seek confirmation ("OK? '' or "Is that OK? ''). Numerous explanations for the origin of the expression have been suggested, but few have been discussed seriously by linguists. The following proposals have found mainstream recognition. The etymology that most reference works provide today is based on a survey of the word 's early history in print: a series of six articles by Allen Walker Read, in the journal American Speech in 1963 and 1964. He tracked the spread and evolution of the word in American newspapers and other written documents, and later throughout the rest of the world. He also documented controversy surrounding OK and the history of its folk etymologies, both of which are intertwined with the history of the word itself. Read argues that, at the time of the expression 's first appearance in print, a broader fad existed in the United States of "comical misspellings '' and of forming and employing acronyms, themselves based on colloquial speech patterns: The abbreviation fad began in Boston in the summer of 1838... OFM, "our first men, '' and used expressions like NG, "no go, '' GT, "gone to Texas, '' and SP, "small potatoes. '' Many of the abbreviated expressions were exaggerated misspellings, a stock in trade of the humorists of the day. One predecessor of OK was OW, "oll wright. '' The general fad is speculated to have existed in spoken or informal written U.S. English for a decade or more before its appearance in newspapers. OK 's original presentation as "all correct '' was later varied with spellings such as "Oll Korrect '' or even "Ole Kurreck ''. The term appears to have achieved national prominence in 1840, when supporters of the Democratic political party claimed during the 1840 United States presidential election that it stood for "Old Kinderhook '', a nickname for a Democratic presidential candidate, Martin Van Buren, a native of Kinderhook, New York, who was Andrew Jackson 's protégé. "Vote for OK '' was snappier than using his Dutch name. In response, Whig opponents attributed OK, in the sense of "Oll Korrect, '' to Andrew Jackson 's bad spelling. The country - wide publicity surrounding the election appears to have been a critical event in OK 's history, widely and suddenly popularizing it across the United States. Read proposed an etymology of "OK '' in "Old Kinderhook '' in 1941. The evidence presented in that article was somewhat sparse, and the connection to "Oll Korrect '' not fully elucidated. Various challenges to the etymology were presented; e.g., Heflin 's 1962 article. However, Read 's landmark 1963 -- 1964 papers silenced most of the skepticism. Read 's etymology gained immediate acceptance, and is now offered without reservation in most dictionaries. Read himself was nevertheless open to evaluating alternative explanations: Some believe that the Boston newspaper 's reference to OK may not be the earliest. Some are attracted to the claim that it is of American - Indian origin. There is an Indian word, okeh, used as an affirmative reply to a question. Mr Read treated such doubting calmly. "Nothing is absolute, '' he once wrote, "nothing is forever. '' The folk singer Pete Seeger sang that "OK '' was of Choctaw Indian origin, as the dictionaries of the time tended to agree. Three major American reference works (Webster 's, New Century, Funk & Wagnalls) cited the Choctaw etymology as the probable origin until as late as 1961. The earliest written evidence for the Choctaw word "okeh '' is provided in work by the missionaries Cyrus Byington and Alfred Wright in 1825. These missionaries ended many sentences in their translation of the Bible with the particle "okeh '', meaning "it is so ''. "Okeh '' was given as an alternative spelling of "okay '' in the 1913 Webster 's. Byington 's Dictionary of the Choctaw Language confirms the ubiquity of the "okeh '' particle, and his Grammar of the Choctaw Language notes the particle - keh is an "affirmative contradistinctive '', with the "distinctive '' o - prefix. Subsequent Choctaw spelling books de-emphasized the spellings lists in favor of straight prose, and they made use of the particle (,) but they too never included it in the word lists or discussed it directly. The presumption was that the use of particle "oke '' or "hoke '' was so common and self - evident as to preclude any need for explanation or discussion for either its Choctaw or non-Choctaw readership. The Choctaw language was one of the languages spoken at this time in the South - Eastern United States by a tribe with significant contact with African slaves. The major language of trade in this area, Mobilian Jargon, was based on Choctaw - Chickasaw, two Muskogean - family languages. This language was used, in particular, for communication with the slave - owning Cherokee (an Iroquoian - family language). For the three decades prior to the Boston abbreviation fad, the Choctaw had been in extensive negotiation with the US government, after having fought alongside them at the Battle of New Orleans. Arguments for a more Southern origin for the word note the tendency of English to adopt loan words in language contact situations, as well as the ubiquity of the "okeh '' particle. Similar particles exist in native language groups distinct from Iroquoian (Algonquian, Cree cf. "ekosi '') and its usefulness in conversation (a verbal equivalent to nodding one 's head) as the main reasons for its rapid spread among English speakers. A verifiable early written attestation of the particle ' kay ' is from transcription by Smyth (1784) of a North Carolina slave not wanting to be flogged by a European visiting America: Kay, massa, you just leave me, me sit here, great fish jump up into da canoe, here he be, massa, fine fish, massa; me den very grad; den me sit very still, until another great fish jump into de canoe;... A West African (Mande and / or Bantu) etymology has been argued in scholarly sources, tracing the word back to the Wolof and Bantu word waw - kay or the Mande (aka "Mandinke '' or "Mandingo '') phrase o ke. David Dalby first made the claim that the particle "OK '' could have African origins in the 1969 Hans Wolff Memorial Lecture. His argument was reprinted in various newspaper articles between 1969 and 1971. This suggestion has also been mentioned more recently by Joseph Holloway, who argued in the 1993 book The African Heritage of American English (co-written with a retired missionary) that various West African languages have near - homophone discourse markers with meanings such as "yes indeed '' or which serve as part of the back - channeling repertoire. Though Frederic Cassidy challenged Dalby 's claims, asserting that there is no documentary evidence that any of these African - language words had any causal link with its use in the American press, one can certainly wonder at the fact that this standard of written proof does not account for the illiteracy in which the West African speakers were kept during the period of slavery in question. The West African hypothesis had not been accepted by 1981 by any etymologists, but nevertheless has since appeared in scholarly sources published by linguists and non-linguists alike. A large number of origins have been proposed. Some of them are thought to fall into the category of folk etymology and are proposed based merely on apparent similarity between OK and one or another phrase in a foreign language with a similar meaning and sound. Some examples are: Allen Walker Read identifies the earliest known use of O.K. in print as 1839, in the edition of 23 March of the Boston Morning Post (an American newspaper). The announcement of a trip by the Anti-Bell - Ringing Society (a "frolicsome group '' according to Read) received attention from the Boston papers. Charles Gordon Greene wrote about the event using the line that is widely regarded as the first instance of this strain of OK, complete with gloss: The above is from the Providence Journal, the editor of which is a little too quick on the trigger, on this occasion. We said not a word about our deputation passing "through the city '' of Providence. -- We said our brethren were going to New York in the Richmond, and they did go, as per Post of Thursday. The "Chairman of the Committee on Charity Lecture Bells, '' is one of the deputation, and perhaps if he should return to Boston, via Providence, he of the Journal, and his train - band, would have his "contribution box, '' et ceteras, o.k. -- all correct -- and cause the corks to fly, like sparks, upward. Read gives a number of subsequent appearances in print. Seven instances were accompanied with glosses that were variations on "all correct '' such as "oll korrect '' or "ole kurreck '', but five appeared with no accompanying explanation, suggesting that the word was expected to be well known to readers and possibly in common colloquial use at the time. Various claims of earlier usage have been made. For example, it was claimed that the phrase appeared in a 1790 court record from Sumner County, Tennessee, discovered in 1859 by a Tennessee historian named Albigence Waldo Putnam, in which Andrew Jackson apparently said "proved a bill of sale from Hugh McGary to Gasper Mansker, for an uncalled good, which was O.K. ''. However, Read challenged such claims, and his assertions have been generally accepted. The great lawyer who successfully argued many Indian rights claims, however, supports the Jacksonian popularization of the term based on its Choctaw origin. David Dalby (see above) brought up some other earlier attested usages. One example from 1941 is the apparent notation "we arrived ok '' in the hand - written diary of William Richardson going from Boston to New Orleans in 1815, about a month after the Battle of New Orleans. Frederic Cassidy asserts that he personally tracked down this diary and notes that: After many attempts to track down this diary, Read and I at last discovered that it is owned by the grandson of the original writer, Professor L. Richardson, Jr., of the Department of Classical Studies at Duke University. Through his courtesy we were able to examine this manuscript carefully, to make greatly enlarged photographs of it, and to become convinced (as is Richardson) that, whatever the marks in the manuscript are, they are not OK. Similarly, H.L. Mencken, who originally considered it "very clear that ' o.k. ' is actually in the manuscript '', later recanted his endorsement of the expression, asserting that it was used no earlier than 1839. Mencken (following Read) described the diary entry as a misreading of the author 's self - correction, and stated it was in reality the first two letters of the words ah (andsome) before noticing the phrase had been used in the previous line and changing his mind. Another example given by Dalby is a Jamaican planter 's diary of 1816, which records a black slave saying "Oh ki, massa, doctor no need be fright, we no want to hurt him ''. Cassidy asserts that this is a misreading of the source, which actually begins "Oh, ki, massa... '', where ki is a phrase by itself: In all other examples of this interjection that I have found, it is simply ki (once spelled kie). As here, it expresses surprise, amusement, satisfaction, mild expostulation, and the like. It has nothing like the meaning of the adjective OK, which in the earliest recorded examples means ' all right, good, ' though it later acquires other meanings, but even when used as an interjection does not express surprise, expostulation, or anything similar. Whether this word is printed as OK, Ok, ok, okay, or O.K. is a matter normally resolved in the style manual for the publication involved. Dictionaries and style guides such as The Chicago Manual of Style and The New York Times Manual of Style and Usage provide no consensus. In 1961, NASA popularized the variant "A-OK '' during the launch of Alan Shepard 's Mercury mission. In Brazil, Mexico and Peru, as well as in other Latin American countries, the word is pronounced just as it is in English and is used very frequently. Spanish speakers often spell the word "okey '' to conform with the spelling rules of the language. In Brazil, it may be also pronounced as "ô - kei ''. In Portugal, it is used with its Portuguese pronunciation and sounds something like "ókâi '' (similar to the English pronunciation but with the "ó '' sounding like the "o '' in "lost '' or "top ''), or even as ' oh - kapa ', from the letters O (' ó ') and K (' capa '). In Flanders and the Netherlands, "OK '' has become part of the everyday Dutch language. It is pronounced the same way. Arabic speakers also use the word (أوكي) widely, particularly in areas of former British presence like Egypt, Jordan, Israel / Palestine and Iraq, but also all over the Arab world due to the prevalence of American cinema and television. It is pronounced just as it is in English but is very rarely seen in Arabic newspapers and formal media. In Hebrew, the word OK is common as an equivalent to the Hebrew word בסדר (b'seder) (' adequate ', ' in order '). It is written as it sounds in English אוקיי. It is used in Japan and Korea in a somewhat restricted sense, fairly equivalent to "all right ''. OK is often used in colloquial Japanese as a replacement for 大丈夫 (daijōbu "all right '') or いい (ii "good '') and often followed by です (desu -- the copula). A transliteration of the English word, written as オーケー (lit. "ōkē '') or オッケー (lit. "okkē '') is also often used in the same manner as the English, and is becoming more popular in recent years. In Korean, 오케이 (literally "okay '') can be used colloquially in place of 네 (ne, "yes '') when expressing approval or acknowledgment. In Chinese, the term 好; hǎo; (literally: "good ''), can be modified to fit most of usages of OK. For example, 好 了; hǎo le closely resembles the interjection usage of OK. The "了 '' indicates a change of state, in this case it indicates the achievement of consensus. Likewise, "OK '' is commonly transformed into "OK 了 '' (OK le) when communicating with foreigners or with fellow Cantonese speaking people in at least Hong Kong and possibly to an extent, other regions of China. Other usages of OK such as "I am OK '' can be translated as 我 还 好; wǒ hái hǎo. In Hong Kong, movies or dramas set in modern times use the term "ok '' as part of the sprinkling of English included in otherwise Cantonese dialog. In Mandarin Chinese, it is also, somewhat humorously, used in the "spelling '' of the word for karaoke, "卡拉 OK '', pronounced "kah - lah - oh - kei '' (Mandarin does not natively have a syllable with the pronunciation "kei ''). On the computer, OK is usually translated as "确定, '' which means "confirm '' or "confirmed ''. In Taiwan, "OK '' is frequently used in various sentences, popular among but not limited to younger generations. This includes the aforementioned "OK 了 '' (Okay le), "OK 嗎 '' (Okay ma), meaning "Is it okay? '' or "OK 啦 '' (Okay la), a strong, persuading affirmative, as well as the somewhat tongue - in - cheek explicit yes / no construction "O 不 OK? '' (O bù OK?), "Is it OK or not? '' In Russia, "OK '' is used very frequently for any positive meaning. The word in Russian has many morphologies: "окей '', "океюшки '', "ок '', "окейно '', etc. In France and Belgium, "OK '' is used to communicate agreement, and is generally followed by a French phrase (e.g. OK, d'accord, "ok, chef '') or another borrowing (e.g., OK, boss. ok, bye.). Rarely pronounced / ɔk / these days, except by young children encountering dialog boxes for the first times. In the Philippines "okay lang '' is a common expression, literally meaning "just okay '' or "just fine ''. Sometimes spelled as okey. In Malay, it is frequently used with the emphatic suffix "lah '': OK - lah. In Vietnamese, it is spelled "Ô kê ''. In India, it is often used after a sentence to mean "did you get it? '', often not regarded politely, for example, "I want this job done, OK? '' or at the end of a conversation (mostly on the phone) followed by "bye '' as in "OK, bye. '' In Indonesia, "OK '' is also used as a slogan of national television station RCTI since the year 1994. In Pakistan, "OK '' has become a part of Urdu and Punjabi languages. In Germany, "OK '' is spelled as "o.k. '' or "O.K. '' or "okay ''. It may be pronounced as in English, but / ɔˈkeː / or / oˈkeː / are also common. The meaning ranges from acknowledgement to describing something neither good nor bad, same as in US / UK usage. In Maldivian Okay is used in different ways, often used to agree with something, more often used while departing from a gathering "Okay Dahnee / Kendee. '' In Singapore, "OK '' is often used with suffix - es used in "Singlish '' such as OK lor, OK lah, OK meh, OK leh... etc. which are used in different occasions. In the United States and much of Europe a related gesture is made by touching the index finger with the thumb (forming a rough circle) and raising of the remaining fingers. It is not known whether the gesture is derived from the expression, or if the gesture appeared first. The gesture was popularized in America in 1836 as a symbol to support then Presidential candidate Martin Van Buren. This was because Van Buren 's nickname, Old Kinderhook, derived from his hometown of Kinderhook, NY, had the initials O K. Similar gestures have different meanings in other cultures, some offensive. OK is used to label buttons in modal dialog boxes such as error messages or print dialogs, indicating that the user must press the button to accept the contents of the dialog box and continue. When a modal dialog box contains only one button, it is almost always labeled "OK '' by convention and default, usually rendered to the screen in upper case without punctuation: OK, rather than O.K., Okay, or Ok. The OK button can probably be traced to user interface research done for the Apple Lisa. The inspiration was likely the - ok parameter in Unix. The Forth programming language prints ok when ready to accept input from the keyboard. This prompt is used on Sun, Apple, and other computers with the Forth - based Open Firmware (OpenBoot). The appearance of ok in inappropriate contexts is the subject of some humor. In HTTP, the HyperText Transfer Protocol, upon which the World Wide Web is based, a successful response from the server is defined as OK (with the numerical code 200 as specified in RFC 2616). The Session Initiation Protocol also defines a response, 200 OK, which conveys success for most requests (RFC 3261). Some Linux distributions, including those based on Red Hat, display boot progress on successive lines on - screen, which include (OK).

when did the whig party start and end

Whig Party (United states) - wikipedia The Whig Party was a political party active in the middle of the 19th century in the United States. Four US presidents belonged to the party while in office. It emerged in the 1830s as the leading opponent of Jacksonians, pulling together former members of the National Republican (one of the successors of the Democratic - Republican Party) and Anti-Masonic Parties. It had distant links to the upscale traditions of the Federalist Party. Along with the rival Democratic Party, it was central to the Second Party System from the early 1840s to the mid-1860s. It originally formed in opposition to the policies of President Andrew Jackson (in office 1829 -- 37) and his Democratic Party. In particular, the Whigs supported the supremacy of the US Congress over the Presidency and favored a program of modernization, banking, and economic protectionism to stimulate manufacturing. It appealed to entrepreneurs, planters, reformers and the emerging urban middle class, but had little appeal to farmers or unskilled workers. It included many active Protestants, and voiced a moralistic opposition to the Jacksonian Indian removal. Party founders chose the "Whig '' name to echo the American Whigs of the 18th century who fought for independence. The underlying political philosophy of the American Whig Party was not directly related to the British Whig party. Historian Frank Towers has specified a deep ideological divide: Democrats stood for the ' sovereignty of the people ' as expressed in popular demonstrations, constitutional conventions, and majority rule as a general principle of governing, whereas Whigs advocated the rule of law, written and unchanging constitutions, and protections for minority interests against majority tyranny. The Whig Party nominated several presidential candidates in 1836. General William Henry Harrison of Ohio was nominated in 1840, former Senator Henry Clay of Kentucky in 1844, and General Zachary Taylor of Louisiana in 1848. Another war hero, General Winfield Scott of New Jersey was the Whig Party 's last presidential nominee, in 1852. In its two decades of existence, the Whig Party had two of its candidates, Harrison and Taylor, elected president. Both died in office. John Tyler succeeded to the presidency after Harrison 's death in 1841, but was expelled from the party later that year. Millard Fillmore, who became president after Taylor 's death in 1850, was the last Whig president. The party fell apart because of the internal tension over the expansion of slavery to the territories. With deep fissures in the party on this question, the anti-slavery faction prevented the nomination for a full term of its own incumbent, President Fillmore, in the 1852 presidential election; instead, the party nominated General Scott. Most Whig Party leaders eventually quit politics (as Abraham Lincoln did temporarily) or changed parties. The northern voter base mostly gravitated to the new Republican Party. In the South, most joined the Know Nothing Party, which unsuccessfully ran Fillmore in the 1856 presidential election, by which time the Whig Party had become virtually defunct. Some former Whigs became Democrats. The Constitutional Union Party experienced significant success from conservative former Whigs in the Upper South during the 1860 presidential election. Whig ideology as a policy orientation persisted for decades and played a major role in shaping the modernizing policies of the state governments during Reconstruction. The name Whig derived from a term that Patriots used to refer to themselves during the American Revolution. It indicated hostility to the British Sovereign, and despite the identical name, did not directly derive from the British Whig Party (see etymology). The American Whigs were modernizers who saw President Andrew Jackson as "a dangerous man on horseback '' with a "reactionary opposition '' to the forces of social, economic, and moral modernization. The Democratic - Republicans who formed the Whig Party, led by Kentucky Senator Henry Clay, drew on a Jeffersonian tradition of compromise, balance in government, and territorial expansion combined with national unity and support for a Federal transportation network and domestic manufacturing. Casting their enemy as "King Andrew '', they sought to identify themselves as modern - day opponents of governmental overreaching. Despite the apparent unity of Jefferson 's Democratic - Republicans from 1800 to 1824, the American people ultimately preferred partisan opposition to popular political agreement. As Jackson purged his opponents, vetoed internal improvements, and killed the Second Bank of the United States, alarmed local elites fought back. In 1831, Henry Clay re-entered the Senate and started planning a new party. He defended national rather than sectional interests. Clay 's plan for distributing the proceeds from the sale of lands among the states in the public domain was intended to serve the nation by providing the states with funds for building roads and canals, which would stimulate growth and knit the sections together. His Jacksonian opponents, however, distrusted the federal government and opposed all federal aid for internal improvements and they again frustrated Clay 's plan. Jacksonians promoted opposition to the National Bank and internal improvements and support of egalitarian democracy, state power, and hard money. The "Tariff of Abominations '' of 1828 had outraged Southern feelings; the South 's leaders held that the high duties on foreign imports gave an advantage to the North (where the factories were located). Clay 's own high tariff schedule of 1832 further disturbed them, as did his stubborn defense of high duties as necessary to his "American System ''. Clay however moved to pass the Compromise of 1833, which met Southern complaints by a gradual reduction of the rates on imports to a maximum of twenty percent. Controlling the Senate for a while, Whigs passed a censure motion denouncing Jackson 's arrogant assumption of executive power in the face of the true will of the people as represented by Congress. The Whig Party began to take shape in 1833. Clay had run as a National Republican against Jackson in 1832, but carried only 49 electoral votes against Jackson 's 219, and the National Republicans became discredited as a major political force. The Whig Party emerged in the aftermath of the 1832 election, the Nullification Crisis, and debates regarding the Second Bank of the United States, which Jackson denounced as a monopoly and from which he abruptly removed all government deposits. People who helped to form the new party included supporters of Clay, supporters of Massachusetts Senator Daniel Webster, former National Republicans, former Antimasons, former disaffected Jacksonians (led by John C. Calhoun), who viewed Jackson 's actions as impinging on the prerogatives of Congress and the states, and small remnants of Federalist Party, people whose last political activity was with them a decade before. The "Whig '' name emphasized the party 's opposition to Jackson 's perceived executive tyranny, and the name helped the Whigs shed the elitist image of the National Republican Party. Clay was the clear leader of the Whig Party nationwide and in Washington, but he was vulnerable to Jacksonian allegations that he associated with the upper class at a time when white males without property had the right to vote and wanted someone more like themselves. The Whigs nominated a war hero in 1840 -- and emphasized that William Henry Harrison had given up the high life to live in a log cabin on the frontier. Harrison won. In the 1836 elections, the party was not yet sufficiently organized or unified to run one nationwide candidate; instead William Henry Harrison was its candidate in the northern and border states, Hugh Lawson White ran in the South, Daniel Webster ran in his home state of Massachusetts, and in South Carolina, the Whig 's presidential candidate was Willie P. Mangum. Whigs hoped that four candidates would amass enough Electoral College votes among them to deny a majority to Martin Van Buren. That would move the election to the House of Representatives, allowing the ascendant Whigs to select their most popular man as president. Van Buren won 170 ballots in the Electoral College, with only 148 ballots needed to win. But the Whig strategy came very close to succeeding. In Pennsylvania, which had 30 ballots in the Electoral College, Harrison got 87,235 votes to Van Buren 's 91,457. A change of just a few thousand votes in that state would have reduced Van Buren 's ballot count to only 140, eight short of winning. In late 1839, the Whigs held their first national convention and nominated William Henry Harrison as their presidential candidate. In March 1840, Harrison pledged to serve only one term as President if elected, a pledge that reflected popular support for a Constitutional limit to Presidential terms among many in the Whig Party. Harrison went on to victory in 1840, defeating Van Buren 's re-election bid largely as a result of the Panic of 1837 and subsequent depression. Harrison served only 31 days and became the first President to die in office. He was succeeded by John Tyler, a Virginian and states ' rights absolutist. Tyler vetoed the Whig economic legislation and was expelled from the Whig party in September 1841. The Whigs ' internal disunity and the nation 's increasing prosperity made the party 's activist economic program seem less necessary and led to a disastrous showing in the 1842 Congressional election. The central issue in the 1840s was expansion, with proponents of "Manifest Destiny '' arguing for aggressive westward expansion, even at the risk of war with Mexico (over the annexation of Texas) and Britain (over control of Oregon). Howe argues that, "Nevertheless American imperialism did not represent an American consensus; it provoked bitter dissent within the national polity. '' That is, most Democrats strongly supported Manifest Destiny and most Whigs strongly opposed it. Faragher 's analysis of the political polarization between the parties is that: By 1844, the Whigs began their recovery by nominating Henry Clay, who lost the presidential race to Democrat James K. Polk in a closely contested race, with Polk 's policy of western expansion (particularly the annexation of Texas) and free trade triumphing over Clay 's protectionism and caution over the Texas question. The Whigs, both northern and southern, strongly opposed expansion into Texas, which they (including Whig Congressman Abraham Lincoln) saw as an unprincipled land grab. In 1848, the Whigs, seeing no hope of success by nominating Clay, nominated General Zachary Taylor, a hero of the Mexican -- American War. They stopped criticizing the war and adopted only a very vague platform. Taylor defeated Democratic candidate Lewis Cass and the anti-slavery Free Soil Party, who had nominated former President Martin Van Buren. Van Buren 's candidacy split the Democratic vote in New York, throwing that state to the Whigs; at the same time, however, the Free Soilers probably cost the Whigs several Midwestern states. Taylor was firmly opposed to the proposed Compromise of 1850, an initiative of Clay, and was committed to the admission of California as a free state. He proclaimed that he would take military action to prevent the secession of southern states. On July 9, 1850, Taylor died; Vice President Millard Fillmore, a long - time Whig, became President. Fillmore helped push the Compromise through Congress in the hopes of ending the controversies over slavery; its five separate bills became law in September 1850. After 1850, the Whigs were unable to deal with the slavery issue. Their southern leaders nearly all owned slaves. The northeastern Whigs, led by Daniel Webster, represented businessmen who loved national unity and a national market but cared little about slavery one way or another. However, many Whig voters in the North thought that slavery was incompatible with a free - labor, free - market economy, and supported the Wilmot Proviso, which did not pass Congress but would have stopped the expansion of slavery. No one found a compromise that would keep the party united. Furthermore, the burgeoning economy made full - time careers in business or law much more attractive than politics for ambitious young Whigs. Thus the Whig Party leader in Illinois, Abraham Lincoln, simply abandoned politics after 1849, instead attending to his law business. When new issues of nativism, prohibition, and anti-slavery burst on the scene in the mid-1850s, few looked to the quickly disintegrating Whig Party for answers. In the North most ex-Whigs joined the new Republican Party, and in the South, they flocked to a new short - lived American Party. The election of 1852 marked the beginning of the end for the Whigs. The deaths of Henry Clay and Daniel Webster that year severely weakened the party. The Compromise of 1850 had fractured the Whigs along pro - and anti-slavery lines, with the anti-slavery faction having enough power to deny Fillmore the party 's nomination in 1852. The Whig Party 's 1852 convention in New York City saw the historic meeting between Alvan E. Bovay and The New York Tribune 's Horace Greeley, a meeting that led to correspondence between the men as the early Republican Party meetings in 1854 began to take place. Attempting to repeat their earlier successes, the Whigs nominated popular General Winfield Scott, who lost decisively to the Democrats ' Franklin Pierce. The Democrats won the election by a large margin: Pierce won 27 of the 31 states, including Scott 's home state of New Jersey. Whig Representative Lewis D. Campbell of Ohio was particularly distraught by the defeat, exclaiming, "We are slain. The party is dead -- dead -- dead! '' Increasingly, politicians realized that the party was a loser. In 1854, the Kansas -- Nebraska Act, which opened the new territories to slavery, was passed. Southern Whigs generally supported the Act while Northern Whigs remained strongly opposed. Most remaining Northern Whigs, like Lincoln, joined the new Republican Party and strongly attacked the Act, appealing to widespread northern outrage over the repeal of the Missouri Compromise. Other Whigs joined the Know - Nothing Party, attracted by its nativist crusades against so - called "corrupt '' Irish and German immigrants. In the South, the Whig party vanished, but as Thomas Alexander has shown, Whiggism as a modernizing policy orientation persisted for decades. Historians estimate that, in the South in 1856, former Whig Fillmore retained 86 percent of the 1852 Whig voters when he ran as the American Party candidate. He won only 13 % of the northern vote, though that was just enough to tip Pennsylvania out of the Republican column. The future in the North, most observers thought at the time, was Republican. Scant prospects for the shrunken old party seemed extant, and after 1856 virtually no Whig organization remained at the regional level. Twenty - six states sent 150 delegates to the last national convention in September 1856. The convention met for only two days and on the second day (and only ballot) quickly nominated Fillmore for president, who had already been nominated for president by the Know Nothing party. Andrew Jackson Donelson was nominated for vice president. Some Whigs and others adopted the mantle of the Opposition Party for several years and enjoyed some individual electoral successes. In 1860, many former Whigs who had not joined the Republicans regrouped as the Constitutional Union Party, which nominated only a national ticket. It had considerable strength in the border states, which feared the onset of civil war. Its presidential candidate, John Bell, finished third in the electoral college. During the Lincoln Administration (1861 -- 65), ex-Whigs dominated the Republican Party and enacted much of their American System. Later their Southern colleagues dominated the White response to Reconstruction. In the long run, America adopted Whiggish economic policies coupled with a Democratic strong presidency. During the latter part of the American Civil War, and during the Reconstruction Era, many former Whigs tried to regroup in the South, calling themselves "Conservatives '' and hoping to reconnect with the ex-Whigs in the North. These were merged into the Democratic Party in the South, but they continued to promote modernization policies such as large - scale railroad construction and the founding of public schools. In today 's discourse in American politics, the Whig Party is often cited as an example of a political party that lost its followers and its reason for being, as by the expression "going the way of the Whigs, '' a term referred to by Donald Critchlow in his book, The Conservative Ascendancy: How the GOP Right Made Political History. Critchlow points out that the application of the term by Republicans in the GOP of 1974 may have been a misnomer; the old Whig party enjoyed more political support before its demise than the GOP in the aftermath of Nixon 's resignation. The Whigs suffered greatly from factionalism throughout their existence, as well as weak party loyalty that stood in contrast to the strong party discipline that was the hallmark of a tight Democratic Party organization. One strength of the Whigs, however, was a superb network of newspapers; their leading editor was Horace Greeley of the powerful New York Tribune. In the 1840s Whigs won 49 percent of gubernatorial elections, with strong bases in the manufacturing Northeast and in the border states. The trend over time, however, was for the Democratic vote to grow faster and for the Whigs to lose more and more marginal states and districts. After the close 1844 contest, the Democratic advantage widened and the Whigs could win the White House only if the Democrats split. This was partly because of the increased political importance of the western states, which generally voted for Democrats, and Irish Catholic and German immigrants, who voted heavily for the Democrats. The Whigs appealed to voters in every socio - economic category but proved especially attractive to the professional and business classes: doctors, lawyers, merchants, ministers, bankers, storekeepers, factory owners, commercially oriented farmers and large - scale planters. In general, commercial and manufacturing towns and cities voted Whig, save for strongly Democratic precincts in Irish Catholic and German immigrant communities; the Democrats often sharpened their appeal to the poor by ridiculing the Whigs ' aristocratic pretensions. Protestant religious revivals also injected a moralistic element into the Whig ranks. The Whigs celebrated Clay 's vision of the "American System '' that promoted rapid economic and industrial growth in the United States. Whigs demanded government support for a more modern, market - oriented economy, in which skill, expertise and bank credit would count for more than physical strength or land ownership. Whigs sought to promote faster industrialization through high tariffs, a business - oriented money supply based on a national bank and a vigorous program of government funded "internal improvements '' (what we now call infrastructure projects), especially expansion of the road and canal systems. To modernize the inner America, the Whigs helped create public schools, private colleges, charities, and cultural institutions. Many were pietistic Protestant reformers who called for public schools to teach moral values and proposed prohibition to end the liquor problem. The Democrats harkened to the Jeffersonian ideal of an egalitarian agricultural society, advising that traditional farm life bred republican simplicity, while modernization threatened to create a politically powerful caste of rich aristocrats who threatened to subvert democracy. In general the Democrats enacted their policies at the national level, while the Whigs succeeded in passing modernization projects in most states. Arguing that universal public education was the best way to turn the nation 's unruly children into disciplined, judicious republican citizens, Horace Mann (1796 -- 1859) won widespread approval from modernizers, especially among fellow Whigs, for building public schools. Indeed, most states adopted one version or another of the system he established in Massachusetts, especially the program for normal schools to train professional teachers. The Whig Party never was a homogeneous party and was essentially divided into two main factions: the "Conscience '' Whigs, based in Northern states, and the "Cotton '' Whigs, based in Southern states. While the "Consciences '' were noted for their moral opposition to slavery, their "Cottons '' opponents were more conservative, whose close association with the New England textile industry led them to de-emphasize the slavery issue. Notable "Consciences '' included Charles Sumner, Henry Wilson, and Charles Francis Adams, while the "Cottons '' were led by such figures as Edward Everett, Robert C. Winthrop, and Abbott Lawrence. The "Consciences '' split from the Whig party in 1848, when the national party nominated the slave - owning General Zachary Taylor for President, and played a role in the creation of the new Free Soil Party, which nominated Adams for Vice President on a ticket with anti-slavery former Democratic President Martin Van Buren. Following the failure of the Free Soil Party in the election that year, most Conscience Whigs would return to the Whig fold. More followed after the Compromise of 1850 temporarily neutralized the issue of slavery. During the mid-1850s, several Conscience leaders played an important role later in the foundation of the Republican Party. The term "Conscience Whig '' is sometimes used more broadly to refer to Whigs in other states noted for their opposition to slavery. In Liberia, the True Whig Party -- named in direct emulation of the American Whig party, was founded in 1869. It dominated politics in that country from 1878 until 1980. Occasionally small groups in the U.S. form parties that take the Whig name. They seldom last long or elect anyone. In 2006, the Florida Whig Party was formed and fielded one candidate for Congress in the elections of 2010. It disbanded in 2012. In 2008, a group of veterans formed the Modern Whig Party. It occasionally claimed a local officeholder supported this party. The Quincy Herald - Whig, a daily newspaper published as of 2014 in western Illinois, is a direct descendant of a 19th - century Whig party news sheet, the Quincy Whig. See also Stephen Simpson, editor of the Philadelphia Whig, a 19th - century newspaper devoted to the Whig cause. Presidents of the United States, dates in office Additionally, John Quincy Adams, elected President as a Democratic - Republican, later became a National Republican, then a Anti-Masonic, and then a Whig after he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1831. Presidents Abraham Lincoln, Rutherford B. Hayes, Chester A. Arthur, and Benjamin Harrison were Whigs before switching to the Republican Party, from which they were elected to office.

song at the beginning of beverly hills cop

Beverly Hills Cop (soundtrack) - Wikipedia Beverly Hills Cop is the soundtrack to the 1984 action comedy film Beverly Hills Cop. It was released on December 4, 1984 (1984 - 012 - 04) by MCA Records, successor - in - interest to Paramount 's old record division, the Famous Music Group (specifically Paramount Records). The soundtrack was mastered by Greg Fulginiti and features various artists whose tracks were included in the movie plus some other tracks not included in the movie but are similar in electronic style. The instrumental title tune, "Axel F '' by Harold Faltermeyer, became a worldwide hit single and has since been covered by numerous artists. The soundtrack was reviewed by Billboard magazine in the issue dated December 15, 1984 and debuted on the US Billboard 200 the week ending January 12, 1985 at No. 177. It hit # 1 on the US Billboard 200 album chart on June 22, 1985. The soundtrack won a Grammy Award for Best Score Soundtrack for Visual Media in 1986. In 2016 La - La Land Records issued a limited edition album featuring Harold Faltermeyer 's score and several of the songs used. The label originally planned to release it as part of a 2 - disc set with the expanded Beverly Hills Cop II soundtrack, but La - La Land Records was contractually obligated to issue each album separately.

what is the airport code for louisville kentucky

Louisville International Airport - wikipedia Louisville International Airport (IATA: SDF, ICAO: KSDF, FAA LID: SDF) is a public and military use public airport centrally located in the city of Louisville in Jefferson County, Kentucky, United States. The airport is situated on approximately 1,500 acres (6.1 km) and has three runways. Its IATA airport code, SDF, is based on the airport 's former name, Standiford Field. Although it currently does not have regularly - scheduled international passenger flights, it is a port of entry, as it handles numerous international cargo flights. Over 3.2 million passengers and over 4.7 billion pounds (2,350,000 t) of cargo pass through the airport each year. It is also the third - busiest in the United States in terms of cargo traffic, and seventh - busiest for such in the world. The airport is included in the National Plan of Integrated Airport Systems for 2011 -- 2015, which categorized it as a "primary commercial service '' airport since it has over 10,000 passenger boardings (enplanements) per year. As per Federal Aviation Administration records, the airport had 1,650,707 enplanements in 2011, a decrease of 0.02 % from 1,651,037 in 2010. The airport is home to Worldport, the worldwide hub of UPS. The Kentucky Air National Guard 's 123d Airlift Wing operates C - 130 transport aircraft from the co-located Louisville Air National Guard Base. Standiford Field was built by the Army Corps of Engineers in 1941 on a parcel of land south of Louisville that was found not to have flooded during the Ohio River flood of 1937. It was named for Dr. Elisha David Standiford, a local businessman and politician, who was active in transportation issues and owned part of the land. The field remained under Army control until 1947, when it was turned over to the Louisville Air Board for commercial operations. Until around 1947 Bowman Field was Louisville 's main airport. For many years passenger traffic went through the small brick Lee Terminal at Standiford Field. Today 's more modern and much larger facilities were built in the 1980s. Most of the Lee Terminal was later torn down. The April 1957 Official Airline Guide shows 45 weekday departures on Eastern Airlines, 19 American, 9 TWA, 4 Piedmont and 2 Ozark. Scheduled jet flights (Eastern 720s to Idlewild) began in January -- February 1962. Parallel runways, needed for expanded UPS operations, were part of an airport expansion plan begun in the 1980s. When Louisville International Airport was built by the U.S. Army Corp of Engineers in 1941, it had one 4,000 - foot (1,200 m) runway and was called Standiford Field. The airfield opened to the public in 1947 and all commercial service from Bowman Field moved to Standiford Field. American, Eastern, and TWA were the first airlines and had 1,300 passengers a week. The airlines used World War II barracks on the east side of the field until May 25, 1950, when a proper terminal opened. Lee Terminal could handle 150,000 passengers annually and included 6 new gates, which increased terminal space to 114,420 square feet (10,630 m). The three runways (1, 6 and 11) were all 5000 ft. In 1970 the terminal again expanded; the main lobby was extended and the 33,000 - square - foot (3,100 m) Delta Air Lines concourse was built. The 1980s brought plans for a new terminal, the Louisville Airport Improvement plan (LAIP). Construction of a new landside terminal designed by Bickel - Gibson Associated Architects Inc. began, costing $35 million with capacity for nearly 2 million passengers in 1985. Most of the improvements began construction in the 1990s and the airport was totally renewed. During the 1990s Southwest Airlines passenger boardings increased 97.3 percent. In 1995 the airport 's name was changed from Standiford Field to Louisville International Airport. Around that time SDF got two new parallel runways: runway 17L / 35R, 8,578 feet (2,615 m) long and runway 17R / 35L, 11,887 feet (3,623 m); both are 150 feet (46 m) wide. The Kentucky Air National Guard moved its base to SDF with 8 military aircraft; a new UPS air mail facility, new corporate hangars, a 4 level parking garage and a new control tower were also added. A new FBO was added, run by Atlantic Aviation and managed by Michael Perry. In 2005 a $26 million terminal renovation designed by Gensler Inc. was completed. Yearly passenger enplanements are about 1.7 million and are forecast to increase in the next 5 years. Louisville International is served by several airlines including Allegiant, American, Delta, OneJet, Southwest, United, FedEx and UPS. Louisville International - Standiford Field covers 1,500 acres (610 ha) at an elevation of 501 feet (153 m) above mean sea level. It has three concrete runways: 17R / 35L is 11,887 by 150 feet (3,623 x 46 m); 17L / 35R is 8,578 by 150 feet (2,615 x 46 m); 11 / 29 is 7,250 by 150 feet (2,210 x 46 m). Runway 17R and 17L will be lengthened to 13,000 feet and 10,500 feet respectively within the next 2 -- 3 years as an extra margin of safety for the new generation of cargo and passenger super-jets. In the year ending May 31, 2017 the airport had 158,472 aircraft operations, an average of 434 per day: 75 % scheduled commercial, 16 % air taxi, 7 % general aviation, and 2 % military. 35 aircraft were then based at this airport: 71 % jet, 23 % military, and 6 % single - engine. The terminal is named the Jerry E. Abramson Terminal Building. Louisville International Airport is home to a Republic Airline maintenance complex, capable of holding nine planes. In addition to commercial air traffic there is a significant amount of general aviation activity at Louisville International Airport, for business travel and other purposes such as the Kentucky Derby. Worldport is the worldwide air hub for UPS (United Parcel Service) located at the Louisville International Airport. Although UPS has had a hub at Louisville since 1980, the term was not used officially by the company until 2002, after a $1 billion, five - year expansion. Previously, the project was named Hub 2000. The facility is currently the size of 5.2 million square feet (48 ha; 80 football fields) and capable of handling 115 packages a second, or 416,000 per hour. With over 20,000 employees, UPS is one of the largest employers in both the city of Louisville and the Commonwealth of Kentucky as a whole. The facility, which serves all of the company 's major international and domestic hubs, mainly handles express and international packages and letters. A one - million - square - foot expansion was completed in spring 2006 to integrate heavy freight into the UPS system. The expansion was prefaced by the purchase of Menlo Worldwide Forwarding, formerly Emery Worldwide. The new facility, designated Worldport Freight Facility (HWP), went online in April 2006 and was the first of the company 's regional hubs to begin integrating the Menlo volume into the system. Menlo 's facility in Dayton, Ohio, was taken offline in June 2006. In May 2006, UPS announced that for the third time in seven years it would significantly expand its Worldport hub, with a second billion - dollar investment. The second expansion was completed in April 2010, with the facility now measuring 5,200,000 square feet (480,000 m), with a perimeter of 7.2 miles (11.6 km). The plan was for more than one million square feet to be added to its existing facility, with another 334,500 - square - foot (31,080 m) of space to be renovated with new technology and equipment. Worldport sorting capacity was to expand from 300,000 packages per hour to 416,000 packages per hour. Additionally, several ramps at the Louisville International Airport were to be built or altered bringing a total increase of just over 3,000,000 square feet (280,000 m). Since many of the jobs are part - time and overnight, UPS has hired mostly college students by offering both nationwide tuition reimbursement and a special program called Metropolitan College, in which University of Louisville and Jefferson Community and Technical College students who work part - time overnight can receive 100 % tuition reimbursement. Worldport was featured on an episode of the television show Ultimate Factories in June 2008.

conversion of productive land to desert is known as degradation

Desertification - wikipedia Desertification is a type of land degradation in which a relatively dry area of land becomes increasingly arid, typically losing its bodies of water as well as vegetation and wildlife. It is caused by a variety of factors, such as through climate change and through the overexploitation of soil through human activity. When deserts appear automatically over the natural course of a planet 's life cycle, then it can be called a natural phenomenon; however, when deserts emerge due to the rampant and unchecked depletion of nutrients in soil that are essential for it to remain arable, then a virtual "soil death '' can be spoken of, which traces its cause back to human overexploitation. Desertification is a significant global ecological and environmental problem. Considerable controversy exists over the proper definition of the term "desertification '' for which Helmut Geist (2005) has identified more than 100 formal definitions. The most widely accepted of these is that of the Princeton University Dictionary which defines it as "the process of fertile land transforming into desert typically as a result of deforestation, drought or improper / inappropriate agriculture ''. Desertification has been neatly defined in the text of the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) as "land degradation in arid, semi-arid and dry sub-humid regions resulting from various factors, including climatic variations and human activities. '' Another major contribution to the controversy comes from the sub-grouping of types of desertification. Spanning from the very vague yet shortsighted view as the "man - made - desert '' to the more broad yet less focused type as the "Non-pattern - Desert '' The earliest known discussion of the topic arose soon after the French colonization of West Africa, when the Comité d'Etudes commissioned a study on desséchement progressif to explore the prehistoric expansion of the Sahara Desert. The world 's most noted deserts have been formed by natural processes interacting over long intervals of time. During most of these times, deserts have grown and shrunk independent of human activities. Paleodeserts are large sand seas now inactive because they are stabilized by vegetation, some extending beyond the present margins of core deserts, such as the Sahara, the largest hot desert. Desertification has played a significant role in human history, contributing to the collapse of several large empires, such as Carthage, Greece, and the Roman Empire, as well as causing displacement of local populations. Historical evidence shows that the serious and extensive land deterioration occurring several centuries ago in arid regions had three epicenters: the Mediterranean, the Mesopotamian Valley, and the Loess Plateau of China, where population was dense. Drylands occupy approximately 40 -- 41 % of Earth 's land area and are home to more than 2 billion people. It has been estimated that some 10 -- 20 % of drylands are already degraded, the total area affected by desertification being between 6 and 12 million square kilometres, that about 1 -- 6 % of the inhabitants of drylands live in desertified areas, and that a billion people are under threat from further desertification. As of 1998, the then - current degree of southward expansion of the Sahara was not well known, due to a lack of recent, measurable expansion of the desert into the Sahel at the time. The impact of global warming and human activities are presented in the Sahel. In this area, the level of desertification is very high compared to other areas in the world. All areas situated in the eastern part of Africa (i.e. in the Sahel region) are characterized by a dry climate, hot temperatures, and low rainfall (300 -- 750 mm rainfall per year). So, droughts are the rule in the Sahel region. Some studies have shown that Africa has lost approximately 650 000 km2 of its productive agricultural land over the past 50 years. The propagation of desertification in this area is considerable. Some statistics have shown that since 1900, the Sahara has expanded by 250 km, covering an additional area of 6000 square kilometers. The survey, done by the research institute for development, had demonstrated that this means dryness is spreading fast in the Sahelian countries. Desertification in the Sahel can affect more than one billion of its inhabitants. 70 % of the arid area has deteriorated and water resources have disappeared, leading to soil degradation. The loss of topsoil means that plants can not take root firmly and can be uprooted by torrential water or strong winds. The United Nations Convention (UNC) says that about six million Sahelian citizens would have to give up the desertified zones of sub-Saharan Africa for North Africa and Europe between 1997 and 2020. Another major area that is being impacted by desertification is the Gobi Desert. Currently, the Gobi desert is the fastest moving desert on Earth; according to some researchers, the Gobi Desert swallows up over 1,300 miles of land annually. This has destroyed many villages in its path. Currently, photos show that the Gobi Desert has expanded to the point the entire nation of Croatia could fit inside its area. This is causing a major problem for the people of China. They will soon have to deal with the desert as it creeps closer. Although the Gobi Desert itself is still a distance away from Beijing, reports from field studies state there are large sand dunes forming only 70 km (43.5 m) outside of the city. As the desertification takes place, the landscape may progress through different stages and continuously transform in appearance. On gradually sloped terrain, desertification can create increasingly larger empty spaces over a large strip of land, a phenomenon known as "Brousse tigrée ''. A mathematical model of this phenomenon proposed by C. Klausmeier attributes this patterning to dynamics in plant - water interaction. One outcome of this observation suggests an optimal planting strategy for agriculture in arid environments. The immediate cause is the loss of most vegetation. This is driven by a number of factors, alone or in combination, such as drought, climatic shifts, tillage for agriculture, overgrazing and deforestation for fuel or construction materials. Vegetation plays a major role in determining the biological composition of the soil. Studies have shown that, in many environments, the rate of erosion and runoff decreases exponentially with increased vegetation cover. Unprotected, dry soil surfaces blow away with the wind or are washed away by flash floods, leaving infertile lower soil layers that bake in the sun and become an unproductive hardpan. Controversially, Allan Savory has claimed that the controlled movement of herds of livestock, mimicking herds of grazing wildlife, can reverse desertification. At least 90 % of the inhabitants of drylands live in developing nations, where they also suffer from poor economic and social conditions. This situation is exacerbated by land degradation because of the reduction in productivity, the precariousness of living conditions and the difficulty of access to resources and opportunities. A downward spiral is created in many underdeveloped countries by overgrazing, land exhaustion and overdrafting of groundwater in many of the marginally productive world regions due to overpopulation pressures to exploit marginal drylands for farming. Decision - makers are understandably averse to invest in arid zones with low potential. This absence of investment contributes to the marginalisation of these zones. When unfavourable agro-climatic conditions are combined with an absence of infrastructure and access to markets, as well as poorly adapted production techniques and an underfed and undereducated population, most such zones are excluded from development. Desertification often causes rural lands to become unable to support the same sized populations that previously lived there. This results in mass migrations out of rural areas and into urban areas, particularly in Africa. These migrations into the cities often cause large numbers of unemployed people, who end up living in slums. Techniques and countermeasures exist for mitigating or reversing the effects of desertification, and some possess varying levels of difficulty. For some, there are numerous barriers to their implementation. Yet for others, the solution simply requires the exercise of human reason. One less difficult solution that has been proposed, however controversial it may be, is to bring about a cap on the population growth, and in fact to turn this into a population decay, so that each year there will gradually exist fewer and fewer humans who require the land to be depleted even further in order to grow their food. One proposed barrier is that the costs of adopting sustainable agricultural practices sometimes exceed the benefits for individual farmers, even while they are socially and environmentally beneficial. Another issue is a lack of political will, and lack of funding to support land reclamation and anti-desertification programs. Desertification is recognized as a major threat to biodiversity. Some countries have developed Biodiversity Action Plans to counter its effects, particularly in relation to the protection of endangered flora and fauna. Reforestation gets at one of the root causes of desertification and is not just a treatment of the symptoms. Environmental organizations work in places where deforestation and desertification are contributing to extreme poverty. There they focus primarily on educating the local population about the dangers of deforestation and sometimes employ them to grow seedlings, which they transfer to severely deforested areas during the rainy season. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations launched the FAO Drylands Restoration Initiative in 2012 to draw together knowledge and experience on dryland restoration. In 2015, FAO published global guidelines for the restoration of degraded forests and landscapes in drylands, in collaboration with the Turkish Ministry of Forestry and Water Affairs and the Turkish Cooperation and Coordination Agency. Currently, one of the major methods that has been finding success in this battle with desertification. This is known as China 's "Great Green Wall. '' This wall is a much larger scaled version of what American farmers did in the 1930s to stop the great Midwest dust bowl. This plan was proposed in the late 1970s, and has become a major ecological engineering project that is not predicted to end until the year 2055. According to Chinese reports, there have been nearly 66,000,000,000 trees planted in China 's great green wall. Due to the success that China has been finding in stopping the spread of desertification. Through their success with their wall, plans are currently be made in Africa to start a "wall '' along the borders of the Sahara desert as well. Techniques focus on two aspects: provisioning of water, and fixation and hyper - fertilizing soil. Fixating the soil is often done through the use of shelter belts, woodlots and windbreaks. Windbreaks are made from trees and bushes and are used to reduce soil erosion and evapotranspiration. They were widely encouraged by development agencies from the middle of the 1980s in the Sahel area of Africa. Some soils (for example, clay), due to lack of water can become consolidated rather than porous (as in the case of sandy soils). Some techniques as zaï or tillage are then used to still allow the planting of crops. Another technique that is useful is contour trenching. This involves the digging of 150m long, 1m deep trenches in the soil. The trenches are made parallel to the height lines of the landscape, preventing the water from flowing within the trenches and causing erosion. Stone walls are placed around the trenches to prevent the trenches from closing up again. The method was invented by Peter Westerveld. Enriching of the soil and restoration of its fertility is often done by plants. Of these, leguminous plants which extract nitrogen from the air and fix it in the soil, and food crops / trees as grains, barley, beans and dates are the most important. Sand fences can also be used to control drifting of soil and sand erosion. Some research centra (such as Bel - Air Research Center IRD / ISRA / UCAD) are also experimenting with the inoculation of tree species with mycorrhiza in arid zones. The mycorrhiza are basically fungi attaching themselves to the roots of the plants. They hereby create a symbiotic relation with the trees, increasing the surface area of the tree 's roots greatly (allowing the tree to gather much more nutrients from the soil). As there are many different types of deserts, there are also different types of desert reclamation methodologies. An example for this is the salt - flats in the Rub ' al Khali desert in Saudi - Arabia. These salt - flats are one of the most promising desert areas for seawater agriculture and could be revitalized without the use of freshwater or much energy. Farmer - managed natural regeneration (FMNR) is another technique that has produced successful results for desert reclamation. Since 1980, this method to reforest degraded landscape has been applied with some success in Niger. This simple and low - cost method has enabled farmers to regenerate some 30,000 square kilometers in Niger. The process involves enabling native sprouting tree growth through selective pruning of shrub shoots. The residue from pruned trees can be used to provide mulching for fields thus increasing soil water retention and reducing evaporation. Additionally, properly spaced and pruned trees can increase crop yields. The Humbo Assisted Regeneration Project which uses FMNR techniques in Ethiopia has received money from The World Bank 's BioCarbon Fund, which supports projects that sequester or conserve carbon in forests or agricultural ecosystems. Restoring grasslands store CO from the air into plant material. Grazing livestock, usually not left to wander, would eat the grass and would minimize any grass growth while grass left alone would eventually grow to cover its own growing buds, preventing them from photosynthesizing and killing the plant. A method proposed to restore grasslands uses fences with many small paddocks and moving herds from one paddock to another after a day or two in order to mimic natural grazers and allowing the grass to grow optimally. It is estimated that increasing the carbon content of the soils in the world 's 3.5 billion hectares of agricultural grassland would offset nearly 12 years of CO emissions. Allan Savory, as part of holistic management, claims that while large herds are often blamed for desertification, prehistoric lands used to support large or larger herds and areas where herds were removed in the United States are still desertifying. Mitigation:

what documents do i need to fill out i-9 form

Form I - 9 - wikipedia Form I - 9, officially the Employment Eligibility Verification, is a United States Citizenship and Immigration Services form. Mandated by the Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986, it is used to verify the identity and legal authorization to work of all paid employees in the United States. All U.S. employers must ensure proper completion of Form I - 9 for each individual they hire for employment in the United States. The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986 (IRCA) required employers to verify that all newly hired employees presented facially valid documentation verifying the employee 's identity and legal authorization to accept employment in the United States. The I - 9 form, or more properly the Employment Eligibility Verification Form, is provided by the federal government for that purpose. Every employee hired after November 6, 1986 must complete an I - 9 form at the time of hire. Employees must complete Section 1 of the form upon commencing employment. The employer must complete Section 2 within three days of the employee 's starting date at work. The employer is responsible for ensuring that the forms are completed properly and in a timely manner. The I - 9 is not required for unpaid volunteers or for contractors. However, a company could still find itself liable if it contracts work to a contractor it knows either is or employs unauthorized workers. Several versions of Form I - 9, Employment Eligibility Verification, have been issued since the form was first introduced in 1987. Not all versions are valid for use. To determine whether you are using the correct version of Form I - 9, look at the revision date printed on the bottom left corner of the form, and not the expiration date printed at the top of the form. Currently, only the forms showing the following revision date are valid: Rev. 07 / 17 / 2017 N * If an employee can not read or can not write in English, a translator or preparer may complete the form and sign it on behalf of the employee. The form also requires the employee 's own signature. In October 2004, new legislation made it possible to complete the I - 9 electronically. In completing form I - 9, prospective employees attest, under penalty of perjury, that they are in one of the following categories: With the form, prospective employees must provide documents that prove their eligibility to work. A variety of documents is acceptable in a specified combination with another. The prospective employee must provide: All documentation must be unexpired as of April 3, 2009 Documents that may be used under "List A '' of the I - 9 form to establish both identity and employment eligibility include: Documents that may be used under "List B '' of the I - 9 to establish identity include: For individuals under the age of eighteen, the following documents may be used to establish identity: Employees who supply an item from List B (to establish identity) must also supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility). Documents that may be used under "List C '' of the I - 9 to establish employment eligibility include: U.S. citizens who have lost their social security card can apply for a duplicate at the Social Security Administration. Employees who supply an item from List C (to establish employment eligibility) must also supply an item from List B (to establish identity). Employers must update or reverify certain ID documents at or prior to their expiration date. This does not apply to already presented and accepted non-expired U.S. Passports or Permanent Resident Cards when they reach their expiration date, nor to any List B documents (e.g., state driver 's licenses and state IDs). The USCIS website, in the Employer section, Employer Bulletins, lists the limited requirements and allowed instances for reverification. For U.S. citizens, I - 9s are valid continuously unless a break of more than a year of employment occurs. International employees on F - 1 (student), H - 1B (specialty occupation), or J - 1 (exchange visitor) visas must have their I - 9 reverified each time their visa has expired with a new work authorization permit (renewed visa with work authorization, EAD, Permanent Residence Card, etc.). Employers must retain a Form I - 9 for all current employees. Employers must also retain a Form I - 9 for three years after the date of hire, or one year after the date employment ends, whichever is later. Employers must show their employees ' I - 9 form any time the immigration or labor authority requests it. The Immigration Reform and Control Act which introduced the requirement leading to the promulgation of the I - 9 form also included anti-discrimination provisions. Under the Act, most U.S. citizens, permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees or refugees who are legally allowed to work in the United States can not be discriminated against on the basis of national origin or citizenship status. This provision applies to employers of three or more workers and covers both hiring and termination decisions. In addition, an employer must accept any valid document or combination of documents specified in the I - 9 form as long as the documents appear genuine. For example, an employer could not refuse to hire a candidate because his I - 9 revealed that he was a non-citizen (such as a permanent resident or a refugee) rather than a U.S. citizen. For this reason some immigration lawyers advise companies to avoid requiring an I - 9 until a candidate is hired rather than risk a lawsuit. As another example, a company could not insist that an employee provide a passport rather than, say, a driver 's license and social security card. Another anti-discrimination provision requires that employers must enforce I - 9 compliance in a uniform manner. For example, an employer must not require some employees to complete an I - 9 before being hired, but allow others to complete the form after starting employment. Employers must not assume that the employee is unauthorized to work just because the individual either could not bring the proof of employment authorization or has brought the unaccepted documents until the start date of the employment. Instead, employers should encourage that employee to bring the acceptable documents which are under the List A, B and C. Employers may terminate the employment only if the employee can not attest the person 's work authorization by bringing the proof after the start date. The Office of Special Counsel for Immigration - Related Unfair Employment Practices ("OSC '') is a section within the Department of Justice 's Civil Rights Division that enforces the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act ("INA ''). The OSC can help workers by calling employers and explaining proper verification practices and, when necessary, by providing victims of discrimination with charge forms. Upon receipt of a charge of discrimination, OSC investigations typically take no longer than seven months. Victims may obtain various types of relief including job relief and back pay. OSC also has an extensive outreach program. It provides staff to speak at outreach events throughout the country, and has free informational brochures, posters and tapes for distribution. The OSC investigates the following types of discriminatory conduct under the anti-discrimination provision of the Immigration and Nationality Act (INA), 8 U.S.C. § 1324b: With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with four or more employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because they are or are not U.S. citizens or work - authorized individuals. U.S. citizens, recent permanent residents, temporary residents, asylees and refugees are protected from citizenship status discrimination. However, permanent residents who do not apply for naturalization within six months of eligibility are not protected from citizenship status discrimination. Citizenship status discrimination which is otherwise required to comply with law, regulation, executive order or government contract is permissible by law. With respect to hiring, firing, recruitment or referral for a fee by employers with more than three and fewer than fifteen employees, employers may not treat individuals differently because of their place of birth, country of origin, ancestry, native language, accent or because they are perceived as looking or sounding foreign. All U.S. citizens, lawful permanent residents and work authorized individuals are protected from national origin discrimination. The Equal Employment Opportunity Commission has jurisdiction over employers with fifteen or more employees. Relating to verifying the employment eligibility of employees, employers may not request more or different documents than are required to verify employment eligibility, reject reasonably genuine - looking documents or specify certain documents over others with the purpose or intent of discriminating on the basis of citizenship status or national origin. U.S. citizens and all work authorized individuals are protected from document abuse. Individuals who file charges with OSC; who cooperate with an OSC investigation; who contest action that may constitute unfair documentary practices or discrimination based upon citizenship, immigration status, or national origin; or who assert their rights under the INA 's anti-discrimination provision are protected from retaliation. The IRCA includes penalties for I - 9 noncompliance. Federal law provides for imprisonment or fines for making false statements or using false documents in connection with the completion of the I - 9. An employer who hires an unauthorized worker can be fined between $250 and $5,500 per worker. In addition, such an employer can be barred from federal government contracts for a year. An employee who knowingly accepts fraudulent documentation can also be criminally prosecuted under other immigration laws. An employer who fails to keep proper records that I - 9s are properly filed can be fined $110 per missing item for each form, up to $1100 per form, even if the employee is legally authorized to work in the United States. Since 2009, Immigration & Customs Enforcement (ICE) has conducted over 7,500 audits and imposed over $80 million in fines. In 2011 alone, ICE conducted 2,740 audits and assessed over $7 million in fines. An individual who knowingly commits or participates in document fraud may be fined between $375 and $3,200 per document for the first offense and between $3,200 and $6,500 per document for subsequent offenses. Recent Employee Bulletins by the USCIS explain many questions and concerns that employees have had over the years about the I - 9 process, such as the limitation of an employer 's ability to discern from the many old ID 's, the many various forms of ID, discovery of possibly questionable ID, etc.:

what makes the rock's red in sedona arizona

Sedona, Arizona - wikipedia Sedona / sɪˈdoʊnə / is a city that straddles the county line between Coconino and Yavapai counties in the northern Verde Valley region of the U.S. state of Arizona. As of the 2010 census, its population was 10,031. Sedona 's main attraction is its array of red sandstone formations. The formations appear to glow in brilliant orange and red when illuminated by the rising or setting sun. The red rocks form a popular backdrop for many activities, ranging from spiritual pursuits to the hundreds of hiking and mountain biking trails. Sedona was named after Sedona Arabella Miller Schnebly (1877 -- 1950), the wife of Theodore Carlton Schnebly, the city 's first postmaster, who was celebrated for her hospitality and industriousness. Her mother, Amanda Miller, claimed to have made the name up because "it sounded pretty ''. The first documented human presence in Sedona area dates to between 11,500 and 9000 B.C. It was not until 1995 that a Clovis projectile point discovered in Honanki revealed the presence of the Paleo - Indians, who were big - game hunters. Around 9000 B.C., the pre-historic Archaic people appeared in the Verde Valley. These were hunter - gatherers and their presence in the area was longer than in other areas of the Southwest, most likely because of the ecological diversity and large amount of resources. They left by 300 A.D. There is an assortment of rock art left by the Archaic people in places near Sedona such as Palatki and Honanki. Around 650 A.D., the Sinagua people entered the Verde Valley. Their culture is known for its art such as pottery, basketry and their masonry. They left rock art, pueblos, and cliff dwellings such as Montezuma Castle, Honanki, Palatki and Tuzigoot, especially in the later period of their presence. The Sinagua abandoned the Verde Valley about 1400 A.D. Researchers believe the Sinagua and other clans moved to the Hopi mesas in Arizona and the Zuni and other pueblos in New Mexico. The Yavapai came from the west when the Sinagua were still there in the Verde Valley around 1300 A.D. They were nomadic hunter - gatherers. Some archaeologists place the Apache arrival in the Verde Valley around 1450 A.D. Many Apache groups were nomadic or seminomadic and traveled over large areas. The Yavapai and Apache tribes were forcibly removed from the Verde Valley in 1876, to the San Carlos Indian Reservation, 180 miles (290 km) southeast. About 1,500 people were marched, in midwinter, to San Carlos. Several hundred lost their lives. The survivors were interned for 25 years. About 200 Yavapai and Apache people returned to the Verde Valley in 1900 and have since intermingled as a single political entity although culturally distinct residing in the Yavapai - Apache Nation. The first Anglo settler, John J. Thompson, moved to Oak Creek Canyon in 1876, an area well known for its peach and apple orchards. The early settlers were farmers and ranchers. In 1902, when the Sedona post office was established, there were 55 residents. In the mid-1950s, the first telephone directory listed 155 names. Some parts of the Sedona area were not electrified until the 1960s. Sedona began to develop as a tourist destination, vacation - home and retirement center in the 1950s. Most of the development seen today was constructed in the 1980s and 1990s. As of 2007, there are no large tracts of undeveloped land remaining. In 1956, construction of the Chapel of the Holy Cross was completed. The chapel rises 70 feet (21 m) out of a 1,000 - foot (300 m) redrock cliff. The most prominent feature of the chapel is the cross. Later a chapel was added. Inside the chapel there is a window and a cross with benches and pews. Sedona played host to more than sixty Hollywood productions from the first years of movies into the 1970s. Stretching as far back as 1923, Sedona 's red rocks were a fixture in major Hollywood productions -- including films such as Johnny Guitar, Angel and the Badman, Desert Fury, Blood on the Moon, The Last Wagon, and 3: 10 to Yuma. However, the surroundings typically were identified to audiences as the terrain of Texas, California, Nevada, and even Canada -- US border territory. On June 18, 2006, a wildfire, reportedly started by campers, began about one mile (1.6 km) north of Sedona. The Brins Fire covered 4,317 acres (17 km) on Brins Mesa, Wilson Mountain and in Oak Creek Canyon before the USDA Forest Service declared it 100 percent contained on June 28. Containment cost was estimated at $6,400,000. Sedona is located at 34 ° 51 ′ 36 '' N 111 ° 47 ′ 21 '' W  /  34.859897 ° N 111.789199 ° W  / 34.859897; - 111.789199, which is in the Upper Sonoran Desert of northern Arizona. At an elevation of 4,500 feet (1,372 m), Sedona has mild winters and hot summers. According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of 19.2 square miles (49.7 km), of which 0.04 square miles (0.1 km), or 0.22 %, is water. The famous red rocks of Sedona are formed by a layer of rock known as the Schnebly Hill Formation. The Schnebly Hill Formation is a thick layer of red to orange - colored sandstone found only in the Sedona vicinity. The sandstone, a member of the Supai Group, was deposited during the Permian Period. Sedona has a temperate semi-arid climate. In January, the average high temperature is 57 ° F (14 ° C) with a low of 31 ° F (− 1 ° C). In July, the average high temperature is 97 ° F (34 ° C) with a low of 64 ° F (17 ° C). Annual precipitation is just over 19 inches (480 mm). As of the census of 2000, there were 10,192 people, 4,928 households, and 2,863 families residing in the city. The population density was 548.0 people per square mile (211.6 / km2). There were 5,684 housing units at an average density of 305.6 per square mile (118.0 / km2). The racial makeup of the city was 92.17 % White, 0.49 % Black or African American, 0.45 % Native American, 0.94 % Asian, 0.09 % Pacific Islander, 4.29 % from other races, and 1.57 % from two or more races. 8.90 % of the population were Hispanic or Latino of any race. At the 2000 census there were 7,229 people living in the Yavapai County (western) portion of the city (70.9 % of its population) and 2,963 living in the Coconino County (eastern) portion (29.1 %). By land area Yavapai had 66.2 % of its area, versus 33.8 % for Coconino. There were 4,928 households out of which 15.8 % had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.6 % were married couples living together, 6.6 % had a female householder with no husband present, and 41.9 % were non-families. 32.2 % of all households were made up of individuals and 14.2 % had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.06 and the average family size was 2.52. In the city, the population was spread out with 13.7 % under the age of 18, 4.5 % from 18 to 24, 21.2 % from 25 to 44, 35.0 % from 45 to 64, and 25.6 % who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 50 years. For every 100 females there were 88.1 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 85.9 males. The median income for a household in the city was $44,042, and the median income for a family was $52,659. Males had a median income of $32,067 versus $24,453 for females. The per capita income for the city was $31,350. About 4.7 % of families and 9.7 % of the population were below the poverty line, including 12.1 % of those under age 18 and 5.0 % of those age 65 or over. Politically, Uptown Sedona, the Gallery District and the Chapel area (all in Coconino County) and West Sedona (in Yavapai County) form the City of Sedona. Founded in 1902, it was incorporated as a city in 1988. The unincorporated Village of Oak Creek, 7 miles (11 km) to the south and well outside the Sedona city limits, is a significant part of the Sedona community. The Sedona area hosts numerous events annually, including: Sedona hosts several notable arts organizations in Northern Arizona: A specialized New Age tourist industry operates in Sedona, where Jose Arguelles organized the "Harmonic Convergence '' in 1987. Some New Age proponents purport that "spiritual vortices '' are concentrated in the Sedona area at Bell Rock, Airport Mesa, Cathedral Rock, and Boynton Canyon. Sedona is served by the Sedona - Oak Creek Unified School District. West Sedona School, serving grades K -- 6, is located at 570 Posse Ground Road. Red Rock Early Learning Center is a year - round Preschool program designed for children aged 3 -- 5 years old. Their normal school year runs from August to May each year, with a summer session offered during June and July. It is licensed by the ADHS, and located in West Sedona Elementary School building 300. Verde Valley School, a boarding International Baccalaureate high school with many international students, is located between the Village of Oak Creek and Red Rock Crossing. It hosts numerous ' traditions ' and performances open to the community. Their mascot is the coyote. Total attendance measures about 120 students per year, grades 9 -- 12. Sedona Red Rock High School (SRRHS), built in 1994, is located on the western edge of town in West Sedona. The school 's mascot is the Scorpion. The high school 's new campus, a series of single story buildings, is located opposite the Sedona campus of Yavapai College. As of 2016, Sedona Red Rock High School holds grades 7 -- 8 in the Junior High portion of campus. Sedona Charter School (SCS) is located behind the Sedona Public Library, serving as a Montessori - based school for grades K - 8. Yavapai College 's Sedona Center for Arts & Technology includes the Sedona Film School, which offers certificates in independent filmmaking, the Business Partnership Program, the Osher Lifelong Learning Institute, and the University of Arizona Mini Med School. The University of Sedona is an unaccredited institution providing ministerial training and education in metaphysics. Verde Valley Medical Center -- Sedona Campus is an outpatient facility providing 24 / 7 emergency services, cancer services, and primary and specialty healthcare to the Sedona / Oak Creek area. The facility is part of the Northern Arizona Healthcare system and is a subdivision of Verde Valley Medical Center in the nearby city of Cottonwood.

which german company built the first aircraft to fly under turbojet power

Heinkel He 178 - wikipedia The Heinkel He 178 was the world 's first aircraft to fly under turbojet power, and the first practical jet aircraft. It was a private venture by the German Heinkel company in accordance with director Ernst Heinkel 's emphasis on developing technology for high - speed flight. It first flew on 27 August 1939, piloted by Erich Warsitz. This flight had been preceded by a short hop three days earlier. In 1936, a young engineer named Hans von Ohain had taken out a patent on using the exhaust from a gas turbine as a means of propulsion. He presented his idea to Ernst Heinkel, who agreed to help develop the concept. Von Ohain successfully demonstrated his first engine, the Heinkel HeS 1 in 1937, and plans were quickly made to test a similar engine in an aircraft. The He 178 was designed around von Ohain 's third engine design, the HeS 3, which burned diesel fuel. The result was a small aircraft with a metal fuselage of conventional configuration and construction. The jet intake was in the nose, and the aircraft was fitted with tailwheel undercarriage. The main landing gear was intended to be retractable, but remained fixed in "down '' position throughout the flight trials. The high - mounted wooden wings had the characteristic Günter brothers elliptical trailing edge. Photos showing a "straight wing '' (straight - line - taper in the wing planform, for both the leading and trailing edges) were of the second prototype He 178 V2, which never flew under power. The aircraft made its maiden flight on 27 August 1939, only days before Germany started World War II by invading Poland. The test pilot was Erich Warsitz, who had also flown the world 's first rocket powered airplane, the Heinkel He 176, on its maiden flight in June 1939. Heinkel had developed the turbojet engine and the testbed aircraft, the Heinkel He 178 V1, in great secrecy. They were kept secret even from the German air force and On 1 November 1939, after the German victory in Poland, Heinkel arranged a demonstration of the jet for officials, which Herman Goering, commander in chief of the Luftwaffe, did not attend. Ernst Udet and Erhard Milch, Minister of Aircraft Production and Supply watched the aircraft perform, but were unimpressed. While a technical success, speeds were limited to 598 kilometres per hour (372 mph) even when fitted with more powerful HeS 6 1,300 lb thrust engines and combat endurance was only 10 minutes. Undeterred, Heinkel decided to embark on the development of a twin - engine jet fighter, the He 280 as a private venture using what had been learned from the He 178 prototype. The sole He 178 V1 airframe was placed on display at the Berlin Aviation Museum, where it was destroyed in an air raid in 1943. Ernst Heinkel was disappointed by the lack of official interest in his private - venture jet. In his autobiography, he attributes this to the failure of the leaders of the Reichsluftfahrtministerium to understand the advantages of jet propulsion and what breakthrough the He 178 represented. In fact, the Reich Air Ministry was already developing its own jets, a fact unknown to Heinkel. In 1939, BMW and Junkers were working on "official '' turbojet engines (bearing RLM - issued "109 - 0xx '' design numbers, used for all gas - turbine propulsion aircraft powerplants) for the German military. These were axial - flow turbojets, which promised much less drag than the centrifugal - flow turbojets like those being developed at Heinkel and by Frank Whittle in England. In mid September 1939, two weeks after Germany entered World War II, the German air force ordered aircraft manufacturers to reduce development work and concentrate all efforts on winning what German officials expected to be a short war. But the development of jet powered single - seaters was ordered to continue, to get such aircraft operational as fighters as soon as possible. This could have happened had not Willy Messerschmitt cautioned Hitler, in a conversation on 27 June 1943, against mass - production of jets on the grounds of fuel consumption. This seems to have marked a turning point for jet aircraft, Hitler deciding that the most promising jet fighter aircraft be re-purposed as a "blitz bomber ''. (Ziegler speculates that the prospect of a damaged but airworthy Me 262 falling into allied hands drove this decision: at the time it was not known that the allies were perhaps only a year behind the technical lead established by Nazi Germany and that the idea of a "secret weapon '' falling into enemy hands may have played upon Hitler 's mind. Whatever the reason for this pronouncement the effect was to greatly delay the introduction of jets.) The result of the decision to change the Me 262 from an already capable single - seat fighter / interceptor into -- at best -- a rather indifferent two - seat light bomber was such that operating the type as fighters was delayed by a year and when in squadron service in pitifully low numbers. (This decision seems even more perverse when conventional fighter - bombers were already available, jet - powered equivalents could have no major effect on the outcome of the war, and the conversion process actively prevented action against the allied heavy bomber ' round - the - clock ' campaign that was slowly degrading Germany 's war production.) In December 1943, having listened to many and varied objections regarding the ' Blitz Bomber ', Goering issued an order to the effect that by Spring 1944 ' the Luftwaffe (shall have) sufficient operational fighter - bombers '. In July 1944 both the German and British air forces began flying jet powered fighters operationally. The British Gloster Meteor F.I, powered by two Rolls - Royce Welland centrifugal - flow turbojets had a maximum speed (in level flight) of 692 km / h (430 mph) and thus only equivalent to the best - performing piston engined Allied fighters being flown in combat at that time, whereas the German Messerschmitt Me 262, powered by two Junkers Jumo 004 axial - flow turbojets, had a maximum speed of 870 km / h (540 mph), -- 178 km / h (111 mph) faster than the best piston - engined fighters and had superior climb performance, but those bold statements do not reflect the operational issues surrounding each type: the German jet engines had a service life of about 25 hours (in part due to the shortage of suitable heat - resistant steel alloys) while the British centrifugal jet engines could run for 180 hours. While no jet - to - jet air combat took place in July 1944 the first encounter between a German Me 262 and a British Mosquito (of roughly similar performance to the Meteor) ended bloodlessly. When used as an air - superiority fighter, the task for which it had been designed, the Luftwaffe 's Me 262s performed admirably but this was at a time when Hitler 's edict that no one could so much as mention the aircraft unless it was in the context of its use as a bomber effectively concealed this inconvenient truth. In September 1944 this policy was reversed but by then it was too late, there were far too few Me 262 available to make a difference, and far too few pilots. By contrast at this stage in the war the RAF used the Meteor to shoot down unmanned V - 1 flying bombs, maintain coastal patrols and for training, where its ability to reach speeds in excess of 500 mph in a dive effectively simulated attacks by the ever - dwindling numbers of technically superior but effectively irreplaceable German jets. General characteristics Performance

when can an attorney break attorney client privilege

Attorney -- client privilege - wikipedia Attorney -- client privilege or lawyer -- client privilege is a "client 's right privilege to refuse to disclose and to prevent any other person from disclosing confidential communications between the client and the attorney. '' The attorney -- client privilege is one of the oldest recognized privileges for confidential communications. The United States Supreme Court has stated that by assuring confidentiality, the privilege encourages clients to make "full and frank '' disclosures to their attorneys, who are then better able to provide candid advice and effective representation. Although there are minor variations, the elements necessary to establish the attorney client privilege generally are: There are a number of exceptions to the privilege in most jurisdictions, chief among them: A corollary to the attorney -- client privilege is the joint defense privilege, which is also called the common interest rule. The common interest rule "serves to protect the confidentiality of communications passing from one party to another party where a joint defense or strategy has been decided upon and undertaken by the parties and their respective counsel. '' An attorney speaking publicly in regard to a client 's personal business and private affairs can be reprimanded by the bar and / or disbarred, regardless of the fact that he or she may be no longer representing the client. Discussing a client 's or past client 's criminal history, or otherwise, is viewed as a breach of fiduciary responsibilities. The attorney -- client privilege is separate from and should not be confused with the work - product doctrine. When an attorney is not acting primarily as an attorney but, for instance, as a business advisor, member of the Board of Directors, or in another non-legal role, then the privilege generally does not apply. The privilege protects the confidential communication, and not the underlying information. For instance, if a client has previously disclosed confidential information to a third party who is not an attorney, and then gives the same information to an attorney, the attorney -- client privilege will still protect the communication to the attorney, but will not protect the communication with the third party. The privilege may be waived if the confidential communications are disclosed to third parties. Other limits to the privilege may apply depending on the situation being adjudicated. The crime - fraud exception can render the privilege moot when communications between an attorney and client are themselves used to further a crime, tort, or fraud. In Clark v. United States, the US Supreme Court stated that "A client who consults an attorney for advice that will serve him in the commission of a fraud will have no help from the law. He must let the truth be told. '' The crime - fraud exception also does require that the crime or fraud discussed between client and attorney be carried out to be triggered. US Courts have not yet conclusively ruled how little knowledge an attorney can have of the underlying crime or fraud before the privilege detaches and the attorney 's communications or requisite testimony become admissible. Lawyers may disclose confidential information relating to the retainer where they are reasonably seeking to collect payment for services rendered. This is justified on policy grounds. If lawyers were unable to disclose such information, many would undertake legal work only where payment is made in advance. This would arguably adversely affect the public 's access to justice. Lawyers may also breach the duty where they are defending themselves against disciplinary or legal proceedings. A client who initiates proceedings against a lawyer effectively waives rights to confidentiality. This is justified on grounds of procedural fairness -- a lawyer unable to reveal information relating to the retainer would be unable to defend themselves against such action. Another case is for the probate of a last will and testament. Previously confidential communications between the lawyer and testator are no longer secret for the purpose of proving the will is the intent of the now deceased decedent. In many instances, the will, codicil, or other parts of the estate plan require explanation or interpretation through other proof (extrinsic evidence), such as the attorney 's file notes or correspondence from the client. In certain cases, the client may desire or consent to revelation of personal or family secrets only after his or her death; for example, the will may leave a legacy to a paramour or a natural child. Courts have occasionally revoked the privilege after the death of the client if it is deemed that doing so serves the client 's intent, such as in the case of resolving testamentary disputes among heirs. In the United States, communications between accountants and their clients are usually not privileged. A person who is worried about accusations of questionable accounting, such as tax evasion, may decide to work only with an attorney or only with an accountant who is also an attorney; some or all of the resulting communications may be privileged provided that all the requirements for the attorney -- client privilege are met. The mere fact that the practitioner is an attorney will not create a valid attorney -- client privilege with respect to a communication, for example, that involves business or accounting advice rather than legal advice. Under Federal tax law in the United States, for communications on or after July 22, 1998, there is a limited Federally authorized accountant -- client privilege that may apply to certain communications with non -- attorneys. If a case arises in the federal court system, the federal court will apply Rule 501 of the Federal Rules of Evidence to determine whether to apply the privilege law of the relevant state or federal common law. If the case is brought to the federal court under diversity jurisdiction, the law of the relevant state will be used to apply the privilege. If the case involves a federal question, the federal court will apply the federal common law of attorney -- client privilege; however, Rule 501 grants flexibility to the federal courts, allowing them to construe the privilege "in light of experience and reason ''.

who is the elaine character in seinfeld based on

Elaine Benes - wikipedia Elaine Marie Benes / ˈbɛnɪs / is a fictional character on the American television sitcom Seinfeld (1989 -- 1998), played by Julia Louis - Dreyfus. Elaine 's best friend is her ex-boyfriend Jerry Seinfeld, and she is also good friends with George Costanza and Cosmo Kramer. Julia Louis - Dreyfus received critical acclaim for her performance as Elaine, winning an Emmy, a Golden Globe and five SAG Awards. Julia Louis - Dreyfus reprised the role during season 41 of Saturday Night Live. Unlike her three close friends, Elaine is absent from the pilot episode. Previously the female role was supposed to be Claire, the waitress at Pete 's Luncheonette played by Lee Garlington, but Monk 's Cafe replaced the luncheonette and Garlington was dropped from the role. Elaine first appears in "The Stake Out, '' but in production order she appears in a final scene eating M&Ms in "Male Unbonding. '' NBC executives felt the show was too male - centric, and demanded that Jerry Seinfeld and Larry David add a woman to the cast as a condition for commissioning the show, as revealed in the commentary on the Season 1 and 2 DVD. In addition to the first episode, Elaine does n't appear in "The Trip '' and therefore appears in fewer episodes than George and Jerry. After it was discovered that Jerry Seinfeld once dated writer and comedian Carol Leifer, speculation grew that Elaine was based on Leifer, though that was later largely denied. Leifer, who wrote or cowrote a number of episodes for the show, has said only some elements of the backstory of the character -- that she and Seinfeld had dated and have remained good friends since the relationship ended -- relate to her. She says some elements of the character of Elaine, especially her assertiveness, intelligence and sense of humor, are drawn from the off - screen personality of Julia Louis - Dreyfus herself. According to Seinfeld 's biography (written by Jerry Oppenheimer), Elaine was based in part on Susan McNabb (who was dating Seinfeld when the character was created), though eventually named after friend and fellow comic Elayne Boosler. Also, the character was partially based on Monica Yates, daughter of novelist Richard Yates, whom Larry David once dated, and they remained good friends after they broke up. Elaine is normally intelligent and assertive, but also quite superficial. She 's ' one of the boys ', and despite the troubles they go through as a group, she remains the closest female friend to the main male cast throughout the series. Her traits are usually edgy and neurotic and she has a tendency to easily get angry with almost everybody, and has a habit of shoving people when displaying extreme emotion. She 's ruined her friends ' ambitions, like throwing George 's hairpiece out the window after trying to explain the irony behind it in "The Beard '' or revealing what Jerry said in "The Cheever Letters '' about the "panties her mother laid out for her ''. Elaine is a serial dater, a trait lampooned in "The Sponge '', where she 's desperate to buy a cache of discontinued contraceptive sponges before they 're all bought up. She coins the word "spongeworthy '' debating her then - boyfriend 's prospects of intimacy at the expense of her inventory. Her neuroses often interfere with her relationships, leading to the premature end of a blossoming relationship. For example, in "The Stall '', Elaine is dating Tony, a very good - looking athletic type. After a rock climbing accident mangles Tony 's face, Elaine admits to Jerry that she ca n't date somebody who 's unattractive and wonders how long she 's obligated to stay with him post-accident. Later, in "The Couch '' after proclaiming her love for new boyfriend Carl, she immediately ends the relationship upon learning that he does n't share her opinions on abortion. Elaine also is attracted to men with lucrative jobs, especially doctors. Generally, her hair was long with curls or waves, but underwent changes since Season 5. In early seasons, she had long, curly, brown hair and usually wore her hair half - up, framing her forehead with a slight bouffant. By Season 7, her hair darkened and her hairstyle matured resulting in a more modern look for the rest of the series, even wearing it straight in "The Wait Out '' and "The Invitations ''. After cutting it short in "The Soul Mate '' and growing it out in "The Bizarro Jerry '', it was shoulder length again by "The Little Kicks '', and straightened once more from "The Summer of George '' to "The Betrayal ''. There are a few episodes where her hair is discussed in relation to the plot. In "The Strike '', it 's damaged when affected by steam. In "The Smelly Car '' a valet makes Jerry 's car and Elaine 's hair smell like body odor. In "The Movie '' George describes Elaine as having "a big wall o ' hair ''. Her clothes are normally quite conservative. In the first three seasons, she often wears floral, collared, mid-calf length, button - down dresses with white ankle socks and oxfords. She also often wears high - waisted, tapered black jeans or pants and a bright blazer. For work, she dresses more formally. Peter Mehlman reveals on audio commentary in "The Sponge '' and "The Betrayal '' that female fans favor the brown leather jacket that she wears from Season 7 onward. Occasionally, she 's entirely out of her usual attire, as in "The Betrayal '' (when she wears an Indian outfit and hairstyle) and "The Millennium '' (where she dons Mayan dress). Elaine also wears glasses at times, usually during work hours. Although she 's friends with George, Elaine tends to be combative with him. Still, Elaine sees him as a good friend: in "The Wife '', he argues with Elaine over her love interest, who 's threatening to throw him out of the health club. The portrayal of Elaine as smarter and more successful than George is occasionally reversed for comic effect: In "The Opposite '', George finds success and happiness doing the opposite of whatever his instincts tell him, while normally successful Elaine falls on hard times. In "The Abstinence '', George becomes smarter while not having sex, but Elaine gets dumber. In a few episodes George and Elaine work together, most notably in "The Revenge '' and "The Cadillac ''. She sometimes goes to Kramer for help. She asks him and Newman to help her get rid of a neighbor 's dog in "The Engagement ''. In "The Slicer '', she asks him first to lose power at her neighbors ' house and also feed the cat with meat. In "The Watch '' she asks him to pose as her boyfriend so she can dump Dr. Reston, her controlling psychiatrist boyfriend. In "The Soup Nazi '', she asks him to watch an armoire for her on the street until she can move it in the following day. The only conflict is in "The 7 '' over a girl 's bicycle where Newman is the judge over the dispute. Elaine is the only main character not to own a car. In "The Busboy '' (off camera) and "The Pothole '' she borrows Jerry 's, and in "The Wait Out '' her friend Elise 's car. In "The Burning '' she borrows then - boyfriend David Puddy 's. Also, it 's revealed that she 's a horrible driver who slams on the brakes and wildly steers the car. Elaine also has a very refined taste in film, citing many movies, plays and characters throughout the series. She has a particular affection for A Streetcar Named Desire. In "The Pen '', Elaine shows her love for the movie when she becomes unintentionally high on muscle relaxers and repeatedly screams "Stella '' at a fancy awards dinner for Morty Seinfeld in Florida. In "The Fusilli Jerry '' Elaine describes David Puddy, her new on and off again boyfriend, as a man who comes home "dripping with animal sexuality '' after Jerry says that dating his mechanic is "such a huge turn off. '' In "The Comeback '' Elaine rents Vincent picks that she likes compared to Kramer who likes Gene picks. Later in the same episode, she tries Weekend at Bernie 's II which is a Gene pick recommended by Kramer and which she hates. In "The English Patient '', Elaine expresses her utter dislike for the film which won nine Oscars including Best Picture, and prefers a comedy called "Sack Lunch. '' Later in the episode, a theater outburst gets her temporarily fired until she agrees to travel to Tunisia and live in a cave in order to save her job. In "The Boyfriend '', Elaine reveals her disgust for smokers, which helps lead to a breakup with Keith Hernandez. Her dislike of smoking also leads to an argument with a fortune - teller in "The Suicide ''. However, in "The Calzone '' and "The Foundation '' she 's seen smoking with a Cuban cigar. She 's also seen smoking a cigar in "The Blood '', but only to make herself look bad in front of the mom of the child she 's babysitting. In "The Maid '', Elaine has a phone serviceman in her apartment to change the apartment 's phone number (in response to receiving numerous attempted faxes meant for Kramer). While the serviceman is at work kneeling beside the phone, and holding a large candlestick, she speculates (heard via voice - over) whether it 'd be discovered if she killed the serviceman (credited as "Phone Guy # 1 '' Sam Whipple). Upon learning that the new phone number will have the 646 area code instead of Manhattan 's traditional 212, she tells the man: "You know, I could have killed you and no one would have known, '' to which the serviceman repeats those exact words back to her. Elaine is the only main character whose mother never appears. Her father, a gruff novelist named Alton Benes (Lawrence Tierney), a character based on novelist Richard Yates, was featured in "The Jacket ''. He 's an alcoholic veteran and very well respected in the literary community. In the same episode, Alton asks how her mom is; later, in "The Wait Out '', Elaine reveals to David Lookner that Alton left her and the rest of her family when she was 9 years old. Elaine has a sister, Gail, and nephew who are first mentioned in "The Pick ''. In "The Airport '', it 's revealed that Gail lives in St. Louis. She also makes reference to a brother - in - law in "The Phone Message ''. Elaine has a cousin, Holly, who appears in "The Wink '', where reference is made to Elaine 's grandmother Mema, whom Holly inherited a set of cloth napkins from. It is not revealed if Mema is her maternal or paternal grandmother. In "The Stock Tip '', Elaine mentions she has an Uncle Pete. In "The Secret Code '', she mentions an uncle who worked in the Texas School Book Depository with Lee Harvey Oswald. If the two uncles are the same person is not revealed. Unlike George, Jerry and Kramer, Elaine is not a native of New York City, having grown up in the affluent Baltimore suburb of Towson, Maryland, and is shown to be a fan of the Baltimore Orioles. She attended finishing school and completed her undergraduate education at Tufts University, revealed to be her safety school in "The Puerto Rican Day '', as a French Literature major. In "The Dog '', she tells George she moved to New York in 1986, which, by coincidence, is the year Jerry moved into his apartment across the hall from Kramer. She started dating Jerry later that year. In "The Doodle '' it is stated by George that Elaine takes a drawing class at The New School with his girlfriend Paula. Elaine 's religious beliefs are never confirmed, and she appears to have no interest in religion. She expresses shock when Puddy is revealed as a devout Christian. She views saying "God bless you '' as a "silly superstition '' in "The Good Samaritan ''. On the other hand, she 's seen making the sign of the cross before entering Jerry 's apartment to retrieve a manuscript while it 's being fumigated in "The Doodle '', and crosses herself again in "The Betrayal '' after turning her back on a Hindu altar. This might suggest that Elaine was raised Catholic. In multiple episodes, including "The Strong Box '' and "The Wizard '', she can be seen wearing a crucifix. In "The Pick '', Elaine is horrified when she realizes she sent a Christmas card which features her nipple to "Sister Mary Catherine '' and "Father Chelios ''. In "The Chinese Woman '', Elaine asks Jerry about the ethnicity of Donna Chang, whose surname was shortened from Changstein, a move not unusual for Jewish immigrants. Jerry responds to Elaine that Donna is "like you ''. However, Elaine is confirmed to be a gentile in "The Postponement '', when she talked to a rabbi about not being herself after finding out George got engaged before her. She tells him she 's not of his Jewish faith. Elaine also states that she 's not Jewish in "The Fatigues. '' Though her ethnicity is never made clear, the name Beneš is a common Czech surname. Her ethnicity is incorrectly assumed to be Hispanic in "The Wizard ''. In "The Wink '', her cousin Holly repeatedly mentions a "Grandma Memma '' who apparently shared a mutual dislike with Elaine 's side of the family. Elaine claims to have an IQ of 145 (although her scores range from 85 to 151). Early in the series, Elaine lives with a roommate Tina. Later on, she lives on her own at 16 W. 75th St., Apt. 2G and 78 W. 86th St., Apt. 3E. Elaine works several steady jobs throughout the show 's entire run, mostly as a writer or editor. Elaine has a string of boyfriends, most of whom appeared for only an episode or two. Elaine 's quick temper makes her several enemies and gets her into several confrontations over the years: Elaine 's charm and confidence contribute to her ability to influence others, often with disastrous consequences.

which outlaw sought revenge for the death of someone he admired

Wyatt Earp - wikipedia Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp (March 19, 1848 -- January 13, 1929) was an American Old West gambler, deputy U.S. marshal, deputy sheriff in Pima County, and deputy marshal in Tombstone, Arizona. He worked in a wide variety of trades throughout his life, and took part in the famous Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, during which lawmen killed three outlaw Cochise County Cowboys. He is often erroneously regarded as the central figure in the shootout, although his brother Virgil was Tombstone city marshal and deputy U.S. marshal that day, and had far more experience as a sheriff, constable, marshal, and soldier in combat. Along with work as a lawman in several locations, Earp drove wagons, hunted buffalo, owned several saloons, was an inveterate gambler, maintained a brothel, mined for silver and gold, and refereed boxing matches. Earp spent his early life in Pella, Iowa. In 1870, he married his first wife, Urilla Sutherland Earp, who contracted typhoid fever and died shortly before their first child was to be born. Urilla is buried in Milford, near Lamar, Missouri, where they had been living. During the next two years, Earp was arrested for stealing a horse, escaped from jail, and was sued twice. He was arrested and fined three times in 1872 for "keeping and being found in a house of ill - fame ''. His third arrest was described at length in the Daily Transcript, which referred to him as an "old offender '' and nicknamed him the "Peoria Bummer '', another name for loafer or vagrant. By 1874, he arrived in the boomtown of Wichita, Kansas, where his putative wife opened a brothel. On April 21, 1875, Earp was appointed to the Wichita police force and developed a solid reputation as a lawman, but after getting into a fistfight with a political opponent of his boss, was fined and dismissed from the force. Earp immediately left Wichita, following his brother James to Dodge City, Kansas, where he became an assistant city marshal. In the winter of 1878, he went to Texas to track down an outlaw and met John "Doc '' Holliday, whom Earp later credited with saving his life. Earp moved constantly throughout his life from one boomtown to another. He left Dodge City in 1879 and moved with his brothers, James and Virgil, to Tombstone -- where a silver boom was underway. There, the Earps clashed with an informal community of outlaws known as the Cowboys. Wyatt, Virgil, and their younger brother Morgan held various law - enforcement positions that put them in conflict with Tom and Frank McLaury, and Ike and Billy Clanton, who threatened to kill the Earps on several occasions. The conflict escalated over the next year, culminating in the gunfight at the O.K. Corral on October 26, 1881, in which the Earps and Holliday killed three of the Cowboys. In the next five months, Virgil was ambushed and maimed, and Morgan was assassinated. Pursuing a vendetta, Wyatt, his brother Warren Earp, Holliday, and others formed a federal posse which killed three of the Cowboys whom they thought responsible. Wyatt was never wounded in any of the gunfights in which he took part, unlike his brothers Virgil and Morgan, or his friend Doc Holliday, which only added to his mystique after his death. Earp was a lifelong gambler and was always looking for a quick way to make money. After leaving Tombstone, Earp went to San Francisco, where he reunited with Josephine Earp. She became his common - law wife. They joined a gold rush to Eagle City, Idaho, where they owned mining interests and a saloon. They left there to race horses and open a saloon during a real estate boom in San Diego, California. Back in San Francisco, Wyatt raced horses again, but his reputation suffered irreparably when he refereed the Fitzsimmons -- Sharkey boxing match and called a foul that led many to believe that he fixed the fight. They moved briefly to Yuma, Arizona, before joining the Nome Gold Rush in 1899. He and Charlie Hoxie paid $1,500 (about $51,000 in 2018) for a liquor license to open a two - story saloon called the Dexter and made an estimated $80,000 (about $2 million in 2017 dollars). Returning to the lower 48, they opened another saloon in Tonopah, Nevada, the site of a new gold find. Around 1911, Earp began working several mining claims in Vidal, California, retiring in the hot summers with Josephine to Los Angeles. He made friends among early Western actors in Hollywood and tried to get his story told, but was only portrayed very briefly in one film produced during his lifetime, Wild Bill Hickok (1923). Earp died on January 13, 1929. He was known as a Western lawman, gunfighter, and boxing referee. He had a notorious reputation for both his handling of the Fitzsimmons -- Sharkey fight and his role in the O.K. Corral gunfight. This only began to change after his death when the extremely flattering biography Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal was published in 1931. It became a bestseller and created his reputation as a fearless lawman. Since then, Earp has been the subject of, and model for, numerous films, television shows, biographies, and works of fiction that have increased his notoriety. Long after his death, he has many devoted detractors and admirers. Earp 's modern - day reputation is that of the Old West 's "toughest and deadliest gunman of his day ''. Wyatt Berry Stapp Earp was born on March 19, 1848, the fourth child of Nicholas Porter Earp and his second wife, Virginia Ann Cooksey. He was named after his father 's commanding officer in the Mexican -- American War, Captain Wyatt Berry Stapp, of the 2nd Company Illinois Mounted Volunteers. Some evidence supports Wyatt Earp 's birthplace as 406 South 3rd Street in Monmouth, Illinois, though the street address is disputed by Monmouth College professor and historian William Urban. Wyatt had seven siblings: James, Virgil, Martha, Morgan, Baxter Warren, Virginia, and Adelia; as well as an elder half - brother from his father 's first marriage, Newton. In March 1849 or in early 1850, Nicholas Earp joined about 100 other people in a plan to relocate to San Bernardino County, California, where he intended to buy farmland. Just 150 miles (240 km) west of Monmouth on the journey, their daughter Martha became ill. The family stopped and Nicholas bought a new 160 - acre (65 ha) farm 7 miles (11 km) northeast of Pella, Iowa. Martha died there on May 26, 1856. Nicholas and Virginia Earp 's last child, Adelia, was born in June 1861 in Pella. Newton, James, and Virgil joined the Union Army on November 11, 1861. Their father was busy recruiting and drilling local companies, so Wyatt and his two younger brothers, Morgan and Warren, were left in charge of tending 80 acres (32 ha) of corn. Wyatt was only 13 years old, too young to enlist, but he tried on several occasions to run away and join the army. Each time, his father found him and brought him home. James was severely wounded in Fredericktown, Missouri, and returned home in summer 1863. Newton and Virgil fought several battles in the east and later followed the family to California. On May 12, 1864, Nicholas Earp organized a wagon train and headed to San Bernardino, California, arriving on December 17, 1864. By late summer 1865, Virgil found work as a driver for Phineas Banning 's stage coach line in California 's Imperial Valley, and 16 - year - old Wyatt assisted. In spring 1866, Wyatt became a teamster, transporting cargo for Chris Taylor. From 1866 to 1868, he drove cargo over the 720 miles (1,160 km) wagon road from Wilmington, through San Bernardino then Las Vegas, Nevada, to Salt Lake City, Utah Territory. In spring 1868, Earp was hired to transport supplies needed to build the Union Pacific Railroad. He learned gambling and boxing while working on the rail head in the Wyoming Territory. Earp developed a reputation officiating boxing matches and refereed a fight in front of 3000 spectators between John Shanssey and Mike Donovan on July 4, 1869, in Cheyenne, Wyoming. In the spring of 1868, the Earps moved east again to Lamar, Missouri, where Wyatt 's father Nicholas became the local constable. Wyatt rejoined the family the next year. Nicholas resigned as constable on November 17, 1869, to become the justice of the peace, and Wyatt was appointed constable in his place. In late 1869, Earp courted 20 - year - old Urilla Sutherland (c. 1849 -- 1870), the daughter of William and Permelia Sutherland, who operated the Exchange Hotel in Lamar. They were married by his father Nicholas in Lamar on January 10, 1870, and in August 1870, Wyatt bought a lot on the outskirts of town for $50, where he built a house. Urilla was pregnant and about to deliver their first child when she suddenly died from typhoid fever. In November, Earp sold the lot and a house on it for $75. Hoping to keep the office to which he had been appointed, he ran against his elder half - brother Newton for the office of constable. The Earps may have hoped to keep the job in the family one way or another. Wyatt won by 137 votes to Newton 's 108, but their father Nicholas lost the election for justice of the peace in a very close four - way race. After Urilla 's death, Wyatt went through a downward spiral and had a series of legal problems. On March 14, 1871, Barton County filed a lawsuit against Earp and his sureties. Earp was in charge of collecting license fees for Lamar, which funded local schools, and he was accused of failing to turn in the fees. On March 31, James Cromwell filed a lawsuit against Earp, alleging that Earp had falsified court documents about the amount of money collected from Cromwell to satisfy a judgment. To make up the difference between what Earp turned in and Cromwell owed (which he claimed to have paid), the court seized Cromwell 's mowing machine and sold it for $38. Cromwell 's suit claimed that Earp owed him $75, the estimated value of the machine. On March 28, 1871, Earp, Edward Kennedy, and John Shown were charged with stealing two horses, "each of the value of one hundred dollars '', from William Keys while in the Indian country. On April 6, Deputy United States Marshal J. G. Owens arrested Earp for the horse theft. Commissioner James Churchill arraigned Earp on April 14, and set bail at $500. On May 15, an indictment was issued against Earp, Kennedy, and Shown. Anna Shown, John Shown 's wife, claimed that Earp and Kennedy got her husband drunk and then threatened his life to persuade him to help. On June 5, Edward Kennedy was acquitted while the case against Earp and John Shown remained. Earp did not wait for the trial. He climbed out through the roof of his jail and headed for Peoria, Illinois. Years afterward, Stuart N. Lake took notes of a conversation with Earp in which Earp claimed he had been hunting buffalo during the winter of 1871 -- 1872, but Earp was listed in the Peoria city directory during 1872 as a resident in the home of Jane Haspel. In February 1872, Peoria police raided her home and arrested four women and three men: Wyatt Earp, Morgan Earp, and George Randall. The men were charged with "Keeping and being found in a house of ill - fame. '' They were later fined $20 plus costs. Both Earps were arrested for the same crime on May 11 and were each fined $44.55. The Peoria Daily National Democrat reported that Earp had been arrested once more on September 10, 1872. This time he was aboard a floating brothel he owned named the Beardstown Gunboat. A prostitute named Sally Heckell was arrested with him. She called herself Wyatt Earp 's wife. Sally was likely the sixteen year old daughter of Jane Haspell. Some of the women are said to be good looking, but all appear to be terribly depraved. John Walton, the skipper of the boat and Wyatt Earp, the Peoria Bummer, were each fined $43.15. Sarah Earp, alias Sally Heckell, calls herself the wife of Wyatt Earp. By calling Earp the "Peoria Bummer '', the newspaper was including him in a class of "contemptible loafers who impose on hard - working citizens, '' a "beggar, '' and worse than tramps. They were men of poor character who were chronic lawbreakers. Peoria constables probably considered Earp to be a pimp. Earp wrote Lake that he "arrived in Wichita direct from my buffalo hunt in seventy - four, '' so he may have hunted buffalo between 1873 -- 74, although there is no contemporary evidence that he ever hunted buffalo. In early 1874, Wyatt and Sally moved to the growing cow town of Wichita, where his brother James ran a brothel. Local arrest records show that Sally Earp and James ' wife, Nellie "Bessie '' Ketchum, operated a brothel there from early 1874 to the middle of 1876. Wyatt may have been a pimp, but historian Robert Gary L. Roberts believes he more likely was an enforcer, or a bouncer for the brothel. When the Kansas state census was completed in June 1875, Sally was no longer living with Wyatt, James, and Bessie. Wichita was a railroad terminal and a destination for cattle drives from Texas. Like other frontier railroad terminals, when the cowboys accompanying the cattle drives arrived, the town was filled with drunken, armed cowboys celebrating the end of their long journey. Lawmen were kept busy. When the cattle drives ended and the cowboys left, Earp searched for something else to do. The Wichita City Eagle reported on October 29, 1874 that he had helped an off - duty police officer find thieves who had stolen a man 's wagon. Earp officially joined the Wichita marshal 's office on April 21, 1875, after the election of Mike Meagher as city marshal (or police chief), making $100 per month. He also dealt faro at the Long Branch Saloon. In late 1875, the Wichita Beacon newspaper published this story: On last Wednesday (December 8), policeman Earp found a stranger lying near the bridge in a drunken stupor. He took him to the ' cooler ' and on searching him found in the neighborhood of $500 on his person. He was taken next morning, before his honor, the police judge, paid his fine for his fun like a little man and went on his way rejoicing. He may congratulate himself that his lines, while he was drunk, were cast in such a pleasant place as Wichita as there are but a few other places where that $500 bank roll would have been heard from. The integrity of our police force has never been seriously questioned. Earp was embarrassed on January 9, 1876, when he was sitting with friends in the back room of the Custom House Saloon when his loaded single - action revolver fell out of his holster. It discharged when the hammer hit the floor. "The ball passed through his coat, struck the north wall then glanced off and passed out through the ceiling. '' Wyatt was so red - faced by the incident that years later, he persuaded biographer Stuart Lake to omit it from his book Wyatt Earp, Frontier Marshal. Wyatt 's stint as Wichita deputy came to a sudden end on April 2, 1876, when Earp took too active an interest in the city marshal 's election. According to news accounts, former marshal Bill Smith accused Wyatt of using his office to help hire his brothers as lawmen. Wyatt got into a fistfight with Smith and beat him. Earp was cited and fined $30 for the altercation. The local newspaper described Earp, reporting, "It is but justice to Earp to say he has made an excellent officer. '' Meagher won the election, but the city council voted against rehiring Earp. His brother James opened a brothel in Dodge City, and Wyatt left Wichita to join him. After 1875, Dodge City became a major terminal for cattle drives from Texas along the Chisholm Trail. Earp was appointed assistant marshal in Dodge City under Marshal Lawrence "Larry '' Deger around May 1876. Earp spent the winter of 1876 -- 1877 in the gold rush boomtown of Deadwood, Dakota Territory. He and his brother Morgan left Dodge for Deadwood on September 9, 1876, with a team of horses. Finding that all the land was already tied up in mining claims, Morgan decided to return to Dodge. Instead of gambling, Wyatt made a deal to buy all the wood a local individual had cut and put his horses to work that winter hauling firewood into camp. He made about $5,000 in profit, but unable to file any mining claims, he returned in the spring to Dodge City. Wyatt rejoined the Dodge City police in spring 1877 at the request of Mayor James H. "Dog '' Kelley. The Dodge City newspaper reported in July 1878 that Earp had been fined $1 for slapping a muscular prostitute named Frankie Bell, who (according to the papers) "heaped epithets upon the unoffending head of Mr. Earp to such an extent as to provide a slap from the ex-officer ''. Bell spent the night in jail and was fined $20, while Earp 's fine was the legal minimum. In October 1877, outlaw Dave Rudabaugh robbed a Sante Fe Railroad construction camp and fled south. Earp was given a temporary commission as deputy U.S. marshal and he left Dodge City, following Rudabaugh over 400 miles (640 km) through Fort Clark, Texas, where the newspaper reported his presence on January 22, 1878, and on to Fort Griffin, Texas. He arrived at the frontier town on the Clear Fork of the Brazos River. Earp went to the Bee Hive Saloon, the largest in town and owned by John Shanssey, whom Earp had known since he was 21. Shanssey told Earp that Rudabaugh had passed through town earlier in the week, but he did not know where he was headed. Shanssey suggested that Earp ask gambler "Doc '' Holliday, who had played cards with Rudabaugh. Holliday told Earp that Rudabaugh had headed back into Kansas. By May 11, 1878, the Dodge newspapers reported that Wyatt had returned to Dodge City and on May 14 the Times noted that Wyatt had been appointed assistant marshal for the salary of $75 per month, serving under Charlie Bassett. Doc Holliday with his common - law wife Big Nose Kate also showed up in Dodge City during the summer of 1878. During the summer, Ed Morrison and another two dozen cowboys rode into Dodge and shot up the town, galloping down Front Street. They entered the Long Branch Saloon, vandalized the room, and harassed the customers. Hearing the commotion, Wyatt burst through the front door into a bunch of guns pointing at him. In another version, only three to five cowboys were there. In both stories, Holliday was playing cards in the back and put his pistol at Morrison 's head, forcing him and his men to disarm. Earp credited Holliday with saving his life that day, and Earp and he became friends. While in Dodge City, Earp became acquainted with James and Bat Masterson, Luke Short, and the prostitute Celia Anne "Mattie '' Blaylock. Blaylock became Earp 's common - law wife until 1881. At about 3: 00 in the morning of July 26, 1878, George Hoyt (spelled in some accounts as "Hoy '') and other drunken cowboys shot their guns wildly, including three shots into Dodge City 's Comique Theater, causing comedian Eddie Foy to throw himself to the stage floor in the middle of his act. Fortunately, no one was injured. Assistant Marshal Earp and policeman Bat Masterson responded and "together with several citizens, turned their pistols loose in the direction of the fleeing horsemen ''. As the riders crossed the Arkansas River bridge south of town, George Hoyt fell from his horse after he was wounded in the arm or leg. Earp told Stuart Lake that he saw Hoyt through his gun sights against the morning horizon and fired the fatal shot, killing him that day, but the Dodge City Times reported that Hoyt developed gangrene and died on August 21 after his leg was amputated. Dodge City had been a frontier cowtown for several years, but by 1879 it had begun to settle down. Wyatt received a letter from his older brother Virgil that year, who was the town constable in Prescott, Arizona Territory. Virgil wrote Wyatt about the opportunities in the silver - mining boomtown of Tombstone. Later in life, Wyatt wrote, "In 1879, Dodge was beginning to lose much of the snap which had given it a charm to men of reckless blood, and I decided to move to Tombstone, which was just building up a reputation. '' Earp resigned from the Dodge City police force on September 9, 1879. Along with his common - law wife Mattie Blaylock, his brother Jim, and Jim 's wife Bessie, Earp traveled in Las Vegas in New Mexico Territory where they reunited with Doc Holliday and his common - law wife Big Nose Kate. In late November, the six of them then went to Prescott, Arizona Territory. On November 27, 1879, three days before they left for Tombstone, such was Virgil 's reputation that he was appointed deputy U.S. marshal for the Tombstone mining district by U.S. Marshal for the Arizona Territory Crawley Dake. Virgil was to operate out of Tombstone, some 280 miles (450 km) from Prescott. His territory included all of the southeast area of the Arizona Territory. Wyatt, Virgil, and James Earp with their wives arrived in Tombstone on December 1, 1879, although Doc remained in Prescott, where the gambling afforded better opportunities. When the city of Tombstone was founded, on March 5, 1879, it had about 100 people living in tents and a few shacks. By the time the Earps arrived nine months later on December 1, it had grown to about 1,000 residents. Wyatt brought horses and a buckboard wagon, which he planned to convert into a stagecoach, but on arrival, he found two established stage lines already running. Instead, on December 6, 1879, the three Earps and Robert J. Winders filed a location notice for the First North Extension of the Mountain Maid Mine. They also bought interest in the Vizina mine and some water rights. Jim worked as a barkeep. When none of their business interests proved fruitful, Wyatt was hired in April or May 1880 by Wells, Fargo & Co. agent Frederick James Dodge as a shotgun messenger on stagecoaches when they transported Wells Fargo strongboxes. In summer 1880, younger brother Morgan arrived from Montana, and Warren Earp moved to Tombstone, as well. In September, Wyatt 's friend Doc Holliday arrived from Prescott with $40,000 (about $1,014,345 today) in gambling winnings in his pocket. On July 25, 1880, U.S. Army Captain Joseph H. Hurst asked Deputy U.S. Marshal Virgil Earp to assist him in tracking outlaw Cowboys, who had stolen six U.S. Army mules from Camp Rucker. Virgil requested the assistance of his brothers Wyatt and Morgan, along with Wells Fargo agent Marshall Williams, and they found the mules at the McLaurys ' ranch. McLaury was a Cowboy, a term which in that time and region was generally used to refer to a loose association of outlaws, some of whom also were landowners and ranchers. Legitimate cowmen were referred to as cattle herders or ranchers. They found the branding iron used to change the "U.S. '' brand to "D. 8. '' Stealing the mules was a federal offense, because the animals were U.S. government property. Cowboy Frank Patterson "made some kind of a compromise '' with Captain Hurst, who persuaded the posse to withdraw, with the understanding that the mules would be returned. The Cowboys showed up two days later without the mules and laughed at Hurst and the Earps. In response, Capt. Hurst printed a handbill describing the theft, and specifically charged Frank McLaury with assisting with hiding the mules. He also reproduced the flyer in The Tombstone Epitaph, on July 30, 1880. Frank McLaury angrily printed a response in the Cowboy - friendly Nuggett, calling Hurst "unmanly '', "a coward, a vagabond, a rascal, and a malicious liar '', and accused Hurst of stealing the mules himself. Capt. Hurst later cautioned Wyatt, Virgil, and Morgan that the Cowboys had threatened their lives. Virgil reported that Frank accosted him and warned him, "If you ever again follow us as close as you did, then you will have to fight anyway. '' A month later, Earp ran into Frank and Tom McLaury in Charleston, and they told him if he ever followed them as he had done before, they would kill him. On July 28, 1880, Wyatt was appointed deputy sheriff for the eastern part of Pima County, which included Tombstone, by Democratic County Sheriff Charlie Shibell. Wyatt passed on his Wells Fargo job as shotgun messenger to his brother Morgan. Wyatt did his job well, and from August through November, his name was mentioned nearly every week by The Tombstone Epitaph or the Nugget newspapers. The deputy sheriff 's position was worth more than US $40,000 a year (about $1,014,345 today) because he was also county assessor and tax collector, and the board of supervisors allowed him to keep 10 % of the amounts paid. While Wyatt was deputy sheriff, former Democrat state legislator Johnny Behan arrived in September 1880. On October 28, 1880, popular Tombstone town marshal Fred White attempted to break up a group of five late - night, drunken revelers shooting at the moon on Allen Street in Tombstone. Deputy Sheriff Wyatt was in Owens Saloon a block away, though unarmed. When he heard the shooting, he ran to the scene, borrowed a pistol from Fred Dodge, and went to assist White. He saw White attempt to disarm Curly Bill Brocius and the gun discharged, striking White in the groin. Wyatt pistol - whipped Brocius, knocking him to the ground. Then he grabbed Brocius by the collar and told him to get up. Brocius protested, asking, "What have I done? '' Fred Dodge arrived on the scene. In a letter to Stuart Lake many years later, he recalled what he saw. Wyatt 's coolness and nerve never showed to better advantage than they did that night. When Morg and I reached him, Wyatt was squatted on his heels beside Curly Bill and Fred White. Curly Bill 's friends were pot - shooting at him in the dark. The shooting was lively and slugs were hitting the chimney and cabin... in all of that racket, Wyatt 's voice was even and quiet as usual. Wyatt altered his story later on, telling John H. Flood that he did not see Brocius 's pistol on the ground in the dark until afterward. The pistol contained one expended cartridge and five live rounds. Brocius waived a preliminary hearing so he and his case could be transferred to Tucson District Court. Virgil and Wyatt escorted Brocius to Tucson to stand trial, possibly saving him from a lynching. White, age 31, died of his wound two days after his shooting. On December 27, 1880, Wyatt testified that White 's shooting was accidental. Brocius expressed regret, saying he had not intended to shoot White. Gunsmith Jacob Gruber testified that Curly Bill 's single - action revolver was defective, allowing it to be discharged at half - cock. A statement from White before he died was introduced stating that the shooting was accidental. The judge ruled that the shooting was accidental and released Brocius. Brocius, however, remained intensely angry about how Wyatt had pistol - whipped him and became an enemy to the Earps. Virgil was also appointed acting town marshal of Tombstone. Wyatt only served as deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County for about three months because, in November, Democrat Shibell ran for re-election against Republican challenger Bob Paul. The region was strongly Republican and Paul was expected to win. Republican Wyatt expected he would continue in the job. Given how fast eastern Pima County was growing, everyone expected that it would be split off into its own county soon with Tombstone as its seat. Wyatt hoped to win the job as the new county sheriff and continue receiving the plum 10 % of all tax moneys collected. Southern Pacific was the major landholder, so tax collection was a relatively easy process. On election day, November 2, 1880, Precinct 27 in the San Simon Valley in northern Cochise County, turned out 104 votes, 103 of them for Shibell. Shibell unexpectedly won the election by a margin of 58 votes under suspicious circumstances. James C. Hancock reported that Cowboys Curly Bill Brocius and Johnny Ringo served as election officials in the San Simon precinct. However, on November 1, the day before the election, Ringo biographer David Johnson places him in New Mexico with Ike Clanton. Curly Bill had been arrested and jailed in Tucson on October 28 for shooting Marshal Fred White, and he was still there on election day. The home of John Magill was used as the polling place. The precinct only contained about 10 eligible voters (another source says 50), but the Cowboys gathered nonvoters like the children and Chinese and had them cast ballots. Not satisfied, they named all the dogs, burros, and poultry and cast ballots in their names for Shibell. The election board met on November 14 and declared Shibell the winner. Earp resigned from the sheriff 's office on November 9, 1880, and Shibell immediately appointed Behan as the new deputy sheriff for eastern Pima County. Democrat Johnny Behan had considerably more political experience than Republican Wyatt Earp. Behan had previously served as Yavapai County sheriff from 1871 to 1873. He had been elected to the Arizona Territorial Legislature twice, representing Yavapai Country in the 7th Territorial Legislature in 1873 and Mohave County in the 10th in 1879. Behan moved for a time to the northwest Arizona Territory, where he served as the Mohave County recorder in 1877 and then deputy sheriff of Mohave County at Gillet, in 1879. Paul filed a lawsuit on November 19 contesting the election results, alleging that Shibell 's Cowboy supporters Ike Clanton, Curly Bill Brocius, and Frank McLaury had cooperated in ballot stuffing. Chief Justice of Arizona C.G.W. French ruled in Paul 's favor in late January 1881, but Shibell appealed. His lawsuit was finally resolved by April 1881. The election commission found that a mysterious "Henry Johnson '' was responsible for certifying the ballots. This turned out to be James Johnson, the same James K. Johnson who had been shooting up Allen Street the night Marshal White was killed. Moreover, he was the same Johnson who testified at Curly Bill 's preliminary hearing after he shot Fred White. James Johnson later testified for Bud Paul in the election hearing and said that the ballots had been left in the care of Phin Clanton. None of the witnesses during the election hearing reported on ballots being cast by dogs. The recount found Paul had 402 votes and Shibell had 354. Sixty - two were kept from a closer examination. Paul was declared the winner of the Pima County sheriff election, but by that time, the election was a moot point. Paul could not replace Behan with Earp because on January 1, 1881, Cochise County was created out of the eastern portion of Pima County. Earp and Behan both applied to fill the new position of Cochise County sheriff, which like the Pima County sheriff job, paid the office holder 10 % of the fees and taxes collected. Earp thought he had a good chance to win the position because he was the former undersheriff in the region and a Republican, like Arizona Territorial Governor John C. Fremont. However, Behan had greater political experience and influence in Prescott. After the Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, when Earp was charged with murder, he testified at the preliminary hearing that he and Behan had made a deal. Earp said that Behan and he agreed that if Earp withdrew his application to the legislature, Behan would appoint Earp as undersheriff. Behan received the appointment in February 1881, but did not keep his end of the bargain. He instead chose Harry Woods, a prominent Democrat, as undersheriff. Behan testified at first that he had not made any deal with Earp, although he later admitted he had lied. Behan said he broke his promise to appoint Earp because of an incident that occurred shortly before his appointment. This incident arose after Earp learned that one of his prize horses, stolen more than a year before, was in the possession of Ike Clanton and his brother Billy. Earp and Holliday rode to the Clanton ranch near Charleston to recover the horse. On the way, they overtook Behan, who was riding in a wagon. Behan was also heading to the ranch to serve an election - hearing subpoena on Ike Clanton. Accounts differ as to what happened next. Earp later testified that when he arrived at the Clanton ranch, Billy Clanton gave up the horse even before being presented with ownership papers. According to Behan 's testimony, however, Earp had told the Clantons that Behan was on his way to arrest them for horse theft. After the incident, which embarrassed both the Clantons and Behan, Behan testified that he did not want to work with Earp and chose Woods instead. Thirty - two - year - old Wyatt Earp and 35 - year - old Johnny Behan apparently shared an interest in the same 18 - year - old woman, Josephine Sarah Marcus. She said she first visited Tombstone as part of the Pauline Markham Theatre Troupe on December 1, 1879, for a one - week engagement, but modern researchers have not found any record that she was ever part of the theater company. Behan owned a saloon in Tip Top, Arizona, where he maintained a prostitute named Sadie Mansfield. In September 1880, Behan moved to Tombstone. Sadie may have returned to San Francisco and then joined Behan in Tombstone, where she and Behan continued their relationship. Sadie was a well - known nickname for Sarah, and prostitutes commonly changed their first names. Wyatt had a sadistic sense of humor. When they became a couple in 1882, he knew his wife preferred the name "Josephine '' and detested "Sadie '', but early in their relationship, he began calling her Sadie. Sadie Mansfield and Sadie Marcus had very similar names and initials and were both known by their friends as Sadie. Both made a stagecoach journey from San Francisco to Prescott, Arizona Territory; both traveled with a black woman named Julia; both were sexual partners with Behan; both were 19 years old, born in New York City, and had parents from Prussia. The only difference noted in the 1880 census is their occupation: Sadie in San Francisco is listed as "At home '', while Sadie in Tip Top is recorded as a "Courtesan ''. Josephine said that her parents hid her activities, and they may have been covering for her when the census taker, a neighbor who knew the family, appeared on their doorstep. In spring 1881, Marcus found Behan in bed with the wife of a friend and kicked him out, although she still used the Behan surname through the end of that summer. Earp had a common - law relationship with Mattie Blaylock, who was listed as his wife in the June 1880 census. She suffered from severe headaches and became addicted to laudanum, a commonly used opiate and painkiller. There are no contemporary records in Tombstone of a relationship between Josephine and Earp. Tombstone diarist George W. Parsons never mentioned seeing Wyatt and Josephine together and neither did John Clum in his memoirs. But Earp and Marcus certainly knew each other, as Behan and Earp both had offices above the Crystal Palace Saloon. A letter written by former New Mexico Territory Governor Miguel Otero in 1940 appears to indicate that Earp had strong feelings for Josephine in April 1882. After leaving Tombstone following the Earp Vendetta Ride, the Earp posse went to Albuquerque, New Mexico, for two weeks. While there, Wyatt stayed with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa, who was also president of New Albuquerque 's Board of Trade. Like Josephine, Jaffa was Jewish. Wyatt and Holliday had been fast friends since Holliday saved Earp 's life in Dodge City during 1878. During their stay in Albuquerque, the two men ate at the Retreat Restaurant owned by "Fat Charlie ''. Otero wrote in his letter, "Holiday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew - boy. ' Earp became angry and left.... (Henry) Jaffa told me later that Earp 's woman was a Jewess. Earp did mezuzah when entering the house. '' Wyatt was staying with prominent businessman Henry N. Jaffa, who was also president of New Albuquerque 's Board of Trade. Jaffa was also Jewish, and based on the letter, Earp had, while staying in Jaffa 's home, honored Jewish tradition by performing the mezuzah upon entering his home. Earp 's anger at Holliday 's ethnic slur may indicate that his feelings for Josephine were more serious at the time than is commonly known. The information in the letter is compelling because at that time in the 1940s, the relationship between Wyatt Earp and Josephine Marcus in Tombstone was not public knowledge. Otero could know these things only if he had a relationship with someone who had personal knowledge of the individuals involved. Marcus went to great lengths to sanitize her own and Wyatt 's history. For example, she worked hard to keep both her name and the name of Wyatt 's second wife Mattie out of Stuart Lake 's 1931 book, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal, and Marcus threatened litigation to keep it that way. Marcus also told Earp 's biographers and others that Earp never drank, did not own gambling saloons, and that he never provided prostitutes to customers, although strong evidence to the contrary exists. Losing the undersheriff position left Wyatt Earp without a job in Tombstone; however, Wyatt and his brothers were beginning to make some money on their mining claims in the Tombstone area. In January 1881, Oriental Saloon owner Mike Joyce gave Wyatt Earp a one - quarter interest in the faro concession at the Oriental Saloon in exchange for his services as a manager and enforcer. Gambling was regarded as a legitimate profession, comparable to a doctor or member of clergy, at the time. Wyatt invited his friend, lawman and gambler Bat Masterson, to Tombstone to help him run the faro tables in the Oriental Saloon. In June 1881, Wyatt also telegraphed another friend and gambler from Dodge, Luke Short, who was living in Leadville, Colorado, and offered him a job as a faro dealer. Bat remained until April 1881, when he returned to Dodge City to assist his brother Jim. On October 8, 1881, Doc Holliday got into a dispute with John Tyler in the Oriental Saloon. A rival gambling concession operator hired someone to disrupt Wyatt 's business. When Tyler started a fight after losing a bet, Wyatt threw him out of the saloon. Holliday later wounded Oriental owners Milt Joyce and his partner William Parker and was convicted of assault. Michael O'Rourke (Johnny Behind the Deuce) killed Henry Schneider, chief engineer of the Tombstone Mining and Milling Company -- he said in self defense. Henry was well - liked, and a mob of miners quickly gathered, threatening to lynch O'Rourke on the spot. Stuart Lake told a story in his book about how Earp single - handedly stood down the large crowd. But the Epitaph gave primary credit to Ben Sippy for calming the crowd, assisted by Virgil Earp, Wyatt Earp, and Johnny Behan. The story by Lake giving credit to Earp added to Earp 's modern legend as a lawman. Tensions between the Earps and both the Clantons and McLaurys increased through 1881. On March 15, 1881, at 10 pm, three cowboys attempted to rob a Kinnear & Company stagecoach reportedly carrying US $26,000 in silver bullion (or about $659,324 in today 's dollars). (The amount of bullion the stagecoach actually carried is questioned by modern researchers, who note that at the then - current value of US $1.00 per ounce, the bullion would have weighed about 1,600 pounds (730 kg), a significant weight for a team of horses. According to Wells Fargo agent John Q. Jackson, a stagecoach typically carried an Express Box containing bullion weighing only 100 to 150 pounds (45 to 68 kg).) The holdup took place near Benson, during which the robbers killed popular driver Eli "Budd '' Philpot and passenger Peter Roerig. The Earps and a posse tracked the men down and arrested Luther King, who confessed he had been holding the reins while Bill Leonard, Harry "The Kid '' Head, and Jim Crain robbed the stage. They arrested King and Sheriff Johnny Behan escorted him to jail, but somehow King walked in the front door and almost immediately out the back door. During the hearing into the gunfight at the O.K. Corral, Wyatt testified that he offered the US $3,600 in Wells Fargo reward money ($1,200 per robber) to Ike Clanton and Frank McLaury in return for information about the identities of the three robbers. Wyatt testified that he had other motives for his plan, as well; he hoped that arresting the murderers would boost his chances for election as Cochise County sheriff. Wyatt told the court that he had taken the extra step of obtaining a second copy of a telegram for Ike from Wells Fargo assuring that the reward for capturing the killers applied either dead or alive. According to testimony given by Wyatt and Virgil, both Frank McLaury and Ike Clanton agreed to provide information to assist in capturing Leonard, Head, and Crain, but they never had a chance to fulfill the agreement. All three suspects were killed when attempting other robberies. In his testimony at the court hearing, Clanton said Wyatt did not want to capture the men, but to kill them. Clanton told the court that Earp wanted to conceal the Earp family 's involvement in the Benson stage robbery. He said Wyatt swore him to secrecy, and the next day, Morgan Earp asked him whether he would make the agreement with Wyatt. He said that four or five days afterward, Morgan had confided in him that he and Wyatt had "piped off $1,400 to Doc Holliday and Bill Leonard '', who were supposed to be on the stage the night Bud Philpot was killed. During his testimony, Clanton told the court, "I was not going to have anything to do with helping to capture -- '' and then he corrected himself "-- kill Bill Leonard, Crane and Harry Head ''. Clanton denied having any knowledge of the Wells Fargo telegram confirming the reward money. Meanwhile, tensions between the Earps and the McLaurys increased when Cowboys robbed the passenger stage on the Sandy Bob Line in the Tombstone area on September 8, bound for nearby Bisbee. The masked robbers shook down the passengers and robbed the strongbox. They were recognized by their voices and language. They were identified as Deputy Sheriff Pete Spence (an alias for Elliot Larkin Ferguson) and Deputy Sheriff Frank Stilwell, a business partner of Spence 's. Stilwell was fired a short while later as a deputy sheriff for Sheriff Behan (for county tax "accounting irregularities ''). Wyatt and Virgil Earp rode with the sheriff 's posse attempting to track the stage robbers. Wyatt discovered an unusual boot heel print in the mud. The posse checked with a shoemaker in Bisbee and found a matching heel that he had just removed from Stilwell 's boot. A further check of a Bisbee corral turned up both Spence and Stilwell, who were arrested by sheriff 's deputies Billy Breakenridge and Nagel. Spence and Stilwell were arraigned on the robbery charges before Justice Wells Spicer, who set their bail at $7,000 each. They were released after paying their bail, but Spence and Stilwell were rearrested by Virgil for the Bisbee robbery a month later, on October 13, on the new federal charge of interfering with a mail carrier. The newspapers, however, reported that they had been arrested for a different stage robbery that occurred (October 8) near Contention City. Occurring less than two weeks before the O.K. Corral shootout, this final incident may have been misunderstood by the McLaurys. While Wyatt and Virgil were still out of town for the Spence and Stilwell hearing, Frank McLaury confronted Morgan Earp, telling him that the McLaurys would kill the Earps if they tried to arrest Spence, Stilwell, or the McLaurys again. On Wednesday, October 26, 1881, the tension between the Earps and the Cowboys came to a head. Ike Clanton, Billy Claiborne, and other Cowboys had been threatening to kill the Earps for several weeks. Tombstone city Marshal Virgil Earp learned that the Cowboys were armed and had gathered near the O.K. Corral. He asked Wyatt and Morgan Earp and Doc Holliday to assist him, as he intended to disarm them. Wyatt had been deputized by Virgil a few days prior as a temporary assistant marshal, Morgan was a deputy city marshal, and Virgil also summoned Holliday to help. Around 3 pm, the Earps and Holliday headed towards Fremont Street, where the Cowboys had been reported gathering. They found five Cowboys in a vacant lot adjacent to the O.K. Corral 's rear entrance on Fremont Street. The lot between the Harwood House and Fly 's Boarding House and Photography Studio was narrow -- the two parties were initially only about 6 to 10 feet (1.8 to 3.0 m) apart. Ike Clanton and Billy Claiborne fled the gunfight. Tom and Frank McLaury, along with Billy Clanton, stood their ground and were killed. Morgan was clipped by a shot across his back that nicked both shoulder blades and a vertebra. Virgil was shot through the calf, and Holliday was grazed by a bullet. On October 30, as permitted by territorial law, Ike Clanton filed murder charges against the Earps and Holliday. Justice Wells Spicer convened a preliminary hearing on October 31 to determine if enough evidence existed to go to trial. In an unusual proceeding, he took written and oral testimony from about 30 witnesses over more than a month. Sheriff Behan, testifying for the prosecution, said the Cowboys had not resisted, but had thrown up their hands and turned out their coats to show they were not armed. He said that Tom McLaury threw open his coat to show that he was not armed and that the first two shots were fired by the Earp party. Sheriff Behan insisted Doc Holliday had fired first using a nickel - plated revolver, although other witnesses reported seeing him carrying a messenger shotgun immediately beforehand. The Earps hired an experienced trial lawyer, Thomas Fitch, as defense counsel. Wyatt testified that he drew his gun only after Billy Clanton and Frank McLaury went for their pistols. He detailed the Earps ' previous troubles with the Clantons and McLaurys and explained that they intended to disarm the cowboys. He said they fired in self defense. Fitch managed to produce testimony from prosecution witnesses during cross-examination that was contradictory, or appeared to dodge his questions, or in which they said they could not remember. After extensive testimony, Justice Spicer ruled on November 30 that there was not enough evidence to indict the men. He said the evidence indicated that the Earps and Holliday acted within the law and that Holliday and Wyatt had been deputized temporarily by Virgil. Though the Earps and Holliday were free, their reputations had been tarnished. The Cowboys in Tombstone looked upon the Earps as robbers and murderers and plotted revenge. On December 28, while walking between saloons on Allen Street in Tombstone, Virgil was ambushed and maimed by a shotgun round that struck his left arm and shoulder. Ike Clanton 's hat was found in the back of the building across Allen Street from where the shots were fired. Wyatt wired U.S. Marshal Crawley P. Dake asking to be appointed deputy U.S. marshal with authority to select his own deputies. Dake granted the request in late January and provided the Earps with some funds he borrowed from Wells, Fargo & Co. on behalf of the Earps, variously reported as $500 to $3,000. In mid-January, when Earp ally Rickabaugh sold the Oriental Saloon to Earp adversary Milt Joyce, Wyatt sold his gambling concessions at the hotel. The Earps also raised some funds from sympathetic business owners in town. On February 2, 1882, Wyatt and Virgil, tired of the criticism leveled against them, submitted their resignations to Dake, who refused to accept them because their accounts had not been settled. On the same day, Wyatt sent a message to Ike Clanton that he wanted to reconcile their differences, which Clanton refused. Clanton was also acquitted that day of the charges against him in the shooting of Virgil Earp, when the defense brought in seven witnesses who testified that Clanton was in Charleston at the time of the shooting. The Earps needed more funds to pay for the extra deputies and associated expenses. Contributions received from supportive business owners were not enough. On February 13, Wyatt mortgaged his home to lawyer James G. Howard for $365.00 (about $9,256 today) and received $365.00 in U.S. gold coin. (He was never able to repay the loan and in 1884 Howard foreclosed on the house.) After attending a theatre show on March 18, Morgan Earp was assassinated by gunmen firing from a dark alley through a door window into a room where he was playing billiards. Morgan was struck in the right side. The bullet shattered his spine, passed through his left side, and lodged in the thigh of George A.B. Berry. Another round narrowly missed Wyatt. A doctor was summoned and Morgan was moved from the floor to a nearby couch. The assassins escaped in the dark and Morgan died 40 minutes later. Wyatt Earp felt he could not rely on civil justice, and decided to take matters into his own hands. He concluded that the only way to deal with Morgan 's assassins was to kill them all. The day after Morgan 's assassination, Deputy U.S. Marshal Wyatt Earp formed a posse made up of his brothers James and Warren, Doc Holliday, Sherman McMaster, Jack "Turkey Creek '' Johnson, Charles "Hairlip Charlie '' Smith, Daniel "Tip '' Tipton, and John Wilson "Texas Jack '' Vermillion to protect the family and pursue the suspects, paying them $5.00 a day. They took Morgan 's body to the railhead in Benson. James was to accompany Morgan 's body to the family home in Colton, California, where Morgan 's parents and wife waited to bury him. The posse guarded Virgil and Allie through to Tucson, where they had heard Frank Stilwell and other Cowboys were waiting to kill Virgil. The next morning, Frank Stilwell 's body was found alongside the tracks riddled with buckshot and gunshot wounds. Wyatt and five other federal lawmen were indicted for murdering him, and Tucson Justice of the Peace Charles Meyer issued warrants for their arrest. The Earp posse briefly returned to Tombstone, where Sheriff Behan tried to stop them. The heavily armed posse brushed him aside. Hairlip Charlie and Warren remained in Tombstone, and the rest set out for Pete Spence 's wood camp in the Dragoon Mountains. Pete Spence was absent, but they found and killed Florentino "Indian Charlie '' Cruz. Two days later, near Iron Springs (later Mescal or possibly Cottonwood Springs), in the Whetstone Mountains, they were seeking to rendezvous with a messenger for them. They unexpectedly stumbled onto the wood camp of Curly Bill Brocius, Pony Diehl, and other outlaw Cowboys. According to reports from both sides, the two sides immediately exchanged gunfire. Except for Wyatt and Texas Jack Vermillion, whose horse was shot, the Earp party withdrew to find protection from the heavy gunfire. Curly Bill fired at Wyatt with a shotgun, but missed. Eighteen months prior, Wyatt had protected Curly Bill against a mob ready to lynch him, and then provided testimony that helped spare Curly Bill from a murder trial for killing Sheriff Fred White. Now, Wyatt returned Curly Bill 's gunfire with his own shotgun and shot Curly Bill in the chest from about 50 feet (15m) away. Curly Bill fell into the water by the edge of the spring and died. After emptying his shotgun at Curly Bill, Wyatt fired his revolver, mortally wounding Johnny Barnes in the chest and wounding Milt Hicks in the arm. Vermillion tried to retrieve his rifle wedged in the scabbard under his fallen horse, exposing himself to the Cowboys ' gunfire. Doc Holliday helped him get to cover. According to Lake, Earp told him both sides of his long coat were shot through, and another bullet struck his boot heel. Ed Colburn wrote in a letter published in the Ford County Globe on May 23, 1882 that he had visited with Wyatt and Warren Earp in Gunnison, Colorado. In the letter he relayed Earp 's story about how his overcoat was hit on both sides of his body by a charge of buckshot and that his saddle horn was shot off. John Flood wrote, The saddle - horn had been splintered, his coat hung in shreds, there were three holes through the legs of his trousers, five holes through the crown of his sombrero, and three through the brim. Earp was finally able to get on his horse and retreated with the rest of the posse. Some modern researchers have found that most saddlehorns were by this time made of steel, not wood. Wyatt told several versions of the story in which he had trouble remounting his horse because his cartridge belt had slipped down his legs. Earp was never wounded in any of his confrontations, which added to his mystique. Leaving the Cowboys behind, the Earp party rode north to the Percy Ranch, but were not welcomed by Hugh and Jim Percy, who feared the Cowboys; after a meal and some rest, they left around 3: 00 in the morning of March 27. The Earp party slipped into the area near Tombstone and met with supporters, including Hairlip Charlie Smith and Warren Earp. On March 27, the posse arrived at the Sierra Bonita Ranch owned by Henry Hooker, a wealthy and prominent rancher. That night, Dan Tipton caught the first stage out of Tombstone and headed for Benson, carrying $1,000 from mining owner and Earp supporter E.B. Gage for the posse. Hooker congratulated Earp on the killing of Curly Bill. Hooker fed them and Wyatt told him he wanted to buy new mounts. Hooker was known for his purebred stallions and ran over 500 brood mares that produced horses that became known for their speed, beauty, and temperament. He provided Wyatt and his posse with new mounts, but refused to take Wyatt 's money. When Behan 's posse was observed in the distance, Hooker suggested Wyatt make his stand there, but Wyatt moved into the hills about three miles (5 km) distant near Reilly Hill. The federal posse led by Wyatt Earp was not found by the local posse, led by Cochise County Sheriff John Behan, although Behan 's party trailed the Earps for many miles. In the middle of April 1882, the Earp party left the Arizona Territory and headed east into New Mexico Territory and then into Colorado. The coroner reports credited the Earp party with killing four men -- Frank Stilwell, Curly Bill, Indian Charlie, and Johnny Barnes -- in their two - week - long ride. In 1888, Wyatt Earp gave an interview to California historian H.H. Bancroft during which he claimed to have killed "over a dozen stage robbers, murderers, and cattle thieves '' in his time as a lawman. The gunfight in Tombstone lasted only 30 seconds, but it ended up defining Earp for the rest of his life. After Wyatt killed Frank Stilwell in Tucson, his movements received national press coverage, and he became a known commodity in Western folklore. After killing the four Cowboys, Wyatt and Warren Earp, Holliday, McMaster, "Turkey Creek '' Jack Johnson, and Texas Jack Vermillion left Arizona. Wyatt never returned to Tombstone. The group stopped in Albuquerque, New Mexico, where they met Deputy U.S. Marshal Bat Masterson, Wyatt 's friend. Masterson went with them to Trinidad, Colorado, where Masterson opened a faro game in a saloon and later became marshal. Wyatt dealt faro at Masterson 's saloon for several weeks before McMaster, Vermillion, Warren Earp, and he left in May 1882 for Gunnison, Colorado. The Earps and Texas Jack set up camp on the outskirts of Gunnison, where they remained quietly at first, rarely going into town for supplies. In Gunnison, they were reported to have pulled a "gold brick scam '' on a German visitor named Ritchie by trying to sell him gold - painted rocks for $2,000. Wyatt and Holliday had a serious disagreement "when Holliday said something about Earp becoming ' a damn Jew - boy. ' '' They parted ways in Albuquerque. Holliday and Dan Tipton rode on to Pueblo, Colorado, while the rest of the group headed for Gunnison. Holliday and Wyatt met again in June 1882 in Gunnison after Wyatt intervened to keep his friend from being arrested on murder charges they all had pending against them for killing Frank Stillwell in Tucson. Earp saw Holliday for a final time in the late winter of 1886, where they met in the lobby of the Windsor Hotel. Josephine Marcus described the skeletal Holliday as having a continuous cough and standing on "unsteady legs. '' Sadie, traveling as either Mrs. J.C. Earp or Mrs. Wyatt Earp, left Tombstone for her family in San Francisco via Los Angeles on March 25, 1882. This was one week after Morgan Earp was assassinated and five days after Wyatt set out in pursuit of those he believed responsible. In July, Wyatt traveled from Colorado to San Francisco, where Josephine was living with her half - sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener, and where his brother Virgil was seeking treatment for his arm. Wyatt remained in San Francisco for about nine months until early 1883, when Josephine and he left San Francisco together for Silverton, Colorado, where silver and gold mining were flourishing. It was the first of many mining camps and boomtowns in which they lived. Josephine, or Sadie as Wyatt liked to call her, was Wyatt 's common - law wife until his death 46 years later. Wyatt still owned a house in Tombstone with his common - law wife Mattie Blaylock, but she waited for him in Colton, where his parents and Virgil were living. During the summer of 1882, she sent Wyatt a letter saying she wanted a divorce. She had met a gambler from Arizona and he had asked her to marry him. Wyatt, who did not believe in divorce, refused. She ran away with the gambler anyway, and he later abandoned her in Arizona. She moved to Pinal City, Arizona, where she resumed life as a prostitute. Mattie struggled with addictions and committed "suicide by opium poisoning '' on July 3, 1888. During what became known as the Dodge City War, the mayor tried to run Earp 's friend Luke Short, part owner of the Long Branch saloon, first out of business and then out of town. Short appealed to Masterson, who contacted Earp. On May 31, 1883, Earp and Josephine went with Bat Masterson, Johnny Millsap, Shotgun John Collins, Texas Jack Vermillion, and Johnny Green to Dodge City to help Short. Short was in Kansas City to appeal to Governor George Washington Glick for help, but to no avail. When he returned, Short 's allies marched up Front Street into Short 's saloon, where they were sworn in as deputies by constable "Prairie Dog '' Dave Marrow. The town council offered a compromise to allow Short to return for 10 days to get his affairs in order, but Earp refused to compromise. When Short returned, there was no one ready to turn him away. Short 's Saloon reopened, and the Dodge City War ended without a shot being fired. In 1884, Wyatt, his wife Sadie, his brothers Warren and James, and James ' wife Bessie arrived in Eagle City, Idaho, another new boomtown created as a result of the discovery of gold, silver, and lead in the Coeur d'Alene area (it is now a ghost town in Shoshone County). Wyatt joined the crowd looking for gold in the Murray - Eagle mining district. They paid $2,250 for a 50 feet (15 m) diameter white circus, in which they opened a dance hall and saloon called The White Elephant. An advertisement in a local newspaper suggests gentlemen "come and see the elephant ''. Earp was named deputy sheriff in the area including newly incorporated Kootenai County, Idaho, which was disputing jurisdiction of Eagle City with Shoshone County. There were a considerable number of disagreements over mining claims and property rights, which Earp had a part in. On March 28, several feet of snow were still on the ground. Bill Buzzard, a miner of dubious reputation, began constructing a building when one of Wyatt 's partners, Jack Enright, tried to stop the construction. Enright claimed the building was on part of his property. Words were exchanged and Buzzard reached for his Winchester. He fired several shots at Enright and a skirmish developed. Allies of both sides quickly took defensive positions between snowbanks and began shooting at one another. Deputy Sheriff Wyatt Earp and his brother James stepped into the middle of the fray and helped peacefully resolve the dispute before anyone was seriously hurt. Shoshone County Deputy W.E. Hunt then arrived and ordered the parties to turn over their weapons. Around April 1885, Wyatt Earp was reported to have used his badge to join a band of claim jumpers in Embry Camp, later renamed Chewelah, Washington. Within six months, their substantial stake had run dry, and the Earps left the Murray - Eagle district. About 10 years later, after the Fitzimmons - Sharkey fight, a reporter hunted up Buzzard and extracted a story from him that accused Wyatt of being the brains behind lot - jumping and a real - estate fraud, further tarnishing his reputation. After the Coeur d'Alene mining venture died out, Earp and Sadie briefly went to El Paso, Texas, before moving in 1887 to San Diego, where the railroad was about to arrive and a real estate boom was underway. They stayed for about four years, living most of the time in the Brooklyn Hotel. Earp speculated in San Diego 's booming real estate market. Between 1887 and around 1896, he bought four saloons and gambling halls, including one on Fourth Street and two near Sixth and E, all in the "respectable '' part of town. They offered 21 games, including faro, blackjack, poker, keno, and other Victorian - American games of chance such as pedro and monte. At the height of the boom, he made up to $1,000 a night in profit. Wyatt also owned the Oyster Bar located in the first granite - faced building in San Diego, the four - story Louis Bank Building at 837 5th Avenue, one of the more popular saloons in the Stingaree district. One of the reasons it drew a good crowd was the Golden Poppy brothel upstairs. Owned by Madam Cora, each room was painted a different color, like emerald green, summer yellow, or ruby red, and each prostitute was required to dress in matching garments. Wyatt had a long - standing interest in boxing and horse racing. He refereed boxing matches in San Diego, Tijuana, and San Bernardino. In the 1887 San Diego City Directory, he was listed as a capitalist or gambler. He won his first race horse, Otto Rex, in a card game and began investing in racehorses. He also judged prize fights on both sides of the border and raced horses. Earp was one of the judges at the county fair horse races held in Escondido in 1889. As rapidly as the boom started, it came to an end, and the population of San Diego fell from a high of 40,000 in 1885 when Earp arrived to only 16,000 in 1890. On July 3, 1888, Mattie Blaylock, who had always considered herself Wyatt 's wife, committed suicide in Pinal, Arizona Territory, by taking an overdose of laudanum. The Earps moved back to San Francisco in 1891 in part so Sadie could be closer to her half - sister Henrietta 's family. Earp developed a reputation as a sportsman and a gambler. He held onto his San Diego properties, but when their value fell, he could not pay the taxes. He was forced to sell the lots. He continued to race horses, but by 1896, he could no longer afford to own them. He raced them on behalf of the owner of a horse stable in Santa Rosa that he managed for her. From 1891 to 1897, they lived in at least four different locations in the city: 145 Ellis St., 720 McAllister St., 514A Seventh Ave. and 1004 Golden Gate Ave. In Santa Rosa, Earp personally competed in and won a harness race. Josephine wrote in I Married Wyatt Earp: The Recollections of Josephine Sarah Marcus, that Wyatt and she were married in 1892 by the captain of multimillionaire Lucky Baldwin 's yacht off the California coast. Raymond Nez wrote that his grandparents witnessed their marriage, but no public record of the marriage has been found. Baldwin, a horse breeder and racer, also owned the Santa Anita racetrack in Los Angeles, which Wyatt -- a long - time horse aficionado -- frequented when he was in town. Earp 's relationship with Josephine Marcus was at times tempestuous. Josephine gambled to excess and Wyatt had affairs. He had a mischievous sense of humor. He knew his wife preferred Josephine and detested "Sadie '', but early in their relationship, he began calling her by that name. Wyatt 's good friends in the Welsh family did not appreciate Josephine 's gambling habits. They noted that she received an allowance from her family (likely her only living relative, half - sister Rebecca and husband Aaron Wiener) and gambled it away, often leaving Wyatt hungry. In the 1920s, Wyatt gave Sadie signed legal papers and filing fees to a claim for an oil lease in Kern County, California. She gambled away the filing fees and lied to Wyatt about what happened to the lease, which later turned out to be valuable. Distrustful of her ability to manage her finances, Wyatt made an arrangement with her sister Henrietta Lenhardt. Wyatt put oil leases he owned in Henrietta 's name with the agreement that the proceeds would benefit Sadie after his death. In February 1926, the oil well was completed and producing 150 barrels a day. Henrietta 's three children refused to keep the agreement after their mother 's death and kept the royalties to themselves. Josie sued her sister 's estate in an attempt to collect the royalties. Sadie later developed a reputation as a shrew who made life difficult for Earp. Sadie frequently griped about Wyatt 's lack of work and financial success and even his character and personality. Wyatt often went on long walks to get away from her. He was furious about her gambling habit, during which she lost considerable sums of money. Each may have engaged in extramarital affairs. Josephine could be controlling. A relative of Wyatt joked that nobody could convict Wyatt of cold - blooded murder because he had lived with Sadie for almost 50 years. On December 2, 1896, Earp was a last - minute choice as referee for a boxing match that the promoters billed as the heavyweight championship of the world. Bob Fitzsimmons was set to fight Tom Sharkey that night at the Mechanics ' Pavilion in San Francisco. Earp had refereed 30 or so matches in earlier days, though not under the Marquess of Queensberry Rules, but under the older and more liberal London Prize Ring Rules. The fight may have been the most anticipated fight on American soil that year. Fitzsimmons was favored to win, and the public and even civic officials placed bets on the outcome. Fitzsimmons dominated Sharkey throughout the fight, and in the eighth round, he hit Sharkey with his famed "solar plexus punch '', an uppercut under the heart that could render a man temporarily helpless. Fitzsimmons ' next punch apparently caught Sharkey below the belt and Sharkey dropped, clutched his groin, and rolled on the canvas, screaming foul. Wyatt stopped the bout, ruling that Fitzsimmons had hit Sharkey below the belt, but virtually no one witnessed the punch. Earp awarded the fight to Sharkey, whom attendants carried out as "limp as a rag ''. The 15,000 fans in attendance greeted his decision with loud boos and catcalls. It was widely believed that no foul had occurred and Earp had bet on Sharkey. While several doctors verified afterward that Sharkey had been hit hard below the belt, the public had bet heavily on Fitzsimmons and they were livid at the outcome. Fitzsimmons went to court to overturn Earp 's decision. Newspaper accounts and testimony over the next two weeks revealed a conspiracy among the boxing promoters to fix the fight 's outcome. Newspapers across the United States republished the stories from the San Francisco papers and looked for local angles. On December 14, 1896, the San Francisco Call quoted a story from the New York Journal by Alfred H. Lewis, "who knew the ' bad men ' in Arizona. He said that the Earps in Tombstone were "stage robbers '' who "stood up stages and plundered express companies for a livelihood... The Earps, Wyatt, Virgil, Warren and Julian (sic), had treated themselves to many a killing... Warren Earp, who was a stage - company guard, meekly put his hands over his head... it was from all standpoints a family affair on the part of the Earps. Often they got as high as $25,000... Virgil, as marshal, would enlist Wyatt, Warren and Julian (sic), together with Curly Bill, their cousin, and hunt the hold - ups. '' Earp was parodied in editorial cartoon caricatures by newspapers across the United States. Stories about the fight and Earp 's contested decision were distributed nationwide to a public that until that time knew little of Wyatt Earp. Earp was parodied in editorial cartoon caricatures and vilified in newspaper stories across the United States. On December 17, Judge Sanderson finally ruled that prize fighting was illegal in San Francisco and the courts would not determine who the winner was. Sharkey retained the purse, but the decision provided no vindication for Earp. Until the fight, Earp had been a minor figure known regionally in California and Arizona. Afterward, his name was known from coast to coast in the worst possible way. Earp sold his interest in his horses on December 20 and left San Francisco for Yuma, Arizona. He only returned when he caught a boat to Alaska. Earp 's decision left a smear on his public character that followed him until he died and afterward. Eight years later, Dr. B. Brookes Lee was arrested in Portland, Oregon. He had been accused of treating Sharkey to make it appear that he had been fouled by Fitzsimmons. Lee admitted it was true. "I fixed Sharkey up to look as if he had been fouled. How? Well, that is something I do not care to reveal, but I will assert that it was done -- that is enough. There is no doubt that Fitzsimmons was entitled to the decision and did not foul Sharkey. I got $1,000 for my part in the affair. '' While in Yuma, Wyatt heard of the gold rush in the Alaska Yukon. On August 5, 1897, Wyatt and Sadie left for San Francisco. Earp was reported to have secured the backing of a syndicate of sporting men to open a gambling house there. They intended to catch a ship to Alaska, but their departure was delayed for seven weeks when Wyatt fell while getting off Market Street streetcar and bruised or broke his hip. Sadie got pregnant too, and she thought she could persuade Earp from heading to Alaska. He was in agreement, but Sadie, who was 37, miscarried soon after. They finally boarded the steamship Rosalie on September 21, 1897. They arrived in Dawson in the Yukon on late September, where Wyatt planned to open a faro game. Wyatt and Josephine spent only a month in Dawson, When they returned north, Wyatt was offered a job as the marshal in Wrangell, Alaska, but he served for only 10 days. Sadie learned she was pregnant again, and they returned to San Francisco on October 11 aboard the steamship City of Seattle. But Sadie miscarried again. The Earps spent the winter in Wrangell before setting out in the spring for Dawson on board the Governor Pingree via the Yukon River. By the time they reached Rampart on the Yukon River, freeze - up had set in. The Earps rented a cabin from Rex Beach for $100 a month and spent the winter of 1898 -- 1899 there. In 1898, they got as far as Rampart before the Yukon River froze in place for the winter. Rampart was a friendly place, but far from the real action. They left with the spring thaw and headed for St. Michael, on the Norton Sound, a major gateway to the Alaskan interior via the Yukon River. Wyatt managed a small store during the spring of 1899, selling beer and cigars for the Alaska Commercial Company. But Wyatt 's friend Tex Richard sent him a number of letters belittling Wyatt 's steady but small income in St. Michael as "chickenfeed '' and persuaded him to relocate to Nome. At the time of the Earps ' arrival, Nome was two blocks wide and five miles long. The best accommodations Wyatt and Sadie could find was a wooden shack a few minutes from the main street, only slightly better than a tent. The river was an open sewer. Typhoid, dysentery and pneumonia were common. In September, Earp and partner Charles E. Hoxie built the Dexter Saloon in Nome, the city 's first two - story wooden building and its largest and most luxurious saloon. The second floor had 12 "clubrooms '' decorated with fine mirrors, thick carpets, draperies, and sideboards. Trading on Earp 's name, the Dexter was a success. It was used for a variety of purposes because it was so large: 70 by 30 feet (21.3 m × 9.1 m) with 12 feet (3.7 m) ceilings. Earp used the club rooms upstairs as a brothel, another fact that Sadie worked hard to see was omitted from stories about him. Sadie justified the services upstairs because the Dexter was a "better class '' saloon and served an "important civic purpose. '' The Dexter drew anyone famous who visited Nome. Wyatt rubbed elbows with future novelist Rex Beach, writer Jack London, playwright Wilson Mizner, and boxing promoter Tex Rickard, with whom Earp developed a long - lasting relationship. Rickard was a partner in the Northern Saloon and gambling house in Nome. Both the Dexter and the Northern Saloon competed for business with more than 60 other saloons in town serving an estimated 20,000 residents. Wyatt told others he made his money by "mining the miners. '' He was arrested twice in Nome for minor offenses, including being drunk and disorderly, although he was not tried. Most members of law enforcement were corrupt or otherwise engaged. On July 6, 1900, Wyatt 's brother Warren was shot and killed in a saloon in Willcox, Arizona. Wyatt learned about his death soon after, and although some modern researchers believe he went to Arizona to avenge his brother 's death, the distance and time required to make the trip made it unlikely, and no contemporary evidence has been found to support that theory. In November 1899, Earp left Alaska on the 258 feet (79 m) iron steamer Cleveland. The ship was infested with lice and was struck by a storm on the Bering Sea, making for a difficult trip. It took nine days to reach Seattle, Washington. In 2018, archivists at the Alaska State Library digitized a collection of documents relating to Earp 's arrival and stay in Alaska. Earp arrived in Seattle with a plan to open a saloon and gambling room. On November 25, 1899, the Seattle Star described him as "a man of great reputation among the toughs and criminals, inasmuch as he formerly walked the streets of a rough frontier mining town with big pistols stuck in his belt, spurs on his boots, and a devil - may - care expression upon his official face ''. The Seattle Daily Times was less full of praise, announcing in a very small article that he had a reputation in Arizona as a "bad man '', which in that era was synonymous with "villain '' and "desperado. '' He faced considerable opposition to his plan from John Considine, who controlled all three gaming operations in town. Although gambling was illegal, Considine had worked out an agreement with Police Chief C.S. Reed. Earp partnered with an established local gambler named Thomas Urguhart, and they opened the Union Club saloon and gambling operation in Seattle 's Pioneer Square. The Seattle Star noted two weeks later that Earp 's saloon was earning a large following. Considine unsuccessfully tried to intimidate Earp, but his saloon continued to prosper. After the city failed to act, on March 23, 1900, the Washington state attorney general filed charges against several gamblers, including Earp and his partner. The club 's furnishings were confiscated and burned. The Earps returned briefly to San Francisco in April, 1900, but the soon continued on to Seattle. Newspapers in Seattle and San Francisco falsely reported on Wyatt 's wealth which prompted a stampede to Nome to seek similar riches. Nome was advertised as an "exotic summer destination '' and four ships a day left Seattle with passengers infected with "gold fever. '' On June 14, 1900, Wyatt and Sadie returned to Nome aboard the steamer SS Alliance. They brought many luxurious accessories with them to decorate The Dexter. Within weeks Nome grew to a city of over 20,000 inhabitants. In 1900, the major business there "was not mining, but gambling and saloon trade. There were 100 saloons and gambling houses, with an occasional restaurant. '' Losses of $10,000 per hand in poker were not extraordinary. Prize fighting became the sport of choice and Wyatt 's income soared with side bets. He often refereed bouts himself at The Dexter. Sadie got pregnant again, and she and Wyatt decided to leave Alaska. They sold their interest in the Dexter to their partner, Charlie Hoxie. Wyatt and Sadie left Alaska on board the SS Roanoke and arrived in Los Angeles at the Hollenbeck Hotel on December 13, 1901. They had an estimated $80,000, a relative fortune (equivalent to about $2,350,000 today). Sadie miscarried and lost the baby. Three months later, in February 1902, they arrived in Tonopah, Nevada, known as the "Queen of the Silver Camps '', where silver and gold had been discovered in 1900 and a boom was under way. Wyatt and Sadie opened the Northern Saloon in Tonopah and he served as a deputy U.S. marshal under Marshal J.F. Emmitt. His saloon, oil, and copper mining interests produced some income for a period. After Tonopah 's gold strike waned, they moved in 1905 to Goldfield, Nevada, where his brother Virgil and his wife were living. Tex Rickard was also already there and had opened a second Northern Saloon. He hired Wyatt as a pit boss. Wyatt also staked mining claims just outside Death Valley and elsewhere in the Mojave Desert. In 1906, he discovered several deposits of gold and copper near the Sonoran Desert town of Vidal, California, on the Colorado River and filed more than 100 mining claims near the Whipple Mountains. While in Los Angeles, they lived in at least nine small Los Angeles rentals as early as 1885 and as late as 1929, mostly in the summer. In 1910, when he was 62, the Los Angeles Police Department hired Wyatt and former Los Angeles detective Arthur Moore King at $10.00 per day to carry out various tasks "outside the law '' such as retrieving criminals from Mexico, which he did very capably. This led to Wyatt 's final armed confrontation. In October 1910, he was asked by former Los Angeles Police Commissioner H.L. Lewis to head up a posse to protect surveyors of the American Trona Company who were attempting to wrest control of mining claims for vast deposits of potash on the edge of Searles Lake held in receivership by the foreclosed California Trona Company. Wyatt and the group he guarded were regarded as claim jumpers and were confronted by armed representatives of the other company. King wrote, "it was the nerviest thing he had ever seen ''. With guns pulled, Wyatt came out of his tent with a Winchester rifle, firing a round at the feet of Federal Receiver Stafford W. Austin. "Back off or I 'll blow you apart, or my name is not Wyatt Earp ''. The owners summoned the U.S. marshal, who arrested Earp and 27 others, served them with a summons for contempt of court, and sent them home. Earp 's actions did not resolve the dispute, which eventually escalated into the "Potash Wars '' of the Mojave Desert. On July 23, 1911, Earp was arrested in Los Angeles and charged with attempting to fleece J.Y. Peterson, a realty broker, in a fake faro game. Since money had not changed hands, the charge against Earp was reduced to vagrancy and he was released on $500 bail. The Earps bought a small cottage in Vidal, the only home they ever owned. Beginning in 1911 and until Wyatt 's health began to fail in 1928, Wyatt and Sadie Earp summered in Los Angeles and spent the rest of the year in the desert working their claims. The "Happy Days '' mine was located in the Whipple Mountains a few miles north of Vidal. Wyatt had some modest success with the Happy Days gold mine, and they lived on the slim proceeds of income from that and oil wells in Oakland and Kern County. In about 1923, Charles Welsh, a retired railroad engineer and friend that Earp had known since Dodge City, frequently invited the Earps to visit his family in San Bernardino. When the Welsh family moved to Los Angeles, the Earps accepted an invitation to stay with them for a while in their top - floor apartment until the Earps found a place to rent. After Earp and Sadie moved into a bungalow nearby, Charlie Welsh 's daughter, Grace Spolidora, recalled that Sadie, who had never had many domestic skills, did very little housekeeping or cooking for Wyatt. She and her sister Alma were concerned about the care Sadie gave Wyatt. Though he was at times very ill, she still did not cook for him. Spolidora, her sisters, and her mother brought in meals. While living in Los Angeles, Earp became an unpaid film consultant for several silent cowboy movies. In 1915, Earp visited the set of director Allan Dwan 's movie, The Half - Breed, starring Douglas Fairbanks. In his autobiography, Dwan recalled, "As was the custom in those days, he (Earp) was invited to join the party and mingle with our background action. '' Earp became friends with William Hart and later Tom Mix, the two most famous movie cowboys of their era. Hart was a stickler for realism in his depictions of Western life, and may have relied on Earp for advice. Earp later frequently visited the sets of movie director John Ford, whose movies starred Harry Carey. Ford 's son Patrick later wrote, "My dad was real friendly with Wyatt Earp, and as a little boy I remember him. '' In 1916, Earp went with his friend Jack London, whom he knew from Nome, to visit the set of former cowboy, sailor, and movie actor - turned - film director Raoul Walsh, who was shooting at the studio of Mutual Film conglomerate in Edendale, California. Walsh took the two men to dinner at Al Levy 's Cafe on Main and Third Street. During the meal, the highest paid entertainer in the world, Charlie Chaplin, dropped by to greet Wyatt Earp. Chaplin was impressed by both men, but particularly the former Tombstone marshal. In the early 1920s, Earp was given the honorary title of deputy sheriff in San Bernardino County, California. On January 25, 1926, Wyatt 's only surviving brother James died of cerebral apoplexy in San Bernardino, California. Earp tried to persuade his good friend, well - known cowboy movie star William S. Hart, to help set the record straight about his life and get a movie made. "If the story were exploited on the screen by you, '' he wrote Hart, "It would do much toward setting me right before a public which has always been fed lies about me. '' Hart encouraged Earp to first find an author to pen his story. In 1925, Earp began to collaborate on a biography with his friend and former mining engineer John Flood to get his story told in a way that he approved. Flood volunteered his time and attempted to write an authorized biography of Earp 's life, based on Earp 's recollections. The two men sat together every Sunday in the kitchen of Earp 's modest, rented bungalow. While Wyatt sipped a drink and smoked a cigar, they tried to tell Earp 's story, but Josephine was always present. She often interrupted and insisted, "You ca n't write that! It needs to be clean. '' She also demanded that they add more "pep '' to the manuscript, which in her mind meant including the word "CRACK! '' in all capitals. In the chapter about the shootout, the manuscript includes 109 uses of "CRACK ''. She thought Earp needed to be shown as a hero, and the manuscript includes a chapter titled "Conflagration '' in which Earp saves two women, one a cripple, from a Tombstone fire. Flood 's writing was "stilted, corny, and one - dimensional '', and the manuscript, completed some time in early 1926, never found a publisher. In February 1927, editor Anne Johnston of Bobbs Merrill wrote back and was highly critical of the "stilted, florid, and diffuse '' writing. She wrote, "Now one forgets what it 's all about in the clutter of unimportant details that impedes its pace, and the pompous manner of its telling. '' Spolidora as a teenager had visited the Earps many times near her family home in Needles, California, and she sometimes went to San Diego with them. In an interview with the San Bernardino historical society in 1990, she attributed the highly exaggerated stories about Wyatt Earp to Josephine. Josephine "would always interfere whenever Wyatt would talk with Stuart Lake. She always interfered! She wanted him to look like a church - going saint and blow things up. Wyatt did n't want that at all! '' Hart tried to help. In February 1926, he wrote The Saturday Evening Post and encouraged them to publish Flood 's biography so "that... the rising generation may know the real from the unreal '', but Flood was a horrendous writer, and publisher after publisher rejected the manuscript. Several copies were made and sold in 1981, and the original carbon copy of the typed manuscript, found among Josephine Earp 's papers, was given by Glenn Boyer to the Ford County Historical Society. Two years before his death, Earp defended his decisions before the gunfight at the O.K. Corral and his actions afterward in an interview with Stuart Lake, author of the 1931 largely fictionalized biography, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal. He wrote Lake: For my handling of the situation at Tombstone, I have no regrets. Were it to be done over again, I would do exactly as I did at that time. If the outlaws and their friends and allies imagined that they could intimidate or exterminate the Earps by a process of murder, and then hide behind alibis and the technicalities of the law, they simply missed their guess. I want to call your particular attention again to one fact, which writers of Tombstone incidents and history apparently have overlooked: with the deaths of the McLowerys, the Clantons, Stillwell, Florentino Cruz, Curly Bill, and the rest, organized, politically protected crime and depredations in Cochise County ceased. He also said, "The good Lord owes me an explanation for the things that have happened in my life. Wyatt Earp was the last surviving Earp brother and the last surviving participant of the gunfight at the O.K. Corral when he died at home in the Earps ' small rented bungalow at 4004 W 17th Street, in Los Angeles, of chronic cystitis on January 13, 1929, at the age of 80. The Los Angeles Times reported that he had been ill with liver disease for three years. His brother Newton had died almost a month prior on December 18, 1928. Wyatt was survived by Josephine and sister Adelia Earp Edwards. He had no children. Charlie Welsh 's daughter Grace Spolidora and his daughter - in - law, Alma, were the only witnesses to Wyatt 's body 's cremation. Josephine was apparently too grief - stricken to assist. The funeral was held at the Congregational Church on Wilshire Boulevard. Earp 's pallbearers were William J. Hunsaker, (Earp 's attorney in Tombstone and noted Los Angeles attorney); Jim Mitchell (Los Angeles Examiner reporter and Hollywood screenwriter); George W. Parsons (founding member of Tombstone 's "Committee of Vigilance ''); Wilson Mizner (a friend of Wyatt 's during the Klondike Gold Rush); John Clum (a good friend from his days in Tombstone, former Tombstone mayor, and editor of The Tombstone Epitaph); William S. Hart (good friend and Western actor and silent film star); and Tom Mix (friend and Western film star). Mitchell wrote Wyatt 's local obituary. The newspapers reported that Tom Mix cried during his friend 's service. When Josephine did not attend Wyatt 's funeral, Grace Spolidora was furious. "She did n't go to his funeral, even. She was n't that upset. She was peculiar. I do n't think she was that devastated when he died. '' Josephine, who was Jewish, had Earp 's body cremated and secretly buried his remains in the Marcus family plot at the Hills of Eternity Memorial Park, a Jewish cemetery in Colma, California. When she died in 1944, her body was buried alongside his ashes. She had purchased a small white marble headstone which was stolen shortly after her death in 1944. It was discovered in a backyard in Fresno, California. A second stone of flat granite was also stolen. On July 7, 1957, grave - robbers dug into the Earp 's grave in an apparent attempt to steal the urn containing his ashes, but unable to find them stole the 300 pounds (140 kg) grave stone. Actor Hugh O'Brien, who was playing Earp in the 1955 -- 61 television series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, offered a reward for the stone 's return. It was located for sale in a flea market. Cemetery officials re-set the stone flush in concrete, but it was stolen again. Actor Kevin Costner, who played Earp in the 1994 movie Wyatt Earp offered to buy a new, larger stone, but the Marcus family thought his offer was self - serving and declined. Descendants of Josie 's half - sister Rebecca allowed a Southern California group in 1998 - 99 to erect the stone currently in place. The earlier stone is on display in the Colma Historical museum. In 1957, the Tombstone Restoration Commission looked for Wyatt 's ashes with the intention of having them re-located to Tombstone. They contacted family members seeking permission and the location of his ashes, but no one could tell them where they were buried, not even his closest living relative, George Earp. Arthur King, a deputy to Earp from 1910 to 1912, finally revealed that Josephine had buried Wyatt 's ashes in Colma, California, and the Tombstone Commission cancelled its plans to relocate them. Their gravesite is the most visited resting place in the Jewish cemetery. Tall like his brothers, Wyatt Earp was 6 feet (1.8 m) when the average height was about 5 feet 6 inches (1.68 m). He was described in 1887 by the Los Angeles Herald as "quiet, unassuming, broad - shouldered, with a large blonde mustache. He is dignified, self - contained, game and fearless, and no man commands greater respect... '' He weighed about 165 to 170 pounds (75 to 77 kg), was long - armed, and muscular, and was very capable of using his fists instead of his weapon to control those resisting his authority. At about the same time, The Mirror, a newspaper in Monroe, Iowa, printed a wire story originating in Denver. The anonymous reporter described Wyatt in detail: Wyatt Earp, a man whose trigger finger had considerable to do in making the border history of the West, was in Denver for several days last week. He is tall and athletic. His eyes are blue and fringed with light lashes and set beneath blonde eyebrows. His hair, which was once as yellow as gold, is beginning to be stranded with white. A heavy, tawny mustache shades his firm mouth and sweeps below his strong, square chin. He wore... a neat gray tailor - made suit, immaculate linen and fashionable neckwear. With a Derby hat and a pair of tan shoes, he was a figure to catch a lady 's eye... In 1926, writer Adela Rogers St. Johns met the elderly Earp for the first time. He was straight as a pine tree, tall and magnificently built. I knew he was nearly 80, but in spite of his snow white hair and mustache, he did not seem or look old. His greetings were warm and friendly. I stood in awe. Somehow, like a mountain, or desert, he reduced you to size. Among his peers near his death, Wyatt was respected. His deputy Jimmy Cairns described Wyatt 's work as a police officer in Wichita, Kansas. "Wyatt Earp was a wonderful officer. He was game to the last ditch and apparently afraid of nothing. The cowmen all respected him and seemed to recognize his superiority and authority at such times as he had to use it. '' He described Wyatt as "the most dependable man I ever knew; a quiet, unassuming chap who never drank and in all respects a clean young fellow ''. When citizens of Dodge City learned the Earps had been charged with murder after the gunfight, they sent letters endorsing and supporting the Earps to Judge Wells Spicer. John Clum, owner of The Tombstone Epitaph and mayor of Tombstone while Wyatt was a gambler and lawman there, described him in his book It All Happened in Tombstone. Wyatt 's manner, though friendly, suggested a quiet reserve... Frequently it has happened that men who have served as peace officers on the frontier have craved notoriety in connection with their dealings with the outlaw element of their time. Wyatt Earp deprecated such notoriety, and during his last illness he told me that for many years he had hoped the public would weary of the narratives -- distorted with fantastic and fictitious embellishments -- that were published from time to time concerning him, and that his last years might be passed in undisturbed obscurity. Bill Dixon knew Wyatt early in his adult life. He wrote: Wyatt was a shy young man with few intimates. With casual acquaintances he seldom spoke unless spoken to. When he did say anything it was to the point, without fear or favor, which was n't relished by some; but that never bothered Wyatt. To those who knew him well he was a genial companion. He had the most even disposition I ever saw; I never knew him to lose his temper. He was more intelligent, better educated, and far better mannered than the majority of his associates, which probably did not help them to understand him. His reserve limited his friendships, but more than one stranger, down on his luck, has had firsthand evidence of Wyatt 's generosity. I think his outstanding quality was the nicety with which he gauged the time and effort for every move. That, plus his absolute confidence in himself, gave him the edge over the run of men. Public perception of his life has varied over the years as media accounts of his life have changed. The story of the Earps ' actions in Tombstone were published at the time by newspapers nationwide. Shortly after the shooting of Curly Bill, the Tucson Star wrote on March 21, 1882, in an editorial about the O.K. Corral gunfight, that the Cowboys had been ordered to put their hands up and after they complied, were shot by the Earps, stating, "The whole series of killings can not be classed other than cold blooded murder. '' Famous lawman Bat Masterson described Wyatt in 1907. Wyatt Earp was one of the few men I personally knew in the West in the early days whom I regarded as absolutely destitute of physical fear. I have often remarked, and I am not alone in my conclusions, that what goes for courage in a man is generally fear of what others will think of him -- in other words, personal bravery is largely made up of self - respect, egotism, and apprehension of the opinions of others. Wyatt Earp 's daring and apparent recklessness in time of danger is wholly characteristic; personal fear does n't enter into the equation, and when everything is said and done, I believe he values his own opinion of himself more than that of others, and it is his own good report he seeks to preserve... He never at any time in his career resorted to the pistol excepting cases where such a course was absolutely necessary. Wyatt could scrap with his fists, and had often taken all the fight out of bad men, as they were called, with no other weapons than those provided by nature. Wyatt was reputed to be an expert with a revolver. He showed no fear of any man. The Tombstone Epitaph said of Wyatt, "bravery and determination were requisites, and in every instance proved himself the right man in the right place ''. Wyatt was lucky during the few gun fights he took part in from his earliest job as an assistant police officer in Wichita to Tombstone, where he was briefly deputy U.S. marshal. Unlike his lawmen brothers Virgil and James, Wyatt was never wounded, although once his clothing and his saddle were shot through with bullet holes. According to John H. Flood 's biography (as dictated to him by Wyatt Earp), Wyatt vividly recalled a presence that in several instances warned him away or urged him to take action. This happened when he was on the street, alone in his room at the Cosmopolitan Hotel, at Bob Hatch 's Pool Hall, where he went moments before Morgan was assassinated, and again when he approached Iron Springs and surprised Curly Bill Brocius, killing him. After the shootout in Tombstone, his pursuit and murder of those who attacked his brothers, and after leaving Arizona, Wyatt was often the target of negative newspaper stories that disparaged his and his brothers ' reputation. His role in history has stimulated considerable ongoing scholarly and editorial debate. A large body of literature has been written about Wyatt Earp and his legacy, some of it highly fictionalized. Considerable portions of it are either full of admiration and flattery or hostile debunking. Wyatt was repeatedly criticized in the media over the remainder of his life. His wife Josephine wrote, "The falsehoods that were printed in some of the newspapers about him and the unjust accusations against him hurt Wyatt more deeply than anything that ever happened to him during my life with him, with the exception of his mother 's death and that of his father and brother, Warren. '' On April 16, 1894, the Fort Worth Gazette wrote that Virgil Earp and John Behan had a "deadly feud ''. It described Behan as "an honest man, a good official, and possessed many of the attributes of a gentleman ''. Earp, on the other hand, "was head of band of desperadoes, a partner in stage robbers, and a friend of gamblers and professional killers... Wyatt was the boss killer of the region. '' Former nemesis Johnny Behan continued to spread rumors about the Earps for the next 20 years. On December 7, 1897, he was quoted in a story in the Washington Post, reprinted by the San Francisco Call, describing the Earp 's lawbreaking behavior in Tombstone. After referring to the Fitzimmons - Sharkey fight, the article quoted Behan. "The Clanton brothers and the McLowrys were a tough lot of rustlers who were the main perpetrators of the rascailly rife in that region. Between them and Earps rose a bitter feud over the division of the proceeds of the looting. The Earp boys believed they had failed to get a fair divide of the booty and swore vengeance. They caught their former allies in Tombstone unarmed and shot three of them dead while their hands were uplifted. '' Behan went on to say, "They were hauled up before a Justice of the Peace... Warrants were issued for their arrest, and, summoning a posse, I went out to bring the Earps in. They were chased entirely out of the country and Tombstone knew them no more. '' Up until he died in 1912, Johnny Behan lambasted the Earps as the bad men who had attacked the cowboys. After Earp left Alaska in 1901, the New York Sun printed a story in 1903 that described a confrontation Earp had reportedly had with a short 5 feet (1.5 m) Cockney Canadian Mountie, who embarrassed Earp by demanding that he leave his weapon in his room. The story was reprinted as far away as New Zealand by the Otago Witness. The Dawson Record commented on the story, mocking the newspaper as a "venerable dispenser of truth. '' On April 13, 1921, the Arizona Republican ran a lengthy interview with Thomas Raines, a former resident of Tombstone. Raines described the gunfight as an ambush. He said that he remembered the Earps shot the Cowboys and killed Ike Clanton (when they actually killed his brother Billy) before the Cowboys had a chance to surrender. He recalled that the Cowboys "were leading their horses out of the gate when they were confronted, almost from ambush, by four of the Earps, Virgil. Wyatt, Morgan and Jim and by Doc Holliday. Virgil Earp, armed with a sawed off express shotgun, and accompanying his demand with profanity, yelled "Hands up! '' But he did n't wait for the action demanded and shot almost as soon as he spoke. Tom McLowery (sic) showed his empty bands, and cried. ' Gentlemen, I am unarmed. ' Holliday answered with the discharge of his shotgun. Ike Clanton fell at the first fire, mortally wounded, but he rolled over and fired two shots from his pistol between his bent knees. '' During 1922, Frederick R. Bechdolt published the book When the West Was Young, which included a story about Wyatt 's time in Tombstone, but he mangled many basic facts. He described the Earp - Clanton differences as the falling - out of partners in crime. On March 12, 1922, the Sunday Los Angeles Times ran a short, scandalous article titled "Lurid Trails Are Left by Olden - Day Bandits '' by J.M. Scanland. It described Wyatt and his brothers as a gang, comparable to the Dalton Gang, who waylaid the cowboys in the shoot out at the O.K. Corral. It said that the Earps were allies of Frank Stilwell, who had informed on them, so they killed him, and that Earp had died in Colton, California. The author concocted a fictional description of the Earp 's relationship with Sheriff Behan and the Cowboys: Trouble arose between them and Sheriff John Behan, who tried to ' clean up ' the town. Trouble began when four cowboys refused to recognize the right of the Earp gang to rule the town. The cowboys were Bill and Ike Clanton and Tom and Frank McLowry. The Earps ordered the cowboys out of town and they were preparing to leave when they were waylaid and a gun battle followed during which Virgil Earp was shot in the leg, Morgan Earp in the shoulder and Ike Clanton was killed. The town was aroused and Frank Stilwell, who led the stage robberies, brought the trouble to a climax when he informed against his partners, because the Earps would not divide fairly. In a gun battle that followed, Stilwell killed Morgan Earp. A few months later another stage was robbed, and the driver, ' Bud ' Philpot, was killed. Josephine and Earps ' friend and actor William Hart both wrote letters to the publisher. Josephine demanded that the error "must be corrected and printed in the same sensational manner '' given to the correction as to the original article, which the paper published. At the time of his death, Earp may have been more well known for the controversy that engulfed him after the Fitzsimmons vs. Sharkey match in San Francisco than for the gunfight in Tombstone. His Associated Press obituary gave prominent attention to his officiating of the Fitzsimmons - Sharkey fight, while describing him as a "gun - fighter whose blazing six - shooters were, for most of his life, allied with the side of law and order ''. In its January 14, 1929 obituary, the Los Angeles Times wrote a fictional account of Earp taming Colton, California: As Deputy United States Marshal, Earp had been sent from town to town to quell disturbances and establish peace. His only recorded visit to California in those days was his memorable trip to Colton, then known as the "toughest town untamed. '' Within a week Wyatt Earp had the town running like a clock, but at the cost of not a few lives of "prominent citizens. '' Earp could shoot with his two guns from all angles and instantly made his presence felt in Colton. Long after his death, he has many devoted detractors and admirers. Earp 's modern - day reputation is that of the Old West 's "toughest and deadliest gunman of his day ''. Author Walter Noble Burns visited Earp in September 1926 and asked him questions with the intent to write a book about Earp. Earp declined because he was already collaborating with John Flood. Burns visited Tombstone and based on what he learned decided instead to focus his book on Doc Holliday. He pestered Earp for facts, and on March 27 the next year, Earp finally responded to Burns ' repeated requests in an 11 - page letter outlining the basic facts from Earp 's point of view. When their efforts to get the Flood manuscript published failed, the Earps decided to appeal to Burns, whose own book was near publication. But he was not interested. His book was about to be published, free of the constraints imposed by a collaboration with Earp. Burns wrote them, "I should not now care to undertake another book which, in part at least, would be upon much the same lines... I should have been delighted six months ago to accept your offer but it is too late now. My book has championed Mr. Earp 's cause throughout and I believe will vindicate his reputation in Tombstone in a way that he will like. '' When Burns turned them down, Josephine actively worked to stop the publication of his book, fearful that their efforts to publish Wyatt 's biography would be thwarted as a result. In late 1927, Burns published Tombstone, An Iliad of the Southwest, a mesmerizing tale "of blood and thunder, '' that christened Earp as the "Lion of Tombstone ''. "Strong, bold, forceful, picturesque was the fighter of the old frontier. Something epic in him, fashioned in Homeric mold. In his way, a hero. '' It included a good deal about Wyatt as well, much to Wyatt and Josie 's displeasure. Readers and reviewers found they had a difficult time discerning between "fact and fiction. '' The book was the first to popularize its subject for a mass reading audience. Burns treated Earp as a mythical figure, a "larger - than - life hero whose many portrayals in film, television, and books often render fidelity to truth the first casualty. '' While living in Vidal, Wyatt and Josie were visited by Billy Breakenridge, the former Tombstone deputy under John Behan. He pressed Wyatt for details about his time in Tombstone to add to his book Helldorado: Bringing Law to the Mesquite. Breakenridge was assisted by Western novelist William MacLeod Raine, who since 1904 had published more than 25 novels about Western history. The book was published in 1928 before Wyatt died. It depicted Wyatt as a thief, pimp, crooked gambler, and murderer. Breakenridge wrote that the Earps and Doc Holliday aggressively mistreated the guiltless cowboys until they were forced into a fatal confrontation. His description of the 1881 O.K. Corral gun fight stated that the Clanton and McLaury brothers were merely cowboys who had been unarmed and surrendered but the Earp brothers had shot them in cold blood. Wyatt and Josie protested that the book 's contents was biased and more fiction than fact. Earp complained about the book until his death in 1929, and his wife continued in the same vein afterward. Edwin V. Burkholder, who specialized in stories about the Old West, published an article about Wyatt in 1955 in Argosy Magazine. He called Wyatt Earp a coward and murderer, and manufactured evidence to support his allegations. He also wrote, using the pseudonyms "George Carleton Mays '' and "J.S. Qualey '', for the Western magazine Real West. His stores were filled with sensational claims about Wyatt Earp 's villainy, and he made up fake letters to the editor from supposed "old - timers '' to corroborate this story. Frank Waters interviewed Virgil Earp 's widow, Allie Sullivan Earp, to write The Earp Brothers of Tombstone. Allie Earp was so upset by the way Waters distorted and manipulated her words that she threatened to shoot him. His writing was so contentious and disputed that he waited until 13 years after her death to publish the book. In it, Waters vociferously berated Wyatt: Wyatt was an itinerant saloonkeeper, cardsharp, gunman, bigamist, church deacon, policeman, bunco artist, and a supreme confidence man. A lifelong exhibitionist ridiculed alike by members of his own family, neighbors, contemporaries, and the public press, he lived his last years in poverty, still vainly trying to find someone to publicize his life, and died two years before his fictitious biography recast him in the role of America 's most famous frontier marshal. Purportedly quoting Allie, he invented bitter public fights between Mattie and Wyatt, and told how Wyatt 's affair with Sadie Marcus, "the slut of Tombstone, '' had humiliated Mattie. He condemned the Earp brothers ' character and called them names. Waters used Allie Earp 's anecdotes as a frame for adding a narrative and "building a case, essentially piling quote upon quote to prove that Wyatt Earp was a con man, thief, robber, and eventually murderer ''. The book "further embroidered upon Frank Waters 's imaginings about Wyatt 's adulterous affair '' with Josephine. It was described by one reviewer as "a smear campaign levied against the Earp brothers ''. Years later, he wrote a letter to the Arizona Historical Society in which he admitted that he had combined Allie 's words to create a "cold, objective analysis '' and "expose '' of the whole subject. S. J. Reidhead, author of Travesty: Frank Waters Earp Agenda Exposed, spent nearly a decade searching for Water 's original manuscript, researching him, his background, and his bias against the Earps. In doing so, the author discovered that the story Waters presented against the Earps was primarily fictitious. "Nothing is documented, '' she wrote. "There are no notes nor sourcing. There is only the original Tombstone Travesty manuscript and the final Earp Brothers of Tombstone. Because of his later reputation, few writers, even today, dare question Waters ' motives. They also do not bother fact checking the Earp Brothers of Tombstone, which is so inaccurate it should be considered fiction, rather than fact. '' Anti-Earp writers and researchers use Frank Waters ' Earp Brothers of Tombstone, as their primary source for material that presents Wyatt Earp as something of a villainous monster, aided and abetted by his brothers who were almost brutes. Waters detested the Earps so badly that he presented a book that was terribly flawed, poorly edited, and brimming with prevarications. In his other work, Waters is poetic. In the Earp Brothers of Tombstone, he is little more than a tabloid hack, trying to slander someone he dislikes. To date, no reason has been uncovered for the bias Frank Waters exhibited against Wyatt Earp and his brothers. In 1963, Ed Bartholomew published Wyatt Earp, The Untold Story followed by Wyatt Earp: Man and Myth in 1964. His books were strongly anti-Earp and attacked Wyatt Earp 's image as a hero. Bartholomew went about this by reciting snippets of accumulated anti-Earp facts, rumors, gossip, and innuendo. Bartholomew 's books started a trend of debunking Earp, and the academic community followed his lead, pursuing the image of Earp as a "fighting pimp ''. In reviewing Allen Barra 's Inventing Wyatt Earp. His Life and Many Legends, William Urban, a Professor of History at Monmouth College in Warren County, Illinois, pointed out a number of factual inaccuracies in the book. One inconsistency by Barra, pointed out by another reviewer, includes a description of the poker game the night before the shootout. Ike Clanton 's account of the game (the only one that exists) gives the participants as John Behan, Virgil Earp, Ike Clanton, Tom McLaury, and a fifth man Ike did not recognize, while Barra wrote that Holliday had attended the game. Earp was dismayed about the controversy that continually followed him. He wrote a letter to John Hays Hammond on May 21, 1925, telling him "notoriety had been the bane of my life. I detest it, and I never have put forth any effort to check the tales that have been published in which my brothers and I are supposed to have been the principal participants. Not one of them is correct. '' The 1922 scandalous story in the Sunday Los Angeles Times by Scanland annoyed Earp. He was tired of all the lies perpetuated about him and became determined to get his story accurately told. Still, in 1924, a story in a San Francisco paper said interviewing him was "like pulling teeth ''. Earp did not trust the press and preferred to keep his mouth shut. The many negative, untruthful stories bothered Earp a great deal, and he finally decided to tell his own story. Earp also tried to find J.M. Scanland, the author of the LA Times article, and extract a written retraction from him, which he finally did in 1927. In 1925, Earp began to collaborate on a biography with his friend and former mining engineer with John Flood to get his story told in a way that he approved. Unlike most legendary lawmen of the American West, Earp was relatively unknown until Stuart N. Lake published the first biography of Wyatt Earp, Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal in 1931, two years after Earp died. Lake portrayed Earp as a "Western superhero '' who single - handedly cleaned up a town full of cowboy criminals. In fact, Earp had been a stagecoach guard for Wells Fargo, a full - time gambler, a regular associate of prostitutes, and, occasionally, a lawman. Lake wrote the book with Earp 's input, but was only able to interview him eight times before Earp died, during which Earp sketched out the "barest facts '' of his life. Despite having received very little information from Earp, Lake wrote the biography in the first person. Lake initially sought Earp out hoping to write a magazine article about him. Earp was also seeking a biographer at about the same time. Earp, who was 80, was concerned that his vantage point on the Tombstone story may be lost, and may have been financially motivated, as he had little income in his last years of life. During the interviews and in later correspondence, Josephine and Wyatt went to great lengths to keep her name out of Lake 's book. Lake wrote Earp that he planned to send portions of the book to his New York agent, but Earp objected because he wanted to read it first. After Earp 's death on January 13, 1929, Josephine continued to try to persuade Lake to leave her and Earp 's former wife, Mattie Blaylock, out of the book, even threatening legal action. Lake finally published Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal in 1931, two years after Earp 's death. Lake 's creative biography portrays Earp as a "Western superhero '', "gallant white knight '' and entirely avoided mentioning Josephine Earp or Blaylock. A number of Hollywood movies have been directly and indirectly influenced by Lake 's book and its depiction of Earp 's role as a western lawman. The book drew considerable positive attention and established Lake as a western screenwriter for years to come. It also established the gunfight at the O.K. Corral in the public consciousness and Earp as a fearless lawman in the American Old West. The book "is now regarded more as fiction than fact '', "an imaginative hoax, a fabrication mixed with just enough fact to give it credibility ''. Josephine Earp worked hard to create an image of Wyatt as a teetotaler, but as a saloon owner and gambler, he drank occasionally as well. When Flood and Lake wrote their biographies, Prohibition was in force. Among the other facts Josephine wanted scrubbed from Earp 's history, was that he liked a drink. She persuaded biographers Flood, Lake and Burns to write that Earp was a non-drinker. A good friend of Earp 's, Charlie Welsh, was known to disappear for days at a time "to see property '', the family euphemism for a drinking binge, and Earp was his regular partner. Director John Ford said that whenever Josephine left town for religious conventions, Earp would come into town, play poker, and get drunk with the cowboy actors. In his book, Lake wrote about the Colt Buntline Special, a variant of the long - barreled Colt Single Action Army revolver. According to Lake 's biography, dime novelist Ned Buntline had five Buntline Specials commissioned. Lake described them as extra-long Colt Single Action Army revolvers with 12 - inch (300 mm) barrels. Buntline was supposed to have presented them to lawmen in thanks for their help with contributing "local color '' to his western yarns. According to Lake, the revolver was equipped with a detachable metal shoulder stock. Lake wrote that Earp and four other well - known western lawmen -- Bat Masterson, Bill Tilghman, Charlie Bassett and Neal Brown -- each received a Buntline Special. However, neither Tilghman nor Brown were lawmen then. Researchers have never found any record of an order received by the Colt company, and Ned Buntline 's alleged connections to Earp 's have been largely discredited. After the publication of Lake 's book, various Colt revolvers with long (10 '' or 16 ") barrels were referred to as "Colt Buntlines ''. Colt re-introduced the revolvers in its second generation revolvers produced after 1956. The Buntline Special was further popularized by The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp television series. Earp 's reputation has been confused by inaccurate, conflicting, and false stories told about him by others, and by his own claims that can not be corroborated. For example, in an interview with a reporter in Denver in 1896, he denied that he had killed Johnny Ringo. He then flipped his story, claiming he had killed Ringo. In 1888, he was interviewed by an agent of California historian Hubert H. Bancroft, and Earp claimed that he had killed "over a dozen stage robbers, murderers, and cattle thieves ''. In about 1918 he told Forrestine Hooker, who wrote an unpublished manuscript, and then Frank Lockwood, who wrote Pioneer Days in Arizona in 1932, that he was the one who killed Johnny Ringo as he left Arizona in 1882. However, Earp included details that do not match what is known about Ringo 's death. Earp repeated that claim to at least three other people. At the hearing following the Tombstone shootout, Earp said he had been marshal in Dodge City, a claim he repeated in an August 16, 1896, interview that appeared in The San Francisco Examiner. But Earp had only been an assistant city marshal there. During an interview with his future biographer Stuart Lake during the late 1920s, Earp said that he arrested notorious gunslinger Ben Thompson in Ellsworth, Kansas, on August 15, 1873, when news accounts and Thompson 's own contemporary account about the episode do not mention his presence. He also told Lake that he had hunted buffalo during 1871 and 1872, but Earp was arrested three times in the Peoria area during that period for "Keeping and being found in a house of ill - fame. '' He was arrested and jailed on a horse theft charge on April 6, 1871. However he was not convicted of the last charge and was released. In the same interview, Earp claimed that George Hoyt had intended to kill him, although newspaper accounts from that time report differently. He also said he and Bat Masterson had confronted Clay Allison when he was sent to Dodge City to finish George Hoyt 's job, and that they had forced him to back down. Two other accounts contradicted Earp, crediting cattleman Dick McNulty and Long Branch Saloon owner Chalk Beeson with convincing Allison and his cowboys to surrender their guns. Cowboy Charlie Siringo witnessed the incident and left a written account. Wyatt outlived his brothers, and due to the fame Wyatt gained from Lake 's biography and later adaptations of it, he is often mistakenly viewed as the central character and hero of the gunfight at the O.K. Corral. In fact, Virgil Earp, as Deputy U.S. Marshal and Tombstone City Marshal, actually held the legal authority in Tombstone the day of the shootout. Virgil had considerably more experience with weapons and combat as a Union soldier in the Civil War, and in law enforcement as a sheriff, constable, and marshal than did Wyatt. As city marshal, Virgil made the decision to enforce a city ordinance prohibiting carrying weapons in town and to disarm the Cowboys. Wyatt was only a temporary assistant marshal to his brother. Earp 's modern - day reputation is that of the Old West 's "toughest and deadliest gunman of his day ''. He is "a cultural icon, a man of law and order, a mythic figure of a West where social control and order were notably absent ''. Due to Lake 's fanciful biography and because Wyatt outlived all of his brothers, his name became famous and he is the source of many movies, TV shows, biographies and works of fiction. Western historian and author John Boessenecker describes Earp as an "enigmatic figure... He always lived on the outer fringe of respectable society, and his closest companions were gamblers and sporting men... Wyatt never set down roots in any one place; when the money stopped coming in or his problems became too great, he would pull up stakes and move on to the next boomtown... For his entire life was a gamble, an effort to make money without working hard for it, to succeed quickly without ever settling in for the long haul. One of the most well known and for many years respected books about Wyatt Earp was the book I Married Wyatt Earp, originally credited as a factual memoir by Josephine Marcus Earp. Published in 1976, it was edited by amateur historian Glenn Boyer, and published by the respected University of Arizona Press. It was immensely popular for many years, capturing the imagination of people with an interest in western history, studied in classrooms, cited by scholars, and relied upon as factual by filmmakers. In 1998, writer Tony Ortega wrote a lengthy investigative article for the Phoenix New Times for which he interviewed Boyer. Boyer said that he was uninterested in what others thought of the accuracy of what he had written. "This is an artistic effort. I do n't have to adhere to the kind of jacket that these people are putting on me. I am not a historian. I 'm a storyteller. '' Boyer admitted that the book is "100 percent Boyer ''. He said the book was not really a first - person account, that he had interpreted Wyatt Earp in Josephine 's voice, and admitted that he could not produce any documents to vindicate his methods. Boyer and the University Press ' credibility was severely damaged. In 2000 the University referred all questions to university lawyers who investigated some of the allegations about Boyer 's work. Later that year the Press removed the book from their catalog. The book has been discredited as a fraud and a hoax that can not be relied on. As a result, other works by Boyer were subsequently questioned. His book, Wyatt Earp 's Tombstone Vendetta, published in 1993, was according to Boyer based on an account written by a previously unknown Tombstone journalist that he named "Theodore Ten Eyck '', but whose identity could not be independently verified. Boyer claimed that the manuscript was "clearly authentic '' and that it contained "fascinating revelations (if they are true) and would make an ace movie ''. Boyer later said the character was in fact a blend of "scores of accounts '', but could not provide any sources. History professor William Urban also described "the questionable scholarship of Glenn Boyer, the dominant figure in Earpiana for the past several decades, who has apparently invented a manuscript and then cited it as a major source in his publications. This does not surprise this reviewer, who has personal experience with Boyer 's pretentious exaggeration of his acquaintance with Warren County records. '' When a post office was established in 1930 in the unincorporated settlement of Drennan, near the site of some of his mining claims, it was renamed Earp, California in his honor. In 2002, a plaque was erected at the site of the Earp 's cottage in Vidal, California, noting that the cottage was the only home they owned in the time they were married. Arctic explorer Lincoln Ellsworth became fascinated with the Earp legend. Ellsworth completed four expeditions to Antarctica between 1933 and 1939, using a former Norwegian herring boat as his aircraft transporter and base that he named Wyatt Earp after his hero. Ellsworth befriended Earp 's widow, Josephine Earp. After Wyatt 's death, she wrote him that she was sending him Wyatt 's handgun, a shotgun, pipe, and wedding ring. She said she was sending him a. 41 - caliber Colt revolver, which she said Wyatt referred to affectionately as his "baby pony. '' However, Ellsworth actually received a. 45 - caliber Colt revolver with a 7 1⁄2 '' barrel. Its serial number indicates it was originally shipped from the Colt factory on January 30, 1883. The shotgun was a 16 gauge double - barreled hunting shotgun and case belonging to Wyatt. Ellsworth 's widow donated this pistol to the Arizona Historical Society in 1988. John Gilchriese, an amateur historian and long - time collector of Earp memorabilia, interviewed John H. Flood Jr., Wyatt Earp 's secretary, several times before his death in 1959. Gilchriese operated a Wyatt Earp Museum from 1966 - 1973 at Fifth and Toughnut Streets in Tombstone. His collection included Earp 's original diagrams of the gunfights in Tombstone and Iron Springs, along with photos, original letters, invoices, checks, and hundreds of related items. In 2004, when his health deteriorated, he sold his collection at auction. The drawings of the OK Corral shoot out were later resold. In February, 2010, the earliest known example of Wyatt Earp 's signature, found on a February, 1870 Lamar, Missouri subpoena, sold at auction for $14,937.50. On April 17, 2014, the family of deceased Earp amateur historian Glenn Boyer put much of his Earp collection and many artifacts up for auction. Among the 32 boxes of documentation, files, pictures and memorabilia for sale was a Colt. 45 caliber said by Earp descendants to have been owned by Wyatt Earp. Also included in the auction was a Winchester lever - action shotgun belonging to Wyatt Earp. Earp was known to carry a. 45 caliber revolver, as he did on the night of the Fitzimmons - Sharkey fight in 1896. Historians have credible evidence that Wyatt used a. 44 caliber 1869 American model Smith & Wesson during the gunfight at the O.K. Corral. This weapon was given by Earp to John Flood, who left it to Earp historian John D. Gilchriese. Descendants of Wyatt Earp 's cousins assert that Earp carried the revolver featured in the auction and while in Tombstone, although the grips, barrel, and cylinder have been replaced. Only the frame is original, and its serial number has been filed off. However, X-ray testing showed an original serial number, 5686, which matches a batch of revolvers purchased by the U.S. Army in 1874. The history of the items is controversial, because they belonged to Boyer. John Boessenecker, a respected author of numerous articles on the American Old West and a collector of American Old West guns and memorabilia, said that it would be "impossible to separate the authenticity of the auction items from Boyer 's own troubled history. '' This is particularly true, because the provenance of the weapons is based on letters written by or given to Boyer. The authenticity of the revolver displayed at the auction is attested to by a typewritten letter dictated by Bill Miller to his daughter LaVonne Griffin. Miller was married to Estelle Edwards, the daughter of Adelia Earp Edwards, Wyatt 's sister. Before his death, Boyer completed a sworn affidavit attesting that the Colt. 45 belonged to Earp. The affidavit is included with the revolver, along with other expert findings. Critics challenge the authenticity of the letter because Boyer signed an affidavit in 1994 and stated again in 1999, long after Bill Miller 's death, that he did not have any documentation from Miller. LeRoy Merz, the owner of Merz Antique Firearms, is the nation 's largest dealer in antique Winchesters in the United States. Despite Boyer 's affidavit, he said the missing serial number is a "kiss of death. '' He says, "No serious collector will want that. '' The Wyatt revolver from Boyer 's estate was expected to fetch from $100,000 and $150,000. On the day of the auction, more than 6,400 online bidders and over 400 collectors from 49 countries took part in the auction. The revolver attributed to Wyatt Earp was sold to an unnamed phone bidder from New Mexico for $225,000. The Winchester lever - action shotgun also said to be Wyatt Earp 's sold for $50,000, below the high value estimate of $125,000. John H. Flood Jr., Wyatt Earp 's secretary, who he regarded like a son, drew a sketch of the gunfight at the O.K. Corral in 1926 under Wyatt 's supervision. The drawing placed participants and selected witnesses on Fremont Street in Tombstone, and Earp annotated it with lines indicating how the participants moved during the 30 - second shootout. It was sold at auction by Alexander Autographs in early October 2010, for $380,000. Earp was depicted in only one movie while he was alive. He later became the prototypical model for a western lawman. His character has been portrayed directly and indirectly in dozens of movies and television shows. Earp 's good friend William Hart produced and wrote the seven - reel epic Wild Bill Hickok released by Paramount in 1923. It was the first movie to depict Wyatt Earp and the only movie that included his character before he died in 1929. Hart played "Wild Bill '' and Bert Lindley played Earp. The role of Earp 's character in the movie was very small. He appears at the back of a crowd scene when Hickok meets some gentlemen on the city street. Bert Lindley is not listed on some descriptions of the movie and this portrayal of Earp is often overlooked, as in the biography Inventing Wyatt Earp: His Life & Many Legends. Earp served as a technical adviser on the film. In the film, Hickok calls on his friends Earp, Calamity Jane, Bat Masterson, Doc Holliday, Charlie Bassett, Luke Short and Bill Tilghman to help clean up a wild cowtown. Promotional copy for the film prominently mentioned Earp: "Back in the days when the West was young and wild, "Wild Bill '' fought and loved and adventured with such famous frontiersmen as Bat Masterson and Wyatt Earp. '' Earp was described in the promotional copy as "Deputy Sheriff to Bat Masterson of Dodge City, known as one of the three greatest gun - men that ever lived, along with Bat Masterson and "Wild Bill '' Hickok ". In reality, Earp was a virtually unknown assistant marshal in Dodge City when Wild Bill Hickok was murdered in 1876. After his death in 1929, Earp 's character did not appear in a movie until the famous gunfight was depicted for the first time in the 1932 film Law and Order, although the Wyatt Earp character is named Frame ' Saint ' Johnson (Walter Huston). Since then, about 40 other movies have included his character. With the emergence of television in the 1950s, producers spun out a large number of Western - oriented shows. At the height of their popularity in 1959, there were more than two dozen "cowboy '' programs on each week. At least six of them were connected in some extent to Wyatt Earp: The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp, Bat Masterson, Tombstone Territory, Broken Arrow, Johnny Ringo, and Gunsmoke. Wyatt Earp both directly and indirectly influenced the way movies depict lawmen in the American Old West. While living in Los Angeles, Earp met several well - known and soon - to - be famous actors on the sets of various movies. He became good friends with Western actors William S. Hart, and Tom Mix. Stuart Lake 's book Wyatt Earp: Frontier Marshal was the basis for how Earp has been depicted as a fearless Western hero in a large number of films and books. The book was first adapted into a movie for Frontier Marshal in 1934. Josephine Earp successfully pressured the producers to remove Wyatt 's name from the film, and the protagonist was renamed "Michael Wyatt ''. The film was made again in 1939. Josephine sued 20th Century Fox for $50,000, but with the provision that Wyatt 's name be removed from the title, and after she received $5,000, the movie was released as Frontier Marshal starring Randolph Scott playing Wyatt Earp. Sol M. Wurtzel produced both films. Lake wrote another book about Wyatt Earp titled My Darling Clementine in 1946 that director John Ford developed into the movie of the same name, which further boosted Wyatt 's reputation. The book later inspired a number of stories, movies and television programs about outlaws and lawmen in Dodge City and Tombstone. Lake wrote a number of screenplays for these movies and twelve scripts for the 1955 -- 61 television series The Life and Legend of Wyatt Earp starring Hugh O'Brian as Earp. The popular movie Gunfight at the O.K. Corral, released in 1957, starring Burt Lancaster as Earp, cemented his place in Western history as a hero lawman. The movie also altered the public 's perception of cowboys, who in Earp 's time and locale were outlaws, but in the movies were reinvented as good guys, assisting the lawmen in their fight against the outlaws. Director John Ford said that when he was a prop boy in the early days of silent pictures, Earp would visit pals on the sets he knew from his Tombstone days. "I used to give him a chair and a cup of coffee, and he told me about the fight at the O.K. Corral. So in My Darling Clementine, we did it exactly the way it had been. '' When Ford was working on his last silent feature Hangman 's House in 1928, which included the first credited screen appearances by John Wayne, Earp used to visit the set. John Wayne later told Hugh O'Brian that he based his Western lawman walk, talk and persona to his acquaintance with Wyatt Earp, who was good friends with Mix. "I knew him... I often thought of Wyatt Earp when I played a film character. There 's a guy that actually did what I 'm trying to do. '' Wyatt Earp 's character has been the central figure in 10 films and featured in many more. Among the best - known actors who have portrayed him are Randolph Scott, Guy Madison, Henry Fonda, Joel McCrea, Burt Lancaster, James Garner, Jimmy Stewart, Hugh O'Brian, Kurt Russell and Kevin Costner. Wyatt and Morgan Earp figure prominently in Michael Crichton 's novel, Dragon Teeth (published posthumously in 2017).

when was advance australia fair proclaimed as the national anthem

Advance Australia Fair - Wikipedia "Advance Australia Fair '' is the national anthem of Australia. Created by the Scottish - born composer Peter Dodds McCormick, the song was first performed in 1878 and sung in Australia as a patriotic song. It replaced "God Save the Queen '' as the official national anthem in 1984, following a plebiscite to choose the national song in 1977. Other songs and marches have been influenced by "Advance Australia Fair '', such as the Australian vice-regal salute. "Advance Australia Fair '' was composed in the late 19th century by Peter Dodds McCormick under the pen - name "Amicus '' (which means "friend '' in Latin). It was first performed by Andrew Fairfax at a function of the Highland Society of New South Wales in Sydney on 30 November 1878. The song quickly gained popularity and an amended version was sung by a choir of around 10,000 at the inauguration of the Commonwealth of Australia on 1 January 1901. In 1907 the Australian Government awarded McCormick £ 100 for his composition. In a letter to R.B. Fuller, dated 1 August 1913, McCormick described the circumstances that inspired him to write "Advance Australia Fair '': One night I attended a great concert in the Exhibition Building, when all the National Anthems of the world were to be sung by a large choir with band accompaniment. This was very nicely done, but I felt very aggravated that there was not one note for Australia. On the way home in a bus, I concocted the first verse of my song & when I got home I set it to music. I first wrote it in the Tonic Sol - fa notation, then transcribed it into the Old Notation, & I tried it over on an instrument next morning, & found it correct. Strange to say there has not been a note of it altered since. Some alteration has been made in the wording, but the sense is the same. It seemed to me to be like an inspiration, & I wrote the words & music with the greatest ease. The earliest known sound recording of "Advance Australia Fair '' appears in The Landing of the Australian Troops in Egypt (circa 1916), a short commercial recording dramatising the arrival of Australian troops in Egypt en route to Gallipoli. Before its adoption as Australia 's national anthem, "Advance Australia Fair '' had considerable use elsewhere. For example, Australia 's national broadcaster, the Australian Broadcasting Commission, used it to announce its news bulletins until 1952. It was also frequently played at the start or end of official functions. Towards the end of World War II it was one of three songs played in certain picture theatres, along with "God Save the King '' and the US national anthem. In 1951 there was a competition for a new national anthem to celebrate the golden jubilee of the Federation of Australia. The entry by the Austrian - born conductor Henry Krips, "This Land of Mine '', won the competition but it was decided to make no change to the status quo. Until 1974 "God Save the Queen '' was Australia 's national anthem. In 1973 the Whitlam government decided that the country needed an anthem that could represent Australia with "distinction '' and started a competition to find one. This decision by Whitlam was driven by the desire to forge a new nationalism separate from Great Britain. In 1973, Gough Whitlam dedicated an entire Australia Day speech to the search for a new anthem saying that it will be a "symbolic expression of our national pride and dignity ''. The Australia Council for the Arts organised the contest, which was dubbed the "Australian National Anthem Quest ''. The contest was held in two stages, the first seeking lyrics and the second music, each having an A $ 5,000 prize for the winning entry. On the recommendation of the Council for the Arts, none of the new entries were felt worthy enough, so the contest ended with the suggestions for "Advance Australia Fair '', "Waltzing Matilda '' and "Song of Australia ''. In 1974 the Whitlam government then performed a nationwide opinion survey to determine the song to be sung on occasions of national significance. Conducted through the Australian Bureau of Statistics, it polled 60,000 people nationally. "Advance Australia Fair '' was chosen and was enshrined as the national song, to be used on all occasions excepting those of a specifically regal nature. A spokesman for the Prime Minister Gough Whitlam stated that the Government regarded the tune primarily as the national anthem. During the 1975 election campaign following the dismissal of Whitlam by Sir John Kerr, it was proposed by David Combe that the song be played at the start of the Labor Party 's official campaign launch on 24 November 1975 at Festival Hall, Melbourne. Whitlam 's speechwriter Graham Freudenberg rejected this idea, on two grounds, one of which was that the status of the anthem was still tentative. In January 1976 the Fraser government reinstated "God Save the Queen '' for royal, vice-regal, defence and loyal toast occasions as well as making plans to conduct a national poll to find a song for use on ceremonial occasions when it was desired to mark a separate Australian identity. This was conducted as a plebiscite to choose the National Song, held as an optional additional question in the 1977 referendum on various issues. "Advance Australia Fair '' received 43.29 % of the vote, defeating the three alternatives, "Waltzing Matilda '' (28.28 %), "Song of Australia '' (9.65 %) and the existing national anthem, "God Save the Queen '' (18.78 %). "Advance Australia Fair '', with modified lyrics from the original (see development of lyrics), was adopted as the Australian national anthem on 19 April 1984 by a proclamation by the Governor - General, Sir Ninian Stephen, on a recommendation by the Labor government of Bob Hawke. "God Save the Queen '', now known as the royal anthem, continues to be played alongside the Australian national anthem at public engagements in Australia that are attended by the Queen or members of the Royal Family. The lyrics of "Advance Australia Fair '' were officially adopted in 1984 as follows: Australians all let us rejoice, For we are young and free; We 've golden soil and wealth for toil; Our home is girt by sea; Our land abounds in nature 's gifts Of beauty rich and rare; In history 's page, let every stage Advance Australia Fair. In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia Fair. Beneath our radiant Southern Cross We 'll toil with hearts and hands; To make this Commonwealth of ours Renowned of all the lands; For those who 've come across the seas We 've boundless plains to share; With courage let us all combine To Advance Australia Fair. In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia Fair. Even though any copyright of Peter Dodds McCormick 's original lyrics has expired, as he died in 1916, the Commonwealth of Australia claims copyright on the official lyrics and particular arrangements of music. Non-commercial use of the anthem is permitted without case - by - case permission, but the Commonwealth government requires permission for commercial use. The wordless orchestral version of "Advance Australia Fair '' that is now regularly played for Australian victories at international sporting medal ceremonies, and at the openings of major domestic sporting, cultural and community events, is by Tommy Tycho, an immigrant from Hungary. It was first commissioned by ABC Records in 1984 and then televised by Channel 10 in 1986 in their Australia Day Broadcast, featuring Julie Anthony as the soloist. Since the original lyrics were written in 1879, there have been several changes, in some cases with the intent of increasing the anthem 's inclusiveness and gender neutrality. Some of these were minor while others have significantly changed the song. The original song was four verses long. For its adoption as the national anthem, the song was cut from four verses to two. The first verse was kept largely as the 1879 original, except for the change in the first line from "Australia 's sons let us rejoice '' to "Australians all let us rejoice ''. The second, third and fourth verses of the original were dropped, in favour of a modified version of the new third verse which was sung at Federation in 1901. The original lyrics published in 1879 were as follows: Australia 's sons let us rejoice, For we are young and free; We 've golden soil and wealth for toil, Our home is girt by sea; Our land abounds in Nature 's gifts Of beauty rich and rare; In hist'ry's page, let ev'ry stage Advance Australia fair. In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia fair. When gallant Cook from Albion sailed, To trace wide oceans o'er, True British courage bore him on, Til he landed on our shore. Then here he raised Old England 's flag, The standard of the brave; "With all her faults we love her still '' "Britannia rules the wave. '' In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair. While other nations of the globe Behold us from afar, We 'll rise to high renown and shine Like our glorious southern star; From England soil and Fatherland, Scotia and Erin fair, Let all combine with heart and hand To advance Australia fair. In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair. Should foreign foe e'er sight our coast, Or dare a foot to land, We 'll rouse to arms like sires of yore, To guard our native strand; Britannia then shall surely know, Though oceans roll between, Her sons in fair Australia 's land Still keep their courage green. In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair. The 1901 Federation version of the third verse was originally sung as: Beneath our radiant Southern Cross, We 'll toil with hearts and hands; To make our youthful Commonwealth, Renowned of all the lands; For loyal sons beyond the seas We 've boundless plains to share; With courage let us all combine To advance Australia fair. In joyful strains then let us sing Advance Australia fair! Both the lyrics and melody of the Australian national anthem have been criticised in some quarters as being dull and unendearing to the Australian people. A National Party senator, Sandy Macdonald, said in 2001 that "Advance Australia Fair '' is so boring that the nation risks singing itself to sleep, with boring music and words impossible to understand. A parliamentary colleague, Peter Slipper, said that Australia should consider another anthem. One suggested replacement was "I Am Australian '', notably in 2011 by former Victorian Premier Jeff Kennett. Specific criticism is also directed at the fourth line of lyrics, "our home is girt by sea '', for its use of the archaic word "girt '' to acknowledge the fact that Australia is an island. The current version of the anthem has a mix of old and new language, rather than having one style of language consistently throughout. Criticism has come from various people, including Australian Labor Party politician Craig Emerson, but others, including former Labor leader Kim Beazley, have defended it. The line "for we are young and free '' has been criticised by a Victorian judge who said that many indigenous Australians find the words offensive. Australian Aboriginal soprano, Deborah Cheetham, has refused to sing "Advance Australia Fair '' at the AFL grand finals, citing this lyric, and has advocated for the lyrics to be rewritten. A variant of the national anthem penned in 1988 by Sri Lankan immigrant Ruth Ponniah and sung in some Christian schools replaces the second verse with the following: With Christ our head and cornerstone, We 'll build our nation 's might; Whose way and truth and light alone, Can guide our path aright; Our lives a sacrifice of love, Reflect our master 's care; With faces turned to heav'n above, Advance Australia Fair; In joyful strains then let us sing, Advance Australia Fair.

which of the following is the primary function of the lymphatic system

Lymphatic system - wikipedia The Lymphatic system is part of the circulatory system and a vital part of the immune system, comprising a network of lymphatic vessels that carry a clear fluid called lymph (from Latin, lympha meaning "water '') directionally towards the heart. The lymphatic system was first described in the seventeenth century independently by Olaus Rudbeck and Thomas Bartholin. Unlike the circulatory system, the lymphatic system is not a closed system. The human circulatory system processes an average of 20 liters of blood per day through capillary filtration, which removes plasma while leaving the blood cells. Roughly 17 litres of the filtered plasma are reabsorbed directly into the blood vessels, while the remaining three litres remain in the interstitial fluid. One of the main functions of the lymph system is to provide an accessory return route to the blood for the surplus three litres. The other main function is that of defense in the immune system. Lymph is very similar to blood plasma: it contains lymphocytes. It also contains waste products and cellular debris together with bacteria and proteins. Associated organs composed of lymphoid tissue are the sites of lymphocyte production. Lymphocytes are concentrated in the lymph nodes. The spleen and the thymus are also lymphoid organs of the immune system. The tonsils are lymphoid organs that are also associated with the digestive system. Lymphoid tissues contain lymphocytes, and also contain other types of cells for support. The system also includes all the structures dedicated to the circulation and production of lymphocytes (the primary cellular component of lymph), which also includes the bone marrow, and the lymphoid tissue associated with the digestive system. The blood does not come into direct contact with the parenchymal cells and tissues in the body (except in case of an injury causing rupture of one or more blood vessels), but constituents of the blood first exit the microvascular exchange blood vessels to become interstitial fluid, which comes into contact with the parenchymal cells of the body. Lymph is the fluid that is formed when interstitial fluid enters the initial lymphatic vessels of the lymphatic system. The lymph is then moved along the lymphatic vessel network by either intrinsic contractions of the lymphatic passages or by extrinsic compression of the lymphatic vessels via external tissue forces (e.g., the contractions of skeletal muscles), or by lymph hearts in some animals. The organization of lymph nodes and drainage follows the organization of the body into external and internal regions; therefore, the lymphatic drainage of the head, limbs, and body cavity walls follows an external route, and the lymphatic drainage of the thorax, abdomen, and pelvic cavities follows an internal route. Eventually, the lymph vessels empty into the lymphatic ducts, which drain into one of the two subclavian veins, near their junction with the internal jugular veins. The lymphatic system consists of lymphatic organs, a conducting network of lymphatic vessels, and the circulating lymph. The primary or central lymphoid organs generate lymphocytes from immature progenitor cells. The thymus and the bone marrow constitute the primary lymphoid organs involved in the production and early clonal selection of lymphocyte tissues. Bone marrow is responsible for both the creation of T cells and the production and maturation of B cells. From the bone marrow, B cells immediately join the circulatory system and travel to secondary lymphoid organs in search of pathogens. T cells, on the other hand, travel from the bone marrow to the thymus, where they develop further. Mature T cells join B cells in search of pathogens. The other 95 % of T cells begin a process of apoptosis, a form of programmed cell death. Secondary or peripheral lymphoid organs, which include lymph nodes and the spleen, maintain mature naive lymphocytes and initiate an adaptive immune response. The peripheral lymphoid organs are the sites of lymphocyte activation by antigens. Activation leads to clonal expansion and affinity maturation. Mature lymphocytes recirculate between the blood and the peripheral lymphoid organs until they encounter their specific antigen. Secondary lymphoid tissue provides the environment for the foreign or altered native molecules (antigens) to interact with the lymphocytes. It is exemplified by the lymph nodes, and the lymphoid follicles in tonsils, Peyer 's patches, spleen, adenoids, skin, etc. that are associated with the mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue (MALT). In the gastrointestinal wall the appendix has mucosa resembling that of the colon, but here it is heavily infiltrated with lymphocytes. The tertiary lymphoid tissue typically contains far fewer lymphocytes, and assumes an immune role only when challenged with antigens that result in inflammation. It achieves this by importing the lymphocytes from blood and lymph.) The thymus is a primary lymphoid organ and the site of maturation for T cells, the lymphocytes of the adaptive immune system. The thymus increases in size from birth in response to postnatal antigen stimulation, then to puberty and regresses thereafter. The loss or lack of the thymus results in severe immunodeficiency and subsequent high susceptibility to infection. In most species, the thymus consists of lobules divided by septa which are made up of epithelium and is therefore an epithelial organ. T cells mature from thymocytes, proliferate and undergo selection process in the thymic cortex before entering the medulla to interact with epithelial cells. The thymus provides an inductive environment for development of T cells from hematopoietic progenitor cells. In addition, thymic stromal cells allow for the selection of a functional and self - tolerant T cell repertoire. Therefore, one of the most important roles of the thymus is the induction of central tolerance. The thymus is largest and most active during the neonatal and pre-adolescent periods. By the early teens, the thymus begins to atrophy and thymic stroma is mostly replaced by adipose tissue. Nevertheless, residual T lymphopoiesis continues throughout adult life. The main functions of the spleen are: The spleen synthesizes antibodies in its white pulp and removes antibody - coated bacteria and antibody - coated blood cells by way of blood and lymph node circulation. A study published in 2009 using mice found that the spleen contains, in its reserve, half of the body 's monocytes within the red pulp. These monocytes, upon moving to injured tissue (such as the heart), turn into dendritic cells and macrophages while promoting tissue healing. The spleen is a center of activity of the mononuclear phagocyte system and can be considered analogous to a large lymph node, as its absence causes a predisposition to certain infections. Like the thymus, the spleen has only efferent lymphatic vessels. Both the short gastric arteries and the splenic artery supply it with blood. The germinal centers are supplied by arterioles called penicilliary radicles. Up to the fifth month of prenatal development the spleen creates red blood cells. After birth the bone marrow is solely responsible for hematopoiesis. As a major lymphoid organ and a central player in the reticuloendothelial system, the spleen retains the ability to produce lymphocytes. The spleen stores red blood cells and lymphocytes. It can store enough blood cells to help in an emergency. Up to 25 % of lymphocytes can be stored at any one time. A lymph node is an organized collection of lymphoid tissue, through which the lymph passes on its way back to the blood. Lymph nodes are located at intervals along the lymphatic system. Several afferent lymph vessels bring in lymph, which percolates through the substance of the lymph node, and is then drained out by an efferent lymph vessel. There are between five and six hundred lymph nodes in the human body, many of which are grouped in clusters in different regions as in the underarm and abdominal areas. Lymph node clusters are commonly found at the base of limbs (groin, armpits) and in the neck, where lymph is collected from regions of the body likely to sustain pathogen contamination from injuries. The substance of a lymph node consists of lymphoid follicles in an outer portion called the cortex. The inner portion of the node is called the medulla, which is surrounded by the cortex on all sides except for a portion known as the hilum. The hilum presents as a depression on the surface of the lymph node, causing the otherwise spherical lymph node to be bean - shaped or ovoid. The efferent lymph vessel directly emerges from the lymph node at the hilum. The arteries and veins supplying the lymph node with blood enter and exit through the hilum. The region of the lymph node called the paracortex immediately surrounds the medulla. Unlike the cortex, which has mostly immature T cells, or thymocytes, the paracortex has a mixture of immature and mature T cells. Lymphocytes enter the lymph nodes through specialised high endothelial venules found in the paracortex. A lymph follicle is a dense collection of lymphocytes, the number, size and configuration of which change in accordance with the functional state of the lymph node. For example, the follicles expand significantly when encountering a foreign antigen. The selection of B cells, or B lymphocytes, occurs in the germinal center of the lymph nodes. Lymph nodes are particularly numerous in the mediastinum in the chest, neck, pelvis, axilla, inguinal region, and in association with the blood vessels of the intestines. Lymphoid tissue associated with the lymphatic system is concerned with immune functions in defending the body against infections and the spread of tumors. It consists of connective tissue formed of reticular fibers, with various types of leukocytes, (white blood cells), mostly lymphocytes enmeshed in it, through which the lymph passes. Regions of the lymphoid tissue that are densely packed with lymphocytes are known as lymphoid follicles. Lymphoid tissue can either be structurally well organized as lymph nodes or may consist of loosely organized lymphoid follicles known as the mucosa - associated lymphoid tissue. The central nervous system also has lymphatic vessels, as discovered by University of Virginia Researchers. The search for T - cell gateways into and out of the meninges uncovered functional lymphatic vessels lining the dural sinuses, anatomically integrated into the membrane surrounding the brain. See Meningeal lymphatic vessels. The lymphatic vessels, also called lymph vessels, conduct lymph between different parts of the body. They include the tubular vessels of the lymph capillaries, and the larger collecting vessels -- the right lymphatic duct and the thoracic duct (the left lymphatic duct). The lymph capillaries are mainly responsible for the absorption of interstitial fluid from the tissues, while lymph vessels propel the absorbed fluid forward into the larger collecting ducts, where it ultimately returns to the bloodstream via one of the subclavian veins. These vessels are also called the lymphatic channels or simply lymphatics. The lymphatics are responsible for maintaining the balance of the body fluids. Its network of capillaries and collecting lymphatic vessels work to efficiently drain and transport extravasated fluid, along with proteins and antigens, back to the circulatory system. Numerous intraluminal valves in the vessels ensure a unidirectional flow of lymph without reflux. Two valve systems are used to achieve this one directional flow -- a primary and a secondary valve system. The capillaries are blind - ended, and the valves at the ends of capillaries use specialised junctions together with anchoring filaments to allow a unidirectional flow to the primary vessels. The collecting lymphatics, however, act to propel the lymph by the combined actions of the intraluminal valves and lymphatic muscle cells. Lymphatic tissues begin to develop by the end of the fifth week of embryonic development. Lymphatic vessels develop from lymph sacs that arise from developing veins, which are derived from mesoderm. The first lymph sacs to appear are the paired jugular lymph sacs at the junction of the internal jugular and subclavian veins. From the jugular lymph sacs, lymphatic capillary plexuses spread to the thorax, upper limbs, neck and head. Some of the plexuses enlarge and form lymphatic vessels in their respective regions. Each jugular lymph sac retains at least one connection with its jugular vein, the left one developing into the superior portion of the thoracic duct. The next lymph sac to appear is the unpaired retroperitoneal lymph sac at the root of the mesentery of the intestine. It develops from the primitive vena cava and mesonephric veins. Capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels spread from the retroperitoneal lymph sac to the abdominal viscera and diaphragm. The sac establishes connections with the cisterna chyli but loses its connections with neighboring veins. The last of the lymph sacs, the paired posterior lymph sacs, develop from the iliac veins. The posterior lymph sacs produce capillary plexuses and lymphatic vessels of the abdominal wall, pelvic region, and lower limbs. The posterior lymph sacs join the cisterna chyli and lose their connections with adjacent veins. With the exception of the anterior part of the sac from which the cisterna chyli develops, all lymph sacs become invaded by mesenchymal cells and are converted into groups of lymph nodes. The spleen develops from mesenchymal cells between layers of the dorsal mesentery of the stomach. The thymus arises as an outgrowth of the third pharyngeal pouch. The lymphatic system has multiple interrelated functions: Lymph vessels called lacteals are in the beginning of the gastrointestinal tract, predominantly in the small intestine. While most other nutrients absorbed by the small intestine are passed on to the portal venous system to drain via the portal vein into the liver for processing, fats (lipids) are passed on to the lymphatic system to be transported to the blood circulation via the thoracic duct. (There are exceptions, for example medium - chain triglycerides are fatty acid esters of glycerol that passively diffuse from the GI tract to the portal system.) The enriched lymph originating in the lymphatics of the small intestine is called chyle. The nutrients that are released to the circulatory system are processed by the liver, having passed through the systemic circulation. The lymphatic system plays a major role in body 's immune system, as the primary site for cells relating to adaptive immune system including T - cells and B - cells. Cells in the lymphatic system react to antigens presented or found by the cells directly or by other dendritic cells. When an antigen is recognized, an immunological cascade begins involving the activation and recruitment of more and more cells, the production of antibodies and cytokines and the recruitment of other immunological cells such as macrophages. The study of lymphatic drainage of various organs is important in the diagnosis, prognosis, and treatment of cancer. The lymphatic system, because of its closeness to many tissues of the body, is responsible for carrying cancerous cells between the various parts of the body in a process called metastasis. The intervening lymph nodes can trap the cancer cells. If they are not successful in destroying the cancer cells the nodes may become sites of secondary tumors. Lymphadenopathy refers to one or more enlarged lymph nodes. Small groups or individually enlarged lymph nodes are generally reactive in response to infection or inflammation. This is called local lymphadenopathy. When many lymph nodes in different areas of the body are involved, this is called generalised lymphadenopathy. Generalised lymphadenopathy may be caused by infections such as infectious mononucleosis, tuberculosis and HIV, connective tissue diseases such as SLE and rheumatoid arthritis, and cancers, including both cancers of tissue within lymph nodes, discussed below, and metastasis of cancerous cells from other parts of the body, that have arrived via the lymphatic system. Lymphedema is the swelling caused by the accumulation of lymph, which may occur if the lymphatic system is damaged or has malformations. It usually affects limbs, though the face, neck and abdomen may also be affected. In an extreme state, called elephantiasis, the edema progresses to the extent that the skin becomes thick with an appearance similar to the skin on elephant limbs. Causes are unknown in most cases, but sometimes there is a previous history of severe infection, usually caused by a parasitic disease, such as lymphatic filariasis. Lymphangiomatosis is a disease involving multiple cysts or lesions formed from lymphatic vessels. Lymphedema can also occur after surgical removal of lymph nodes in the armpit (causing the arm to swell due to poor lymphatic drainage) or groin (causing swelling of the leg). Treatment is by massage, and is not permanent. Cancer of the lymphatic system can be primary or secondary. Lymphoma refers to cancer that arises from lymphatic tissue. Lymphoid leukemias and lymphomas are now considered to be tumors of the same type of cell lineage. They are called "leukemia '' when in the blood or marrow and "lymphoma '' when in lymphatic tissue. They are grouped together under the name "lymphoid malignancy ''. Lymphoma is generally considered as either Hodgkin lymphoma or non-Hodgkin lymphoma. Hodgkin lymphoma is characterised by a particular type of cell, called a Reed -- Sternberg cell, visible under microscope. It is associated with past infection with the Epstein - Barr Virus, and generally causes a painless "rubbery '' lymphadenopathy. It is staged, using Ann Arbor staging. Chemotherapy generally involves the ABVD and may also involve radiotherapy. Non-Hodgkin lymphoma is a cancer characterised by increased proliferation of B - cells or T - cells, generally occurs in an older age group than Hodgkin lymphoma. It is treated according to whether it is high - grade or low - grade, and carries a poorer prognosis than Hodgkin lymphoma. Lymphangiosarcoma is a malignant soft tissue tumor, whereas lymphangioma is a benign tumor occurring frequently in association with Turner syndrome. Lymphangioleiomyomatosis is a benign tumor of the smooth muscles of the lymphatics that occurs in the lungs. Lymphoid leukemia is another form of cancer where the host is devoid of different lymphatic cells. Hippocrates, in 5th century BC, was one of the first people to mention the lymphatic system. In his work On Joints, he briefly mentioned the lymph nodes in one sentence. Rufus of Ephesus, a Roman physician, identified the axillary, inguinal and mesenteric lymph nodes as well as the thymus during the 1st to 2nd century AD. The first mention of lymphatic vessels was in 3rd century BC by Herophilos, a Greek anatomist living in Alexandria, who incorrectly concluded that the "absorptive veins of the lymphatics, '' by which he meant the lacteals (lymph vessels of the intestines), drained into the hepatic portal veins, and thus into the liver. The findings of Ruphus and Herophilos were further propagated by the Greek physician Galen, who described the lacteals and mesenteric lymph nodes which he observed in his dissection of apes and pigs in the 2nd century AD. In the mid 16th century, Gabriele Falloppio (discoverer of the fallopian tubes), described what are now known as the lacteals as "coursing over the intestines full of yellow matter. '' In about 1563 Bartolomeo Eustachi, a professor of anatomy, described the thoracic duct in horses as vena alba thoracis. The next breakthrough came when in 1622 a physician, Gaspare Aselli, identified lymphatic vessels of the intestines in dogs and termed them venae alba et lacteae, which is now known as simply the lacteals. The lacteals were termed the fourth kind of vessels (the other three being the artery, vein and nerve, which was then believed to be a type of vessel), and disproved Galen 's assertion that chyle was carried by the veins. But, he still believed that the lacteals carried the chyle to the liver (as taught by Galen). He also identified the thoracic duct but failed to notice its connection with the lacteals. This connection was established by Jean Pecquet in 1651, who found a white fluid mixing with blood in a dog 's heart. He suspected that fluid to be chyle as its flow increased when abdominal pressure was applied. He traced this fluid to the thoracic duct, which he then followed to a chyle - filled sac he called the chyli receptaculum, which is now known as the cisternae chyli; further investigations led him to find that lacteals ' contents enter the venous system via the thoracic duct. Thus, it was proven convincingly that the lacteals did not terminate in the liver, thus disproving Galen 's second idea: that the chyle flowed to the liver. Johann Veslingius drew the earliest sketches of the lacteals in humans in 1647. The idea that blood recirculates through the body rather than being produced anew by the liver and the heart was first accepted as a result of works of William Harvey -- a work he published in 1628. In 1652, Olaus Rudbeck (1630 -- 1702), a Swede, discovered certain transparent vessels in the liver that contained clear fluid (and not white), and thus named them hepatico - aqueous vessels. He also learned that they emptied into the thoracic duct, and that they had valves. He announced his findings in the court of Queen Christina of Sweden, but did not publish his findings for a year, and in the interim similar findings were published by Thomas Bartholin, who additionally published that such vessels are present everywhere in the body, not just in the liver. He is also the one to have named them "lymphatic vessels. '' This had resulted in a bitter dispute between one of Bartholin 's pupils, Martin Bogdan, and Rudbeck, whom he accused of plagiarism. Galen 's ideas prevailed in medicine until the 17th century. It was thought that blood was produced by the liver from chyle contaminated with ailments by the intestine and stomach, to which various spirits were added by other organs, and that this blood was consumed by all the organs of the body. This theory required that the blood be consumed and produced many times over. Even in the 17th century, his ideas were defended by some physicians. Alexander Monro, of the University of Edinburgh Medical School, was the first to describe the function of the lymphatic system in detail. "Claude Galien ''. Lithograph by Pierre Roche Vigneron. (Paris: Lith de Gregoire et Deneux, ca. 1865) Gabriele Falloppio Portrait of Eustachius Olaus Rudbeck in 1696. Thomas Bartholin Lymph originates in the Classical Latin word lympha "water '', which is also the source of the English word limpid. The spelling with y and ph was influenced by folk etymology with Greek νύμφη (nýmphē) "nymph ''. The adjective used for the lymph - transporting system is lymphatic. The adjective used for the tissues where lymphocytes are formed is lymphoid. Lymphatic comes from the Latin word lymphaticus, meaning "connected to water. ''

how many stars are on the ohio state flag

Flag of Ohio - wikipedia The Ohio Burgee is the official flag of the U.S. state of Ohio. Ohio 's swallowtail flag is the only non-rectangular U.S. state flag. Its red, white, and blue elements symbolize the state 's natural features and order of admission into the Union. A prominent disc in the flag 's triangular canton is suggestive of the state 's name. The flag was designed in 1901 by John Eisenmann for the Pan-American Exposition and adopted in 1902. Before that, for nearly a century after statehood, Ohio did not have a legally authorized state flag. One unsuccessful proposal called for a design based on the state seal. Ohio has adopted an official salute to the flag and the official folding procedure gives it 17 folds. The Ohio flag has influenced a number of logos and municipal flags within the state. A scarlet - colored gubernatorial flag is based on the state seal. The Ohio state flag 's design is defined in the Ohio Revised Code, section 5.01: The flag of the state shall be burgee - shaped. It shall have three red and two white horizontal stripes that represent the roads and waterways of the state. The union of the flag shall be seventeen five - pointed stars, white in a blue triangular field that represents the state 's hills and valleys, the base of which shall be the staff end or vertical edge of the flag, and the apex of which shall be the center of the middle red stripe. The stars shall be grouped around a red disc superimposed upon a white circular "O. '' The thirteen stars grouped around the "O '' represent the original states of the United States and the four stars added to the peak of the triangle symbolize that Ohio was the seventeenth state admitted to the union. The "O '' represents the "O '' in "Ohio '' and suggests the state 's nickname, the buckeye state. The proportional dimensions of the flag and of its various parts shall be according to the official design on file in the office of the secretary of state. In addition to resembling the letter O and a buckeye nut, the flag 's annulus also represents "the original territory of Ohio '' in the Northwest Territory. Ohio 's flag is the only non-rectangular U.S. state flag. It is a rare example of a non-quadrilateral civil flag, another well - known example being the flag of Nepal. According to vexillologist Whitney Smith, it may be loosely based upon cavalry flags of the Civil War and Spanish -- American War. The flag has been officially defined as a "burgee '' since 2002, even though burgees are typically used as maritime flags. Its shape, lack of text, and mirror symmetry allow it to be flown or hung in various orientations without affecting legibility. On account of the flag 's uncommon shape, foreign manufacturers have occasionally set the entire design against a white, rectangular field. For nearly a century after statehood, Ohio had no legally authorized state flag. The state militia carried regimental colors based on the Stars and Stripes, with the addition of "a large eagle, with the number of the regiment and the prescribed number of stars above ''. By the early 1850s, Ohio expressed interest in adopting a state flag, as several other states had already done. In late 1860, Qtr. Mr. Gen. David L. Wood and Adj. Gen. Henry B. Carrington devised a flag consisting of the state seal upon a white field. They had it flown above the Ohio State Arsenal in Columbus, in hopes that it might someday become the state flag. On January 17, 1861, at a banquet organized by the Columbus Typographical Union Local # 5, future U.S. President James A. Garfield gave a speech defending the national flag as the only flag Ohio 's soldiers would march to battle under. The generals, in attendance, were moved to set aside their proposal and hoist the Stars and Stripes in its place. Later that year, Wood and Carrington joined fellow Ohioans in battle under the 34 - star Union flag, which would serve as the inspiration for a state banner decades later. In 1901, Cleveland architect John Eisenmann was commissioned to design an exhibition hall for his state at the Pan-American Exposition in Buffalo, New York. He developed a distinctive flag to fly over each corner of the Ohio Building. The wool flags officially represented the Ohio Pan-American Exposition Commission rather than the state. On July 18, Governor George K. Nash visited the exposition, where he was presented with one of the flags, which is now held in the Ohio History Connection collections. Eisenmann secured a U.S. design patent for his design, which he described as "a triangular forked or swallow - tailed flag corresponding to the shape generally known as a ' cavalry - guidon ' or ' broad pennant. ' '' In 1902, State Representative William S. McKinnon, a member of the Ohio Pan-American Exposition Commission, introduced House Bill 213 designating Eisenmann 's design as the official flag. It became law on May 9, making it the 20th U.S. state flag or banner. (Eisenmann had assigned his patent, which had a term of three and a half years, to the State of Ohio on April 24.) Because Eisenmann 's design deviated from the "seal on a bedsheet '' design then nearly universal among state flags, the press looked overseas for precedents: the layout was likened to either the flag of Cuba or of the Philippines, while the red and white annulus was derided for its similarity to the sun on the Japanese flag. Initially, Ohio 's flag was seldom used, in part due to the prevailing opinion that the Stars and Stripes should hold a monopoly on patriotic displays. Similar sentiment hindered the adoption of municipal flags in Cleveland and Cincinnati, to the extent that both were downplayed as mere "banners '' for promotional purposes. In 1903, it was reported that, among state politicians, only Governor Nash displayed the guidon. In the century following its adoption, the guidon gained significant popularity, being flown not only by the state but frequently also by its residents and businesses. In 2002, the Ohio General Assembly commemorated the 100th anniversary of the state flag 's adoption by adopting a salute to the flag, to be recited after the Pledge of Allegiance: I salute the flag of the state of Ohio and pledge to the Buckeye State respect and loyalty. A method of folding the flag of Ohio was created by Alex Weinstock, a Boy Scout from Junction City, for his Eagle Scout service project. It requires two people. The procedure was passed by the 125th Ohio General Assembly as House Bill 552 and signed into law by Governor Bob Taft on February 15, 2005: The general assembly hereby establishes a recommended procedure for the folding of the state flag by two people. The procedure is as follows: With the flag unfolded, fold the flag in half lengthwise so that the points of the flag are aligned. Fold the flag in half lengthwise a second time to form a long strip with the red disc facing the ground. Next, fold the pointed end back onto itself to form a rectangle. These steps entail three folds. Starting on the end formed by the fold of the pointed end back onto itself, fold two inches of the flag onto itself for a flag with a three - foot hoist and a five - foot fly, or another appropriate width of fold for a flag of a different size. Repeat the folds a total of fourteen times, alternating the folds in a fan - like manner. The result is a total of seventeen folds symbolizing that Ohio was the seventeenth state admitted to the Union. Finally, neatly and snugly wrap the remaining length of flag around the fan - folds to form a compact rectangle. Ohio is not the only state that has designated a folding procedure for its flag; however, Ohio 's procedure takes on special importance due to the flag 's irregular shape. A flag vendor in Arkansas has described the procedure as "quite a challenge ''. Ohio 's flag is regularly flown during football games by The Ohio State University Marching Band 's "JI - Row '' as the percussion section 's row mascot. The Columbus Blue Jackets logo and Cincinnati Bengals fan flag are both based on the state flag. A number of municipalities and counties in Ohio have adopted pennants and swallowtails based on the state burgee. The city of Mentor and Adams County have flags that essentially replace the annulus with a seal and modify the pattern of stars in the triangular union. The flag of the Governor of Ohio consists of the Great Seal of Ohio encircled with 13 white stars on a scarlet field, with a five - point star in each corner. Like the state flag, it has 17 stars in total. The Adjutant General 's office adopted this design in 1905 to represent the Governor on official occasions. One such flag hangs in the Rutherford B. Hayes Center Library, a memorial to the 32nd Ohio Governor and 19th U.S. President. The design was officially recognized by the 96th General Assembly effective October 3, 1945: It shall have a white star in each of the four corners on an oblong scarlet background with the official seal of the state of Ohio in the center surrounded by thirteen white stars. The proportional dimensions of the flag and of its various parts shall be according to a design approved by the adjutant general and in accordance with the governor 's flag used by the adjutant general 's office for over thirty years. Since September 30, 1963, the flag has been defined in greater detail: The flag of the governor of this state will be of scarlet wool bunting, six feet eight inches hoist by ten feet six inches fly. In each of the four corners will be a white five - pointed star with one point upward. The centers of these stars will be twelve inches from the long edges and seventeen inches from the short edges of the flag. In the center of the flag will be a reproduction of the great seal of Ohio in proper colors, three feet in diameter, surrounded by thirteen white stars equally spaced with their centers on an imaginary circle four feet three inches in diameter. All stars shall be of such size that their points would lie on the circumference of an imaginary circle ten inches in diameter. The Ohio Revised Code also specifies smaller versions of this design to be used as the governor 's naval flag and automobile flag.

what was the outcome of the battles of krithia

Battle of Krithia - Wikipedia During the Gallipoli campaign in 1915, several battles were fought near the village of Krithia which is from the Greek "Krithari '' which means Barley. The village was an objective of the first day of the landing, 25 April 1915. Over the following months, invading British Empire and French troops, who had landed near Cape Helles (from the Greek Helle from Greek mythology Elli) at the end of the peninsula, made several attempts to capture the village. It was never reached; the Turkish defenders successfully repulsed every assault. The attacks came to be known as:

who sings the kath and kim theme song

Kath & Kim - Wikipedia Kath & Kim is a character - driven multi-award - winning Australian television satirical situation comedy. The program was created by its stars Jane Turner and Gina Riley, who play the title characters of suburban mother Kath Day - Knight, a cheery middle - aged woman and her self - indulgent daughter Kim Craig. The other main characters are Kath 's boyfriend and, later, husband, the metrosexual Kel Knight, Kim 's husband Brett Craig, and her lonely, overweight "second - best friend '' Sharon Strzelecki. The series is set in Fountain Lakes, a fictional suburb of Melbourne, Victoria. It is primarily filmed in Patterson Lakes. There were four 8 - part series (2002, 2003, 2004 and 2007), a telemovie (2005), and a feature film (2012). The series also spawned a short - lived American version. The characters of Kath, Kim (created by Riley and Turner) and Sharon (created and played by Magda Szubanski) first featured in the early 1990s as a weekly segment of the Australian comedy series Big Girl 's Blouse (Seven, 1994 -- 95). They also appeared in Something Stupid (Seven, 1998). The skits were developed by Riley and Turner into a full series. The first series of Kath & Kim premiered on ABC TV on 16 May 2002, with three further series following, while a television movie, entitled Da Kath and Kim Code, was broadcast nationally on 25 November 2005. Kath & Kim has garnered much critical acclaim since its debut, winning two Logie Award, for "Outstanding Comedy Programme '' and the "Best Television Drama Series '' award at the Australian Film Institute Awards. In Australia, it has become a pop - culture phenomenon, and is a success with audiences nationwide. Internationally, the series has spawned a cult fanbase. The fourth series of Kath & Kim began airing on the Seven Network on 19 August 2007, due to the contract expiring with ABC. The first episode of series four attracted an Australian audience of 2.521 million nationally, the highest rating ever for a first episode in the history of Australian television, until the series premiere of Underbelly: A Tale of Two Cities in 2009 with 2.58 million viewers. Due to the success that Kath & Kim has achieved internationally, it was remade for US audiences by NBC. Riley and Turner served as executive producers on the US version. In this remake, actress Molly Shannon has taken the role of Kath Day, and Selma Blair the role of Kim. The character of Sharon does not appear at the insistence of Szubanski. NBC chose Jason Ensler to direct. Michelle Nader developed the series for American television, which premiered in the United States as part of the Fall schedule of 2008. The series started to shoot in California in July 2008. NBC debuted the US adaptation on 9 October 2008, while Seven started screening it to Australian viewers on 12 October 2008. After airing only two episodes, Seven dropped the sitcom from their lineup due to poor ratings, only to bring it back several weeks later as a late - night schedule filler. In America, reviews were poor, but it averaged roughly around 5 to 7 million viewers per week, and was rewarded with a full season order in October 2008. On Tuesday, 19 May 2009, NBC announced that there would not be a second season of "Kath & Kim ''. On 9 March 2011, Turner and Riley announced plans for a movie, in which, Kath, Kim, Kel, Brett, Sharon and Epponnee would head overseas on holiday. Contracts were written to finance the film 's production under the working title of The Kath & Kim Filum, with the word ' film ' deliberately misspelt with the letter ' u ' in typical Kath and Kim humour. However, the title Kath & Kimderella was ultimately used, and the film was released in Australia on 6 September 2012. It was directed by Ted Emery (director of the television series) and produced by Rick McKenna. The holiday scenes were shot in Positano, Italy and filming took a total of two weeks. The film was released in Australian cinemas on 6 September 2012. It grossed in excess of $2.1 million in its first weekend on Australian movie screens. In 2017, the rights to the series were acquired by the Nine Network which began airing repeats of the series from 1 August 2017 until 21 November 2017. Kath & Kim follows the day - to - day Australian suburban life of Kath Day - Knight (Jane Turner), her only child Kimberly (Kim) Diane Craig née Poole (Gina Riley), Kim 's husband and Computa City salesman, Brett Craig (Peter Rowsthorn), Kath 's love interest and eventual husband who works as a "purveyor of fine meats '', Kel Knight (Glenn Robbins), and long - time family friend Sharon Strzelecki (Magda Szubanski). The main setting is Kath 's townhouse in Fountain Lakes. It is taped in a house in the waterfront street of Lagoon Place, Patterson Lakes, Victoria. The house 's exact location is 4 Lagoon Place, Patterson Lakes, Victoria. The storyline of first series follows Kath 's engagement and plans for her wedding to Kel. Kim frequently stays in her mother 's house owing to her rocky relationship with Brett (most of which is due to her own childish, spoilt, and rude behaviour towards Brett). Sharon 's always around with a helping hand and her own relationship problems. Her history with Brett is also explored. The second series follows Kim 's pregnancy and her rekindled relationship with Brett. Kath and Kel 's relationship goes through some teething troubles. Kim and Brett have a baby in the final episode of the second series whom they name Epponn'knee - Raelene Kathleen Darlene Charlene Craig, shortened to Epponn'knee - Rae. Several episodes of the third series focus on Epponn'knee - Rae. The third - season finale features an adult Epponn'knee - Rae, played by Kylie Minogue. Storylines follow the characters ' day - to - day lives, and document their personal struggles and the banality of their achievements and aspirations. Kath & Kim satirises the mother - daughter relationship and the habits and values of modern suburban Australians, and emphasises the kitsch and superficial elements of contemporary society, particularly the traditional working class which has progressed to a level of affluence (or "effluence '' as quoted by Kath) which previous generations had been unable to achieve. Despite this affluence, good taste and a sense of cultural sophistication still eludes the titular characters. They visit places such as the Westfield Fountain Gate (some parts filmed at Westfield Southland), the local IKEA, Target, and various local restaurants. It also occasionally mocks Australian and international mass popular culture, such as popular reality television shows Big Brother and Australian Idol. It sometimes makes statements about Australian politics. The crass and embarrassing behaviour of the characters, and their gaudy, out - dated fashion sense are popular features of the show. Processed and widely recognised Australian foods, such as Jatz crackers, Tim Tams and Fruiche yoghurt are frequently referenced in the series. During the credits, most episodes end with Kath and Kim sitting in Kath 's back yard, chatting about issues related to the episode. Sometimes these chats help to complete the story which was told during episode. The highly developed alternative vocabulary including the mixed metaphors, hypercorrection, malapropisms, eggcorns (like "effluent '' instead of "affluent ''), and mis - pronunciations of the regular characters are much - repeated by the show 's fans. These include: "Look at moy '' (look at me) -- used by Kath to command attention during arguments, and "It 's noice, different and unusual '' -- used by Kath, Kim and Sharon to express approval or agreement. Second - hand shops were used for Kath 's clothing, whereas Kim was dressed in current trends. Several guest stars are well - known Australian comedy performers, some of whom previously worked with Turner or Riley. Buble and Lucas were fans of the show and asked to appear in it. Humphries declared himself a fan of the series before taking part. The title sequence shows the main five regular characters over a white background. In Series 3, it was amended to include Epponnee - Rae and Cujo. The five regular cast members are then credited over aerial shots of suburban houses. Szubanski is credited as "Special Guest Star, '' despite appearing in every episode. The theme song is "The Joker, '' performed by Gina Riley. A re-recording of it debuted in the telemovie opening sequence and has continued into Series 4. Twenty - four episodes lasting approximately twenty - five minutes each across three series aired on ABC TV from 2002 to 2004. The series debuted on 15 May 2002 on the ABC Network with "Sex '' and became one of the highest rated shows for ABC. A replacement of a full series occurred in 2005 with the telemovie Da Kath & Kim Code. The fourth series of Kath & Kim premiered on 19 August 2007 at 7: 30 pm on the Seven Network with a total of eight episodes. In late 2009, they announced that writing has begun on Series 5, but by May 2010, Turner said: "We sort of felt like it was the end two years ago. We thought, ' We 've done enough and the well is dry and we ca n't think of any more ideas '... We think we might just leave it for now. '' The movie was released in 2012. The first series of Kath and Kim attracted criticism that the creators were making fun of the lower class in Australian society. Kath & Kim premiered on 16 May 2002 and became one of ABC 's highest rated shows. When the show premiered on the Seven Network, it became the highest rating episode in Australian television history, until the record was broken by Nine Network 's Underbelly: A Tale of Two Cities on 9 February 2009. The fourth series of Kath & Kim debuted with a record breaking 2.511 million viewers peaking at 2.731 million. In its second and third episodes viewers fell to 1.994 & 1.817 million respectively, however viewers then rebounded for its fourth and fifth episodes with ratings of 2.047 & 2.157 million respectively. Strong ratings continued with viewers of 2.049 and 2.066 million for the sixth and seventh episodes. The eighth episode and series finale rated 2.338 million giving the fourth series an average viewership of 2.122 million, making it the highest rating series in Australia for 2007 and the highest rating of all four series of the show. Channel Seven have since started showing repeats of the show from series one onwards which had previously only aired on the ABC network. The repeats have proved quite successful, rating 1.465 and 1.530 so far, winning in a very competitive timeslot and being amongst the highest rating shows of the week. The enduring public interest and popularity of Kath and Kim has led to a merchandising industry. The title family and supporting characters appear on everything from T - shirts to posters. The Kath & Kim series have been released on VHS (although titles are now discontinued in the VHS format) and DVD, in box - sets and separate series editions in both Region 4 (Australia, New Zealand, Latin America) as well as Region 2 (Europe). The series has also had a CD release, featuring songs from the series and recordings from Kath and Kim. In addition, there have been clothing (such as aprons, T - shirts and oven mitts). Merchandise is available to purchase online, from the Kath & Kim official website. In 2004, Kath & Kim 's Party Tape was released in Australia under the Universal record label. It features 21 tracks including the full length version of the show 's title theme, "The Joker '' (as sung by Gina Riley) as well as Diana Ross and Lionel Richie 's "Endless Love '' and Donna Summer 's "MacArthur Park ''. The show itself, and the cast, have been nominated several television awards in the past, including AFI Awards and Logies. In addition, Kath and Kim and Da Kath and Kim Code have won four major awards for the show itself.

who presides over the session of rajya sabha in the absence of the chairman

Rajya Sabha - Wikipedia Coordinates: 28 ° 37 ′ 0 '' N 77 ° 12 ′ 30 '' E  /  28.61667 ° N 77.20833 ° E  / 28.61667; 77.20833 245 Government coalition (87) National Democratic Alliance (87) Opposition Parties (158) United Progressive Alliance (57) Janata Parivar Parties (7) Unaligned Parties (79) Others (15) The Rajya Sabha or Council of States is the upper house of the Parliament of India. Membership of Rajya Sabha is limited by the Constitution to a maximum of 250 members, and current laws have provision for 245 members. Most of the members of the House are indirectly elected by state and territorial legislatures using single transferable votes, while the President can appoint 12 members for their contributions to art, literature, science, and social services. Members sit for staggered six - year terms, with one third of the members retiring every two years. The Rajya Sabha meets in continuous sessions, and unlike the Lok Sabha, the lower house of Parliament, is not subject to dissolution. However, the Rajya Sabha, like the Lok Sabha can be prorogued by the President. The Rajya Sabha has equal footing in all areas of legislation with Lok Sabha, except in the area of supply, where the Lok Sabha has overriding powers. In the case of conflicting legislation, a joint sitting of the two houses can be held. However, since the Lok Sabha has twice as many members as the Rajya Sabha, the former would normally hold the greater power. Joint sittings of the Houses of Parliament of India are rare, and in the history of the Republic, only three such joint - sessions have been held; the latest one for the passage of the 2002 Prevention of Terrorism Act. The Vice President of India (currently, Venkaiah Naidu) is the ex-officio Chairman of the Rajya Sabha, who presides over its sessions. The Deputy Chairman, who is elected from amongst the house 's members, takes care of the day - to - day matters of the house in the absence of the Chairman. The Rajya Sabha held its first sitting on 13 May 1952. The salary and other benefits for a member of Rajya Sabha are same as for a member of Lok Sabha. Rajya Sabha members are elected by state legislatures rather than directly through the electorate by single transferable vote method. Article 84 of the Constitution lays down the qualifications for membership of Parliament. A member of the Rajya Sabha must: In addition, twelve members are nominated by the President of India having special knowledge in various areas like arts and science. However, they are not entitled to vote in Presidential elections as per Article 55 of the Constitution. The Constitution of India places some restrictions on Rajya Sabha which makes Lok Sabha more powerful in certain areas in comparison. The definition of a money bill is given in article 110 of constitution of India. A money bill can be introduced only in the Lok Sabha by a minister and only on recommendation of President of India. When the Lok Sabha passes a money bill then the Lok Sabha sends money bill to the Rajya Sabha council of states for 14 days during which it can make recommendations. Even if Rajya Sabha fails to return the money bill in 14 days to the Lok Sabha, that bill is deemed to have passed by both the Houses. Also, if the Lok Sabha rejects any (or all) of the amendments proposed by the Rajya Sabha, the bill is deemed to have been passed by both Houses of Parliament of India in the form the Lok Sabha finally passes it. This is because the Lok Sabha has largest number of representatives of peoples of India and so the Lok Sabha lower house also called house of the peoples is more powerful in comparison with Rajya Sabha council of states upper house. Hence, Rajya Sabha can only give recommendations for a money bill but Rajya Sabha can not amend a money bill this is to ensure that Rajya Sabha must not add any non money matters in money bill. Lok Sabha can reject all the recommendations of Rajya Sabha or can accept some or all of the recommendations. Decisions of the speaker of the Lok Sabha are final. There is no joint sitting of both houses with respect to money bills, because all final decisions are taken by the Lok Sabha. Article 108 provides for a joint sitting of the two Houses of Parliament in certain cases. A joint sitting can be convened by the President of India when one house has either rejected a bill passed by the other house, has not taken any action on a bill transmitted to it by the other house for six months, or has disagreed to the amendments proposed by the Lok Sabha on a bill passed by it. Considering that the numerical strength of Lok Sabha is more than twice that of Rajya Sabha, Lok Sabha tends to have a greater influence in a joint sitting of Parliament. A joint session is chaired by the Speaker of Lok Sabha. Also, because the joint session is convened by the President on advice of the government, which already has a majority in Lok Sabha, the joint session is usually convened to get bills passed through a Rajya Sabha in which the government has a minority. Joint sessions of Parliament are a rarity, and have been convened three times in last 69 years, for the purpose of passage of a specific legislative act, the latest time being in 2002: Unlike the Lok Sabha, a member of the Rajya Sabha can not bring to the house a no - confidence motion against the government. In Indian federal structure, Rajya Sabha is a representative of the States in the Union legislature (Hence the name, Council of States). Hence, Rajya Sabha is granted powers that protect the rights of States against the Union. The Constitution empowers Parliament of India to make laws on the matters reserved for States (States List). However, this can only be done if Rajya Sabha first passes a resolution by two - thirds special majority granting such a power to the Union Parliament. The union government can not make a law on a matter reserved for states without any authorisation from Rajya Sabha. Rajya Sabha, by a two - thirds super majority can pass a resolution empowering the Government of India to create more All - India Services common to both Union and States, including a judicial service. Seats are allotted in proportion to the population of people of each state or union territory in such a manner that smaller states have slight advantage over more populous states. As the members are elected by the state legislature, smaller Union Territories which are not States and do not have legislatures can not have representation in Rajya Sabha. Hence, Andaman & Nicobar Islands, Lakshadweep, Chandigarh, Daman & Diu and Dadra & Nagar Haveli do not send any representatives to Rajya Sabha. 12 members are nominated by the President. As per the Fourth Schedule to the Constitution of India on 26 January 1950, the Rajya Sabha was to consist of 216 members of which 12 members were to be nominated by the President and the remaining 204 elected to represent the States. The present strength, however, is 245 members of whom 233 are representatives of the states and union territories and 12 are nominated by the President. The twelve nominated members of the Rajya Sabha are persons who are eminent in particular fields, and are well known contributors in the particular field. A few examples of such nominated persons are cricketing icon Sachin Tendulkar, former RBI Governor Bimal Jalan and famous lyricist and poet Javed Akhtar. As of March 2014, each state or union territory specified in the first column of the following table, there shall be allotted the number of seats specified in the second column thereof opposite to that State or that union territory, as the case may be: Rajya Sabha Secretariat (As of 9 April 2018): Besides the Chairman (Vice-President of India) and the Deputy Chairman, there is also a position called Leader of the House. This is a cabinet minister -- the prime minister if he is a member of the House, or another nominated minister. The Leader has a seat next to the Chairman, in the front row. Besides the Leader of the House, who is leading the majority, there is also a Leader of the Opposition (LOP) -- leading the opposition parties. The function was only recognized in the Salary and Allowances of Leaders of the Opposition in Parliament Act 1977. This is commonly the leader of the largest non-government party, and is recognized as such by the Chairman. The following people have been the Leader of the Opposition in the Rajya Sabha: The Secretariat of Rajya Sabha was set up pursuant to the provisions contained in Article 98 of the Constitution. The said Article, which provides for a separate secretarial staff for each House of Parliament, reads as follows: - 98. Secretariat of Parliament -- Each House of Parliament shall have a separate secretarial staff: Provided that nothing in this clause shall be construed as preventing the creation of posts common to both Houses of Parliament. (2) Parliament may by law regulate the recruitment and the conditions of service of persons appointed to the secretarial staff of either House of Parliament. The Rajya Sabha Secretariat functions under the overall guidance and control of the Chairman. The main activities of the Secretariat inter alia include the following: (i) providing secretarial assistance and support to the effective functioning of the Council of States (Rajya Sabha) possible to Members of Rajya Sabha; (iv) servicing the various Parliamentary Committees; (v) preparing research and reference material and bringing out various publications; (vi) recruitment of manpower in the Sabha Secretariat and attending to personnel matters; and (vii) preparing and publishing a record of the day - to - day proceedings of the Rajya Sabha and bringing out such other publications, as may be required concerning the functioning of the Rajya Sabha and its Committees. In the discharge of his constitutional and statutory responsibilities, the Chairman, Rajya Sabha is assisted by the Secretary - General, who holds the rank equivalent (16) to the Cabinet Secretary to the Government of India. The Secretary - General, in turn, is assisted by senior functionaries at the level of Secretary, Additional Secretary, Joint Secretary and other officers and staff of the Secretariat. Rajya Sabha Television (RSTV) is a 24 - hour a day, seven day a week parliamentary TV channel fully owned and operated by the Rajya Sabha. The channel is aimed at providing in - depth coverage and analysis of parliamentary affairs especially the functioning of and developments related to Rajya Sabha. During sessions of Parliament, apart from telecasting live coverage of the proceedings of Rajya Sabha, RSTV presents incisive analysis of the proceedings of the House as well as other day - to - day parliamentary events and developments.

who controlled the area of greece in the early 19th century

History of Greece - wikipedia The history of Greece encompasses the history of the territory of the modern nation state of Greece as well as that of the Greek people and the areas they inhabited and ruled historically. The scope of Greek habitation and rule has varied throughout the ages and as a result the history of Greece is similarly elastic in what it includes. Generally, the history of Greece is divided into the following periods: At its cultural and geographical peak, Greek civilization spread from Greece to Egypt and to the Hindu Kush mountains in Afghanistan. Since then, Greek minorities have remained in former Greek territories (e.g. Turkey, Albania, Italy, Libya, Levant, Armenia, Georgia) and Greek emigrants have assimilated into differing societies across the globe (e.g. North America, Australia, Northern Europe, South Africa). Nowadays most Greeks live in the modern states of Greece (independent since 1821) and Cyprus. The Neolithic Revolution reached Europe beginning in 7000 -- 6500 BC when agriculturalists from the Near East entered the Greek peninsula from Anatolia by island - hopping through the Aegean Sea. The first Greek - speaking tribes, speaking the predecessor of the Mycenaean language, arrived in the Greek mainland sometime in the Neolithic era or the Bronze Age. The transition from the Greek Neolithic to the Early Bronze Age (or Early Helladic I -- II) occurred gradually when Greece 's agricultural population began to import bronze and copper and used basic bronze - working techniques. During the end of the 3rd millennium BC (circa 2200 BC; Early Helladic III), the indigenous inhabitants of mainland Greece underwent a cultural transformation attributed to climate change, local events and developments (e.g., destruction of the "House of the Tiles ''), as well as to continuous contacts with various areas such as western Asia Minor, the Cyclades, Albania and Dalmatia. One of the earliest civilizations to appear around Greece was the Minoan civilization in Crete, which lasted from about c. 3000 BC (Early Minoan) to c. 1400 BC, and the Helladic culture on the Greek mainland from circa 3200 / 3100 BC to 2000 / 1900 BC. Little specific information is known about the Minoans (even the name Minoans is a modern appellation, derived from Minos, the legendary king of Crete), including their language, which was recorded on the undeciphered Linear A script). They were primarily a mercantile people engaged in extensive overseas trade throughout the Mediterranean region. Minoan civilization was affected by a number of natural cataclysms such as the volcanic eruption at Thera (c. 1628 -- 1627 BC) and earthquakes (c. 1600 BC). In 1425 BC, the Minoan palaces (except Knossos) were devastated by fire, which allowed the Mycenaean Greeks, influenced by the Minoans ' culture, to expand into Crete. The Minoan civilization which preceded the Mycenaean civilization on Crete was revealed to the modern world by Sir Arthur Evans in 1900, when he purchased and then began excavating a site at Knossos. Mycenaean civilization originated and evolved from the society and culture of the Early and Middle Helladic periods in mainland Greece. It emerged in circa 1600 BC, when Helladic culture in mainland Greece was transformed under influences from Minoan Crete and lasted until the collapse of the Mycenaean palaces in c. 1100 BC. Mycenaean Greece is the Late Helladic Bronze Age civilization of Ancient Greece and it is the historical setting of the epics of Homer and most of Greek mythology and religion. The Mycenaean period takes its name from the archaeological site Mycenae in the northeastern Argolid, in the Peloponnesos of southern Greece. Athens, Pylos, Thebes, and Tiryns are also important Mycenaean sites. Mycenaean civilization was dominated by a warrior aristocracy. Around 1400 BC, the Mycenaeans extended their control to Crete, center of the Minoan civilization, and adopted a form of the Minoan script called Linear A to write their early form of Greek. The Mycenaean - era script is called Linear B, which was deciphered in 1952 by Michael Ventris. The Mycenaeans buried their nobles in beehive tombs (tholoi), large circular burial chambers with a high - vaulted roof and straight entry passage lined with stone. They often buried daggers or some other form of military equipment with the deceased. The nobility were often buried with gold masks, tiaras, armor and jeweled weapons. Mycenaeans were buried in a sitting position, and some of the nobility underwent mummification. Around 1100 -- 1050 BC, the Mycenaean civilization collapsed. Numerous cities were sacked and the region entered what historians see as a "dark age ''. During this period, Greece experienced a decline in population and literacy. The Greeks themselves have traditionally blamed this decline on an invasion by another wave of Greek people, the Dorians, although there is scant archaeological evidence for this view. Ancient Greece refers to a period of Greek history that lasted from the Dark Ages to the end of antiquity (circa 600 AD). In common usage it refers to all Greek history before the Roman Empire, but historians use the term more precisely. Some writers include the periods of the Minoan and Mycenaean civilizations, while others argue that these civilizations were so different from later Greek cultures that they should be classed separately. Traditionally, the Ancient Greek period was taken to begin with the date of the first Olympic Games in 776 BC, but most historians now extend the term back to about 1000 BC. The traditional date for the end of the Classical Greek period is the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC. The period that follows is classed as Hellenistic. Not everyone treats the Classical Greek and Hellenic periods as distinct, however, and some writers treat the Ancient Greek civilization as a continuum running until the advent of Christianity in the 3rd century AD. Ancient Greece is considered by most historians to be the foundational culture of Western civilization. Greek culture was a powerful influence in the Roman Empire, which carried a version of it to many parts of Europe. Ancient Greek civilization has been immensely influential on the language, politics, educational systems, philosophy, art and architecture of the modern world, particularly during the Renaissance in Western Europe and again during various neo-classical revivals in 18th and 19th - century Europe and the Americas. The Greek Dark Ages (ca. 1100 BC -- 800 BC) refers to the period of Greek history from the presumed Dorian invasion and end of the Mycenaean civilization in the 11th century BC to the rise of the first Greek city - states in the 9th century BC and the epics of Homer and earliest writings in alphabetic Greek in the 8th century BC. The collapse of the Mycenaean coincided with the fall of several other large empires in the near east, most notably the Hittite and the Egyptian. The cause may be attributed to an invasion of the Sea People wielding iron weapons. When the Dorians came down into Greece they also were equipped with superior iron weapons, easily dispersing the already weakened Mycenaeans. The period that follows these events is collectively known as the Greek Dark Ages. Kings ruled throughout this period until eventually they were replaced with an aristocracy, then still later, in some areas, an aristocracy within an aristocracy -- an elite of the elite. Warfare shifted from a focus on cavalry to a great emphasis on infantry. Due to its cheapness of production and local availability, iron replaced bronze as the metal of choice in the manufacturing of tools and weapons. Slowly equality grew among the different sects of people, leading to the dethronement of the various Kings and the rise of the family. At the end of this period of stagnation, the Greek civilization was engulfed in a renaissance that spread the Greek world as far as the Black Sea and Spain. Writing was relearned from the Phoenicians, eventually spreading north into Italy and the Gauls. In the 8th century BC, Greece began to emerge from the Dark Ages which followed the fall of the Mycenaean civilization. Literacy had been lost and Mycenaean script forgotten, but the Greeks adopted the Phoenician alphabet, modifying it to create the Greek alphabet. From about the 9th century BC, written records begin to appear. Greece was divided into many small self - governing communities, a pattern largely dictated by Greek geography, where every island, valley and plain is cut off from its neighbours by the sea or mountain ranges. The Archaic period can be understood as the Orientalizing period, when Greece was at the fringe, but not under the sway, of the budding Neo-Assyrian Empire. Greece adopted significant amounts of cultural elements from the Orient, in art as well as in religion and mythology. Archaeologically, Archaic Greece is marked by Geometric pottery. The basic unit of politics in Ancient Greece was the polis, sometimes translated as city - state. "Politics '' literally means "the things of the polis '' where each city - state was independent, at least in theory. Some city - states might be subordinate to others (a colony traditionally deferred to its mother city), some might have had governments wholly dependent upon others (the Thirty Tyrants in Athens was imposed by Sparta following the Peloponnesian War), but the titularly supreme power in each city was located within that city. This meant that when Greece went to war (e.g., against the Persian Empire), it took the form of an alliance going to war. It also gave ample opportunity for wars within Greece between different cities. Two major wars shaped the Classical Greek world. The Persian Wars (500 -- 448 BC) are recounted in Herodotus 's Histories. By the late 6th century BC, the Achaemenid Persian Empire ruled over all Greek city states and had made territorial gains in the Balkans and Eastern Europe proper as well. The Ionian Greek cities revolted from the Persian Empire, through a chain of events, and were supported by some of the mainland cities, eventually led by Athens. To punish mainland Greece for its support of the Ionian cities (which uprising by that time had already been quelled) Darius I launched the First Persian invasion of Greece, which lasted from 492 BC till 490 BC. The Persian general Megabyzus re-subjugated Thrace and conquered Macedon in the early stages of the war, but the war eventually ended with a Greek victory. Darius 's successor, Xerxes I, launched the Second Persian invasion of Greece. Even though at a crucial point in the war, the Persians briefly overran northern and central Greece, the Greek city - states managed to turn this war into a victory too. The notable battles of the Greco - Persian Wars include Marathon, Thermopylae, Salamis, and Plataea.) To prosecute the war and then to defend Greece from further Persian attack, Athens founded the Delian League in 477 BC. Initially, each city in the League would contribute ships and soldiers to a common army, but in time Athens allowed (and then compelled) the smaller cities to contribute funds so that it could supply their quota of ships. Secession from the League could be punished. Following military reversals against the Persians, the treasury was moved from Delos to Athens, further strengthening the latter 's control over the League. The Delian League was eventually referred to pejoratively as the Athenian Empire. In 458 BC, while the Persian Wars were still ongoing, war broke out between the Delian League and the Peloponnesian League, comprising Sparta and its allies. After some inconclusive fighting, the two sides signed a peace in 447 BC. That peace was stipulated to last thirty years: instead it held only until 431 BC, with the onset of the Peloponnesian War. Our main sources concerning this war are Thucydides 's History of the Peloponnesian War and Xenophon 's Hellenica. The war began over a dispute between Corcyra and Epidamnus. Corinth intervened on the Epidamnian side. Fearful lest Corinth capture the Corcyran navy (second only to the Athenian in size), Athens intervened. It prevented Corinth from landing on Corcyra at the Battle of Sybota, laid siege to Potidaea, and forbade all commerce with Corinth 's closely situated ally, Megara (the Megarian decree). There was disagreement among the Greeks as to which party violated the treaty between the Delian and Peloponnesian Leagues, as Athens was technically defending a new ally. The Corinthians turned to Sparta for aid. Fearing the growing might of Athens, and witnessing Athens ' willingness to use it against the Megarians (the embargo would have ruined them), Sparta declared the treaty to have been violated and the Peloponnesian War began in earnest. The first stage of the war (known as the Archidamian War for the Spartan king, Archidamus II) lasted until 421 BC with the signing of the Peace of Nicias. The Athenian general Pericles recommended that his city fight a defensive war, avoiding battle against the superior land forces led by Sparta, and importing everything needful by maintaining its powerful navy. Athens would simply outlast Sparta, whose citizens feared to be out of their city for long lest the helots revolt. This strategy required that Athens endure regular sieges, and in 430 BC it was visited with an awful plague that killed about a quarter of its people, including Pericles. With Pericles gone, less conservative elements gained power in the city and Athens went on the offensive. It captured 300 -- 400 Spartan hoplites at the Battle of Pylos. This represented a significant fraction of the Spartan fighting force which the latter decided it could not afford to lose. Meanwhile, Athens had suffered humiliating defeats at Delium and Amphipolis. The Peace of Nicias concluded with Sparta recovering its hostages and Athens recovering the city of Amphipolis. Those who signed the Peace of Nicias in 421 BC swore to uphold it for fifty years. The second stage of the Peloponnesian War began in 415 BC when Athens embarked on the Sicilian Expedition to support an ally (Segesta) attacked by Syracuse and to conquer Sicily. Initially, Sparta was reluctant, but Alcibiades, the Athenian general who had argued for the Sicilian Expedition, defected to the Spartan cause upon being accused of grossly impious acts and convinced them that they could not allow Athens to subjugate Syracuse. The campaign ended in disaster for the Athenians. Athens ' Ionian possessions rebelled with the support of Sparta, as advised by Alcibiades. In 411 BC, an oligarchical revolt in Athens held out the chance for peace, but the Athenian navy, which remained committed to the democracy, refused to accept the change and continued fighting in Athens ' name. The navy recalled Alcibiades (who had been forced to abandon the Spartan cause after reputedly seducing the wife of Agis II, a Spartan king) and made him its head. The oligarchy in Athens collapsed and Alcibiades reconquered what had been lost. In 407 BC, Alcibiades was replaced following a minor naval defeat at the Battle of Notium. The Spartan general Lysander, having fortified his city 's naval power, won victory after victory. Following the Battle of Arginusae, which Athens won but was prevented by bad weather from rescuing some of its sailors, Athens executed or exiled eight of its top naval commanders. Lysander followed with a crushing blow at the Battle of Aegospotami in 405 BC which almost destroyed the Athenian fleet. Athens surrendered one year later, ending the Peloponnesian War. The war had left devastation in its wake. Discontent with the Spartan hegemony that followed (including the fact that it ceded Ionia and Cyprus to the Persian Empire at the conclusion of the Corinthian War (395 -- 387 BC); see Treaty of Antalcidas) induced the Thebans to attack. Their general, Epaminondas, crushed Sparta at the Battle of Leuctra in 371 BC, inaugurating a period of Theban dominance in Greece. In 346 BC, unable to prevail in its ten - year war with Phocis, Thebes called upon Philip II of Macedon for aid. Macedon quickly forced the city states into being united by the League of Corinth which led to the conquering of the Persian Empire and the Hellenistic Age had begun. The Hellenistic period of Greek history begins with the death of Alexander the Great in 323 BC and ends with the annexation of the Greek peninsula and islands by Rome in 146 BC. Although the establishment of Roman rule did not break the continuity of Hellenistic society and culture, which remained essentially unchanged until the advent of Christianity, it did mark the end of Greek political independence. During the Hellenistic period, the importance of "Greece proper '' (that is, the territory of modern Greece) within the Greek - speaking world declined sharply. The great centres of Hellenistic culture were Alexandria and Antioch, capitals of Ptolemaic Egypt and Seleucid Syria. (See Hellenistic civilization for the history of Greek culture outside Greece in this period.) Athens and her allies revolted against Macedon upon hearing that Alexander had died, but were defeated within a year in the Lamian War. Meanwhile, a struggle for power broke out among Alexander 's generals, which resulted in the break - up of his empire and the establishment of a number of new kingdoms (see the Wars of the Diadochi). Ptolemy was left with Egypt, Seleucus with the Levant, Mesopotamia, and points east. Control of Greece, Thrace, and Anatolia was contested, but by 298 BC the Antigonid dynasty had supplanted the Antipatrid. Macedonian control of the city - states was intermittent, with a number of revolts. Athens, Rhodes, Pergamum and other Greek states retained substantial independence, and joined the Aetolian League as a means of defending it and restoring democracy in their states, where as they saw Macedon as a tyrannical kingdom because of the fact they had not adopted democracy. The Achaean League, while nominally subject to the Ptolemies was in effect independent, and controlled most of southern Greece. Sparta also remained independent, but generally refused to join any league. In 267 BC, Ptolemy II persuaded the Greek cities to revolt against Macedon, in what became the Chremonidean War, after the Athenian leader Chremonides. The cities were defeated and Athens lost her independence and her democratic institutions. This marked the end of Athens as a political actor, although it remained the largest, wealthiest and most cultivated city in Greece. In 225 BC, Macedon defeated the Egyptian fleet at Cos and brought the Aegean islands, except Rhodes, under its rule as well. Sparta remained hostile to the Achaeans, and in 227 BC invaded Achaea and seized control of the League. The remaining Achaeans preferred distant Macedon to nearby Sparta, and allied with the former. In 222 BC, the Macedonian army defeated the Spartans and annexed their city -- the first time Sparta had ever been occupied by a different state. Philip V of Macedon was the last Greek ruler with both the talent and the opportunity to unite Greece and preserve its independence against the ever - increasing power of Rome. Under his auspices, the Peace of Naupactus (217 BC) brought conflict between Macedon and the Greek leagues to an end, and at this time he controlled all of Greece except Athens, Rhodes and Pergamum. In 215 BC, however, Philip formed an alliance with Rome 's enemy Carthage. Rome promptly lured the Achaean cities away from their nominal loyalty to Philip, and formed alliances with Rhodes and Pergamum, now the strongest power in Asia Minor. The First Macedonian War broke out in 212 BC, and ended inconclusively in 205 BC, but Macedon was now marked as an enemy of Rome. In 202 BC, Rome defeated Carthage, and was free to turn her attention eastwards. In 198 BC, the Second Macedonian War broke out because Rome saw Macedon as a potential ally of the Seleucid Empire, the greatest power in the east. Philip 's allies in Greece deserted him and in 197 BC he was decisively defeated at the Battle of Cynoscephalae by the Roman proconsul Titus Quinctius Flaminius. Luckily for the Greeks, Flaminius was a moderate man and an admirer of Greek culture. Philip had to surrender his fleet and become a Roman ally, but was otherwise spared. At the Isthmian Games in 196 BC, Flaminius declared all the Greek cities free, although Roman garrisons were placed at Corinth and Chalcis. But the freedom promised by Rome was an illusion. All the cities except Rhodes were enrolled in a new League which Rome ultimately controlled, and aristocratic constitutions were favoured and actively promoted. Militarily, Greece itself declined to the point that the Romans conquered the land (168 BC onwards), though Greek culture would in turn conquer Roman life. Although the period of Roman rule in Greece is conventionally dated as starting from the sacking of Corinth by the Roman Lucius Mummius in 146 BC, Macedonia had already come under Roman control with the defeat of its king, Perseus, by the Roman Aemilius Paullus at Pydna in 168 BC. The Romans divided the region into four smaller republics, and in 146 BC Macedonia officially became a province, with its capital at Thessalonica. The rest of the Greek city - states gradually and eventually paid homage to Rome ending their de jure autonomy as well. The Romans left local administration to the Greeks without making any attempt to abolish traditional political patterns. The agora in Athens continued to be the centre of civic and political life. Caracalla 's decree in 212 AD, the Constitutio Antoniniana, extended citizenship outside Italy to all free adult men in the entire Roman Empire, effectively raising provincial populations to equal status with the city of Rome itself. The importance of this decree is historical, not political. It set the basis for integration where the economic and judicial mechanisms of the state could be applied throughout the Mediterranean as was once done from Latium into all Italy. In practice of course, integration did not take place uniformly. Societies already integrated with Rome, such as Greece, were favored by this decree, in comparison with those far away, too poor or just too alien such as Britain, Palestine or Egypt. Caracalla 's decree did not set in motion the processes that led to the transfer of power from Italy and the West to Greece and the East, but rather accelerated them, setting the foundations for the millennium - long rise of Greece, in the form of the Eastern Roman Empire, as a major power in Europe and the Mediterranean in the Middle Ages. The history of the East Roman or Byzantine Empire is described by Byzantinist August Heisenberg as the history of "the Christianized Roman empire of the Greek nation ''. The division of the empire into East and West and the subsequent collapse of the Western Roman Empire were developments that constantly accentuated the position of the Greeks in the empire and eventually allowed them to become identified with it altogether. The leading role of Constantinople began when Constantine the Great turned Byzantium into the new capital of the Roman Empire, from then on to be known as Constantinople, placing the city at the center of Hellenism, a beacon for the Greeks that lasted to the modern era. The figures of Constantine the Great and Justinian dominated during 324 -- 610. Assimilating the Roman tradition, the emperors sought to offer the basis for later developments and for the formation of the Byzantine Empire. Efforts to secure the borders of the Empire and to restore the Roman territories marked the early centuries. At the same time, the definitive formation and establishment of the Orthodox doctrine, but also a series of conflicts resulting from heresies that developed within the boundaries of the empire marked the early period of Byzantine history. In the first period of the middle Byzantine era (610 -- 867), the empire was attacked both by old enemies (Persians, Lombards, Avars and Slavs) as well as by new ones, appearing for the first time in history (Arabs, Bulgars). The main characteristic of this period was that the enemy attacks were not localized to the border areas of the state but they were extended deep beyond, even threatening the capital itself. At the same time, these attacks lost their periodical and temporary character and became permanent settlements that transformed into new states, hostile to Byzantium. Those states were referred by the Byzantines as Sclavinias. Changes were also observed in the internal structure of the empire which was dictated by both external and internal conditions. The predominance of the small free farmers, the expansion of the military estates and the development of the system of themes, brought to completion developments that had started in the previous period. Changes were noted also in the sector of administration: the administration and society had become immiscibly Greek, while the restoration of Orthodoxy after the iconoclast movement, allowed the successful resumption of missionary action among neighboring peoples and their placement within the sphere of Byzantine cultural influence. During this period the state was geographically reduced and economically damaged, since it lost wealth - producing regions; however, it obtained greater lingual, dogmatic and cultural homogeneity. From the late 8th century, the Empire began to recover from the devastating impact of successive invasions, and the reconquest of Greece began. Greeks from Sicily and Asia Minor were brought in as settlers. The Slavs were either driven out or assimilated and the Sclavinias were eliminated. By the middle of the 9th century, Greece was Greek again, and the cities began to recover due to improved security and the restoration of effective central control. When the Byzantine Empire was rescued from a period of crisis by the resolute leadership of the three Komnenoi emperors Alexios, John and Manuel in the 12th century, Greece prospered. Recent research has revealed that this period was a time of significant growth in the rural economy, with rising population levels and extensive tracts of new agricultural land being brought into production. The widespread construction of new rural churches is a strong indication that prosperity was being generated even in remote areas. A steady increase in population led to a higher population density, and there is good evidence that the demographic increase was accompanied by the revival of towns. According to Alan Harvey 's Economic Expansion in the Byzantine Empire 900 -- 1200, towns expanded significantly in the twelfth century. Archaeological evidence shows an increase in the size of urban settlements, together with a ' notable upsurge ' in new towns. Archaeological evidence tells us that many of the medieval towns, including Athens, Thessaloniki, Thebes and Corinth, experienced a period of rapid and sustained growth, starting in the 11th century and continuing until the end of the 12th century. The growth of the towns attracted the Venetians, and this interest in trade appears to have further increased economic prosperity in Greece. Certainly, the Venetians and others were active traders in the ports of the Holy Land, and they made a living out of shipping goods between the Crusader Kingdoms of Outremer and the West while also trading extensively with Byzantium and Egypt. The 11th and 12th centuries are said to be the Golden Age of Byzantine art in Greece. Many of the most important Byzantine churches in and around Athens, for example, were built during these two centuries, and this reflects the growth of urbanisation in Greece during this period. There was also a revival in the mosaic art with artists showing great interest in depicting natural landscapes with wild animals and scenes from the hunt. Mosaics became more realistic and vivid, with an increased emphasis on depicting three - dimensional forms. With its love of luxury and passion for color, the art of this age delighted in the production of masterpieces that spread the fame of Byzantium throughout the Christian world. Beautiful silks from the workshops of Constantinople also portrayed in dazzling color animals -- lions, elephants, eagles, and griffins -- confronting each other, or representing Emperors gorgeously arrayed on horseback or engaged in the chase. The eyes of many patrons were attracted and the economy of Greece grew. In the provinces, regional schools of Architecture began producing many distinctive styles that drew on a range of cultural influences. All this suggests that there was an increased demand for art, with more people having access to the necessary wealth to commission and pay for such work. Yet the marvelous expansion of Byzantine art during this period, one of the most remarkable facts in the history of the empire, did not stop there. From the 10th to the 12th century, Byzantium was the main source of inspiration for the West. By their style, arrangement, and iconography the mosaics of St. Mark 's at Venice and of the cathedral at Torcello clearly show their Byzantine origin. Similarly those of the Palatine Chapel, the Martorana at Palermo, and the cathedral of Cefalu, together with the vast decoration of the cathedral at Monreale, prove the influence of Byzantium οn the Norman Court of Sicily in the 12th century. Hispano - Moorish art was unquestionably derived from the Byzantine. Romanesque art owes much to the East, from which it borrowed not only its decorative forms but the plan of some of its buildings, as is proved, for instance, by the domed churches of south - western France. Princes of Kiev, Venetian doges, abbots of Monte Cassino, merchants of Amalfi, and the Norman kings of Sicily all looked to Byzantium for artists or works of art. Such was the influence of Byzantine art in the 12th century, that Russia, Venice, southern Italy and Sicily all virtually became provincial centers dedicated to its production. The year 1204 marks the beginning of the Late Byzantine period when Constantinople and a number of Byzantine territories were conquered by the Latins during the Fourth Crusade. During this period, a number of Byzantine Greek successor states emerged such as the Empire of Nicaea, the Despotate of Epirus and the Empire of Trebizond. In Latin - occupied territories, elements of feudality entered medieval Greek life. The Latin Empire, however, lasted only 57 years when in 1261, Constantinople was reclaimed by the Byzantine Greeks and the Byzantine Empire was restored. From 1261 onwards, Byzantium underwent a gradual weakening of its internal structures and the reduction of its territories from Ottoman invasions culminating in the fall of Constantinople on May 29, 1453. The Ottoman conquest of Constantinople resulted in the official end of both Byzantium and the Byzantine period of Greek history though medieval Greek life would continue well into the Ottoman period. When the Ottomans arrived, two Greek migrations occurred. The first migration entailed the Greek intelligentsia migrating to Western Europe and influencing the advent of the Renaissance. The second migration entailed Greeks leaving the plains of the Greek peninsula and resettling in the mountains. The millet system contributed to the ethnic cohesion of Orthodox Greeks by segregating the various peoples within the Ottoman Empire based on religion. The Greeks living in the plains during Ottoman rule were either Christians who dealt with the burdens of foreign rule or Crypto - Christians (Greek Muslims who were secret practitioners of the Greek Orthodox faith). Some Greeks became Crypto - Christians to avoid heavy taxes and at the same time express their identity by maintaining their ties to the Greek Orthodox Church. However, Greeks who converted to Islam and were not Crypto - Christians were deemed "Turks '' in the eyes of Orthodox Greeks, even if they did n't adopt the Turkish language. The Ottomans ruled Greece until the early 19th century. In the early months of 1821, the Greeks declared their independence but did not achieve it until 1829. The Great Powers first shared the same view concerning the necessity of preserving the status quo of the Ottoman Empire, but soon changed their stance. Scores of non-Greeks volunteered to fight for the cause, including Lord Byron. On October 20, 1827, a combined British, French and Russian naval force destroyed the Ottoman and Egyptian armada. The Russian minister of foreign affairs, Ioannis Kapodistrias, himself a Greek, returned home as President of the new Republic. The first capital of the independent Greece was Aigina (1828 -- 1829) and the second was Nafplio (1828 -- 1834). After his assassination, the European powers helped turn Greece into a monarchy; the first King, Otto, came from Bavaria and the second, George I, from Denmark. In 1834, King Otto transferred the capital to Athens. During the 19th and early 20th centuries, Greece sought to enlarge its boundaries to include the ethnic Greek population of the Ottoman Empire. Greece played a peripheral role in the Crimean War. When Russia attacked the Ottoman Empire in 1853, Greek leaders saw an opportunity to expand North and South into Ottoman areas that had a Christian majority. However, Greece did not coordinate its plans with Russia, did not declare war, and received no outside military or financial support. The French and British seized its major port and effectively neutralized the Greek army. Greek efforts to cause insurrections failed as they were easily crushed by Ottoman forces. Greece was not invited to the peace conference and made no gains out of the war. The frustrated Greek leadership blamed the King for failing to take advantage of the situation; his popularity plunged and he was later forced to abdicate. The Ionian Islands were returned by Britain upon the arrival of the new King George I in 1863 and Thessaly was ceded by the Ottomans. As a result of the Balkan Wars of 1912 -- 1913, Epirus, southern Macedonia, Crete and the Aegean Islands were annexed into the Kingdom of Greece. Another enlargement followed in 1947, when Greece annexed the Dodecanese Islands from Italy. In the late 19th century, modernization transformed the social structure of Greece. The population grew rapidly, putting heavy pressure on the system of small farms with low productivity. Overall, population density more than doubled from 41 persons per square mile in 1829 to 114 in 1912 (16 to 44 per km). One response was emigration to the United States, with a quarter million people leaving between 1906 and 1914. Entrepreneurs found numerous business opportunities in the retail and restaurant sectors of American cities; some sent money back to their families, others returned with hundreds of dollars, enough to purchase a farm or a small business in the old village. The urban population tripled from 8 % in 1853 to 24 % in 1907. Athens grew from a village of 6000 people in 1834, when it became the capital, to 63,000 in 1879, 111,000 in 1896, and 167,000 in 1907. In Athens and other cities, men arriving from rural areas set up workshops and stores, creating a middle class. They joined with bankers, professional men, university students, and military officers, to demand reform and modernization of the political and economic system. Athens became the center of the merchant marine, which quadrupled from 250,000 tons in 1875 to more than 1,000,000 tons in 1915. As the cities modernized, businessmen adopted the latest styles of Western European architecture. The outbreak of World War I in 1914 produced a split in Greek politics, with King Constantine I, an admirer of Germany, calling for neutrality while Prime Minister Eleftherios Venizelos pushed for Greece to join the Allies. The conflict between the monarchists and the Venizelists sometimes resulted in open warfare and became known as the National Schism. In 1916, the Allies forced Constantine to abdicate in favor of his son Alexander and Venizelos returned as premier. At the end of the war, the Great Powers agreed that the Ottoman city of Smyrna (Izmir) and its hinterland, both of which had large Greek populations, be handed over to Greece. Greek troops occupied Smyrna in 1919, and in 1920 the Treaty of Sèvres was signed by the Ottoman government; the treaty stipulated that in five years time a plebiscite would be held in Smyrna on whether the region would join Greece. However, Turkish nationalists, led by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, overthrew the Ottoman government and organised a military campaign against the Greek troops, resulting in the Greco - Turkish War (1919 - 1922). A major Greek offensive ground to a halt in 1921, and by 1922 Greek troops were in retreat. The Turkish forces recaptured Smyrna on 9 September 1922, and setting the city ablaze and killing many Greeks and Armenians. The war was concluded by the Treaty of Lausanne, according to which there was to be a population exchange between Greece and Turkey on the basis of religion. Over one million Orthodox Christians left Turkey in exchange for 400,000 Muslims from Greece. The events of 1919 -- 1922 are regarded in Greece as a particularly calamitous period of history. Between 1914 and 1923, an estimated 750,000 to 900,000 Greeks died at the hands of the Ottoman Turks, in what many scholars have termed a genocide. Despite the country 's numerically small and ill - equipped armed forces, Greece made a decisive contribution to the Allied efforts in World War II. At the start of the war, Greece sided with the Allies and refused to give in to Italian demands. Italy invaded Greece by way of Albania on 28 October 1940, but Greek troops repelled the invaders after a bitter struggle (see Greco - Italian War). This marked the first Allied victory in the war. Primarily to secure his strategic southern flank, German dictator Adolf Hitler reluctantly stepped in and launched the Battle of Greece in April 1941. Axis units from Germany, Bulgaria, and Italy successfully invaded Greece, through Yugoslavia, forcing out the Greek defenders. The Greek government eventually decided to stop the fighting and thus stopped sending ammunition and supplies to the northern front and the defenders were easily overrun. The Greek government then proceeded, as the Nazi forces came towards the capital of Athens, to leave for Crete and then Cairo. On 20 May 1941, the Germans attempted to seize Crete with a large attack by paratroopers, with the aim of reducing the threat of a counter-offensive by Allied forces in Egypt, but faced heavy resistance. The Greek campaign might have delayed German military plans against Soviet Union, and it is argued that had the German invasion of the Soviet Union started on 20 May 1941 instead of 22 June 1941, the Nazi assault against the Soviet Union might have succeeded. The heavy losses of German paratroopers led the Germans to launch no further large - scale air - invasions. During the Axis occupation of Greece, thousands of Greeks died in direct combat, in concentration camps, or of starvation. The occupiers murdered the greater part of the Jewish community despite efforts by Christian Greeks to shelter the Jews. The economy of Greece was devastated. When the Soviet Army began its drive across Romania in August 1944, the German Army in Greece began withdrawing north and northwestward from Greece into Yugoslavia and Albania to avoid being cut off in Greece. Hence, the German occupation of Greece ended in October 1944. The Resistance group ELAS seized control of Athens on 12 October 1944. British troops had already landed on 4 October in Patras, and entered Athens at 14 October 1944. Christina Goulter summarizes the devastation done to Greece during the war: The Greek Civil War (Greek: Eμφύλιος πόλεμος, translit. Emfílios pólemos) was the first major confrontation of the Cold War. It was fought between 1944 and 1949 in Greece between the nationalist / non-Marxist forces of Greece (financially supported by Great Britain at first, and later by the United States) and the Democratic Army of Greece (ELAS), which was the military branch of the Communist Party of Greece (KKE). The conflict resulted in a victory for the British -- and later U.S. - supported government forces, which led to Greece receiving American funds through the Truman Doctrine and the Marshall Plan, as well as becoming a member of NATO, which helped to define the ideological balance of power in the Aegean for the entire Cold War. The first phase of the civil war occurred in 1942 -- 1944. Marxist and non-Marxist resistance groups fought each other in a fratricidal conflict to establish the leadership of the Greek resistance movement. In the second phase (1944), the ascendant communists, in military control of most of Greece, confronted the returning Greek government in exile, which had been formed under the auspices of the Western Allies in Cairo and originally included six KKE - affiliated ministers. In the third phase (commonly called the "Third Round '' by the communists), guerrilla forces controlled by the KKE fought against the internationally recognized Greek government which was formed after elections were boycotted by the KKE. Although the involvement of the KKE in the uprisings was universally known, the party remained legal until 1948, continuing to coordinate attacks from its Athens offices until proscription. The war, which lasted from 1946 to 1949, was characterised by guerilla warfare between the KKE forces and Greek governmental forces mainly in the mountain ranges of northern Greece. The war ended with the NATO bombing of Mount Grammos and the final defeat of the KKE forces. The civil war left Greece with a legacy of political polarization. As a result, Greece also entered into an alliance with the United States and joined NATO, while relationships with its Communist northern neighbours, both pro-Soviet and neutral, became strained. In the 1950s and 1960s, Greece developed rapidly, initially with the help of the Marshall Plan 's grants and loans, also to decrease the communist influence. In 1952, by joining NATO, Greece clearly became part of the Western Bloc of the Cold War. But in Greek society, the deep divide between the leftist and rightist sections continued. Greece economy advanced further through growth in the tourism sector. New attention was given to women 's rights, and in 1952 suffrage for women was guaranteed in the Constitution, full Constitutional equality following, and Lina Tsaldari becoming the first female minister that decade. In 1967, the Greek military seized power in a coup d'état, overthrowing the centre right government of Panagiotis Kanellopoulos. It established the Greek military junta of 1967 - 1974 which became known as the Régime of the Colonels. The junta government 's accession to power lead to an isolation to Greece from European affairs and froze Greece 's entry to the European Union. In 1973, the régime abolished the Greek monarchy and in 1974, dictator Papadopoulos denied help to the United States. After a second coup that year, Colonel Ioannides was appointed as the new head - of - state. Ioannides was responsible for the 1974 coup against President Makarios of Cyprus. The coup became the pretext for the first wave of the Turkish invasion of Cyprus in 1974 (see Greco - Turkish relations). The Cyprus events and the outcry following a bloody suppression of Athens Polytechnic uprising in Athens led to the implosion of the military régime. After the end of the military régime, democracy was restored. The fall of the junta was followed by the metapolitefsi. Metapolitefsi was initiated when Konstantinos Karamanlis returned from self - exile in Paris at the invitation of the junta, to become interim prime minister on July 23, 1974. and later gained re-election for two further terms at the head of the conservative New Democracy Party. In August 1974, Greek forces withdrew from the integrated military structure of NATO in protest at the Turkish occupation of northern Cyprus. In 1974, a referendum voted 69 % -- 31 % to confirm the deposition of King Constantine II. A democratic republican constitution came into force. Another previously exiled politician, Andreas Papandreou also returned and founded the socialist PASOK Party (Panhellenic Socialist Movement), which won the 1981 election and dominated Greek politics for almost two decades. After the restoration of democracy, Greece 's stability and economic prosperity improved significantly. Greece rejoined NATO in 1980, joined the European Union (EU) in 1981 and adopted the euro as its currency in 2001. New infrastructure funds from the EU and growing revenues from tourism, shipping, services, light industry and the telecommunications industry have brought Greeks an unprecedented standard of living. Tensions continue to exist between Greece and Turkey over Cyprus and the delimitation of borders in the Aegean Sea but relations have considerably thawed following successive earthquakes, first in Turkey and then in Greece, and an outpouring of sympathy and generous assistance by ordinary Greeks and Turks (see Earthquake Diplomacy). The 2008 global economic recession impacted Greece, as well as the rest of the countries in the eurozone. From late 2009, fears developed in investment markets of a sovereign debt crisis concerning Greece 's ability to pay its debts, in view of the large increase in the country 's government debt. This crisis of confidence was indicated by a widening of bond yield spreads and risk insurance on credit default swaps compared to other countries, most importantly Germany. Downgrading of Greek government debt to junk bond status created alarm in financial markets. On 2 May 2010, the Eurozone countries and the International Monetary Fund agreed on a € 110 billion loan for Greece, conditional on the implementation of harsh austerity measures. In October 2011, Eurozone leaders also agreed on a proposal to write off 50 % of Greek debt owed to private creditors, increasing the EFSF to about € 1 trillion and requiring European banks to achieve 9 % capitalization to reduce the risk of contagion to other countries. These austerity measures were extremely unpopular with the Greek public, precipitating demonstrations and civil unrest. Lists: General:

what bones produce red blood cells in adults

Bone marrow - wikipedia Bone marrow is a semi-solid tissue which may be found within the spongy or cancellous portions of bones. In birds and mammals, bone marrow is the primary site of new blood cell production or hematopoiesis. It is composed of hematopoietic cells, marrow adipose tissue, and supportive stromal cells. In adult humans, bone marrow is primarily located in the ribs, vertebrae, sternum, and bones of the pelvis. On average, bone marrow constitutes 4 % of the total body mass of humans; in an adult having 65 kilograms of mass (143 lb), bone marrow typically accounts for approximately 2.6 kilograms (5.7 lb). Human marrow produces approximately 500 billion blood cells per day, which join the systemic circulation via permeable vasculature sinusoids within the medullary cavity. All types of hematopoietic cells, including both myeloid and lymphoid lineages, are created in bone marrow; however, lymphoid cells must migrate to other lymphoid organs (e.g. thymus) in order to complete maturation. Bone marrow transplants can be conducted to treat severe diseases of the bone marrow, including certain forms of cancer such as leukemia. Additionally, bone marrow stem cells have been successfully transformed into functional neural cells, and can also potentially be used to treat illnesses such as inflammatory bowel disease. The composition of marrow is dynamic, as the mixture of cellular and non-cellular components (connective tissue) shifts with age and in response to systemic factors. In humans, marrow is colloquially characterized as "red '' or "yellow '' marrow (Latin: medulla ossium rubra, Latin: medulla ossium flava, respectively) depending on the prevalence of hematopoetic cells vs fat cells. While the precise mechanisms underlying marrow regulation are not understood, compositional changes occur according to stereotypical patterns. For example, a newborn baby 's bones exclusively contain hematopoietically active "red '' marrow, and there is a progressive conversion towards "yellow '' marrow with age. In adults, red marrow is found mainly in the central skeleton, such as the pelvis, sternum, cranium, ribs, vertebrae and scapulae, and variably found in the proximal epiphyseal ends of long bones such as the femur and humerus. In circumstances of chronic hypoxia, the body can convert yellow marrow back to red marrow to increase blood cell production. At the cellular level, the main functional component of bone marrow includes the progenitor cells which are destined to mature into blood and lymphoid cells. Marrow contains hematopoietic stem cells which give rise to the three classes of blood cells that are found in circulation: white blood cells (leukocytes), red blood cells (erythrocytes), and platelets (thrombocytes). The stroma of the bone marrow includes all tissue not directly involved in the marrow 's primary function of hematopoiesis. Stromal cells may be indirectly involved in hematopoiesis, providing a microenvironment that influences the function and differentiation of hematopoeietic cells. For instance, they generate colony stimulating factors, which have a significant effect on hematopoiesis. Cell types that constitute the bone marrow stroma include: The bone marrow stroma contains mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs), also known as marrow stromal cells. These are multipotent stem cells that can differentiate into a variety of cell types. MSCs have been shown to differentiate, in vitro or in vivo, into osteoblasts, chondrocytes, myocytes, marrow adipocytes and beta - pancreatic islets cells. The blood vessels of the bone marrow constitute a barrier, inhibiting immature blood cells from leaving the marrow. Only mature blood cells contain the membrane proteins, such as aquaporin and glycophorin, that are required to attach to and pass the blood vessel endothelium. Hematopoietic stem cells may also cross the bone marrow barrier, and may thus be harvested from blood. The red bone marrow is a key element of the lymphatic system, being one of the primary lymphoid organs that generate lymphocytes from immature hematopoietic progenitor cells. The bone marrow and thymus constitute the primary lymphoid tissues involved in the production and early selection of lymphocytes. Furthermore, bone marrow performs a valve - like function to prevent the backflow of lymphatic fluid in the lymphatic system. Biological compartmentalization is evident within the bone marrow, in that certain cell types tend to aggregate in specific areas. For instance, erythrocytes, macrophages, and their precursors tend to gather around blood vessels, while granulocytes gather at the borders of the bone marrow. Animal bone marrow has been used in cuisine worldwide for millennia, such as the famed Milanese Ossobuco. The normal bone marrow architecture can be damaged or displaced by aplastic anemia, malignancies such as multiple myeloma, or infections such as tuberculosis, leading to a decrease in the production of blood cells and blood platelets. The bone marrow can also be affected by various forms of leukemia, which attacks its hematologic progenitor cells. Furthermore, exposure to radiation or chemotherapy will kill many of the rapidly dividing cells of the bone marrow, and will therefore result in a depressed immune system. Many of the symptoms of radiation poisoning are due to damage sustained by the bone marrow cells. To diagnose diseases involving the bone marrow, a bone marrow aspiration is sometimes performed. This typically involves using a hollow needle to acquire a sample of red bone marrow from the crest of the ilium under general or local anesthesia. Bone marrow derived stem cells have a wide array of application in regenerative medicine. Medical imaging may provide a limited amount of information regarding bone marrow. Plain film x-rays pass through soft tissues such as marrow and do not provide visualization, although any changes in the structure of the associated bone may be detected. CT imaging has somewhat better capacity for assessing the marrow cavity of bones, although with low sensitivity and specificity. For example, normal fatty "yellow '' marrow in adult long bones is of low density (- 30 to - 100 Hounsfield units), between subcutaneous fat and soft tissue. Tissue with increased cellular composition, such as normal "red '' marrow or cancer cells within the medullary cavity will measure variably higher in density. MRI is more sensitive and specific for assessing bone bone composition. MRI enables assessment of the average molecular composition of soft tissues, and thus provides information regarding the relative fat content of marrow. In adult humans, "yellow '' fatty marrow is the dominant tissue in bones, particularly in the (peripheral) appendicular skeleton. Because fat molecules have a high T1 - relaxivity, T1 - weighted imaging sequences show "yellow '' fatty marrow as bright (hyperintense). Furthermore, normal fatty marrow loses signal on fat - saturation sequences, in a similar pattern to subcutaneous fat. When "yellow '' fatty marrow becomes replaced by tissue with more cellular composition, this change is apparent as decreased brightness on T1 - weighted sequences. Both normal "red '' marrow and pathologic marrow lesions (such as cancer) are darker than "yellow '' marrow on T1 - weight sequences, although can often be distinguished by comparison with the MR signal intensity of adjacent soft tissues. Normal "red '' marrow is typically equivalent or brighter than skeletal muscle or intervertebral disc on T1 - weighted sequences. Fatty marrow change, the inverse of red marrow hyperplasia, can occur with normal aging, though it can also be seen with certain treatments such as radiation therapy. Diffuse marrow T1 hypointensity without contrast enhancement or cortical discontinuity suggests red marrow conversion or myelofibrosis. Falsely normal marrow on T1 can be seen with diffuse multiple myeloma or leukemic infiltration when the water to fat ratio is not sufficiently altered, as may be seen with lower grade tumors or earlier in the disease process. Bone marrow examination is the pathologic analysis of samples of bone marrow obtained via biopsy and bone marrow aspiration. Bone marrow examination is used in the diagnosis of a number of conditions, including leukemia, multiple myeloma, anemia, and pancytopenia. The bone marrow produces the cellular elements of the blood, including platelets, red blood cells and white blood cells. While much information can be gleaned by testing the blood itself (drawn from a vein by phlebotomy), it is sometimes necessary to examine the source of the blood cells in the bone marrow to obtain more information on hematopoiesis; this is the role of bone marrow aspiration and biopsy. The ratio between myeloid series and erythroid cells is relevant to bone marrow function, and also to diseases of the bone marrow and peripheral blood, such as leukemia and anemia. The normal myeloid - to - erythroid ratio is around 3: 1; this ratio may increase in myelogenous leukemias, decrease in polycythemias, and reverse in cases of thalassemia. In a bone marrow transplant, hematopoietic stem cells are removed from a person and infused into another person (allogenic) or into the same person at a later time (autologous). If the donor and recipient are compatible, these infused cells will then travel to the bone marrow and initiate blood cell production. Transplantation from one person to another is conducted for the treatment of severe bone marrow diseases, such as congenital defects, autoimmune diseases or malignancies. The patient 's own marrow is first killed off with drugs or radiation, and then the new stem cells are introduced. Before radiation therapy or chemotherapy in cases of cancer, some of the patient 's hematopoietic stem cells are sometimes harvested and later infused back when the therapy is finished to restore the immune system. Bone marrow stem cells can be induced to become neural cells to treat neurological illnesses, and can also potentially be used for the treatment of other illnesses, such as inflammatory bowel disease. In 2013, following a clinical trial, scientists proposed that bone marrow transplantation could be used to treat HIV in conjunction with antiretroviral drugs; however, it was later found that HIV remained in the bodies of the test subjects. The stem cells are typically harvested directly from the red marrow in the iliac crest, often under general anesthesia. The procedure is minimally invasive and does not require stitches afterwards. Depending on the donor 's health and reaction to the procedure, the actual harvesting can be an outpatient procedure, or can require 1 -- 2 days of recovery in the hospital. Another option is to administer certain drugs that stimulate the release of stem cells from the bone marrow into circulating blood. An intravenous catheter is inserted into the donor 's arm, and the stem cells are then filtered out of the blood. This procedure is similar to that used in blood or platelet donation. In adults, bone marrow may also be taken from the sternum, while the tibia is often used when taking samples from infants. In newborns, stem cells may be retrieved from the umbilical cord. The earliest fossilised evidence of bone marrow was discovered in 2014 in Eusthenopteron, a lobe - finned fish which lived during the Devonian period approximately 370 million years ago. Scientists from Uppsala University and the European Synchrotron Radiation Facility used X-ray synchrotron microtomography to study the fossilised interior of the skeleton 's humerus, finding organised tubular structures akin to modern vertebrate bone marrow. Eusthenopteron is closely related to the early tetrapods, which ultimately evolved into the land - dwelling mammals and lizards of the present day.

henderson singer who found fame on the x factor

Olly Murs - Wikipedia Oliver Stanley Murs (born 14 May 1984) is an English singer - songwriter, television presenter and actor. He first came to national attention for coming second in the sixth series of The X Factor in 2009. He is currently signed to RCA Records & Sony Music UK in the United Kingdom, Columbia Records in the United States. In 2010, Murs released his debut single "Please Do n't Let Me Go '', which debuted at number one on the UK Singles Charts and received a Gold certification by the BPI. It was Murs ' first number one single after "You Are Not Alone '' with the other series 6 finalists. His second single from his debut album, "Thinking of Me '' charted at number four on the UK Singles Charts and received a Silver certification by the BPI. "Heart Skips a Beat '' was his second number - one single. Murs ' second single from his next album, "Dance with Me Tonight '', became his third to reach number one. In November 2010, Murs released his self - titled debut album, Olly Murs, which entered the UK Albums Chart at number two, with the biggest week one album sales for a debut album in 2010, with over 108,000 albums sold. The album went on to sell over 600,000 copies, and was certified double platinum by the BPI. In November 2011, Murs ' released his second album, In Case You Did n't Know, which entered the charts at number one and resulted in two number - one singles. As of December 2014, Murs has sold over 10 million records worldwide. In May 2011, it was announced that Murs would return to The X Factor to co-present the spin - off show The Xtra Factor with Caroline Flack. His autobiography, Happy Days, was published in October 2012. In November 2012, Murs released his third album Right Place Right Time, and released 6 singles from it; the first, "Troublemaker '', was his fourth number one. On 16 November 2014, Murs released the single, "Wrapped Up '' featuring Gym Class Heroes ' Travie McCoy, which peaked at number 3. This was to be the first song to be released from his new album Never Been Better which entered the charts at number 1 on 24 September 2014, followed by a second single, "Up '' featuring American actress Demi Lovato which peaked within the top 4. Murs also announced that he would tour the UK in spring 2015. On 15 June, Murs released his fourth single "Beautiful to Me '' in which the music video included Game of Thrones actress Charlotte Hope. On 16 April 2015, it was announced that Murs would be reunited with Flack to replace Dermot O'Leary as co-presenters of The X Factor from series 12. Murs later released his fifth studio album, 24 Hrs, which debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. Murs was born in Witham, Essex, the son of Vicky - Lynn and Pete Murs. He has a twin brother, Ben Murs, and a sister, Fay Murs. His paternal grandfather was Latvian, and had moved to the United Kingdom with his parents, Edward and Kathe Murs, in 1948. He attended Howbridge Junior School in Witham and Notley High School in Braintree, Essex where he was a striker in the school 's football team. He went to school with Next of Kin and played semi-professionally for Isthmian Division One North side Witham Town between 2006 and 2008. He excelled for the club 's reserve team during the 2006 / 07 season, scoring 12 goals in 13 appearances and winning the Ridgeons Reserve Teams Cup. He made three first team appearances in the following season, scoring once, but was forced to give up his football career following an injury. Prior to The X Factor, Murs worked as a recruitment consultant at Prime Appointments in Witham, and performed as part of a covers band called the Small Town Blaggers with a friend, Jon Goodey. He also appeared on the game show Deal or No Deal in 2007, where he won £ 10. Murs returned for a celebrity version of the show in 2012, which made him the only person to appear on it twice. In 2008, he travelled to Australia, backpacking alone along the east coast for three months. It was upon his return that he decided, having tried it out unsuccessfully twice in the past (when he did n't make it past the stage where he had to audition in front of the producers), to audition for The X Factor again. In 2009, Murs auditioned for the sixth series of The X Factor, performing Stevie Wonder 's "Superstition ''. Judge Simon Cowell said it was "the easiest yes I 've ever given ''. At bootcamp Murs sang Elton John 's song Your Song. On the first live show, he sang "She 's the One '' and on the second, "A Fool in Love '', a performance which Cowell described as being "in a different league. '' For week three he took on "Bewitched ''. Walsh commented that he was the "dark horse of the competition, '' and Cowell said he was "coming into his own each week. '' He frequently employed dance moves in his performance including his trademark "Olly wiggle. '' In week 4 he sang "Come Together '' and again received positive comments, with Walsh predicting, "I think you 're in the final three, '' and Cowell saying he was "progressing better than just about everybody. '' In week 5 he performed "Twist and Shout '' and in week 6 "Do n't Stop Me Now '', after which he was labelled by Minogue as, "absolutely the best performer we have on the show by far. '' In week 7, after a performance of "Fastlove '', he was in the bottom two with John & Edward. Cowell and Cheryl Cole decided to send John & Edward home, but Louis Walsh voted against Murs. Dannii Minogue then decided against taking the judges ' vote to deadlock and sent home John & Edward. However, voting statistics revealed that John & Edward received more votes than Murs meaning if Minogue sent the result to deadlock, John & Edward would 've been sent through to the quarter - final and Murs would 've been eliminated. To participate in the semi-finals, Murs had to miss his brother 's wedding. The ceremony took place just 16 miles (26 km) from the show 's studio, but mentor Cowell was against letting him off for a few hours on the crucial semi-final day. He sang "Can You Feel It '' and "We Can Work It Out '' in the semi-final and ended up as one of the three finalists, breaking down on hearing the result. In the final on 12 December, he repeated his audition song, "Superstition '', following which Cowell said putting him in the final 12 was "the best risk I have ever taken in my life ''. Murs then sang with British entertainer Robbie Williams on a duet of "Angels '', in which Williams fluffed his lines as he walked on stage to join Murs and came in at the wrong time, singing the second line of the song, but was helped by Murs to find the right spot. There was then a repeat performance of his week 2 song "Fool in Love ''. Murs qualified for the final two and first sang a repeat performance of "Twist and Shout '', following which Walsh commented, "You 're a born, born showman and no matter what happens tonight you 're going to have a great career in music. '' In his final performance on the show he performed the winner 's song, "The Climb '', finishing it in tears. He was told by Cole, "You absolutely tore it from your soul. I 've never heard you sing like that. I thought it was a beautiful version of the song. '' He lost the final to Joe McElderry the next day and finished as the runner - up. On 15 December, two days after the final, it was reported that Cowell was going to offer Murs a record deal in early 2010. Following his defeat, Murs was reportedly texted by duet partner Robbie Williams and invited to visit him in his Los Angeles mansion and participate in the forthcoming Soccer Aid, organised by Williams. Murs performed on the X Factor tour, alongside Joe McElderry, John & Edward, Stacey Solomon, Lucie Jones and several other finalists. It was later revealed on The Xtra Factor that Murs was predicted by all the judges and presenters (except Minogue who had said Nicole Jackson, and Cole who had said Miss Frank as a second choice) as the favourite to win the series at the Boot Camp stage. As with all other finalists save the winner, Murs began gigging around the country following the end of the show. He was also booked to appear at the engagement party of model Danielle Lloyd. Footage of Murs appearing on Deal or No Deal was later featured in an edition of the BBC 's Almost Famous on 2 January 2010. Rumours began that Murs would record a debut album almost immediately after the final, where he finished in second place to Joe McElderry. After the rumours broke out, Murs announced he signed a joint record deal between Epic Records and Syco Music in February 2010. It was announced that Murs began working with John Shanks and Eg White. It was later confirmed that Roy Stride, Trevor Horn, Wayne Hector and Matty Benbrook would have involvement on the album which he collaborated with to make the "best possible songs ''. More writers and producers were confirmed to be working with Murs in the studio, including: Phil Thornalley, Martin Brammer, Samuel Preston, Mark Taylor, Chris Difford and Professor Green were due to appear on the album; however, the duet fell through before recording was completed. Murs confirmed the first single from the album to be titled "Please Do n't Let Me Go '', which was released on 27 August 2010 following the circulation of the accompanying music video. The song was written by Murs himself and with other songwriters, Claude Kelly and Steve Robson; the single was also produced by Future Cut. The song is about a minor relationship Murs was in where he ended up feeling something for the other person. Murs commented: "Sadly she kept giving me the impression that she did n't like me as much, and ultimately it did n't work out, so that 's where the idea of me singing ' Please Do n't Let Me Go ' came from. '' The song was described as "a lovely summery reggae - tinged pop tune that bobs along in a thoroughly hummable and not un-Will Young - like fashion '' and said that the music video "is just as quintessentially pleasant ''. During the release, Murs was told not to get his hopes up for a number - one due to Katy Perry releasing "Teenage Dream '' the same day. On 5 September 2010, the single entered the UK Singles Charts at number 1 beating Katy Perry 's "Teenage Dream ''. The song was released with the B - side track, entitled "This One 's for the Girls '' also entered the UK Singles Charts, debuting at number 69, was written for all of his female fans. His debut album was released in November 2010; which was a self - titled album, Olly Murs. The album 's tracking list was revealed on 15 October 2010. The album entered the UK Albums Chart at number two, with the biggest week - one album sales for a debut album in 2010, with over 108,000 albums sold. The album also charted on the Irish Albums Chart where it found itself peaking at number eleven. The second single was "Thinking of Me '', written by Murs, Steve Robson and Hector, and co-produced by Future Cut and Steve Robson. It was released on 19 November 2010, prior to the album 's release. It was reported that Professor Green would feature on the single; however, the duet fell through before it was completed. The single was added to BBC Radio 1 's C Playlist on 3 November 2010. Murs performed the single for the first time on The X Factor. Upon the release the single charted at number four on the UK Singles Charts and thirteen on the Irish Singles Charts. On 13 November Murs turned the Christmas lights on in Paisley and he also turned on the Christmas lights near his hometown in Chelmsford, Essex. Renfrewshire Council was criticised in the media for the £ 15,000 fee that Murs was paid to turn on the lights, after announcing that they were axing 500 jobs. Murs however donated his fee for his appearance at this event. Two further singles were released from the first album into 2011 -- the James Morrison penned "Heart on My Sleeve '', which charted at No. 20 in March 2011, and "Busy '' which charted at No. 45 in June 2011. Murs completed a theatre tour for his first album in spring 2011, commencing on 26 April in Rhyl at the Pavilion Theatre and playing four sold out nights at London 's Hammersmith Apollo in late May. He also toured as the support act of JLS on their summer stadium tour. It was rumoured in June 2011, that Murs had started working on his second studio album, which he later confirmed. Murs claimed that he would "take the album from a different approach '', and claimed he would like to record a rap track, stating, "I 'm secretly not a bad rapper, I really like to do a bit of beat boxing, Eminem is always a favourite, or maybe Vanilla Ice, "Ice Ice Baby '' is a classic. '' Murs revealed that he will attempt to build himself a more of a "soulful '' sound through writing the second album, and also expressed interest in recording with English entertainer Robbie Williams after the two met on The X Factor Live Final. Murs confirmed in July 2011, that the lead single from the album would be called "Heart Skips a Beat '', and it would feature up - and - coming Brithop Rap duo Rizzle Kicks. He described it as a "parallel '' to the remainder of the album, calling it a "summer party song ''. The song premiered on The Chris Moyles Show on 7 July 2011 and has since been well received by fans. The video for the track was later released via Murs ' official YouTube channel. Murs said that the song is one of his favourite tracks from the new album, stating, "I 'm loving the tune at the moment. It 's going down really, really well. '' "Heart Skips a Beat '' later peaked at number one on the UK Singles Chart, marking his second number one. It later went on to peak at number one in Germany and Switzerland, also reaching top ten in numerous countries in Europe. In September 2011, Murs announced via Twitter that his second album would be entitled In Case You Did n't Know, taken from a song of the same name which appears on the album. On 14 October 2011, Murs released the audio of "Dance with Me Tonight '', the album 's second single, via his YouTube Channel. The track was released on 21 November 2011, again peaking at No. 1 on the UK Singles Chart. The album, In Case You Did n't Know was released a week later on 28 November 2011. The album peaked at number one on the UK Albums Chart, two on the Irish Charts, and in the top ten in Germany, Switzerland and Poland. Murs confirmed via his Twitter account in February 2012 that the album 's third single would be "Oh My Goodness '', and that it would be released on 2 April. It peaked at No. 13 on the UK Singles Chart. The single was his second release in Europe after "Heart Skips a Beat '', released on 10 August, and has so far peaked in the top 40 in Germany and Austria. In April 2012, it was revealed that Murs was in the process of writing his third studio album, which was released on 26 November 2012. Murs has once again written with Steve Robson and Claude Kelly. Ed Drewett (best known for his work for The Wanted) and Andrew Frampton and Steve Kipner (producers of both albums for The Script) are other names that have been confirmed for the third album, and in a June 2012 interview with the website Examiner he confirmed the name of a new song, "One of These Days '', which he described as a ' follow - on ' song from "I Need You Now '' on his previous album. On 17 September, Murs announced the first single from his third album, "Troublemaker '', a collaboration with Claude Kelly and Steve Robson which features American rapper Flo Rida and was released on 18 November. It also served as Murs 's second U.S. single. The same day, he also announced the name of the third album, Right Place Right Time. The cover artwork and track listing for the album was unveiled on 1 October. Murs will be embarking on a second arena tour of the UK and Ireland in February / March 2013 to support the album, as well as performing his first live European dates in Germany, Switzerland, Sweden and Denmark in April 2013. On 14 January 2013 Murs confirmed that the second single from the album would be "Army of Two '', which was released on 10 March 2013. The album 's third single, "Dear Darlin ' '', was released on 3 June 2013. On 25 August 2013, the album 's title track "Right Place Right Time '' was released as the fourth single. Murs was the opening act for English boy band One Direction on the North American leg of their Up All Night Tour, which began on 29 May in Toronto. "Heart Skips a Beat '' was released as Murs ' first U.S. single through Columbia Records on 29 May 2012, replacing Rizzle Kicks with American rappers Chiddy Bang for its release. As of September 2012 it has peaked at No. 96 on the Billboard Hot 100. Murs was set to release ' In Case You Did n't Know ' as his debut U.S. album on 25 September 2012, also through Columbia, however Examiner.com reported on 2 September that the release had been ' postponed until further notice ', with no definite new release date given. On 17 September, Columbia then confirmed a new release date of 3 December and that they would now be releasing Murs ' third UK album, Right Place Right Time as his debut U.S. release instead. The track listing for this will include "Heart Skips a Beat '', "Dance with Me Tonight '' and "Oh My Goodness '' alongside "Troublemaker '' and six other tracks from the new UK album. The release has since been delayed again, however, and is now due for release in the U.S. on 4 April 2013. While visiting Chicago, IL for a performance of 25 January, Murs spoke with WBBM - FM B96 and confirmed that the final U.S. release date is 16 April 2013 and he will be featured as February 2013 's VH1 "You Oughta Know '' artist. Murs provided support for English entertainer Robbie Williams on his Take the Crown Stadium Tour and also performed a duet with him on Kids. In July 2013, Murs served as the headline act at Alton Towers Live. In September, was announced that a new French version of "Dear Darlin '', with participation of the famous singer Alizée, would be released in the second day of the month, with also the support of a concert in Paris to attack the France market. On 11 September, Murs announced on his Facebook page that he was going to release a re-packaged edition of Right Place Right Time, which would be released in November 2013. Also on the same day Murs announced that he will feature on English entertainer Robbie Williams 's upcoming album Swings Both Ways, singing "I Wan'na Be Like You '', a song which he had sung on his first attempt to audition for The X Factor. Murs also featured on the UK version of rapper Classified 's song "Inner Ninja '', released on 10 November 2013. Murs unveiled "Hand on Heart '' as the lead single from the re-release of Right Place Right Time and was released on 24 November with the re-release following a week later. In July 2013, Murs revealed that he had been back in the studio writing and recording new material for his fourth album, due to be released in Summer 2014. In February 2014, it was revealed that work had begun on his fourth studio album. He worked with Demi Lovato, Wayne Hector, Claude Kelly and Steve Robson. On 28 September, Murs announced that the title of the album will be called Never Been Better and also announced the track list alongside it. The album was released on 24 November and debuted at number one on the UK Albums Chart. The album 's first single "Wrapped Up '' was released on 16 November 2014 and debuted at number three on the UK Singles Chart. The album 's second single "Up '' featuring American actress Demi Lovato reached number four in the UK singles chart. On 10 February 2015, Murs confirmed on his Twitter account that the third single to be released from the album would be "Seasons ''. On 12 December 2014, Murs released an Christmas EP titled Unwrapped exclusivity on Google Play. In February 2015, it was announced that a waxwork figure of Murs would be put into Madame Tussauds Waxworks in Blackpool, which was unveiled on 30 March 2015. During a concert at The O2 Arena on 4 May 2015 and later on his Twitter account, Murs confirmed that the fourth single to be released from the album would be "Beautiful to Me ''. On 2 October 2015, Murs announced on his Twitter account that he would release a special edition of Never Been Better (which like the special edition of Right Place Right Time will feature extra tracks and a tour DVD) on 20 November 2015 and the first single released was Kiss Me which reached number 11 in the UK singles chart. In early 2016, Murs began work on his fifth studio album which will be released later in the year. On 1 July 2016, Murs revealed on his Twitter account that the album 's first single "You Do n't Know Love '' would be released on 8 July. On 9 July 2016, Murs served as a support act for British five piece vocal group Take That at their British Summer Time concert at Hyde Park in London. On 2 September 2016, Murs announced on his Twitter account that his fifth album would be called 24 Hrs and would be released on 11 November. On the same day, Murs announced that he would be going on tour in March and April 2017. On 22 June 2017, it launched a partnership with Louisa Johnson called Unpredictable, the video already has more than five million views on YouTube. On 9 January 2018, Murs revealed on his instagram story to be working on his sixth album. On 28 October 2011, Murs was the first artist to be confirmed to play at Capital FM 's Jinglebell Ball 2011. In November 2011, Murs won the award for "Best Male Artist '' at the BT Digital Music Awards and the award for "Best Album '' for Olly Murs at the BBC Radio 1 Teen Awards. On 5 and 6 December, Murs supported Gary Barlow at Barlow 's Concerts at the Royal Albert Hall, where they performed together on the Take That hit "Shine ''. In March 2012, Murs performed at the ' Big Gig ' event in Birmingham. On 24 March, In aid of Sport Relief, Murs performed alongside Rizzle Kicks, Vida and JLS at a special charity concert, held at The O2 Arena in London. On 16 April, Murs won the Nickelodeon Kids ' Choice Award for "Favourite British Male Artist ''. On 19 April, a three - part documentary trailing Murs throughout his UK Arena Tour, entitled Olly: Life on Murs, premiered on ITV2. It drew over half a million viewers. In July 2012 Murs performed at T in the Park. In August 2012 Murs performed at V Festival where he did his own set and also joined Madness for a performance of "It Must Be Love '' and "One Step Beyond ''. Murs ' keen interest in football, and support of Manchester United means that he has also frequently appeared on sport based TV shows and radio stations such as Talksport, either during promotion of his music or as a talking head giving his opinion on matches. In April 2016, Murs began to play for Coggeshall Town. He also released a special DVD, entitled "Olly Murs: 7 Deadly Sins of Football '', through 2Entertain on 28 November 2011. In this DVD he introduced archive clips of Premier League matches well noted for displaying "when players get too greedy, when they get angry, (and) when they get lazy '', as well as offering opinions from Ray Parlour, Alvin Martin, Jason Cundy, Ray Houghton and Micky Quinn from talkSPORT. In January 2013, as part of celebrations to mark the 150th anniversary of the founding of The FA, Murs was appointed as an FA150 Ambassador, along with other leading figures from the world of football such as Alan Shearer, Gary Lineker and Sir Bobby Charlton. Murs has also been involved in modelling / fashion work, including some modelling for the autumn / winter 2012 range of Robbie Williams ' clothing label Farrell. Murs released an illustrated autobiography, Happy Days, published by Coronet (an imprint of Hodder & Stoughton) on 11 October 2012. Photography for the book was shot by Dean Freeman, who has also worked on books for JLS, Michael Bublé and David Beckham, and Murs also recorded an audio version of the book that was made available to download. In January 2013 it was confirmed that Murs would guest star in a season 5 episode of the American drama series 90210 where he would perform "Troublemaker '' and "Right Place Right Time ''. The episode aired on 22 April 2013. On 6 October 2013, Murs returned to The X Factor as a guest mentor to help judge Gary Barlow pick his finalist for the finals of the competition. On 10 November 2014, Murs confirmed on his Twitter account that he would join the line up for Band Aid 30. On 12 March 2015, Murs confirmed that he would be releasing a second book titled On The Road. On 11 October 2017, it was confirmed by ITV that Murs had become a coach on the seventh series of The Voice UK. In February 2011, it was announced that Murs would participate in the BT Charity Trek, with other celebrities, as part of the 2011 Comic Relief Red Nose Day campaign. The celebrities spent five days in the Kaisut desert in north Kenya, covering 100 kilometres (62 mi) in temperatures up to 40 ° C. On 2 April 2011, Murs appeared in a celebrity version of Who Wants to Be a Millionaire? and won £ 10,000 for charity. On 22 April, he appeared on a celebrity edition of Deal or No Deal, where he won 50p for his chosen charity, Brainwave, a local charity based in Murs ' home town of which he had become a patron, for children with brain conditions such as cerebral palsy or developmental delay. On 27 May 2012, Murs played for England in a charity match for Soccer Aid at Old Trafford, but was taken off in the first half due to a hamstring injury. England ended up winning the match in a 3 -- 1 victory against the rest of the world. This was the second time Murs had played for the England Team at Soccer Aid. He played back in 2010, a third time in 2014 and made a fourth appearance in 2016. He is also a patron for the Nordoff - Robbins music therapy charity, and more recently he has become a patron for the Rays of Sunshine Children 's Charity, who grant wishes to seriously or terminally ill children aged 3 -- 18 in the United Kingdom. On 21 March 2014, Murs took part in the Clash of the Titans event in aid for Sport Relief 2014 as part of Sebastian Coe 's team, Team Coe who were crowned champions. He took part in Men 's Cycling Elimination and Rhythmic Gymnastics. On 4 April 2011, Murs stood in for Comedy Dave Vitty on The Chris Moyles Show on Radio 1 for one week while Vitty was rehearsing for Dancing on Ice. In 2011, Murs appeared on CBBC 's children 's hidden camera show Remote Control Star. At the end of May 2011, Murs presented a Celebrity Club Classics show on Heart FM. He went on to present a Celebrity Special over the Christmas Period in 2011 and again in 2012. On 31 May 2011, it was confirmed that Murs would be co-presenting the eighth series of The Xtra Factor alongside Caroline Flack. On 10 November 2011, Murs turned on the Christmas Lights at Cribbs Causeway in South Gloucestershire, where 7,000 fans attended. Murs concluded his appearance with a performance of "Dance with Me Tonight '', the first time he had performed the song live. On 2 December, Murs appeared on The Late Late Toy Show with Ryan Tubridy, a popular television show in Ireland. On 1 February 2012, Murs began his 22 - date arena tour, starting with an audience of 20,000 in Cardiff. In March 2012, it was confirmed that Murs would return to The X Factor to present the spin - off show, The Xtra Factor alongside Caroline Flack, for a second year running. Due to his international release and touring with One Direction over the summer, however, he was not present for the audition, boot camp and judges ' houses stages of this year 's series, but did however record some special segments with selected auditionees that were broadcast in these episodes. He returned to the show full - time with Flack on the first live show of the series on 6 October 2012. In April 2013, it was confirmed that Murs had quit his role as co-presenter of The Xtra Factor to concentrate on his music career. He was replaced by Matt Richardson. In June 2014, Murs along with Rio Ferdinand presented World Cup 's 50 Greatest Moments on BBC Three on the run up to the World Cup 2014. On 12 December 2014, Murs performed and presented his ITV special A Night In With Olly Murs. The show featured him performing some of his songs as well as photobomb with Nicole Scherzinger, prank Caroline Flack, appear in a special episode of EastEnders and lip sync with John Bishop. On 25 December 2014, Murs reunited with Flack to co-present a Christmas Day radio show on British radio station Magic. They later did another radio show for Magic on New Year 's Eve. On 16 April 2015, it was confirmed that Murs and Flack would take over from Dermot O'Leary as the presenters of twelfth series of The X Factor. However, in February 2016, Murs confirmed that he would not be returning to present the show 's thirteenth series in order to concentrate on his music career. It was also confirmed that Flack had quit too. On 18 December 2015, Murs and Flack served as presenters for ITV 's Christmas telethon Text Santa. On 26 July 2016, Murs served as both a guest and guest panelist on Loose Women in place of Katie Price who had fallen ill. Murs lived with his parents Vicky and Pete until Easter 2012 when he moved into a 5 bedroom house of his own in Toot Hill, Essex. He is a supporter of Manchester United. He also has a twin brother named Ben, who has been estranged from the family since 2009. Murs stated on The Jonathan Ross Show in March 2015 that Ben was also estranged from their parents, and that the incident stemmed from his not being able to attend his brother 's wedding because of X Factor commitments. 9th May: Olly received Harry Styles ' Brit Award for Sign of the Times. Giving Olly his first Brit Award.

when does the tax year start in usa

Fiscal year - wikipedia A fiscal year (or financial year, or sometimes budget year) is the period used by governments for accounting and budget purposes, which vary between countries. It is also used for financial reporting by business and other organizations. Laws in many jurisdictions require company financial reports to be prepared and published on an annual basis, but generally do not require the reporting period to align with the calendar year (1 January to 31 December). Taxation laws generally require accounting records to be maintained and taxes calculated on an annual basis, which usually corresponds to the fiscal year used for government purposes. The calculation of tax on an annual basis is especially relevant for direct taxaction, such as income tax. Many annual government fees -- such as Council rates, licence fees, etc. -- are also levied on a fiscal year basis, while others are charged on an anniversary basis. The "fiscal year end '' (FYE) is the date that marks the end of the fiscal year. Some companies -- such as Cisco Systems -- end their fiscal year on the same day of the week each year, e.g. the day that is closest to a particular date (for example, the Friday closest to 31 December). Under such a system, some fiscal years will have 52 weeks and others 53 weeks. The calendar year is used as the fiscal year by about 65 % of publicly traded companies in the United States and for a majority of large corporations in the UK and elsewhere, with notable exceptions being in Australia, New Zealand and Japan. Many universities have a fiscal year which ends during the summer to align the fiscal year with the academic year (and, in some cases involving public universities, with the state government 's fiscal year), and because the university is normally less busy during the summer months. In the northern hemisphere this is July to the next June. In the southern hemisphere this is calendar year, January to December. Some media / communication - based organizations use a broadcast calendar as the basis for their fiscal year. The fiscal year is usually denoted by the year in which it ends, so United States federal government spending incurred on 14 November 2018 would belong to fiscal year 2019, operating on a fiscal calendar of October -- September. The fiscal year for individuals and entities to report and pay income taxes is often known as the taxpayer 's tax year or taxable year. Taxpayers in many jurisdictions may choose their tax year. In federal countries (e.g., United States, Canada, Switzerland), state / provincial / cantonal tax years must be the same as the federal year. Nearly all jurisdictions require that the tax year be 12 months or 52 / 53 weeks. However, short years are permitted as the first year or when changing tax years. Most countries require all individuals to pay income tax based on the calendar year. Significant exceptions include: Many jurisdictions require that the tax year conform to the taxpayer 's fiscal year for financial reporting. The United States is a notable exception: taxpayers may choose any tax year, but must keep books and records for such year. In some jurisdictions, particularly those that permit tax consolidation, companies that are part of a group of businesses must use nearly the same fiscal year (differences of up to three months are permitted in some jurisdictions, such as the U.S. and Japan), with consolidating entries to adjust for transactions between units with different fiscal years, so the same resources will not be counted more than once or not at all. In Afghanistan, the fiscal year was recently changed from 1 Hamal -- 29 Hoot (21 March -- 20 March) to 1 Jadi -- 30 Qaus (21 December -- 20 December). The fiscal year runs with the Afghan calendar, thus resulting in difference of the Gregorian dates once in a four - year span. In Australia, a fiscal year is commonly called a "financial year '' (FY) and starts on 1 July and ends on the next 30 June. Financial years are designated by the calendar year of the second half of the period. For example, financial year 2017 is the 12 - month period ending on 30 June 2017 and can be referred to as FY2016 / 17. It is used for official purposes, by individual taxpayers and by the overwhelming majority of business enterprises. Business enterprises may opt to use a financial year that ends at the end of a week (e.g., 52 or 53 weeks in length, and therefore is not exactly one calendar year in length), or opt for its financial year to end on a date that matches the reporting cycle of its foreign parent. All entities within the one group must use the same financial year. For government accounting and budget purposes, pre-Federation colonies changed the financial year from the calendar year to a year ending 30 June on the following dates: Victoria changed in 1870, South Australia in 1874, Queensland in 1875, Western Australia in 1892, New South Wales in 1895 and Tasmania in 1904. The Commonwealth adopted the near - ubiquitous financial year standard since its inception in 1901. The reason given for the change was for convenience, as Parliament typically sits during May and June, while it was difficult for it to meet in November and December to pass a budget. The Financial year is split into the following four quarters In Austria the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Bangladesh, the fiscal year is 1 July to the next 30 June. In Belarus, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Brazil, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Bulgaria, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, both for personal income tax and for corporate taxes. In Canada, the government 's financial year is 1 April to 31 March. (Q1 1 April - 30 June, Q2 1 July - 30 Sept, Q3 1 Oct - 31 Dec and Q4 1 Jan - 31 Mar) For individual taxpayers, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In China, the fiscal year for all entities is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and applies to the tax year, statutory year, and planning year. In Colombia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Costa Rica, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September. In the Arab Republic of Egypt, the fiscal year is 1 July to 30 June. In France, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December, and has been since at least 1911. In Greece, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Hong Kong, the government 's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March. In India, the government 's financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March. It is abbreviated as a FY19. Companies following the Indian Depositary Receipt (IDR) are given freedom to choose their financial year. For example, Standard Chartered 's IDR follows the UK calendar despite being listed in India. Companies following Indian fiscal year get to know their economical health on 31 March of every Indian financial or fiscal year. The current fiscal year was adopted by the colonial British government in 1867 to align India 's financial year with that of the British Empire. Prior to 1867, India followed a fiscal year that ran from 1 May to 30 April. In 1984, the LK Jha committee recommended adopting a fiscal year that ran from 1 January to 31 December. However, this proposal was not adopted by the government fearing possible issues during the transition period. A panel set up by the NITI Aayog in July 2016, recommended starting the next fiscal year from 1 January to 31 December after the end of the current five - year plan. On 4 May 2017, Madhya Pradesh announced that it would move to a January -- December financial year, becoming the first Indian state to do so. But later it dropped the idea. In Indonesia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Iran, the fiscal year usually starts on 21 March (1st of Farvardin) and concludes on next year 's 20 March (29th of Esfand) in Solar Hijri calendar Until 2001, the fiscal year in Ireland was the year ending 5 April, as in the United Kingdom. From 2002, to coincide with the introduction of the euro, it was changed to the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. The 2001 tax year was nine months, from April to December. In Israel, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Italy, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. It was changed in 1965, before which it was 1 July to 30 June. In Japan, the government 's financial year is from 1 April to 31 March. The fiscal year is represented by the calendar year in which the period begins, followed by the word nendo (年度); for example the fiscal year from 1 April 2018 to 31 March 2019 is called 2018 -- nendo. Japan 's income tax year is 1 January to 31 December, but corporate tax is charged according to the corporation 's own annual period. In Macau, the government 's financial year is 1 January to 31 December. In Mexico, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Myanmar, the fiscal year is 1 October to 30 September. In Nepal, the fiscal year is 1 Shrawan (4th month of Bikram calendar) to 31 Ashad (3rd month of Bikram calendar). Shrawan 1 roughly falls in mid-July. In New Zealand, the government 's fiscal and financial reporting year is 1 July to the next 30 June and applies also to the budget. The company and personal financial year is 1 April to 31 March and applies to company and personal income tax. The Pakistani government 's fiscal year is 1 July of the previous calendar year and concludes on 30 June. Private companies are free to observe their own accounting year, which may not be the same as government 's fiscal year. In Portugal, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Qatar, the fiscal year is from 1 January to 31 December. In Romania, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Russia, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. The fiscal year for the calculation of personal income taxes is 1 January to 31 December. The fiscal year for the Government of Singapore and many government - linked corporations is 1 April to 31 March. Corporations and organisations are permitted to select any date as the end of each fiscal year, as long as this date remains constant. In South Africa, the fiscal year for the Government of South Africa is 1 April to 31 March. The year of assessment for individuals covers twelve months, 1 March to the final day of February the following year. The Act also provides for certain classes of taxpayers to have a year of assessment ending on a day other than the last day of February. Companies are permitted to have a tax year ending on a date that coincides with their financial year. Many older companies still use a tax year that runs from 1 July to 30 June, inherited from the British system. A common practice for newer companies is to run their tax year from 1 March to the final day of February following, to synchronize with the tax year for individuals. In South Korea, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Spain, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Sweden, the fiscal year for individuals is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. The fiscal year for an organisation is typically one of the following: However, all calendar months are allowed. If an organisation wishes to change into a non-calendar year, permission from the Tax Authority is required. In Taiwan, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. However, an enterprise may elect to adopt a special fiscal year at the time it is established and can request approval from the tax authorities to change its fiscal year. In Thailand, the government 's fiscal year (FY) is 1 October to 30 September of the following year. For individual taxpayers it is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In Ukraine, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In the United Arab Emirates, the fiscal year is the calendar year, 1 January to 31 December. In the United Kingdom, the financial year runs from 1 April to 31 March for the purposes of government financial statements. For personal tax purposes the fiscal year starts on 6 April and ends on 5 April of the next calendar year. Although United Kingdom corporation tax is charged by reference to the government 's financial year, companies can adopt any year as their accounting year: if there is a change in tax rate, the taxable profit is apportioned to financial years on a time basis. A number of major corporations that were once government - owned, such as BT Group and the National Grid, continue to use the government 's financial year, which ends on the last day of March, as they have found no reason to change since privatisation. The 5 April year end for personal tax and benefits reflects the old ecclesiastical calendar, with New Year falling on 25 March (Lady Day), the difference being accounted for by the eleven days "missed out '' when Great Britain converted from the Julian Calendar to the Gregorian Calendar in September 1752 (the British tax authorities, and landlords were unwilling to lose 11 days of tax and rent revenue, so under provision 6 (Times of Payment of Rents, Annuities, &c.) of the Calendar (New Style) Act 1750, the 1752 -- 3 tax year was extended by 11 days). From 1753 until 1799, the tax year in Great Britain began on 5 April, which was the "old style '' new year of 25 March. A 12th skipped Julian leap day in 1800 changed its start to 6 April. It was not changed when a 13th Julian leap day was skipped in 1900, so the start of the personal tax year in the United Kingdom is still 6 April. The United States federal government 's fiscal year is the 12 - month period beginning October 1 and ending September 30 the following year. The identification of a fiscal year is the calendar year in which it ends; thus, the current fiscal year is 2018, often written as "FY2018 '' or "FY18 '', which began on 1 October 2017 and will end on 30 September 2018. Prior to 1976, the fiscal year began on 1 July and ended on 30 June. The Congressional Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974 made the change to allow Congress more time to arrive at a budget each year, and provided for what is known as the "transitional quarter '' from 1 July 1976 to 30 September 1976. An earlier shift in the federal government 's fiscal year was made in 1843, shifting the fiscal year from a calendar year to one starting on 1 July. For example, the United States government fiscal year for 2018 is: State governments set their own fiscal year. It may or may not align with the federal calendar. For example, in the state of California, the fiscal year runs from 1 July to 30 June each year. The tax year for a business is governed by the fiscal year it chooses. A business may choose any consistent fiscal year that it wants; however, for seasonal businesses such as farming and retail, a good account practice is to end the fiscal year shortly after the highest revenue time of year. Consequently, most large agriculture companies end their fiscal years after the harvest season, and most retailers end their fiscal years shortly after the Christmas shopping season.

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Wicked Witch of the West - wikipedia The Wicked Witch of the West is a fictional character created by L. Frank Baum as the most significant antagonist in his classic children 's novel The Wonderful Wizard of Oz (1900). In Baum 's subsequent Oz novels, it is the Nome King who is the principal villain; the Wicked Witch of the West is rarely even referred to again after her death in the first book. The witch 's most popular depiction was in the classic 1939 film based on Baum 's novel, where she was portrayed by Margaret Hamilton. Hamilton 's characterization introduced green skin and this has been continued in later literary and dramatic representations, including Gregory Maguire 's revisionist Oz novel Wicked: The Life and Times of the Wicked Witch of the West (1995) and its musical stage adaptation Wicked (2003), the 2013 film Oz the Great and Powerful, and the television series Once Upon a Time and Emerald City. The Wicked Witch of the West is the malevolent ruler of the Winkie Country. Her castle is described as beautiful instead of being the sinister fortress shown in the movie. In all versions, she is seriously aquaphobic. The Wicked Witch of the West was not related to the Wicked Witch of the East, but leagued together with her, the Wicked Witch of the South and Mombi to conquer the Land of Oz and divide it among themselves, as recounted in L. Frank Baum 's Dorothy and the Wizard in Oz. She shows no interest in the death of the Eastern Witch, and all she cares about is obtaining the Silver Shoes which will increase her power. W.W. Denslow 's illustrations for The Wonderful Wizard of Oz depict her as a paunched old hag with three pigtails and an eye - patch. L. Frank Baum himself specified that she only had one eye, but that it "was as powerful as a telescope '', enabling the witch to see what was happening in her kingdom from her castle windows. Other illustrators, such as Paul Granger, placed her eye in the center of her forehead, as a cyclops. Usually, she is shown wearing an eye patch, however some illustrations show her with two eyes. Possibly to suggest that the witch actually has two eyes, but has no vision in one of them. Most of her power resides in the creatures she controls. She has a pack of wolves, a swarm of bees, a flock of crows and an army of Winkies. She possesses the enchanted Golden Cap, which compels the winged monkeys to obey her on three occasions. First, the witch commanded the creatures to help her enslave the Winkies and to seize control of the western part of the Land of Oz. Second, she made the winged monkeys drive Oz out of the Winkie Country, when he attempted to overthrow her. When Dorothy Gale and her companions were sent by the Wizard to destroy her, the Witch attacked them with a pack of 40 great wolves, a flock of 40 crows, a swarm of black bees, and a group of Winkie slaves. Each of these attempts were thwarted, but the protagonists are eventually subdued by the Witch 's third and final permitted use of the Winged Monkeys. Nevertheless, the old witch can not kill Dorothy because the girl is protected by the Good Witch of the North 's kiss. She therefore settles for enslaving Dorothy, and tries to force the Cowardly Lion into submission by starving him, though Dorothy sneaks him food. Upon seeing the Silver Shoes on the girl 's feet, the Wicked Witch decides to steal them, and thereby acquire even more power. When she succeeds in acquiring one silver shoe by making Dorothy trip over an invisible bar, the little girl angrily throws a bucket of water onto the Wicked Witch. This causes the old witch to melt away. The Wicked Witch 's dryness was enumerated in some clues before this. Furthermore, when Toto had bitten her, she had not bled; her wickedness had dried her up long ago. Unfortunately, L. Frank Baum did not explain precisely why water had this effect on her, nor did he ever imply that all evil witches could be likewise destroyed. However, the wicked witch Mombi is similarly disposed of in The Lost King of Oz and the wicked witch Singra is clearly afraid of the same fate in the early chapters of The Wicked Witch of Oz. The most likely explanation of Baum making water the Achilles ' heel of these witches is the long held belief amongst major religions that water is effective for purifying the soul and combating evil. The Witch did not carry a broom in the novel, but rather an umbrella, which she uses on one occasion to strike Dorothy 's dog Toto. Her nature is a volatile and yet somewhat cowardly one. Despite her immense power, she avoids face - to - face contact with her enemies, and is frightened of Dorothy at first when she sees the girl wearing the Silver Shoes. She is also afraid of the dark in Baum 's original story for reasons never revealed. For that reason, the Witch never tried to steal the Silver Shoes while Dorothy was sleeping. Despite her fear of water and the dark, the Wicked Witch of the West was one of the most powerful witches in all of Oz. In ensuing Oz books, her power is described as having been so great that even Glinda the Good Witch of the South feared her. The 1910 silent film The Wonderful Wizard of Oz features a character similar to the Wicked Witch of the West, identified in intertitles as "Momba the Witch '' (Compare the character Mombi from The Marvelous Land of Oz). In the film, Momba has an unspecified hold over the Wizard, who promises his crown to anyone who can release him from Momba 's power. Momba captures Dorothy and her companions, evoking the events in Baum 's original novel, and is destroyed when Dorothy throws a bucket of water over her. Mombi 's likeness and costume in the 1914 silent film, His Majesty, the Scarecrow of Oz is based on Denslow 's illustrations of the Wicked Witch of the West. In the 1939 version of The Wizard of Oz, Margaret Hamilton plays the Wicked Witch of the West as a green - skinned witch dressed in a long black dress with a black pointed hat. She does not wear an eye - patch like in the novel. This representation of the Wicked Witch has become a standard for what witches resemble and an archetype of human wickedness. While this relationship is not mentioned in Baum 's books, in the movie, the Witch is the sister of the Wicked Witch of the East. In fact, she appears in the film much earlier on than in Baum 's original novel, demanding the Munchkins reveal who killed her sister, not long after Dorothy 's arrival in Oz. She is described by Glinda the Good Witch of the North, not the South as in the book, as "worse than the other one. '' Therefore, the Witch 's role is made much more prominent than in the novel, as she seeks revenge against Dorothy for killing her sister, even though it was "accidental ''. However, as soon as the Witch is reminded of the ruby slippers, all interest in her sister 's death vanishes and all she cares about are obtaining "her '' slippers, which will enable her to conquer Oz. She is also more menacing than her literary counterpart, making Dorothy too afraid to ever lose her temper with the Witch. She makes sure that Dorothy knows her power when Dorothy meets the Scarecrow by throwing a ball of fire at them. Before Dorothy and her friends get to the city, the Witch casts a sleeping spell over a field of poppies through which the group must pass. Glinda remotely counteracts the spell with a snowfall. The Wicked Witch then flies on her broom over the Emerald City, demanding that the citizens of the Emerald City surrender Dorothy to her, and the Wizard demands the destruction of the Witch, with her broom as proof, in exchange for granting the wishes of Dorothy and her companions. Unlike Baum 's original depiction, the Wicked Witch sends the Winged Monkeys as the first wave of attack. The Golden Cap is not mentioned but, after the failure of her poppy spell, the Witch does hold and then angrily cast away a costume piece that could be considered the cap (It greatly resembles the Cap in depicted in W.W. Denslow 's original illustrations for The Wonderful Wizard of Oz) and was mentioned as her "wishing cap '' in the original shooting script. She is killed when Dorothy throws a bucket of water on her, in attempt to put out a fire the witch bestowed on the Scarecrow. In the novel, Dorothy simply throws it on her in a fit of anger. There is no prior mention of the Wicked Witch 's vulnerability to water in the movie, save for a split - second before the water actually douses her when she screams "Do n't touch that water! '' (this line does not appear in the film 's shooting script). After the Wicked Witch of the West is dead, her soldiers are glad to be free of her power, and quote "Hail to Dorothy! The Wicked Witch is dead! '' The character ranks No. 4 in the American Film Institute 's list of the 50 Best Movie Villains of All Time, making her the highest ranking female villain, as well as placing 90th on Empire magazine 's 100 Greatest Movie Characters of All Time. Hamilton 's other role in this film is the Witch 's Kansas sepia tone sequence character, Miss Almira Gulch, newly created for the film by screenwriter Noel Langley. She arrives on her bicycle at the farm and says to Uncle Henry, "Mr. Gale! I 'd like to speak with you and your wife right away ''. Since Dorothy 's last name is also Gale, this implies that Henry is her blood - uncle, and Aunt Em is his wife. Em tells her off, saying to her: "Almira Gulch, just because you own half the county does n't mean that you have the power to run the rest of us. For 23 years I 've been dying to tell you what I thought of you! And now... well, being a Christian woman, I ca n't say it! '' (Baum 's character never mentions anything about religion beyond the implications of Sunday - best clothing.) Dorothy, in her dream sequence on the way to Oz sees her again outside the window in the tornado. At that moment, Miss Gulch transforms into the Wicked Witch of the East flying on a broom. On a 1976 episode of the American television program, Sesame Street, the Witch, once again played by Hamilton herself, drops her broom and falls onto the street. In order to get the broom back, she must prove that she can be nice. Everyone is scared of her, except for Oscar the Grouch and Big Bird. After she proves that she is nice, Big Bird is upset when the time comes for her to leave. She reassures him that one day she 'll return. The episode was poorly received by parents of frightened young children, and was never aired again. The fate of the footage is unknown, but it can be assumed that it is still stashed away in Sesame Workshop 's vault. Hamilton also played this witch in The Paul Lynde Halloween Special (1976), and reprised her role several times on stage, most notably at the St. Louis Municipal Opera. Hamilton also appeared as herself on Mister Rogers ' Neighborhood. In this appearance, she demonstrated how her costume and acting skills made her appear to be the Witch, and assured her young viewers that there was nothing about her to be feared, because her portrayal in the film was only make - believe. The story line of the stage adaptation "goes far afield '' from the 1996 novel. As Winnie Holzman observed in an interview with Playbill, "It was (Maguire 's) brilliant idea to take this hated figure and tell things from her point of view, and to have the two witches be roommates in college, but the way in which their friendship develops -- and really the whole plot -- is different onstage. '' Schwartz justified the deviation, saying "Primarily we were interested in the relationship between Galinda -- who becomes Glinda -- and Elphaba... the friendship of these two women and how their characters lead them to completely different destinies. '' In addition to this change in focus, other major plot modifications include Fiyero 's appearance as the scarecrow, Elphaba 's survival at the end, Nessarose using a wheelchair instead of being born without arms, Boq having a continuing love interest for Glinda - and eventually becoming the Tin Woodman instead of Nick Chopper, the complete cutting of Elphaba 's years in the Vinkus, the deletion of Liir 's birth, Fiyero not having a wife and children, and Doctor Dillamond not being murdered. Mila Kunis portrays the Wicked Witch of the West, who is named Theodora, in the 2013 Disney film Oz the Great and Powerful. In this version, she is portrayed as a ' good witch ', also being the younger sister of Evanora (Rachel Weisz), who is at war with Glinda (Michelle Williams) for control of Oz; she wants nothing more than for peace to come back to their land. She falls in love with Oscar Diggs (James Franco), but her feelings for him are one - sided; Theodora wanted to be Oscar 's queen when he ruled Oz. After Oscar goes to meet with Glinda, Evanora tricks Theodora into thinking Oscar had betrayed her, offering her a magic apple that will help her forget her disappointment. Theodora immediately takes a bite from it, but afterwards Evanora reveals that she was the evil Witch all along, however Theodora is too late to realize this. Before she can do anything, she starts feeling great pain as the apple was tainted with a potion that removes all the good in her heart making her so evil that even her sister fears her. Her skin turns green as a side effect of the potion, while her nose becomes crooked due to her falling on it. Though Evanora offers to cover it up with an enchantment, Theodora embraces her new appearance and helps her sister attempt to kill Glinda, get revenge on Oscar, and take control of Oz. However, she and Evanora are defeated by Oscar 's illusions. Theodora is forced to flee the city on her broom, but she threatens to return. Oscar tells her he knows her wickedness is n't her doing and if she ever finds the goodness within her, she is welcome to return. However, she refuses and flies off to the West, vowing revenge. The Wicked Witch appears as the main antagonist of the second half of Season Three of Once Upon a Time played by Rebecca Mader. This version goes by the name of Zelena (which means "green '' in some Slavic languages). Zelena is discovered to be the daughter of the Queen of Hearts / the Miller 's Daughter (Barbara Hershey / Rose McGowan), making her the older, long - lost half - sister of Regina the Evil Queen (Lana Parrilla). Zelena visited Rumplestiltskin (Robert Carlyle) and learned from him how to control her own powerful magic. Her storyline revolves around her efforts to create a time - travel spell that will allow her to go back and prevent the Evil Queen 's birth before she can unwittingly ruin Zelena 's life, and thus Zelena would be raised as royalty. But despite Zelena 's efforts to sabotage Emma Swan (supposedly the only wielder of light magic powerful enough to oppose her) she is defeated when the Evil Queen masters light magic in time to oppose her (although her time - travel spell is completed, it only takes effect after her presumed death, transporting Emma and Captain Hook (Colin O'Donoghue) back to before the original curse was cast). She was later thought to have been killed by Rumpelstiltskin. It was later discovered that Zelena 's soul actually went back in time, where she managed to revive herself and assumed Maid Marian 's (Christie Laing) place after killing her in the past and taking her appearance; to allow the heroes to take her back to the present, where she poses as Marian without Robin Hood (Sean Maguire) knowing. This way, she can resume making Regina Mills suffer by complicating her romantic relationship with the believed widower Robin. Zelena also copies the other villains ' idea to try to force the Author to write them happy lives at the expense of the heroes. Zelena swaps out the Elixir of the Wounded Heart and when Mr. Gold is dying, saves his life with it, but only after he agrees to drop his grudge against her and begins helping her. Regina learns this and rushes to New York with Emma. Upon arriving there with Lily, Emma and Regina confront Robin Hood and Zelena where Regina tells her what actually happened to Maid Marian. Even though Robin Hood is now aware of what happened to Maid Marian, he could n't leave Zelena because she is pregnant. Zelena is taken back to Storybrooke and locked in the hospital basement. Regina almost has the Author write Zelena and the pregnancy out of existence and memory. Regina changes her mind after she realizes it is something their mother would do, and she can choose to be happy with Robin and the rest of her family, raising the baby herself after the birth, while Zelena has extremely restricted visitation rights. When the Author warps reality to serve his own purposes, the roles of heroes and villains are switched. In the alternate Enchanted Forest Zelena is the fiancé of Robin Hood and their marriage will make all the changes permanent. When Regina is slashed almost fatally by Rumpelstiltskin, Zelena complains she is bleeding on her wedding dress and taking the attention away from her on her wedding day. She begins turning green again and runs off. When reality is returned to normal she is still pregnant in the hospital. Zelena travels with the heroes to Camelot in search of Emma, after becoming the Dark One. She is told to pretend to be Regina 's mute handmaiden (Regina having taken her voice). In Camelot, Zelena is threatened by Regina that her baby will be taken by Regina once it has been born. She takes this as a strategy to kidnap Mary Margaret (Ginnifer Goodwin) as the rest of the group tries to sneak into Camelot (having been thrown out) and regains her magic with King Arthur 's (Liam Garrigan) help. She enchants the main hilt of Excalibur to bind Merlin 's (Elliot Knight) soul, allowing its holder to control him. Zelena, Arthur and Merlin hold Emma 's friends captive with the Protheum flame and the Dark One Dagger as ransom. Before she can do anything, she is tricked by Emma and tied by magic around a tree. After a battle between Merlin and Emma, Zelena transports herself and Arthur back to Camelot. Arthur and her plan to take a magical helm from the kingdom of DunBroch. After many failed attempts to reach the helm, including a battle between Arthur, Zelena and Red Riding Hood (Meghan Ory), Mulan (Jamie Chung) and Merida (Amy Manson, she transports herself back to Camelot, where Emma casts the Dark Curse, ripping everyone back to Storybrooke without their memories of ever stepping foot in Camelot. Zelena awakens in Granny 's Diner and is almost immediately put back in her cell. Zelena is met by the Dark Swan (name for Emma as the Dark One) and is told she will need an ally in the town after people learn the truth. Zelena eats darkly enchanted onion rings (made by Emma) and as a result, her pregnancy is sped up from two months to nine. She gives birth to a baby girl and is taken away by Emma into her basement with Hook at her side. She is freed from her cuff once again and leaves Hook in Emma 's house, wanting to get answers. Zelena steps back inside after Emma finds him. She brings in an enchanted dreamcatcher, which holds the memories of Hook becoming a Dark One (in Emma 's fault) in order to save him. Zelena learns that Robin and Regina are allowing her to see her baby, as long as one of them is with her. This is when she shares a bonding moment with her child. During the Dark Siege of Storybrooke, Zelena plans to take Regina 's place in Storybrooke including her office. After claiming full custody of her baby, Zelena is transported by Regina (and the Apprentice 's Wand) back to Oz, and she claimed they will see each other again. Regina reunites with Zelena in the underworld where it is revealed that Zelena and Hades have a romantic history. The sisters eventually become close as she tries to change for her daughter. She shares True Love 's Kiss with Hades, which allows him to go to Storybrooke and the two go together with the baby as she believes Hades has changed. However, Hades kills Robin Hood, proving his evil to Zelena who kills him with the Olympian Crystal. She names the baby Robyn after her father. In season 6, Zelena and Regina get into a fight where Regina reveals that she blames Zelena for Robin 's death; Regina 's dark half, the Evil Queen has now become a human manifestation and she and Zelena work together until the Queen tries to kill her. Regina saves Zelena from the Evil Queen but does not forgive her for Robin 's death. The Witch of the West appears as one of the main characters in the first season of Emerald City, portrayed by Ana Ularu. Here she is one of the last Cardinal Witches of Oz and the "Mistress of the Western Fields, Vessel of Truth and Solace '', along with her sisters Glinda of the North and the Witch of the East. West seemingly obeys the Wizard of Oz 's law against magic, owns a brothel in the Emerald City and is a poppy opium addict, deteriorating her magical skill. She is very emotional, especially when compared to the reserved behavior of Glinda 's. Despite claiming to hate magic because it could not save her mother and sister witches during the Beast Forever 's last attack, she resorts to it quickly when in pursuit of Dorothy after she accidentally killed East.

who did justin theroux play in rock of ages

Rock of Ages (2012 film) - Wikipedia Rock of Ages is a 2012 musical comedy - drama film directed by Adam Shankman. The film is an adaptation of the 2006 rock jukebox Broadway musical of the same name by Chris D'Arienzo. Originally scheduled to enter production in summer 2009 for a 2011 release, it eventually commenced production in May 2011 and was released on June 15, 2012. Starring country singer Julianne Hough and Diego Boneta leading an ensemble cast that includes Russell Brand, Alec Baldwin, Paul Giamatti, Catherine Zeta - Jones, Malin Åkerman, Mary J. Blige, Bryan Cranston and Tom Cruise, the film features the music of many 1980s Rock and Glam Rock artists including Def Leppard, Journey, Scorpions, Poison, Foreigner, Guns N ' Roses, Pat Benatar, Joan Jett, Bon Jovi, Twisted Sister, Whitesnake, REO Speedwagon and others. The film received mixed critical reviews and grossed only $59 million worldwide. However, Cruise was particularly lauded for his performance of "Pour Some Sugar on Me '' and "Wanted Dead or Alive ''. The related film soundtrack also did critically well, certified Gold in Canada. In 1987, Sherrie Christian (Julianne Hough) arrives in Los Angeles from Oklahoma with dreams of becoming a singer. Meanwhile, barback Drew Boley (Diego Boneta) prepares for another night of work at The Bourbon Room ("Sister Christian / Just Like Paradise / Nothin ' But a Good Time ''). As Sherrie approaches The Bourbon, her suitcase is stolen. Drew tries to catch the robber, but fails. He comforts Sherrie and, upon learning of her situation, gets her a job at the Bourbon Room as a waitress. The club 's owner, Dennis Dupree (Alec Baldwin), and his right - hand man, Lonny Barnett (Russell Brand), are trying to find a way to pay off a tax debt that threatens the club. Hoping to raise enough money, Dennis and Lonny decide to book Stacee Jaxx (Tom Cruise), a detached and self - indulgent rock star preparing for his final gig with his band, Arsenal. That night, Drew tells Sherrie about his dreams of becoming a rock star, but that he has stagefright ("Juke Box Hero / I Love Rock ' n ' Roll ''). Upon hearing of Stacee 's upcoming concert, Patricia Whitmore (Catherine Zeta - Jones), the religiously conservative wife of the mayor (Bryan Cranston), organizes a protest with other ladies in front of the Bourbon Room ("Hit Me with Your Best Shot '') Drew and Sherrie 's relationship starts with their first date at the Hollywood Sign where Drew admits he has started writing a song for Sherrie ("Waiting for a Girl Like You ''). On the night of Arsenal 's final show, Dennis learns that their opening act has cancelled. Sherrie convinces him to use Drew and his band, Wolfgang Von Colt, as the replacement opener ("More Than Words / Heaven ''). Meanwhile, Stacee 's manager, Paul Gill (Paul Giamatti), schedules an interview between Stacee and Constance Sack (Malin Åkerman), a reporter for Rolling Stone. During the interview, she mentions the rumors that Stacee is difficult to work with and implies that he was actually kicked out of Arsenal, a charge Stacee denies ("Wanted Dead or Alive ''). Stacee asks Sherrie if she could bring him a bottle of scotch from his limo and she agrees. After the interview, Constance lashes out at him, claiming that he was once a great musician but now is on the verge of becoming a has - been. Stacee orders everyone out of the dressing room so he can settle things with Constance privately. Both recognize their attraction to each other and are about to have sex when Stacee sings ("I Want to Know What Love Is ''). As Constance leaves the room ashamed of what she has done, Sherrie enters to give Stacee his scotch. Sherrie and Stacee collide and the bottle of scotch shatters on the floor. Drew is getting ready to open Arsenal 's show when he sees Sherrie exit Stacee 's room, where he infers that they had sex. Drew becomes angry at this and is inspired to sing ("I Wanna Rock '') for the opening act. After he sings, Drew and Sherrie break up and Sherrie quits her job at the Bourbon Room. Drew attempts to run after Sherrie but Paul tells him to let her go and offers Drew a record deal since he was impressed with his performance as Arsenal sings their last song of the night ("Pour Some Sugar on Me ''). An unemployed Sherrie takes refuge at a strip club bar known as the Venus Club, where she has no other choice but to work there ("Harden My Heart ''). The club 's owner, Justice Charlier (Mary J. Blige) offers Sherrie a job as a dancer ("Shadows of the Night / Harden My Heart ''), but Sherrie instead chooses to wait tables. Sherrie soon realizes that she is n't making enough money as a waitress as Drew signs to Gill 's record label ("Here I Go Again ''). Back at the Bourbon Room, Dennis worries that the place will close and that he has "let everyone down. '' Lonny comforts him and proceeds to confess his love for him, learning that Dennis reciprocates. They kiss ("Ca n't Fight This Feeling ''). Drew is disappointed in realizing that he has to be part of a boy band called "the Z Guyeezz '' and not a rock band as part of his record deal while Sherrie decides to be a dancer in the Venus Club ("Any Way You Want It ''). Sherrie visits the Hollywood sign, where she finds Drew. They both reveal to each other their current occupations and realize things did n't turn out the way they 'd planned. Sherrie tells Drew that she did n't have sex with Stacee and that she is going home to Oklahoma. As they part ways, Sherrie and Drew both lament the situation ("Every Rose Has Its Thorn ''). Stacee realizes he has feelings for Constance and calls the Rolling Stone office in an attempt to find her, but the receptionist tells him that "she is covering Stacee Jaxx 's show at The Bourbon Room '' and Stacee, unaware that he was supposed to perform that night, rushes to the venue, where Lonny leads the patrons of the club against Patricia and her protest group ("We 're Not Gonna Take It / We Built This City ''). When Stacee arrives at the club, he recognizes Patricia and greets her. Lonny discovers that Patricia was once a groupie for Arsenal as displayed on their album cover, and exposes this to the public, ruining her reputation. Meanwhile, Drew has found all of Sherrie 's stolen records at the Tower Records they first visited together. He buys them back and drops them off for her at the strip club. The Z Guyeezz start the show, but the rocker crowd rejects them, and Drew, spotting Sherrie in the audience, leaves the stage. The two reconcile and Drew also dismisses Gill, telling him rock ' n ' roll will never die. Sherrie reunites Wolfgang Von Colt for the opening act, where she and Drew perform the song he wrote for her ("Do n't Stop Believin ' ''). Meanwhile, while Stacee and Constance are having sex in the bathroom, Stacee hears the song and is moved by it. Eight months later, Stacee, who has rejoined Arsenal, performs the song with Drew and Sherrie, who is now part of Wolfgang Von Colt, in a concert at Dodger Stadium in front of a crowd that includes Dennis, Lonny, Justice, a pregnant Constance, and Patricia, who has returned to her rock ' n ' roll persona. These songs appear in the film as sung by the original artists. These do not appear on the official soundtrack. In bringing the musical from stage to screen, many of the songs used in the original musical were either moved around, shortened, or removed, while some new songs were added to the film. "Cum On Feel the Noize / We 're Not Gonna Take It (Reprise) '', "The Final Countdown '', "High Enough '', "I Hate Myself for Loving You / Heat of the Moment '', "Keep on Loving You '', "Oh Sherrie '', "The Search Is Over '', and "Renegade '' were completely cut from the film, although the version of "Cum on Feel the Noize '' by Quiet Riot was used as background score and the intro to "Oh Sherrie '' is heard briefly. Similarly, many songs from the musical became mash - ups in the film or had sections of their original mash - up version removed in their film versions. "Just Like Paradise '', "Nothin ' but a Good Time '', and "Sister Christian '' all become one long mash - up instead of two individual songs ("Just Like Paradise / Nothin ' but a Good Time '' and "Sister Christian ''). "Too Much Time on My Hands '', originally mashed - up with "We Built This City '', was removed, with "We 're Not Gonna Take It '', originally a full - length song in the musical, being mashed - up with "We Built This City '' instead. "To Be with You '' was removed from the mash - up that included "More Than Words '' and "Heaven ''. The "I Wanna Rock (Reprise) '' section originally mashed - up with "Any Way You Want It '' was removed, with "Any Way You Want It '' instead being the original full - length song. Also, many songs from the musical were reordered in the film, mostly to accommodate character and storyline changes. "We Built This City '', in its original mash - up form, and "We 're Not Gonna Take It '' were originally much earlier in the musical, giving depth to Regina. They were replaced with "Hit Me with Your Best Shot '', another song sung by Regina in the musical, which now served to give more background to new character Patricia (as Regina was cut from the film), with both songs (in an abridged form) instead added to the climax of the film, as part of an anthem between Lonny and the rockers and Patricia and her conservative church group. "I Wanna Rock '', originally the fourth song of the musical, was moved to after "I Want to Know What Love Is '' (which in itself was changed from a duet between Sherrie and Jaxx to Jaxx and new character Constance), with the song now representing Drew 's anger toward what he wrongly perceives to be Sherrie 's infidelity. "Waiting for a Girl Like You '' and "More Than Words / Heaven '' switched order in the film version, in order to accommodate the changes in the relationship storyline between Drew and Sherrie. "Ca n't Fight This Feeling '' was also placed before "Any Way You Want It '' due to the restructure of storylines. New songs added to the film include a mash - up of "Juke Box Hero / I Love Rock ' n ' Roll '', which replaced the original purpose of "I Wanna Rock '' in the musical, "Undercover Love '', which was used for Drew 's short - lived boy band, and "Pour Some Sugar on Me '', "Paradise City '', and "Rock You Like a Hurricane '' replacing "I Hate Myself for Loving You / Heat of the Moment '' and serving as Arsenal 's discography. After the success of the original Off - Broadway production, the film rights were sold to Warner Bros. and New Line Cinema. Tom Cruise played Stacee Jaxx in the film. Shankman knew Cruise was in when he heard him on the first go around of his voice lesson, confirming he "actually has a fantastic voice. '' Cruise had been singing five hours a day to prepare for his work as musician Stacee Jaxx. "It 's this brilliant mashup, it seems, of Axl Rose, Bret Michaels, Keith Richards and Jim Morrison, '' Shankman said of what to expect from Cruise. All of the actors sing their own parts in the film. Cruise told People Weekly Magazine that he had always wanted to appear in a musical but he found the idea frightening because he was uncertain whether he could actually pull it off. With Rock Of Ages, he told the interviewer, he had finally received his chance. On February 14, 2011, it was announced that Mary J. Blige had signed on to play Justice Charler in the film. On March 3, 2011, it was confirmed that Julianne Hough (of the 2011 remake of Footloose) would play the role of Sherrie, Drew 's love interest. On March 6, 2011, it was confirmed that Alec Baldwin would play the role of Dennis Dupree in the film. On March 24, 2011, it was announced that Paul Giamatti would be in the film, playing the manager of Stacee Jaxx. Pretty Little Liars star Diego Boneta was confirmed to play the male protagonist, Drew Boley, on April 5, 2011. Not wanting an older actor to act like he is 23, Shankman thought it better to go as authentic as possible, "and Diego is absolutely that. He is (a) kid who came to Los Angeles with a dream and who sings and has an amazing voice, and drive. And he 's also as honest and sweet as you can possibly make him and he 's authentically the age. It creates a piece of something on screen that I do n't have to fabricate. '' Of Boneta 's audition, Shankman said, "It 's that feeling you get when you realized you 've discovered lightning in a bottle. It reminds me of when Zac Efron auditioned for Hairspray, Channing Tatum for Step Up, and Liam Hemsworth auditioned for The Last Song. When the guy walks in, the guy walks in! '' Shankman also said he did not know that Boneta was a Latin music star until after he auditioned. "I have since seen him on stage and in his concerts, and he totally owns the room, '' Shankman said. Constantine Maroulis (Drew Boley from the musical) made a cameo appearance in the film like Ricki Lake did for Hairspray. On April 13, Russell Brand was confirmed to portray Lonny. Both Anne Hathaway and Amy Adams declined to play a journalist who interviews Jaxx during the song "Wanted Dead or Alive '' and is easily seduced by him. The two declined due to scheduling conflicts, with Hathaway filming The Dark Knight Rises and Adams filming Man of Steel. Catherine Zeta - Jones joined the cast on April 20, and portrayed an original character added to the story line. The unnamed character is described as "the Villainess of the movie '' who "wants to shut down rock'n roll in the great city of Los Angeles. '' On May 1 Bryan Cranston joined the cast as the Mayor of Los Angeles, who is the husband of Catherine Zeta - Jones 's character, and Malin Åkerman completed the cast when she was added on May 3, 2011, taking the role initially offered to both Hathaway and Adams. Singer Porcelain Black made a cameo in the film, playing a 1980s hair metal singer. She performed one of the sole original tracks for the film, "Rock Angels ''. "Rock Angels '' was written and composed by Adam Anders and Desmond Child. Professional wrestler Kevin Nash played Stacee 's bodyguard. Principal photography began at Revolution Live, a small music venue in Fort Lauderdale, FL. There was also filming in a Dania Beach Boomers. On July 18, filming took place at the Hard Rock Casino in Hollywood, Florida, for a concert scene with "Do n't Stop Believin ' '' and "Wanted Dead or Alive ''. The scenes at the iconic Hollywood Sign were filmed at the Monarch Hill Renewable Energy Park, known to locals as "Mount Trashmore '', in Pompano Beach. In June 2011, a full six - block section of N.W. 14th Street in Downtown Miami was decorated as a late 1980s version set of the Hollywood, California Sunset Strip complete with the Whisky - a-Go - Go, Frederick 's of Hollywood, Tower Records, Angelyne Billboard along with other landmarks. The film is distributed by New Line Cinema under the rule of Warner Bros., and was released theatrically on June 15, 2012. The first official trailer was released on December 11, 2011, attached to Sherlock Holmes: A Game of Shadows. On its opening weekend in theaters, the film grossed $14,447,269, ranking third place, behind the previous week 's holdovers Madagascar 3: Europe 's Most Wanted and Prometheus. The film did, however, do slightly better business than the other newcomer, That 's My Boy. Rock of Ages was a box office bomb, grossing $38,518,613 in North America and $20,900,000 in other territories for a worldwide total of $59,418,613, failing to bring back its $75 million budget. However, the film still has the seventh - highest opening ever for a musical. The film received mixed reviews from critics, and has a critical evaluation of 41 % on Rotten Tomatoes based on 215 reviews, with an average rating of 6 / 10. The site 's consensus states: "its exuberant silliness is almost enough to make up for its utter inconsequentiality, but Rock of Ages is ultimately too bland and overlong to justify its trip to the big screen. '' Metacritic reports a 47 out of 100 rating, based on 42 critics, indicating "mixed or average reviews ''. However, most critics praised the performance by Cruise as Stacee Jaxx. For example, Rolling Stone critic Peter Travers wrote: "Rock of Ages is pretty fun despite a terrible script, bland leads and awful wigs, mainly thanks to a performance by Tom Cruise as fictional hair metal rocker Stacee Jaxx. '' Rock of Ages was released on DVD and Blu - ray on October 9, 2012. An extended cut is available on the Blu - ray, however there is a 2 - disc DVD set featuring the extended version (136 minutes); the film is then rated R for "some sexual violence '', as opposed to the theatrically released PG - 13. This extended cut includes 13 additional minutes of footage, including "Rock You Like a Hurricane '' edited back into the film, more risque humor from Russell Brand, and a few additional verses on "Waiting for a Girl / Boy Like You ''. The cover and track listing of the soundtrack was confirmed by Entertainment Weekly on April 30, 2012. The soundtrack was released on June 5, 2012. It debuted at No. 15 on Billboard 200, and peaked at No. 5 on that chart in its third week. It also debuted at No. 1 on the Top Soundtracks chart. It sold 267,000 copies in the US in 2012, making it the second best - selling soundtrack album of the year. It has sold 320,000 copies as of May 2013. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

hypothermia is a state of body temperature lower than

Thermoregulation - wikipedia Thermoregulation is the ability of an organism to keep its body temperature within certain boundaries, even when the surrounding temperature is very different. A thermoconforming organism, by contrast, simply adopts the surrounding temperature as its own body temperature, thus avoiding the need for internal thermoregulation. The internal thermoreegulation process is one aspect of homeostasis: a state of dynamic stability in an organism 's internal conditions, maintained far from thermal equilibrium with its environment (the study of such processes in zoology has been called physiological ecology). If the body is unable to maintain a normal temperature and it increases significantly above normal, a condition known as hyperthermia occurs. For humans, this occurs when the body is exposed to constant temperatures of approximately 55 ° C (131 ° F), and with prolonged exposure (longer than a few hours) at this temperature and up to around 75 ° C (167 ° F) death is almost inevitable. Humans may also experience lethal hyperthermia when the wet bulb temperature is sustained above 35 ° C (95 ° F) for six hours. The opposite condition, when body temperature decreases below normal levels, is known as hypothermia. It results when the homeostatic control mechanisms of heat within the body malfunction, causing the body to lose heat faster than producing it. Normal body temperature is around 37 ° C (99 ° F), and hypothermia sets in when the core body temperature gets lower than 35 ° C (95 ° F). Usually caused by prolonged exposure to cold temperatures, hypothermia is usually treated by methods that attempt to raise the body temperature back to a normal range. It was not until the introduction of thermometers that any exact data on the temperature of animals could be obtained. It was then found that local differences were present, since heat production and heat loss vary considerably in different parts of the body, although the circulation of the blood tends to bring about a mean temperature of the internal parts. Hence it is important to identify the parts of the body that most closely reflect the temperature of the internal organs. Also, for such results to be comparable, the measurements must be conducted under comparable conditions. The rectum has traditionally been considered to reflect most accurately the temperature of internal parts, or in some cases of sex or species, the vagina, uterus or bladder. Occasionally the temperature of the urine as it leaves the urethra may be of use in measuring body temperature. More often the temperature is taken in the mouth, axilla, ear or groin. Some animals undergo one of various forms of dormancy where the thermoregulation process temporarily allows the body temperature to drop, thereby conserving energy. Examples include hibernating bears and torpor in bats. Thermoregulation in organisms runs along a spectrum from endothermy to ectothermy. Endotherms create most of their heat via metabolic processes, and are colloquially referred to as warm - blooded. When the surrounding temperatures are cold, endotherms increase metabolic heat production to keep their body temperature constant, thus making the internal body temperature of an endotherm more or less independent of the temperature of the environment. One metabolic activity, in terms of generating heat, that endotherms are able to do is that they possess a larger number of mitochondria per cell than ectotherms, enabling them to generate more heat by increasing the rate at which they metabolize fats and sugars. Ectotherms use external sources of temperature to regulate their body temperatures. They are colloquially referred to as cold - blooded despite the fact that body temperatures often stay within the same temperature ranges as warm - blooded animals. Ectotherms are the opposite of endotherms when it comes to regulating internal temperatures. In ectotherms, the internal physiological sources of heat are of negligible importance; the biggest factor that enables them to maintain adequate body temperatures is due to environmental influences. Living in areas that maintain a constant temperature throughout the year, like the tropics or the ocean, have enabled ectotherms to develop a wide range of behavioral mechanisms that enable them to respond to external temperatures, such as sun - bathing to increase body temperature, or seeking the cover of shade to lower body temperature. To cope with low temperatures, some fish have developed the ability to remain functional even when the water temperature is below freezing; some use natural antifreeze or antifreeze proteins to resist ice crystal formation in their tissues. Amphibians and reptiles cope with heat loss by evaporative cooling and behavioral adaptations. An example of behavioral adaptation is that of a lizard lying in the sun on a hot rock in order to heat through conduction. An endotherm is an animal that regulates its own body temperature, typically by keeping it at a constant level. To regulate body temperature, an organism may need to prevent heat gains in arid environments. Evaporation of water, either across respiratory surfaces or across the skin in those animals possessing sweat glands, helps in cooling body temperature to within the organism 's tolerance range. Animals with a body covered by fur have limited ability to sweat, relying heavily on panting to increase evaporation of water across the moist surfaces of the lungs and the tongue and mouth. Mammals like cats, dogs and pigs, rely on panting or other means for thermal regulation and have sweat glands only in foot pads and snout. The sweat produced on pads of paws and on palms and soles mostly serves to increase friction and enhance grip. Birds also counteract overheating by gular fluttering, or rapid vibrations of the gular (throat) skin. Down feathers trap warm air acting as excellent insulators just as hair in mammals acts as a good insulator. Mammalian skin is much thicker than that of birds and often has a continuous layer of insulating fat beneath the dermis. In marine mammals, such as whales, or animals that live in very cold regions, such as the polar bears, this is called blubber. Dense coats found in desert endotherms also aid in preventing heat gain such as in the case of the camels. A cold weather strategy is to temporarily decrease metabolic rate, decreasing the temperature difference between the animal and the air and thereby minimizing heat loss. Furthermore, having a lower metabolic rate is less energetically expensive. Many animals survive cold frosty nights through torpor, a short - term temporary drop in body temperature. Organisms when presented with the problem of regulating body temperature have not only behavioural, physiological, and structural adaptations but also a feedback system to trigger these adaptations to regulate temperature accordingly. The main features of this system are stimulus, receptor, modulator, effector and then the feedback of the newly adjusted temperature to the stimulus. This cyclical process aids in homeostasis. Homeothermy and poikilothermy refer to how stable an organism 's deep - body temperature is. Most endothermic organisms are homeothermic, like mammals. However, animals with facultative endothermy are often poikilothermic, meaning their temperature can vary considerably. Most fish are ectotherms, as most of their heat comes from the surrounding water. However, almost all fish are poikilothermic. By numerous observations upon humans and other animals, John Hunter showed that the essential difference between the so - called warm - blooded and cold - blooded animals lies in observed constancy of the temperature of the former, and the observed variability of the temperature of the latter. Almost all birds and mammals have a high temperature almost constant and independent of that of the surrounding air (homeothermy). Almost all other animals display a variation of body temperature, dependent on their surroundings (poikilothermy). Thermoregulation in both ectotherms and endotherms is controlled mainly by the preoptic area of the anterior hypothalamus. Such homeostatic control is separate from the sensation of temperature. In cold environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to minimize heat loss: In warm environments, birds and mammals employ the following adaptations and strategies to maximize heat loss: As in other mammals, thermoregulation is an important aspect of human homeostasis. Most body heat is generated in the deep organs, especially the liver, brain, and heart, and in contraction of skeletal muscles. Humans have been able to adapt to a great diversity of climates, including hot humid and hot arid. High temperatures pose serious stresses for the human body, placing it in great danger of injury or even death. For example, one of the most common reactions to hot temperatures is heat exhaustion, which is an illness that could happen if one is exposed to high temperatures, resulting in some symptoms such as dizziness, fainting, or a rapid heartbeat. For humans, adaptation to varying climatic conditions includes both physiological mechanisms resulting from evolution and behavioural mechanisms resulting from conscious cultural adaptations. The physiological control of the body 's core temperature takes place primarily through the hypothalamus, which assumes the role as the body 's "thermostat. '' This organ possesses control mechanisms as well as key temperature sensors, which are connected to nerve cells called thermoreceptors. Thermoreceptors come in two subcategories; ones that respond to cold temperatures and ones that respond to warm temperatures. Scattered throughout the body in both peripheral and central nervous systems, these nerve cells are sensitive to changes in temperature and are able to provide useful information to the hypothalamus through the process of negative feedback, thus maintaining a constant core temperature. There are three avenues of heat loss: convection, conduction, and radiation. If skin temperature is greater than that of the surroundings, the body can lose heat by radiation and conduction. But, if the temperature of the surroundings is greater than that of the skin, the body actually gains heat by radiation and conduction. In such conditions, the only means by which the body can rid itself of heat is by evaporation. So, when the surrounding temperature is higher than the skin temperature, anything that prevents adequate evaporation will cause the internal body temperature to rise. During intense physical activity (e.g. sports), evaporation becomes the main avenue of heat loss. Humidity affects thermoregulation by limiting sweat evaporation and thus heat loss. Thermogenesis occurs in the flowers of many plants in the Araceae family as well as in cycad cones. In addition, the sacred lotus (Nelumbo nucifera) is able to thermoregulate itself, remaining on average 20 ° C (36 ° F) above air temperature while flowering. Heat is produced by breaking down the starch that was stored in their roots, which requires the consumption of oxygen at a rate approaching that of a flying hummingbird. One possible explanation for plant thermoregulation is to provide protection against cold temperature. For example, the skunk cabbage is not frost - resistant, yet it begins to grow and flower when there is still snow on the ground. Another theory is that thermogenicity helps attract pollinators, which is borne out by observations that heat production is accompanied by the arrival of beetles or flies. Animals other than humans regulate and maintain their body temperature with physiological adjustments and behavior. Desert lizards are ectotherms and so unable to metabolically control their temperature but can do this by altering their location. They may do this, in the morning only by raising their head from its burrow and then exposing their entire body. By basking in the sun, the lizard absorbs solar heat. It may also absorb heat by conduction from heated rocks that have stored radiant solar energy. To lower their temperature, lizards exhibit varied behaviors. Sand seas, or ergs, produce up to 57.7 ° C (135.9 ° F), and the sand lizard will hold its feet up in the air to cool down, seek cooler objects with which to contact, find shade or return to their burrow. They also go to their burrows to avoid cooling when the sun goes down or the temperature falls. Aquatic animals can also regulate their temperature behaviorally by changing their position in the thermal gradient. Animals also engage in kleptothermy in which they share or even steal each other 's body warmth. In endotherms such as bats and birds (such as the mousebird and emperor penguin) it allows the sharing of body heat (particularly amongst juveniles). This allows the individuals to increase their thermal inertia (as with gigantothermy) and so reduce heat loss. Some ectotherms share burrows of ectotherms. Other animals exploit termite mounds. Some animals living in cold environments maintain their body temperature by preventing heat loss. Their fur grows more densely to increase the amount of insulation. Some animals are regionally heterothermic and are able to allow their less insulated extremities to cool to temperatures much lower than their core temperature -- nearly to 0 ° C (32 ° F). This minimizes heat loss through less insulated body parts, like the legs, feet (or hooves), and nose. To cope with limited food resources and low temperatures, some mammals hibernate during cold periods. To remain in "stasis '' for long periods, these animals build up brown fat reserves and slow all body functions. True hibernators (e.g., groundhogs) keep their body temperatures low throughout hibernation whereas the core temperature of false hibernators (e.g., bears) varies; occasionally the animal may emerge from its den for brief periods. Some bats are true hibernators and rely upon a rapid, non-shivering thermogenesis of their brown fat deposit to bring them out of hibernation. Estivation is similar to hibernation, however, it usually occurs in hot periods to allow animals to avoid high temperatures and desiccation. Both terrestrial and aquatic invertebrate and vertebrates enter into estivation. Examples include lady beetles (Coccinellidae), North American desert tortoises, crocodiles, salamanders, cane toads, and the water - holding frog. Daily torpor occurs in small endotherms like bats and hummingbirds, which temporarily reduces their high metabolic rates to conserve energy. Previously, average oral temperature for healthy adults had been considered 37.0 ° C (98.6 ° F), while normal ranges are 36.1 ° C (97.0 ° F) to 37.8 ° C (100.0 ° F). In Poland and Russia, the temperature had been measured axillary. 36.6 ° C was considered "ideal '' temperature in these countries, while normal ranges are 36 ° C to 36.9 ° C. Recent studies suggest that the average temperature for healthy adults is 36.8 ° C (98.2 ° F) (same result in three different studies). Variations (one standard deviation) from three other studies are: Measured temperature varies according to thermometer placement, with rectal temperature being 0.3 -- 0.6 ° C (0.5 -- 1 ° F) higher than oral temperature, while axillary temperature is 0.3 -- 0.6 ° C (0.5 -- 1 ° F) lower than oral temperature. The average difference between oral and axillary temperatures of Indian children aged 6 -- 12 was found to be only 0.1 ° C (standard deviation 0.2 ° C), and the mean difference in Maltese children aged 4 -- 14 between oral and axillary temperature was 0.56 ° C, while the mean difference between rectal and axillary temperature for children under 4 years old was 0.38 ° C. In humans, a diurnal variation has been observed dependent on the periods of rest and activity, lowest at 11 p.m. to 3 a.m. and peaking at 10 a.m. to 6 p.m. Monkeys also have a well - marked and regular diurnal variation of body temperature that follows periods of rest and activity, and is not dependent on the incidence of day and night; nocturnal monkeys reach their highest body temperature at night and lowest during the day. Sutherland Simpson and J.J. Galbraith observed that all nocturnal animals and birds -- whose periods of rest and activity are naturally reversed through habit and not from outside interference -- experience their highest temperature during the natural period of activity (night) and lowest during the period of rest (day). Those diurnal temperatures can be reversed by reversing their daily routine. In essence, the temperature curve of diurnal birds is similar to that of man and other homoeothermal animals, except that the maximum occurs earlier in the afternoon and the minimum earlier in the morning. Also, the curves obtained from rabbits, guinea pigs, and dogs were quite similar to those from man. These observations indicate that body temperature is partially regulated by circadian rhythms. During the follicular phase (which lasts from the first day of menstruation until the day of ovulation), the average basal body temperature in women ranges from 36.45 to 36.7 ° C (97.6 to 98.1 ° F). Within 24 hours of ovulation, women experience an elevation of 0.15 -- 0.45 ° C (0.2 -- 0.9 ° F) due to the increased metabolic rate caused by sharply elevated levels of progesterone. The basal body temperature ranges between 36.7 -- 37.3 ° C (98.1 -- 99.2 ° F) throughout the luteal phase, and drops down to pre-ovulatory levels within a few days of menstruation. Women can chart this phenomenon to determine whether and when they are ovulating, so as to aid conception or contraception. Fever is a regulated elevation of the set point of core temperature in the hypothalamus, caused by circulating pyrogens produced by the immune system. To the subject, a rise in core temperature due to fever may result in feeling cold in an environment where people without fever do not. Some monks are known to practice Tummo, biofeedback meditation techniques, that allow them to raise their body temperatures substantially. It has been theorised that low body temperature may increase lifespan. In 2006, it was reported that transgenic mice with a body temperature 0.3 -- 0.5 C lower than normal mice lived longer than normal mice. This mechanism is due to overexpressing the uncoupling protein 2 in hypocretin neurons (Hcrt - UCP2), which elevated hypothalamic temperature, thus forcing the hypothalamus to lower body temperature. Lifespan was increased by 12 % and 20 % for males and females, respectively. The mice were fed ad libitum. The effects of such a genetic change in body temperature on longevity is more difficult to study in humans; in 2011, the UCP2 genetic alleles in humans were associated with obesity. There are limits both of heat and cold that an endothermic animal can bear and other far wider limits that an ectothermic animal may endure and yet live. The effect of too extreme a cold is to decrease metabolism, and hence to lessen the production of heat. Both catabolic and anabolic pathways share in this metabolic depression, and, though less energy is used up, still less energy is generated. The effects of this diminished metabolism become telling on the central nervous system first, especially the brain and those parts concerning consciousness; both heart rate and respiration rate decrease; judgment becomes impaired as drowsiness supervenes, becoming steadily deeper until the individual loses consciousness; without medical intervention, death by hypothermia quickly follows. Occasionally, however, convulsions may set in towards the end, and death is caused by asphyxia. In experiments on cats performed by Sutherland Simpson and Percy T. Herring, the animals were unable to survive when rectal temperature fell below 16 ° C. At this low temperature, respiration became increasingly feeble; heart - impulse usually continued after respiration had ceased, the beats becoming very irregular, appearing to cease, then beginning again. Death appeared to be mainly due to asphyxia, and the only certain sign that it had taken place was the loss of knee - jerks. However, too high a temperature speeds up the metabolism of different tissues to such a rate that their metabolic capital is soon exhausted. Blood that is too warm produces dyspnea by exhausting the metabolic capital of the respiratory centre; heart rate is increased; the beats then become arrhythmic and eventually cease. The central nervous system is also profoundly affected by hyperthermia and delirium, and convulsions may set in. Consciousness may also be lost, propelling the person into a comatose condition. These changes can sometimes also be observed in patients suffering from an acute fever. Mammalian muscle becomes rigid with heat rigor at about 50 ° C, with the sudden rigidity of the whole body rendering life impossible. H.M. Vernon performed work on the death temperature and paralysis temperature (temperature of heat rigor) of various animals. He found that species of the same class showed very similar temperature values, those from the Amphibia examined being 38.5 ° C, fish 39 ° C, reptiles 45 ° C, and various molluscs 46 ° C. Also, in the case of pelagic animals, he showed a relation between death temperature and the quantity of solid constituents of the body. In higher animals, however, his experiments tend to show that there is greater variation in both the chemical and physical characteristics of the protoplasm and, hence, greater variation in the extreme temperature compatible with life. The maximum temperatures tolerated by certain thermophilic arthropods exceeds the lethal temperatures for most vertebrates. The most heat - resistant insects are three genera of desert ants recorded from three different parts of the world. The ants have developed a lifestyle of scavenging for short durations during the hottest hours of the day, in excess of 50 ° C (122 ° F), for the carcasses of insects and other forms of life which have succumbed to heat stress. In April 2014, the South Californian mite Paratarsotomus macropalpis has been recorded as the world 's fastest land animal relative to body length, at a speed of 322 body lengths per second. Besides the unusually great speed of the mites, the researchers were surprised to find the mites running at such speeds on concrete at temperatures up to 60 ° C (140 ° F), which is significant because this temperature is well above the lethal limit for the majority of animal species. In addition, the mites are able to stop and change direction very quickly.

is us news and world report conservative or liberal

U.S. News & World Report - Wikipedia U.S. News & World Report is an American media company that publishes news, opinion, consumer advice, rankings, and analysis. Founded as a newsweekly magazine in 1933, U.S. News transitioned to primarily web - based publishing in 2010. U.S. News is best known today for its influential Best Colleges and Best Hospitals rankings, but it has expanded its content and product offerings in education, health, money, careers, travel, and cars. The rankings are popular in North America but have drawn widespread criticism from colleges, administrations, and students for their dubious, disparate, and arbitrary nature. The ranking system by U.S. News is usually contrasted with the Washington Monthly and Forbes rankings. United States News was founded in 1933 by David Lawrence (1888 -- 1973), who also started World Report in 1946. The two magazines covered national and international news separately, but Lawrence merged them into U.S. News & World Report in 1948 and subsequently sold the magazine to his employees. Historically, the magazine tended to be slightly more conservative than its two primary competitors, Time and Newsweek, and focused more on economic, health, and education stories. It also eschewed sports, entertainment, and celebrity news. Important milestones in the early history of the magazine include the introduction of the "Washington Whispers '' column in 1934 and the "News You Can Use '' column in 1952. In 1958, the weekly magazine 's circulation passed one million and reached two million by 1973. Since 1983, it has become known primarily for its influential ranking and annual reports of colleges and graduate schools, spanning across most fields and subjects. U.S. News & World Report is America 's oldest and best - known ranker of academic institutions, and covers the fields of business, law, medicine, engineering, education, social sciences and public affairs, in addition to many other areas. Its print edition was consistently included in national bestseller lists, augmented by online subscriptions. Additional rankings published by U.S. News & World Report include hospitals, medical specialties and automobiles. In October 1984, publisher and real estate developer Mortimer B. Zuckerman purchased U.S. News & World Report. Zuckerman is also the owner of the New York Daily News. In 1993, U.S. News & World Report entered the digital world by providing content to CompuServe and in 1995, the website usnews.com was launched. In 2001, the website won the National Magazine Award for General Excellence Online. In 2007, U.S. News & World Report published its first list of the nation 's best high schools. Its ranking methodology includes state test scores and the success of poor and minority students on these exams, and schools ' performance in Advanced Placement exams. Starting in June 2008, the magazine reduced its publication frequency in three steps. It switched in June 2008 from weekly to biweekly. In November 2008 it decreased to monthly. In November 2010, it was reported that U.S. News & World Report would be switched to an online - only format, effective after it published its December issue, with the exception of print publishing special issues on colleges, hospitals, and personal finance. Moving forward, the publication expressed its plans to focus mainly on research and the provision of relevant information to students pursuing higher education. Its rankings and university guide books are available in print at the majority of bookstores and magazine vendors in the United States, selling millions of copies on an annual basis. In June 2008, citing the decline overall magazine circulation and advertising, U.S. News & World Report announced that it would become a biweekly publication, starting January 2009. It hoped advertisers would be attracted to the schedule, which allowed ads to stay on newsstands a week longer. However, five months later the magazine changed its frequency again, becoming monthly. In August 2008, U.S. News expanded and revamped its online opinion section. The new version of the opinion page included daily new op - ed content as well as the new Thomas Jefferson Street blog. An internal memo was sent on November 5, 2010, to the staff of the magazine informing them that the "December issue will be our last print monthly sent to subscribers, whose remaining print and digital replica subscriptions will be filled by other publishers. '' The memo went on to say that the publication would be moving to a primarily digital format but that it would continue to print special issues such as "the college and grad guides, as well as hospital and personal finance guides. '' Prior to going defunct, U.S. News was the lowest - ranking news magazine in the U.S., after Time and Newsweek. A weekly digital magazine, U.S. News Weekly, introduced in January 2009, continued to offer subscription content until it ceased at the end of April 2015. The company is owned by U.S. News & World Report, L.P., a privately held company based in the Daily News building in New York City. The editorial staff is headquartered in Washington, D.C. The company 's move to the Web made it possible for U.S. News & World Report to expand its service journalism with the introduction of several consumer - facing rankings products. The company returned to profitability in 2013. The editorial staff of U.S. News & World Report is based in Washington, D.C. and Brian Kelly has been the chief content officer since April 2007. The company is owned by media proprietor Mortimer Zuckerman. The first of the U.S. News & World Report 's famous rankings was its "Who Runs America? '' surveys. These ran in the spring of each year from 1974 to 1986. The magazine would have a cover typically featuring persons selected by the USN & WR as being the ten most powerful persons in the United States. Every single edition of the series listed the President of the United States as the most powerful person, but the # 2 position included such persons as Secretary of State Henry Kissinger (1974), Federal Reserve Chairmen Paul Volcker and Arthur Burns (each listed multiple years) and US Senator Edward Kennedy (1979). While most of the top ten each year were officials in government, occasionally others were included, including TV anchormen Walter Cronkite and Dan Rather, Chase Manhattan Bank Chairman David Rockefeller, AFL - CIO leader George Meany, and consumer advocate Ralph Nader. The only woman to make the top ten list was First Lady Rosalynn Carter in 1980. In addition to these overall top ten persons, the publication also included top persons in each of several fields, including Education, Business, Finance, Journalism, and many other areas. The survey was discontinued after 1986. In 1983, U.S. News & World Report published its first "America 's Best Colleges '' report. The rankings have been compiled and published annually since 1987. These rankings are based upon data that U.S. News & World Report collects from each educational institution from an annual survey sent to each school. The rankings are also based upon opinion surveys of university faculties and administrators who do not belong to the schools. The popularity of U.S. News & World Report 's Best Colleges rankings is reflected in its 2014 release, which brought 2.6 million unique visitors and 18.9 million page views to usnews.com in one day. Traffic came from over 3,000 sites, including Facebook and Google. U.S. News & World Report continues to publish comprehensive college guides in book form. Robert Morse created the U.S. News Best Colleges rankings methodology, and continues to oversee its application as chief data strategist at U.S. News. In 2014, The Washington Post featured a profile of Morse, exploring his 30 - year career with the publication. During the 1990s, several educational institutions in the United States were involved in a movement to boycott the U.S. News & World Report college rankings survey. The first was Reed College, which stopped submitting the survey in 1995. The survey was also criticized by Alma College, Stanford University, and St. John 's College during the late 1990s. SAT scores play a role in The U.S. News & World Report college rankings even though U.S. News is not empowered with the ability to formally verify or recalculate the scores that are represented to them by schools. Since the mid-1990s there have been many instances documented by the popular press wherein schools lied about their SAT scores in order to obtain a higher ranking. An exposé in the San Francisco Chronicle stated that the elements in the methodology of U.S News & World Report 's rankings are redundant and can be reduced to one thing: money. On June 19, 2007, during the annual meeting of the Annapolis Group, members discussed the letter to college presidents asking them not to participate in the "reputation survey '' section of the U.S. News & World Report survey (this section comprises 25 % of the ranking). As a result, "a majority of the approximately 80 presidents at the meeting said that they did not intend to participate in the U.S. News reputational rankings in the future. '' The statement also said that its members "have agreed to participate in the development of an alternative common format that presents information about their colleges for students and their families to use in the college search process. '' This database will be web - based and developed in conjunction with higher - education organizations including the National Association of Independent Colleges and Universities (NAICU) and the Council of Independent Colleges. On June 22, 2007, U.S. News & World Report editor Robert Morse issued a response in which he argued, "in terms of the peer assessment survey, we at U.S. News firmly believe the survey has significant value because it allows us to measure the ' intangibles ' of a college that we ca n't measure through statistical data. Plus, the reputation of a school can help get that all - important first job and plays a key part in which grad school someone will be able to get into. The peer survey is by nature subjective, but the technique of asking industry leaders to rate their competitors is a commonly accepted practice. The results from the peer survey also can act to level the playing field between private and public colleges. '' In reference to the alternative database discussed by the Annapolis Group, Morse also argued, "It 's important to point out that the Annapolis Group 's stated goal of presenting college data in a common format has been tried before (...) U.S. News has been supplying this exact college information for many years already. And it appears that NAICU will be doing it with significantly less comparability and functionality. U.S. News first collects all these data (using an agreed - upon set of definitions from the Common Data Set). Then we post the data on our website in easily accessible, comparable tables. In other words, the Annapolis Group and the others in the NAICU initiative actually are following the lead of U.S. News. '' Some higher education experts, such as Kevin Carey of Education Sector, have asserted that U.S. News & World Report 's college rankings system is merely a list of criteria that mirrors the superficial characteristics of elite colleges and universities. According to Carey, the U.S. News ranking system is deeply flawed. Instead of focusing on the fundamental issues of how well colleges and universities educate their students and how well they prepare them to be successful after college, the magazine 's rankings are almost entirely a function of three factors: fame, wealth, and exclusivity. He suggests that there are more important characteristics parents and students should research to select colleges, such as how well students are learning and how likely students are to earn a degree. The question of college rankings and their impact on admissions gained greater attention in March 2007, when Dr. Michele Tolela Myers (the former President of Sarah Lawrence College) shared in an op - ed that the U.S. News & World Report, when not given SAT scores for a university, chooses to simply rank the college with an invented SAT score of approximately one standard deviation (roughly 200 SAT points) behind those of peer colleges, with the reasoning being that SAT - optional universities will, because of their test - optional nature, accept higher numbers of less academically capable students. In a 2011 article regarding the Sarah Lawrence controversy, Peter Sacks of The Huffington Post criticized the U.S. News rankings ' centering on test scores and denounced the magazine 's "best colleges '' list as a scam: In the U.S. News worldview of college quality, it matters not a bit what students actually learn on campus, or how a college actually contributes to the intellectual, ethical and personal growth of students while on campus, or how that institution contributes to the public good (...) and then, when you consider that student SAT scores are profoundly correlated (to) parental income and education levels -- the social class that a child is born into and grows up with -- you begin to understand what a corrupt emperor ' America 's Best Colleges ' really is. The ranking amounts to little more than a pseudo-scientific and yet popularly legitimate tool for perpetuating inequality between educational haves and have nots -- the rich families from the poor ones, and the well - endowed schools from the poorly endowed ones. In October 2014, the U.S. News & World Report published its inaugural "Best Global Universities '' rankings. Inside Higher Ed noted that the U.S. News is entering into the international college and university rankings area that is already "dominated by three major global university rankings, '' namely the Times Higher Education World University Rankings, the Academic Ranking of World Universities, and the QS World University Rankings. Robert Morse stated that "it 's natural for U.S. News to get into this space. '' Morse also noted that the U.S. News "will also be the first American publisher to enter the global rankings space. '' Since 1990, U.S. News & World Report has compiled the Best Hospitals rankings. The Best Hospitals rankings are specifically based on a different methodology that looks at difficult (high acuity) cases within 16 specialties, including cancer; diabetes and endocrinology; ear, nose and throat; gastroenterology; geriatrics; gynecology; heart and heart surgery; kidney disorders; neurology and neurosurgery; ophthalmology; orthopedics; psychiatry; pulmonology; rehabilitation; rheumatology; and urology. In addition to rankings for each of these specialties, hospitals that excel in many U.S. News areas are ranked in the Honor Roll. Since 2007, U.S. News has developed an innovative rankings system for new and used automobiles. The rankings span over 30 classes of cars, trucks, SUVs, minivans, wagons, and sports cars. Each automobile receives an overall score, as well as a performance, interior, and recommendation score to the nearest tenth on a 1 - 10 scale. Scores are based on the consensus opinion of America 's trusted automotive experts, as well as reliability and safety data. U.S. News also produces annual "Best Cars for the Money '' and "Best Cars for Families '' awards across approximately 20 classes of cars, trucks, SUVs, and minivans. Money award winners are derived by combining vehicle price and five - year cost of ownership with the opinion of the automotive press, while family awards are tabulated by combining critics ' opinions with the vehicle 's availability of family - friendly features and interior space, as well as safety and reliability data. Money and family award winners are announced in February and March of each year, respectively. In 2017, U.S. News published its first ranking of all 50 U.S. states, incorporating metrics in seven categories: health care, education, crime and corrections, infrastructure, opportunity, economy, and government. The weighting of the individual categories in determining overall rank was informed by surveys on what matters most to residents. Massachusetts occupies the top rank of the 2017 list, with an overall # 2 ranking in health care and # 1 ranking in education.

where does the last name dukes come from

Duke (surname) - wikipedia Duke is a surname meaning ' the leader ' or ' son of Marmaduke '. It is the 856th most common surname in the United States. The first is that the surname Duke and its variant, Dukes, are both derived from the various Middle English words duc, duk, and douc, which all came from the Old French word "duc. '' This ultimately stemmed from the Latin dux, meaning "leader, '' and is a derivative of ducere, "to lead. '' The surname was evidently acquired by someone who was looked upon as a leader, not denoting one of noble birth since many captains or military leaders were titled landholders who would have taken their last names from their estates. The surname Dukes translates literally as "Duke 's son. '' Alternatively, it has been suggested by scholars that the surname is simply a shortened form of Marmaduke, which is from the Irish Maelmaedoc, meaning ' servant of Maedoc. ' St Maedoc was a Christian missionary in 7th Century Wales and Ireland. As a Plantation surname, it can be found primarily in east Ulster and has been Gaelicised as Diúc. References date back to the late Twelfth century, with Herbert le Duc, a member of the Knights Templar, using the Gallicized version of the name. From 1190 -- 1191, Roger le Duc was Sheriff of London, and three generations of his family succeeded him in this office. The Pipe rolls for Berkshire refer to Adam Duke in the year 1198, and in 1214 one Henry Dukes is recorded in the Curia Regis rolls for Warwickshire. Dukes is a patronymic form of the surname Duke that originated in medieval England, of Anglo - Norman origin. The meaning is derived from son or descendant of Duke, which was originally recorded le Duc, a term used to mean "leader '' before it became associated with a specific rank of the nobility. It is an uncommon name; the 2000 United States Census showed it to be the 1,577 th most popular surname, while the United Kingdom Census of that same year showed it to be the 1,749 th most popular. The earliest recorded uses of the surname include: The Duke family uses the motto Gradatim vincimus which translates as "We conquer by degrees. '' The Dukes family motto is Constanter, meaning "With constancy. '' Records indicate nameholders came to England during and in the decades following the Norman Conquest, but its usage became more common in the reign of Richard I and especially in the time of King John. In Queen Elizabeth 's long reign the surname often appeared among the rolls of her ennobled subjects who were prominently mentioned in the annals of her time. Duke families were also found very early in Ireland. According to O'Hart's Irish Pedigrees, Vol. II, some were residing in County Westmeath in the Fifteenth century. The will of one William Duke, of Kyllenagh, Kildare, recorded 1551, is found in the records at Dublin. After this early date the family name appears with more or less variation in form, and with increasing frequency upon the pages of the Irish Public Records. Hanna, in his Scotch - Irish Families of Ulster, estimates that there were in 1890 within the province of Ulster 268 persons bearing the name Duke. Thus the Dukes were one of the ancient families of England and of Ireland. They are among the earliest recorded by Burke in his pedigrees of the nobility and of the landed gentry. The first mention made of them by this authority was the aforementioned Roger le Duc, sheriff of London. The names of Duke and Dukes have been well - established in the Americas, with one of the earliest arrivals to New England being one Captain Edward Duke in 1634. Humphrey Dukes sailed to Barbados with his wife and servants in 1630.

do i need visa for jamaica from us

Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens - Wikipedia Visa requirements for Jamaican citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Jamaica. As of 10 July 2018, Jamaican citizens had visa - free or visa on arrival access to 85 countries and territories, ranking the Jamaican passport 59th in terms of travel freedom according to Henley Passport Index. Overseas trips made by Jamaican citizens (11) Jamaica has a modest number of diplomatic missions and consulates in the world they are maintained under the umbrella of the Jamaican Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Foreign Trade. They are official representative of the government of one state in the territory of another, normally acting to assist and protect the citizens of the consul 's own country, and to facilitate trade and friendship between the people of the two countries. Many countries have entry restrictions on foreigners that go beyond the common requirement of having either a valid visa or a visa exemption. Such restrictions may be health related or impose additional documentation requirements on certain classes of people for diplomatic or political purposes. In the absence of specific bilateral agreements, countries requiring passports to be valid at least 6 months on arrival include Afghanistan, Algeria, Anguilla, Bahrain, Bhutan, Botswana, British Virgin Islands, Brunei, Cambodia, Cameroon, Cape Verde, Cayman Islands, Central African Republic, Chad, Comoros, Costa Rica, Côte d'Ivoire, Curaçao, Ecuador, Egypt, El Salvador, Equatorial Guinea, Fiji, Gabon, Guinea Bissau, Guyana, Haiti, Indonesia, Iran, Iraq, Israel, Jordan, Kenya, Kiribati, Kuwait, Laos, Madagascar, Malaysia, Maldives, Marshall Islands, Mongolia, Myanmar, Namibia, Nepal, Nicaragua, Nigeria, Oman, Palau, Papua New Guinea, Philippines, Rwanda, Samoa, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, Solomon Islands, Somalia, Sri Lanka, Sudan, Suriname, Tanzania, Thailand, Timor - Leste, Tokelau, Tonga, Tuvalu, Uganda, United Arab Emirates, Vanuatu, Venezuela and Vietnam. Turkey requires passports to be valid for at least 150 days upon entry. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 4 months on arrival include Micronesia and Zambia. Countries requiring passports valid for at least 3 months beyond the period of intended stay include European Union countries (except the Republic of Ireland and the United Kingdom), Iceland, Liechtenstein, Norway and Switzerland (and always excepting EU / EEA / Swiss nationals), Azerbaijan, Bosnia and Herzegovina, Montenegro, Nauru, Moldova, New Zealand and 3 months validity on arrival in Albania, Honduras, Macedonia, Panama, Qatar and Senegal. Bermuda requires passports to be valid for at least 45 days upon entry. Countries that require a passport validity of at least one month beyond the period of intended stay include Eritrea, Hong Kong, Lebanon, Macau and South Africa. Other countries require either a passport valid on arrival or a passport valid throughout the period of the intended stay. Some countries have bilateral agreements with other countries to shorten the period of passport validity required for each other 's citizens or even accept passports that have already expired (but not been cancelled). Many countries require a minimum number of blank pages in the passport being presented, generally one or two pages. Endorsement pages, which often appear after the visa pages, are not counted as being available. Many African countries, including Angola, Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Central African Republic, Chad, Democratic Republic of the Congo, Republic of the Congo, Côte d'Ivoire, Equatorial Guinea, Gabon, Ghana, Guinea, Liberia, Mali, Mauritania, Niger, Rwanda, São Tomé and Príncipe, Senegal, Sierra Leone, Uganda, and Zambia, require all incoming passengers to have a current International Certificate of Vaccination. Some other countries require vaccination only if the passenger is coming from an infected area or has recently visited one. Kuwait, Lebanon, Libya, Saudi Arabia, Sudan, Syria and Yemen do not allow entry to people with passport stamps from Israel or whose passports have either a used or an unused Israeli visa, or where there is evidence of previous travel to Israel such as entry or exit stamps from neighbouring border posts in transit countries such as Jordan and Egypt. To circumvent this Arab League boycott of Israel, the Israeli immigration services have now mostly ceased to stamp foreign nationals ' passports on either entry to or exit from Israel. Since 15 January 2013, Israel no longer stamps foreign passports at Ben Gurion Airport, giving passengers a card instead that reads: "Since January 2013 a pilot scheme has been introduced whereby visitors are given an entry card instead of an entry stamp on arrival. You should keep this card with your passport until you leave. This is evidence of your legal entry into Israel and may be required, particularly at any crossing points into the Occupied Palestinian Territories. '' Passports are still (as of 22 June 2017) stamped at Erez when travelling into and out of Gaza. Also, passports are still stamped (as of 22 June 2017) at the Jordan Valley / Sheikh Hussein and Yitzhak Rabin / Arava land borders with Jordan. Iran refuses admission to holders of passports containing an Israeli visa or stamp that is less than 12 months old. Due to a state of war existing between Armenia and Azerbaijan, the government of Azerbaijan not only bans entry of citizens from Armenia, but also all citizens and nationals of any other country who are of Armenian descent, to the Republic of Azerbaijan (although there have been exceptions, notably for Armenia 's participation at the 2015 European Games held in Azerbaijan). Azerbaijan also strictly bans any visit by foreign citizens to the separatist region of Nagorno - Karabakh (the de facto independent Republic of Artsakh), its surrounding territories and the Azerbaijani exclaves of Karki, Yuxarı Əskipara, Barxudarlı and Sofulu which are de jure part of Azerbaijan but under control of Armenia, without the prior consent of the government of Azerbaijan. Foreign citizens who enter these occupied territories will be permanently banned from entering the Republic of Azerbaijan and will be included in their "list of personae non gratae ''. As of April 2018 the list contains 710 persons. Upon request, the authorities of the largely unrecognized Republic of Artsakh may attach their visa and / or stamps to a separate piece of paper in order to avoid detection of travel to their country. Some countries (for example: Australia, Canada, Fiji, New Zealand and the United States) routinely deny entry to non-citizens who have a criminal record. The government of a country can declare a diplomat persona non grata, banning their entry into that country. In non-diplomatic use, the authorities of a country may also declare a foreigner persona non grata permanently or temporarily, usually because of unlawful activity. Attempts to enter the Gaza strip by sea may attract a 10 - year ban on entering Israel. Several countries mandate that all travellers, or all foreign travellers, be fingerprinted on arrival and will refuse admission to or even arrest those travellers that refuse to comply. In some countries, such as the United States, this may apply even to transit passengers who merely wish to quickly change planes rather than go landside. Fingerprinting countries include Afghanistan, Argentina, Brunei, Cambodia, China when entering through Shenzhen airport, Ethiopia, Ghana, India, Japan, Malaysia upon entry and departure, Paraguay, Saudi Arabia, Singapore, South Korea, and Taiwan. Additionally, the United Arab Emirates conducts iris scanning on visitors who need to apply for a visa. British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia, therefore Russia as a whole is included as a European country here. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Azerbaijan (Artsakh) and Georgia (Abkhazia; South Ossetia) are transcontinental countries. Both have part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has part of its territories located west of the Ural River in Eastern Europe. Armenia and Cyprus (Northern Cyprus; Akrotiri and Dhekelia) are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Part of the Realm of New Zealand. Partially recognized. Unincorporated territory of the United States. Part of Norway, not part of the Schengen Area, special open - border status under Svalbard Treaty. Part of the Kingdom of Denmark, not part of the Schengen Area. British Overseas Territories. Open border with Schengen Area. Russia is a transcontinental country in Eastern Europe and Northern Asia. The vast majority of its population (80 %) lives in European Russia. Turkey is a transcontinental country in the Middle East and Southeast Europe. Has a small part of its territory (3 %) in Southeast Europe called Turkish Thrace. Abkhazia, Azerbaijan, Georgia, and South Ossetia are often regarded as transcontinental countries. Both have a small part of their territories in the European part of the Caucasus. Kazakhstan is a transcontinental country. Has a small part of its territories located west of the Urals in Eastern Europe. Armenia, Artsakh, Cyprus, and Northern Cyprus are entirely in Southwest Asia but having socio - political connections with Europe. Egypt is a transcontinental country in North Africa and the Middle East. Has a small part of its territory in the Middle East called Sinai Peninsula. Partially recognized.

where do mealy bugs on plants come from

Mealybug - wikipedia Mealybugs are insects in the family Pseudococcidae, unarmored scale insects found in moist, warm climates. They are considered pests as they feed on plant juices of greenhouse plants, house plants and subtropical trees and also act as a vector for several plant diseases. Mealybugs occur in all parts of the world. Most occur naturally only in warmer parts, and get introduced into greenhouses and other buildings in cooler countries. It is unlikely that any live in the Arctic or Antarctic, except perhaps in buildings. Mealybugs are sexually dimorphic: females appear as nymphs, exhibiting reduced morphology, and lack wings, although unlike many female scale insects, they often retain legs and can move. Males are smaller, gnat - like and have wings. Since mealybugs (as well as all other Hemiptera) are hemimetabolous insects, they do not undergo complete metamorphosis in the true sense of the word. However, male mealybugs do exhibit a radical change during their life cycle, changing from wingless, ovoid nymphs to wasp - like flying adults. Mealybug females feed on plant sap, normally in roots or other crevices, and in a few cases the bottoms of stored fruit. They attach themselves to the plant and secrete a powdery wax layer (hence the name mealybug) used for protection while they suck the plant juices. In Asia, mango mealybug is considered a major menace for the mango crop. The males on the other hand are short - lived as they do not feed at all as adults and only live to fertilize the females. Male citrus mealy bugs fly to the females and resemble fluffy gnats. Some species of mealybug lay their eggs in the same waxy layer used for protection in quantities of 50 -- 100; other species are born directly from the female. The most serious pests are mealybugs that feed on citrus; other species damage sugarcane, grapes, pineapple (Jahn et al. 2003), coffee trees, cassava, ferns, cacti, gardenias, papaya, mulberry, sunflower and orchids. Mealybugs only tend to be serious pests in the presence of ants because the ants protect them from predators and parasites. Mealybugs also infest some species of carnivorous plant such as Sarracenia (pitcher plants); in such cases it is difficult to eradicate them without repeated applications of insecticide such as diazinon. Small infestations may not inflict significant damage. In larger amounts though, they can induce leaf drop. Fossil specimens of Acropyga genus ants have been recovered from the Burdigalian stage Dominican amber deposits and several individuals are preserved carrying the extinct mealybug genus Electromyrmococcus. These fossils represent the oldest recorded record of the symbiosis between mealybugs and Acropyga species ants. On the University of Florida / Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Featured Creatures website:

toby keith - i wanna talk about me

I Wanna Talk about Me - wikipedia "I Wanna Talk About Me '' is a song written by Bobby Braddock and recorded by American country music artist Toby Keith. It was released in August 2001 as the second single from Keith 's album Pull My Chain. The song was his seventh Number One single on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks charts. Keith told Billboard magazine that he knew he would get "banged a little '' for cutting the song. "They 're going to call it a rap, (although) there ai n't nobody doing rap who would call it a rap. '' Like Keith 's 1998 single "Getcha Some '', "I Wanna Talk About Me '' is cited as an example of country - rap, due to the use of a strong beat and rhythmically spoken lyrics. Songwriter Bobby Braddock ("He Stopped Loving Her Today '') was inspired to write a song in that style after hearing "Getcha Some '' and pitched it to Keith. "I Wanna Talk About Me '' tells of a male 's frustration in his inability to converse with his partner, who wants to talk about herself. In the chorus, the singer states "I like talking about you, you, you, you, usually / But occasionally / I wan na talk about me ''. A musical strength of the song is its use of a I-V - vi - IV arpeggio played in a punchy rhythm. Blake Shelton was originally slated to record the song. However, his label turned it down, as they thought it would be too risky of a debut single. Ray Waddell, of Billboard magazine in his review of the album, said that a lot of men will be able to relate to the song, "which Keith manages to sell through sheer force of personality. '' The music video was directed by Michael Salomon and shows Keith following a girl around while she talks about different things that interest her. It was released in August 2001. "I Wanna Talk About Me '' debuted at number 51 on the U.S. Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks for the week of August 25, 2001. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

what type of guns were used in ww2

List of common World War II infantry weapons - wikipedia This is a list of infantry weapons which were in mainstream use during World War II (1939 -- 1945). Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine guns Anti-tank weaponry Grenades Flamethrowes Mortars Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Light machine guns Medium machine guns Heavy machine guns Anti-tank guns Bayonets Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine Guns Shotguns Flamethrowers Anti-tank weapons Grenades Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine Guns Mortars Anti-tank weapons Handguns Sub-machine guns Rifles Machine guns Shotguns Flamethrowes Anti-tank weapons Grenades First Slovak Republic was a puppet state of Germany during the war Handguns Rifles Light machine guns Heavy machine guns Mortars List of National Revolutionary Army weapons, including Chinese warlords and Communists. Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Shotguns Light machine guns Medium machine guns Heavy machine guns ' Flamethrowers Anti-tank weapons Grenades Close quarters weapons Czechoslovakia was occupied by Germany by March 1939 dividing the country into a German protectorate, Slovak Republic and Carpathian Ukraine. Czech forces in exile ended up as units within the western Allies and Soviet forces. Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine Guns Independent State of Croatia was a fascist state and a puppet of Germany created in 1941. Handguns Rifles Assault rifles Submachine Guns Machine guns Mortars Grenades Anti-tank weapons Knives and bayonets Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine Guns Anti-tank weapons Hand Grenades Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine guns Flamethrowers Anti-tank weapons Grenades Anti-aircraft weapons Knives Mines Following the Battle of France in 1940, French forces were divided into Vichy Government in France and overseas and Free French forces which were equipped by the other Western allies. Handguns Rifles Shotguns Submachine Guns Machine guns Anti-tank weapons Grenades Mortars Handguns Rifles Sub-machine guns Machine guns Assault Rifles Sniper rifles Shotguns Anti-tank weapons Flamethrowers Grenades Grenade Launcher Close quarter weapons Mortars Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Light machine guns Machine guns Anti-tank guns Mortars Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine Guns Anti-tank Weapons Grenades Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Light machine guns Medium machine guns Heavy machine guns Mortars Anti-tank Weapons Grenades Flamethrowers Bayonets Handguns Rifles Sub-Machine guns Anti-tank Weapons Machine Guns Grenades Mortars Flamethrowers Grenade Dischargers Swords Lithuania was occupied by USSR at the start of the war, then taken over by Germany before being once more occupied by Soviet forces Handguns Submachine Guns Rifles Machineguns Handguns Rifles Sub-machineguns Machine - guns Anti-tank Guns Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Grenades Luxembourg was occupied by Germany in 1940. Some Luxembourg joined the Allies and formed an artillery troop of 1st Belgian Infantry Brigade, equipped by the British and part of the Guards Armoured Division Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine Guns Anti-tank Guns The Federated Malay States, the unfederated Malay States and Straits Settlements were British protectorates and crown colonies in South east Asia. They were occupied by Japanese in 1941. Handguns Shotguns Sub-Machine Guns Rifles Machine Guns Anti-Tank Weapons Grenades Knives Handguns Rifles Sub-machine guns Machine guns Anti-Tank Guns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Although the Royal Dutch Army was defeated and Netherlands were occupied by Germany in 1940, the Dutch government - in - exile formed the Royal Netherlands Motorized Infantry Brigade which was equipped with Allied weapons. In the Pacific, the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army was largely composed of indigenous troops of the Dutch colonies (now Indonesia) Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine Guns Grenades Anti-Tank Weapons Handguns Rifles Submachine Guns Machine Guns Anti-tank Weapons Grenades Following occupation by Germany early in the war, most of the Norwegian army was captured. Only a small number formed the land part of Free Norwegian forces. Handguns Rifles Machine Guns Grenades Following invasion by Germany from west and USSR from east, Poland was first split into two then occupied completely by Germany. Exiled Polish forces were formed Polish Armed Forces in the East and Polish Armed Forces in the West equipped by USSR and western Allies respectively. A large organized force, the Home Army fought within occupied Poland. Handguns Rifles Submachine gun Machine Guns Anti-Tank Weapons Grenades Grenade launchers Flamethrowers Mortars Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Anti-tank guns Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine Guns Anti-Tank Weapons Mortars Handguns Sub-Machine Guns Assault rifles Rifles Anti-tank Rifles Machine guns Grenades Grenade Launchers Knives Flamethrowers Anti-Tank Weapons Mines Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machine guns Anti-tank weapons Grenades Grenade dischargers Handguns Rifles Sub-machine guns Machine guns Shotguns Anti-tank Weapons Grenades Mortars Flamethrowers Sniper rifles Knives Handguns Rifles Carbines Sub-machine guns Machine guns Sniper rifles Shotguns (commonly used by the Marines in the Pacific theater, limited use in Europe) Anti-tank weapons Flamethrowers Recoilless rifles Grenades Grenade launcher Mortars Edged weapons Following invasion by Axis forces Yugoslavia was occupied and split. The Yugoslav government - in - exile was abroad while communist partisans took control of Yugoslav territory from Axis and were able to proclaim a Provisional Government of the Democratic Federal Yugoslavia. Partisans were supplied by the Allies. Handguns Rifles Submachine guns Machineguns Grenades Flamethrowers Anti tank

the wife of which indian sportsmen has represented in basketball

Akanksha Singh - Wikipedia Akanksha Singh (born 7 September 1989) is the current captain of India Women 's National Basketball Team. She is the member of national women team since 2004 to till date. She belongs to Varanasi 's famous. Her sisters Divya, Prashanti, and Pratima, have represented Indian National Women 's Basketball Team. Another sister Priyanka Singh is a National Institute of Sports basketball coach. Together they are also known as singh sisters. In 2010, Akanksha was awarded the Most Valuable Player in India 's first Professional Basketball league, MBPL 2010. Her name then, went on to be forever cemented in the Indian Basketball history books as one of the first ever Top Four Players to achieve the "A Grade '' from the Basketball Federation of India sponsored by IMG Reliance. Popularly called by the name of small wonder in Basketball. She is very agile and one of the very skilled ball handlers of the country right now. She has been awarded Best Player in many national and state championships. In her captaincy at University of Delhi she won a gold medal in All India University basketball championship at Nallor, where she was given joint best player award along with her sister Pratima Singh. She comes from a family of basketball players; three of her sisters currently are a member of the India Women 's National Basketball Team

who is going to host the 2026 world cup

2026 FIFA World Cup - wikipedia The 2026 FIFA World Cup will be the 23rd FIFA World Cup, the quadrennial international men 's football championship contested by the national teams of the member associations of FIFA. Two official bids to host the event were submitted to FIFA: a joint bid by Canada, Mexico and the United States, and a bid by Morocco. On 13 June 2018, the FIFA Congress will decide on whether to select one of those bids. The tournament will be the first to feature 48 teams, after FIFA approved expansion from 32 teams. Then - UEFA head Michel Platini had suggested in January 2015 an expansion of the tournament to 40 teams, an idea FIFA president Gianni Infantino also suggested in March 2016. A desire to increase the number of participants in the tournament from the previous 32 team format was announced on 4 October 2016. Four expansion options were considered: On 10 January 2017, the FIFA Council voted unanimously to expand to a 48 team tournament. The tournament will open with a group stage consisting of 16 groups of three teams, with the top two teams progressing from each group to a knockout tournament starting with a round of 32 teams. The number of games played overall will increase from 64 to 80, but the number of games played by finalists remains at seven, the same as with 32 teams, except that one group match will be replaced by a knockout match. The tournament will also be completed within 32 days, same as previous 32 - team tournaments. The proposal for expansion was opposed by the European Clubs Association and its member clubs, saying that the number of games was already at an "unacceptable '' level and they urged the governing body to reconsider its idea of increasing the number of teams that qualify. German national team coach Joachim Löw warned that expansion, as had occurred for Euro 2016, would dilute the value of the world tournament because players have already reached their physical and mental limit. Another criticism of the new format is that with 3 - team groups, the risk of collusion between the two teams playing in the last round will increase compared with 4 - team groups (where simultaneous kick - offs have been employed). One suggestion by President Infantino is that group matches that end in draws will be decided by penalty shootouts. On 30 March 2017, the Bureau of the FIFA Council (composed of the FIFA President and the presidents of each of the six confederations) proposed a slot allocation for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. The recommendation was submitted for the ratification by the FIFA Council. On 9 May 2017, two days before the 67th FIFA Congress, the FIFA Council approved the slot allocation in a meeting in Manama, Bahrain. It includes an intercontinental play - off tournament involving six teams to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths. For 2026, the slot of the host country will be taken from the quota of its confederation. In case of co-hosting, the number of automatically qualified host countries will be decided by the FIFA Council. A play - off tournament involving six teams will be held to decide the last two FIFA World Cup berths, consisting of one team per confederation (except for UEFA) and one additional team from the confederation of the host country. Two of the teams will be seeded based on the FIFA World Rankings, and the seeded teams will play for a FIFA World Cup berth against the winners of the first two knockout games involving the four unseeded teams. The tournament is to be played in the host country (ies) and to be used as a test event for the FIFA World Cup. The existing play - off window of November 2025 has been suggested as a tentative date for the 2026 edition. The FIFA Council went back and forth between 2013 and 2017 on limitations within hosting rotation based on the continental confederations. Originally, it was set that bids to be host would not be allowed from countries belonging to confederations that hosted the two preceding tournaments. It was temporarily changed to only prohibit countries belonging to the confederation that hosted the previous World Cup from bidding to host the following tournament, before the rule was changed back to its prior state of two World Cups. However the FIFA Council did make an exception to potentially grant eligibility to member associations of the confederation of the second - to - last host of the FIFA World Cup in the event that none of the received bids fulfill the strict technical and financial requirements. In March 2017, FIFA president Gianni Infantino confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. '' Therefore, the 2026 World Cup could be hosted by one of the remaining four confederations: CONCACAF (last hosted in 1994), CAF (last hosted in 2010), CONMEBOL (last hosted in 2014), or OFC (never hosted before), or potentially by UEFA in case no bid from those four met the requirements. Co-hosting the FIFA World Cup -- which had been banned by FIFA after the 2002 World Cup -- was approved for the 2026 FIFA World Cup, though not limited to a specific number but instead evaluated on a case - by - case basis. Also by 2026, the FIFA general secretariat, after consultation with the Competitions Committee, will have the power to exclude bidders who do not meet the minimum technical requirements to host the competition. The bidding process was due to start in 2015, with the appointment of hosts scheduled for the FIFA Congress on 10 May 2017 in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia, but was postponed due to the 2015 FIFA corruption case and the subsequent resignation of Sepp Blatter, and resumed following the FIFA Council meeting on 10 May 2016, amid corruption allegations around the previous tournaments, due to be held in 2018 (Russia), as well as in 2022 (Qatar). The bidding process originally consisted of four phases: The consultation phase focused on four areas: On 7 November 2017, FIFA published a guide to bidding process. It outlines the key elements of the reformed bidding process, the assessment mechanisms in place, recommendations on the protection of the process ' integrity, the timeline for the selection of the host (s), the specific requirements for hosting, a detailed explanation of the government guarantees, as well as the principles of sustainable event management and human rights protection. On 27 October 2017, the FIFA Council ratified the decision of the Bureau of the Council of 6 September 2017 to approve the enhanced Bidding Regulations for the 2026 FIFA World Cup. It also appointed the members of the Bid Evaluation Task Force. According to the Bidding Regulations, the Task Force is expected to be composed by: With no rival bid having emerged since April 2017 the CONCACAF member federations of Canada, Mexico and the United States sent a joint request to FIFA to hasten the bid process. Canada, Mexico and the United States wanted FIFA to award the bid outside the traditional bidding process at the June 2018 FIFA Congress in Moscow if the CONCACAF - bid meets FIFA requirements. However the FIFA Council proposed on 8 May 2017 that FIFA shall establish a bidding procedure inviting initially only the member associations of CAF, CONCACAF, CONMEBOL and the OFC - continental confederations whose members have not hosted the two previous World Cups - as candidates to submit to FIFA bids to host the final competition of the 2026 FIFA World Cup by 11 August 2017. The 68th FIFA Congress will decide on the selection of the candidate host associations. On 11 May 2017, the 67th FIFA Congress voted on the FIFA Council proposal to the fast - track the 2026 FIFA World Cup bid process and set the following deadlines: Endorsement of a set of principles submitted by the FIFA administration as part of the process to select the host of the 2026 FIFA World Cup, including an overview of the content to be requested from bidding member associations and high - level hosting requirements. These include: stadium and infrastructure requirements; principles of sustainable event management, human rights and environmental protection; and details on aspects such as governmental support documents, the organisational model to be adopted and provisions for the establishment of a legacy fund. A complete version of the bid requirements will eventually be dispatched to member associations that register to take part in the process. FIFA established minimum requirements for stadiums capacities. FIFA established minimum requirements for Team and referee facilities. Under FIFA rules as of 2017, the 2026 Cup can not be in either Europe (UEFA) or Asia (AFC), leaving an African (CAF) bid, a North American (CONCACAF) bid, a South American (CONMEBOL) bid, or an Oceania (OFC) bid as other possible options. In March 2017, FIFA confirmed that "Europe (UEFA) and Asia (AFC) are excluded from the bidding following the selection of Russia and Qatar in 2018 and 2022 respectively. '' Canada / Mexico / United States AFC member federations will be able to bid to host the 2026 World Cup only if none of the eligible candidates are able to fulfil the necessary criteria. OFC member federations do not face the same restriction, but it is not clear how joint bids involving both AFC and OFC countries would be received. UEFA member federations will be able to bid to host the 2026 World Cup only if none of the eligible candidates are able to fulfil the necessary criteria. FIFA has come in for criticism for the way Fox was awarded the rights: there was no tender process, the network receiving the rights in order to placate it regarding the move of the 2022 World Cup (which it has the rights to) from summer to winter time, during the last few weeks of the National Football League regular season. Due to the lack of a tender, FIFA lost revenue. According to the BBC 's sports editor Dan Roan, "As ever, it seemed, FIFA was looking after itself. ''

where was the treaty of guadalupe hidalgo signed

Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo - wikipedia The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo (Tratado de Guadalupe Hidalgo in Spanish), officially entitled the Treaty of Peace, Friendship, Limits and Settlement between the United States of America and the Mexican Republic, is the peace treaty signed on February 2, 1848, in the Villa de Guadalupe Hidalgo (now a neighborhood of Mexico City) between the United States and Mexico that ended the Mexican -- American War (1846 -- 48). The treaty came into force on July 4, 1848. With the defeat of its army and the fall of its capital, Mexico entered into negotiations to end the war. The treaty called for the U.S. to pay $15 million to Mexico and to pay off the claims of American citizens against Mexico up to $3.25 million. It gave the United States the Rio Grande as a boundary for Texas, and gave the U.S. ownership of California and a large area comprising roughly half of New Mexico, most of Arizona, Nevada, and Utah, and parts of Wyoming and Colorado. Mexicans in those annexed areas had the choice of relocating to within Mexico 's new boundaries or receiving American citizenship with full civil rights. The U.S. Senate advised and consented to ratification of the treaty by a vote of 38 -- 14. The opponents of this treaty were led by the Whigs, who had opposed the war and rejected Manifest destiny in general, and rejected this expansion in particular. The amount of land gained by the United States from Mexico was increased as a result of the Gadsden Purchase of 1853, which ceded parts of present - day southern Arizona and New Mexico to the United States. The peace talks were negotiated by Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the US State Department, who had accompanied General Winfield Scott as a diplomat and President Polk 's representative. Trist and General Scott, after two previous unsuccessful attempts to negotiate a treaty with General José Joaquín de Herrera, determined that the only way to deal with Mexico was as a conquered enemy. Nicholas Trist negotiated with a special commission representing the collapsed government led by Don José Bernardo Couto, Don Miguel de Atristain, and Don Luis Gonzaga Cuevas of Mexico. Although Mexico ceded Alta California and Santa Fe de Nuevo México, the text of the treaty did not list territories to be ceded, and avoided the disputed issues that were causes of war: the validity of the 1836 secession of the Republic of Texas, Texas 's unenforced boundary claims as far as the Rio Grande, and the 1845 annexation of Texas by the United States. Instead, Article V of the treaty simply described the new U.S. -- Mexico border. From east to west, the border consisted of the Rio Grande northwest from its mouth to the point Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico (roughly 32 degrees north), as shown in the Disturnell map, then due west from this point to the 110th meridian west, then north along the 110th Meridian to the Gila River and down the river to its mouth. Unlike the New Mexico segment of the boundary, which depended partly on unknown geography, "in order to preclude all difficulty in tracing upon the ground the limit separating Upper from Lower California '', a straight line was drawn from the mouth of the Gila to one marine league south of the southernmost point of the port of San Diego, slightly north of the previous Mexican provincial boundary at Playas de Rosarito. Comparing the boundary in the Adams -- Onís Treaty to the Guadalupe Hidalgo boundary, Mexico conceded about 55 % of its pre-war, pre-Texas territorial claims and now has an area of 1,972,550 km2 (761,606 sq mi). In the United States, the 1.36 million km2 (525,000 square miles) of the area between the Adams - Onis and Guadalupe Hidalgo boundaries outside the 1,007,935 km (389,166 sq mi) claimed by the Republic of Texas is known as the Mexican Cession. That is to say, the Mexican Cession is construed not to include any territory east of the Rio Grande, while the territorial claims of the Republic of Texas included no territory west of the Rio Grande. The Mexican Cession included essentially the entirety of the former Mexican territory of Alta California, but only the western portion of Santa Fe de Nuevo Mexico, and includes all of present - day California, Nevada and Utah, most of Arizona, and western portions of New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming. Articles VIII and IX ensured safety of existing property rights of Mexican citizens living in the transferred territories. Despite assurances to the contrary, the property rights of Mexican citizens were often not honored by the U.S. in accordance with modifications to and interpretations of the Treaty. The U.S. also agreed to assume $3.25 million (equivalent to $90.0 million today) in debts that Mexico owed to United States citizens. The residents had one year to choose whether they wanted American or Mexican citizenship; Over 90 % chose American citizenship. The others returned to Mexico (where they received land), or in some cases in New Mexico were allowed to remain in place as Mexican citizens. Article XII engaged the United States to pay, "In consideration of the extension acquired '', 15 million dollars (equivalent to $420 million today), in annual installments of 3 million dollars. Article XI of the treaty was important to Mexico. It provided that the United States would prevent and punish raids by Indians into Mexico, prohibited Americans from acquiring property, including livestock, taken by the Indians in those raids, and stated that the U.S. would return captives of the Indians to Mexico. Mexicans believed that the United States had encouraged and assisted the Comanche and Apache raids that had devastated northern Mexico in the years before the war. This article promised relief to them Article XI, however, proved unenforceable. Destructive Indian raids continued despite a heavy U.S. presence near the Mexican border. Mexico filed 366 claims with the U.S. government for damages done by Comanche and Apache raids between 1848 and 1853. In 1853, in the Treaty of Mesilla concluding the Gadsden Purchase, Article XI was annulled. The land that the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo brought into the United States became, between 1845 and 1912, all or part of ten states: California (1850), Nevada (1864), Utah (1896), and Arizona (1912), as well as the whole of, depending upon interpretation, the entire state of Texas (1845), which then included part of Kansas (1861); Colorado (1876); Wyoming (1890); Oklahoma (1907); and New Mexico (1912). The remainder (the southern parts) of New Mexico and Arizona were peacefully purchased under the Gadsden Purchase, which was carried out in 1853. In this purchase the United States paid an additional $10 million (equivalent to $290 million today), for land intended to accommodate a transcontinental railroad. However, the American Civil War delayed construction of such a route, and it was not until 1881 that the Southern Pacific Railroad finally was completed, fulfilling the purpose of the acquisition. Mexico had claimed the area in question since winning its independence from the Spanish Empire in 1821 following the Mexican War of Independence. The Spanish Empire had conquered part of the area from the American Indian tribes over the preceding three centuries, but there remained rather powerful and independent indigenous nations within that northern region of Mexico. Most of that land was too dry (low rainfall) and too mountainous or hilly to support very much population until the advent of new technology following about 1880: means for damming and distributing water from the few rivers to irrigated farmland; the telegraph; the railroad; the telephone; and electrical power. About 80,000 Mexicans lived in the areas of California, New Mexico, Arizona, and Texas during the period of 1845 to 1850, and far fewer in Nevada, in southern and western Colorado, and in Utah. On 1 March 1845, U.S. President John Tyler signed legislation to authorize the United States to annex the Republic of Texas, effective on 29 December 1845. The Mexican government, which had never recognized the Republic of Texas as an independent country, had warned that annexation would be viewed as an act of war. The United Kingdom and France, both of which recognized the independence of the Republic of Texas, repeatedly tried to dissuade Mexico from declaring war against its northern neighbor. British efforts to mediate the quandary proved fruitless -- in part because additional political disputes (particularly the Oregon boundary dispute) arose between Great Britain (as the sovereign of Canada) and the United States. Before the outbreak of hostilities, President James K. Polk sent his envoy, John Slidell, on 10 November 1845 to Mexico with instructions to offer Mexico around $5 million for the territory of Nuevo México and up to $40 million for Alta California. The Mexican government dismissed Slidell, refusing to even meet with him. Earlier in that year, Mexico had broken off diplomatic relations with the United States, based partly on its interpretation of the Adams -- Onís Treaty of 1819 (under which newly independent Mexico claimed it had inherited rights). In that agreement, the United States had supposedly "renounced forever '' all claims to Spanish territory. Neither side took any further action to avoid a war. Meanwhile, Polk settled a major territorial dispute with Britain with the Oregon Treaty, signed on 15 June 1846; this avoided a conflict with Great Britain, and hence gave the U.S. a free hand. After the Thornton Affair of 25 -- 26 April, when Mexican forces attacked an American unit in the disputed area with 11 Americans killed, 5 wounded and 49 captured, Congress passed and Polk signed a declaration of war into effect on 13 May 1846. The Mexican Congress responded with its war declaration on 7 July 1846. California and New Mexico were quickly occupied by American forces in the summer of 1846, and fighting there ended on 13 January 1847 with the signing of the "Capitulation Agreement '' at "Campo de Cahuenga '' and end of the Taos Revolt. By the middle of September 1847, U.S. forces had successfully invaded central Mexico and occupied Mexico City. Some Eastern Democrats called for complete annexation of Mexico and claimed that some Mexican liberals would welcome this, but President Polk 's State of the Union address in December 1847 upheld Mexican independence and argued at length that occupation and any further military operations in Mexico were aimed at securing a treaty ceding California and New Mexico up to approximately the 32nd parallel north and possibly Baja California and transit rights across the Isthmus of Tehuantepec. Despite its lengthy string of military defeats, the Mexican government was reluctant to agree to the loss of California and New Mexico. Even with its capital under enemy occupation, the Mexican government was inclined to consider factors such as the unwillingness of the U.S. administration to annex Mexico outright and what appeared to be deep divisions in domestic U.S. opinion regarding the war and its aims, which gave it reason to conclude that it was actually in a far better negotiating position than the military situation might have suggested. A further consideration was the Mexican government 's opposition to slavery and its awareness of the well - known and growing sectional divide in the U.S. over the issue of slavery. It therefore made sense for Mexico to negotiate with a goal of pandering to Northern U.S. interests at the expense of Southern U.S. interests. The Mexicans proposed peace terms that offered only sale of Alta California north of the 37th parallel north -- north of Santa Cruz, California and Madera, California and the southern boundaries of today 's Utah and Colorado. This territory was already dominated by Anglo - American settlers, but perhaps more importantly from the Mexican point of view, it represented the bulk of pre-war Mexican territory north of the Missouri Compromise line of parallel 36 ° 30 ′ north -- lands that, if annexed by the U.S., would have been presumed by Northerners to be forever free of slavery. The Mexicans also offered to recognize the U.S. annexation of Texas, but held to its demand of the Nueces River as a boundary. While the Mexican government could not reasonably have expected the Polk Administration to accept such terms, it would have had reason to hope that a rejection of peace terms so favorable to Northern interests might have the potential to provoke sectional conflict in the United States, or perhaps even a civil war that would fatally undermine the U.S. military position in Mexico. Instead, these terms combined with other Mexican demands (in particular, for various indemnities) only provoked widespread indignation throughout the U.S. without causing the sectional conflict the Mexicans were hoping for. Jefferson Davis advised Polk that if Mexico appointed commissioners to come to the U.S., the government that appointed them would probably be overthrown before they completed their mission, and they would likely be shot as traitors on their return; so that the only hope of peace was to have a U.S representative in Mexico. Nicholas Trist, chief clerk of the State Department under President Polk, finally negotiated a treaty with the Mexican delegation after ignoring his recall by President Polk in frustration with failure to secure a treaty. Notwithstanding that the treaty had been negotiated against his instructions, given its achievement of the major American aim, President Polk passed it on to the Senate. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo was signed by Nicholas Trist (on behalf of the U.S.) and Luis G. Cuevas, Bernardo Couto and Miguel Atristain as plenipotentiary representatives of Mexico on 2 February 1848, at the main altar of the old Basilica of Guadalupe at Villa Hidalgo (within the present city limits) as U.S. troops under the command of Gen. Winfield Scott were occupying Mexico City. The version of the treaty ratified by the United States Senate eliminated Article X, which stated that the U.S. government would honor and guarantee all land grants awarded in lands ceded to the U.S. to citizens of Spain and Mexico by those respective governments. Article VIII guaranteed that Mexicans who remained more than one year in the ceded lands would automatically become full - fledged United States citizens (or they could declare their intention of remaining Mexican citizens); however, the Senate modified Article IX, changing the first paragraph and excluding the last two. Among the changes was that Mexican citizens would "be admitted at the proper time (to be judged of by the Congress of the United States) '' instead of "admitted as soon as possible '', as negotiated between Trist and the Mexican delegation. An amendment by Jefferson Davis giving the U.S. most of Tamaulipas and Nuevo León, all of Coahuila and a large part of Chihuahua was supported by both senators from Texas (Sam Houston and Thomas Jefferson Rusk), Daniel S. Dickinson of New York, Stephen A. Douglas of Illinois, Edward A. Hannegan of Indiana, and one each from Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Ohio, Missouri and Tennessee. Most of the leaders of the Democratic party, Thomas Hart Benton, John C. Calhoun, Herschel V. Johnson, Lewis Cass, James Murray Mason of Virginia and Ambrose Hundley Sevier were opposed and the amendment was defeated 44 -- 11. An amendment by Whig Sen. George Edmund Badger of North Carolina to exclude New Mexico and California lost 35 -- 15, with three Southern Whigs voting with the Democrats. Daniel Webster was bitter that four New England senators made deciding votes for acquiring the new territories. A motion to insert into the treaty the Wilmot Proviso (banning slavery from the acquired territories) failed 15 -- 38 on sectional lines. The treaty was subsequently ratified by the U.S. Senate by a vote of 38 to 14 on 10 March 1848 and by Mexico through a legislative vote of 51 to 34 and a Senate vote of 33 to 4, on 19 May 1848. News that New Mexico 's legislative assembly had just passed an act for organization of a U.S. territorial government helped ease Mexican concern about abandoning the people of New Mexico. The treaty was formally proclaimed on 4 July 1848. On 30 May 1848, when the two countries exchanged ratifications of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, they further negotiated a three - article protocol to explain the amendments. The first article stated that the original Article IX of the treaty, although replaced by Article III of the Treaty of Louisiana, would still confer the rights delineated in Article IX. The second article confirmed the legitimacy of land grants pursuant to Mexican law. The protocol further noted that said explanations had been accepted by the Mexican Minister of Foreign Affairs on behalf of the Mexican Government, and was signed in Santiago de Querétaro by A.H. Sevier, Nathan Clifford and Luis de la Rosa. The U.S. would later go on to ignore the protocol on the grounds that the U.S. representatives had over-reached their authority in agreeing to it. The Treaty of Mesilla, which concluded the Gadsden purchase of 1854, had significant implications for the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article II of the treaty annulled article XI of the treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, and article IV further annulled articles VI and VII of Guadalupe Hidalgo. Article V however reaffirmed the property guarantees of Guadalupe Hidalgo, specifically those contained within articles VIII and IX. In addition to the sale of land, the treaty also provided for the recognition of the Rio Grande as the boundary between the state of Texas and Mexico. The land boundaries were established by a survey team of appointed Mexican and American representatives, and published in three volumes as The United States and Mexican Boundary Survey. On 30 December 1853, the countries by agreement altered the border from the initial one by increasing the number of border markers from 6 to 53. Most of these markers were simply piles of stones. Two later conventions, in 1882 and 1889, further clarified the boundaries, as some of the markers had been moved or destroyed. Photographers were brought in to document the location of the markers. These photographs are in Record Group 77, Records of the Office of the Chief Engineers, in the National Archives. The southern border of California was designated as a line from the junction of the Colorado and Gila rivers westward to the Pacific Ocean, so that it passes one Spanish league south of the southernmost portion of San Diego Bay. This was done to ensure that the United States received San Diego and its excellent natural harbor, without relying on potentially inaccurate designations by latitude. The treaty extended the choice of U.S. citizenship to Mexicans in the newly purchased territories, before many African Americans, Asians and Native Americans were eligible. If they chose to, they had to declare to the U.S. government within a year the Treaty was signed; otherwise, they could remain Mexican citizens, but they would have to relocate. Between 1850 and 1920, the U.S. Census counted most Mexicans as racially "white ''. Nonetheless, racially tinged tensions persisted in the era following annexation, reflected in such things as the Greaser Act in California, as tens of thousands of Mexican nationals suddenly found themselves living within the borders of the United States. Mexican communities remained segregated de facto from and also within other U.S. communities, continuing through the Mexican migration right up to the end of the 20th century throughout the Southwest. Community property rights in California are a legacy of the Mexican era. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo provided that the property rights of Mexican subjects would be kept inviolate. The early Californians felt compelled to continue the community property system regarding the earnings and accumulation of property during a marriage, and it became incorporated into the California constitution. Border disputes continued. The U.S. 's desire to expand its territory continued unabated and Mexico 's economic problems persisted, leading to the controversial Gadsden Purchase in 1854 and William Walker 's Republic of Lower California filibustering incident in that same year. The Channel Islands of California and Farallon Islands are not mentioned in the Treaty. The border was routinely crossed by the armed forces of both countries. Mexican and Confederate troops often clashed during the American Civil War, and the U.S. crossed the border during the war of French intervention in Mexico. In March 1916 Pancho Villa led a raid on the U.S. border town of Columbus, New Mexico, which was followed by the Pershing expedition. The shifting of the Rio Grande would much later cause a dispute over the boundary between purchase lands and those of the state of Texas, called the Country Club Dispute. Controversy over community land grant claims in New Mexico persists to this day. Disputes about whether to make all this new territory into free states or slave - holding states contributed heavily to the rise in North - South tensions that led to the American Civil War just over a decade later. The treaty was leaked to John Nugent before the U.S. Senate could approve it. Nugent published his article in the New York Herald and, afterward, was questioned by Senators. Nugent did not reveal his source. The Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo led to the establishment in 1889 of the International Boundary and Water Commission to maintain the border, and pursuant to newer treaties to allocate river waters between the two nations, and to provide for flood control and water sanitation. Once viewed as a model of international cooperation, in recent decades the IBWC has been heavily criticized as an institutional anachronism, by - passed by modern social, environmental and political issues.

where did the name black eyed susan come from

Rudbeckia hirta - wikipedia Rudbeckia hirta, commonly called black - eyed - Susan, is a North American flowering plant in the sunflower family, native to Eastern and Central North America and naturalized in the Western part of the continent as well as in China. It has now been found in all 10 Canadian Provinces and all 48 of the states in the contiguous United States. Rudbeckia hirta is one of a number of plants with the common name black - eyed Susan. Other common names for this plant include: brown - eyed Susan, brown betty, gloriosa daisy, golden Jerusalem, English bull 's eye, poor - land daisy, yellow daisy, and yellow ox - eye daisy. Rudbeckia hirta is the state flower of Maryland. The plant also is a traditional Native American medicinal herb in several tribal nations; believed in those cultures to be a remedy, among other things, for colds, flu, infection, swelling and (topically, by poultice) for snake bite (although not all parts of the plant are edible) Parts of the plant have nutritional value. Other parts are not edible. Rudbeckia hirta is an upright annual (sometimes biennial or perennial) growing 30 -- 100 cm (12 -- 39 in) tall by 30 -- 45 cm (12 -- 18 in) wide. It has alternate, mostly basal leaves 10 -- 18 cm long, covered by coarse hair, with stout branching stems and daisy - like, composite flower heads appearing in late summer and early autumn. In the species, the flowers are up to 10 cm (4 in) in diameter, with yellow ray florets circling conspicuous brown or black, dome - shaped cone of many small disc florets. However, extensive breeding has produced a range of sizes and colours, including oranges, reds and browns. The genus name honors Olaus Rudbeck, who was a professor of botany at the University of Uppsala in Sweden and was one of Linnaeus 's teachers. The specific epithet refers to the trichomes (hairs) occurring on leaves and stems. There are four varieties Rudbeckia hirta is widely cultivated in parks and gardens, for summer bedding schemes, borders, containers, wildflower gardens, prairie - style plantings and cut flowers. Numerous cultivars have been developed, of which ' Indian Summer ' and ' Toto ' have gained the Royal Horticultural Society 's Award of Garden Merit. Other popular cultivars include ' Double Gold ' and ' Marmalade '. Gloriosa daisies are tetraploid cultivars having much larger flower heads than the wild species, often doubled or with contrasting markings on the ray florets. They were first bred by Alfred Blakeslee of Smith College by applying colchicine to R. hirta seeds; Blakeslee 's stock was further developed by W. Atlee Burpee and introduced to commerce at the 1957 Philadelphia Flower Show. Gloriosa daisies are generally treated as annuals or short - lived perennials and are typically grown from seed, though there are some named cultivars. The black - eyed Susan which also traditionally symbolizes "Justice '' makes a very nice cut - flower with a vase life up to 10 days. In 1912, the black - eyed Susan became the inspiration for the University of Southern Mississippi school colors (black and gold), suggested by Florence Burrow Pope, a member of the university 's first graduating class. According to Pope: "On a trip home, I saw great masses of Black - Eyed Susans in the pine forests. I decided to encourage my senior class to gather Black - Eyed Susans to spell out the name of the class on sheets to be displayed during exercises on Class Day. I then suggested black and gold as class colors, and my suggestion was adopted. '' Juice from the roots has been used as drops for earaches. Inflorescence and involucral bracts Rudbeckia hirta ' Indian summer ' Rudbeckia hirta ' Indian summer ' Rudbeckia hirta in southern Maine Rudbeckia hirta Northern Crescent (Phyciodes cocyta) butterfly, Rideau River, Ottawa, Canada

what color was elsa's hair supposed to be

Elsa (Frozen) - Wikipedia Queen Elsa of Arendelle is a fictional character who appears in Walt Disney Pictures ' 53rd animated film Frozen. She is voiced primarily by Broadway actress and singer Idina Menzel. At the beginning of the film, she is voiced by Eva Bella as a young child and by Spencer Lacey Ganus as a teenager. Created by directors Chris Buck and Jennifer Lee, Elsa is loosely based on the title character of "The Snow Queen '', a Danish fairytale by Hans Christian Andersen. In the Disney film adaptation, she is introduced as the princess of the fictional Scandinavian kingdom of Arendelle, heiress to the throne and the elder sister of Princess Anna (Kristen Bell). Elsa has the magical ability to create and manipulate ice and snow. She inadvertently sends Arendelle into an eternal winter on the evening of her coronation. Throughout the film, she struggles first with controlling and concealing her abilities and then with liberating herself from her fears of unintentionally harming others, especially her younger sister. The Snow Queen character, neutral but cold - hearted in the original fairytale and villain in numerous adaptations of the character, proved difficult to adapt to film due to her transparent depiction. Several film executives, including Walt Disney, attempted to build on the character, and a number of scheduled film adaptions were shelved when they could not work out the character. Buck and his co-director, Jennifer Lee, were ultimately able to solve the dilemma by depicting Elsa and Anna as sisters. As much as Anna 's struggle is external, Elsa 's is internal. This led to Elsa being gradually rewritten as a sympathetic, misunderstood character. Elsa has received largely positive reception from reviewers, who praised her complex characterization and vulnerability. Menzel was also widely praised for her vocal performance of Elsa, especially that of her performance of the song "Let It Go '', with critics frequently calling her a "powerhouse ''. Attempts were made as early as 1937 by Walt Disney to adapt Hans Christian Andersen 's fairy tale, "The Snow Queen '', into a film. The tale focuses on two children, one named Gerda, who served as the basis for Princess Anna, and the other named Kai, who is "cursed with negativity '' after his heart is pierced with a shard of glass from an enchanted mirror and is later kidnapped by the Snow Queen. However, Disney struggled with creating a believable, multi-dimensional adaption of the fairy tale 's title character, who was intended to be a villain. In the story, she is described as "a woman, dressed in garments of white gauze, which looked like millions of starry snow - flakes linked together. She was fair and beautiful, but made of ice -- shining and glittering ice. Still she was alive and her eyes sparkled like bright stars, but there was neither peace nor rest in their glance. '' Disney was unable to find a way to make the Snow Queen more real and eventually abandoned film plans. Several film executives later made efforts towards the project, including Paul and Gaëtan Brizzi, Dick Zondag, Glen Keane, and Dave Goetz. In 2011, director Chris Buck began work on another attempted adaption and also faced challenges with the Snow Queen character. Producer Peter Del Vecho explained that this was primarily because she was not relatable and too isolated, having no personal connections. As a result, they could not explain her motivations. After several changes were proposed, someone on the writing team suggested making the Snow Queen Anna 's sister. "Once we realized that these characters could be siblings and have a relationship, everything changed, '' Del Vecho relayed. The Snow Queen, now given the name Elsa, continued to be cast as a villain, and Disney released the following synopsis for Frozen in May 2013: When Anna is cursed by her estranged sister, the cold - hearted Snow Queen, Anna 's only hope of reversing the curse is to survive a perilous but thrilling journey across an icy and unforgiving landscape. Joined by a rugged, thrill - seeking outdoorsman, his one - antlered reindeer and a hapless snowman, Anna must race against time, conquer the elements and battle an army of menacing snowmen if she ever hopes to melt her frozen heart. Earlier manuscripts included more antagonistic actions by Elsa, such as intentionally cursing Arendelle with an eternal winter. Additionally, she is shown creating an army of snowmen similar to the original Snow Queen 's army of snowflakes; the comedic character of Olaf was at the time written as a smaller snowman who was cast out by Elsa for being too unintimidating. Within two months, however, scripts were altered to give emphasis to her lack of control over her powers. Olaf was reduced to the only snowman created by Elsa, and he instead serves as a reminder of the sisters ' childhood friendship. In the final version, Elsa creates a single giant snow creature that Olaf nicknames "Marshmallow '' to act as a guard after being branded as a monster for her powers. According to director Jennifer Lee, the character ultimately became more of a composite of both Kai and the Snow Queen, enhancing her increasingly sympathetic portrayal. Del Vecho added, "There are times when Elsa does villainous things but because you understand where it comes from, from this desire to defend herself, you can always relate to her. '' Eva Bella and Spencer Lacey Ganus were cast to portray Elsa as a young child and as a teenager, respectively. Actress and singer Megan Mullally was originally cast to voice an adult Elsa. but was replaced by Idina Menzel, a Broadway actress and singer best known for performing as Elphaba in Wicked. Menzel already knew Kristen Bell, who voiced Anna, and had previously auditioned for a lead role in the 2010 Disney film Tangled. She was not cast for the part, but the casting director recorded her singing and later showed the recording to Frozen 's film executives. Menzel was surprised when she was subsequently asked to audition, and she received the role after reading the script out loud. In interviews, she acknowledged similarities between Elsa, her then - current role, and Elphaba, her previous role. Namely, she said, they were both very powerful and very misunderstood individuals. She further said that she related to the characters, having hidden her singing talent from her peers at school. "I did n't want to alienate anyone, '' she explained. "If everyone was singing along in the car to a Madonna song, I did n't join in because when we 're younger we 're afraid of sticking out or showing off, when in fact we should own those things that make us really unique. '' Director Chris Buck believed that Menzel 's vocals would help in the portrayal of the character, saying, "Idina has a sense of vulnerability in her voice. She plays a very strong character, but someone who lives in fear -- so we needed someone who could portray both sides of the character, and Idina was just amazing. '' Menzel was unaccustomed to working with animated films and being required to portray her character 's feelings with her voice alone, though she did not find it particularly challenging. While recording, she was able to "play '' with her voice, trying various tones to establish the ranges in Elsa 's emotions. For example, Menzel wanted there to be a difference between the ways she sounded when she was being bold and when she was angry. She would also physically restrict her hands from moving as she recorded the film 's early scenes in order to project how her character was "so afraid to move and feel anything that it would come out and hurt people ''. During production, Menzel and Jonathan Groff, who portrays Kristoff, went to the animation studio to explain to the animators how they were approaching their characters. Animators asked Menzel questions about her singing, observed how she breathed as she sang live, and made videorecordings of her recording sessions; they then animated Elsa 's breathing to match Menzel 's breathing, for further realism. Her voice supplied inspiration for Elsa 's most prominent song, "Let It Go ''. According to composer Robert Lopez, Menzel 's vocal range was able to clearly convey Elsa 's "low, vulnerable, fragile side '' as well as her power and self - realization. Menzel commented that it was "an honor '' to have the song and that she enjoyed recording it. "It 's a collision of a bunch of forces that are all coming together in the right way, '' she explained. "The character, what she is singing and what she is experiencing; beautiful lyrics, beautiful melody and a little bit of me. '' Buck and Lee were also surprised by how compatible Menzel and Kristen Bell 's voices were. At one point during a table read, they sang a ballad (later revealed as "Wind Beneath My Wings '') back and forth to one another with so much sentiment that it reportedly left everyone who was present with tears in their eyes. Subsequently, Lee wanted Menzel and Bell to be in the same room when they were recording the important emotional scenes of the film. All over the world, Elsa was dubbed in 46 languages. Dutch singer and actress Willemijn Verkaik dubbed Elsa in Dutch (both speaking and singing) and German (singing only), Spanish singer Gisela sang both for the Castilian Spanish and Catalan versions and French singer Anaïs Delva 's singing lines were also used in the Canadian French version. Both Anaïs Delva (French) and Jelena Gavrilović (Serbian) had originally auditioned for Anna 's role, but were eventually called back to dub Elsa instead. Just like Idina Menzel, four of Elsa 's dubbers also played the role of Elphaba in the Musical "Wicked '', that is: Maria Lucia Rosenberg (Danish), Willemijn Verkaik (Dutch and German), Mona Mor (Hebrew) and Hyena Park (ko) (Korean). Since 2013, some local TV stations have been dubbing the movie in their local languages, creating some unofficial dubs (namely: Albanian, Arabic TV, Karachay - Balkar, Persian and Tagalog). Following the casting of Idina Menzel, Elsa 's characterization underwent several alterations. According to Menzel, she was originally scripted as a one - dimensional antagonist but was gradually revised as a more vulnerable, multifaceted figure. Menzel further described her character as "extremely complicated and misunderstood ''. Director Jennifer Lee stated that Elsa is largely driven by fear throughout the film, while Menzel added that she was also struggling with her potential to be "a strong, powerful, extraordinary woman ''. Executive producer and animator John Lasseter became very "protective of Elsa '' and was adamant about portraying her in a more favorable, sympathetic light. Writer and director Jennifer Lee stated on Twitter that Elsa 's body language and mannerisms were "intentional to show anxiety and depression ''. In July 2013, Disney released images of the film 's main characters along with outlines of their roles in the story. Elsa received the following description: From the outside, Elsa looks poised, regal and reserved, but in reality, she lives in fear as she wrestles with a mighty secret -- she was born with the power to create ice and snow. It 's a beautiful ability, but also extremely dangerous. Haunted by the moment her magic nearly killed her younger sister Anna, Elsa has isolated herself, spending every waking minute trying to suppress her growing powers. Her mounting emotions trigger the magic, accidentally setting off an eternal winter that she ca n't stop. She fears she 's becoming a monster and that no one, not even her sister, can help her. Elsa 's supervising animator was Wayne Unten, who asked for that role because he was fascinated by her complexity. Unten carefully developed Elsa 's facial expressions in order to bring out her fear as contrasted against Anna 's fearlessness. For their work on designing and animating Elsa, Unten and three other Disney Animation employees later won an award for Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards: Joy Johnson, character technical director (rigging); Alexander Alvarado, look development artist (Disney 's job title for texture artists); and Chad Stubblefield, modeling supervisor. FX technical director Yoo Jae - hyun worked for a year - and - a-half on creating Elsa 's ice - based special effects, including effects associated with her dress. Producers identified the scene in which Elsa sings "Let It Go '' as a pivotal point in the character 's development. The scene depicts her choice to "let go '' of her fear of using her powers. Character design supervisor Bill Schwab said, "Before ' Let It Go ', Elsa is really buttoned up, her hair is up -- everything is perfect. During the song, she gives herself permission to be who she is and everything changes -- her hair is more wild, her gown is magical. She 's finally free -- even if she is all alone. '' Animators designed Elsa 's appearance to reflect her metamorphosis; in the beginning, she is shown primarily in restrictive and confining outfits. Menzel said that, after accepting her abilities, Elsa 's appearance becomes "very vampy '', continuing, "She 's quite sexy for Disney, I have to say -- they 're pushing the limits there a little bit! But there 's a gleam in her eye and a supermodel walk that goes with it and, for me, it was fun to be a blonde because I 'm not in real life. '' In a January 2014 interview with John August and Aline Brosh McKenna, Lee disclosed that Lasseter personally helped with conceptualizing Elsa 's physical transformation: "(M) y favorite thing about it... is the actual model for doing it was John Lasseter... he was a huge help in talking through how we translate that emotional journey... with the animation... (H) e got up and he 's like,... ' her hair goes, and she transforms, and she struts, ' and he 's doing it. He 's acting it out. '' The scene was also a pivotal point in the development of Elsa 's character and was initially planned to depict her becoming evil. Robert Lopez, who composed the song with his wife, Kristen Anderson - Lopez, explained, "Elsa was going to go from being this perfect princess that had tried to keep her personality down her whole life to saying, ' Screw it. I 'm gon na be me. ' '' They had wanted to use the song as a way to gain a better understanding of the character and what she would be like if she was no longer living in fear, which ultimately resulted in her becoming much more complex. The final lyrics and Menzel 's "ability to be so fragile and vulnerable and then break into this powerhouse voice '' turned the plot around and led to Elsa being revised as a "good '' character. She initially attempts to suppress her powers in order to avoid hurting others, particularly Anna, and when she is no longer able to do so, she banishes herself from the kingdom to protect those around her. Lead writer Paul Briggs said that Anna 's support is what Elsa needs most when her secret is exposed. "The strength of the family bond is what makes this story so powerful, '' he explained, "because it 's her sibling who 's willing to look beyond her powers and stand between her and the world if that 's what it takes. '' Elsa 's appearance had to be redesigned following her transition from antagonist to protagonist. She was originally drawn in a style similar to other Disney villains, with blue skin and spiky black hair. A few months after the film 's release, visual development artist Claire Keane (the daughter of Disney Legend Glen Keane) published early concept art of Elsa that was modeled after the singer Amy Winehouse. At the time, she was imagined as having blue "bouffant '' hair as well as "a deep, soulful voice and dramatic mood swings ''. Lasseter reportedly influenced the creation of the character 's much softer final appearance, particularly in regards to her very thick platinum blonde hair, which animators found difficult to design. Art director Michael Giaimo said that while a number of strategies were proposed for Elsa 's hair, Lasseter would push the animation team to continue making improvements, saying, "It 's not aspirational enough. We want people to feel like this hair is a beautiful statement. '' During a research trip, producers found that "there are lots of braids '' worn by women in Norway; they then hired a stylist from New York named "Danilo '' who helped to create a style that would reflect that while still being "a little different ''. A new animation program called Tonic was invented to assist with the task, and the character 's hair ultimately required 420,000 CGI threads. By contrast, Anna was given roughly 140,000 hairs while Rapunzel from Tangled had only required 27,000 CGI threads for her hair. Since Elsa is introduced as a young child at the beginning of the film, animators wanted the first glimpse of her powers to reflect her innocent and fanciful state of mind at the time. This included giving her first snowflakes a simple design. Her snow and ice patterns later become more intricate and complex when she is an adult. Co-effects supervisor Marlon West elaborated, "When Elsa finally lets go and really starts owning her cryokinetic abilities, we wanted the ice and snow that she make to get across the idea that Elsa has now grown up and become this beautiful, elegant, confident and powerful young woman. '' Her ice castle, which she creates while singing "Let It Go '', was designed to illustrate the maturing of her powers as well as to be "a manifestation of her feelings to the world ''. The palace is initially beautiful; however, after she is made aware of the destruction she has inadvertently caused, and as she is increasingly vilified and hunted by others, it becomes darker and more distorted, with jagged icicles forming on the walls. The film 's design team was uncertain about how it should look and drew out designs for various ice castles filled with snow. Lasseter suggested basing the structure and patterns on snowflakes. For example, an enormous snowflake would serve as the foundation, and the palace would be hexagon - shaped. Lasseter also wanted snowflake patterns to influence the manner in which Elsa creates the palace. "Snowflakes are these tiny little ice crystals that form in mid-air. And when there are changes in temperature and humidity, these snowflakes start growing in a pattern that 's known as branching and plating, '' said co-effects supervisor Dale Mayeda. "(Lasseter) said ' You know, when Elsa builds her ice palace, it would be so amazing if -- every step of the way as this castle forms out of thin air -- it 's just branching and plating, branching and plating all along the way. '' Fifty animators worked on the scene in which the castle is built, and one frame required 30 hours to render. They later extended similar techniques to Elsa 's clothing. While the traditional Norwegian rosemaling was the inspiration for her costuming early in the film, her ice gown was designed similarly to her palace, with snowflakes heavily influencing the style. Her cape itself is a large snowflake. Elsa, princess of Arendelle and heiress to the throne, is born with the ability to create and control ice and snow. As a child, she uses her abilities to create a winter wonderland to play in with her younger sister and best friend, Princess Anna. One night, Elsa accidentally harms Anna with her powers. The king and queen of Arendelle hurriedly take Anna to a tribe of mountain trolls to be healed. While healing Anna, the trolls inform the royals present that Elsa 's abilities will grow, becoming both beautiful and very dangerous so she must learn to control them. While the trolls erase Anna 's memory of the incident and of her elder sister 's powers in general, Elsa is traumatized by the event. The king and queen take steps to control and hide Elsa 's ice powers: the castle gates are locked, Elsa is shut away in her bedroom for most of the time, she is given gloves to help suppress her powers and is told to hold in her emotions as well. Nonetheless her powers continue to grow even stronger and so she becomes fearful of harming those she cares about most. Meanwhile, her sister Anna is less happy and confused by the loss of contact with her elder sister and tries, without success, to coax her out of her room. When the sisters grow into teenagers, the ship in which the king and queen are sailing is capsized in a storm and they drown, leaving Anna and Elsa feeling even more lonely. Three years pass, and Elsa, now of age, is set to formally succeed her father as the monarch of Arendelle. Though she is afraid of opening the castle to the large crowds, her coronation goes on relatively peacefully. However, at the reception party, Anna asks for Elsa 's blessing to marry Prince Hans of the Southern Isles, whom Anna had met earlier that day. Elsa refuses to bless Hans 's offer to marry Anna; he is someone she barely knows, prompting an argument between the two. Being so upset Elsa accidentally reveals her power. Upon the guests ' and her subjects ' horror and being accused of sorcery and called a monster, Elsa flees the castle and retreats into the icy mountains. In the process, her emotions unleash an "eternal '' winter throughout Arendelle. While there, she decides to embrace, finally, all her powers and builds an enormous ice palace where she believes she can live freely without fear of hurting people. She also rebuilds her childhood snowman, Olaf, and unknowingly brings him to life. Anna, determined to find Elsa and bring her back, travels through the mountains, encountering Olaf and a mountain man named Kristoff. They reach the ice palace, where Anna attempts to persuade Elsa to return home and mend their relationship. When Elsa ultimately resists (due to her memory of hurting Anna as a child with her powers resurfacing) Anna tells her about the state that Arendelle and all its people was left in. Horrified, Elsa lashes out and accidentally freezes Anna 's heart. Now even more horrified at the prospect of hurting her sister and people with her powers, Elsa forces Anna, Kristoff and Olaf out by creating a gigantic snow creature (called Marshmallow by Olaf), that is a symbol of her desire to be alone so as to be able to use her powers without hurting anyone. After this, her ice castle evidently becomes darker and more grotesque, reflecting her torment and re-ignited fears. Meanwhile, Anna becomes weaker day by day and Kristoff takes her back to the trolls, who tell them that only an "act of true love '' can save her life. Hans and a group of soldiers attack the now ugly ice palace. Elsa seizes two soldiers who attempt to assassinate her. Hans convinces her to spare them to prove that she is not a monster. However, she is knocked unconscious and taken to her castle 's dungeon. Hans visits her and urges her to end the winter; Elsa admits that she has no idea how to do so. After he leaves, she is able to break free from the chains by freezing them and escapes the cell, though her fears trigger a massive blizzard. Anna returns to the castle, believing that a romantic kiss from Hans will be the "act of true love '' to save her. Instead, he informs her that his offer of marriage (engagement) had been the first step of a plot to get him the throne of Arendelle. Olaf tells Anna that Kristoff is in love with her and she believes that his kiss will cure her. They rush to find Kristoff. Hans confronts Elsa and tells her that she has killed Anna. Devastated, Elsa collapses and the blizzard stops suddenly. Hans approaches her and swings his sword to kill her, but Anna turns away from an approaching Kristoff with her last bit of strength and blocks Hans ' attack as she freezes solid. Moments later, Anna begins to thaw, as her choice to save her sister rather than herself constituted the necessary "act of true love ''. Elsa realizes that love is the key to controlling her powers and is able to end the kingdom 's eternal winter. Summer returns to Arendelle, Elsa regains the throne and is able to use and safely control her powers, while the sisters ' bond is restored. She exiles Hans back to the Southern Isles to face punishment from his family and cuts off trade with the Duke of Weselton 's town for his earlier behavior towards her. Nearly a year after the events of the first film, Elsa tries to make Anna 's 19th birthday as perfect as possible a way of making up for the years they spent apart. To do so, she works heavily with Kristoff, Sven and Olaf to make this a reality. Upon making sure that her surprise party in the palace courtyard is ready, she leaves Kristoff in charge while she goes to get Anna. However, Elsa starts to come down with a cold as she leads Anna on a treasure hunt to find all the gifts that have been made for her. Without realizing it, each sneeze she makes creates small snowmen called "snowgies '', which create trouble for Kristoff, Sven and Olaf. As Anna notices Elsa 's cold getting worse, she tries in vain to get Elsa to stop exerting herself, even taking medicine from Oaken in case Elsa gets sicker. Unfortunately, Elsa 's cold cause her to become very tired and behave in a seemingly intoxicated - like manner, and she nearly falls from Arendelle 's clock tower only for Anna to save her. Upon finally admitting to Anna that she is indeed sick after the previous incident, she allows Anna to escort her home feeling she has ruined everything, and finds that the party has gone off successfully for Anna (as well as discovering her snowgie creations), and still slightly intoxicated, she ends the party by accidentally sneezing into the birthday bugle horn, which inadvertently sends a gigantic snowball all the way to the Southern Isles and hits the now - demoted Hans, causing him to fall into a pile of horse manure. Afterwards, Anna tells a now bed - ridden Elsa that she has given her the best birthday ever by letting her take care of her. Elsa appeared in a 21 - minute holiday film along with Anna, Kristoff, Sven, and Olaf, which debuted in theaters for a limited time engagement with Disney Pixar 's Coco on November 22, 2017. It made its television debut on ABC on December 14, 2017. In December 2013, Disney began releasing "Musical Magic Elsa and Anna Dolls '', which played their signature songs that appear in the film. Numerous other doll versions of Elsa were released for purchase, including fashion doll sets, mini dolls, plush dolls, and Elsa - as - a-toddler dolls. A dress up costume for children was modeled after Elsa 's ice gown along with gloves similar to ones she wears in the film. Together with Anna, she was depicted on various Frozen - inspired dishware such as plates and coffee mugs. Other Elsa - inspired merchandise includes luggage, nightgowns, and home décor. Additionally, simplified versions of the film were adapted to children 's storybooks, including one with voice audio and another called A Sister More Like Me that was illustrated by Brittney Lee. Elsa and Anna also both appear as playable characters in Disney Infinity through the use of their corresponding figurines. In early 2014, most Frozen merchandise, including dolls and dresses, were sold out nearly everywhere, including Disney stores and theme parks. In early November 2014, Disney announced that it had sold over three million Frozen costumes in North America alone, of which Elsa was the no. 1 best - selling Disney costume of all time, followed by Anna at no. 2. Hallmark created a Queen Elsa Christmas tree ornament after much interest was expressed when the Olaf ornament was announced in 2014. In November, before the release of Frozen, Anna and Elsa began making appearances at Walt Disney Parks and Resorts in Florida and California through meet and greets. In Walt Disney World, the attractions were set up in the Norway Pavilion of Epcot in recognition of the Scandinavian cultural elements that went into the film 's design. In Disneyland, a winter - themed cottage was set up in the Fantasyland section, with a talking audio - animatronic Olaf sitting on the cottage roof. In February 2014, these meet - and - greet sessions were extended indefinitely, with wait time to meet the princesses frequently exceeding two hours, which is longer than any previous Disney characters. Additionally, Elsa, Anna, and Olaf were given a Frozen - themed float for Disneyland Paris ' Disney Magic on Parade. On March 9, 2014, the three made appearances again on their own Frozen parade float in Festival of Fantasy Parade at Magic Kingdom theme park. On April 20, 2014, Anna and Elsa moved from Epcot to the Princess Fairytale Hall at Magic Kingdom, with wait time to see the characters amounted to three hours, compared to Cinderella 's and Rapunzel 's 15 minutes. Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' became the central feature in Disney California Adventure 's Winter Dreams, a 30 - minute, winter - themed adaption of the nighttime show World of Color, which showcases scenes from Disney films. Disneyland Paris ' nighttime spectacular, Disney Dreams!, also added Elsa 's performance of "Let It Go '' to their attractions, and she was given a similar role during the Magic Kingdom show, Celebrate the Magic, with her singing interspersed with scenes from the movie. On May 16, 2014, it was announced that Disneyland would debut a Frozen pre-parade featuring Elsa, Anna and Olaf. It premiered June 13, 2014, and preceded performances of Mickey 's Soundsational Parade. From July 5 to September 1, 2014, as part of ' Frozen ' Summer Fun show at Disney 's Hollywood Studios, Anna and Elsa will appear in a horse - drawn sleigh making their way down Hollywood Boulevard, alongside Kristoff and skaters, skiers and ice cutters in the Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome section. The sisters also made appearances in For the First Time in Forever: A "Frozen '' Sing - Along Celebration, where they were joined by royal historians to retell the history of Arendelle; and "Frozen '' Fireworks Spectacular alongside Kristoff and Olaf, a fireworks display set to the music of Frozen. In response to strong demand, Disney Parks subsequently announced on August 7 that Frozen Summer Fun would be extended to September 28. On August 19, 2014, it was initially announced that Elsa & Anna 's Boutique (replacing Studio Disney 365) would open mid-September in Downtown Disney at the Disneyland Resort. The opening date was later changed to October 6, 2014, and the store name was changed to "Anna & Elsa 's Boutique ''. The location includes products inspired by Anna, Elsa, and Olaf. While there had not been any official announcements from Disney regarding a coronation for Anna and Elsa, it had been announced in late August 2014 that a special character meal would be held by a group of travel agents in the morning of September 24, 2014. While not officially organized by Disney, the event, called My Royal Coronation, would feature the official Anna and Elsa characters owned by Disney with assistance from the company. On September 12, 2014, Walt Disney World announced that a Frozen attraction was scheduled to open in early 2016 at Epcot 's World Showcase in the Norway pavilion, replacing the park 's Maelstrom ride. The attraction features the kingdom of Arendelle with music and scenes from the film, as well as meet - and - greets with Anna and Elsa. Anna, Elsa, Kristoff, and Olaf will make appearances in Mickey 's Once Upon a Christmastime Parade, offered during Mickey 's Very Merry Christmas Party at Magic Kingdom in November and December 2014 (from November 7 to December 31). Also starting from November, every night Elsa will use her powers to transform Cinderella Castle into an ice palace. On November 13, 2014, prior to "A Sparkling Christmas '' Evert, Anna and Elsa began meet - and - greet sessions at Hong Kong Disneyland. Beginning December 20, 2014, the Anna and Elsa meet and greet at Disneyland Resort was moved from Disneyland park to a new location in the Disney Animation Building called "Anna and Elsa 's Royal Welcome '' in Disney California Adventure. In addition, the Storybook Land Canal Boats at Disneyland were updated to include the village of Arendelle from the film, including Anna and Elsa 's castle and Elsa 's ice palace. Officially starting January 7, 2015, Elsa began making appearances alongside Anna and Kristoff at Disney California Adventure in "For the First Time in Forever -- A Frozen Sing - Along Celebration '' in Hollywood Land as part of the park 's "Frozen Fun '' event. Also starting January 7, Anna and Elsa made appearances in a Frozen play at the Royal Theatre in Disneyland park. Beginning May 22, 2015, Disneyland debuted a new nighttime parade called "Paint the Night '', which includes a Frozen float featuring Anna, Elsa, and Olaf, as part of the park 's 60th anniversary celebration. Elsa has become very popular in the cosplaying community. Cosplayer Anna Faith is well known for cosplaying as Elsa at charities, comic - cons, and other events. Caissie Levy originated the role of Elsa in the Broadway musical, which opened in March 2018. The character of Elsa was widely praised by reviewers for her multifaceted, evolving personality. Matt Goldberg of Collider.com commented that she was "an incredibly sympathetic character '', while Deepanjana Pal of First Post (India) praised the decision to rewrite her as a protagonist and said, "Elsa is no evil, frosty vision of twisted and toxic maternity like the original Snow Queen. She 's a young woman in difficult circumstances, frightened, trying to understand her abilities and burdened by expectation and convention. It 's easy to sympathise with her and marvel at her ability when she builds her spectacular palace in the mountains. Next to her, Anna is very much a child who needs to grow up and she does in the course of the film. '' Stuff.co.nz 's James Croot compared her "humiliation and exile '' to that of Simba in The Lion King. Katherine Webb, a reviewer for Wall St. Cheat Sheet, said that the scenes depicting Elsa gaining confidence and individuality delivered "an exciting message to send to young girls looking for a new princess role model ''. Gary Wright of Rotoscopers state "Her mental anguish and uncontrollable powers define modern feminism. Elsa represents the boundless female spirit - strong and graceful, with the power to change the world. '' Travis Bean of Cedar Falls Times suggested that Elsa 's ice powers, a "personal oddity '' that made her self - conscious, as well as her selflessness in withdrawing into isolation in order to avoid hurting others allowed children to connect more with the plot of Frozen. Laurie Levy from Chicago Now wrote that her young grandchildren "admired Elsa for being smart, strong, magical, and powerful '' and did not care that she had no romantic subplot. Magdalena Lachowicz, a film critic for The Heights, opined that Elsa 's relationship with Anna was the most important part of the movie, and Stephen Holden of The New York Times liked that, in departure from traditional Disney formula, it was a sibling 's love rather than romantic love that was able to "thaw the icy heart of the frightened Elsa ''. Tony Hicks of San Jose Mercury News wrote, "(Anna 's) confusion and Elsa 's anguish as she shuts herself away from the world -- and her sister -- is palatable. '' Emma Koonse of Christian Post opined that together the sisters were Disney 's "most lovable and charismatic characters yet '', and Debbie Lynn Elias of Culver City Observer commented, "Elsa and Anna are like two sides of a coin, both strong, albeit one through power and confidence and the other through clumsy sticktuitiveness and love. '' Several reviewers commented that Elsa was more interesting than Anna, Frozen 's primary protagonist. ABS - CBN writer Fred Hawson described Elsa as "an incredible character with a unique and interesting predicament because of the powers she possessed '' and expressed the opinion that Frozen should have focused more on her rather than Anna. Samra Muslim of The Express Tribune wrote that it was her presence that kept viewers "hooked '' throughout the movie, elaborating, "Her character is complex and sympathetic and deserved to be explored even further. Instead the story revolves more around the relationship of the two sisters and Anna who is the typical, feisty, charming Disney heroine and her love trysts -- instead of the alluring Elsa. '' The character was not devoid of criticism. Charlotte O'Sullivan from the London Evening Standard gave a more negative assessment of Elsa, saying that she "resembles one of those brittle mentors on The X Factor. Purple eyeshadow, tiny waist, kitten heels ''. Anna Smith of The Guardian disliked that both Elsa and Anna were drawn with slender figures and large eyes as is typical of Disney princesses. Slate 's Dana Stevens wrote that "it 's impossible not to thrill to Elsa 's surging sense of power '' but criticized the choice to illustrate her growing confidence by changing her appearance; Stevens further expressed concern that the switch from the character 's modest coronation gown to "a slinky, slit - to - the - thigh dress with a transparent snowflake - patterned train and a pair of silver - white high heels '' and a hairstyle that suggested "come - hither bad - girl seduction '' was overly sexual. Christy Lemire compared Elsa to Carrie White, another well - known fictional female who unleashes magical powers when agitated. Idina Menzel also received praise for her singing, with Amon Warmann of Cine Vue saying her voice "positively soars in these musical ballads ''. Reviewers frequently focused on her performance of "Let It Go '', described by Entertainment Weekly 's Marc Snetiker as "an incredible anthem of liberation '' in which Elsa decides to no longer fear her powers. Various critics said that Menzel had been a "powerhouse '' during the scene; Linda Barnard from The Star commented that Menzel "can shatter icicles with her powerful voice ''. Matt DeTruck of The Rochester City Newspaper wrote, "Menzel should be credited for providing as much power and passion to this performance as she did in her most famous role. '' Donald Clark of Irish Times added, "Elsa 's flight to the glaciers triggers a song that, in its defiant paean to self - reliance, could play comfortably beside camp showtune anthems such as I Am What I Am and Do n't Rain on My Parade. The opening and closing choruses of Let It Go end with a sly, spat - out refrain: ' The cold never bothered me anyway! ' You go, girl. '' Nasim Asl of The Oxford Student continued, "Menzel, especially, steals the show with her performance of ' Let It Go '. Her Wicked-esque belting out works perfectly with such an incredible animated sequence -- the building of the ice castle really demonstrates the prowess of Disney animation, and results in, arguably, one of the most spectacular power ballads seen by any animated character, ever. '' In December 2013, Elsa and Anna were both nominated for Best Animated Female by the Alliance of Women Film Journalists, with only Anna winning the award, a few weeks later. Elsa won all three awards out of three nominations at the 2013 Visual Effects Society Awards, including Outstanding Animated Character in an Animated Feature Motion Picture, Outstanding Created Environment in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her ice palace, and Outstanding FX and Simulation Animation in an Animated Feature Motion Picture for her blizzard. Her signature song, "Let It Go '', won Best Original Song at the Academy Awards,, a Grammy Award, the Phoenix Film Critics Society Awards and the Critics ' Choice Awards, and also received Golden Globe Award, the Satellite Awards, the Broadcast Film Critics Association Award, and the Houston Film Critics Society Award nominations. Time ranked Elsa as the most influential fictional character of 2014. Media related to Elsa (Frozen) at Wikimedia Commons

who inspired berlioz to compose his symphonie fantastique

Symphonie fantastique - wikipedia Symphonie fantastique: Épisode de la vie d'un artiste... en cinq parties (Fantastical Symphony: An Episode in the Life of an Artist, in Five Parts) Op. 14, is a program symphony written by the French composer Hector Berlioz in 1830. It is an important piece of the early Romantic period. The first performance was at the Paris Conservatoire on 5 December 1830. Franz Liszt made a piano transcription of the symphony in 1833 (S. 470). Leonard Bernstein described the symphony as the first musical expedition into psychedelia because of its hallucinatory and dream - like nature, and because history suggests Berlioz composed at least a portion of it under the influence of opium. According to Bernstein, "Berlioz tells it like it is. You take a trip, you wind up screaming at your own funeral. '' In 1831, Berlioz wrote a lesser known sequel to the work, Lélio, for actor, orchestra and chorus. The score calls for a total of over 90 instruments: Berlioz specified at least 15 1st violins, 15 2nd violins, 10 violas, 11 celli and 9 basses on the score. The symphony is a piece of program music that tells the story of an artist gifted with a lively imagination who has poisoned himself with opium in the depths of despair because of hopeless, unrequited love. Berlioz provided his own preface and program notes for each movement of the work. They exist in two principal versions -- one from 1845 in the first score of the work and the second from 1855. From the revised preface and notes, it can be seen how Berlioz, later in his life, downplayed the programmatic aspect of the work. In the first score from 1845, he writes: The composer 's intention has been to develop various episodes in the life of an artist, in so far as they lend themselves to musical treatment. As the work can not rely on the assistance of speech, the plan of the instrumental drama needs to be set out in advance. The following programme must therefore be considered as the spoken text of an opera, which serves to introduce musical movements and to motivate their character and expression. In the 1855 preface, a different outlook towards the work 's programmatic undertones is established by Berlioz: The following programme should be distributed to the audience every time the Symphonie fantastique is performed dramatically and thus followed by the monodrama of Lélio which concludes and completes the episode in the life of an artist. In this case the invisible orchestra is placed on the stage of a theatre behind the lowered curtain. If the symphony is performed on its own as a concert piece this arrangement is no longer necessary: one may even dispense with distributing the programme and keep only the title of the five movements. The author hopes that the symphony provides on its own sufficient musical interest independently of any dramatic intention. There are five movements instead of four that were conventional for symphonies at the time: In program notes from 1845, the composer writes: The author imagines that a young musician, afflicted by the sickness of spirit which a famous writer has called the vagueness of passions (le vague des passions), sees for the first time a woman who unites all the charms of the ideal person his imagination was dreaming of, and falls desperately in love with her. By a strange anomaly, the beloved image never presents itself to the artist 's mind without being associated with a musical idea, in which he recognizes a certain quality of passion, but endowed with the nobility and shyness which he credits to the object of his love. This melodic image and its model keep haunting him ceaselessly like a double idée fixe. This explains the constant recurrence in all the movements of the symphony of the melody which launches the first allegro. The transitions from this state of dreamy melancholy, interrupted by occasional upsurges of aimless joy, to delirious passion, with its outbursts of fury and jealousy, its returns of tenderness, its tears, its religious consolations -- all this forms the subject of the first movement. Berlioz writes in the program notes from 1855: He remembers first the uneasiness of spirit, the indefinable passion, the melancholy, the aimless joys he felt even before seeing his beloved; then the explosive love she suddenly inspired in him, his delirious anguish, his fits of jealous fury, his returns of tenderness, his religious consolations. The first movement is radical in its harmonic outline, building a vast arch back to the home key; while similar to the sonata form of the classical period, Parisian critics regarded this as unconventional. It is here that the listener is introduced to the theme of the artist 's beloved, or the idée fixe. Throughout the movement there is a simplicity in the way melodies and themes are presented, which Robert Schumann likened to Beethoven 's epigrams ' ideas that could be extended had the composer chosen to. In part, it is because Berlioz rejected writing the more symmetrical melodies then in academic fashion, and instead looked for melodies that were "so intense in every note as to defy normal harmonization '', as Schumann put it. The theme itself was taken from Berlioz 's scène lyrique "Herminie '', composed in 1828. In the first edition of the score from 1845, he writes: The artist finds himself in the most diverse situations in life, in the tumult of a festive party, in the peaceful contemplation of the beautiful sights of nature, yet everywhere, whether in town or in the countryside, the beloved image keeps haunting him and throws his spirit into confusion. The revised program notes from 1855 state: He meets again his beloved in a ball during a glittering fête. The second movement has a mysterious - sounding introduction that creates an atmosphere of impending excitement, followed by a passage dominated by two harps; then the flowing waltz theme appears, derived from the idée fixe at first, then transforming it. More formal statements of the idée fixe twice interrupt the waltz. The movement is the only one to feature the two harps, providing the glamour and sensual richness of the ball, and may also symbolize the object of the young man 's affection. Berlioz wrote extensively in his memoirs of his trials and tribulations in having this symphony performed, due to a lack of capable harpists and harps, especially in Germany. Another feature of this movement is that Berlioz added a part for solo cornet to his autograph score, although it was not included in the score published in his lifetime. The work has most often been played and recorded without the solo cornet part. Conductors Jean Martinon, Colin Davis, Otto Klemperer, Gustavo Dudamel and Leonard Slatkin have employed this part for cornet in performances of the symphony. Berlioz 's program notes from the first score: One evening in the countryside he hears two shepherds in the distance dialoguing with their ranz des vaches; this pastoral duet, the setting, the gentle rustling of the trees in the wind, some causes for hope that he has recently conceived, all conspire to restore to his heart an unaccustomed feeling of calm and to give to his thoughts a happier colouring. He broods on his loneliness, and hopes that soon he will no longer be on his own... But what if she betrayed him!... This mingled hope and fear, these ideas of happiness, disturbed by dark premonitions, form the subject of the adagio. At the end one of the shepherds resumes his ranz des vaches; the other one no longer answers. Distant sound of thunder... solitude... silence. In the 1855 program notes, Berlioz writes: One summer evening in the countryside he hears two shepherds dialoguing with their ranz des vaches; this pastoral duet, the setting, the gentle rustling of the trees in the light wind, some causes for hope that he has recently conceived, all conspire to restore to his heart an unaccustomed feeling of calm and to give to his thoughts a happier colouring; but she reappears, he feels a pang of anguish, and painful thoughts disturb him: what if she betrayed him... One of the shepherds resumes his simple melody, the other one no longer answers. The sun sets... distant sound of thunder... solitude... silence... The two "shepherds '' Berlioz mentions in the notes are depicted with a cor anglais and an offstage oboe tossing an evocative melody back and forth. After the cor anglais -- oboe conversation, the principal theme of the movement appears on solo flute and violins. Berlioz salvaged this theme from his abandoned Messe solennelle. The idée fixe returns in the middle of the movement, played by oboe and flute. The sound of distant thunder at the end of the movement is a striking passage for four timpani. From Berlioz 's program notes in 1845: Convinced that his love is spurned, the artist poisons himself with opium. The dose of narcotic, while too weak to cause his death, plunges him into a heavy sleep accompanied by the strangest of visions. He dreams that he has killed his beloved, that he is condemned, led to the scaffold and is witnessing his own execution. The procession advances to the sound of a march that is sometimes sombre and wild, and sometimes brilliant and solemn, in which a dull sound of heavy footsteps follows without transition the loudest outbursts. At the end of the march, the first four bars of the idée fixe reappear like a final thought of love interrupted by the fatal blow. Description of the movement by Berlioz in 1855: He dreams that he has killed his beloved, that he is condemned to death and led to execution. The procession advances to the sound of a march that is sometimes sombre and wild, and sometimes brilliant and solemn, in which a dull sound of heavy footsteps follows without transition the loudest outbursts. At the end, the idée fixe reappears for a moment like a final thought of love interrupted by the fatal blow. Berlioz claimed to have written the fourth movement in a single night, reconstructing music from an unfinished project -- the opera Les francs - juges. The movement begins with timpani sextuplets in thirds, for which he directs: "The first quaver of each half - bar is to be played with two drumsticks, and the other five with the right hand drumsticks ''. The movement proceeds as a march filled with blaring horns and rushing passages, and scurrying figures that later show up in the last movement. Before the musical depiction of his execution, there is a brief, nostalgic recollection of the idée fixe in a solo clarinet, as though representing the last conscious thought of the soon - to - be-executed man. In both the program notes, Berlioz wrote: He sees himself at a witches ' sabbath, in the midst of a hideous gathering of shades, sorcerers and monsters of every kind who have come together for his funeral. Strange sounds, groans, outbursts of laughter; distant shouts which seem to be answered by more shouts. The beloved melody appears once more, but has now lost its noble and shy character; it is now no more than a vulgar dance tune, trivial and grotesque: it is she who is coming to the sabbath... Roar of delight at her arrival... She joins the diabolical orgy... The funeral knell tolls, burlesque parody of the Dies irae, the dance of the witches. The dance of the witches combined with the Dies irae. This movement can be divided into sections according to tempo changes: There are a host of effects, including eerie col legno in the strings -- the bubbling of the witches ' cauldron to the blasts of wind. The climactic finale combines the somber Dies Irae melody with the wild fugue of the Ronde du Sabbat. After attending a performance of Shakespeare 's Hamlet on 11 September 1827, Berlioz fell in love with the Irish actress Harriet Smithson who had played the role of Ophelia. He sent her numerous love letters, all of which went unanswered. When she left Paris they had still not met. He then wrote the symphony as a way to express his unrequited love. It premiered in Paris on 5 December 1830; Harriet was not present. She eventually heard the work in 1832 and realized his genius. The two finally met, and they were married on 3 October 1833. Their marriage became increasingly bitter, and eventually they separated after several years of unhappiness.

according to the text the first aim of greek comedy was to

Satire - wikipedia Satire is a genre of literature, and sometimes graphic and performing arts, in which vices, follies, abuses, and shortcomings are held up to ridicule, ideally with the intent of shaming individuals, corporations, government, or society itself into improvement. Although satire is usually meant to be humorous, its greater purpose is often constructive social criticism, using wit to draw attention to both particular and wider issues in society. A feature of satire is strong irony or sarcasm -- "in satire, irony is militant '' -- but parody, burlesque, exaggeration, juxtaposition, comparison, analogy, and double entendre are all frequently used in satirical speech and writing. This "militant '' irony or sarcasm often professes to approve of (or at least accept as natural) the very things the satirist wishes to attack. Satire is nowadays found in many artistic forms of expression, including internet memes, literature, plays, commentary, television shows, and media such as lyrics. The word satire comes from the Latin word satur and the subsequent phrase lanx satura. Satur meant "full '' but the juxtaposition with lanx shifted the meaning to "miscellany or medley '': the expression lanx satura literally means "a full dish of various kinds of fruits. '' The word satura as used by Quintilian, however, was used to denote only Roman verse satire, a strict genre that imposed hexameter form, a narrower genre than what would be later intended as satire. Quintilian famously said that satura, that is a satire in hexameter verses, was a literary genre of wholly Roman origin (satura tota nostra est). He was aware of and commented on Greek satire, but at the time did not label it as such, although today the origin of satire is considered to be Aristophanes ' Old Comedy. The first critic to use the term "satire '' in the modern broader sense was Apuleius. To Quintilian, the satire was a strict literary form, but the term soon escaped from the original narrow definition. Robert Elliott writes: As soon as a noun enters the domain of metaphor, as one modern scholar has pointed out, it clamours for extension; and satura (which had had no verbal, adverbial, or adjectival forms) was immediately broadened by appropriation from the Greek word for "satyr '' (satyros) and its derivatives. The odd result is that the English "satire '' comes from the Latin satura; but "satirize '', "satiric '', etc., are of Greek origin. By about the 4th century AD the writer of satires came to be known as satyricus; St. Jerome, for example, was called by one of his enemies ' a satirist in prose ' (' satyricus scriptor in prosa '). Subsequent orthographic modifications obscured the Latin origin of the word satire: satura becomes satyra, and in England, by the 16th century, it was written ' satyre. ' The word satire derives from satura, and its origin was not influenced by the Greek mythological figure of the satyr. In the 17th century, philologist Isaac Casaubon was the first to dispute the etymology of satire from satyr, contrary to the belief up to that time. Laughter is not an essential component of satire; in fact there are types of satire that are not meant to be "funny '' at all. Conversely, not all humor, even on such topics as politics, religion or art is necessarily "satirical '', even when it uses the satirical tools of irony, parody, and burlesque. Even light - hearted satire has a serious "after - taste '': the organizers of the Ig Nobel Prize describe this as "first make people laugh, and then make them think ''. Satire and irony in some cases have been regarded as the most effective source to understand a society, the oldest form of social study. They provide the keenest insights into a group 's collective psyche, reveal its deepest values and tastes, and the society 's structures of power. Some authors have regarded satire as superior to non-comic and non-artistic disciplines like history or anthropology. In a prominent example from ancient Greece, philosopher Plato, when asked by a friend for a book to understand Athenian society, referred him to the plays of Aristophanes. Historically, satire has satisfied the popular need to debunk and ridicule the leading figures in politics, economy, religion and other prominent realms of power. Satire confronts public discourse and the collective imaginary, playing as a public opinion counterweight to power (be it political, economic, religious, symbolic, or otherwise), by challenging leaders and authorities. For instance, it forces administrations to clarify, amend or establish their policies. Satire 's job is to expose problems and contradictions, and it 's not obligated to solve them. Karl Kraus set in the history of satire a prominent example of a satirist role as confronting public discourse. For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions. The satiric impulse, and its ritualized expressions, carry out the function of resolving social tension. Institutions like the ritual clowns, by giving expression to the antisocial tendencies, represent a safety valve which reestablishes equilibrium and health in the collective imaginary, which are jeopardized by the repressive aspects of society. The state of political satire in a given society reflects the tolerance or intolerance that characterizes it, and the state of civil liberties and human rights. Under totalitarian regimes any criticism of a political system, and especially satire, is suppressed. A typical example is the Soviet Union where the dissidents, such as Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn and Andrei Sakharov were under strong pressure from the government. While satire of everyday life in the USSR was allowed, the most prominent satirist being Arkady Raikin, political satire existed in the form of anecdotes that made fun of Soviet political leaders, especially Brezhnev, famous for his narrow - mindness and love for awards and decorations. Satire is a diverse genre which is complex to classify and define, with a wide range of satiric "modes ''. Satirical literature can commonly be categorized as either Horatian, Juvenalian, or Menippean. Horatian satire, named for the Roman satirist Horace (65 -- 8 BCE), playfully criticizes some social vice through gentle, mild, and light - hearted humour. Horace (Quintus Horatius Flaccus) wrote Satires to gently ridicule the dominant opinions and "philosophical beliefs of ancient Rome and Greece '' (Rankin). Rather than writing in harsh or accusing tones, he addressed issues with humor and clever mockery. Horatian satire follows this same pattern of "gently (ridiculing) the absurdities and follies of human beings '' (Drury). It directs wit, exaggeration, and self - deprecating humour toward what it identifies as folly, rather than evil. Horatian satire 's sympathetic tone is common in modern society. A Horatian satirist 's goal is to heal the situation with smiles, rather than by anger. Horatian satire is a gentle reminder to take life less seriously and evokes a wry smile. A Horatian satirist makes fun of general human folly rather than engaging in specific or personal attacks. Shamekia Thomas suggests, "In a work using Horatian satire, readers often laugh at the characters in the story who are the subject of mockery as well as themselves and society for behaving in those ways. '' Alexander Pope has been established as an author whose satire "heals with morals what it hurts with wit '' (Green). Alexander Pope -- and Horatian satire -- attempt to teach. Examples: Juvenalian satire, named for the writings of the Roman satirist Juvenal (late first century -- early second century AD), is more contemptuous and abrasive than the Horatian. Juvenal disagreed with the opinions of the public figures and institutions of the Republic and actively attacked them through his literature. "He utilized the satirical tools of exaggeration and parody to make his targets appear monstrous and incompetent '' (Podzemny). Juvenal satire follows this same pattern of abrasively ridiculing societal structures. Juvenal also, unlike Horace, attacked public officials and governmental organizations through his satires, regarding their opinions not just as wrong, but as evil. Following in this tradition, Juvenalian satire addresses perceived social evil through scorn, outrage, and savage ridicule. This form is often pessimistic, characterized by the use of irony, sarcasm, moral indignation and personal invective, with less emphasis on humor. Strongly polarized political satire can often be classified as Juvenalian. A Juvenal satirist 's goal is generally to provoke some sort of political or societal change because he sees his opponent or object as evil or harmful. A Juvenal satirist mocks "societal structure, power, and civilization '' (Thomas) by exaggerating the words or position of his opponent in order to jeopardize their opponent 's reputation and / or power. Jonathan Swift has been established as an author who "borrowed heavily from Juvenal 's techniques in (his critique) of contemporary English society '' (Podzemny). Examples: In the history of theatre there has always been a conflict between engagement and disengagement on politics and relevant issue, between satire and grotesque on one side, and jest with teasing on the other. Max Eastman defined the spectrum of satire in terms of "degrees of biting '', as ranging from satire proper at the hot - end, and "kidding '' at the violet - end; Eastman adopted the term kidding to denote what is just satirical in form, but is not really firing at the target. Nobel laureate satirical playwright Dario Fo pointed out the difference between satire and teasing (sfottò). Teasing is the reactionary side of the comic; it limits itself to a shallow parody of physical appearance. The side - effect of teasing is that it humanizes and draws sympathy for the powerful individual towards which it is directed. Satire instead uses the comic to go against power and its oppressions, has a subversive character, and a moral dimension which draws judgement against its targets. Fo formulated an operational criterion to tell real satire from sfottò, saying that real satire arouses an outraged and violent reaction, and that the more they try to stop you, the better is the job you are doing. Fo contends that, historically, people in positions of power have welcomed and encouraged good - humoured buffoonery, while modern day people in positions of power have tried to censor, ostracize and repress satire. Teasing (sfottò) is an ancient form of simple buffoonery, a form of comedy without satire 's subversive edge. Teasing includes light and affectionate parody, good - humoured mockery, simple one - dimensional poking fun, and benign spoofs. Teasing typically consists of an impersonation of someone monkeying around with his exterior attributes, tics, physical blemishes, voice and mannerisms, quirks, way of dressing and walking, and / or the phrases he typically repeats. By contrast, teasing never touches on the core issue, never makes a serious criticism judging the target with irony; it never harms the target 's conduct, ideology and position of power; it never undermines the perception of his morality and cultural dimension. Sfottò directed towards a powerful individual makes him appear more human and draws sympathy towards him. Hermann Göring propagated jests and jokes against himself, with the aim of humanizing his image. Types of satire can also be classified according to the topics it deals with. From the earliest times, at least since the plays of Aristophanes, the primary topics of literary satire have been politics, religion and sex. This is partly because these are the most pressing problems that affect anybody living in a society, and partly because these topics are usually taboo. Among these, politics in the broader sense is considered the pre-eminent topic of satire. Satire which targets the clergy is a type of political satire, while religious satire is that which targets religious beliefs. Satire on sex may overlap with blue comedy, off - color humor and dick jokes. Scatology has a long literary association with satire, as it is a classical mode of the grotesque, the grotesque body and the satiric grotesque. Shit plays a fundamental role in satire because it symbolizes death, the turd being "the ultimate dead object ''. The satirical comparison of individuals or institutions with human excrement, exposes their "inherent inertness, corruption and dead - likeness ''. The ritual clowns of clown societies, like among the Pueblo Indians, have ceremonies with filth - eating. In other cultures, sin - eating is an apotropaic rite in which the sin - eater (also called filth - eater), by ingesting the food provided, takes "upon himself the sins of the departed ''. Satire about death overlaps with black humor and gallows humor. Another classification by topics is the distinction between political satire, religious satire and satire of manners. Political satire is sometimes called topical satire, satire of manners is sometimes called satire of everyday life, and religious satire is sometimes called philosophical satire. Comedy of manners, sometimes also called satire of manners, criticizes mode of life of common people; political satire aims at behavior, manners of politicians, and vices of political systems. Historically, comedy of manners, which first appeared in British theater in 1620, has uncritically accepted the social code of the upper classes. Comedy in general accepts the rules of the social game, while satire subverts them. Another analysis of satire is the spectrum of his possible tones: wit, ridicule, irony, sarcasm, cynicism, the sardonic and invective. Satire is found not only in written literary forms. In preliterate cultures it manifests itself in ritual and folk forms, as well as in trickster tales and oral poetry. It appears also in graphic arts, music, sculpture, dance, cartoon strips, and graffiti. Examples are Dada sculptures, Pop Art works, music of Gilbert and Sullivan and Erik Satie, punk and rock music. In modern media culture, stand - up comedy is an enclave in which satire can be introduced into mass media, challenging mainstream discourse. Comedy roasts, mock festivals, and stand - up comedians in nightclubs and concerts are the modern forms of ancient satiric rituals. One of the earliest examples of what we might call satire, The Satire of the Trades, is in Egyptian writing from the beginning of the 2nd millennium BC. The text 's apparent readers are students, tired of studying. It argues that their lot as scribes is useful, and their lot far superior to that of the ordinary man. Scholars such as Helck think that the context was meant to be serious. The Papyrus Anastasi I (late 2nd millennium BC) contains a satirical letter which first praises the virtues of its recipient, but then mocks the reader 's meagre knowledge and achievements. The Greeks had no word for what later would be called "satire '', although the terms cynicism and parody were used. Modern critics call the Greek playwright Aristophanes one of the best known early satirists: his plays are known for their critical political and societal commentary, particularly for the political satire by which he criticized the powerful Cleon (as in The Knights). He is also notable for the persecution he underwent. Aristophanes ' plays turned upon images of filth and disease. His bawdy style was adopted by Greek dramatist - comedian Menander. His early play Drunkenness contains an attack on the politician Callimedon. The oldest form of satire still in use is the Menippean satire by Menippus of Gadara. His own writings are lost. Examples from his admirers and imitators mix seriousness and mockery in dialogues and present parodies before a background of diatribe. As in the case of Aristophanes plays, menippean satire turned upon images of filth and disease. The first Roman to discuss satire critically was Quintilian, who invented the term to describe the writings of Gaius Lucilius. The two most prominent and influential ancient Roman satirists are Horace and Juvenal, who wrote during the early days of the Roman Empire. Other important satirists in ancient Latin are Gaius Lucilius and Persius. Satire in their work is much wider than in the modern sense of the word, including fantastic and highly coloured humorous writing with little or no real mocking intent. When Horace criticized Augustus, he used veiled ironic terms. In contrast, Pliny reports that the 6th - century - BC poet Hipponax wrote satirae that were so cruel that the offended hanged themselves. In the 2nd century AD, Lucian wrote True History, a book satirizing the clearly unrealistic travelogues / adventures written by Ctesias, Iambulus, and Homer. He states that he was surprised they expected people to believe their lies, and stating that he, like they, has no actual knowledge or experience, but shall now tell lies as if he did. He goes on to describe a far more obviously extreme and unrealistic tale, involving interplanetary exploration, war among alien life forms, and life inside a 200 mile long whale back in the terrestrial ocean, all intended to make obvious the fallacies of books like Indica and The Odyssey. Medieval Arabic poetry included the satiric genre hija. Satire was introduced into Arabic prose literature by the Afro - Arab author Al - Jahiz in the 9th century. While dealing with serious topics in what are now known as anthropology, sociology and psychology, he introduced a satirical approach, "based on the premise that, however serious the subject under review, it could be made more interesting and thus achieve greater effect, if only one leavened the lump of solemnity by the insertion of a few amusing anecdotes or by the throwing out of some witty or paradoxical observations. He was well aware that, in treating of new themes in his prose works, he would have to employ a vocabulary of a nature more familiar in hija, satirical poetry. '' For example, in one of his zoological works, he satirized the preference for longer human penis size, writing: "If the length of the penis were a sign of honor, then the mule would belong to the (honorable tribe of) Quraysh ''. Another satirical story based on this preference was an Arabian Nights tale called "Ali with the Large Member ''. In the 10th century, the writer Tha'alibi recorded satirical poetry written by the Arabic poets As - Salami and Abu Dulaf, with As - Salami praising Abu Dulaf 's wide breadth of knowledge and then mocking his ability in all these subjects, and with Abu Dulaf responding back and satirizing As - Salami in return. An example of Arabic political satire included another 10th - century poet Jarir satirizing Farazdaq as "a transgressor of the Sharia '' and later Arabic poets in turn using the term "Farazdaq - like '' as a form of political satire. The terms "comedy '' and "satire '' became synonymous after Aristotle 's Poetics was translated into Arabic in the medieval Islamic world, where it was elaborated upon by Islamic philosophers and writers, such as Abu Bischr, his pupil Al - Farabi, Avicenna, and Averroes. Due to cultural differences, they disassociated comedy from Greek dramatic representation and instead identified it with Arabic poetic themes and forms, such as hija (satirical poetry). They viewed comedy as simply the "art of reprehension '', and made no reference to light and cheerful events, or troubled beginnings and happy endings, associated with classical Greek comedy. After the Latin translations of the 12th century, the term "comedy '' thus gained a new semantic meaning in Medieval literature. Ubayd Zakani introduced satire in Persian literature during the 14th century. His work is noted for its satire and obscene verses, often political or bawdy, and often cited in debates involving homosexual practices. He wrote the Resaleh - ye Delgosha, as well as Akhlaq al - Ashraf ("Ethics of the Aristocracy '') and the famous humorous fable Masnavi Mush - O - Gorbeh (Mouse and Cat), which was a political satire. His non-satirical serious classical verses have also been regarded as very well written, in league with the other great works of Persian literature. Between 1905 and 1911, Bibi Khatoon Astarabadi and other Iranian writers wrote notable satires. In the Early Middle Ages, examples of satire were the songs by Goliards or vagants now best known as an anthology called Carmina Burana and made famous as texts of a composition by the 20th - century composer Carl Orff. Satirical poetry is believed to have been popular, although little has survived. With the advent of the High Middle Ages and the birth of modern vernacular literature in the 12th century, it began to be used again, most notably by Chaucer. The disrespectful manner was considered "unchristian '' and ignored, except for the moral satire, which mocked misbehaviour in Christian terms. Examples are Livre des Manières by Étienne de Fougères (fr) (~ 1178), and some of Chaucer 's Canterbury Tales. Sometimes epic poetry (epos) was mocked, and even feudal society, but there was hardly a general interest in the genre. Direct social commentary via satire returned with a vengeance in the 16th century, when farcical texts such as the works of François Rabelais tackled more serious issues (and incurred the wrath of the crown as a result). Two major satirists of Europe in the Renaissance were Giovanni Boccaccio and François Rabelais. Other examples of Renaissance satire include Till Eulenspiegel, Reynard the Fox, Sebastian Brant 's Narrenschiff (1494), Erasmus 's Moriae Encomium (1509), Thomas More 's Utopia (1516), and Carajicomedia (1519). The Elizabethan (i.e. 16th - century English) writers thought of satire as related to the notoriously rude, coarse and sharp satyr play. Elizabethan "satire '' (typically in pamphlet form) therefore contains more straightforward abuse than subtle irony. The French Huguenot Isaac Casaubon pointed out in 1605 that satire in the Roman fashion was something altogether more civilised. Casaubon discovered and published Quintilian 's writing and presented the original meaning of the term (satira, not satyr), and the sense of wittiness (reflecting the "dishfull of fruits '') became more important again. Seventeenth - century English satire once again aimed at the "amendment of vices '' (Dryden). In the 1590s a new wave of verse satire broke with the publication of Hall 's Virgidemiarum, six books of verse satires targeting everything from literary fads to corrupt noblemen. Although Donne had already circulated satires in manuscript, Hall 's was the first real attempt in English at verse satire on the Juvenalian model. The success of his work combined with a national mood of disillusion in the last years of Elizabeth 's reign triggered an avalanche of satire -- much of it less conscious of classical models than Hall 's -- until the fashion was brought to an abrupt stop by censorship. The Age of Enlightenment, an intellectual movement in the 17th and 18th centuries advocating rationality, produced a great revival of satire in Britain. This was fuelled by the rise of partisan politics, with the formalisation of the Tory and Whig parties -- and also, in 1714, by the formation of the Scriblerus Club, which included Alexander Pope, Jonathan Swift, John Gay, John Arbuthnot, Robert Harley, Thomas Parnell, and Henry St John, 1st Viscount Bolingbroke. This club included several of the notable satirists of early - 18th - century Britain. They focused their attention on Martinus Scriblerus, "an invented learned fool... whose work they attributed all that was tedious, narrow - minded, and pedantic in contemporary scholarship ''. In their hands astute and biting satire of institutions and individuals became a popular weapon. The turn to the 18th century was characterized by a switch from Horatian, soft, pseudo-satire, to biting "juvenal '' satire. Jonathan Swift was one of the greatest of Anglo - Irish satirists, and one of the first to practise modern journalistic satire. For instance, In his A Modest Proposal Swift suggests that Irish peasants be encouraged to sell their own children as food for the rich, as a solution to the "problem '' of poverty. His purpose is of course to attack indifference to the plight of the desperately poor. In his book Gulliver 's Travels he writes about the flaws in human society in general and English society in particular. John Dryden wrote an influential essay entitled "A Discourse Concerning the Original and Progress of Satire '' that helped fix the definition of satire in the literary world. His satirical Mac Flecknoe was written in response to a rivalry with Thomas Shadwell and eventually inspired Alexander Pope to write his satirical The Rape of the Lock. Other satirical works by Pope include the Epistle to Dr Arbuthnot. Alexander Pope (b. May 21, 1688) was a satirist known for his Horatian satirist style and translation of the Iliad. Famous throughout and after the long 18th century, Pope died in 1744. Pope, in his The Rape of the Lock, is delicately chiding society in a sly but polished voice by holding up a mirror to the follies and vanities of the upper class. Pope does not actively attack the self - important pomp of the British aristocracy, but rather presents it in such a way that gives the reader a new perspective from which to easily view the actions in the story as foolish and ridiculous. A mockery of the upper class, more delicate and lyrical than brutal, Pope nonetheless is able to effectively illuminate the moral degradation of society to the public. The Rape of the Lock assimilates the masterful qualities of a heroic epic, such as the Iliad, which Pope was translating at the time of writing The Rape of the Lock. However, Pope applied these qualities satirically to a seemingly petty egotistical elitist quarrel to prove his point wryly. Daniel Defoe pursued a more journalistic type of satire, being famous for his The True - Born Englishman which mocks xenophobic patriotism, and The Shortest - Way with the Dissenters -- advocating religious toleration by means of an ironical exaggeration of the highly intolerant attitudes of his time. The pictorial satire of William Hogarth is a precursor to the development of political cartoons in 18th - century England. The medium developed under the direction of its greatest exponent, James Gillray from London. With his satirical works calling the king (George III), prime ministers and generals (especially Napoleon) to account, Gillray 's wit and keen sense of the ridiculous made him the pre-eminent cartoonist of the era. Ebenezer Cooke (1665 -- 1732), author of "The Sot - Weed Factor '' (1708), was among the first American colonialists to write literary satire. Benjamin Franklin (1706 -- 1790) and others followed, using satire to shape an emerging nation 's culture through its sense of the ridiculous. Several satiric papers competed for the public 's attention in the Victorian era (1837 -- 1901) and Edwardian period, such as Punch (1841) and Fun (1861). Perhaps the most enduring examples of Victorian satire, however, are to be found in the Savoy Operas of Gilbert and Sullivan. In fact, in The Yeomen of the Guard, a jester is given lines that paint a very neat picture of the method and purpose of the satirist, and might almost be taken as a statement of Gilbert 's own intent: Novelists such as Charles Dickens (1812 - 1870) often used passages of satiric writing in their treatment of social issues. Continuing the tradition of Swiftian journalistic satire, Sidney Godolphin Osborne (1808 - 1889) was the most prominent writer of scathing "Letters to the Editor '' of the London Times. Famous in his day, he is now all but forgotten. His maternal grandfather William Eden, 1st Baron Auckland was considered to be a possible candidate for the authorship of the Junius letters. If this were true, we can read Osborne as following in his grandfather 's satiric "Letters to the Editor '' path. Osborne 's satire was so bitter and biting that at one point he received a public censure from Parliament 's then Home Secretary Sir James Graham. Osborne wrote mostly in the Juvenalian mode over a wide range of topics mostly centered on British government 's and landlords ' mistreatment of poor farm workers and field laborers. He bitterly opposed the New Poor Laws and was passionate on the subject of Great Britain 's botched response to the Irish Famine and its mistreatment of soldiers during the Crimean War. Later in the nineteenth century, in the United States, Mark Twain (1835 -- 1910) grew to become American 's greatest satirist: his novel Huckleberry Finn (1884) is set in the antebellum South, where the moral values Twain wishes to promote are completely turned on their heads. His hero, Huck, is a rather simple but goodhearted lad who is ashamed of the "sinful temptation '' that leads him to help a runaway slave. In fact his conscience, warped by the distorted moral world he has grown up in, often bothers him most when he is at his best. Ironically, he is prepared to do good, believing it to be wrong. Twain 's younger contemporary Ambrose Bierce (1842 -- 1913) gained notoriety as a cynic, pessimist and black humorist with his dark, bitterly ironic stories, many set during the American Civil War, which satirized the limitations of human perception and reason. Bierce 's most famous work of satire is probably The Devil 's Dictionary (1906), in which the definitions mock cant, hypocrisy and received wisdom. Karl Kraus is considered the first major European satirist since Jonathan Swift. In 20th - century literature, satire was used by English authors such as Aldous Huxley (1930s) and George Orwell (1940s), which under the inspiration of Zamyatin 's Russian 1921 novel We, made serious and even frightening commentaries on the dangers of the sweeping social changes taking place throughout Europe. Many social critics of this same time in the United States, such as Dorothy Parker and H.L. Mencken, used satire as their main weapon, and Mencken in particular is noted for having said that "one horse - laugh is worth ten thousand syllogisms '' in the persuasion of the public to accept a criticism. Novelist Sinclair Lewis was known for his satirical stories such as Main Street (1920), Babbitt (1922), Elmer Gantry (1927; dedicated by Lewis to H.L. Menchen), and It Ca n't Happen Here (1935), and his books often explored and satirized contemporary American values. The film The Great Dictator (1940) by Charlie Chaplin is itself a parody of Adolf Hitler; Chaplin later declared that he would have not made the film if he had known about the concentration camps. In the United States 1950s, satire was introduced into American stand - up comedy most prominently by Lenny Bruce and Mort Sahl. As they challenged the taboos and conventional wisdom of the time, were ostracized by the mass media establishment as sick comedians. In the same period, Paul Krassner 's magazine The Realist began publication, to become immensely popular during the 1960s and early 1970s among people in the counterculture; it had articles and cartoons that were savage, biting satires of politicians such as Lyndon Johnson and Richard Nixon, the Vietnam War, the Cold War and the War on Drugs. This baton was also carried by the original National Lampoon magazine, edited by Doug Kenney and Henry Beard and featuring blistering satire written by Michael O'Donoghue, P.J. O'Rourke, and Tony Hendra, among others. Prominent satiric stand - up comedian George Carlin acknowledged the influence The Realist had in his 1970s conversion to a satiric comedian. A more humorous brand of satire enjoyed a renaissance in the UK in the early 1960s with the satire boom, led by such luminaries as Peter Cook, Alan Bennett, Jonathan Miller, and Dudley Moore, whose stage show Beyond the Fringe was a hit not only in Britain, but also in the United States. Other significant influences in 1960s British satire include David Frost, Eleanor Bron and the television program That Was The Week That Was. Joseph Heller 's most famous work, Catch - 22 (1961), satirizes bureaucracy and the military, and is frequently cited as one of the greatest literary works of the twentieth century. Departing from traditional Hollywood farce and screwball, director and comedian Jerry Lewis used satire in his self - directed films The Bellboy (1960), The Errand Boy (1961) and The Patsy (1964) to comment on celebrity and the star - making machinery of Hollywood. The film Dr. Strangelove (1964) starring Peter Sellers was a popular satire on the Cold War. Contemporary popular usage of the term "satire '' is often very imprecise. While satire often uses caricature and parody, by no means are all uses of these or other humorous devices, satiric. Refer to the careful definition of satire that heads this article. Satire is used on many UK television programmes, particularly popular panel shows and quiz shows such as Mock the Week (2005) and Have I Got News for You (1990 -- ongoing). Similarly it is found on radio quiz shows such as The News Quiz (1977 -- ongoing) and The Now Show (1998 -- ongoing). One of the most watched UK television shows of the 1980s and early 1990s, the puppet show Spitting Image was a satire of the royal family, politics, entertainment, sport and British culture of the era. Created by DMA Design in 1997, satire also features prominently in the British video game series Grand Theft Auto. The television program South Park (1997 -- ongoing) relies almost exclusively on satire to address issues in American culture, with episodes addressing anti-Semitism, militant atheism, homophobia, environmentalism, corporate culture, political correctness and anti-Catholicism, among many other issues. Australian Chris Lilley produces comedy art in the style of mockumentaries (We Can Be Heroes, Summer Heights High, Angry Boys) and his work is often described as complex social satire. Stephen Colbert 's television program, The Colbert Report (2005 -- 14), is instructive in the methods of contemporary American satire. Colbert 's character is an opinionated and self - righteous commentator who, in his TV interviews, interrupts people, points and wags his finger at them, and "unwittingly '' uses a number of logical fallacies. In doing so, he demonstrates the principle of modern American political satire: the ridicule of the actions of politicians and other public figures by taking all their statements and purported beliefs to their furthest (supposedly) logical conclusion, thus revealing their perceived hypocrisy or absurdity. The American sketch comedy television show Saturday Night Live is also known for its satirical impressions and parodies of prominent persons and politicians, among some of the most notable, their parodies of U.S. political figures Hillary Clinton and of Sarah Palin. Other political satire includes various political causes in the past, including the relatively successful Polish Beer - Lovers ' Party and the joke political candidates Molly the Dog and Brian Miner. In the United Kingdom, a popular modern satirist is Sir Terry Pratchett, author of the internationally best - selling Discworld book series. One of the most well - known and controversial British satirists is Chris Morris, co-writer and director of Four Lions. In Canada, satire has become an important part of the comedy scene. Stephen Leacock was one of the best known early Canadian satirists, and in the early 20th century, he achieved fame by targeting the attitudes of small town life. In more recent years, Canada has had several prominent satirical television series and radio shows. Some, including CODCO, The Royal Canadian Air Farce, This Is That, and This Hour Has 22 Minutes deal directly with current news stories and political figures, while others, like History Bites present contemporary social satire in the context of events and figures in history. The Canadian organization Canada News Network provides commentary on contemporary news events that are primarily Canadian in nature. Canadian songwriter Nancy White uses music as the vehicle for her satire, and her comic folk songs are regularly played on CBC Radio. Cartoonists often use satire as well as straight humour. Al Capp 's satirical comic strip Li'l Abner was censored in September 1947. The controversy, as reported in Time, centred on Capp 's portrayal of the US Senate. Said Edward Leech of Scripps - Howard, "We do n't think it is good editing or sound citizenship to picture the Senate as an assemblage of freaks and crooks... boobs and undesirables. '' Walt Kelly 's Pogo was likewise censored in 1952 over his overt satire of Senator Joe McCarthy, caricatured in his comic strip as "Simple J. Malarky ''. Garry Trudeau, whose comic strip Doonesbury focuses on satire of the political system, and provides a trademark cynical view on national events. Trudeau exemplifies humour mixed with criticism. For example, the character Mark Slackmeyer lamented that because he was not legally married to his partner, he was deprived of the "exquisite agony '' of experiencing a nasty and painful divorce like heterosexuals. This, of course, satirized the claim that gay unions would denigrate the sanctity of heterosexual marriage. Like some literary predecessors, many recent television satires contain strong elements of parody and caricature; for instance, the popular animated series The Simpsons and South Park both parody modern family and social life by taking their assumptions to the extreme; both have led to the creation of similar series. As well as the purely humorous effect of this sort of thing, they often strongly criticise various phenomena in politics, economic life, religion and many other aspects of society, and thus qualify as satirical. Due to their animated nature, these shows can easily use images of public figures and generally have greater freedom to do so than conventional shows using live actors. News satire is also a very popular form of contemporary satire, appearing in as wide an array of formats as the news media itself: print (e.g. The Onion, Canada News Network, Private Eye), "Not Your Homepage, '' radio (e.g. On the Hour), television (e.g. The Day Today, The Daily Show, Brass Eye) and the web (e.g. Mindry.in, The Fruit Dish, Scunt News, Faking News, El Koshary Today, The Giant Napkin, Unconfirmed Sources and The Onion 's website). Other satires are on the list of satirists and satires. Another internet - driven form of satire is to lampoon bad internet performers. An example of this is the Internet meme character Miranda Sings. In an interview with Wikinews, Sean Mills, President of The Onion, said angry letters about their news parody always carried the same message. "It 's whatever affects that person '', said Mills. "So it 's like, ' I love it when you make a joke about murder or rape, but if you talk about cancer, well my brother has cancer and that 's not funny to me. ' Or someone else can say, ' Cancer 's hilarious, but do n't talk about rape because my cousin got raped. ' Those are rather extreme examples, but if it affects somebody personally, they tend to be more sensitive about it. '' Zhou Libo, a comedian from Shanghai, is the most popular satirist in China. His humour has interested middle - class people and has sold out shows ever since his rise to fame. Literary satire is usually written out of earlier satiric works, reprising previous conventions, commonplaces, stance, situations and tones of voice. Exaggeration is one of the most common satirical techniques. Contrarily diminution is also a satirical technique. For its nature and social role, satire has enjoyed in many societies a special freedom license to mock prominent individuals and institutions. In Germany and Italy satire is protected by the constitution. Since satire belongs to the realm of art and artistic expression, it benefits from broader lawfulness limits than mere freedom of information of journalistic kind. In some countries a specific "right to satire '' is recognized and its limits go beyond the "right to report '' of journalism and even the "right to criticize. '' Satire benefits not only of the protection to freedom of speech, but also to that to culture, and that to scientific and artistic production. Descriptions of satire 's biting effect on its target include ' venomous ', ' cutting ', ' stinging ', vitriol. Because satire often combines anger and humor, as well as the fact that it addresses and calls into question many controversial issues, it can be profoundly disturbing. Because it is essentially ironic or sarcastic, satire is often misunderstood. A typical misunderstanding is to confuse the satirist with his persona. Common uncomprehending responses to satire include revulsion (accusations of poor taste, or that "it 's just not funny '' for instance) and the idea that the satirist actually does support the ideas, policies, or people he is attacking. For instance, at the time of its publication, many people misunderstood Swift 's purpose in A Modest Proposal, assuming it to be a serious recommendation of economically motivated cannibalism. Some critics of Mark Twain see Huckleberry Finn as racist and offensive, missing the point that its author clearly intended it to be satire (racism being in fact only one of a number of Mark Twain 's known concerns attacked in Huckleberry Finn). This same misconception was suffered by the main character of the 1960s British television comedy satire Till Death Us Do Part. The character of Alf Garnett (played by Warren Mitchell) was created to poke fun at the kind of narrow - minded, racist, little Englander that Garnett represented. Instead, his character became a sort of anti-hero to people who actually agreed with his views. (The same situation occurred with Archie Bunker in American TV show All in the Family, a character derived directly from Garnett.) The Australian satirical television comedy show The Chaser 's War on Everything has suffered repeated attacks based on various perceived interpretations of the "target '' of its attacks. The "Make a Realistic Wish Foundation '' sketch (June 2009), which attacked in classical satiric fashion the heartlessness of people who are reluctant to donate to charities, was widely interpreted as an attack on the Make a Wish Foundation, or even the terminally ill children helped by that organisation. Prime Minister of the time Kevin Rudd stated that The Chaser team "should hang their heads in shame ''. He went on to say that "I did n't see that but it 's been described to me... But having a go at kids with a terminal illness is really beyond the pale, absolutely beyond the pale. '' Television station management suspended the show for two weeks and reduced the third season to eight episodes. The romantic prejudice against satire is the belief spread by the romantic movement that satire is something unworthy of serious attention; this prejudice has held considerable influence to this day. Such prejudice extends to humor and everything that arouses laughter, which are often underestimated as frivolous and unworthy of serious study. For instance, humor is generally neglected as a topic of anthropological research and teaching. Because satire criticises in an ironic, essentially indirect way, it frequently escapes censorship in a way more direct criticism might not. Periodically, however, it runs into serious opposition, and people in power who perceive themselves as attacked attempt to censor it or prosecute its practitioners. In a classic example, Aristophanes was persecuted by the demagogue Cleon. In 1599, the Archbishop of Canterbury John Whitgift and the Bishop of London Richard Bancroft, whose offices had the function of licensing books for publication in England, issued a decree banning verse satire. The decree, now known as the Bishops ' Ban of 1599, ordered the burning of certain volumes of satire by John Marston, Thomas Middleton, Joseph Hall, and others; it also required histories and plays to be specially approved by a member of the Queen 's Privy Council, and it prohibited the future printing of satire in verse. The motives for the ban are obscure, particularly since some of the books banned had been licensed by the same authorities less than a year earlier. Various scholars have argued that the target was obscenity, libel, or sedition. It seems likely that lingering anxiety about the Martin Marprelate controversy, in which the bishops themselves had employed satirists, played a role; both Thomas Nashe and Gabriel Harvey, two of the key figures in that controversy, suffered a complete ban on all their works. In the event, though, the ban was little enforced, even by the licensing authority itself. In 2005, the Jyllands - Posten Muhammad cartoons controversy caused global protests by offended Muslims and violent attacks with many fatalities in the Near East. It was not the first case of Muslim protests against criticism in the form of satire, but the Western world was surprised by the hostility of the reaction: Any country 's flag in which a newspaper chose to publish the parodies was being burnt in a Near East country, then embassies were attacked, killing 139 people in mainly four countries; politicians throughout Europe agreed that satire was an aspect of the freedom of speech, and therefore to be a protected means of dialogue. Iran threatened to start an International Holocaust Cartoon Competition, which was immediately responded to by Jews with an Israeli Anti-Semitic Cartoons Contest. In 2006 British comedian Sacha Baron Cohen released Borat: Cultural Learnings of America for Make Benefit Glorious Nation of Kazakhstan, a "mockumentary '' that satirized everyone, from high society to frat boys. The film was criticized by many. Although Baron Cohen is Jewish, some complained that it was antisemitic, and the government of Kazakhstan boycotted the film. The film itself had been a reaction to a longer quarrel between the government and the comedian. In 2008, popular South African cartoonist and satirist Jonathan Shapiro (who is published under the pen name Zapiro) came under fire for depicting then - president of the ANC Jacob Zuma in the act of undressing in preparation for the implied rape of ' Lady Justice ' which is held down by Zuma loyalists. The cartoon was drawn in response to Zuma 's efforts to duck corruption charges, and the controversy was heightened by the fact that Zuma was himself acquitted of rape in May 2006. In February 2009, the South African Broadcasting Corporation, viewed by some opposition parties as the mouthpiece of the governing ANC, shelved a satirical TV show created by Shapiro, and in May 2009 the broadcaster pulled a documentary about political satire (featuring Shapiro among others) for the second time, hours before scheduled broadcast. Apartheid South Africa also had a long history of censorship. On December 29, 2009, Samsung sued Mike Breen, and the Korea Times for $1 million, claiming criminal defamation over a satirical column published on Christmas Day, 2009. On April 29, 2015, the UK Independence Party (UKIP) requested Kent Police investigate the BBC, claiming that comments made about Party leader Nigel Farage by a panelist on the comedy show Have I Got News For You might hinder his chances of success in the general election (which would take place a week later), and claimed the BBC breached the Representation of the People Act. Kent Police rebuffed the request to open an investigation, and the BBC released a statement, "Britain has a proud tradition of satire, and everyone knows that the contributors on Have I Got News for You regularly make jokes at the expense of politicians of all parties. '' Satire is occasionally prophetic: the jokes precede actual events. Among the eminent examples are: nella storia della nostra cultura, la satira ha realizzato il bisogno popolare di irridere e dissacrare il gotha politico ed economico, le cui reazioni punitive non sono certo state condizionate da critiche estetiche, ma dalla tolleranza o intolleranza caratterizzanti in quel momento storico la società ei suoi governanti. (...) la reale esistenza della satira in una società deriva, (...) dal margine di tolleranza espresso dai poteri punitivi dello Stato. a critical public discourse (...) Satire rose the daunting question of what role public opinion would play in government. (...) satirists criticized government activities, exposed ambiguities, and forced administrators to clarify or establish policies. Not surprisingly, heated public controversy surrounded satiric commentary, resulting in an outright ban on political satire in 1835 (...) Government officials cracked down on their humorous public criticism that challenged state authority through both its form and content. Satire had been a political resource in France for a long time, but the anxious political context of the July Monarchy had unlocked its political power. Satire also taught lessons in democracy. It fit into the July Monarchy 's tense political context as a voice in favor of public political debate. Satiric expression took place in the public sphere and spoke from a position of public opinion - that is, from a position of the nations expressing a political voice and making claims on its government representatives and leadership. Beyond mere entertainment, satire 's humor appealed to and exercised public opinion, drawing audiences into new practices of representative government. A surprising variety of societies have allowed certain persons the freedom to mock other individuals and social institutions in rituals. From the earliest times the same freedom has been claimed by and granted to social groups at certain times of the year, as can be seen in such festivals as the Saturnalia, the Feast of Fools, Carnival, and similar folk festivals in India, nineteenth - century Newfoundland, and the ancient Mediterranean world. Ils constituent donc pour la tribu un moyen de donner une satisfaction symbolique aux tendances anti-sociales. Les Zunis, précisément parce qu'ils sont un peuple apollinien (où la règle prédomine), avaient besoin de cette soupape de sûreté. Les Koyemshis représentent ce que M. Caillois nomme le "Sacré de transgression ''. Déjà Cazeneuve (2) (Les dieux dansent à Cibola) avait mis auparavant en relief, dans la Société "apollinienne '' des Zuñi, l'institution et le symbolisme saturnal des clowns Koyemshis, véritable soupape de sûreté "dionysienne ''. Nella storia del teatro si ritrova sempre questo conflitto in cui si scontrano impegno e disimpegno... grottesco, satirico e lazzo con sfottò. E spesso vince lo sfotto. tanto amato dal potere. Quando si dice che il potere ama la satira ... Una caricatura che, è ovvio, risulta del tutto bonaria, del tutto epidermica, che indica, come dicevo prima, soltanto la parte più esteriore del loro carattere, i tic la cui messa in risalto non lede assolutamente l'operato, l'ideologia, la morale e la dimensione culturale di questi personaggi... ricordando che i politici provano un enorme piacere nel sentirsi presi in giro; è quasi un premio che si elargisce loro, nel momento stesso in cui li si sceglie per essere sottoposti alla caricatura, a quella caricatura... Di fatto questa è una forma di comicità che non si può chiamare satira, ma solo sfottò... Pensa quanti pretesti satirici si offrirebbero se solo quei comici del "Biberon '' volessero prendere in esame il modo in cui questi personaggi gestiscono il potere e lo mantengono, o si decidessero a gettare l'occhio sulle vere magagne di questa gente, le loro violenze più o meno mascherate, le loro arroganze e soprattutto le loro ipocrisie... un teatro cabaret capostipite: il Bagaglino, un teatro romano che, già vent'anni fa, si metteva in una bella chiave politica dichiaratamente di estrema destra, destra spudoratamente reazionaria, scopertamente fascista. Nelle pieghe del gruppo del Bagaglino e del suo lavoro c'era sempre la caricatura feroce dell'operaio, del sindacalista, del comunista, dell'uomo di sinistra, e una caricatura bonacciona invece, e ammiccante, accattivante, degli uomini e della cultura al potere L'ironia fatta sui tic, sulla caricatura dei connotati più o meno grotteschi dei politici presi di mira, dei loro eventuali difetti fisici, della loro particolare pronuncia, dei loro vezzi, del loro modo di vestire, del loro modo di camminare, delle frasi tipiche che vanno ripetendo... (lo sfottò è) una chiave buffonesca molto antica, che viene di lontano, quella di giocherellare con gli attributi esteriori e non toccare mai il problema di fondo di una critica seria che è l'analisi messa in grottesco del comportamento, la valutazione ironica della posizione, dell'ideologia del personaggio. ... religion, politics, and sexuality are the primary stuff of literary satire. Among these sacret targets, matters costive and defecatory play an important part... from the earliest times, satirists have utilized scatological and bathroom humor. Aristophanes, always livid and nearly scandalous in his religious, political, and sexual references... The most pressing of the problems that face us when we close the book or leave the theatre are ultimately political ones; and so politics is the pre-eminent topic of satire... to some degree public affairs vex every man, if he pays taxes, does military service or even objects to the way his neighbour is behaving. There is no escape from politics where more than a dozen people are living together. There is an essential connection between satire and politics in the widest sense: satire is not only the commonest form of political literature, but, insofar as it tries to influence public behaviours, it is the most political part of all literature. The turd is the ultimate dead object. Le corps grotesque est una realite populaire detournee au profit d'une representation du corps a but politique, plaquege du corps scatologique sur le corps de ceux qu'il covient de denoncer. Denonciation scatologique projetee sur le corps aristocratique pour lui signifier sa degenerescence. It is this fear of what the dead in their uncontrollable power might cause which has brought forth apotropaic rites, protective rites against the dead. (...) One of these popular rites was the funeral rite of sin - eating, performed by a sin - eater, a man or woman. Through accepting the food and drink provided, he took upon himself the sins of the departed. Had I known of the actual horrors of the German concentration camps, I could not have made The Great Dictator, I could not have made fun of the homicidal insanity of the Nazis. Il diritto di satira trova il suo fondamento negli artt. 21 e 33 della Costituzione che tutelano, rispettivamente, la libertà di manifestazione del pensiero e quella di elaborazione artistica e scientifica. (...) la satira, in quanto operante nell'ambito di ciò che è arte, non è strettamente correlata ad esigenze informative, dal che deriva che i suoi limiti di liveità siano ben più ammpi di quelli propri del diritto di cronaca

who recorded the song hold on tight to your dreams

Hold On Tight (Electric Light Orchestra song) - wikipedia "Hold On Tight '' is a song written and performed by Electric Light Orchestra (ELO). The song is track twelve on the band 's 1981 album Time and was the first song released as a single. The song went top ten in most countries, hitting the top spot in Spain and Switzerland, number two in Germany, number four in the UK, and number ten on the US Billboard Hot 100, as well as number two on the US Billboard Top Rock Tracks chart. It has a verse sung in French, which is a reprise of the first verse of the song. At the time, the song 's music video was the most expensive ever made, with a budget of approximately £ 40,000. The mostly black and white video features footage of ELO playing the song in a lounge, intercut with scenes in the style of 1940s serial films featuring the band members, including violinist Mik Kaminski, who was no longer a band member nor had actually played on this song, playing a guitar.

which of the disease is not caused by bacteria in hindi

Pathogenic bacteria - wikipedia Pathogenic bacteria are bacteria that can cause infection. This article deals with human pathogenic bacteria. Although most bacteria are harmless or often beneficial, some are pathogenic, with the number of species estimated as fewer than 100 that are seen to cause infectious diseases in humans. By contrast, several thousand species exist in the human digestive system. One of the bacterial diseases with the highest disease burden is tuberculosis, caused by the bacterium Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which kills about 2 million people a year, mostly in sub-Saharan Africa. Pathogenic bacteria contribute to other globally important diseases, such as pneumonia, which can be caused by bacteria such as Streptococcus and Pseudomonas, and foodborne illnesses, which can be caused by bacteria such as Shigella, Campylobacter, and Salmonella. Pathogenic bacteria also cause infections such as tetanus, typhoid fever, diphtheria, syphilis, and leprosy. Pathogenic bacteria are also the cause of high infant mortality rates in developing countries. Koch 's postulates are the standard to establish a causative relationship between a microbe and a disease. Each species has specific effect and causes symptoms in people who are infected. Some, if not most people who are infected with a pathogenic bacteria do not have symptoms. Immuno - compromised individuals are more susceptible to pathogenic bacteria. Some pathogenic bacteria cause disease under certain conditions, such as entry through the skin via a cut, through sexual activity or through a compromised immune function. Streptococcus and Staphylococcus are part of the normal skin microbiota and typically reside on healthy skin or in the nasopharangeal region. Yet these species can potentially initiate skin infections. They are also able to cause sepsis, pneumonia or meningitis. These infections can become quite serious creating a systemic inflammatory response resulting in massive vasodilation, shock, and death. Other bacteria are opportunistic pathogens and cause disease mainly in people suffering from immunosuppression or cystic fibrosis. Examples of these opportunistic pathogens include Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Burkholderia cenocepacia, and Mycobacterium avium. Obligate intracellular parasites (e.g. Chlamydophila, Ehrlichia, Rickettsia) have the ability to only grow and replicate inside other cells. Even these intracellular infections may be asymptomatic, requiring an incubation period. An example of this is Rickettsia which causes typhus. Another causes Rocky Mountain spotted fever. Chlamydia is a phylum of intracellular parasites. These pathogens can cause pneumonia or urinary tract infection and may be involved in coronary heart disease. Other groups of intracellular bacterial pathogens include Salmonella, Neisseria, Brucella, Mycobacterium, Nocardia, Listeria, Francisella, Legionella, and Yersinia pestis. These can exist intracellularly, but can exist outside of host cells. Bacterial pathogens often cause infection in specific areas of the body. Others are generalists. Iron is required for humans, as well as the growth of most bacteria. To obtain free iron, some pathogens secrete proteins called siderophores, which take the iron away from iron - transport proteins by binding to the iron even more tightly. Once the iron - siderophore complex is formed, it is taken up by siderophore receptors on the bacterial surface and then that iron is brought into the bacterium. Once pathogens attach to host cells, they can cause direct damage as the pathogens use the host cell for nutrients and produce waste products. As pathogens multiply and divide inside host cells, the cells usually rupture and the intercellular bacteria are released. Some bacteria such as E. coli, Shigella, Salmonella, and Neisseria gonorrhoeae, can induce host epithelial cells to engulf them in a process resembling phagocytosis. The pathogens can then disrupt host cells as they pass through them and be extruded from host cells by a reverse phagocytosis process, enabling them to enter other host cells. Some bacteria can also penetrate host cells by excreting enzymes and by their own motility; such penetration can itself damage the host cell. Toxins are poisonous substances that are produced by certain microorganisms and are often the primary component of their pathogenic properties. Endotoxins are the lipid portions of lipopolysaccharides that are part of the outer membrane of the cell wall of gram negative bacteria. Endotoxins are released when the bacteria lyses, which is why after antibiotic treatment, symptoms can worsen at first as the bacteria are killed and they release their endotoxins. Exotoxins are proteins produced inside pathogenic bacteria as part of their growth and metabolism, most common in gram positive bacteria. The exotoxins are released when the bacteria die and the cell wall breaks apart. Exotoxins have highly specific effects on body tissues and work by destroying particular parts of the host cell or by inhibiting certain metabolic functions. Exotoxins are among the most lethal known substances; just 1 mg of the botulinum exotoxin is enough to kill one million guinea pigs. Diseases caused this way are often caused by minute amounts of exotoxins, not by the bacteria themselves. Typically identification is done by growing the organism in a wide range of cultures which can take up to 48 hours. The growth is then visually or genomically identified. The cultured organism is then subjected to various assays to observe reactions to help further identify species and strain. Bacterial infections may be treated with antibiotics, which are classified as bacteriocidal if they kill bacteria or bacteriostatic if they just prevent bacterial growth. There are many types of antibiotics and each class inhibits a process that is different in the pathogen from that found in the host. For example, the antibiotics chloramphenicol and tetracyclin inhibit the bacterial ribosome but not the structurally different eukaryotic ribosome, so they exhibit selective toxicity. Antibiotics are used both in treating human disease and in intensive farming to promote animal growth. Both uses may be contributing to the rapid development of antibiotic resistance in bacterial populations. Phage therapy can also be used to treat certain bacterial infections. Infections can be prevented by antiseptic measures such as sterilizing the skin prior to piercing it with the needle of a syringe and by proper care of indwelling catheters. Surgical and dental instruments are also sterilized to prevent infection by bacteria. Disinfectants such as bleach are used to kill bacteria or other pathogens on surfaces to prevent contamination and further reduce the risk of infection. Bacteria in food are killed by cooking to temperatures above 73 ° C (163 ° F). Many genera contain pathogenic bacteria species. They often possess characteristics that help to classify and organize them into groups. The following is a partial listing. This is description of the more common genera and species presented with their clinical characteristics and treatments. Contact with cattle, sheep, goats and horses Spores enter through inhalation or through abrasions Anthrax: pulmonary, gastrointestinal and / or cutaneous symptoms. Penicillin Doxycycline Ciprofloxacin Raxibacumab Anthrax vaccine Autoclaving of equipment Aspiration prevention Contact with respiratory droplets expelled by infected human hosts. Whooping cough Secondary bacterial pneumonia Pertussis vaccine, such as in DPT vaccine B. garinii B. afzelii Ixodes ticks reservoir in deer and mice Early stages of Lyme disease: Chronic Lyme disease: Relapsing fever: Wearing clothing that limits skin exposure to ticks. Insect repellent. Avoid areas where ticks are found. B. canis B. melitensis B. suis Direct contact with infected animal Oral, by ingestion of unpasteurized milk or milk products Brucellosis doxycycline streptomycin or gentamicin Fecal - oral from animals (mammals and fowl) Uncooked meat (especially poultry) Contaminated water Treat symptoms Fluoroquinolone such as ciprofloxacin in severe cases Good hygiene Avoiding contaminated water Pasteurizing milk and milk products Cooking meat (especially poultry) Respiratory droplets Doxycycline Erythromycin vaginal sex oral sex anal sex Vertical from mother to newborn (ICN) Direct or contaminated surfaces and flies (trachoma) Trachoma Neonatal conjunctivitis Neonatal pneumonia Nongonococcal urethritis (NGU) Urethritis Pelvic inflammatory disease Epididymitis Prostatitis Lymphogranuloma venereum (LGV) Erythromycin (adults) Doxycycline (infants and pregnant women) Erythromycin or silver nitrate in newborn 's eyes Safe sex Abstinence Tetracycline Doxycycline Erythromycin Botulism: Mainly muscle weakness and paralysis Antitoxin Penicillin Hyperbaric oxygen Mechanical ventilation Proper food preservation techniques Gut flora, overgrowing when other flora is depleted Pseudomembranous colitis Discontinuing responsible antibiotic Vancomycin or metronidazole if severe Spores in soil Vaginal flora and gut flora Anaerobic cellulitis Gas gangrene Acute food poisoning Debridement or amputation Hyperbaric medicine High doses of doxycycline or penicillin G and clindamycin Food poisoning: Supportive care is sufficient Spores in soil, skin penetration through wounds Tetanus Tetanus immune globulin Sedatives Muscle relaxants Mechanical ventilation Penicillin or metronidazole Tetanus vaccine (such as in the DPT vaccine) respiratory droplets part of human flora Diphtheria Horse serum antitoxin Erythromycin Penicillin DPT vaccine E. chaffeensis E. faecium Part of gut flora, opportunistic or entering through GI tract or urinary system wounds bacterial endocarditis biliary tract infections urinary tract infections Ampicillin (combined with aminoglycoside in endocarditis) Vancomycin No vaccine Hand washing and other nosocomial prevention (resistance - tests are required first) Meningitis: Diarrhea: (resistance - tests are required first) Heating water Prevention of exposure Lepromatous form: (difficult, see Tuberculosis treatment for more details) Standard "short '' course: Ophthalmia neonatorum: e.g. S. typhimurium S. dysenteriae Of the 59 species listed in the table with their clinical characteristics, 11 species (or 19 %) are known to be capable of natural genetic transformation. Natural transformation is a bacterial adaptation for transferring DNA from one cell to another. This process includes the uptake of exogenous DNA from a donor cell by a recipient cell and its incorporation into the recipient cell 's genome by recombination. Transformation appears to be an adaptation for repairing damage in the recipient cell 's DNA. Among pathogenic bacteria, transformation capability likely serves as an adaptation that facilitates survival and infectivity. The pathogenic bacteria able to carry out natural genetic transformation (of those listed in the table) are Campylobacter jejuni, Enterococcus faecalis, Haemophilus influenzae, Helicobacter pylori, Klebsiella pneumoniae, Legionella pneumophila, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, Neisseria meningitides, Staphylococcus aureus, Streptococcus pneumoniae and Vibrio cholerae.

what happens when electrolysis is carried out in water

Electrolysis of water - wikipedia Electrolysis of water is the decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen gas due to an electric current being passed through the water. The reaction has a standard potential of − 1.23 V, meaning it ideally requires a potential difference of 1.23 volts to split water. This technique can be used to make hydrogen fuel (hydrogen gas) and breathable oxygen; though currently most industrial methods make hydrogen fuel from natural gas instead. Jan Rudolph Deiman and Adriaan Paets van Troostwijk used, in 1789, an electrostatic machine to make electricity which was discharged on gold electrodes in a Leyden jar with water. In 1800 Alessandro Volta invented the voltaic pile, and a few weeks later William Nicholson and Anthony Carlisle used it for the electrolysis of water. When Zénobe Gramme invented the Gramme machine in 1869 electrolysis of water became a cheap method for the production of hydrogen. A method of industrial synthesis of hydrogen and oxygen through electrolysis was developed by Dmitry Lachinov in 1888. A DC electrical power source is connected to two electrodes, or two plates (typically made from some inert metal such as platinum, stainless steel or iridium) which are placed in the water. Hydrogen will appear at the cathode (where electrons enter the water), and oxygen will appear at the anode. Assuming ideal faradaic efficiency, the amount of hydrogen generated is twice the amount of oxygen, and both are proportional to the total electrical charge conducted by the solution. However, in many cells competing side reactions occur, resulting in different products and less than ideal faradaic efficiency. Electrolysis of pure water requires excess energy in the form of overpotential to overcome various activation barriers. Without the excess energy the electrolysis of pure water occurs very slowly or not at all. This is in part due to the limited self - ionization of water. Pure water has an electrical conductivity about one millionth that of seawater. Many electrolytic cells may also lack the requisite electrocatalysts. The efficiency of electrolysis is increased through the addition of an electrolyte (such as a salt, an acid or a base) and the use of electrocatalysts. Currently the electrolytic process is rarely used in industrial applications since hydrogen can currently be produced more affordably from fossil fuels. In pure water at the negatively charged cathode, a reduction reaction takes place, with electrons (e) from the cathode being given to hydrogen cations to form hydrogen gas. The half reaction, balanced with acid, is: At the positively charged anode, an oxidation reaction occurs, generating oxygen gas and giving electrons to the anode to complete the circuit: The same half reactions can also be balanced with base as listed below. Not all half reactions must be balanced with acid or base. Many do, like the oxidation or reduction of water listed here. To add half reactions they must both be balanced with either acid or base. The acid - balanced reactions predominate in acidic (low pH) solutions, while the base - balanced reactions predominate in basic (high pH) solutions. Combining either half reaction pair yields the same overall decomposition of water into oxygen and hydrogen: The number of hydrogen molecules produced is thus twice the number of oxygen molecules. Assuming equal temperature and pressure for both gases, the produced hydrogen gas has therefore twice the volume of the produced oxygen gas. The number of electrons pushed through the water is twice the number of generated hydrogen molecules and four times the number of generated oxygen molecules. Decomposition of pure water into hydrogen and oxygen at standard temperature and pressure is not favorable in thermodynamic terms. Thus, the standard potential of the water electrolysis cell (E = E − E) is − 1.23 V at 25 ° C at pH 0 ((H) = 1.0 M). At 25 ° C with pH 7 ((H) = 1.0 × 10 M), the potential is unchanged based on the Nernst equation. The thermodynamic standard cell potential can be obtained from standard - state free energy calculations to find ΔG ° and then using the equation: ΔG ° = - nFE ° (where E ° is the cell potential). In practice when an electrochemical cell is "driven '' toward completion by applying reasonable potential, it is kinetically controlled. Therefore, activation energy, ion mobility (diffusion) and concentration, wire resistance, surface hindrance including bubble formation (causes electrode area blockage), and entropy, require a greater applied potential to overcome these factors. The amount of increase in potential required is termed the overpotential. If the above described processes occur in pure water, H cations will accumulate at the cathode and OH anions will accumulate at the anode. This can be verified by adding a pH indicator to the water: the water near the anode is basic while the water near the cathode is acidic. The negative hydroxide ions that approach the anode mostly combine with the positive hydronium ions (H O) to form water. The positive hydronium ions that approach the cathode mostly combine with negative hydroxide ions to form water. Relatively few hydronium / hydroxide ions reach the cathode / anode. This can cause a concentration overpotential at both electrodes. Pure water is a fairly good insulator since it has a low autoionization, K = 1.0 × 10 at room temperature and thus pure water conducts current poorly, 0.055 μS cm. Unless a very large potential is applied to cause an increase in the autoionization of water the electrolysis of pure water proceeds very slowly limited by the overall conductivity. If a water - soluble electrolyte is added, the conductivity of the water rises considerably. The electrolyte disassociates into cations and anions; the anions rush towards the anode and neutralize the buildup of positively charged H there; similarly, the cations rush towards the cathode and neutralize the buildup of negatively charged OH there. This allows the continued flow of electricity. Care must be taken in choosing an electrolyte, since an anion from the electrolyte is in competition with the hydroxide ions to give up an electron. An electrolyte anion with less standard electrode potential than hydroxide will be oxidized instead of the hydroxide, and no oxygen gas will be produced. A cation with a greater standard electrode potential than a hydrogen ion will be reduced in its stead, and no hydrogen gas will be produced. The following cations have lower electrode potential than H and are therefore suitable for use as electrolyte cations: Li, Rb, K, Cs, Ba, Sr, Ca, Na, and Mg. Sodium and lithium are frequently used, as they form inexpensive, soluble salts. If an acid is used as the electrolyte, the cation is H, and there is no competitor for the H created by disassociating water. The most commonly used anion is sulfate (SO 2 − 4), as it is very difficult to oxidize, with the standard potential for oxidation of this ion to the peroxydisulfate ion being − 2.05 volts. Strong acids such as sulfuric acid (H SO), and strong bases such as potassium hydroxide (KOH), and sodium hydroxide (NaOH) are frequently used as electrolytes due to their strong conducting abilities. A solid polymer electrolyte can also be used such as Nafion and when applied with a special catalyst on each side of the membrane can efficiently split the water molecule with as little as 1.5 Volts. There are also a number of other solid electrolyte systems that have been trialled and developed with a number of electrolysis systems now available commercially that use solid electrolytes. Two leads, running from the terminals of a battery, are placed in a cup of water with a quantity of electrolyte to establish conductivity in the solution. Using NaCl (table salt) in an electrolyte solution results in chlorine gas rather than oxygen due to a competing half - reaction. With the correct electrodes and correct electrolyte, such as baking soda (sodium bicarbonate), hydrogen and oxygen gases will stream from the oppositely charged electrodes. Oxygen will collect at the positively charged electrode (anode) and hydrogen will collect at the negatively charged electrode (cathode). Note that hydrogen is positively charged in the H O molecule, so it ends up at the negative electrode. (And vice versa for oxygen.) Note that an aqueous solution of water with chloride ions, when electrolysed, will result in either OH if the concentration of Cl is low, or in chlorine gas being preferentially discharged if the concentration of Cl is greater than 25 % by mass in the solution. The Hofmann voltameter is often used as a small - scale electrolytic cell. It consists of three joined upright cylinders. The inner cylinder is open at the top to allow the addition of water and the electrolyte. A platinum electrode is placed at the bottom of each of the two side cylinders, connected to the positive and negative terminals of a source of electricity. When current is run through the Hofmann voltameter, gaseous oxygen forms at the anode (positive) and gaseous hydrogen at the cathode (negative). Each gas displaces water and collects at the top of the two outer tubes, where it can be drawn off with a stopcock. Many industrial electrolysis cells are very similar to Hofmann voltameters, with complex platinum plates or honeycombs as electrodes. Generally the only time hydrogen is intentionally produced from electrolysis is for specific point of use application such as is the case with oxyhydrogen torches or when extremely high purity hydrogen or oxygen is desired. The vast majority of hydrogen is produced from hydrocarbons and as a result contains trace amounts of carbon monoxide among other impurities. The carbon monoxide impurity can be detrimental to various systems including many fuel cells. High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water with a compressed hydrogen output around 120 -- 200 Bar (1740 -- 2900 psi). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated; the average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3 %. High - temperature electrolysis (also HTE or steam electrolysis) is a method currently being investigated for water electrolysis with a heat engine. High temperature electrolysis may be preferable to traditional room - temperature electrolysis because some of the energy is supplied as heat, which is cheaper than electricity, and because the electrolysis reaction is more efficient at higher temperatures. In 2014, researchers announced an electrolysis system made of inexpensive, abundant nickel and iron rather than precious metal catalysts, such as platinum or iridium. The nickel - metal / nickel - oxide structure is more active than pure nickel metal or pure nickel oxide alone. The catalyst significantly lowers the required voltage. Also nickel -- iron batteries are being investigated for use as combined batteries and electrolysis for hydrogen production. Those "battolysers '' could be charged and discharged like conventional batteries, and would produce hydrogen when fully charged. About five percent of hydrogen gas produced worldwide is created by electrolysis. The majority of this hydrogen produced through electrolysis is a side product in the production of chlorine and caustic soda. This is a prime example of a competing side reaction. The electrolysis of brine, a water / sodium chloride mixture, is only half the electrolysis of water since the chloride ions are oxidized to chlorine rather than water being oxidized to oxygen. Thermodynamically, this would not be expected since the oxidation potential of the chloride ion is less than that of water, but the rate of the chloride reaction is much greater than that of water, causing it to predominate. The hydrogen produced from this process is either burned (converting it back to water), used for the production of specialty chemicals, or various other small - scale applications. Water electrolysis is also used to generate oxygen for the International Space Station. Hydrogen may later be used in a fuel cell as a storage method of energy and water. Efficiency of modern hydrogen generators is measured by energy consumed per standard volume of hydrogen (MJ / m), assuming standard temperature and pressure of the H. The lower the energy used by a generator, the higher would be its efficiency; a 100 % - efficient electrolyser would consume 39.4 kilowatt - hours per kilogram (142 MJ / kg) of hydrogen, 12,749 joules per litre (12.75 MJ / m). Practical electrolysis (using a rotating electrolyser at 15 bar pressure) may consume 50 kilowatt - hours per kilogram (180 MJ / kg), and a further 15 kilowatt - hours (54 MJ) if the hydrogen is compressed for use in hydrogen cars. Electrolyser vendors provide efficiencies based on enthalpy. To assess the claimed efficiency of an electrolyser it is important to establish how it was defined by the vendor (i.e. what enthalpy value, what current density, etc.). There are two main technologies available on the market, alkaline and proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolysers. Alkaline electrolysers are cheaper in terms of investment (they generally use nickel catalysts), but less efficient; PEM electrolysers, conversely, are more expensive (they generally use expensive platinum - group metal catalysts) but are more efficient and can operate at higher current densities, and can therefore be possibly cheaper if the hydrogen production is large enough. Reported working efficiencies were for alkaline in 1996 lying in the 50 -- 60 % range for the smaller electrolysers and around 65 -- 70 % for the larger plants. Theorical efficiency for PEM electrolysers are predicted up to 94 %. Ranges in 2014 were 43 -- 67 % for the alkaline and 40 -- 67 % for the PEM, they should progress in 2030 to 53 -- 70 % for the alkaline and 62 -- 74 % for the PEM. Real water electrolysers require higher voltages for the reaction to proceed. The part that exceeds 1.23 V is called overpotential or overvoltage, and represents any kind of loss and nonideality in the electrochemical process. For a well designed cell the largest overpotential is the reaction overpotential for the four - electron oxidation of water to oxygen at the anode; electrocatalysts can facilitate this reaction, and platinum alloys are the state of the art for this oxidation. Developing a cheap, effective electrocatalyst for this reaction would be a great advance, and is a topic of current research; there are many approaches, among them a 30 - year - old recipe for molybdenum sulfide, graphene quantum dots, carbon nanotubes, perovskite, and nickel / nickel - oxide. The simpler two - electron reaction to produce hydrogen at the cathode can be electrocatalyzed with almost no overpotential by platinum, or in theory a hydrogenase enzyme. If other, less effective, materials are used for the cathode (e.g. graphite), large overpotentials will appear. The electrolysis of water in standard conditions requires a theoretical minimum of 237 kJ of electrical energy input to dissociate each mole of water, which is the standard Gibbs free energy of formation of water. It also requires energy to overcome the change in entropy of the reaction. Therefore, the process can not proceed below 286 kJ per mol if no external heat / energy is added. Since each mole of water requires two moles of electrons, and given that the Faraday constant F represents the charge of a mole of electrons (96485 C / mol), it follows that the minimum voltage necessary for electrolysis is about 1.23 V. If electrolysis is carried out at high temperature, this voltage reduces. This effectively allows the electrolyser to operate at more than 100 % electrical efficiency. In electrochemical systems this means that heat must be supplied to the reactor to sustain the reaction. In this way thermal energy can be used for part of the electrolysis energy requirement. In a similar way the required voltage can be reduced (below 1 V) if fuels (such as carbon, alcohol, biomass) are reacted with water (PEM based electrolyzer in low temperature) or oxygen ions (solid oxide electrolyte based electrolyzer in high temperature). This results in some of the fuel 's energy being used to "assist '' the electrolysis process and can reduce the overall cost of hydrogen produced. However, observing the entropy component (and other losses), voltages over 1.48 V are required for the reaction to proceed at practical current densities (the thermoneutral voltage). In the case of water electrolysis, Gibbs free energy represents the minimum work necessary for the reaction to proceed, and the reaction enthalpy is the amount of energy (both work and heat) that has to be provided so the reaction products are at the same temperature as the reactant (i.e. standard temperature for the values given above). Potentially, an electrolyser operating at 1.48 V would be 100 % efficient.

who is the main character in inside out

Inside Out (2015 film) - Wikipedia Inside Out is a 2015 American 3D computer - animated comedy - drama film produced by Pixar Animation Studios and released by Walt Disney Pictures. The film was directed by Pete Docter and co-directed by Ronnie del Carmen, with a screenplay written by Docter, Meg LeFauve and Josh Cooley, adapted from a story by Docter and del Carmen. The film is set in the mind of a young girl named Riley Andersen (Kaitlyn Dias), where five personified emotions -- Joy (Amy Poehler), Sadness (Phyllis Smith), Anger (Lewis Black), Fear (Bill Hader) and Disgust (Mindy Kaling) -- try to lead her through life as her parents (Diane Lane and Kyle MacLachlan) move from Minnesota to San Francisco, and she has to adjust to her new surroundings. Docter first began developing Inside Out in 2010, after noticing changes in his daughter 's personality as she grew older. The film 's producers consulted numerous psychologists including Dacher Keltner from the University of California, Berkeley, who helped revise the story by emphasizing the neuropsychological findings that human emotions affect interpersonal relationships and can be significantly moderated by them. After premiering at the 68th Cannes Film Festival on May 18, 2015, Inside Out was released in North America on June 19, 2015, accompanied by the short film Lava. Critics praised the film 's concept, screenplay, subject matter, Michael Giacchino 's musical score, and the vocal performances, particularly those of Poehler, Smith, and Kind. The film grossed $90.4 million in its first weekend, making it the highest opening for an original title at the time, accumulating over $857 million in worldwide box office revenue in 2015, making it the seventh highest - grossing film of 2015. The film received several awards, including a BAFTA Award, Golden Globe Award, Critics ' Choice Award, Annie Award, Satellite Award, and Academy Award for Best Animated Feature. Riley Andersen is born in Minnesota and within her mind, five personifications of her basic emotions -- Joy, Sadness, Fear, Disgust, and Anger -- gradually come to life and influence her actions via a console in her mind 's Headquarters. As she grows up, her experiences become memories, stored in colored orbs, with each color corresponding to an emotion, which are sent into long - term memory each night. Her five most important "core memories '' (all of which are happy ones) are housed in a hub; each powers an aspect of her personality which takes the form of floating islands. In the Headquarters, Joy acts as a de facto leader to maintain Riley 's cheerful childhood, but since she and the other emotions do not understand Sadness ' purpose, she frequently tries to keep Sadness away from the console. At the age of 11, Riley and her parents move to San Francisco for her father 's new business. Riley has poor first experiences: the new house is cramped and old, the moving van with all their belongings is misdirected, her father is under stress from his business, and a poor encounter at a pizza restaurant leaves her disheartened. When Sadness begins touching Riley 's happy memories, turning them sad, Joy tries to guard them by isolating her. On Riley 's first day at her new school, Sadness accidentally causes Riley to cry in front of her class, creating a sad core memory. Joy, panicking, tries to dispose of it, but accidentally knocks the other core memories loose during a struggle with Sadness, deactivating the personality islands. Joy, Sadness, and the core memories are sucked out of Headquarters and taken to the maze - like storage area of long - term memory. The other emotions, Anger, Fear, and Disgust try to maintain Riley 's happiness in Joy 's absence with disastrous results, distancing her from her parents (whom she fought over at dinner), friends, and hobbies (she stormed off during a hockey trial due to her subpar performance). As a result, her personality islands gradually crumble and fall, one by one, into the "Memory Dump '', an abyss where memories are forgotten. In desperation, Anger inserts an idea into the console, prompting Riley to run away, believing that her returning to Minnesota will enable her to make new happy core memories. While navigating through the long - term memory region, Joy and Sadness encounter Bing Bong, Riley 's long - forgotten childhood imaginary friend, who suggests riding the train of thought back to Headquarters. En route to the train station, Bing Bong tearfully watches his rainbow wagon rocket being thrown into the memory dump along with other childish artifacts which are out of use as Sadness consoles him and gets him up on his feet by sympathizing his loss, which astonishes Joy. The three eventually catch the train, but it is halted when Riley falls asleep. They succeed in manipulating Riley 's dreams to wake her and restart the train, but it is derailed when the "Honesty Island '' collapses (when Riley steals her mother 's credit card and begins to run away). In desperation, Joy tries to ride a "recall tube '' back to Headquarters, but abandons Sadness since close proximity to Sadness will cause the core memories to turn sad, which Joy believes will hurt Riley. But as she takes off, the ground below the tube collapses, breaking the tube and plunging Joy and Bing Bong into the Memory Dump. At the bottom of the abyss, Joy begins to lose hope and breaks into tears, but comes to a realization when she discovers a sad memory of an ice hockey game that turned happy when Riley 's parents and friends comforted her. Joy realizes that Sadness serves an important purpose: to induce empathy in others, prompting them to reach out to Riley when she is emotionally overwhelmed and needs help. Joy and Bing Bong try to use Bing Bong 's old wagon rocket to escape the Memory Dump. After several tries, Bing Bong realizes their combined weight is too much and jumps out to allow Joy to escape; having sacrificed himself, Bing Bong fades away completely. In the meantime, Riley bought a one - way bus ticket to Minnesota while her parents grew increasingly worried over her disappearance. Joy reunites with a despondent Sadness and manages to get them to Headquarters, only to discover that Anger 's idea has disabled the console, rendering Riley apathetic. To the surprise of the others, Joy hands control of the console to Sadness, who is able to successfully extract the idea, reactivating the console and prompting Riley to alight from the bus and to return home. As Sadness re-installs the core memories, turning them sad, Riley arrives home to her parents and tearfully confesses that she misses Minnesota and her old life. As her parents comfort her, they emotionally admit they, too, miss Minnesota as much as she does. Joy and Sadness work the console together, creating a new amalgamated bitter - sweet core memory in Riley 's Headquarters; a new island forms, representing Riley 's acceptance of her new life in San Francisco. A year later at the age of 12, Riley has adapted to her new home, made new friends, returned to her old hobbies while adopting a few new ones, fueled by new, more nuanced core memories from combinations of her emotions. Inside the Headquarters, her emotions all work together on a newly expanded console with room for them all, allowing Riley to lead a more emotionally complex life. Several of the filmmakers also contributed some voice acting, including director Pete Docter as Father 's Anger, and co-writer Ronnie del Carmen as one of the abstract thought mind workers. As a child, director Pete Docter relocated with his family to Denmark when his father moved to study the music of Carl Nielsen. While his sisters had an easy time adjusting to the new surroundings, Docter felt he was judged constantly by peers. While other kids were interested in sports, Docter sat alone drawing, a hobby that eventually led him to animation. His social anxiety ended by high school. In late 2009, Docter noticed his pre-teen daughter, Elie, exhibiting similar shyness. "She started getting more quiet and reserved, and that, frankly, triggered a lot of my own insecurities and fears, '' he said. He imagined what happens in the human mind when emotions set in. The idea to depict it through animation excited Docter, who felt it the ideal form to portray "strong, opinionated, caricatured personalities. '' He began researching information about the mind, alongside Jonas Rivera, a producer, and Ronnie del Carmen, a secondary director. They consulted Paul Ekman, a well - known psychologist who studies emotions, and Dacher Keltner, a professor of psychology at the University of California, Berkeley. Ekman had early in his career identified six core emotions -- anger, fear, sadness, disgust, joy, and surprise. Docter found surprise and fear to be too similar, which left him with five emotions to build characters around. Other emotions considered for inclusion during the development process were schadenfreude, ennui, pride, and hope. Keltner focused on sadness being an emotion that strengthens relationships. Both emphasized how emotions organize social lives and the structuring of interpersonal interactions. The smash success of Docter 's 2009 film Up encouraged those at Pixar to allow Docter to create another film with a more sophisticated story. Inside Out is the first Pixar film without input from co-founder and former Apple CEO Steve Jobs, who died in 2011. In addition, the film did not have as much input from chief creative officer John Lasseter, who was focused on restructuring Walt Disney Animation Studios in Burbank at the time of its production. Executives at Disney and Pixar were positive at the proposal of making Inside Out, but acknowledged it would be difficult to market. Docter recruited a story crew to help develop the film 's plot line. Although animation as an industry had been dominated by men, half of the story crew were women, in an attempt to have more diverse input. The choice to focus the film on a girl came from research that claimed that females age 11 to 17 are more attuned to expressions and emotions than others. The idea to have Riley play hockey came from Del Carmen, who observed that the sport is very popular in Minnesota. They tried to stray away from stereotypically feminine interests, such as the color pink or dresses. Initial ideas for the film found the main character, Riley, falling into a deep depression: Docter later felt they were inappropriate and scrapped them, although in the final film Riley does sink into a depression. The film was first storyboarded over a period of two to three years, all the while undergoing screenings for Pixar 's "Brain Trust, '' a small group of creative leaders at Pixar who oversee development on all films. After multiple screenings and suggestions from other filmmakers, the picture was put into production. It was again evaluated three months into that process. Kevin Nolting, editor of the film, estimated there were seven versions of Inside Out created before it even went into production. The story team attempted to create as much contrast with characters as possible. They found Joy the most complex character to write for, as she illustrates a broad range of "happy feelings. '' The earliest idea present in the final film is that Joy holds onto youth too long, setting about a "social storm '' for Riley. It was not until several screenings later that they came upon the concept of moving to a new place, which created an external conflict that made the story easier to write. Initially, this crisis was to be set at a Thanksgiving Day pageant, in which Riley was hoping to be cast as its lead role, the turkey. Docter later deemed this idea too "bizarre '' and it was replaced. Docter estimated it took four years of development for the film to achieve success in marrying the architecture of Riley 's mind and her personal troubles. The concept of "personality islands '' helped develop the film 's emotional stakes, as they directly affect events inside her mind and in her life. In one draft, the characters fell into "Idea Fields, '' where they would "cultivate new ideas, '' much like a farmer would cultivate crop. The character of Bing Bong -- a discarded old imaginary friend -- came about in one draft of the film as part of a refugee camp inside Riley 's mind. It was difficult to achieve the correct tone for the film; for example, viewers could not be distracted by Joy 's nature or feel negative about the mess she helps steer Riley into. Rivera credited the casting of Amy Poehler, in addition to the idea of moving, with helping the film find the right tone. An early version of the film focused on Joy and Fear getting lost together, as it seemed to be the most humorous choice. By July 2012, the project was set for an evaluation screening with other Pixar filmmakers. Docter gradually began to feel that the story was not working, which made him think that he might get fired. He took a long walk one Sunday, where he began to consider himself a failure, and that he should resign from the film. While pondering what he would miss about Pixar, he concluded that he would miss his coworkers and friends most of all. He soon reached a breakthrough: that emotions are meant to connect people together, and that relationships are the most important things in life. He decided to replace Fear with Sadness, which he felt is crucial to renewal. He met with Rivera and Del Carmen that night to explain his change of plans, and to his surprise, they reacted positively to it. At the screening, he informed his superiors that new plans for the film were in order. Although it was a "scary moment '', the film remained in production. Screenwriter Michael Arndt initially worked for a year on the film 's script, calling it "both a brilliantly creative idea but also incredibly challenging, '' but left the project in early 2011, adding that "knowing the Pixar process, there may not be a single word (I wrote) that remains in the final script! They 've had writers work on it since then. '' Josh Cooley and Meg LeFauve were credited as co-writers of the screenplay following their contributions during the rewrite. Like Docter, Cooley and LeFauve included experiences with raising their own children into the screenplay. Cooley said "... we treated the emotions like parents for Riley and because all of us in the writing room are parents ourselves, we just reflected on our own experiences as parents to create the characters. '' Despite his departure, Arndt received an ' Additional Story Material ' credit. The film 's voice cast of emotions, Amy Poehler, Lewis Black, Mindy Kaling, Bill Hader, and Phyllis Smith, were first announced in August 2013. With the release of the film 's trailer in December 2014, it was revealed that Diane Lane and Kyle MacLachlan were cast in the film as Riley 's parents. Hader, who had previously cameoed in Monsters University, was cast to voice Fear, a role that he felt he "weaseled '' his way into by being a "huge fan '' of Pixar 's filmography. Hader toured the studio over a week, and also "helped out '' in the story room. He was invited to play Fear by the end of his stay there, but was also asked to contact fellow Saturday Night Live (SNL) veteran Amy Poehler, whom the team viewed as perfect for the character of Joy. "They said: ' Would you mind calling Amy? We do n't want to call her and have her think we 're some weirdo, ' '' he recalled. He phoned Poehler and explained the story to her, noting that her role would be the driving force in the film. When the story was pitched to Kaling, she broke down in tears, explaining "I just think it 's really beautiful that you guys are making a story that tells kids that it 's difficult to grow up and it 's OK to be sad about it. '' Smith was chosen by Rivera while he was watching Bad Teacher and saw her in a lunch scene. He called Docter and said "I think we found our Sadness. '' As the film contains several veterans of SNL, the film 's team spent a week at that program for research on a live television sequence. Richard Kind, who had previously starred in A Bug 's Life, the Cars series, and Toy Story 3, portrayed Bing Bong. Kind tried to convey the same "sort of innocence '' of his previous Pixar roles, and wound up not taking part in pre-release promotion as the producers decided to keep the character a secret. The film 's art design is intended to reflect 1950s Broadway musicals. Docter imagined that with emotions for characters, they could "push the level of caricature both in the design and in the style of movement to degrees (they 'd) never done before. '' To this end, they emulated animators Tex Avery and Chuck Jones. Docter informed supervising animators Shawn Krause and Victor Navone to push the graphic caricature of each character rather than sticking to the rigid behavior of each RenderMan model. This required an artist to draw over characters in the film during dailies, using a Wacom Cintiq. One of the first scenes the team worked on was the dinnertime scene, in which viewers rapidly switch between the real world and Headquarters inside the family 's minds. In envisaging how the mind 's interior would be depicted, the filmmakers concentrated on the word electrochemical; Ralph Eggleston, the film 's production designer, explained, "It meant thinking of things as energy or energy - based, excitable. '' Each emotion has a glowing, "effervescent quality '' to them (particularly Joy), which was difficult to animate as it could be viewed as distracting. "The characters are created with this energy because we are trying to represent what emotions would look like. They are made up of particles that actually move. Instead of being skin and solid, it is a massive collection of energy, '' Docter remarked. The team worked for eight months on Joy 's "sparkly '' aura, but was prepared to delete it, as it would affect the film 's budget. However, Lasseter requested that it be applied for each emotion. "You could hear the core technical staff just hitting the ground, the budget falling through the roof, '' recalled Eggleston. The film is localized to accommodate international audiences: in the Japanese version, for example, Riley is disgusted by green bell peppers, rather than by broccoli (the only topping offered by the local pizzeria), to reflect the fact that broccoli is generally less undesirable to Japanese children. Michael Giacchino composed the film 's score; this was his fifth collaboration with Pixar and his second collaboration with Docter after Up. The producers first met with Giacchino to explain the film 's concept and screen it for him. In response, he composed an eight - minute suite of music, unconnected to the film, based on his emotions viewing it. Rivera noted that while both Giacchino and Docter were musicians, they discussed the film in terms of story and character. Walt Disney Records released the soundtrack on June 16, 2015. All music composed by Michael Giacchino. Inside Out was first announced in August 2011 at the D23 Expo. In December 2012, Bleeding Cool reported the title of the film would be The Inside Out, while ComingSoon.net reported it would be Inside Out the following February. In April 2013, Disney officially announced the title on Twitter as Inside Out, during CinemaCon. Prior to its release, the film underwent a test screening for children, due to concerns from executives that it would be too complex for younger audiences -- a fear quelled when the audience reacted positively to the picture. The film premiered on May 18, 2015, at the 68th Cannes Film Festival, in an out - of - competition screening. In the United States, it premiered on June 8, 2015, at the El Capitan Theatre in Hollywood, and received a wide theatrical release starting on June 19, 2015, in 2D, 3D, and select IMAX 3D theatres. It was the first animated movie to be released in Dolby Vision format in Dolby Cinema and the second for Disney following Tomorrowland. Also notable was the fact that it was one of two feature films (the other being The Good Dinosaur) released by Pixar in the same calendar year, a first for the company. A short animated film, titled Lava, accompanied Inside Out during its theatrical release. This musical love story was directed by James Ford Murphy and produced by Andrea Warren. The story was inspired by the isolated beauty of tropical islands and the explosive allure of ocean volcanoes, and takes place over millions of years. On June 18, 2015, Skype added faces of the five "emotions '' of the film as emoticons available for use in its IM service for the next three months, later leaving them as standard. Inside Out was released by Walt Disney Studios Home Entertainment on Blu - ray (2D and 3D) and DVD on November 3, 2015, while a digital release was released on October 13, 2015. The Pixar 's theatrical short, Lava, was included. A short film set in the world of Inside Out, titled Riley 's First Date?, and directed by Josh Cooley, the head of story on the film, was included exclusively in the Blu - ray and the digital release. An Inside Out play set featuring all five emotions as playable characters was made available for Disney Infinity 3.0. A mobile game, Inside Out: Thought Bubbles, was released on June 18, 2015, by Disney Mobile Games on Apple App Store, Google Play, Amazon Appstore, Windows Store, and Windows Phone Store. Playing as Riley 's emotions, players have to match and sort memory bubbles through 485 levels (as of May 2016) inspired by the film 's locations. Inside Out grossed $356.5 million in the USA & Canada and $501.1 million in other countries, for a worldwide total of $857.6 million against a budget of $175 million. Deadline.com calculated the net profit of the film to be $279.51 million, when factoring together all expenses and revenues for the film. Worldwide, it is the seventh - highest - grossing film of 2015 (placing second among animated films behind only Minions), the fourth - highest - grossing Pixar film, and the thirteenth - highest - grossing animated film of all time. Inside Out opened across 3,946 theaters in the United States and Canada, of which 3,100 showed the film in 3D. It grossed $3.7 million during its Thursday night showings. This was a record among Pixar films that had Thursday night showings, but behind Toy Story 3 's $4 million midnight showing. The film then earned $34.3 million on its opening day, which is the third largest opening day for a Pixar film behind Toy Story 3 ($41.1 million) and Finding Dory ($54.7 million). It ended its opening weekend in second place with $90.4 million, behind the second - weekend gross of dinosaur thriller Jurassic World ($106.6 million). Although it was Pixar 's first film not to debut at No. 1, its opening - weekend gross was still the biggest for a Pixar original film (breaking The Incredibles ' record), the studio 's third - biggest of all time (behind Finding Dory and Toy Story 3), the biggest weekend debut for a film that did not debut at No. 1 (breaking The Day After Tomorrow 's record), and the top opening for any original film, live - action or otherwise, not based on sourced material, eclipsing the $77 million debut of Avatar (overtaken by The Secret Life of Pets). The film 's successful opening has been attributed to its Cannes premiere, CinemaCon press screening, its critical reception (particularly the 98 % Rotten Tomatoes score), good word - of - mouth, Father 's Day weekend, and a successful Tuesday - night Fathom screening. In its second weekend, the film fell by 42 % to $52.3 million and still held the second spot behind Jurassic World; the rest of the week saw it slightly ahead of the latter. Inside Out reached the No. 1 spot at the box office in its third weekend with $29.8 million. Overall, IMAX contributed 10 % or $36 million (as of September 4, 2015) of its total North American revenue. It ended up grossing a total of $356.5 million and became the third - highest - grossing Pixar film (behind Finding Dory and Toy Story 3), the fourth - highest - grossing film of 2015, the ninth - highest - grossing animated film of all time (the highest of 2015), and the 35th - highest - grossing film of all time. Outside North America, the film earned an estimated $40.3 million on its opening weekend from 37 countries, which is 42 % of the entire international market. Its largest openings were recorded in China ($11.7 million); the UK, Ireland and Malta ($11.4 million); Mexico ($8.6 million), Russia and the CIS ($7.6 million), Italy ($7.4 million), Germany ($7.1 million), and South Korea ($5.1 million). In total earnings, its largest markets outside the U.S. and Canada are the United Kingdom ($58.1 million), South Korea ($31.7 million), and Mexico ($31 million). It became the highest - grossing Disney animated or Pixar film of all time in Mexico (ahead of Frozen), the Philippines (ahead of Big Hero 6), India, and Ukraine and in Russia, it is the second - highest - grossing Disney or Pixar film and the first Pixar film to exceed one billion rubles. Review aggregator website Rotten Tomatoes gives the film a rating of 98 %, based on 331 reviews, with a rating average of 8.9 / 10. The site 's critical consensus reads, "Inventive, gorgeously animated, and powerfully moving, Inside Out is another outstanding addition to the Pixar library of modern animated classics. '' The film also topped the site 's Top 100 Animation Movies list and occupies the third - highest position of a film released in the 21st century on the Top 100 Movies of All Time list at number 8. On Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating, the film has a score of 94 out of 100, based on 55 critics, indicating "universal acclaim. '' In CinemaScore polls, cinema audiences gave Inside Out an average score of "A '' on an A+ to F scale. Prior to its release, there was concern among the general public that Pixar films were declining in quality, with an over-reliance on sequels. Likewise, DreamWorks Animation was beginning to flounder in the early 2010s as several films performed below expectations at the box office, leading to speculation that the "genre '' of computer animation was "in a funk. '' Inside Out has been hailed as a return to form for Pixar by numerous film critics. Following an advance screening at CinemaCon on April 22, 2015, the film was well received by audiences. Praise was aimed for its smart storyline, although some wondered whether the concept was too complicated for young audiences and to attract family crowds. After premiering at the 2015 Cannes Film Festival, the film attracted praise from film critics. Peter Debruge of Variety was effusive, calling it the studio 's "greatest idea '' and "a stunningly original concept that (...) promises to forever change the way people think about the way people think. '' The Chicago Tribune 's Michael Phillips called it the studio 's best since Up (also directed by Docter), a "consistently inventive and a heartening corrective to recent, stockholder - driven inferiorities. '' Todd McCarthy of The Hollywood Reporter deemed it an "audacious concept '' that stands among the most "conceptually trippy films '' for family audiences. "With its quite literally cerebral bent, I think Inside Out might have some trouble fully connecting with younger kids, but grown - ups are likely to shed more than a few tears, '' remarked Richard Lawson of Vanity Fair. The Guardian 's Peter Bradshaw felt it "buoyant and sweet - natured, '' though slightly inferior to Pixar 's best. Ignatiy Vishnevetsky of The A.V. Club, while overall positive on the film, said it "trades the wordless gracefulness and sense of discovery of the animation studio 's best work for explanatory voice - over and nonstop exposition, '' also arguing that the Pixar animators could have been more visually adventurous to match the conceptual ambition. As the film went into wide release, it continued to attract acclaim. Aside from naming it the best film of 2015, Kristopher Tapley of HitFix called it as "one of the best films of the 21st century. '' A.O. Scott of The New York Times deemed the film "an absolute delight, '' reserving particular praise for its "defense of sorrow, an argument for the necessity of melancholy dressed in the bright colors of entertainment. '' The Washington Post 's Ann Hornaday considered it "that rare movie that transcends its role as pure entertainment to become something genuinely cathartic, even therapeutic, giving children a symbolic language with which to manage their unruliest emotions. '' Richard Roeper of the Chicago Sun - Times found it "bold, gorgeous, sweet, funny, (and) sometimes heartbreakingly sad, '' deeming it one of the best films of the year. Entertainment Weekly 's Chris Nashawathy extolled it as "transcendent and touching (...) so smart and psychologically clever. '' Time 's Mary Pols felt it a "nearly hallucinogenic, entirely beautiful '' work that "defies the conventions of family movies. '' Christopher Orr of The Atlantic urged readers to view the picture, calling it "Pixar once again at the top of its game, telling the kind of thoughtful, moving meta - story it 's hard to imagine being produced anywhere else. '' Wai Chee Dimock in the Los Angeles Review of Books compared the film to the work of neuroscientists Antonio Damasio, Dacher Keltner, and Oliver Sacks. Betsy Bozdech of Common Sense Media gave the movie 5 stars, stating that "' Inside Out ' is creative, clever, heartfelt, and beautifully animated. '' Inside Out received fifteen Best Picture, twenty - one Best Original Screenplay, and forty Best Animated Feature nominations from over 50 different organizations and associations. It won the Academy Award for Best Animated Feature and was nominated for the Academy Award for Best Original Screenplay at the 88th Academy Awards held in 2016. It received ten out of fourteen Annie Awards at the 43rd Annie Awards, including Outstanding Achievement in Directing in an Animated Feature Production for Docter, Outstanding Achievement in Voice Acting in an Animated Feature Production for Smith and Best Animated Feature. The American Film Institute selected Inside Out as one of the Top Ten Films of the Year. The film received the Golden Globe Award for Best Animated Feature Film at the 73rd Golden Globe Awards. It received three Critics ' Choice Movie Award nominations including the win for Best Animated Feature. The New York Film Critics Circle awarded Inside Out for Best Animated Film and it was named Film of the Year by National Board of Review with also winning Best Animated Film. The film was runner - up for Best Animated Film at Los Angeles Film Critics Association Awards and at San Diego Film Critics Society Awards. It received four nominations from Satellite Awards including Best Original Screenplay, Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature, and Best Original Score. It took the Satellite Award for Best Animated or Mixed Media Feature. The film won the award for Best Animated Film at the 69th British Academy Film Awards in London, England, and was also nominated for Best Original Screenplay (losing to Spotlight). The film also received a Robert Award for Best American Film nomination and a David di Donatello for Best Foreign Film nomination, the Danish and Italian equivalent of the Academy Awards, respectively. In 2016, the film was ranked at number 41 on BBC 's 100 Greatest Films of the 21st Century list, a poll of 177 film critics from around the world. It was also named the seventh "Best Film of the 21st Century So Far '' in 2017 by The New York Times. On June 24, 2015, when asked if there are plans for a possible sequel, Pete Docter replied, "There 's no sequel idea from me at this point, '' adding, "Never say never. '' On January 14, 2016, Docter stated that a sequel is possible, and that he and Pixar will explore ideas, saying: "We 'll see if anything turns up. To me it 's not as simple as: ' We liked it, so let 's make another one. ' What happens is you design these characters not so much looks-wise but as they are as characters and people for a story. So we 'll explore it and see what happens. '' In a July 2016 interview, Pixar president Jim Morris said that while demand for a sequel is high, the company has committed its resources to several original movie concepts from June 7, 2019, onward, and that no sequels to any of Pixar 's other films, including Inside Out, were being contemplated at this time. On June 20, 2017, Denise Daniels filed a lawsuit against Disney and Pixar for breach of contract. Daniels had been working on a creative project, The Moodsters, with a theme similar to Inside Out and had discussed prospects of a TV production with Disney and Pixar.

historical information about the house on mango street

The House on Mango Street - wikipedia The House on Mango Street is a 1984 coming - of - age / bildungsroman novel by Mexican - American author Sandra Cisneros. It is written from the perspective of teenage Latina, Esperanza Cordero, who struggles with her life in a Chicano and Puerto Rican neighborhood of Chicago. Esperanza wishes to escape her impoverished life in her small red house on Mango Street to then return one day to rescue her loved ones as well. It is an account of life in an immigrant community addressing themes of Marxism, racism, sexism, sexuality, sexual abuse, feminism, and Chicana culture. The novel combines old Mexican traditions with modern American customs and explores the plight of marginalized Latinos struggling to survive in a dominantly white country. It is presented in a series of vignettes and is Sandra Cisneros ' first published novel. The book has earned many awards and accolades, and is considered to be a modern classic of Chicana literature. It is a New York Times Bestseller and has been adapted into a stage play by Tanya Saracho. Because the novel deals with controversial subject matter and has become a staple of young adult academia, it has been banned from many schools and has faced a lot of criticism. Though it has faced a lot of criticism from censors and school boards, it is considered an important and highly influential coming - of - age novel, and has appeared on many young adult reading lists. The story begins with Esperanza, the protagonist, describing how her family arrived at the house on Mango Street. Before the family settled in their new house, they moved around frequently. The reader develops a sense of Esperanza 's observant and descriptive nature as she begins the novel with descriptions of minute behaviors and observations about her family members. Though Esperanza 's age is never revealed to the reader, it is implied that she is about thirteen. She begins to write as a way of expressing herself and as a way to escape the suffocating effect of the neighborhood. The novel also includes the stories of many of Esperanza 's neighbors, providing a picture of the neighborhood and offering examples of the many influences surrounding her. Esperanza quickly befriends Lucy and Rachel Guerrero, two Texan girls who live across the street. Lucy, Rachel, Esperanza, and Esperanza 's little sister, Nenny, have many adventures in the small space of their neighborhood. As the vignettes progress, the novel depicts Esperanza 's budding personal maturity and developing world outlook. Esperanza later slips into puberty and likes it when a boy watches her dance at a baptism party. Esperanza 's newfound views lead her to become friends with Sally, a girl her age who wears black nylon stockings, makeup, high heels, and short skirts, and uses boys as an escape from her abusive father. Sally, a beautiful girl according to her father, can get into trouble with being as beautiful as she is. Esperanza is not completely comfortable with Sally 's sexuality. Their friendship is compromised when Sally ditches Esperanza for a boy at a carnival. As a result, Esperanza is sexually assaulted by a man at the carnival. Earlier at her first job, an elderly man tricked her into kissing him on the lips. Esperanza 's traumatic experiences and observations of the women in her neighborhood cement her desire to escape Mango Street. She later realizes that she will never fully be able to leave Mango Street behind. She vows that after she leaves she will return to help the people she has left behind. Esperanza exclaims that Mango Street does not hold her in both arms; instead, which sets her free. The House on Mango Street is made up of vignettes that are not quite poems and not quite full stories. Not wanting to write directly about herself, Cisneros constructs the book in a combnation of genres pulling mantles of poetry, autobiography, and fiction. Certain parts of the book directly reflect Cisneros ' life, while others stray. Esperanza narrates these vignettes in first - person present tense, focusing on her day - to - day activities but sometimes narrating sections that are a series of observations. The vignettes can be as short as two or three paragraphs long and sometimes contain internal rhymes. In "The Family of Little Feet '' for example, Esperanza says: "Their arms were little, and their hands were little, and their height was not tall, and their feet very small. '' Each vignette can stand as a dependent story. These vignettes follow a complete or chronological narrative, although they often mention characters introduced in earlier sections. The conflicts and problems in these short stories are always fully resolved, just as the futures of people in the neighborhood are often uncertain. The overall tone of the novel is earnest and is n't very intimate, with very little distance between the reader and the narrator. The tone varies from pessimistic to hopeful, as Esperanza herself sometimes expresses her jaded views on life: "I knew then I had to have a house. A real house. One I could point to. But this is n't it. The house on Mango Street is n't it. For the time being, Mama says. Temporary, says Papa. But I know how those things go. '' The set of vignettes charts her life as Esperanza Cordero grows during the year: both physically and emotionally. Cisneros asserts that the goal of The House on Mango Street was to make the novel accessible to everyone. She wrote the book initially as a catharsis, not realizing that it would eventually represent a voice for Latinos and become enveloped in the works of great Latino literature. She wanted it to be lyrical enough to be appreciated by poetry enthusiasts, but also accessible enough that laymen could read and enjoy the novel. She desired the book to resonate with children, adults, and ages in between, and in totality chose to keep the novel short so that even the busiest of parents and adults who worked long shifts like her father always had, could still find time to read it. Several uses of Marxist theory are present throughout the text of The House on Mango Street. The economic and social conditions are discussed within the very first chapter. Esperanza gives an account of her family having to move frequently and how the last time in particular was a rushed move because of a plumbing issue and their landlord would n't fix it because the house was too old. She tells of having to carry water in milk jugs to the washroom just to bathe. This issue is related to Marxist theory however, the relationship between the upper class and proletariat is not easily defined. It is a much more complex issue that is rooted in a system that favors the upper class and bourgeoisie over the proletariat class in the case of Esperanza and her family 's living conditions. In this same chapter the instilment of the concept regarding "the American dream, '' is present as well. Cisneros ends the chapter with Esperanza longing for a "real house '' for once, and how for now the house on Mango Street is the best they can afford. "The American dream '' haunts another chapter in the book even more frighteningly. In the chapter titled "Bums in the Attic, '' Cisneros writes about how embarrassing it is for Esperanza on Sundays (her father 's only day off) when her family ventures into a bourgeois neighborhood on the hill and fantasize about one day owning a house like the houses there. Her mother even remarks about how one day when she wins the lottery, she 'll make the dream come true. Esperanza is the only one awake and not lost in the dream. She has an understanding that this dream is just that, a dream, and never will come true. Cisneros is clearly remarking on the constant reinforcement of the concept of "the American dream '' unto the proletariat. The poverty of Esperanza 's own neighborhood is consistently addressed throughout the book. The neighborhood is full of people in either denial of their own social position or are content enough with the small pleasures to aid in distracting them from their own socio - economic oppression. In the chapter "Our Good Day, '' Esperanza and her soon - to - be close friends pitch in money to purchase one bicycle. They are very content with the sharing of ownership of the bicycle as it brings them some joy. The low cost of the bicycle and the need to scrounge up the money to purchase it, is an example of the poverty of Esperanza 's neighborhood. This simple small sense of happiness from the bicycle to the hopes and dreams of the youth on the street is another example of Marxist theory. The impoverished cling to hope because often that is all that they have, and is the one thing they can claim complete ownership of. For example, Esperanza 's name in Spanish means "hope. '' Cisneros shares this information cleverly in the chapter "My Name. '' There are other appearances of the concept of hope within the text as well. For example, the chapter "Alicia Who Sees Mice '' is about a little girl forced to take on the role of a grown woman according to her family 's culture because her mother is dead. But she does n't believe in this role for herself. She has a different destiny in mind and through studying hard at university, she is able to hope for a better life. Accounts of racism are peppered throughout the book. In the chapter titled "Those Who Do n't '' Esperanza discusses how other ethnicities, in this case most likely white, accidentally arrive in Esperanza 's neighborhood and are filled with fear by the sight of brown skinned people whom they believe to be dangerous. In the Chapter "Red Clowns, '' not only is Esperanza assaulted, but she is referred to as "Spanish girl '' when she 's being cat - called. Loose and wild sexuality is a Hispanic stereotype. The line, "I love you, I love you little Spanish girl, '' represents a common threat that Hispanic women face when out alone in public: the expectation to be sexually wild and easy. Esperanza struggles against the traditional gender roles within her own culture and the limitations these impose upon women. In her essay "On Not Being La Malinche '' women 's literature scholar Jean Wyatt writes: "Mexican social myths of gender crystallize with special force in three icons: "Guadalupe, the virgin mother who has not abandoned us, la Chingada (Malinche), the raped mother whom we have abandoned, and la Llorona, the mother who seeks her lost children. '' According to the evidence of Chicana feminist writers, these "three Our Mothers '' haunt the sexual and maternal identities of contemporary Mexican and Chicana women. '' Every female character within the novel is trapped either by an abusive partner, teenage motherhood, or poverty. Cisneros utilizes her character of Esperanza to be a strong female voice. Esperanza finds a way out of patriarchal oppression, and then examines and analyzes her escape. The lesson Cisneros wishes to express, is that there is always a way out for women who are trapped in one way or another. The theme of sexual abuse occurs throughout The House on Mango Street. One example is when Esperanza 's friend Sally, who under the strict control of her father, escapes the household and ventures off with her lover and ends up being a beaten and abused housewife, which is an unfortunate common theme with women from abusive childhood homes. The cycle of abuse continues with Sally 's husband replacing her father. This can be argued as not being about sexual abuse, but it can equally be argued that it indeed is, because of man 's domination over women, which is sexual in nature. There are scenes of first - hand sexual abuse inflicted upon Esperanza when she is molested by her boss at work and when later in the novel she is raped at a carnival by three boys. The theme of adolescence is dominant throughout the book, incorporating the other themes. When the girls are given high - heeled shoes, they experiment with walking like a woman. They often observe older women with a mix of wonder and fear of their futures. The attention men give them is unwanted by Esperanza, but her friends feel a bit more conflicted, because attention from the opposite sex is representative of their self - worth. Esperanza is different than her friends, she wants to break free and live life by her own rules. The book is told from Esperanza 's perspective as she transitions from childhood to womanhood. She examines the way things are and the way things can be. Her choice is to explore the "can - be, '' to decide her own future, and to take control of her life. Sandra Cisneros ' early life was a subject she would later draw on as a writer in books like The House on Mango Street. She was the only daughter among seven children in her family. Cisneros ' family and father specifically did not initially support her writing. Her father never wanted her to be an author. When she was growing up, the only famous Latinas were those on TV, and in the seventies they were seen most often on television as weather girls. Cisneros and her father envisioned her as a newscaster for that reason. Despite a lacking support system, Cisneros continued to pursue writing, and used her life to inspire her early works. The House on Mango Street includes information inspired by her life. The story also is about the subject of migration, and about the struggles of her life during it, which included poverty, as well as misogyny. Cisneros first began writing about the protagonist, Esperanza, when she had just finished graduate school. Cisneros created Esperanza from personal feelings of displacement she had while writing. She had recently graduated from the University of Iowa and had felt marginalized as a person of color, a woman, and an individual of lower socioeconomic status. The House on Mango Street became a way for her to solidify her identities through reflection in writing. Esperanza is one of four children, with a younger sister and two younger brothers. In reality, Cisneros was the middle child and only girl with six brothers, two older and four younger. While writing, Cisneros explains that because she was new to fiction, she initially craved simplicity, which resulted in Esperanza 's family being smaller than her actual family had been. She believed it would be easier to write about fewer family members. Acclaimed by critics, The House on Mango Street has been translated into various languages and has been taught in schools across the United States and Canada. The book received highly positive reception upon release and has been re-issued in a 25th Anniversary Edition. The novel has especially earned high praise from the Latino / Latina community. Oscar Hijuelos, the first Hispanic writer to win a Pulitzer Prize for Fiction, said that the novel has "conveyed the Southwestern Latino experience with verve, charm, and passion. '' The book won her the American Book Award from the Before Columbus Foundation (1985). After the initial release, the response to The House on Mango Street by the public and various academics was varied. Much of the critical reception surrounding the novel stems from the sexual content present throughout multiple scenes. During the "Red Clowns '' chapter of the novel, Esperanza is raped by a male who repeatedly defines her as a "Spanish girl '' whom he loves. Critics argued that the suspected audience of the book was perceived to be too young for this content. Despite its high praise in the realm of Latino literature, The House on Mango Street has also received criticism and has been banned from some school curriculums. In response to these criticisms as well as the removal of the MAS program from TUSD schools, teachers, authors, and activists headed by Tony Diaz, a teacher from the MAS program formed a caravan in spring of 2012 that moved across the southwest conducting workshops in major cities. The caravan, called the Librotraficante Project, originated at the Alamo and ended in Tucson orchestrating workshops distributing books that had been removed with the curriculum, and informing attendees of H.B. 2281. Though The House on Mango Street was never removed from TUSD 's curriculum and continued to be taught in middle and high school English classes within TUSD, Cisneros traveled with the caravan reading The House on Mango Street and ran workshops about Chicano literature. She brought numerous copies of the book with her, distributed them, and discussed thematic implications of her novel as well as talked about the book 's autobiographical elements. Parents and education boards in other areas have found the content to be too graphic / real for children of a young age. In response to this categorization as a children 's novel, Cisneros replies that even though it 's marketed as a young people 's book, the range of readers stems all the way to college level students. Cisneros ' novel has one general theme: to promote individuality and drive within individuals which will conversely promote a distaste for conformity and cultural labeling. Much of the critical reception surrounding the book today recants this theme due to its suspected negative effects on individuals challenging superior powers such as the government and educational institutions. 1984, The United States, Arte Público Press ISBN 0 - 934770 - 20 - 4, Pub date 1 January 1984, paperback 1991, The United States, Vintage Contemporaries ISBN 0 - 679 - 73477 - 5, Pub date 3 April 1991, paperback

who is the winner of the miss world 2017

Miss World 2017 - wikipedia Miss World 2017 was the 67th edition of the Miss World pageant, held on 18 November 2017 at the Sanya City Arena in Sanya, China. 118 contestants from all over the world competed for the crown. Stephanie Del Valle of Puerto Rico crowned her successor Manushi Chhillar of India at the end of the event. Chhillar is the sixth Indian woman to win Miss World, tying India for the most title wins with Venezuela. § People 's Choice winner Miss World emphasis on a new format, giving greater attraction on social media and interactivity. This new format is called the Head - to - Head Challenge, which will select 20 out of the Top 40 contestants. Miss Dominican Republic won the Sports challenge and became the first quarter - finalist of Miss World 2017. Miss Nigeria won the Top Model Competition and became the second quarter - finalist of Miss World 2017. Miss Malta won the Talent Competition and became the third quarter - finalist of Miss World 2017. 118 delegates competed in Miss World 2017: The judges panel for Miss World 2017 were: Last competed in 2001 Last competed in 2010 Last competed in 2011 Last competed in 2012 Last competed in 2013 Last competed in 2014 Last competed in 2015

mount shasta is a volcano in northern california that towers more than how many feet

Mount Shasta - wikipedia Mount Shasta (Karuk: Úytaahkoo or "White Mountain '') is a potentially active volcano at the southern end of the Cascade Range in Siskiyou County, California. At an elevation of 14,179 feet (4321.8 m), it is the second - highest peak in the Cascades and the fifth - highest in the state. Mount Shasta has an estimated volume of 85 cubic miles (350 km), which makes it the most voluminous stratovolcano in the Cascade Volcanic Arc. The mountain and surrounding area are part of the Shasta -- Trinity National Forest. Mount Shasta is connected to its satellite cone of Shastina, and together they dominate the landscape. Shasta rises abruptly to tower nearly 10,000 feet (3,000 m) above its surroundings. On a clear winter day, the mountain can be seen from the floor of the Central Valley 140 miles (230 km) to the south. The mountain has attracted the attention of poets, authors, and presidents. It is dormant. The mountain consists of four overlapping volcanic cones that have built a complex shape, including the main summit and the prominent satellite cone of 12,330 ft (3,760 m) Shastina, which has a visibly conical form. If Shastina were a separate mountain, it would rank as the fourth - highest peak of the Cascade Range (after Mount Rainier, Rainier 's Liberty Cap, and Mount Shasta itself). Mount Shasta 's surface is relatively free of deep glacial erosion except, paradoxically, for its south side where Sargents Ridge runs parallel to the U-shaped Avalanche Gulch. This is the largest glacial valley on the volcano, although it does not now have a glacier in it. There are seven named glaciers on Mount Shasta, with the four largest (Whitney, Bolam, Hotlum, and Wintun) radiating down from high on the main summit cone to below 10,000 ft (3,000 m) primarily on the north and east sides. The Whitney Glacier is the longest, and the Hotlum is the most voluminous glacier in the state of California. Three of the smaller named glaciers occupy cirques near and above 11,000 ft (3,400 m) on the south and southeast sides, including the Watkins, Konwakiton, and Mud Creek glaciers. The oldest - known human settlement in the area dates to about 7,000 years ago. At the time of Euro - American contact in the 1820s, the Native American tribes who lived within view of Mount Shasta included the Shasta, Okwanuchu, Modoc, Achomawi, Atsugewi, Karuk, Klamath, Wintu, and Yana tribes. The historic eruption of Mount Shasta in 1786 may have been observed by Lapérouse, but this is disputed. Although perhaps first seen by Spanish explorers, the first reliably reported land sighting of Mount Shasta by a European or American was by Peter Skene Ogden (a leader of a Hudson 's Bay Company trapping brigade) in 1826. In 1827, the name "Sasty '' or "Sastise '' was given to nearby Mount McLoughlin by Ogden. An 1839 map by David Burr lists the mountain as Rogers Peak. This name was apparently dropped, and the name Shasta was transferred to present - day Mount Shasta in 1841, partly as a result of work by the United States Exploring Expedition. Beginning in the 1820s, Mount Shasta was a prominent landmark along what became known as the Siskiyou Trail, which runs at Mount Shasta 's base. The Siskiyou Trail was on the track of an ancient trade and travel route of Native American footpaths between California 's Central Valley and the Pacific Northwest. The California Gold Rush brought the first Euro - American settlements into the area in the early 1850s, including at Yreka, California and Upper Soda Springs. The first recorded ascent of Mount Shasta occurred in 1854 (by Elias Pearce), after several earlier failed attempts. In 1856, the first women (Harriette Eddy, Mary Campbell McCloud, and their party) reached the summit. By the 1860s and 1870s, Mount Shasta was the subject of scientific and literary interest. In 1854 John Rollin Ridge titled a poem "Mount Shasta. '' A book by California pioneer and entrepreneur James Hutchings, titled Scenes of Wonder and Curiosity in California, contained an account of an early summit trip in 1855. The summit was achieved (or nearly achieved) by John Muir, Josiah Whitney, Clarence King, and John Wesley Powell. In 1877, Muir wrote a dramatic popular article about his surviving an overnight blizzard on Mount Shasta by lying in the hot sulfur springs near the summit. This experience was inspiration to Kim Stanley Robinson 's short story "Muir on Shasta ''. The 1887 completion of the Central Pacific Railroad, built along the line of the Siskiyou Trail between California and Oregon, brought a substantial increase in tourism, lumbering, and population into the area around Mount Shasta. Early resorts and hotels, such as Shasta Springs and Upper Soda Springs, grew up along the Siskiyou Trail around Mount Shasta, catering to these early adventuresome tourists and mountaineers. In the early 20th century, the Pacific Highway followed the track of the Siskiyou Trail to the base of Mount Shasta, leading to still more access to the mountain. Today 's version of the Siskiyou Trail, Interstate 5, brings thousands of people each year to Mount Shasta. From February 13 -- 19, 1959, the Mount Shasta Ski Bowl obtained the record for the most snowfall during one storm in the U.S., with a total of 15.75 feet (480 cm). Mount Shasta was declared a National Natural Landmark in December 1976. The lore of some of the Klamath Tribes in the area held that Mount Shasta is inhabited by the Spirit of the Above - World, Skell, who descended from heaven to the mountain 's summit at the request of a Klamath chief. Skell fought with Spirit of the Below - World, Llao, who resided at Mount Mazama by throwing hot rocks and lava, probably representing the volcanic eruptions at both mountains. Italian settlers arrived in the early 1900s to work in the mills as stonemasons and established a strong Catholic presence in the area. Many other faiths have been attracted to Mount Shasta over the years -- more than any other Cascade volcano. Mount Shasta City and Dunsmuir, California, small towns near Shasta 's western base, are focal points for many of these, which range from a Buddhist monastery (Shasta Abbey, founded by Houn Jiyu - Kennett in 1971) to modern - day Native American rituals. A group of Native Americans from the McCloud River area practice rituals on the mountain. Mount Shasta has also been a focus for non-Native American legends, centered on a hidden city of advanced beings from the lost continent of Lemuria. The legend grew from an offhand mention of Lemuria in the 1880s, to a description of a hidden Lemurian village in 1925. In 1931, Wisar Spenle Cerve wrote Lemuria: the lost continent of the Pacific, published by the Rosicrucians, about the hidden Lemurians of Mount Shasta that cemented the legend in many readers ' minds. In August 1987, believers in the spiritual significance of the Harmonic Convergence described Mount Shasta as one of a small number of global "power centers ''. Mount Shasta remains a focus of "New Age '' attention. About 593,000 years ago, andesitic lavas erupted in what is now Mount Shasta 's western flank near McBride Spring. Over time, an ancestral Mount Shasta stratovolcano was built to a large but unknown height; sometime between 300,000 and 360,000 years ago the entire north side of the volcano collapsed, creating an enormous landslide or debris avalanche, 6.5 cu mi (27 km) in volume. The slide flowed northwestward into Shasta Valley, where the Shasta River now cuts through the 28 - mile - long (45 km) flow. What remains of the oldest of Mount Shasta 's four cones is exposed at Sargents Ridge on the south side of the mountain. Lavas from the Sargents Ridge vent cover the Everitt Hill shield at Mount Shasta 's southern foot. The last lavas to erupt from the vent were hornblende - pyroxene andesites with a hornblende dacite dome at its summit. Glacial erosion has since modified its shape. The next cone to form is exposed south of Mount Shasta 's current summit and is called Misery Hill. It was formed 15,000 to 20,000 years ago from pyroxene andesite flows and has since been intruded by a hornblende dacite dome. There are many buried glacial scars on the mountain which were created in recent glacial periods ("ice ages '') of the present Wisconsinian glaciation. Most have since been filled in with andesite lava, pyroclastic flows, and talus from lava domes. Shastina, by comparison, has a fully intact summit crater indicating Shastina developed after the last ice age. Shastina has been built by mostly pyroxene andesite lava flows. Some 9,500 years ago, these flows reached about 6.8 mi (10.9 km) south and 3 mi (4.8 km) north of the area now occupied by nearby Black Butte. The last eruptions formed Shastina 's present summit about a hundred years later. But before that, Shastina, along with the then forming Black Butte dacite plug dome complex to the west, created numerous pyroclastic flows that covered 43 sq mi (110 km), including large parts of what is now Mount Shasta, California and Weed, California. Diller Canyon (400 ft (120 m) deep and 0.25 mi (400 m) wide) is an avalanche chute that was probably carved into Shastina 's western face by these flows. The last to form, and the highest cone, the Hotlum Cone, formed about 8,000 years ago. It is named after the Hotlum glacier on its northern face; its longest lava flow, the 500 - foot - thick (150 - metre) Military Pass flow, extends 5.5 mi (8.9 km) down its northeast face. Since the creation of the Hotlum Cone, a dacite dome intruded the cone and now forms the summit. The rock at the 600 - foot - wide (180 - metre) summit crater has been extensively hydrothermally altered by sulfurous hot springs and fumaroles there (only a few examples still remain). In the last 8,000 years, the Hotlum Cone has erupted at least eight or nine times. About 200 years ago the last significant Mount Shasta eruption came from this cone and created a pyroclastic flow, a hot lahar (mudflow), and three cold lahars, which streamed 7.5 mi (12.1 km) down Mount Shasta 's east flank via Ash Creek. A separate hot lahar went 12 mi (19 km) down Mud Creek. This eruption was thought to have been observed by the explorer La Pérouse, from his ship off the California coast, in 1786, but this has been disputed. During the last 10,000 years, Mount Shasta has erupted an average of every 800 years, but in the past 4,500 years the volcano has erupted an average of every 600 years. The last significant eruption on Mount Shasta may have occurred about two centuries ago. Mount Shasta can release volcanic ash, pyroclastic flows or dacite and andesite lava. Its deposits can be detected under nearby small towns. Mount Shasta has an explosive, eruptive history. There are fumaroles on the mountain, which show Mount Shasta is still alive. The worst - case scenario for an eruption is a large pyroclastic flow, such as what occurred in the 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens. Since there is ice, such as Whitney Glacier and Mud Creek Glacier, lahars would also result. Ash would probably blow inland, perhaps as far as eastern Nevada. There is a small chance an eruption could result in a collapse of the mountain, as happened when Mount Mazama in Oregon collapsed to form what is now called Crater Lake, but this is of much lower probability. The United States Geological Survey monitors Mount Shasta and rates it as a very high - threat volcano. Many climbers attempt the summit of Mount Shasta. The summer climbing season runs from late April until October, although many attempts are made in the winter. In winter, Sargents Ridge and Casaval Ridge, to the east and west of Avalanche Gulch, respectively, become the most traveled routes, to avoid avalanche danger. Mount Shasta is also a popular destination for backcountry skiing. Many of the climbing routes can be descended by experienced skiers, and there are numerous lower - angled areas around the base of the mountain. The most popular route on Mount Shasta is Avalanche Gulch route, which begins at the Bunny Flat Trailhead and gains about 7,300 feet (2,200 m) of elevation in approximately 11.5 miles (18.5 km) round trip. The crux of this route is considered to be to climb from Lake Helen, at approximately 10,443 feet (3,183 m), to the top of Red Banks. The Red Banks are the most technical portion of the climb, as they are usually full of snow / ice, are very steep, and top out at around 13,000 feet (4,000 m) before the route heads to Misery Hill. The Casaval Ridge route is a steeper, more technical route on the mountain 's southwest ridge best climbed when there 's a lot of snow pack. This route tops out to the left (north) of the Red Banks, directly west of Misery Hill. So the final sections involve a trudge up Misery Hill to the summit plateau, similar to the Avalanche Gulch route. No quota system currently exists for climbing Mount Shasta, and reservations are not required. However, climbers must obtain a summit pass and a wilderness permit to climb the mountain. Permits and passes are available at the ranger station in Mount Shasta and the ranger station in McCloud, or climbers can obtain self - issue permits and passes at any of the trailheads 24 hours a day.

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Purgatory (Law & Order: Criminal Intent) - Wikipedia Dean Winters as Mike Stoat Lauren Vélez as Officer Lois Melago Seth Gilliam as Detective Daniels Danny Mastrogiorgio as John Testarossa Holt McCallany as Patrick Copa "Purgatory '' is a seventh season episode of the television series Law & Order: Criminal Intent. Detective Robert Goren (Vincent D'Onofrio) is alone in a bar. He is flashing back to his unauthorized undercover operation (which was covered in the previous episode, "Untethered ''). He is approached by former Detective Patrick Copa (Holt McCallany), who clearly is angered with Goren 's presence at a "10 - 13 '' party being held at the bar for Copa 's benefit. Goren caused this detective to lose his job and retirement (covered in a previous episode. "Amends '') where Goren uncovered the detective 's vision problems and caused the detective 's work to be questioned. A scuffle ensues, and another man, suspended cop Mike Stoat (Dean Winters) steps in to help break it up. Stoat tells Goren he knows who he is, and that he 's respected Goren for a long time. He wants to help Goren in his time of need. Since Goren has been suspended from his job for 6 months for the unauthorized undercover operation, Stoat offers Goren a job, and when Stoat leaves, Goren sees he left a gun on the bar counter, wrapped in a newspaper. Goren takes the gun. Meanwhile, back at One Police Plaza, Eames (Kathryn Erbe) is given an assignment by Captain Danny Ross (Eric Bogosian), and clearly Eames misses her partner. But, she grudgingly goes to the scene of a murder of what appears to be a drug dealer and two innocent witnesses, who happened to be English tourists. At the scene, Eames is assisted by Detective Daniels (Seth Gilliam) who later Ross assigns to help Eames on the case, which Eames emphases should be temporary until Goren returns. While Eames works the murder case, Goren is doing target practice at the firing range with his newly acquired weapon. Goren leaves the gun at the range, wrapped in the newspaper, and we see someone pick it up. Goren places a call to Stoat, telling him he 'll take the job, which happens to be working security at the door of some sort of club. He stops someone trying to enter the club who was carrying a gun, only to find it was his new boss, Mr. Testarosa (Danny Mastrogiorgio). Eames continues to work the case with Daniels, and Ross believes that the drug dealers in the area where the latest murder occurred may be "unintended consequences '' from a turf war caused by the Feds locking up the area 's "career criminals. '' They connect one person, Keyshawn Powell, to the action. Since he is required to see a court - appointed doctor, they realize they can get some information from the doctor. Later, we see Goren leaving the office of Dr. Elizabeth Olivet, and Stoat is there to greet him and give Goren a ride. Stoat seems to think he knows what Olivet had to say to Goren -- that he has anger issues. Stoat also tells him their next job is working at a private party at a strip club, and Goren asks if it 's run by the same man who ran the club from the night before. Stoat shuts Goren down by telling him he does n't know who runs what, and "neither do you. '' Eames, meanwhile, continues to investigate the murders, and when she and Daniels come to Dr. Lorna Lane 's office, they hear what they think are sounds of distress coming out of the office and break in. They find Dr. Lane and Keyshawn Powell in the throes of passion. At One PP, they question Powell and ask for his whereabouts at the time of the murders, telling him his partner was murdered at that time. The doctor alibis Keyshawn. But, they find that the gun that was involved in the latest murder (Crawford) was one that was supposed to be in NYPD evidence. Goren pays another visit to Dr. Olivet, and instead of Olivet, we seen Goren having a meeting with his boss, Capt. Ross. They are discussing what is Goren 's new, apparently sanctioned undercover operation (which he said "fell into his lap ''). Ross tells him he checked out the gun from Stoat and it was clean, but that the gun used to kill the drug dealer and the tourist was not, so the property clerks may not be clean. The Chief of Detectives may want Goren to continue the undercover operation, but Goren wonders for how long. Goren is concerned about continuing; while he hopes he can return to his real job, he is also worried that he will get killed in the process. He expresses he is concerned that higher ups on the force would be happy if he were killed, maybe to the point of tipping off his undercover work. While Ross agrees with Goren 's concern about getting killed, he thinks Goren is being paranoid by worrying about people on the force having it out for him. While working his new job at the strip club, Goren tips off Testarosa to two cops trying to entrap the owner into a drug deal. When he thanks Goren for the tip off, he rewards him by offering him some cocaine. Goren is unconformable but Stoat, who is also there, does n't seem to be bothered by it. As Goren makes what seems to be an unwilling move to participate, he is saved by a knock at the door. Stoat, however, goes ahead and takes a hit. Later, as Goren is leaving a diner, we see Eames chasing after him. She seems concerned he has n't returned her calls, he says he 's been busy. She tries to tell him of her latest case, but he blows her off. Getting into a car with Stoat, they meet a cop, who Stoat describes as his "old partner '' Lois Melago (Lauren Velez) from the 6 - 4 precinct, who is in a squad car with another cop. They get a call and they have to leave. Stoat tells Goren they will do something different that day and will go after Eddie Jones, a person with a record who owes "a friend '' some money. Goren tries to warn Stoat that Testarosa is on police radar, but Stoat seems confident that Bobby has his back. Eames and Daniels are at the property clerk, and when they find a gun missing from evidence, Eames threatens the clerk with Internal Affairs. The clerk must give them some information, as the Major Case detectives check out officers who had access to the property clerk area, Ross asks if any were from the 6 - 4, but wo n't tip off why he has this hunch. The discover Lois Melago did have access, and she was suspended along with Mike Stoat. Although Melago is back on as a street cop, Stoat is not. Eames and Daniels question Melago about the missing gun, and Melago says all she did was check IDs for the property area. When Eames asks about her ex-partner (Stoat), Melago retorts, "What about yours? '' Melago says she has Stoat 's back, Eames says he hopes she has hers. Goren and Stoat are still chasing down Eddie Jones, and, at his home, Goren tries the front door while Stoat goes around back. Jones goes out the back, and Stoat catches up with him and beats him while Goren tries to stop it. Stoat takes what money he can get and leaves. After giving the money to Testarosa, he says he has to leave, but Testarosa asks Goren to stay. We find that Stoat has gone to see Eames at One PP and says he knows nothing about the stolen gun. Meanwhile, Goren is witness to a drug deal with Testarosa, who later calls in and tips off Melago to the buy She arrests the drug buyer, who turns out to be a cop Hector Santana, who already has a few strikes against him. Santana says that he has information on the murders of the tourists, telling the detectives that word is Testarosa 's crew was involved and the gun used had another body attached to it. He wants protection but Eames wants a name, it 's either that or prison for life. Santana complains about getting prison for a lousy 10 ounces. Eames is alarmed, knowing that all that was turned in was 4 ounces at Santana 's arrest, and she questions him about the discrepancy. Santana also says he thinks Testarosa tipped off the cops. When Santana is told only 4 ounces were logged in, he becomes even more concerned for his own safety. He tells them that there are two ex-cops on Testarosa 's payroll. Ross thinks this needs more investigation, and they convince Santana to wear a wire. Goren is back to working the door at Arcadia with Stoat, and Melago approached Stoat, saying she wants to talk to him alone. When she tells Stoat that Santana is out on bail, Stoat is stunned. Later, Stoat and Goren break into Santana 's place and force Santana out of bed. Testarosa is also there and questions Santana while Stoat beats him. Santana denies everything, but Stoat finds Santana 's lighter wired. Since Goren already said that Santana was clean, Testarosa tells Goren to kill Santana there and now. When Goren pulls out a gun and points it at Santana 's head, the police burst in. We see Goren with his gun pointed at the police, with a stunned Eames pointing one right back at him. Later, Goren is in holding with Stoat, who wonders how Bobby missed the wire. As Stoat is feeding Bobby what should be their excuse for their behavior, Stoat is taken out of holding. While Goren is left there to face Ross and Eames, Eames asks what 's going on when Goren seems to already have details. She is stunned when she realizes that Goren has been working undercover, and while Ross explains why she could not be told, she looks stunned and hurt. Ross asks her to see if she can get Melago to deal, seeing that they have a past history, Eames tries to get Melago to talk, and throws out the issue of the missing drugs. Melago does n't bite, and asks for a lawyer. Daniels, though, said the rookie riding with Melago said Melago kept the drugs. Stoat, however, is really pissed at Goren for turning on him. Still, despite all Goren 's attempts, Stoat refused to admit to anything. As Ross gets a phone call from the Chief of Ds, Goren starts to talk with Eames, and says he 's sorry. Eames is steamed that Goren never bothered to contact her but he says he wanted to get his shield back. Eames explodes: Eames: I get it. You 're the genius, and I just carry the water, right? Do you have any idea of how many times I 've lied for you? Covered your ass? Goren: I was in a deep hole here Eames: And whose fault is that? All your wounds are self - inflicted. Eames reminds Goren that had it not been her coming through that door, he could have been dead. Clearly, she is not only deeply hurt by Goren, she 's infuriated at him. As Ross, Goren and Eames are told that Melago took a plea deal and linked the gun to Testarosa and the murders, they also find that Stoat has n't bitten on anything. When they 're commended for their good work, Ross says he assumes Goren will be back with them ASAP, and Goren 's shield and gun are returned to him. Goren gets back to his desk, Eames bids him a flat "good night. '' Goren opens his desk drawer, only to find a dead rat in it, and takes an uncomfortable look around the squad room. Though a "Guest Actor '', Seth Gilliam as Detective Daniels counts as the one - episode partner to Det. Alexandra Eames while Det. Robert Goren was suspended / undercover.

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Boom Boom (Let 's Go back to my room) - wikipedia "Boom Boom (Let 's Go Back to My Room) '' is the debut single by American singer and model Paul Lekakis. Originally released in 1987 on ZYX Records, then picked up by Polydor Records for a wider release, the song peaked at # 43 on the Billboard Hot 100 chart in the U.S. and at # 60 on the UK Singles Chart in England. It fared better in other parts of the world, where the song spent five weeks at # 1 on the ARIA Charts in Australia, from April 13 through May 11 of 1987. It also topped music charts in Japan and South Africa, and peaked at # 2 and # 7 in Canada and New Zealand respectively. The song also charted at # 6 on the U.S. Hot Dance Club Play chart. Subsequent remixes have appeared on that chart, however, as well as some of Lekakis ' other dance recordings. The song was popular in the LGBT community and helped to establish his career, both as a singer and as an actor. In 1990, the song was included on Lekakis ' first album, Tattoo It, which was released on Sire Records. "Boom Boom '' has since been re-released and remixed on multiple occasions, most recently in 2007 for the 20th anniversary of the song. This time, the song had a music video (since there was none when the single was originally released), and it features Lekakis hosting a party with some guests invited into his mansion. In the video, Lekakis is surrounded by scantily clad girls who are clearly the objects of his affection and presented in various sexual scenarios with him. In an interview conducted by Ben Patrick Johnson, from his video blog Life on the Left Coast, Lekakis stated that the 2007 version is the first in which he participated in the remix process, including re-recording his vocals, there is one slight lyrical difference between the 2007 remix and the original song: instead of "... coming back to my room for a little boom boom '', the lyrics in the more recent version are "... coming back to my room for another boom boom ''. Although there was no music video for the original release of "Boom Boom '', he did lip sync the song on various programs, some of which have been shown on YouTube. In addition, Lekakis appeared in an episode of an MTV program produced by Andy Warhol, Andy Warhol 's Fifteen Minutes, singing the song in 1987. In 2009, VH1 ranked "Boom Boom '' # 83 on its program 100 Greatest One Hit Wonders of the 80s. In 1992, the song was covered by Turkish singer Seden Gürel in Turkish as "Bum Bum '' and in 2001, was covered by synthpop group Freezepop as "Seven Boom Medley '', which combines the song with The Vengaboys ' "Boom, Boom, Boom, Boom ''.

what soviet organization was created in response to the north atlantic treaty organization

Warsaw Pact - wikipedia The Warsaw Pact, formally known as the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance, was a collective defence treaty signed in Warsaw, Poland among the Soviet Union and seven Soviet satellite states of Central and Eastern Europe during the Cold War. The Warsaw Pact was the military complement to the Council for Mutual Economic Assistance (CoMEcon), the regional economic organization for the socialist states of Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was created in reaction to the integration of West Germany into NATO in 1955 per the London and Paris Conferences of 1954, but it is also considered to have been motivated by Soviet desires to maintain control over military forces in Central and Eastern Europe. The Warsaw Pact was established as a balance of power or counterweight to NATO; there was no direct confrontation between them. Instead, the conflict was fought on an ideological basis and in proxy wars. Both NATO and the Warsaw Pact led to the expansion of military forces and their integration into the respective blocs. Its largest military engagement was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968 (with the participation of all Pact nations except Albania, Romania and East Germany), which, in part, resulted in Albania withdrawing from the pact less than a month later. The Pact began to unravel in its entirety with the spread of the Revolutions of 1989 through the Eastern Bloc, beginning with the Solidarity movement in Poland and its electoral success in June 1989. East Germany withdrew from the Pact in 1990. On 25 February 1991, the Pact was declared at an end at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from the six remaining member states in Hungary. The USSR itself was dissolved in December 1991, although most of the former Soviet republics formed the Collective Security Treaty Organization shortly thereafter. Throughout the following 20 years, the seven Warsaw Pact countries outside the USSR each joined NATO (East Germany through its reunification with West Germany; and the Czech and Slovak republics as separate countries). In the Western Bloc, the Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance is often called the Warsaw Pact military alliance -- abbreviated WAPA, Warpac and WP. Elsewhere, in the former member states, the Warsaw Treaty is known as: The Warsaw Treaty 's organization was two-fold: the Political Consultative Committee handled political matters, and the Combined Command of Pact Armed Forces controlled the assigned multi-national forces, with headquarters in Warsaw, Poland. Furthermore, the Supreme Commander of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization which commanded and controlled all the military forces of the member countries was also a First Deputy Minister of Defence of the USSR, and the Chief of Combined Staff of the Unified Armed Forces of the Warsaw Treaty Organization was also a First Deputy Chief of the General Staff of the Armed Forces of the USSR. Therefore, although ostensibly an international collective security alliance, the USSR dominated the Warsaw Treaty armed forces. The strategy behind the formation of the Warsaw Pact was driven by the desire of the Soviet Union to dominate Central and Eastern Europe. The Soviets wanted to keep their part of Europe theirs and not let the Americans take it from them. This policy was driven by ideological and geostrategic reasons. Ideologically, the Soviet Union arrogated the right to define socialism and communism and act as the leader of the global socialist movement. A corollary to this idea was the necessity of intervention if a country appeared to be violating core socialist ideas and Communist Party functions, which was explicitly stated in the Brezhnev Doctrine. Geostrategic principles also drove the Soviet Union with the desire to create a buffer zone to prevent invasion of its territory by Western European powers. Before the creation of the Warsaw Pact, Czechoslovak leadership, fearful of a rearmed Germany, sought to create a security pact with East Germany and Poland. These states protested strongly against the re-militarization of West Germany. The Warsaw Pact was primarily put in place as a consequence of the rearming of West Germany inside NATO. Soviet leaders, like many European countries on both sides of the Iron Curtain, feared Germany being once again a military power and a direct threat. The terrible consequences of German militarism remained a fresh memory among the Soviets and Eastern Europeans. As the Soviet Union already had bilateral treaties with all of its eastern satellites, the Pact has been long considered ' superfluous ', and because of the rushed way in which it was conceived, NATO officials labeled it as a ' cardboard castle '. Previously, in March 1954, the USSR, fearing the restoration of German militarism in West Germany, requested admission to NATO. The Soviet request to join NATO arose in the aftermath of the Berlin Conference of January -- February 1954. Soviet foreign minister Molotov made proposals to have Germany reunified and elections for a pan-German government, under conditions of withdrawal of the four powers ' armies and German neutrality, but all were refused by the other foreign ministers, Dulles (USA), Eden (UK) and Bidault (France). Proposals for the reunification of Germany were nothing new: earlier on 20 March 1952, talks about a German reunification, initiated by the so - called ' Stalin Note ', ended after the United Kingdom, France and the United States insisted that a unified Germany should not be neutral and should be free to join the European Defence Community and rearm. James Dunn (USA), who met in Paris with Eden, Adenauer and Robert Schuman (France), affirmed that "the object should be to avoid discussion with the Russians and to press on the European Defense Community ''. According to John Gaddis "there was little inclination in Western capitals to explore this offer '' from USSR. While historian Rolf Steininger asserts that Adenauer 's conviction that "neutralization means sovietization '' was the main factor in the rejection of the Soviet proposals, Adenauer also feared that German unification might have resulted in the end of the CDU 's dominance in the West German Bundestag. Consequently, Molotov, fearing that the EDC would be directed in the future against the USSR and "seeking to prevent the formation of groups of European States directed against other European States '', made a proposal for a General European Treaty on Collective Security in Europe "open to all European States without regard as to their social systems '' which would have included the unified Germany (thus making the EDC -- perceived by the USSR as a threat -- unusable). But Eden, Dulles and Bidault opposed the proposal. One month later, the proposed European Treaty was rejected not only by supporters of the EDC but also by Western opponents of the European Defence Community (like French Gaullist leader Palewski) who perceived it as "unacceptable in its present form because it excludes the USA from participation in the collective security system in Europe ''. The Soviets then decided to make a new proposal to the governments of the USA, UK and France to accept the participation of the USA in the proposed General European Agreement. And considering that another argument deployed against the Soviet proposal was that it was perceived by Western powers as "directed against the North Atlantic Pact and its liquidation '', the Soviets decided to declare their "readiness to examine jointly with other interested parties the question of the participation of the USSR in the North Atlantic bloc '', specifying that "the admittance of the USA into the General European Agreement should not be conditional on the three Western powers agreeing to the USSR joining the North Atlantic Pact ''. Again all proposals, including the request to join NATO, were rejected by the UK, US and French governments shortly after. Emblematic was the position of British General Hastings Ismay, supporter of NATO expansion, who said that NATO "must grow until the whole free world gets under one umbrella. '' He opposed the request to join NATO made by the USSR in 1954 saying that "the Soviet request to join NATO is like an unrepentant burglar requesting to join the police force ''. In April 1954 Adenauer made his first visit to the USA meeting Nixon, Eisenhower and Dulles. Ratification of EDC was delaying but the US representatives made it clear to Adenauer that EDC would have to become a part of NATO. Memories of the Nazi occupation were still strong, and the rearmament of Germany was feared by France too. On 30 August 1954 French Parliament rejected the EDC, thus ensuring its failure and blocking a major objective of US policy towards Europe: to associate Germany militarily with the West. The US Department of State started to elaborate alternatives: Germany would be invited to join NATO or, in the case of French obstructionism, strategies to circumvent a French veto would be implemented in order to obtain a German rearmament outside NATO. On 23 October 1954 -- only nine years after Allies (UK, USA and USSR) defeated Nazi Germany ending World War II in Europe -- the admission of the Federal Republic of Germany to the North Atlantic Pact was finally decided. The incorporation of West Germany into the organization on 9 May 1955 was described as "a decisive turning point in the history of our continent '' by Halvard Lange, Foreign Affairs Minister of Norway at the time. In November 1954, the USSR requested a new European Security Treaty, in order to make a final attempt to not have a remilitarized West Germany potentially opposed to the Soviet Union, with no success. On 14 May 1955, the USSR and other seven European countries "reaffirming their desire for the establishment of a system of European collective security based on the participation of all European states irrespective of their social and political systems '' established the Warsaw Pact in response to the integration of the Federal Republic of Germany into NATO, declaring that: "a remilitarized Western Germany and the integration of the latter in the North - Atlantic bloc (...) increase the danger of another war and constitutes a threat to the national security of the peaceable states; (...) in these circumstances the peaceable European states must take the necessary measures to safeguard their security ''. One of the founding members, East Germany was allowed to re-arm by the Soviet Union and the National People 's Army was established as the armed forces of the country to counter the rearmament of West Germany. The eight member countries of the Warsaw Pact pledged the mutual defence of any member who would be attacked. Relations among the treaty signatories were based upon mutual non-intervention in the internal affairs of the member countries, respect for national sovereignty, and political independence. However, almost all governments of those member states were indirectly controlled by the Soviet Union. The founding signatories to the Treaty of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance consisted of the following communist governments: In July 1963 the Mongolian People 's Republic asked to join the Warsaw Pact under Article 9 of the treaty. Due to the emerging Sino - Soviet split, Mongolia remained on observer status. The Soviet Government agreed to station troops in Mongolia in 1966. For 36 years, NATO and the Warsaw Pact never directly waged war against each other in Europe; the United States and the Soviet Union and their respective allies implemented strategic policies aimed at the containment of each other in Europe, while working and fighting for influence within the wider Cold War on the international stage. These included the Korean War, Vietnam War, Bay of Pigs invasion, Dirty War, Cambodian -- Vietnamese War and the others. In 1956, following the declaration of the Imre Nagy government of withdrawal of Hungary from the Warsaw Pact, Soviet troops entered the country and removed the government. Soviet forces crushed the nationwide revolt, leading to the death of an estimated 2,500 Hungarian citizens. The multi-national Communist armed forces ' sole joint action was the Warsaw Pact invasion of Czechoslovakia in August 1968. All member countries, with the exception of the Socialist Republic of Romania and the People 's Republic of Albania, participated in the invasion. Beginning at the Cold War 's conclusion, in late 1989, popular civil and political public discontent forced the Communist governments of the Warsaw Treaty countries from power, while independent national politics made feasible with the perestroika and glasnost induced institutional collapse of Communist government in the USSR. Between 1989 and 1991, Communist governments were overthrown in Albania, Poland, Hungary, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Romania, Bulgaria, Yugoslavia and the Soviet Union. On 25 February 1991, the Warsaw Pact was declared disbanded at a meeting of defence and foreign ministers from remaining Pact countries meeting in Hungary. On 1 July 1991, in Prague, the Czechoslovak President Václav Havel formally ended the 1955 Warsaw Treaty Organization of Friendship, Cooperation and Mutual Assistance and so disestablished the Warsaw Treaty after 36 years of military alliance with the USSR. In fact, the treaty was de facto disbanded in December 1989 during the violent revolution in Romania, which toppled the communist government, without military intervention from other member states. The USSR disestablished itself in December 1991. On 12 March 1999, the Czech Republic, Hungary and Poland joined NATO; Bulgaria, Estonia, Latvia, Lithuania, Romania and Slovakia joined in March 2004; Albania joined on 1 April 2009. Russia and some other post-USSR states joined in the Collective Security Treaty Organization (CSTO) in 1992, or the Shanghai Five in 1996 (renamed the Shanghai Cooperation Organization (SCO) after Uzbekistan 's addition in 2001). In November 2005, the Polish government opened its Warsaw Treaty archives to the Institute of National Remembrance, who published some 1,300 declassified documents in January 2006. Yet the Polish government reserved publication of 100 documents, pending their military declassification. Eventually, 30 of the reserved 100 documents were published; 70 remained secret and unpublished. Among the documents published is the Warsaw Treaty 's nuclear war plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine -- a short, swift counter-attack capturing Austria, Denmark, Germany and Netherlands east of River Rhine, using nuclear weapons, in self - defence, after a NATO first strike. The plan originated as a 1979 field training exercise war game and metamorphosed into official Warsaw Treaty battle doctrine, until the late 1980s -- which is why the People 's Republic of Poland was a nuclear weapons base, first, to 178, then, to 250 tactical - range rockets. Doctrinally, as a Soviet - style (offensive) battle plan, Seven Days to the River Rhine gave commanders few defensive - war strategies for fighting NATO in Warsaw Treaty territory. Badge Warsaw Pact. Union of peace and socialism Badge Warsaw Pact. Brothers in arms (1970) Badge A participant in joint exercises of Warsaw Pact "STIT '' (1972) Badge 25 years Warsaw Pact (1980) Badge Air Forces Warsaw Pact Badge Warsaw Pact. The participants of the joint exercises in Bulgaria (1982) Jubilee badge 30 years of the Warsaw Pact (1985)

where is the women's ncaa basketball tournament being held

2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball tournament - wikipedia The 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Tournament began on March 16, 2018, and concluded with the national championship game on Sunday, April 1. The Final Four was played at Nationwide Arena in Columbus, Ohio. This is the third time that the women 's Final Four was played in Ohio after previously being held in Cincinnati in 1997 and Cleveland in 2007 and the first time that the women 's Final Four was played in Columbus. For only the fourth time in the tournament 's 37 - year history, all four of the number one seeds made it to the Final Four. Tennessee continued its record streak of making every NCAA Women 's Basketball Tournament at 37 consecutive appearances. Connecticut also continued its record streak of 11 consecutive Final Four appearances. The first two rounds, also referred to as the subregionals, were played at the sites of the top 16 seeds, as was done in 2016 and 2017. The following are the sites selected to host the last four rounds of the 2018 tournament. Subregionals (First and Second Rounds) Regional Semifinals and Finals (Sweet Sixteen and Elite Eight) National Semifinals and Championship (Final Four and Championship) Selections for the 2018 NCAA Division I Women 's Basketball Championship were announced at 7 p.m. Eastern time, Monday, March 12 via ESPN. The basis for the subregionals returned to the approach used between 1982 and 2002; the top sixteen teams, as chosen in the bracket selection process, hosted the first two rounds on campus. A total of 64 teams entered the 2018 tournament. 32 automatic bids teams were given to teams that won their conference tournament. The remaining 32 teams were granted "at - large '' bids, which were extended by the NCAA Selection Committee. The Selection Committee also seeded the entire field from 1 to 64. The following teams automatically qualified for the 2018 NCAA field by virtue of winning their conference 's tournament. All times are listed as Eastern Daylight Time (UTC − 4) * -- Denotes overtime period During the Final Four round, regardless of the seeds of the participating teams, the champion of the top overall top seed 's region (Connecticut 's Albany Region) plays against the champion of the fourth - ranked top seed 's region (Notre Dame 's Spokane Region), and the champion of the second overall top seed 's region (Mississippi State 's Kansas City Region) plays against the champion of the third - ranked top seed 's region (Louisville 's Lexington Region). March 30 April 1 * -- Denotes overtime period ESPN had US television rights to all games during the tournament. During the first and second rounds, ESPN aired select games nationally on ESPN2, ESPNU, and ESPNews. All other games aired regionally on ESPN, ESPN2, or ESPN3 and were streamed online via WatchESPN. Most of the nation got whip - a-round coverage during this time, which allowed ESPN to rotate between the games and focus the nation on the game that had the closest score. First & Second Rounds Friday / Sunday Sweet Sixteen & Elite Eight Friday / Sunday Final Four First & Second Rounds Saturday / Monday Sweet Sixteen & Elite Eight Saturday / Monday Championship Westwood One had exclusive radio rights to the entire tournament. Teams participating in the Regional Finals, Final Four, and Championship were allowed to have their own local broadcasts, but they were n't allowed to stream those broadcasts online. Regional Finals Sunday Final Four Regional Finals Monday Championship

when was sometimes it snows in april releases

Sometimes it Snows in April - wikipedia "Sometimes It Snows in April '' is a song recorded by American musician Prince. It was included on his eighth studio album Parade (1986), and within the accompanying film Under the Cherry Moon (1986). Prince wrote and produced the song, along with Wendy & Lisa who provided additional lyrics for the composition. The song 's narrator recounts memories of Christopher Tracy, Prince 's character from Under the Cherry Moon, and how Tracy 's passing affected the narrator; it also expresses their desire to hopefully rejoin Tracy in heaven. "Sometimes It Snows in April '' received significant attention after Prince 's death on April 21, 2016, exactly thirty - one years after its recording date, allowing it to chart on several record charts worldwide. After the initial release of Parade, "Sometimes It Snows in April '' was not released as a single, which made it ineligible to chart. However, after the death of Prince on April 21, 2016, sales of the song increased heavily, allowing it to peak on several charts. The song was most successful in Europe; in France, it peaked at number 14, lasting a total of three weeks on the chart. It fared well in the Netherlands, Austria, and Switzerland, where it peaked at numbers 63, 69, and 64, respectively. It charted the lowest in the United Kingdom, where it lasted for one week on the chart, peaking at number 193. Barry Hyde (The Futureheads) recorded a cover of this song for his solo album ' Malady '. Amar on her 2000 album Outside. The French R&B group, Native, covered the song on their 1995 self - titled album. BMG France

where is the coastal plains located in georgia

Coastal plain - Wikipedia A coastal plain is flat, low - lying land adjacent to a seacostal plain. One of the world 's largest coastal plains is located in eastern United States. The Gulf Coastal Plain of North America extends northwards from the Gulf of Mexico along the Lower Mississippi River to the Ohio River, which is a distance of about 500 miles (800 km).

how did the union blockade of the southern coast affect the confederacy

Union blockade - wikipedia The Union blockade in the American Civil War was a naval strategy by the United States to prevent the Confederacy from trading. The blockade was proclaimed by President Abraham Lincoln in April 1861, and required the monitoring of 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of Atlantic and Gulf coastline, including 12 major ports, notably New Orleans and Mobile. Those blockade runners fast enough to evade the Union Navy could only carry a small fraction of the supplies needed. They were operated largely by British citizens, making use of neutral ports such as Havana, Nassau and Bermuda. The Union commissioned around 500 ships, which destroyed or captured about 1,500 blockade runners over the course of the war. On April 19, 1861, President Lincoln issued a Proclamation of Blockade Against Southern Ports: Whereas an insurrection against the Government of the United States has broken out in the States of South Carolina, Georgia, Alabama, Florida, Mississippi, Louisiana, and Texas, and the laws of the United States for the collection of the revenue can not be effectually executed therein comformably to that provision of the Constitution which requires duties to be uniform throughout the United States: And whereas a combination of persons engaged in such insurrection, have threatened to grant pretended letters of marque to authorize the bearers thereof to commit assaults on the lives, vessels, and property of good citizens of the country lawfully engaged in commerce on the high seas, and in waters of the United States: And whereas an Executive Proclamation has been already issued, requiring the persons engaged in these disorderly proceedings to desist therefrom, calling out a militia force for the purpose of repressing the same, and convening Congress in extraordinary session, to deliberate and determine thereon: Now, therefore, I, Abraham Lincoln, President of the United States, with a view to the same purposes before mentioned, and to the protection of the public peace, and the lives and property of quiet and orderly citizens pursuing their lawful occupations, until Congress shall have assembled and deliberated on the said unlawful proceedings, or until the same shall ceased, have further deemed it advisable to set on foot a blockade of the ports within the States aforesaid, in pursuance of the laws of the United States, and of the law of Nations, in such case provided. For this purpose a competent force will be posted so as to prevent entrance and exit of vessels from the ports aforesaid. If, therefore, with a view to violate such blockade, a vessel shall approach, or shall attempt to leave either of the said ports, she will be duly warned by the Commander of one of the blockading vessels, who will endorse on her register the fact and date of such warning, and if the same vessel shall again attempt to enter or leave the blockaded port, she will be captured and sent to the nearest convenient port, for such proceedings against her and her cargo as prize, as may be deemed advisable. And I hereby proclaim and declare that if any person, under the pretended authority of the said States, or under any other pretense, shall molest a vessel of the United States, or the persons or cargo on board of her, such person will be held amenable to the laws of the United States for the prevention and punishment of piracy. In witness whereof, I have hereunto set my hand, and caused the seal of the United States to be affixed. Done at the City of Washington, this nineteenth day of April, in the year of our Lord one thousand eight hundred and sixty - one, and of the Independence of the United States the eighty - fifth. In his Memoirs of Service Afloat, Raphael Semmes contended that the announcement of a blockade carried de facto recognition of the Confederate States of America as an independent national entity since countries do not blockade their own ports but rather close them (See Boston Port Act). Under international law and maritime law, however, nations had the right to stop and search neutral ships in international waters if they were suspected of violating a blockade, something port closures would not allow. In an effort to avoid conflict between the United States and Britain over the searching of British merchant vessels thought to be trading with the Confederacy, the Union needed the privileges of international law that came with the declaration of a blockade. However, by effectively declaring the Confederate States of America to be belligerents -- rather than insurrectionists, who under international law were not eligible for recognition by foreign powers -- Lincoln opened the way for Britain and France to recognize the Confederacy. Britain 's proclamation of neutrality was consistent with the Lincoln Administration 's position -- that under international law the Confederates were belligerents -- and helped legitimize the Confederate States of America 's national right to obtain loans and buy arms from neutral nations. The British proclamation also formally gave Britain the diplomatic right to discuss openly which side, if any, to support. A joint Union military - navy commission, known as the Blockade Strategy Board, was formed to make plans for seizing major Southern ports to utilize as Union bases of operations to expand the blockade. It first met in June 1861 in Washington, D.C., under the leadership of Captain Samuel F. Du Pont. In the initial phase of the blockade, Union forces concentrated on the Atlantic Coast. The November 1861 capture of Port Royal in South Carolina provided the Federals with an open ocean port and repair and maintenance facilities in good operating condition. It became an early base of operations for further expansion of the blockade along the Atlantic coastline, including the Stone Fleet. Apalachicola, Florida, received Confederate goods traveling down the Chattahoochee River from Columbus, Georgia, and was an early target of Union blockade efforts on Florida 's Gulf Coast. Another early prize was Ship Island, which gave the Navy a base from which to patrol the entrances to both the Mississippi River and Mobile Bay. The Navy gradually extended its reach throughout the Gulf of Mexico to the Texas coastline, including Galveston and Sabine Pass. With 3,500 miles (5,600 km) of Confederate coastline and 180 possible ports of entry to patrol, the blockade would be the largest such effort ever attempted. The United States Navy had 42 ships in active service, and another 48 laid up and listed as available as soon as crews could be assembled and trained. Half were sailing ships, some were technologically outdated, most were at the time patrolling distant oceans, one served on Lake Erie and could not be moved into the ocean, and another had gone missing off Hawaii. At the time of the declaration of the blockade, the Union only had three ships suitable for blockade duty. The Navy Department, under the leadership of Navy Secretary Gideon Welles, quickly moved to expand the fleet. U.S. warships patrolling abroad were recalled, a massive shipbuilding program was launched, civilian merchant and passenger ships were purchased for naval service, and captured blockade runners were commissioned into the navy. In 1861, nearly 80 steamers and 60 sailing ships were added to the fleet, and the number of blockading vessels rose to 160. Some 52 more warships were under construction by the end of the year. By November 1862, there were 282 steamers and 102 sailing ships. By the end of the war, the Union Navy had grown to a size of 671 ships, making it the largest navy in the world. By the end of 1861, the Navy had grown to 24,000 officers and enlisted men, over 15,000 more than in antebellum service. Four squadrons of ships were deployed, two in the Atlantic and two in the Gulf of Mexico. Blockade service was attractive to Federal seamen and landsmen alike. Blockade station service was considered the most boring job in the war but also the most attractive in terms of potential financial gain. The task was for the fleet to sail back and forth to intercept any blockade runners. More than 50,000 men volunteered for the boring duty, because food and living conditions on ship were much better than the infantry offered, the work was safer, and especially because of the real (albeit small) chance for big money. Captured ships and their cargoes were sold at auction and the proceeds split among the sailors. When Eolus seized the hapless blockade runner Hope off Wilmington, North Carolina, in late 1864, the captain won $13,000 ($203,409 today), the chief engineer $6,700, the seamen more than $1,000 each, and the cabin boy $533, compared to infantry pay of $13 ($203 today) per month. The amount garnered for a prize of war widely varied. While the little Alligator sold for only $50, bagging the Memphis brought in $510,000 ($7,979,872 today) (about what 40 civilian workers could earn in a lifetime of work). In four years, $25 million in prize money was awarded. While a large proportion of blockade runners did manage to evade the Union ships, as the blockade matured, the type of ship most likely to find success in evading the naval cordon was a small, light ship with a short draft -- qualities that facilitated blockade running but were poorly suited to carrying large amounts of heavy weaponry, metals, and other supplies badly needed by the South. To be successful in helping the Confederacy, a blockade runner had to make many trips; eventually, most were captured or sunk. Nonetheless, five out of six attempts to evade the Union blockade were successful. During the war, some 1,500 blockade runners were captured or destroyed. Ordinary freighters were too slow and visible to escape the Navy. The blockade runners therefore relied mainly on new steamships built in Britain with low profiles, shallow draft, and high speed. Their paddle - wheels, driven by steam engines that burned smokeless anthracite coal, could make 17 kn (31 km / h; 20 mph). Because the South lacked sufficient sailors, skippers and shipbuilding capability, the runners were built, commanded and manned by British officers and sailors. Private British investors spent perhaps £ 50 million on the runners ($250 million in U.S. dollars, equivalent to about $2.5 billion in 2006 dollars). The pay was high: a Royal Navy officer on leave might earn several thousand dollars (in gold) in salary and bonus per round trip, with ordinary seamen earning several hundred dollars. The blockade runners were based in the British islands of Bermuda and the Bahamas, or Havana, in Spanish Cuba. The goods they carried were brought to these places by ordinary cargo ships, and loaded onto the runners. The runners then ran the gauntlet between their bases and Confederate ports, some 500 -- 700 mi (800 -- 1,130 km) apart. On each trip, a runner carried several hundred tons of compact, high - value cargo such as cotton, turpentine or tobacco outbound, and rifles, medicine, brandy, lingerie and coffee inbound. Often they also carried mail. They charged from $300 to $1,000 per ton of cargo brought in; two round trips a month would generate perhaps $250,000 in revenue (and $80,000 in wages and expenses). Blockade runners preferred to run past the Union Navy at night, either on moonless nights, before the moon rose, or after it set. As they approached the coastline, the ships showed no lights, and sailors were prohibited from smoking. Likewise, Union warships covered all their lights, except perhaps a faint light on the commander 's ship. If a Union warship discovered a blockade runner, it fired signal rockets in the direction of its course to alert other ships. The runners adapted to such tactics by firing their own rockets in different directions to confuse Union warships. In November 1864, a wholesaler in Wilmington asked his agent in the Bahamas to stop sending so much chloroform and instead send "essence of cognac '' because that perfume would sell "quite high ''. Confederate patriots held rich blockade runners in contempt for profiteering on luxuries while the soldiers were in rags. On the other hand, their bravery and initiative were necessary for the nation 's survival, and many women in the back country flaunted imported $10 gewgaws and $50 hats as patriotic proof that the "damn yankees '' had failed to isolate them from the outer world. The government in Richmond, Virginia, eventually regulated the traffic, requiring half the imports to be munitions; it even purchased and operated some runners on its own account and made sure they loaded vital war goods. By 1864, Lee 's soldiers were eating imported meat. Blockade running was reasonably safe for both sides. It was not illegal under international law; captured foreign sailors were released, while Confederates went to prison camps. The ships were unarmed (the weight of cannon would slow them down), so they posed no danger to the Navy warships. One example of the lucrative (and short - lived) nature of the blockade running trade was the ship Banshee, which operated out of Nassau and Bermuda. She was captured on her seventh run into Wilmington, North Carolina, and confiscated by the U.S. Navy for use as a blockading ship. However, at the time of her capture, she had turned a 700 % profit for her English owners, who quickly commissioned and built Banshee No. 2, which soon joined the firm 's fleet of blockade runners. In May 1865, CSS Lark became the last Confederate ship to slip out of a Southern port and successfully evade the Union blockade when she left Galveston, Texas, for Havana. The Union blockade was a powerful weapon that eventually ruined the Southern economy, at the cost of very few lives. The measure of the blockade 's success was not the few ships that slipped through, but the thousands that never tried it. Ordinary freighters had no reasonable hope of evading the blockade and stopped calling at Southern ports. The interdiction of coastal traffic meant that long - distance travel depended on the rickety railroad system, which never overcame the devastating impact of the blockade. Throughout the war, the South produced enough food for civilians and soldiers, but it had growing difficulty in moving surpluses to areas of scarcity and famine. Lee 's army, at the end of the supply line, nearly always was short of supplies as the war progressed into its final two years. When the blockade began in 1861, it was only partially effective. It has been estimated that only one in ten ships trying to evade the blockade were intercepted. However, the Union Navy gradually increased in size throughout the war, and was able to drastically reduce shipments into Confederate ports. By 1864, one in every three ships attempting to run the blockade were being intercepted. In the final two years of the war, the only ships with a reasonable chance of evading the blockade were blockade runners specifically designed for speed. The blockade almost totally choked off Southern cotton exports, which the Confederacy depended on for hard currency. Cotton exports fell 95 %, from 10 million bales in the three years prior to the war to just 500,000 bales during the blockade period. The blockade also largely reduced imports of food, medicine, war materials, manufactured goods, and luxury items, resulting in severe shortages and inflation. Shortages of bread led to occasional bread riots in Richmond and other cities, showing that patriotism was not sufficient to satisfy the daily demands of the people. Land routes remained open for cattle drovers, but after the Union seized control of the Mississippi River in summer 1863, it became impossible to ship horses, cattle and swine from Texas and Arkansas to the eastern Confederacy. The blockade was a triumph of the Union Navy and a major factor in winning the war. The southern cotton industry began to heavily influence the British economy. On the eve of the war, 1,390,938,752 pounds weight of cotton were imported into Great Britain in 1860. Of this, the United States supplied 1,115,890,608 pounds, or about five - sixths of the whole. Not only was Great Britain aware of the impact of Southern cotton, but so was the South. They were confident that their industry held large power, so much, that they referred to their industry as "King Cotton. '' This slogan was used to declare its supremacy in America. On the floor of the U.S. Senate, Senator James Henry Hammond declaimed (March 4, 1858): "You dare not make war upon cotton! No power on earth dares make war upon it. Cotton is king. '' The South proclaimed that many domestic and even some international markets depended so heavily on their cotton, that no one would dare spark tensions with the South. They also viewed this slogan as their reasoning behind why they should achieve their efforts in seceding from the Union. The Southern Cotton industry was so confident in the power of cotton diplomacy, that without warning, they refused to export cotton for one day. Imagining an overwhelming response of pleas for their cotton, the Southern cotton industry experienced quite the opposite. With the decisions of Lincoln and the lack of intervention on Great Britain 's part, the South was officially blockaded. Following the U.S. announcement of its intention to establish an official blockade of Confederate ports, foreign governments began to recognize the Confederacy as a belligerent in the Civil War. Great Britain declared belligerent status on May 13, 1861, followed by Spain on June 17 and Brazil on August 1. This was the first glimpse of failure for the Confederate South. The decision to blockade Southern port cities took a large toll on the British economy but they weighed their consequences. Great Britain had a good amount of cotton stored up in warehouses in several locations that would provide for their textile needs for some time. But eventually Great Britain began to see the effects of the blockade, "the blockade had a negative impact on the economies of other countries. Textile manufacturing areas in Britain and France that depended on Southern cotton entered periods of high unemployment... '' in the so - called Lancashire Cotton Famine. The article written in the New York Times further proves that Great Britain was aware of the influence of cotton in their empire, "Nearly one million of operatives are employed in the manufacture of cotton in Great Britain, upon whom, at least five or six millions more depend for their daily subsistence. It is no exaggeration to say, that one - quarter of the inhabitants of England are directly dependent upon the supply of cotton for their living. '' Despite these consequences, Great Britain concluded that their decision was crucial in terms of reaching abolition of slavery in the United States. The Confederacy constructed torpedo boats, tending to be small, fast steam launches equipped with spar torpedoes, to attack the blockading fleet. Some torpedo boats were refitted steam launches; others, such as the CSS David class, were purpose - built. The torpedo boats tried to attack under cover of night by ramming the spar torpedo into the hull of the blockading ship, then backing off and detonating the explosive. The torpedo boats were not very effective and were easily countered by simple measures such as hanging chains over the sides of ships to foul the screws of the torpedo boats, or encircling the ships with wooden booms to trap the torpedoes at a distance. One historically notable naval action was the attack of the Confederate submarine H.L. Hunley, a hand - powered submarine launched from Charleston, South Carolina, against Union blockade ships. On the night of 17 February 1864, Hunley attacked Housatonic. The Housatonic sank with the loss of five crew; the Hunley also sank, taking her crew of eight to the bottom. The first victory for the U.S. Navy during the early phases of the blockade occurred on 24 April 1861, when the sloop Cumberland and a small flotilla of support ships began seizing Confederate ships and privateers in the vicinity of Fort Monroe off the Virginia coastline. Within the next two weeks, Flag Officer Garrett J. Pendergrast had captured 16 enemy vessels, serving early notice to the Confederate War Department that the blockade would be effective if extended. Early battles in support of the blockade included the Blockade of the Chesapeake Bay, from May to June 1861, and the Blockade of the Carolina Coast, August -- December 1861. Both enabled the Union Navy to gradually extend its blockade southward along the Atlantic seaboard. In early March 1862, the blockade of the James River in Virginia was gravely threatened by the first ironclad, CSS Virginia in the dramatic Battle of Hampton Roads. Only the timely entry of the new Union ironclad Monitor forestalled the threat. Two months later, Virginia and other ships of the James River Squadron were scuttled in response to the Union Army and Navy advances. The port of Savannah, Georgia was effectively sealed by the reduction and surrender of Fort Pulaski on 11 April. The largest Confederate port, New Orleans, Louisiana, was ill - suited to blockade running since the channels could be sealed by the U.S. Navy. From 16 -- 22 April, the major forts below the city, Forts Jackson and St. Philip were bombarded by David Dixon Porter 's mortar schooners. On 22 April, Flag Officer David Farragut 's fleet cleared a passage through the obstructions. The fleet successfully ran past the forts on the morning of 24 April. This forced the surrender of the forts and New Orleans. The Battle of Mobile Bay on 5 August 1864 closed the last major Confederate port in the Gulf of Mexico. In December 1864, Union Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles sent a force against Fort Fisher, which protected the Confederacy 's access to the Atlantic from Wilmington, North Carolina, the last open Confederate port. The first attack failed, but with a change in tactics (and Union generals), the fort fell in January 1865, closing the last major Confederate port. As the Union fleet grew in size, speed and sophistication, more ports came under Federal control. After 1862, only three ports -- Wilmington, North Carolina; Charleston, South Carolina; and Mobile, Alabama -- remained open for the 75 -- 100 blockade runners in business. Charleston was shut down by Admiral John A. Dahlgren 's South Atlantic Blockading Squadron in 1863. Mobile Bay was captured in August 1864 by Admiral David Farragut. Blockade runners faced an increasing risk of capture -- in 1861 and 1862, one sortie in 9 ended in capture; in 1863 and 1864, one in three. By war 's end, imports had been choked to a trickle as the number of captures came to 50 % of the sorties. Some 1,100 blockade runners were captured (and another 300 destroyed). British investors frequently made the mistake of reinvesting their profits in the trade; when the war ended they were stuck with useless ships and rapidly depreciating cotton. In the final accounting, perhaps half the investors took a profit, and half a loss. The Union victory at Vicksburg, Mississippi, in July 1863 opened up the Mississippi River and effectively cut off the western Confederacy as a source of troops and supplies. The fall of Fort Fisher and the city of Wilmington, North Carolina, early in 1865 closed the last major port for blockade runners, and in quick succession Richmond was evacuated, the Army of Northern Virginia disintegrated, and General Lee surrendered. Thus, most economists give the Union blockade a prominent role in the outcome of the war. (Elekund, 2004) The Union naval ships enforcing the blockade were divided into squadrons based on their area of operation. The Atlantic Blockading Squadron was a unit of the United States Navy created in the early days of the American Civil War to enforce a blockade of the ports of the Confederate States. It was originally formed in 1861 as the Coast Blockading Squadron before being renamed May 17, 1861. It was split the same year for the creation of the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron. The North Atlantic Blockading Squadron was based at Hampton Roads, Virginia, and was tasked with coverage of Virginia and North Carolina. Its official range of operation was from the Potomac River to Cape Fear in North Carolina. It was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops. It was created when the Atlantic Blockading Squadron was split between the North and South Atlantic Blockading Squadrons on 29 October 1861. After the end of the war, the squadron was merged into the Atlantic Squadron on 25 July 1865. The South Atlantic Blockading Squadron was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops operating between Cape Henry in Virginia down to Key West in Florida. It was created when the Atlantic Blockading Squadron was split between the North and South Atlantic Blockading Squadrons on 29 October 1861. After the end of the war, the squadron was merged into the Atlantic Squadron on 25 July 1865. The Gulf Blockading Squadron was a squadron of the United States Navy in the early part of the War, patrolling from Key West to the Mexican border. The squadron was the largest in operation. It was split into the East and West Gulf Blockading Squadrons in early 1862 for more efficiency. The East Gulf Blockading Squadron, assigned the Florida coast from east of Pensacola to Cape Canaveral, was a minor command. The squadron was headquartered in Key West and was supported by a U.S. Navy coal depot and storehouse built during 1856 - 61. The West Gulf Blockading Squadron was tasked primarily with preventing Confederate ships from supplying troops and with supporting Union troops along the western half of the Gulf Coast, from the mouth of the Mississippi to the Rio Grande and south, beyond the border with Mexico. It was created early in 1862 when the Gulf Blockading Squadron was split between the East and West. This unit was the main military force deployed by the Union in the capture and brief occupation of Galveston, Texas in 1862.

where is the kudzu found in the us

Kudzu in the United States - wikipedia Kudzu is an invasive plant in the United States. It has been spreading in the southern U.S. at the rate of 150,000 acres (610 km) annually, "easily outpacing the use of herbicide spraying and mowing, as well increasing the costs of these controls by $6 million annually ''. This claim, however, has recently been disputed, the United States Forest Service estimating an increase of only 2,500 acres per year. Its introduction has produced devastating environmental consequences. This has earned it the nickname, "The vine that ate the South ''. Kudzu is a perennial vine native to Asia, primarily subtropical and temperate regions of China, Japan, and Korea, with trifoliate leaves composed of three leaflets. Five species in the genus Pueraria (P. montana, P. lobata, P. edulis, P. phaseoloides and P. thomsoni) are closely related and kudzu populations in the United States seem to have ancestry from more than one of the species. Each leaflet is large and ovate with two to three lobes each and hair on the underside. The leaves have the ability to fix atmospheric nitrogen, which can supply up to 95 % of leaf nitrogen to the plant in poor soils. Along the vines are nodes, points at which stems or tendrils can propagate to increase support and attach to structures. As a twining vine, kudzu uses stems or tendrils that can extend from any node on the vine to attach to and climb most surfaces. In addition, the nodes of the kudzu vine have the ability to root when exposed to soil, further anchoring the vine to the ground. The roots are tuberous and are high in starch and water content, and the twining of the plant allows for less carbon concentration in the construction of woody stems and greater concentration in roots, which aids root growth. The roots can account for up to 40 % of total plant biomass. Kudzu 's primary method of reproduction is asexual vegetative spread (cloning) which is aided by the ability to root wherever a stem is exposed to soil. For sexual reproduction, kudzu is entirely dependent on pollinators. Although kudzu prefers forest regrowth and edge habitats with high sun exposure, the plant can survive in full sun or partial shade. These attributes of kudzu made it attractive as an ornamental plant for shading porches in the southeastern US, but they facilitated the growth of kudzu as it became a "structural parasite '' of the South, enveloping entire structures when untreated and often referred to as "the vine that ate the south ''. The word "kudzu '' comes from the Japanese word for the plant, 葛, or kuzu. Kudzu is believed to have originated in Japan, where the ecosystem (primarily the tendency of kudzu to experience above - ground die back over winter) kept the vine from becoming a nuisance, and it is thought to have been introduced to China and likely Korea. In Japan, kudzu thrives in mountainous regions, ranging from the 44th parallel north (the island of Hokkaido) to the 30th parallel north (the island of Kuchinoshima) and many of the lowlands and the islands. In Korea, kudzu grows in areas where the temperature can drop to - 30 degrees Celsius. The kudzu plant was introduced to the United States from Japan in 1876 at the Centennial Exposition in Philadelphia. Kudzu was introduced to the Southeast in 1883 at the New Orleans Exposition. The vine was widely marketed in the Southeast as an ornamental plant to be used to shade porches, and in the first half of the 20th century, kudzu was distributed as a high - protein content cattle fodder and as a cover plant to prevent soil erosion. It was cultivated by Civilian Conservation Corps workers as a solution for the erosion during the Dust Bowl. The Soil Erosion Service recommended the use of kudzu to help control erosion of slopes which led to the government - aided distribution of 85 million seedlings and government - funded plantings of kudzu which paid $19.75 per hectare. By 1946, it was estimated that 1,200,000 hectares (3,000,000 acres) of kudzu had been planted. When boll weevil infestations and the failure of cotton crops caused farmers to abandon their farms, kudzu plantings were left unattended. The climate and environment of the Southeastern United States allowed the kudzu to grow virtually unchecked. In 1953 the United States Department of Agriculture removed kudzu from a list of suggested cover plants and listed it as a weed in 1970. By 1997, the vine was placed on the "Federal Noxious Weed List ''. Today, kudzu is estimated to cover 3,000,000 hectares (7,400,000 acres) of land in the southeastern United States, mostly in Alabama, Georgia, Tennessee, Florida, North Carolina, South Carolina and Mississippi. It has been recorded in Nova Scotia, Canada, in Columbus, Ohio, and in all five boroughs of New York City. Recent U.S. Forest Service information indicates that kudzu is much less of a problem than previously thought. It shows kudzu to cover 227,000 acres, with "an increase of no more than 2,500 acres a year ''. This can be compared to invasive Asian privet in the US, which covers 3,200,000 acres. In the United States, kudzu has been used as livestock feed, in fertilizer, and in erosion control, and the vines have been used for folk art. In Korea, kudzu root is harvested for its starch, which is used in various foods including naengmyon, as well as a health food and herbal medicine. In China, kudzu root is used in herbal remedies, teas, and the treatment of alcohol - related problems. The efficacy of the treatment of alcohol - related problems is currently under question, but experiments show promising results. In Japan, the kudzu root starch (or kuzu root starch) extracted from kudzu roots is used in cooking and natural medicines, and it is used to make hay that sick animals will eat. The starch is used in Japanese cuisine, and is widely consumed as such in that country. Kudzu is also used as a food crop in Java, Sumatra, and Malaya, and can be found in Puerto Rico and South America. Other uses may include: paper products, food products, insect repellents (the smoke from burning leaves), honey, and methane production. Kudzu also has potential as a source for biofuel. Kudzu was intentionally introduced to North America by the Soil Erosion Service and Civilian Conservation Corp in 1876 for the purpose of controlling soil erosion in Pennsylvania. When kudzu was first introduced in the southeast, it was initially used as an ornamental vine to shade homes. By the early 20th century, southerners began to use kudzu for purposes other than ornamentation and so kudzu began to come closer in contact with the land which, in turn, encouraged its spread throughout the southeast. In the 135 years since its introduction, kudzu has spread over three million hectares (ha) of the southern United States, and continues to ' consume ' the south at an estimated rate of 50,000 hectares (120,000 acres) per year, destroying power lines, buildings, and native vegetation in its path. In the United States, kudzu is extensively reported in Alabama, Arkansas, Washington, D.C., Delaware, Florida, Georgia, Illinois, Indiana, Kentucky, Louisiana, Maryland, Missouri, Mississippi, North Carolina, North Dakota, New Jersey, Oregon, Ohio, Pennsylvania, South Carolina, Tennessee, Texas, Virginia, and West Virginia. Of these states, three in the southeast have the heaviest infestations: Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi. Kudzu kills or damages other plants by smothering them under a blanket of leaves, encompassing tree trunks, breaking branches, or even uprooting entire trees. Kudzu 's ability to grow quickly, survive in areas of low nitrogen availability, and acquire resources quickly allows it to out - compete native species. Of the plants that can successfully compete with kudzu, many are other invasive species such as the Chinese privet and the Japanese honeysuckle. In the southeast, the spread of kudzu is especially troublesome because of the high level of biodiversity in this region that is not found in other regions of the United States. Kudzu and other invasive weeds pose a significant threat to the biodiversity in the southeast. They reduce the environment to impoverished "vine barrens ''. The fast growth and high competitive ability is achieved through several key features of kudzu that are detailed below. Kudzu is a very stress - tolerant plant. Kudzu is drought tolerant and only the above ground portions of the plant are damaged by frost. Kudzu also forms symbiotic relationships with nitrogen - fixing bacteria to convert atmospheric nitrogen (N) into ammonium which can be used by surrounding plants. Now the dominant nitrogen - fixing plant in the eastern United States, kudzu fixes an estimated 235 kg of nitrogen per hectare per year, which is an order of magnitude higher than the rates of native species. This ability allows it to flourish in nitrogen - poor sites where other plants are unable to grow. In the absence of other plants, nitrogen then builds up in the soil, allowing the maintenance of large leaf areas and high photosynthetic rates. While little research has been conducted on the impacts of plant invasion on atmospheric conditions, a study conducted at Stony Brook University in New York shows that kudzu has increased the concentration of atmospheric NOx in the eastern United States, which causes a 2 ppb increase in tropospheric ozone during high temperature events in addition to soil acidification, aluminum mobilization, and leaching of NO3 - into aquatic ecosystems. Once established in a habitat, kudzu is able to grow very quickly. Kudzu can grow up to 60 feet per season, or about one foot per day. Kudzu is also able to allocate large portions of carbon to root growth, allowing it to acquire sufficient nutrients for rapid growth and to spread clonally. Primary kudzu roots can weigh over 180 kg, grow to 18 cm in diameter, and penetrate soil at a rate of 3 cm in depth per day. Kudzu can also root wherever stems make contact with soil, allowing vines to grow in all directions. Once rooted, most stems lose connection with each other within one year, allowing each stem to become a physiologically independent individual, and requiring that all stems be treated or removed in order to eliminate a population. In addition to its abilities to obtain nutrients and spread quickly, kudzu leaves have paraheliotropic movements, meaning that they move in response to the movement of the sun in order to maximize photosynthetic productivity. Kudzu is also a ' structural parasite, ' meaning that, rather than supporting itself, it grows on top of other plants and buildings to reach light. Its ability to reproduce and spread quickly allows it to quickly cover shrubs, trees, and forests, where it blocks the sun 's rays from the plants below it, decreasing or completely eliminating their photosynthetic productivity. The economic impact of kudzu in the United States is estimated at $100 -- 500 million lost per year in forest productivity. In addition, it takes about $5,000 per hectare (2.5 acres) per year to control kudzu. Power companies must spend about $1.5 million per year to repair damage to power lines. Kudzu management is of great concern in the management of national parks in the southeast such as Vicksburg National Military Park, Chickamauga and Chattanooga National Military Park, and Great Smoky Mountains National Park. In Vicksburg, kudzu has invaded 190 of the 2,000 total acres of the park and threatens to diminish the historical value of the park. There are several methods for controlling kudzu growth that are used in the Southeastern United States. These include mechanical, chemical, and biological methods. Most mechanical means of kudzu removal practiced in the southeastern United States involve mowing the vine or cutting it back. These methods, though more effective than herbicides, are more time consuming. Vines must be mowed down just above ground level every month or two during the growing season in order to prevent them from growing back. When using this method of kudzu control, all of the plant material must be removed and / or destroyed (burned) to prevent the vines from taking root and re-growing. Another method of mechanical removal is to remove the crown of the plant. This part must also be destroyed to prevent re-implantation. A different, and sometimes less time consuming option for the control of kudzu is chemical treatment with herbicides. Some common herbicides used are Tordon and Triclopyr and the most effective are Picloram and Tebuthiuron. However, chemical treatments are expensive, and killing off the plant completely requires large amounts of herbicides (40 - 80 gallons per acre). Herbicides are found to be most effective when they are used during the typical growing season, June -- October, and when used for successive years. One case study saw a significant decrease in the growth of kudzu after just two years, whereas another study required the use of the herbicide for up to ten years. Another form of chemical removal other than herbicides is soil solarization. Soil solarization is a thermal (heat) method that utilizes solar - enhanced heating of the soil to kill the root system of the plant, thereby avoiding the use of pesticides and other more dangerous (fire - based) means to control the plant. Soil solarization affects the micronutrients and macronutrients in the soil. The most prominent effect of this method of control is the increase in potassium (K). The higher level of K in all soils undergoing solarization demonstrates the successful release of K from decomposing kudzu plant tissues. Such a rise in K levels by solarization is important for soils in the Southeastern United States that tend to be highly weathered and generally have low K contents. As chemical treatments are often ineffective for long term control and mechanical removal is likewise difficult and costly for long - term control, kudzu makes a good candidate for biological control. There are several biological means that are already in place and more that may be implemented to control the growth of kudzu. Bacterial blights, insect herbivory, and insect seed predation occur in high levels in field populations of kudzu. Seed predation is quite prevalent, with up to 81 % of seeds incurring damage in populations studied in North Carolina. A different survey found twenty - five different species of insect feeding on the kudzu. From this survey, several leaf - feeding beetles and sawflies that have no other known hosts were identified. A separate study also found two weevils that attacked the stems of kudzu and eight beetles that complete larval development in the kudzu roots. When evaluations of potential control agents are made, the range of the control agents must be taken into account. Organisms that feed on kudzu will often feed on similar non-target species that are important in agriculture such as soybeans and hog - peanuts. Potential control agents have to be rejected if they are shown in lab and field tests to feed on these non-target plants. Of the diseases that have been identified as potential biological control agents, the fungal pathogen Myrothecium verrucaria has been shown to be very promising. Disease development is very high at around 30 to 40 degrees Celsius which matches field conditions. In addition, the fungus does not spread outside of areas where it is applied. However, one major drawback of this biological control agent is that it is highly toxic to mammals so extreme care would have to be taken in handling this organism. Other pathogens have been tested as potential biological control agents but have proven to be ineffective. Another way to control kudzu is goats and sheep. A small herd can reduce an acre of kudzu every day. It has also been suggested that human - animal grazing be employed to help control the invasive vine.

wool ski hats with their tops tied off with fishing line

Daymond John - wikipedia Daymond Garfield John (born February 23, 1969) is an American businessman, investor, television personality, author, and motivational speaker. He is best known as the founder, president, and CEO of FUBU, and appears as an investor on the ABC reality television series Shark Tank. Based in New York City, John is the founder of The Shark Group. John was born February 23, 1969 in Brooklyn, New York City, but grew up in the Queens neighborhood of Hollis. Early jobs included handing out flyers and waiting tables at Red Lobster. In high school, he participated in a program that allowed him to work a full - time job and attend school on an alternating weekly basis, which he credits with instilling an entrepreneurial spirit. After graduating high school, he started a commuter van service. John did n't attend college so that he could begin supporting his family as soon as possible. John started FUBU in his mother 's house in Hollis, Queens. When John first had the idea for a clothing company for young men, his mother taught him how to sew and supported him by allowing her house to be taken over to grow the business. Wool ski hats with their tops tied off with fishing line were popular, and John noticed them being sold for $20, which he considered overpriced. He went home and sewed around 90 hats with his next - door neighbor. They sold their homemade hats for $10 each and made $800 in a single day. After the hats, they began selling screen printed T - shirts. To break into the market, they sold on consignment and at large events around the Northeast. To make ends meet, John held a full - time job at Red Lobster, working on the FUBU business in between shifts. Sensing potential, John and his mother mortgaged their house for $100,000 to generate start - up capital. In addition to Brown, he recruited longtime friends J. Alexander Martin and Keith Perrin into the business, and began sewing the FUBU logo onto hockey jerseys, sweatshirts, and T - shirts. They loaned about 10 of the hockey jerseys out to rappers for their music videos for 2 years and got product placements in about 30 videos. They were perceived as a large clothing brand, despite being a relatively small company and stores started requesting their brand. In 1993, he convinced LL Cool J, an old neighborhood friend, to wear a FUBU T - shirt for a promotional campaign. Later, while filming a 30 - second advertising spot for The Gap, LL Cool J wore a FUBU hat in the commercial and incorporated the line "for us, by us '' in his rapping. In 1992, or 1994, John received $300,000 in orders and also an offer for participating in Macy 's (M) at a Las Vegas fashion trade show, MAGIC. They had to take out a second mortgage of his mother 's house in order to fulfill the orders. After being turned down by 27 banks for a loan, his mother used the last of their money to take out an advertisement in the NY Times. As a result of the ad, FUBU made a deal with Samsung Textiles, allowing them to complete their orders. FUBU has earned over $6 billion in global sales. FUBU is featured at the Smithsonian 's National Museum of African - American History and Culture. In 2009, John received a call from Mark Burnett asking him to join the cast of ABC 's new realty business show Shark Tank, which gives entrepreneurs the opportunity to pitch their businesses to investors, or "Sharks '' in the hopes of receiving an investment. The show is now in its 9th season. John has invested $8,567,000 of his own money in Shark Tank companies as of May 12, 2017. His favorite investments on record by 2015 were Al "Bubba '' Baker 's boneless ribs and Bombas socks. In 2016, Shark Tank won an Emmy Award, and won Outstanding Reality Program from 2012 - 2014. John invested in Bubba 's - Q Boneless Ribs on Season 5 of Shark Tank and has helped grow the company from $154,000 in sales to $16 million in 3 years. In 2017, Bubba 's - Q Boneless Ribs partnered up with Carl 's Jr. to create the limited - edition Baby Back Rib Burger. On Season 6 of Shark Tank, John made a unique deal with 15 - year - old Moziah "Mo '' Bridges, who is the owner of Mo 's Bows. John decided not to invest in Mo 's Bows but instead to mentor the young entrepreneur. Recently, Mo 's Bows agreed to a seven - figure licensing partnership with the NBA to create bow ties that use the teams logos. After investing in Bombas Socks on Season 6 of Shark Tank, total sales for the company increased from $450,000 in the first nine months to $12 million. For every pair of socks sold, Bombas donates a pair to someone in need and, as of August 2017, they have donated over 4 million pairs of socks. John invested in Sun - Staches on Season 6 of Shark Tank and they have done over $4.2 million dollars in sales. Shark Tank has won 4 Emmy Awards and has been nominated 9 times. John is the CEO and founder of The Shark Group, a brand management and consulting firm. The Shark Group office is located in Manhattan, New York. John has become a public speaker. He works with brands and celebrities to create additional revenue streams and brand extensions; some of his clients include Pitbull and the Miss Universe Organization. John is also a brand ambassador for the e-commerce company Shopify. John has been a motivational and business speaker at engagements include California First Lady Maria Shriver 's 2010 Women 's Conference. AT&T 's History Makers Tour, Babson College School of Entrepreneurship, and the Creative LIAisons program at the annual London International Awards. John has released three books throughout his career, including Display of Power, The Brand Within, and The Power of Broke. In January 2018, John released his 4th book, Rise & Grind: Outperform, Outwork, and Outhustle Your Way to a More Successful and Rewarding Life. Rise and Grind became a New York Times and Wall Street Journal best - seller. John is a New York Times and Wall Street Journal best - selling author. John has received numerous awards, including Brandweek Marketer of the Year, the NAACP Entrepreneurs of the Year Award (which he won twice), the Advertising Age Marketing 1000 Award for Outstanding Ad Campaign, the Essence Award, Crain 's New York Business Forty Under Forty Award, Ernst & Young 's New York Entrepreneur of the Year Award, the Brandeis University International Business School 's Asper Award for Excellence in Global Entrepreneurship, Details 50 Most Influential Men, and the Congressional Achievement Award for Entrepreneurship (which he won twice). In 2015, President Obama appointed John as an ambassador to promote underserved entrepreneurs. John is dyslexic. Two of his favorite books are Think and Grow Rich and Rich Dad Poor Dad. His father is from Trinidad and Tobago. In April 2017, John was diagnosed with stage II thyroid cancer. John successfully underwent surgery to remove the cancerous nodule. John is on the Board of Overseers and volunteer as a host or judge at NFTE events. NFTE is a global organization with chapters in 12 countries that teaches the value of entrepreneurship and core competencies to students in low income areas.

all of the following are dimensions of applied behavior analysis except

Applied behavior analysis - wikipedia Applied behavior analysis (ABA) is a scientific discipline concerned with applying techniques based upon the principles of learning to change behavior of social significance. It is the applied form of behavior analysis; the other two forms are radical behaviorism (or the philosophy of the science) and the experimental analysis of behavior (or basic experimental research). The name "applied behavior analysis '' has replaced behavior modification because the latter approach suggested attempting to change behavior without clarifying the relevant behavior - environment interactions. In contrast, ABA tries to change behavior by first assessing the functional relationship between a targeted behavior and the environment. Further, the approach often seeks to develop socially acceptable alternatives to aberrant behaviors. ABA has been brought to bear on a wide range of areas and behavioral problems. Examples include such things as early intensive behavioral interventions for children with an autism spectrum disorder (ASD), research on the principles influencing criminal behavior, as well as HIV prevention, conservation of natural resources, education, gerontology, health and exercise, industrial safety, language acquisition, littering, medical procedures, parenting, psychotherapy, seatbelt use, severe mental disorders, sports, substance abuse, phobias, pediatric feeding disorders, and zoo management and care of animals. ABA is an applied science devoted to developing procedures which will produce observable changes in behavior. It is to be distinguished from the experimental analysis of behavior, which focuses on basic experimental research, but it uses principles developed by such research, in particular operant conditioning and classical conditioning. Behavior analysis adopts the viewpoint of radical behaviorism, treating thoughts, emotions, and other covert activity as behavior that is subject to the same rules as overt responses. This represents a shift away from methodological behaviorism, which restricts behavior - change procedures to behaviors that are overt, and was the conceptual underpinning of behavior modification. Behavior analysts also emphasize that the science of behavior must be a natural science as opposed to a social science. As such, behavior analysts focus on the observable relationship of behavior with the environment, including antecedents and consequences, without resort to "hypothetical constructs ''. The beginnings of ABA can be traced to a group of faculty and researchers at the University of Washington and University of Kansas, including Donald Baer, Sidney W. Bijou, Jim Hopkins, Jay Birnbrauer, Todd Risley, and Montrose Wolf. In the 1960s, Baer, Hopkins, Risley, Birnbrauer, and Wolf joined the Department of Human Development and Family Life at the University of Kansas, where they recruited James Sherman, and began to apply the principles of behavior analysis to a wide variety of human problems. In 1968, they founded the Journal of Applied Behavior Analysis, which publishes research in the application of behavior analysis to socially relevant behavior. Notable graduate students from the University of Washington include Robert Wahler, James Sherman, and Ivar Lovaas. Lovaas established the UCLA Young Autism Project while teaching at the University of California, Los Angeles, and devoted nearly half a century to groundbreaking research and practice aimed at improving the lives of children with autism and their families. He even co-founded what is today the Autism Society of America. In 1965, Lovaas published a series of articles that outlined his system for coding observed behaviors, described a pioneering investigation of the antecedents and consequences that maintained a problem behavior, and built upon these methods to develop an effective way to teach nonverbal children to speak. He also described how to use social (secondary) reinforcers, teach children to imitate, and what interventions (including electric shocks) may be used to reduce aggression and life - threatening self - injury. In 1987 Lovaas published the landmark study, "Behavioral Treatment and Normal Educational and Intellectual Functioning in Young Autistic Children ''. The experimental group in this study received up to 40 - hours per week in a 1: 1 teaching setting using discrete trial training (DTT). The treatment is done at home with parents involved in every aspect of treatment, the curriculum is highly individualized with a heavy emphasis on teaching eye contact and language. ABA principles are used to motivate learning and reduce non-desired behaviors. The outcome of this study indicated 47 % of the experimental group (9 / 19) went on to lose their autism diagnosis becoming indistinguishable from their typical adolescent peers. This included passing regular education without assistance, making and maintaining friends, and becoming self - sufficient as adults. These gains were maintained as reported in the 1993 study, "Long - Term Outcome for Children With Autism Who Received Early Intensive Behavioral Treatment ''. Lovaas ' work went on to be recognized by the US Surgeon General in 1999, and his research outcomes were replicated in university and private settings. The "Lovaas Method '' went on to become known as early intensive behavioral intervention (EIBI), or DTT for 30 to 40 hours per week. In addition to being a major contributor of ABA, Dr. Lovaas taught now prominent behaviorists, such as Robert Koegel, Laura Schreibman, Tristram Smith, John McEachin, Ron Leaf, Doreen Granpeesheh, Jacquie Wynn, and over 20,000 UCLA students who took his "Behavior Modification '' course during his 50 years of teaching. He even cofounded what is today the Autism Society of America (ASA), published hundreds of research articles and books, received state and national awards, and forced school districts to adopt evidenced based teaching programs. His work influenced how autism was treated, and improved the lives of parents and children stricken with the autism diagnosis worldwide. Over the years, "behavior analysis '' gradually superseded "behavior modification ''; that is, from simply trying to alter problematic behavior, behavior analysts sought to understand the function of that behavior, what antecedents promote and maintain it, and how it can be replaced by successful behavior. This analysis is based on careful initial assessment of a behavior 's function and a testing of methods that produce changes in behavior. While ABA seems to be intrinsically linked to autism intervention, it is also used for applied animal behavior and clinical behavior analysis, in behavioral medicine, behavioral neuroscience, and criminology, to increase job safety and performance, counteract phobias, and improve classroom management. Baer, Wolf, and Risley 's 1968 article is still used as the standard description of ABA. It lists the following the seven characteristics of ABA. In 2005, Heward et al. suggested that the following five characteristics should be added: Behavior refers to the movement of some part of an organism that changes some aspect of the environment. Often, the term behavior refers to a class of responses that share physical dimensions or functions, and in that case a response is a single instance of that behavior. If a group of responses have the same function, this group may be called a response class. "Repertoire '' refers to the various responses available to an individual; the term may refer to responses that are relevant to a particular situation, or it may refer to everything a person can do. Operant behavior is the so - called "voluntary '' behavior that is sensitive to, or controlled by its consequences. Specifically, operant conditioning refers to the three - term contingency that uses stimulus control, in particular an antecedent contingency called the discriminative stimulus (SD) that influences the strengthening or weakening of behavior through such consequences as reinforcement or punishment. The term is used quite generally, from reaching for a candy bar, to turning up the heat to escape an aversive chill, to studying for an exam to get good grades. Respondent (classical) conditioning is based on innate stimulus - response relationships called reflexes. In his famous experiments with dogs, Pavlov usually used the salivary reflex, namely salivation (unconditioned response) following the taste of food (unconditioned stimulus). Pairing a neutral stimulus, for example a bell (conditioned stimulus) with food caused the bell to elicit salivation (conditioned response). Thus, in classical conditioning, the conditioned stimulus becomes a signal for a biologically significant consequence. Note that in respondent conditioning, unlike operant conditioning, the response does not produce a reinforcer or punisher (e.g. the dog does not get food because it salivates). The environment is the entire constellation of stimuli in which an organism exists. This includes events both inside and outside of an organism, but only real physical events are included. A stimulus is an "energy change that affects an organism through its receptor cells ''. A stimulus can be described: Reinforcement is the key element in operant conditioning and in most behavior change programs. It is the process by which behavior is strengthened. If a behavior is followed closely in time by a stimulus and this results in an increase in the future frequency of that behavior, then the stimulus is a positive reinforcer. If the removal of an event serves as a reinforcer, this is termed negative reinforcement. There are multiple schedules of reinforcement that affect the future probability of behavior. Punishment is a process by which a consequence immediately follows a behavior which decreases the future frequency of that behavior. As with reinforcement, a stimulus can be added (positive punishment) or removed (negative punishment). Broadly, there are three types of punishment: presentation of aversive stimuli (e.g., pain), response cost (removal of desirable stimuli as in monetary fines), and restriction of freedom (as in a ' time out '). Punishment in practice can often result in unwanted side effects. Some other potential unwanted effects include resentment over being punished, attempts to escape the punishment, expression of pain and negative emotions associated with it, and recognition by the punished individual between the punishment and the person delivering it. Extinction is the technical term to describe the procedure of withholding / discontinuing reinforcement of a previously reinforced behavior, resulting in the decrease of that behavior. The behavior is then set to be extinguished (Cooper et al.). Extinction procedures are often preferred over punishment procedures, as many punishment procedures are deemed unethical and in many states prohibited. Nonetheless, extinction procedures must be implemented with utmost care by professionals, as they are generally associated with extinction bursts. An extinction burst is the temporary increase in the frequency, intensity, and / or duration of the behavior targeted for extinction. Other characteristics of an extinction burst include an extinction - produced aggression -- the occurrence of an emotional response to an extinction procedure often manifested as aggression; and b) extinction - induced response variability -- the occurrence of novel behaviors that did not typically occur prior to the extinction procedure. These novel behaviors are a core component of shaping procedures. In addition to a relation being made between behavior and its consequences, operant conditioning also establishes relations between antecedent conditions and behaviors. This differs from the S -- R formulations (If - A-then - B), and replaces it with an AB - because - of - C formulation. In other words, the relation between a behavior (B) and its context (A) is because of consequences (C), more specifically, this relationship between AB because of C indicates that the relationship is established by prior consequences that have occurred in similar contexts. This antecedent -- behavior -- consequence contingency is termed the three - term contingency. A behavior which occurs more frequently in the presence of an antecedent condition than in its absence is called a discriminated operant. The antecedent stimulus is called a discriminative stimulus (S). The fact that the discriminated operant occurs only in the presence of the discriminative stimulus is an illustration of stimulus control. More recently behavior analysts have been focusing on conditions that occur prior to the circumstances for the current behavior of concern that increased the likelihood of the behavior occurring or not occurring. These conditions have been referred to variously as "Setting Event '', "Establishing Operations '', and "Motivating Operations '' by various researchers in their publications. B.F. Skinner 's classification system of behavior analysis has been applied to treatment of a host of communication disorders. Skinner 's system includes: For assessment of verbal behavior from Skinner 's system see Assessment of Basic Language and Learning Skills. When measuring behavior, there are both dimensions of behavior and quantifiable measures of behavior. In applied behavior analysis, the quantifiable measures are a derivative of the dimensions. These dimensions are repeatability, temporal extent, and temporal locus. Response classes occur repeatedly throughout time -- i.e., how many times the behavior occurs. This dimension indicates that each instance of behavior occupies some amount of time -- i.e., how long the behavior occurs. Each instance of behavior occurs at a specific point in time -- i.e., when the behavior occurs. Derivative measures are unrelated to specific dimensions: In applied behavior analysis, all experiments should include the following: Prior to the seminal article on functional analytic methodology for aberrant behaviors, behaviorists used the behavioral technology available to them at the time. Instead of treating the function of the disruptive behavior, behavioral psychologists would instead pre-assume consequences to alter disruptive behaviors. For example, in the past to decrease self - injurious behavior in an individual, behaviorists may have delivered an aversive stimulus contingent on the response, or assume a reinforcer without identifying the reinforcer that would be most motivating to the client (Iwata, 1988). This type of intervention was successful to the individual, but it was not uncommon to see other variations of aberrant behavior begin to appear. When applied behavior analysts let clients choose from a wide array of reinforcers (often determined through data collection and reinforcement assessments) in the mid-1980s, reinforcement was shown to be more effective than punishment contingencies. In general, applied behavior analysis as a field favors reinforcement based interventions over aversive contingencies, but at the time the behavioral technology was not advanced enough and the individuals needing intervention had a right to an effective treatment (Van Houten et al., 1988). Nevertheless, not all behavioral therapies involved the use of aversives prior to the mid-1980s. Some behaviorists (for instance, B.F. Skinner) always preferred reinforcement and extinction contingencies over punishment even during that time. In 1977, Edward Carr published a paper on potential hypotheses for the occurrence and maintenance of self - injurious behaviors. This paper laid out the initial groundwork for a functional analysis of aberrant behaviors. In the paper, Carr described five potential causes for self - injurious behaviors that included (1) positive social reinforcement contingent on the response, (2) negative reinforcement in the form of removal of an aversive stimulus contingent on the response, (3) the response produced stimuli possessed reinforcing qualities (automatic reinforcement), (4) the behavior was a byproduct of an underlying psychological condition, and (5) psychodynamic hypothesis in which the behavior was an attempt to reduce guilt. Throughout the paper, Carr cited recent research to support the first three hypotheses, and disprove the latter two hypotheses, but no formal experiment was conducted to determine the controlling variables of the problem behavior. In 1982, Iwata and colleagues conducted the first experimental analysis of the maintaining variables for self - injurious behavior. In the paper, the researchers alternated between specific conditions to examine whether or not the behavior occurred under specific environmental conditions. Through direct manipulation of the environment, the researchers could accurately identify the controlling variables of the aberrant behavior, and provide interventions that targeted the functional relationship between the behavior and the environment. Since this seminal article was published, a wide range of research has been published in the area of functional analyses of aberrant behaviors. The methodology has since become the gold standard in assessment and treatment of aberrant behaviors. Functional assessment of behavior provides hypotheses about the relationships between specific environmental events and behaviors. Decades of research have established that both desirable and undesirable behaviors are learned and maintained through interactions with the social and physical environment. Functional behavior assessments are used to identify controlling variables for challenging behaviors as the basis for intervention efforts designed to decrease the occurrence of these behaviors. Behavior serves two major functions for an individual: (1) to obtain desired events, or (2) to escape / avoid undesired events. Put another way, individuals engage in behavior to get something or to get out of something. When trying to identify the function of a behavior, it is often helpful to think, "What purpose is this behavior serving the individual? '' Described below are the common functions of behavior. Access to attention (positive reinforcement: social): The individual engages in the behavior to obtain attention from another person. For example, a child throws a toy because it characteristically results in mom 's attention. (If this behavior results in mom looking at child and giving him lots of attention -- even if she 's saying "NO '' -- he will be more likely to engage in the same behavior in the future to get mom 's attention.) Common forms of attention include, but are not limited to, hugs, kisses, reprimands, frowns, smiles, etc. Access to tangibles (positive reinforcement: tangible / activity): The individual engages in the behavior to obtain a specific item or engage in a specific activity from another person. For example, a child hits mom because s / he wants the toy mom is holding. (If this behavior results in mom giving the child the toy, s / he will be more likely to engage in the same behavior in the future to get mom 's attention.) Common forms of tangible items include, but are not limited to, food, toys, movies, video games, etc. Automatic positive reinforcement: The individual engages in the behavior because the response - produced stimulation possesses reinforcing characteristics. In other words, engaging in the behavior produces reinforcing stimulation unique to the specific context. For example, a child hits his / her eyes because it produces the specific stimulation of various colors and effects. Another example includes a child spinning a bowl on a table to produce the specific auditory stimulation unique to that object. Common forms of automatic stimulation include, but are not limited to, auditory stimulation, visual stimulation, endorphin release, etc. Escape / removal of attention: The individual engages in the behavior to escape aversive socially mediated attention. Put another way, social situations that are aversive to the child are removed contingent on the behavior occurring. For example, a child hits the teacher to avoid talking in front of the class. Common forms of aversive social situations include, but are not limited to, smiles, hugs, frowns, corrections, group settings, etc. Escape / removal of tasks or activities: The individual engages in the behavior to escape aversive tasks or demands. For example, when a child is told to take a bath he begins to cry, and his mother tells him he no longer has to take a bath. Another example includes a teacher telling a student to complete a series of math problems, to which the student flips the desk and is sent to the principal 's office. Being sent to the principals office reinforced the behavior of flipping the desk because it allowed the child to escape the aversive activity of completing math problems. Common forms of aversive demands / activities include, but are not limited to, difficult tasks, changes in routines, unpredictability, novel tasks, etc. Automatic negative reinforcement: The individual engages in the behavior because it produces a decrease in aversive stimulation. Put another way, something aversive is occurring in some location on the organism 's body, and engaging in the behavior decreases the level of discomfort. For example, a child bangs his head against the wall to decrease the pain experienced from a toothache. Another example includes a child scratching his arm to decrease the level of itchiness experienced from a bug bite. Common forms of aversive stimulation abated by engaging in specific behaviors include sinus pain, itching, hunger, etc. As previously stated function refers to the effect the behavior produces on the environment. The actual form of the behavior is referred to the topography. Different behaviors may serve the same function, thus describing one limitation of treating behaviors based on form alone. For example, a child may scream, hit, and cry to obtain attention from his mother. What the behavior looks like often reveals little useful information about the conditions that account for it. However, identifying the conditions that account for a behavior, suggests what conditions need to be altered to change the behavior. Therefore, assessment of function of a behavior can yield useful information with respect to intervention strategies that are likely to be effective. FBA methods can be classified into three types: This method uses structured interviews, checklists, rating scales, or questionnaires to obtain information from persons who are familiar with the person exhibiting the behavior to identify possible conditions or events in the natural environment that correlate with the problem behavior. They are referred to as "indirect '' because they do not involve direct observation of the behavior, but rather they solicit information based on others ' recollections of the behavior. This form of assessment typically yields the least reliable information about the function of behavior, but can provide insight as to possible functions of the behavior to be tested in the future, the form of the behaviors (e.g. screaming, hitting, etc.), and environments in which the behavior typically occurs (e.g. school, home, etc.). This type of assessment should be performed as the initial step of any functional behavior assessment to gather relevant information to complete more direct assessments. Unlike the indirect methods of FBAs, descriptive functional behavior assessment employs direct observation of behavior. These observations occur in the environment in which the behavior naturally occurs (e.g. school, home, etc.) therefore there is no direct manipulation of the environment. The most common form of descriptive assessment involves recording the antecedents and consequences that naturally occur when the individual emits the behavior. This is referred to as ABC data collection, in which (A) represents the common antecedent, (B) represents the behavior of interest, and (C) represents the immediate consequences that occur following the behavior. ABC data collection is used to identify the naturally occurring consequences delivered in the environment in which the behavior occurs. ABC data collection can be conducted by a wide array of individuals who have received appropriate training on how to record the data. Another form of descriptive FBA is called a scatterplot. In this assessment, staff record the time and setting in which the behavior of interest occurs over a series of days. The data are plotted on a visual scale to indicate whether there are any patterns in the behavior (for example, if the behavior occurs more frequently during math instruction than it does during lunchtime). Although this assessment does not indicate the consequences maintaining the behavior, it can be used to identify some of the antecedent conditions that typically precede the behavior of interest. A functional analysis is the most direct form of functional behavior assessment, in which specific antecedents and consequences are systematically manipulated to test their separate effects on the behavior of interest. Each manipulation of the antecedent and consequence in a particular situation is referred to a condition. In a functional analysis, conditions are typically alternated between quite rapidly independent of responding to test the different functions of behavior. When data paths are elevated above the control condition (described below) it can be said that there is a functional relation between that condition and the behavior of interest. Complexity, time restraints, and setting restraints, are a few limitations to this particular method. When deciding to use this method, it should be noted that there is a chance of high - risk behavior and the possibility of low - rate behaviors. Below, common examples of experimental conditions are described. A standard functional analysis normally has four conditions (three test conditions and one control). In this condition, the experimenter gives the individual moderately preferred items and instructs them to go play. After that initial instruction, the experimenter pretends to act busy and ignores all bids for attention from the individual. If the individual engages in the behavior of interest, the experimenter provides the individual with attention (commonly in the form of a reprimand). Behaviors that occur more frequently in this condition can be said to be attention maintained. In this condition, the experimenter instructs the individual that it is time to work. After the initial instruction, the experimenter delivers a series of demands that the individual is typically required to complete (e.g. math problems, cleaning up, etc.). If the individual engages in the behavior of interest, the demand is removed and the child is allowed to take a break. Behaviors that occur more frequently in this condition can be said to be escape maintained. In this condition, the child is left alone with a variety of items to engage with. If the child engages in the behavior of interest, no programmed consequences are delivered. Behaviors that occur more frequently in this condition can be said to be automatically maintained. In this condition, the child is allowed to engage with a variety of items during the session. No demands are placed on the child throughout the duration of the session. The experimenter provides attention to the individual throughout the session on any behavior that is not the target behavior. If the target behavior occurs, the experimenter removes attention until the behavior has subsided. This session is meant to act as a control condition, meaning that the environment is enriched for the purpose of the behavior not occurring. Said another way, by meeting environmental needs for all possible functions, the individual is not likely to engage in the behavior of interest. This condition is used as a comparison to the other conditions. Any condition that is elevated to a large degree form the control condition, shows a higher degree experimental control indicating the functional relationship between the specific environmental conditions and the behavior of interest. Functional behavior assessments are rarely limited to only one of the methods described above. The most common, and most preferred, method for identifying the function of behavior can be seen as a four - part processes. Task analysis is a process in which a task is analyzed into its component parts so that those parts can be taught through the use of chaining: forward chaining, backward chaining and total task presentation. Task analysis has been used in organizational behavior management, a behavior analytic approach to changing the behaviors of members of an organization (e.g., factories, offices, or hospitals). Behavioral scripts often emerge from a task analysis. Bergan conducted a task analysis of the behavioral consultation relationship and Thomas Kratochwill developed a training program based on teaching Bergan 's skills. A similar approach was used for the development of microskills training for counselors. Ivey would later call this "behaviorist '' phase a very productive one and the skills - based approach came to dominate counselor training during 1970 -- 90. Task analysis was also used in determining the skills needed to access a career. In education, Englemann (1968) used task analysis as part of the methods to design the Direct Instruction curriculum. The skill to be learned is broken down into small units for easy learning. For example, a person learning to brush teeth independently may start with learning to unscrew the toothpaste cap. Once they have learned this, the next step may be squeezing the tube, etc. For problem behavior, chains can also be analyzed and the chain can be disrupted to prevent the problem behavior. Some behavior therapies, such as dialectical behavior therapy, make extensive use of behavior chain analysis. A prompt is a cue that is used to encourage a desired response from an individual. Prompts are often categorized into a prompt hierarchy from most intrusive to least intrusive, although there is some controversy about what is considered most intrusive, those that are physically intrusive or those that are hardest prompt to fade (e.g., verbal). In order to minimize errors and ensure a high level of success during learning, prompts are given in a most - to - least sequence and faded systematically. During this process, prompts are faded quickly as possible so that the learner does not come to depend on them and eventually behaves appropriately without prompting. Types of prompts Prompters might use any or all of the following to suggest the desired response: This is not an exhaustive list of prompts; the nature, number, and order of prompts are chosen to be the most effective for a particular individual. The overall goal is for an individual to eventually not need prompts. As an individual gains mastery of a skill at a particular prompt level, the prompt is faded to a less intrusive prompt. This ensures that the individual does not become overly dependent on a particular prompt when learning a new behavior or skill. Thinning is often confused with fading. Fading refers to a prompt being removed, where thinning refers to an increase in the time or number of responses required between reinforcements. Periodic thinning that produces a 30 % decrease in reinforcement has been suggested as an efficient way to thin. Schedule thinning is often an important and neglected issue in contingency management and token economy systems, especially when these are developed by unqualified practitioners (see professional practice of behavior analysis). Generalization is the expansion of a student 's performance ability beyond the initial conditions set for acquisition of a skill. Generalization can occur across people, places, and materials used for teaching. For example, once a skill is learned in one setting, with a particular instructor, and with specific materials, the skill is taught in more general settings with more variation from the initial acquisition phase. For example, if a student has successfully mastered learning colors at the table, the teacher may take the student around the house or his school and then generalize the skill in these more natural environments with other materials. Behavior analysts have spent considerable amount of time studying factors that lead to generalization. Shaping involves gradually modifying the existing behavior into the desired behavior. If the student engages with a dog by hitting it, then he or she could have their behavior shaped by reinforcing interactions in which he or she touches the dog more gently. Over many interactions, successful shaping would replace the hitting behavior with patting or other gentler behavior. Shaping is based on a behavior analyst 's thorough knowledge of operant conditioning principles and extinction. Recent efforts to teach shaping have used simulated computer tasks. One teaching technique found to be effective with some students, particularly children, is the use of video modeling (the use of taped sequences as exemplars of behavior). It can be used by therapists to assist in the acquisition of both verbal and motor responses, in some cases for long chains of behavior. Critical to behavior analytic interventions is the concept of a systematic behavioral case formulation with a functional behavioral assessment or analysis at the core. This approach should apply a behavior analytic theory of change (see Behavioral change theories). This formulation should include a thorough functional assessment, a skills assessment, a sequential analysis (behavior chain analysis), an ecological assessment, a look at existing evidenced - based behavioral models for the problem behavior (such as Fordyce 's model of chronic pain) and then a treatment plan based on how environmental factors influence behavior. Some argue that behavior analytic case formulation can be improved with an assessment of rules and rule - governed behavior. Some of the interventions that result from this type of conceptualization involve training specific communication skills to replace the problem behaviors as well as specific setting, antecedent, behavior, and consequence strategies. ABA - based techniques are often used to change behaviors associated with autism, so much so that ABA itself is often mistakenly considered to be synonymous with therapy for autism. ABA for autism may be limited by diagnostic severity and IQ. The most influential and widely cited review of the literature regarding efficacy of treatments for autism is the National Research Council 's book Educating Children with Autism (2001) which concluded that ABA was the best research supported and most effective treatment for the main characteristics of autism. Some critics claimed that the NRC 's report was an inside job by behavior analysts but there were no board certified behavior analysts on the panel (which did include physicians, speech pathologists, educators, psychologists, and others). Other criticisms raised include the small sample sizes used in the published research to date. Medications have not been proven to correct the core deficits of ASDs and are not the primary treatment. ABA is the primary treatment according to the American Academy of Pediatrics. Recent reviews of the efficacy of ABA - based techniques in autism include: A 2009 systematic review and meta - analysis by Spreckley and Boyd of four small - n 2000 -- 2007 studies (involving a total of 76 children) came to different conclusions than the aforementioned reviews. Spreckley and Boyd reported that applied behavior intervention (ABI), another name for EIBI, did not significantly improve outcomes compared with standard care of preschool children with ASD in the areas of cognitive outcome, expressive language, receptive language, and adaptive behavior. In a letter to the editor, however, authors of the four studies meta - analyzed claimed that Spreckley and Boyd had misinterpreted one study comparing two forms of ABI with each other as a comparison of ABI with standard care, which erroneously decreased the observed efficacy of ABI. Furthermore, the four studies ' authors raised the possibility that Spreckley and Boyd had excluded some other studies unnecessarily, and that including such studies could have led to a more favorable evaluation of ABI. Spreckley, Boyd, and the four studies ' authors did agree that large multi-site randomized trials are needed to improve the understanding of ABA 's efficacy in autism. Some initial, theoretical work has been initiated to use applied behavioral analysis (ABA) as a foundation for agent - mediated, AI - based instructions for children with autism spectrum disorder. A United States District Court Judge ruled withholding ABA from children (0 -- 21) with autism causes irreparable harm, finding Elizabeth Dudek of Florida 's Agency for Healthcare Administration 's position suggesting ABA was experimental was arbitrary and capricious, ordering AHCA enjoined from withholding ABA. Thereafter, CMS ordered its guidance that all states to cover ABA via Head Start and Early Head Start EPSDT programs. Further research is clearly required, specifically to include larger and thus more representative samples. Conversely, various major figures within the autistic community have written biographies detailing the harm caused by the provision of ABA, including restraint, often used with mild self stimulatory behaviors such as hand flapping, and verbal abuse. Several of these have since been diagnosed with PTSD and depression. Less scholarly reviews were provided by Elizabeth Devita - Raeburn in The Atlantic magazine and by an ex-practitioner. Applied behavior analysts publish in many journals. Some examples of "core '' behavior analytic journals are:

where is the supreme court of the united states located

Supreme Court of the United States - wikipedia The Supreme Court of the United States is the highest federal court of the United States. Established pursuant to Article Three of the United States Constitution in 1789, it has ultimate (and largely discretionary) appellate jurisdiction over all federal courts and state court cases involving issues of federal law plus original jurisdiction over a small range of cases. In the legal system of the United States, the Supreme Court is generally the final interpreter of federal law including the United States Constitution, but it may act only within the context of a case in which it has jurisdiction. The Court may decide cases having political overtones but does not have power to decide nonjusticiable political questions, and its enforcement arm is in the executive rather than judicial branch of government. According to federal statute, the Court normally consists of the Chief Justice of the United States and eight associate justices who are nominated by the President and confirmed by the Senate. Once appointed, justices have lifetime tenure unless they resign, retire, or are removed after impeachment (though no justice has ever been removed). In modern discourse, the justices are often categorized as having conservative, moderate, or liberal philosophies of law and of judicial interpretation. Each justice has one vote, and it is worth noting that while a far greater number of cases in recent history have been decided unanimously, decisions in cases of the highest profile have often come down to just one single vote, thereby exposing the justices ' ideological beliefs that track with those philosophical or political categories. The Court meets in the Supreme Court Building in Washington, D.C. The Supreme Court is sometimes colloquially referred to as SCOTUS (Supreme Court of the United States) similar to and in line with other acronyms such as POTUS (President of the United States). The ratification of the United States Constitution established the Supreme Court in 1789. Its powers are detailed in Article Three of the Constitution. The Supreme Court was the only court specifically established by the Constitution while all other federal courts were created by Congress. Congress is also responsible for conferring the title of "justice '' to its members, who are known to scold lawyers for inaccurately referring to them as "judge '', even though it is the term used in the Constitution. The Court first convened on February 2, 1790 with six judges where only five of its six initial positions were filled. According to historian Fergus Bordewich, in its first session: "(T) he Supreme Court convened for the first time at the Royal Exchange Building on Broad Street, a few steps from Federal Hall. Symbolically, the moment was pregnant with promise for the republic, this birth of a new national institution whose future power, admittedly, still existed only in the eyes and minds of just a few visionary Americans. Impressively bewigged and swathed in their robes of office, Chief Justice John Jay and three associate justices -- William Cushing of Massachusetts, James Wilson of Pennsylvania, and John Blair of Virginia -- sat augustly before a throng of spectators and waited for something to happen. Nothing did. They had no cases to consider. After a week of inactivity, they adjourned until September, and everyone went home. '' The sixth member, James Iredell, was not confirmed until May 12, 1790. Because the full Court had only six members, every decision that it made by a majority was also made by two - thirds (voting four to two). However, Congress has always allowed less than the Court 's full membership to make decisions, starting with a quorum of four justices in 1789. Under Chief Justices Jay, Rutledge, and Ellsworth (1789 -- 1801), the Court heard few cases; its first decision was West v. Barnes (1791), a case involving a procedural issue. The Court lacked a home of its own and had little prestige, a situation not helped by the highest - profile case of the era, Chisholm v. Georgia (1793), which was reversed within two years by the adoption of the Eleventh Amendment. The Court 's power and prestige grew substantially during the Marshall Court (1801 -- 35). Under Marshall, the Court established the power of judicial review over acts of Congress, including specifying itself as the supreme expositor of the Constitution (Marbury v. Madison) and made several important constitutional rulings giving shape and substance to the balance of power between the federal government and the states (prominently, Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee, McCulloch v. Maryland and Gibbons v. Ogden). The Marshall Court also ended the practice of each justice issuing his opinion seriatim, a remnant of British tradition, and instead issuing a single majority opinion. Also during Marshall 's tenure, although beyond the Court 's control, the impeachment and acquittal of Justice Samuel Chase in 1804 -- 05 helped cement the principle of judicial independence. The Taney Court (1836 -- 64) made several important rulings, such as Sheldon v. Sill, which held that while Congress may not limit the subjects the Supreme Court may hear, it may limit the jurisdiction of the lower federal courts to prevent them from hearing cases dealing with certain subjects. Nevertheless, it is primarily remembered for its ruling in Dred Scott v. Sandford, which helped precipitate the Civil War. In the Reconstruction era, the Chase, Waite, and Fuller Courts (1864 -- 1910) interpreted the new Civil War amendments to the Constitution and developed the doctrine of substantive due process (Lochner v. New York; Adair v. United States). Under the White and Taft Courts (1910 -- 30), the Court held that the Fourteenth Amendment had incorporated some guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the states (Gitlow v. New York), grappled with the new antitrust statutes (Standard Oil Co. of New Jersey v. United States), upheld the constitutionality of military conscription (Selective Draft Law Cases) and brought the substantive due process doctrine to its first apogee (Adkins v. Children 's Hospital). During the Hughes, Stone, and Vinson Courts (1930 -- 53), the Court gained its own accommodation in 1935 and changed its interpretation of the Constitution, giving a broader reading to the powers of the federal government to facilitate President Franklin Roosevelt 's New Deal (most prominently West Coast Hotel Co. v. Parrish, Wickard v. Filburn, United States v. Darby and United States v. Butler). During World War II, the Court continued to favor government power, upholding the internment of Japanese citizens (Korematsu v. United States) and the mandatory pledge of allegiance (Minersville School District v. Gobitis). Nevertheless, Gobitis was soon repudiated (West Virginia State Board of Education v. Barnette), and the Steel Seizure Case restricted the pro-government trend. The Warren Court (1953 -- 69) dramatically expanded the force of Constitutional civil liberties. It held that segregation in public schools violates equal protection (Brown v. Board of Education, Bolling v. Sharpe and Green v. County School Bd.) and that traditional legislative district boundaries violated the right to vote (Reynolds v. Sims). It created a general right to privacy (Griswold v. Connecticut), limited the role of religion in public school (most prominently Engel v. Vitale and Abington School District v. Schempp), incorporated most guarantees of the Bill of Rights against the States -- prominently Mapp v. Ohio (the exclusionary rule) and Gideon v. Wainwright (right to appointed counsel), -- and required that criminal suspects be apprised of all these rights by police (Miranda v. Arizona); At the same time, however, the Court limited defamation suits by public figures (New York Times v. Sullivan) and supplied the government with an unbroken run of antitrust victories. The Burger Court (1969 -- 86) marked a conservative shift. It also expanded Griswold 's right to privacy to strike down abortion laws (Roe v. Wade), but divided deeply on affirmative action (Regents of the University of California v. Bakke) and campaign finance regulation (Buckley v. Valeo), and dithered on the death penalty, ruling first that most applications were defective (Furman v. Georgia), then that the death penalty itself was not unconstitutional (Gregg v. Georgia). The Rehnquist Court (1986 -- 2005) was noted for its revival of judicial enforcement of federalism, emphasizing the limits of the Constitution 's affirmative grants of power (United States v. Lopez) and the force of its restrictions on those powers (Seminole Tribe v. Florida, City of Boerne v. Flores). It struck down single - sex state schools as a violation of equal protection (United States v. Virginia), laws against sodomy as violations of substantive due process (Lawrence v. Texas), and the line item veto (Clinton v. New York), but upheld school vouchers (Zelman v. Simmons - Harris) and reaffirmed Roe 's restrictions on abortion laws (Planned Parenthood v. Casey). The Court 's decision in Bush v. Gore, which ended the electoral recount during the presidential election of 2000, was especially controversial. The Roberts Court (2005 -- present) is regarded by some as more conservative than the Rehnquist Court. Some of its major rulings have concerned federal preemption (Wyeth v. Levine), civil procedure (Twombly - Iqbal), abortion (Gonzales v. Carhart), climate change (Massachusetts v. EPA), same - sex marriage (United States v. Windsor and Obergefell v. Hodges) and the Bill of Rights, notably in Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission (First Amendment), Heller - McDonald (Second Amendment) and Baze v. Rees (Eighth Amendment). Article III of the United States Constitution does not specify the number of justices. The Judiciary Act of 1789 called for the appointment of six "judges ''. Although an 1801 act would have reduced the size of the court to five members upon its next vacancy, an 1802 act promptly negated the 1801 act, legally restoring the court 's size to six members before any such vacancy occurred. As the nation 's boundaries grew, Congress added justices to correspond with the growing number of judicial circuits: seven in 1807, nine in 1837, and ten in 1863. In 1866, at the behest of Chief Justice Chase, Congress passed an act providing that the next three justices to retire would not be replaced, which would thin the bench to seven justices by attrition. Consequently, one seat was removed in 1866 and a second in 1867. In 1869, however, the Circuit Judges Act returned the number of justices to nine, where it has since remained. President Franklin D. Roosevelt attempted to expand the Court in 1937. His proposal envisioned appointment of one additional justice for each incumbent justice who reached the age of 70 years 6 months and refused retirement, up to a maximum bench of 15 justices. The proposal was ostensibly to ease the burden of the docket on elderly judges, but the actual purpose was widely understood as an effort to "pack '' the Court with justices who would support Roosevelt 's New Deal. The plan, usually called the "court - packing plan '', failed in Congress. Nevertheless, the Court 's balance began to shift within months when Justice van Devanter retired and was replaced by Senator Hugo Black. By the end of 1941, Roosevelt had appointed seven justices and elevated Harlan Fiske Stone to Chief Justice. The U.S. Constitution states that the President "shall nominate, and by and with the Advice and Consent of the Senate, shall appoint Judges of the Supreme Court. '' Most presidents nominate candidates who broadly share their ideological views, although a justice 's decisions may end up being contrary to a president 's expectations. Because the Constitution sets no qualifications for service as a justice, a president may nominate anyone to serve, subject to Senate confirmation. In modern times, the confirmation process has attracted considerable attention from the press and advocacy groups, which lobby senators to confirm or to reject a nominee depending on whether their track record aligns with the group 's views. The Senate Judiciary Committee conducts hearings and votes on whether the nomination should go to the full Senate with a positive, negative or neutral report. The committee 's practice of personally interviewing nominees is relatively recent. The first nominee to appear before the committee was Harlan Fiske Stone in 1925, who sought to quell concerns about his links to Wall Street, and the modern practice of questioning began with John Marshall Harlan II in 1955. Once the committee reports out the nomination, the full Senate considers it. Rejections are relatively uncommon; the Senate has explicitly rejected twelve Supreme Court nominees, most recently Robert Bork, nominated by President Ronald Reagan in 1987. Although Senate rules do not necessarily allow a negative vote in committee to block a nomination, prior to 2017 a nomination could be blocked by filibuster once debate had begun in the full Senate. President Lyndon Johnson 's nomination of sitting Associate Justice Abe Fortas to succeed Earl Warren as Chief Justice in 1968 was the first successful filibuster of a Supreme Court nominee. It included both Republican and Democratic senators concerned with Fortas 's ethics. President Donald Trump 's nomination of Neil Gorsuch to the seat vacated by Antonin Scalia was the second. Unlike the Fortas filibuster, however, only Democratic Senators voted against cloture on the Gorsuch nomination, citing his perceived conservative judicial philosophy, and the Republican majority 's prior refusal to take up President Barack Obama 's nomination of Merrick Garland to fill the vacancy. This led the Republican majority to change the rules and eliminate the filibuster for Supreme Court nominations. Not every Supreme Court nominee has received a floor vote in the Senate. A president may withdraw a nomination before an actual confirmation vote occurs, typically because it is clear that the Senate will reject the nominee; this occurred most recently with the nomination of Harriet Miers in 2006. The Senate may also fail to act on a nomination, which expires at the end of the session. For example, President Dwight Eisenhower 's first nomination of John Marshall Harlan II in November, 1954 was not acted on by the Senate; Eisenhower re-nominated Harlan in January 1955, and Harlan was confirmed two months later. Most recently, as previously noted, the Senate failed to act on the March 2016 nomination of Merrick Garland; the nomination expired in January 2017, and the vacancy was later filled by President Trump 's appointment of Neil Gorsuch. Once the Senate confirms a nomination, the president must prepare and sign a commission, to which the Seal of the Department of Justice must be affixed, before the new justice can take office. The seniority of an associate justice is based on the commissioning date, not the confirmation or swearing - in date. Before 1981, the approval process of justices was usually rapid. From the Truman through Nixon administrations, justices were typically approved within one month. From the Reagan administration to the present, however, the process has taken much longer. Some believe this is because Congress sees justices as playing a more political role than in the past. According to the Congressional Research Service, the average number of days from nomination to final Senate vote since 1975 is 67 days (2.2 months), while the median is 71 days (or 2.3 months). When the Senate is in recess, a president may make temporary appointments to fill vacancies. Recess appointees hold office only until the end of the next Senate session (less than two years). The Senate must confirm the nominee for them to continue serving; of the two chief justices and eleven associate justices who have received recess appointments, only Chief Justice John Rutledge was not subsequently confirmed. No president since Dwight D. Eisenhower has made a recess appointment to the Court, and the practice has become rare and controversial even in lower federal courts. In 1960, after Eisenhower had made three such appointments, the Senate passed a "sense of the Senate '' resolution that recess appointments to the Court should only be made in "unusual circumstances. '' Such resolutions are not legally binding but are an expression of Congress 's views in the hope of guiding executive action. The 2014 Supreme Court ruling in National Labor Relations Board v. Noel Canning limited the ability of the President to make recess appointments (including appointments to the Supreme Court), ruling that the Senate decides when the Senate is in session (or in recess). Justice Breyer writing for the Court, stated, "We hold that, for purposes of the Recess Appointments Clause, the Senate is in session when it says it is, provided that, under its own rules, it retains the capacity to transact Senate business. '' This ruling allows the Senate to prevent recess appointments through the use of pro-forma sessions. The Constitution provides that justices "shall hold their offices during good behavior '' (unless appointed during a Senate recess). The term "good behavior '' is understood to mean justices may serve for the remainder of their lives, unless they are impeached and convicted by Congress, resign, or retire. Only one justice has been impeached by the House of Representatives (Samuel Chase, March 1804), but he was acquitted in the Senate (March 1805). Moves to impeach sitting justices have occurred more recently (for example, William O. Douglas was the subject of hearings twice, in 1953 and again in 1970; and Abe Fortas resigned while hearings were being organized in 1969), but they did not reach a vote in the House. No mechanism exists for removing a justice who is permanently incapacitated by illness or injury, but unable (or unwilling) to resign. Because justices have indefinite tenure, timing of vacancies can be unpredictable. Sometimes vacancies arise in quick succession, as in the early 1970s when Lewis Franklin Powell, Jr. and William Rehnquist were nominated to replace Hugo Black and John Marshall Harlan II, who retired within a week of each other. Sometimes a great length of time passes between nominations, such as the eleven years between Stephen Breyer 's nomination in 1994 to succeed Harry Blackmun and the nomination of John Roberts in 2005 to fill the seat of Sandra Day O'Connor (though Roberts ' nomination was withdrawn and resubmitted for the role of Chief Justice after Rehnquist died). Despite the variability, all but four presidents have been able to appoint at least one justice. William Henry Harrison died a month after taking office, though his successor (John Tyler) made an appointment during that presidential term. Likewise, Zachary Taylor died 16 months after taking office, but his successor (Millard Fillmore) also made a Supreme Court nomination before the end of that term. Andrew Johnson, who became president after the assassination of Abraham Lincoln, was denied the opportunity to appoint a justice by a reduction in the size of the Court. Jimmy Carter is the only person elected president to have left office after at least one full term without having the opportunity to appoint a justice. Somewhat similarly, presidents James Monroe, Franklin D. Roosevelt, and George W. Bush each served a full term without an opportunity to appoint a justice, but made appointments during their subsequent terms in office. No president who has served more than one full term has gone without at least one opportunity to make an appointment. Three presidents have appointed justices who together served more than a century. Andrew Jackson, Abraham Lincoln, and Franklin D. Roosevelt. The court is currently filled with nine Justices. The most recent justice to join to the court was Neil Gorsuch, who was nominated by President Donald Trump on January 31, 2017, and confirmed on April 7, 2017, by the U.S. Senate. Roberts, John John Roberts (Chief Justice) Kennedy, Anthony Anthony Kennedy Thomas, Clarence Clarence Thomas Ginsburg, Ruth Bader Ruth Bader Ginsburg Breyer, Stephen Stephen Breyer Alito, Samuel Samuel Alito Sotomayor, Sonia Sonia Sotomayor Kagan, Elena Elena Kagan Gorsuch, Neil Neil Gorsuch The Court currently has six male and three female justices. Among the nine justices, there is one African - American (Justice Thomas) and one Hispanic (Justice Sotomayor). Two of the justices were born to at least one immigrant parent: Justice Alito 's parents were born in Italy, and Justice Ginsburg 's father was born in Russia. At least five justices are Roman Catholics and three are Jewish; it is unclear whether Neil Gorsuch considers himself a Catholic or an Episcopalian. The average age is 67 years and 4 months. Every current justice has an Ivy League background. Four justices are from the state of New York, two from California, one from New Jersey, one from Georgia, and one from Colorado. In the 19th century, every justice was a man of European descent (usually Northern European), and almost always Protestant. Concerns about diversity focused on geography, to represent all regions of the country, rather than religious, ethnic, or gender diversity. Most justices have been Protestants, including 36 Episcopalians, 19 Presbyterians, 10 Unitarians, 5 Methodists, and 3 Baptists. The first Catholic justice was Roger Taney in 1836, and 1916 saw the appointment of the first Jewish justice, Louis Brandeis. Several Catholic and Jewish justices have since been appointed, and in recent years the situation has reversed. The Court currently has at least five Catholic justices. Racial, ethnic, and gender diversity began to increase in the late 20th century. Thurgood Marshall became the first African American justice in 1967. Sandra Day O'Connor became the first female justice in 1981. Marshall was succeeded by African - American Clarence Thomas in 1991. O'Connor was joined by Ruth Bader Ginsburg in 1993. After O'Connor's retirement Ginsburg was joined in 2009 by Sonia Sotomayor, the first Hispanic and Latina justice; and in 2010 by Elena Kagan, for a total of four female justices in the Court 's history. There have been six foreign - born justices in the Court 's history: James Wilson (1789 -- 1798), born in Caskardy, Scotland; James Iredell (1790 -- 1799), born in Lewes, England; William Paterson (1793 -- 1806), born in County Antrim, Ireland; David Brewer (1889 -- 1910), born in Smyrna, Turkey; George Sutherland (1922 -- 1939), born in Buckinghamshire, England; and Felix Frankfurter (1939 -- 1962), born in Vienna, Austria. There are currently three living retired justices of the Supreme Court of the United States: John Paul Stevens, Sandra Day O'Connor and David Souter. As retired justices, they no longer participate in the work of the Supreme Court, but may be designated for temporary assignments to sit on lower federal courts, usually the United States Courts of Appeals. Such assignments are formally made by the Chief Justice, on request of the chief judge of the lower court and with the consent of the retired justice. In recent years, Justice O'Connor has sat with several Courts of Appeals around the country, and Justice Souter has frequently sat on the First Circuit, the court of which he was briefly a member before joining the Supreme Court. The status of a retired justice is analogous to that of a circuit or district court judge who has taken senior status, and eligibility of a supreme court justice to assume retired status (rather than simply resign from the bench) is governed by the same age and service criteria. In recent times, justices tend to strategically plan their decisions to leave the bench with personal, institutional, ideological, partisan and sometimes even political factors playing a role. The fear of mental decline and death often motivates justices to step down. The desire to maximize the Court 's strength and legitimacy through one retirement at a time, when the Court is in recess, and during non-presidential election years suggests a concern for institutional health. Finally, especially in recent decades, many justices have timed their departure to coincide with a philosophically compatible president holding office, to ensure that a like - minded successor would be appointed. John Paul Stevens Sandra Day O'Connor David Souter Many of the internal operations of the Court are organized by seniority of justices; the chief justice is considered the most senior member of the court, regardless of the length of his or her service. The associate justices are then ranked by the length of their service. During Court sessions, the justices sit according to seniority, with the Chief Justice in the center, and the Associate Justices on alternating sides, with the most senior Associate Justice on the Chief Justice 's immediate right, and the most junior Associate Justice seated on the left farthest away from the Chief Justice. Therefore, the current court sits as follows from left to right, from the perspective of those facing the Court: Kagan, Alito, Ginsburg, Kennedy (most senior Associate Justice), Roberts (Chief Justice), Thomas, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Gorsuch. In the official yearly Court photograph, justices are arranged similarly, with the five most senior members sitting in the front row in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (The most recent photograph includes Ginsburg, Kennedy, Roberts, Thomas, Breyer), and the four most junior justices standing behind them, again in the same order as they would sit during Court sessions (Kagan, Alito, Sotomayor, Gorsuch). In the justices ' private conferences, current practice is for them to speak and vote in order of seniority to begin with the chief justice first and end with the most junior associate justice. The most junior associate justice in these conferences is charged with any menial tasks the justices may require as they convene alone, such as answering the door of their conference room, serving beverages and transmitting orders of the court to the clerk. Justice Joseph Story served the longest as junior justice, from February 3, 1812, to September 1, 1823, for a total of 4,228 days. Justice Stephen Breyer follows very closely behind serving from August 3, 1994, to January 31, 2006, for a total of 4,199 days. Justice Elena Kagan comes in at a distant third serving from August 6, 2010, to April 10, 2017, for a total of 2439 days. As of 2017, associate justices are paid $251,800 and the chief justice $263,300. Article III, Section 1 of the U.S. Constitution prohibits Congress from reducing the pay for incumbent justices. Once a justice meets age and service requirements, the justice may retire. Judicial pensions are based on the same formula used for federal employees, but a justice 's pension, as with other federal courts judges, can never be less than their salary at the time of retirement. Although justices are nominated by the president in power, justices do not represent or receive official endorsements from political parties, as is accepted practice in the legislative and executive branches. Jurists are, however, informally categorized in legal and political circles as being judicial conservatives, moderates, or liberals. Such leanings, however, generally refer to legal outlook rather than a political or legislative one. The nominations of justices are endorsed by individual politicians in the legislative branch who vote their approval or disapproval of the nominated justice. Following the confirmation of Neil Gorsuch in 2017, the Court consists of five justices appointed by Republican presidents and four appointed by Democratic presidents. It is popularly accepted that Chief Justice Roberts and associate justices Thomas and Alito (appointed by Republican presidents) comprise the Court 's conservative wing. Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan (appointed by Democratic presidents) comprise the Court 's liberal wing. Justice Kennedy (appointed by President Reagan) is generally considered "a conservative who has occasionally voted with liberals '', and up until Justice Scalia 's death, he was often the swing vote that determined the outcome of cases divided between the conservative and liberal wings. Gorsuch had a track record as a reliably conservative judge in the 10th circuit. Tom Goldstein argued in an article in SCOTUSblog in 2010, that the popular view of the Supreme Court as sharply divided along ideological lines and each side pushing an agenda at every turn is "in significant part a caricature designed to fit certain preconceptions. '' He pointed out that in the 2009 term, almost half the cases were decided unanimously, and only about 20 % were decided by a 5 - to - 4 vote. Barely one in ten cases involved the narrow liberal / conservative divide (fewer if the cases where Sotomayor recused herself are not included). He also pointed to several cases that defied the popular conception of the ideological lines of the Court. Goldstein further argued that the large number of pro-criminal - defendant summary dismissals (usually cases where the justices decide that the lower courts significantly misapplied precedent and reverse the case without briefing or argument) were an illustration that the conservative justices had not been aggressively ideological. Likewise, Goldstein stated that the critique that the liberal justices are more likely to invalidate acts of Congress, show inadequate deference to the political process, and be disrespectful of precedent, also lacked merit: Thomas has most often called for overruling prior precedent (even if long standing) that he views as having been wrongly decided, and during the 2009 term Scalia and Thomas voted most often to invalidate legislation. According to statistics compiled by SCOTUSblog, in the twelve terms from 2000 to 2011, an average of 19 of the opinions on major issues (22 %) were decided by a 5 -- 4 vote, with an average of 70 % of those split opinions decided by a Court divided along the traditionally perceived ideological lines (about 15 % of all opinions issued). Over that period, the conservative bloc has been in the majority about 62 % of the time that the Court has divided along ideological lines, which represents about 44 % of all the 5 -- 4 decisions. In the October 2010 term, the Court decided 86 cases, including 75 signed opinions and 5 summary reversals (where the Court reverses a lower court without arguments and without issuing an opinion on the case). Four were decided with unsigned opinions, two cases affirmed by an equally divided Court, and two cases were dismissed as improvidently granted. Justice Kagan recused herself from 26 of the cases due to her prior role as United States Solicitor General. Of the 80 cases, 38 (about 48 %, the highest percentage since the October 2005 term) were decided unanimously (9 -- 0 or 8 -- 0), and 16 decisions were made by a 5 -- 4 vote (about 20 %, compared to 18 % in the October 2009 term, and 29 % in the October 2008 term). However, in fourteen of the sixteen 5 -- 4 decisions, the Court divided along the traditional ideological lines (with Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor, and Kagan on the liberal side, and Roberts, Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on the conservative, and Kennedy providing the "swing vote ''). This represents 87 % of those 16 cases, the highest rate in the past 10 years. The conservative bloc, joined by Kennedy, formed the majority in 63 % of the 5 -- 4 decisions, the highest cohesion rate of that bloc in the Roberts court. In the October 2011 term, the Court decided 75 cases. Of these, 33 (44 %) were decided unanimously, and 15 (20 %, the same percentage as in the previous term) were decided by a vote of 5 -- 4. Of the latter 15, the Court divided along the perceived ideological lines 10 times with Justice Kennedy joining the conservative justices (Roberts, Scalia, Thomas and Alito) five times and with the liberal justices (Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan) five times. In the October 2012 term, the Court decided 78 cases. Five of them were decided in unsigned opinions. 38 out of the 78 decisions (representing 49 % of the decisions) were unanimous in judgement, with 24 decisions being completely unanimous (a single opinion with every justice that participated joining it). This was the largest percentage of unanimous decisions that the Court had in ten years, since the October 2002 term (when 51 % of the decisions handed down were unanimous). The Court split 5 -- 4 in 23 cases (29 % of the total); of these, 16 broke down along the traditionally perceived ideological lines, with Chief Justice Roberts and Justices Scalia, Thomas, and Alito on one side, Justices Ginsburg, Breyer, Sotomayor and Kagan on the other, and Justice Kennedy holding the balance. Of these 16 cases, Justice Kennedy sided with the conservatives on 10 cases, and with the liberals on 6. Three cases were decided by an interesting alignment of justices, with Chief Justice Roberts joined by Justices Kennedy, Thomas, Breyer and Alito in the majority, with Justices Scalia, Ginsburg, Sotomayor, and Kagan in the minority. The greatest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Kagan, who agreed on 72 of the 75 (96 %) cases, in which both voted; the lowest agreement between justices was between Ginsburg and Alito, who agreed only on 45 out of 77 (54 %) cases, in which they both participated. Justice Kennedy was in the majority of 5 -- 4 decisions on 20 out of 24 (83 %) cases, and in 71 of 78 (91 %) cases during the term, in line with his position as the "swing vote '' of the Court. The Supreme Court first met on February 1, 1790, at the Merchants ' Exchange Building in New York City. When Philadelphia became the capital, the Court met briefly in Independence Hall before settling in Old City Hall from 1791 until 1800. After the government moved to Washington, D.C., the Court occupied various spaces in the United States Capitol building until 1935, when it moved into its own purpose - built home. The four - story building was designed by Cass Gilbert in a classical style sympathetic to the surrounding buildings of the Capitol and Library of Congress, and is clad in marble. The building includes the courtroom, justices ' chambers, an extensive law library, various meeting spaces, and auxiliary services including a gymnasium. The Supreme Court building is within the ambit of the Architect of the Capitol, but maintains its own police force separate from the Capitol Police. Located across First Street from the United States Capitol at One First Street NE and Maryland Avenue, the building is open to the public from 9 am to 4: 30 pm weekdays but closed on weekends and holidays. Visitors may not tour the actual courtroom unaccompanied. There is a cafeteria, a gift shop, exhibits, and a half - hour informational film. When the Court is not in session, lectures about the courtroom are held hourly from 9: 30 am to 3: 30 pm and reservations are not necessary. When the Court is in session the public may attend oral arguments, which are held twice each morning (and sometimes afternoons) on Mondays, Tuesdays, and Wednesdays in two - week intervals from October through late April, with breaks during December and February. Visitors are seated on a first - come first - served basis. One estimate is there are about 250 seats available. The number of open seats varies from case to case; for important cases, some visitors arrive the day before and wait through the night. From mid-May until the end of June, the court releases orders and opinions beginning at 10 am, and these 15 to 30 - minute sessions are open to the public on a similar basis. Supreme Court Police are available to answer questions. Congress is authorized by Article III of the federal Constitution to regulate the Supreme Court 's appellate jurisdiction. The Supreme Court has original and exclusive jurisdiction over cases between two or more states, but may decline to hear such cases. It also possesses original, but not exclusive, jurisdiction to hear "all actions or proceedings to which ambassadors, other public ministers, consuls, or vice consuls of foreign states are parties; all controversies between the United States and a State; and all actions or proceedings by a State against the citizens of another State or against aliens. '' In 1906, the Court asserted its original jurisdiction to prosecute individuals for contempt of court in United States v. Shipp. The resulting proceeding remains the only contempt proceeding and only criminal trial in the Court 's history. The contempt proceeding arose from the lynching of Ed Johnson in Chattanooga, Tennessee the evening after Justice John Marshall Harlan granted Johnson a stay of execution to allow his lawyers to file an appeal. Johnson was removed from his jail cell by a lynch mob -- aided by the local sheriff who left the prison virtually unguarded -- and hung from a bridge, after which a deputy sheriff pinned a note on Johnson 's body reading: "To Justice Harlan. Come get your nigger now. '' The local sheriff, John Shipp, cited the Supreme Court 's intervention as the rationale for the lynching. The Court appointed its deputy clerk as special master to preside over the trial in Chattanooga with closing arguments made in Washington before the Supreme Court justices, who found nine individuals guilty of contempt, sentencing three to 90 days in jail and the rest to 60 days in jail. In all other cases, however, the Court has only appellate jurisdiction, including the ability to issue writs of mandamus and writs of prohibition to lower courts. It considers cases based on its original jurisdiction very rarely; almost all cases are brought to the Supreme Court on appeal. In practice, the only original jurisdiction cases heard by the Court are disputes between two or more states. The Court 's appellate jurisdiction consists of appeals from federal courts of appeal (through certiorari, certiorari before judgment, and certified questions), the United States Court of Appeals for the Armed Forces (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of Puerto Rico (through certiorari), the Supreme Court of the Virgin Islands (through certiorari), the District of Columbia Court of Appeals (through certiorari), and "final judgments or decrees rendered by the highest court of a State in which a decision could be had '' (through certiorari). In the last case, an appeal may be made to the Supreme Court from a lower state court if the state 's highest court declined to hear an appeal or lacks jurisdiction to hear an appeal. For example, a decision rendered by one of the Florida District Courts of Appeal can be appealed to the U.S. Supreme Court if (a) the Supreme Court of Florida declined to grant certiorari, e.g. Florida Star v. B.J.F., or (b) the district court of appeal issued a per curiam decision simply affirming the lower court 's decision without discussing the merits of the case, since the Supreme Court of Florida lacks jurisdiction to hear appeals of such decisions. The power of the Supreme Court to consider appeals from state courts, rather than just federal courts, was created by the Judiciary Act of 1789 and upheld early in the Court 's history, by its rulings in Martin v. Hunter 's Lessee (1816) and Cohens v. Virginia (1821). The Supreme Court is the only federal court that has jurisdiction over direct appeals from state court decisions, although there are several devices that permit so - called "collateral review '' of state cases. It has to be noted that this "collateral review '' often only applies to individuals on death row and not through the regular judicial system. Since Article Three of the United States Constitution stipulates that federal courts may only entertain "cases '' or "controversies '', the Supreme Court can not decide cases that are moot and it does not render advisory opinions, as the supreme courts of some states may do. For example, in DeFunis v. Odegaard, 416 U.S. 312 (1974), the Court dismissed a lawsuit challenging the constitutionality of a law school affirmative action policy because the plaintiff student had graduated since he began the lawsuit, and a decision from the Court on his claim would not be able to redress any injury he had suffered. However, the Court recognizes some circumstances where it is appropriate to hear a case that is seemingly moot. If an issue is "capable of repetition yet evading review '', the Court will address it even though the party before the Court would not himself be made whole by a favorable result. In Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S. 113 (1973), and other abortion cases, the Court addresses the merits of claims pressed by pregnant women seeking abortions even if they are no longer pregnant because it takes longer than the typical human gestation period to appeal a case through the lower courts to the Supreme Court. Another mootness exception is voluntary cessation of unlawful conduct, in which the Court considers the probability of recurrence and plaintiff 's need for relief. The United States is divided into thirteen circuit courts of appeals, each of which is assigned a "circuit justice '' from the Supreme Court. Although this concept has been in continuous existence throughout the history of the republic, its meaning has changed through time. Under the Judiciary Act of 1789, each justice was required to "ride circuit '', or to travel within the assigned circuit and consider cases alongside local judges. This practice encountered opposition from many justices, who cited the difficulty of travel. Moreover, there was a potential for a conflict of interest on the Court if a justice had previously decided the same case while riding circuit. Circuit riding was abolished in 1891. Today, the circuit justice for each circuit is responsible for dealing with certain types of applications that, under the Court 's rules, may be addressed by a single justice. These include applications for emergency stays (including stays of execution in death - penalty cases) and injunctions pursuant to the All Writs Act arising from cases within that circuit, as well as routine requests such as requests for extensions of time. In the past, circuit justices also sometimes ruled on motions for bail in criminal cases, writs of habeas corpus, and applications for writs of error granting permission to appeal. Ordinarily, a justice will resolve such an application by simply endorsing it "granted '' or "denied '' or entering a standard form of order. However, the justice may elect to write an opinion -- referred to as an in - chambers opinion -- in such matters if he or she wishes. A circuit justice may sit as a judge on the Court of Appeals of that circuit, but over the past hundred years, this has rarely occurred. A circuit justice sitting with the Court of Appeals has seniority over the chief judge of the circuit. The chief justice has traditionally been assigned to the District of Columbia Circuit, the Fourth Circuit (which includes Maryland and Virginia, the states surrounding the District of Columbia), and since it was established, the Federal Circuit. Each associate justice is assigned to one or two judicial circuits. As of June 27, 2017, the allotment of the justices among the circuits is: Four of the current justices are assigned to circuits on which they previously sat as circuit judges: Chief Justice Roberts (D.C. Circuit), Justice Breyer (First Circuit), Justice Alito (Third Circuit), and Justice Kennedy (Ninth Circuit). A term of the Supreme Court commences on the first Monday of each October, and continues until June or early July of the following year. Each term consists of alternating periods of around two weeks known as "sittings '' and "recesses. '' Justices hear cases and deliver rulings during sittings; they discuss cases and write opinions during recesses. Nearly all cases come before the court by way of petitions for writs of certiorari, commonly referred to as "cert ''. The Court may review any case in the federal courts of appeals "by writ of certiorari granted upon the petition of any party to any civil or criminal case. '' Court may only review "final judgments rendered by the highest court of a state in which a decision could be had '' if those judgments involve a question of federal statutory or constitutional law. The party that appealed to the Court is the petitioner and the non-mover is the respondent. All case names before the Court are styled petitioner v. respondent, regardless of which party initiated the lawsuit in the trial court. For example, criminal prosecutions are brought in the name of the state and against an individual, as in State of Arizona v. Ernesto Miranda. If the defendant is convicted, and his conviction then is affirmed on appeal in the state supreme court, when he petitions for cert the name of the case becomes Miranda v. Arizona. There are situations where the Court has original jurisdiction, such as when two states have a dispute against each other, or when there is a dispute between the United States and a state. In such instances, a case is filed with the Supreme Court directly. Examples of such cases include United States v. Texas, a case to determine whether a parcel of land belonged to the United States or to Texas, and Virginia v. Tennessee, a case turning on whether an incorrectly drawn boundary between two states can be changed by a state court, and whether the setting of the correct boundary requires Congressional approval. Although it has not happened since 1794 in the case of Georgia v. Brailsford, parties in an action at law in which the Supreme Court has original jurisdiction may request that a jury determine issues of fact. Two other original jurisdiction cases involve colonial era borders and rights under navigable waters in New Jersey v. Delaware, and water rights between riparian states upstream of navigable waters in Kansas v. Colorado. A cert petition is voted on at a session of the court called a conference. A conference is a private meeting of the nine Justices by themselves; the public and the Justices ' clerks are excluded. The rule of four permits four of the nine justices to grant a writ of certiorari. If it is granted, the case proceeds to the briefing stage; otherwise, the case ends. Except in death penalty cases and other cases in which the Court orders briefing from the respondent, the respondent may, but is not required to, file a response to the cert petition. The court grants a petition for cert only for "compelling reasons '', spelled out in the court 's Rule 10. Such reasons include: When a conflict of interpretations arises from differing interpretations of the same law or constitutional provision issued by different federal circuit courts of appeals, lawyers call this situation a "circuit split. '' If the court votes to deny a cert petition, as it does in the vast majority of such petitions that come before it, it does so typically without comment. A denial of a cert petition is not a judgment on the merits of a case, and the decision of the lower court stands as the final ruling in the case. To manage the high volume of cert petitions received by the Court each year (of the more than 7,000 petitions the Court receives each year, it will usually request briefing and hear oral argument in 100 or fewer), the Court employs an internal case management tool known as the "cert pool. '' Currently, all justices except for Justices Alito and Gorsuch participate in the cert pool. When the Court grants a cert petition, the case is set for oral argument. Both parties will file briefs on the merits of the case, as distinct from the reasons they may have argued for granting or denying the cert petition. With the consent of the parties or approval of the Court, amici curiae, or "friends of the court '', may also file briefs. The Court holds two - week oral argument sessions each month from October through April. Each side has thirty minutes to present its argument (the Court may choose to give more time, though this is rare), and during that time, the Justices may interrupt the advocate and ask questions. The petitioner gives the first presentation, and may reserve some time to rebut the respondent 's arguments after the respondent has concluded. Amici curiae may also present oral argument on behalf of one party if that party agrees. The Court advises counsel to assume that the Justices are familiar with and have read the briefs filed in a case. In order to plead before the court, an attorney must first be admitted to the court 's bar. Approximately 4,000 lawyers join the bar each year. The bar contains an estimated 230,000 members. In reality, pleading is limited to several hundred attorneys. The rest join for a one - time fee of $200, earning the court about $750,000 annually. Attorneys can be admitted as either individuals or as groups. The group admission is held before the current justices of the Supreme Court, wherein the Chief Justice approves a motion to admit the new attorneys. Lawyers commonly apply for the cosmetic value of a certificate to display in their office or on their resume. They also receive access to better seating if they wish to attend an oral argument. Members of the Supreme Court Bar are also granted access to the collections of the Supreme Court Library. At the conclusion of oral argument, the case is submitted for decision. Cases are decided by majority vote of the Justices. It is the Court 's practice to issue decisions in all cases argued in a particular Term by the end of that Term. Within that Term, however, the Court is under no obligation to release a decision within any set time after oral argument. At the conclusion of oral argument, the Justices retire to another conference at which the preliminary votes are tallied, and the most senior Justice in the majority assigns the initial draft of the Court 's opinion to a Justice on his or her side. Drafts of the Court 's opinion, as well as any concurring or dissenting opinions, circulate among the Justices until the Court is prepared to announce the judgment in a particular case. Since recording devices are banned inside the courtroom of the United States Supreme Court Building, the delivery of the decision to the media is done via paper copies and is known as the Running of the Interns. It is possible that, through recusals or vacancies, the Court divides evenly on a case. If that occurs, then the decision of the court below is affirmed, but does not establish binding precedent. In effect, it results in a return to the status quo ante. For a case to be heard, there must be a quorum of at least six justices. If a quorum is not available to hear a case and a majority of qualified justices believes that the case can not be heard and determined in the next term, then the judgment of the court below is affirmed as if the Court had been evenly divided. For cases brought to the Supreme Court by direct appeal from a United States District Court, the Chief Justice may order the case remanded to the appropriate U.S. Court of Appeals for a final decision there. This has only occurred once in U.S. history, in the case of United States v. Alcoa (1945). The Court 's opinions are published in three stages. First, a slip opinion is made available on the Court 's web site and through other outlets. Next, several opinions and lists of the court 's orders are bound together in paperback form, called a preliminary print of United States Reports, the official series of books in which the final version of the Court 's opinions appears. About a year after the preliminary prints are issued, a final bound volume of U.S. Reports is issued. The individual volumes of U.S. Reports are numbered so that users may cite this set of reports -- or a competing version published by another commercial legal publisher but containing parallel citations -- to allow those who read their pleadings and other briefs to find the cases quickly and easily. As of the beginning of October Term 2016, there are: As of March 2012, the U.S. Reports have published a total of 30,161 Supreme Court opinions, covering the decisions handed down from February 1790 to March 2012. This figure does not reflect the number of cases the Court has taken up, as several cases can be addressed by a single opinion (see, for example, Parents v. Seattle, where Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education was also decided in the same opinion; by a similar logic, Miranda v. Arizona actually decided not only Miranda but also three other cases: Vignera v. New York, Westover v. United States, and California v. Stewart). A more unusual example is The Telephone Cases, which comprise a single set of interlinked opinions that take up the entire 126th volume of the U.S. Reports. Opinions are also collected and published in two unofficial, parallel reporters: Supreme Court Reporter, published by West (now a part of Thomson Reuters), and United States Supreme Court Reports, Lawyers ' Edition (simply known as Lawyers ' Edition), published by LexisNexis. In court documents, legal periodicals and other legal media, case citations generally contain cites from each of the three reporters; for example, citation to Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission is presented as Citizens United v. Federal Election Com'n, 585 U.S. 50, 130 S. Ct. 876, 175 L. Ed. 2d 753 (2010), with "S. Ct. '' representing the Supreme Court Reporter, and "L. Ed. '' representing the Lawyers ' Edition. Lawyers use an abbreviated format to cite cases, in the form "vol U.S. page, pin (year) '', where vol is the volume number, page is the page number on which the opinion begins, and year is the year in which the case was decided. Optionally, pin is used to "pinpoint '' to a specific page number within the opinion. For instance, the citation for Roe v. Wade is 410 U.S. 113 (1973), which means the case was decided in 1973 and appears on page 113 of volume 410 of U.S. Reports. For opinions or orders that have not yet been published in the preliminary print, the volume and page numbers may be replaced with "___ ''. The Federal court system and the judicial authority to interpret the Constitution received little attention in the debates over the drafting and ratification of the Constitution. The power of judicial review, in fact, is nowhere mentioned in it. Over the ensuing years, the question of whether the power of judicial review was even intended by the drafters of the Constitution was quickly frustrated by the lack of evidence bearing on the question either way. Nevertheless, the power of judiciary to overturn laws and executive actions it determines are unlawful or unconstitutional is a well - established precedent. Many of the Founding Fathers accepted the notion of judicial review; in Federalist No. 78, Alexander Hamilton wrote: "A Constitution is, in fact, and must be regarded by the judges, as a fundamental law. It therefore belongs to them to ascertain its meaning, as well as the meaning of any particular act proceeding from the legislative body. If there should happen to be an irreconcilable variance between the two, that which has the superior obligation and validity ought, of course, to be preferred; or, in other words, the Constitution ought to be preferred to the statute. '' The Supreme Court firmly established its power to declare laws unconstitutional in Marbury v. Madison (1803), consummating the American system of checks and balances. In explaining the power of judicial review, Chief Justice John Marshall stated that the authority to interpret the law was the particular province of the courts, part of the duty of the judicial department to say what the law is. His contention was not that the Court had privileged insight into constitutional requirements, but that it was the constitutional duty of the judiciary, as well as the other branches of government, to read and obey the dictates of the Constitution. Since the founding of the republic, there has been a tension between the practice of judicial review and the democratic ideals of egalitarianism, self - government, self - determination and freedom of conscience. At one pole are those who view the Federal Judiciary and especially the Supreme Court as being "the most separated and least checked of all branches of government. '' Indeed, federal judges and justices on the Supreme Court are not required to stand for election by virtue of their tenure "during good behavior '', and their pay may "not be diminished '' while they hold their position (Section 1 of Article Three). Though subject to the process of impeachment, only one Justice has ever been impeached and no Supreme Court Justice has been removed from office. At the other pole are those who view the judiciary as the least dangerous branch, with little ability to resist the exhortations of the other branches of government. The Supreme Court, it is noted, can not directly enforce its rulings; instead, it relies on respect for the Constitution and for the law for adherence to its judgments. One notable instance of nonacquiescence came in 1832, when the state of Georgia ignored the Supreme Court 's decision in Worcester v. Georgia. President Andrew Jackson, who sided with the Georgia courts, is supposed to have remarked, "John Marshall has made his decision; now let him enforce it! ''; however, this alleged quotation has been disputed. Some state governments in the South also resisted the desegregation of public schools after the 1954 judgment Brown v. Board of Education. More recently, many feared that President Nixon would refuse to comply with the Court 's order in United States v. Nixon (1974) to surrender the Watergate tapes. Nixon, however, ultimately complied with the Supreme Court 's ruling. Supreme Court decisions can be (and have been) purposefully overturned by constitutional amendment, which has happened on five occasions: When the Court rules on matters involving the interpretation of laws rather than of the Constitution, simple legislative action can reverse the decisions (for example, in 2009 Congress passed the Lilly Ledbetter act, superseding the limitations given in Ledbetter v. Goodyear Tire & Rubber Co. in 2007). Also, the Supreme Court is not immune from political and institutional consideration: lower federal courts and state courts sometimes resist doctrinal innovations, as do law enforcement officials. In addition, the other two branches can restrain the Court through other mechanisms. Congress can increase the number of justices, giving the President power to influence future decisions by appointments (as in Roosevelt 's Court Packing Plan discussed above). Congress can pass legislation that restricts the jurisdiction of the Supreme Court and other federal courts over certain topics and cases: this is suggested by language in Section 2 of Article Three, where the appellate jurisdiction is granted "with such Exceptions, and under such Regulations as the Congress shall make. '' The Court sanctioned such congressional action in the Reconstruction case ex parte McCardle (1869), though it rejected Congress ' power to dictate how particular cases must be decided in United States v. Klein (1871). On the other hand, through its power of judicial review, the Supreme Court has defined the scope and nature of the powers and separation between the legislative and executive branches of the federal government; for example, in United States v. Curtiss - Wright Export Corp. (1936), Dames & Moore v. Regan (1981), and notably in Goldwater v. Carter (1979), (where it effectively gave the Presidency the power to terminate ratified treaties without the consent of Congress or the Senate). The Court 's decisions can also impose limitations on the scope of Executive authority, as in Humphrey 's Executor v. United States (1935), the Steel Seizure Case (1952), and United States v. Nixon (1974). Each Supreme Court justice hires several law Clerks to review petitions for writ of certiorari, research them, prepare bench memorandums, and draft opinions. Associate justices are allowed four clerks. The chief justice is allowed five clerks, but Chief Justice Rehnquist hired only three per year, and Chief Justice Roberts usually hires only four. Generally, law clerks serve a term of one to two years. The first law clerk was hired by Associate Justice Horace Gray in 1882. Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr. and Louis Brandeis were the first Supreme Court justices to use recent law school graduates as clerks, rather than hiring a "stenographer - secretary ''. Most law clerks are recent law school graduates. The first female clerk was Lucile Lomen, hired in 1944 by Justice William O. Douglas. The first African - American, William T. Coleman, Jr., was hired in 1948 by Justice Felix Frankfurter. A disproportionately large number of law clerks have obtained law degrees from elite law schools, especially Harvard, Yale, the University of Chicago, Columbia, and Stanford. From 1882 to 1940, 62 % of law clerks were graduates of Harvard Law School. Those chosen to be Supreme Court law clerks usually have graduated in the top of their law school class and were often an editor of the law review or a member of the moot court board. By the mid-1970s, clerking previously for a judge in a federal court of appeals had also become a prerequisite to clerking for a Supreme Court justice. Seven Supreme Court justices previously clerked for other justices: Byron White for Frederick M. Vinson, John Paul Stevens for Wiley Rutledge, William H. Rehnquist for Robert H. Jackson, Stephen Breyer for Arthur Goldberg, John G. Roberts, Jr. for William H. Rehnquist, Elena Kagan for Thurgood Marshall and Neil Gorsuch for both Byron White and Anthony Kennedy. Gorsuch is the first justice to serve alongside a justice for whom he or she clerked. Several current Supreme Court justices have also clerked in the federal courts of appeals: John G. Roberts, Jr. for Judge Henry Friendly of the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit, Justice Samuel Alito for Judge Leonard I. Garth of the United States Court of Appeals for the Third Circuit, Elena Kagan for Judge Abner J. Mikva of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia Circuit, and Neil Gorsuch for Judge David B. Sentelle of the United States Court of Appeals for the District of Columbia. Clerks hired by each of the justices of the Supreme Court are often given considerable leeway in the opinions they draft. "Supreme Court clerkship appeared to be a nonpartisan institution from the 1940s into the 1980s '', according to a study published in 2009 by the law review of Vanderbilt University Law School. "As law has moved closer to mere politics, political affiliations have naturally and predictably become proxies for the different political agendas that have been pressed in and through the courts '', former federal court of appeals judge J. Michael Luttig said. David J. Garrow, professor of history at the University of Cambridge, stated that the Court had thus begun to mirror the political branches of government. "We are getting a composition of the clerk workforce that is getting to be like the House of Representatives '', Professor Garrow said. "Each side is putting forward only ideological purists. '' According to the Vanderbilt Law Review study, this politicized hiring trend reinforces the impression that the Supreme Court is "a superlegislature responding to ideological arguments rather than a legal institution responding to concerns grounded in the rule of law. '' A poll conducted in June 2012 by The New York Times and CBS News showed just 44 % of Americans approve of the job the Supreme Court is doing. Three - quarters said justices ' decisions are sometimes influenced by their political or personal views. The court has been the object of criticisms on a range of issues. Among them: The Supreme Court has been criticized for not keeping within Constitutional bounds by engaging in judicial activism, rather than merely interpreting law and exercising judicial restraint. Claims of judicial activism are not confined to any particular ideology. An often cited example of conservative judicial activism is the 1905 decision in Lochner v. New York, which has been criticized by many prominent thinkers, including Robert Bork, Justice Antonin Scalia, and Chief Justice John Roberts, and which was reversed in the 1930s. An often cited example of liberal judicial activism is Roe v. Wade (1973), which legalized abortion in part on the basis of the "right to privacy '' inferred from the Fourteenth Amendment, a reasoning that some critics argued was circuitous. Legal scholars, justices, and presidential candidates have criticized the Roe decision. The progressive Brown v. Board of Education decision has been criticized by conservatives such as Patrick Buchanan and former presidential contender Barry Goldwater. More recently, Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission was criticized for expanding upon the precedent in First National Bank of Boston v. Bellotti (1978) that the First Amendment applies to corporations. Lincoln warned, referring to the Dred Scott decision, that if government policy became "irrevocably fixed by decisions of the Supreme Court... the people will have ceased to be their own rulers. '' Former justice Thurgood Marshall justified judicial activism with these words: "You do what you think is right and let the law catch up. '' During different historical periods, the Court has leaned in different directions. Critics from both sides complain that activist - judges abandon the Constitution and substitute their own views instead. Critics include writers such as Andrew Napolitano, Phyllis Schlafly, Mark R. Levin, Mark I. Sutherland, and James MacGregor Burns. Past presidents from both parties have attacked judicial activism, including Franklin D. Roosevelt, Richard Nixon, and Ronald Reagan. Failed Supreme Court nominee Robert Bork wrote: "What judges have wrought is a coup d'état, -- slow - moving and genteel, but a coup d'état nonetheless. '' Senator Al Franken quipped that when politicians talk about judicial activism, "their definition of an activist judge is one who votes differently than they would like. '' One law professor claimed in a 1978 article that the Supreme Court is in some respects "certainly a legislative body. '' Court decisions have been criticized for failing to protect individual rights: the Dred Scott (1857) decision upheld slavery; Plessy v Ferguson (1896) upheld segregation under the doctrine of separate but equal; Kelo v. City of New London (2005) was criticized by prominent politicians, including New Jersey governor Jon Corzine, as undermining property rights. Some critics suggest the 2009 bench with a conservative majority has "become increasingly hostile to voters '' by siding with Indiana 's voter identification laws which tend to "disenfranchise large numbers of people without driver 's licenses, especially poor and minority voters '', according to one report. Senator Al Franken criticized the Court for "eroding individual rights. '' However, others argue that the Court is too protective of some individual rights, particularly those of people accused of crimes or in detention. For example, Chief Justice Warren Burger was an outspoken critic of the exclusionary rule, and Justice Scalia criticized the Court 's decision in Boumediene v. Bush for being too protective of the rights of Guantanamo detainees, on the grounds that habeas corpus was "limited '' to sovereign territory. This criticism is related to complaints about judicial activism. George Will wrote that the Court has an "increasingly central role in American governance. '' It was criticized for intervening in bankruptcy proceedings regarding ailing carmaker Chrysler Corporation in 2009. A reporter wrote that "Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg 's intervention in the Chrysler bankruptcy '' left open the "possibility of further judicial review '' but argued overall that the intervention was a proper use of Supreme Court power to check the executive branch. Warren E. Burger, before becoming Chief Justice, argued that since the Supreme Court has such "unreviewable power '' it is likely to "self - indulge itself '' and unlikely to "engage in dispassionate analysis ''. Larry Sabato wrote "excessive authority has accrued to the federal courts, especially the Supreme Court. '' British constitutional scholar Adam Tomkins sees flaws in the American system of having courts (and specifically the Supreme Court) act as checks on the Executive and Legislative branches; he argues that because the courts must wait, sometimes for years, for cases to navigate their way through the system, their ability to restrain other branches is severely weakened. In contrast, the Federal Constitutional Court of Germany for example, can directly declare a law unconstitutional upon request. There has been debate throughout American history about the boundary between federal and state power. While Framers such as James Madison and Alexander Hamilton argued in The Federalist Papers that their then - proposed Constitution would not infringe on the power of state governments, others argue that expansive federal power is good and consistent with the Framers ' wishes. The Tenth Amendment to the United States Constitution explicitly grants "powers not delegated to the United States by the Constitution, nor prohibited by it to the States, are reserved to the States respectively, or to the people. '' The Supreme Court has been criticized for giving the federal government too much power to interfere with state authority. One criticism is that it has allowed the federal government to misuse the Commerce Clause by upholding regulations and legislation which have little to do with interstate commerce, but that were enacted under the guise of regulating interstate commerce; and by voiding state legislation for allegedly interfering with interstate commerce. For example, the Commerce Clause was used by the Fifth Circuit Court of Appeals to uphold the Endangered Species Act, thus protecting six endemic species of insect near Austin, Texas, despite the fact that the insects had no commercial value and did not travel across state lines; the Supreme Court let that ruling stand without comment in 2005. Chief Justice John Marshall asserted Congress 's power over interstate commerce was "complete in itself, may be exercised to its utmost extent, and acknowledges no limitations, other than are prescribed in the Constitution. '' Justice Alito said congressional authority under the Commerce Clause is "quite broad. '' Modern day theorist Robert B. Reich suggests debate over the Commerce Clause continues today. Advocates of states ' rights such as constitutional scholar Kevin Gutzman have also criticized the Court, saying it has misused the Fourteenth Amendment to undermine state authority. Justice Brandeis, in arguing for allowing the states to operate without federal interference, suggested that states should be laboratories of democracy. One critic wrote "the great majority of Supreme Court rulings of unconstitutionality involve state, not federal, law. '' However, others see the Fourteenth Amendment as a positive force that extends "protection of those rights and guarantees to the state level. '' The Court has been criticized for keeping its deliberations hidden from public view. According to a review of Jeffrey Toobin 's expose The Nine: Inside the Secret World of the Supreme Court; "Its inner workings are difficult for reporters to cover, like a closed ' cartel ', only revealing itself through ' public events and printed releases, with nothing about its inner workings. ' The reviewer writes: "few (reporters) dig deeply into court affairs. It all works very neatly; the only ones hurt are the American people, who know little about nine individuals with enormous power over their lives. '' Larry Sabato complains about the Court 's "insularity. '' A Fairleigh Dickinson University poll conducted in 2010 found that 61 % of American voters agreed that televising Court hearings would "be good for democracy '', and 50 % of voters stated they would watch Court proceedings if they were televised. In recent years, many justices have appeared on television, written books and made public statements to journalists. In a 2009 interview on C - SPAN, journalists Joan Biskupic (of USA Today) and Lyle Denniston (of SCOTUSblog) argued that the Court is a "very open '' institution with only the justices ' private conferences inaccessible to others. In October 2010, the Court began the practice of posting on its website recordings and transcripts of oral arguments on the Friday after they occur. Some Court decisions have been criticized for injecting the Court into the political arena, and deciding questions that are the purview of the other two branches of government. The Bush v. Gore decision, in which the Supreme Court intervened in the 2000 presidential election and effectively chose George W. Bush over Al Gore, has been criticized extensively, particularly by liberals. Another example are Court decisions on apportionment and re-districting: in Baker v. Carr, the court decided it could rule on apportionment questions; Justice Frankfurter in a "scathing dissent '' argued against the court wading into so - called political questions. Senator Arlen Specter said the Court should "decide more cases ''. On the other hand, although Justice Scalia acknowledged in a 2009 interview that the number of cases that the Court hears now is smaller today than when he first joined the Supreme Court, he also stated that he has not changed his standards for deciding whether to review a case, nor does he believe his colleagues have changed their standards. He attributed the high volume of cases in the late 1980s, at least in part, to an earlier flurry of new federal legislation that was making its way through the courts. Critic Larry Sabato wrote: "The insularity of lifetime tenure, combined with the appointments of relatively young attorneys who give long service on the bench, produces senior judges representing the views of past generations better than views of the current day. '' Sanford Levinson has been critical of justices who stayed in office despite medical deterioration based on longevity. James MacGregor Burns stated lifelong tenure has "produced a critical time lag, with the Supreme Court institutionally almost always behind the times. '' Proposals to solve these problems include term limits for justices, as proposed by Levinson and Sabato as well as a mandatory retirement age proposed by Richard Epstein, among others. However, others suggest lifetime tenure brings substantial benefits, such as impartiality and freedom from political pressure. Alexander Hamilton in Federalist 78 wrote "nothing can contribute so much to its firmness and independence as permanency in office. '' The 21st century has seen increased scrutiny of justices accepting expensive gifts and travel. All of the members of the Roberts Court have accepted travel or gifts. In 2012, Justice Sonia Sotomayor received $1.9 million in advances from her publisher Knopf Doubleday. Justice Scalia and others took dozens of expensive trips to exotic locations paid for by private donors. Private events sponsored by partisan groups that are attended by both the justices and those who have an interest in their decisions have raised concerns about access and inappropriate communications. Stephen Spaulding, the legal director at Common Cause, said: "There are fair questions raised by some of these trips about their commitment to being impartial. ''

what do the letters str stand for as used in forensic science

STR analysis - wikipedia A Short Tandem Repeat (STR) analysis is one of the most useful methods in molecular biology which is used to compare specific loci on DNA from two or more samples. A short tandem repeat is a microsatellite, consisting of a unit of two to thirteen nucleotides repeated hundreds of times in a row on the DNA strand. STR analysis measures the exact number of repeating units. This method differs from restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis (RFLP) since STR analysis does not cut the DNA with restriction enzymes. Instead, probes are attached to desired regions on the DNA, and a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) is employed to discover the lengths of the short tandem repeats. STR analysis is a tool in forensic analysis that evaluates specific STR regions found on nuclear DNA. The variable (polymorphic) nature of the STR regions that are analyzed for forensic testing intensifies the discrimination between one DNA profile and another. Forensic science takes advantage of the population 's variability in STR lengths, enabling scientists to distinguish one DNA sample from another. The system of DNA profiling used today is based on PCR and uses simple sequences or short tandem repeats (STR). This method uses highly polymorphic regions that have short repeated sequences of DNA (the most common is 4 bases repeated, but there are other lengths in use, including 3 and 5 bases). Because unrelated people almost certainly have different numbers of repeat units, STRs can be used to discriminate between unrelated individuals. These STR loci (locations on a chromosome) are targeted with sequence - specific primers and amplified using PCR. The DNA fragments that result are then separated and detected using electrophoresis. There are two common methods of separation and detection, capillary electrophoresis (CE) and gel electrophoresis. Each STR is polymorphic, but the number of alleles is very small. Typically each STR allele will be shared by around 5 - 20 % of individuals. The power of STR analysis comes from looking at multiple STR loci simultaneously. The pattern of alleles can identify an individual quite accurately. Thus STR analysis provides an excellent identification tool. The more STR regions that are tested in an individual the more discriminating the test becomes. From country to country, different STR - based DNA - profiling systems are in use. In North America, systems that amplify the CODIS 13 core loci are almost universal, whereas in the United Kingdom the DNA - 17 17 loci system (which is compatible with The National DNA Database) is in use. Whichever system is used, many of the STR regions used are the same. These DNA - profiling systems are based on multiplex reactions, whereby many STR regions will be tested at the same time. The true power of STR analysis is in its statistical power of discrimination. Because the 13 loci that are currently used for discrimination in CODIS are independently assorted (having a certain number of repeats at one locus does not change the likelihood of having any number of repeats at any other locus), the product rule for probabilities can be applied. This means that, if someone has the DNA type of ABC, where the three loci were independent, we can say that the probability of having that DNA type is the probability of having type A times the probability of having type B times the probability of having type C. This has resulted in the ability to generate match probabilities of 1 in a quintillion (1x10) or more. However, DNA database searches showed much more frequent than expected false DNA profile matches. Moreover, since there are about 12 million monozygotic twins on Earth, the theoretical probability is not accurate. In practice, the risk of contaminated - matching is much greater than matching a distant relative, such as contamination of a sample from nearby objects, or from left - over cells transferred from a prior test. The risk is greater for matching the most common person in the samples: Everything collected from, or in contact with, a victim is a major source of contamination for any other samples brought into a lab. For that reason, multiple control - samples are typically tested in order to ensure that they stayed clean, when prepared during the same period as the actual test samples. Unexpected matches (or variations) in several control - samples indicates a high probability of contamination for the actual test samples. In a relationship test, the full DNA profiles should differ (except for twins), to prove that a person was not matched as being related to their own DNA in another sample.

what does rch stand for in bring it on

Bring It On (film) - wikipedia Bring It On is a 2000 American teen comedy film directed by Peyton Reed and written by Jessica Bendinger. The film stars Kirsten Dunst, Eliza Dushku, Jesse Bradford, and Gabrielle Union. It was the first of the Bring It On film series and was followed by five direct - to - video sequels, none of which contain any of the original cast members: Bring It On Again (2004), which shared producers with the original, Bring It On: All or Nothing (2006), Bring It On: In It to Win It (2007), Bring It On: Fight to the Finish (2009) and Bring It On: Worldwide Cheersmack (2017). The plot of the film centers around a team 's preparation for and participation in cheerleading competitions. Bring It On was released in theaters in the North America on August 25, 2000. Bring It On earned a worldwide gross of approximately $90 million. Since its release, the film has become a cult classic. Torrance Shipman, an 11th grade student at Rancho Carne High School in San Diego, anxiously dreams about her first day of senior year. Her boyfriend, Aaron has gone to college, and her cheerleading squad, the Toros, is aiming for a sixth consecutive national title. Torrance is elected to replace the team captain, "Big Red '' who is graduating. Soon, however, teammate Carver is injured and can no longer compete with her broken leg. Torrance holds an audition for Carver 's replacement and gains Missy Pantone, a gymnast who recently transferred to the school for senior year with her twin brother Cliff, with whom Torrance develops a flirtatious friendship. While watching the Toros practice, Missy recognizes their routines from a rival squad that her previous high school used to compete against. After accusing Torrance of being a liar and stealing the routine, she learns from Torrance 's offended and passionately defensive reaction that she was completely unaware. So Missy drives Torrance to Los Angeles, where they watch an African American team, the East Compton Clovers, perform routines that are virtually identical to their own team 's. Isis, the Clovers ' team captain, angrily confronts the two. Torrance learns that "Big Red '' regularly attended the Clovers ' practices to videotape and steal their routines. In the meantime, Missy is seen as a threat by the other female members of the squad (because of her outstanding gymnastic abilities), but she ends up becoming Torrance 's best friend and de facto co-captain. Isis informs Torrance of her plans to defeat the Toros at the regional and national championships, which the team has never attended due to their economic hardship. When Torrance tells the Toros about the routines, the team still votes in favor of using the current routine to win; Torrance reluctantly agrees. At the Toros ' next home game, Isis and her teammates show up and perform the Toros ' routine in front of the whole school, humiliating them. The Toros realize that they have no choice but to learn a different routine. In desperation, they employ a professional choreographer named Sparky Polastri to provide one, as suggested by Aaron. But at the Regionals, the team scheduled immediately ahead of the Toros performs the exact routine they had been practicing. The Toros have no choice but to perform the very same routine. After the debacle that ensues, Torrance speaks to a competition official and is told Polastri provided the routine to several other teams in California. As the defending champions, the Toros are nevertheless granted their place in Nationals, but Torrance is warned that a new routine will be expected. Torrance, crushed by her failure to lead the team successfully, considers quitting. Cliff encourages and supports her, intensifying their growing attraction. Aaron, however, suggests that she is not leadership material and recommends that she step down from her position, selling her out in the process to Courtney and Whitney who have set themselves up as Torrance 's rivals. When Cliff sees Torrance and Aaron together, he angrily severs his friendship with Torrance, to her distress. But her confidence is renewed by Cliff 's encouragement and she convinces her unhappy team to create an innovative, new routine instead. She breaks up with Aaron, realizing his infidelity and his inability to be supportive, but Cliff still refuses to forgive her. Meanwhile, the Clovers are initially unable to compete at Nationals due to financial problems. This prompts Torrance to get her dad 's company to sponsor the Clovers, but Isis rejects the money and gets her team to Nationals by appealing to a talk show host who grew up in their area. In the finals, the Toros place second, while the Clovers win. However, at the end of the movie, Torrance and Isis find respect in each other. Cliff and Torrance share a romantic kiss. Bloopers run alongside the end credits, as the characters dance and lip - sync to B * Witched 's cover of "Mickey ''. Bring It On was produced by Marc Abraham and Thomas Bliss. It was the debut film of director Peyton Reed. His major concern with the film was pushing the sexual aspects of cheerleading without losing a PG - 13 rating. Roger Ebert from the Chicago Sun - Times argued that this agenda followed a trend of films at the time that watered down material in order to avoid an R rating and increase box office gross. Prior to auditioning for the film, actors were expected to have a cheer prepared. In order to avoid the use of stunt doubles, Reed required all the actors to undergo a four - week cheerleading camp. Reed and Gabrielle Union met numerous times to discuss the best way to approach her character. "I think she was able to find what was cool about that character that in a way I doubt other actresses could have, '' Reed explained in an interview, "Whenever she 's on the screen she has this charisma. '' When editing the film, Reed and editor Larry Bock watched cheerleading exploitation films from the 1970s. Bring It On was released in North America on August 25, 2000. The film grossed $17,362,105 in 2,380 theaters during its opening weekend, ranking first at the North American box office. Although it experienced an 18 % decline in gross earnings, the film held the top position for a second consecutive week, and later on a third. The film went on to gross $68,379,000 in North America and an additional $22,070,929 overseas for a total gross of $90,449,929. The film received a 63 % approval rating on Rotten Tomatoes based on a total of 117 compiled reviews; the site 's consensus reads: "Despite the formulaic, fluffy storyline, this movie is surprisingly fun to watch, mostly due to its high energy and how it humorously spoofs cheerleading instead of taking itself too seriously. '' In comparison, Metacritic, which assigns a normalized rating out of 100 to reviews from mainstream critics, gave the film an average score of 52 based on 31 reviews, indicating "Mixed or average reviews ''. A.O. Scott from The New York Times commended the film for being able to "gesture toward serious matters of race and economic inequality '', as well as for its "occasional snarl of genuine satire ''. Kevin Thomas of The Los Angeles Times also favored the film, calling it a "Smart and sassy high school movie that 's fun for all ages. '' Steven Rae from The Philadelphia Inquirer found it to be a "likable, low - budget high school comedy ''. Meanwhile, Kim Morgan of The Oregonian dubbed it the "newest, and probably first, true cheerleading movie. '' However, some reviewers criticized the plot of the film. Although David Sterritt of The Christian Science Monitor gave praise for the writing, he likened the storyline 's simplicity to that of "the average football cheer ''. Kim Edwards from the Chicago Tribune, in a negative review, found the film "Absurdly unrealistic at times. '' The Seattle Post-Intelligencer 's Paula Nechak concluded that the film was "predictable and surprisingly confusing in its ultimate message. '' Many critics reserved praise for Kirsten Dunst 's performance. In his review, A.O. Scott called her "a terrific comic actress, largely because of her great expressive range, and the nimbleness with which she can shift from anxiety to aggression to genuine hurt. '' Charles Taylor of Salon noted that "among contemporary teenage actresses, Dunst has become the sunniest imaginable parodist. '' Jessica Winter from The Village Voice shared this sentiment, commenting that "(Dunst) provides the only major element of Bring It On that plays as tweaking parody rather than slick, strident, body - slam churlishness. '' Peter Stack of the San Francisco Chronicle, despite giving the film an unfavorable review, commended Dunst for her willingness "to be as silly and cloyingly agreeable as it takes to get through a slapdash film. '' Cultural historian Maud Lavin says that despite Bring It On 's predictable plot, its depiction of aggressive and competitive women, the differences shown between class and race, and the playful way it deals with homophobia gives it deeper cultural clout and meaning. In particular, Lavin says that the film suggests race relations could be "smoothed and transcended through level - playing - field sports competitiveness. '' The film ranked # 30 on Entertainment Weekly 's list of the 50 Best High School Movies. Initially unimpressed with the film and giving it 2 of 4 stars, Roger Ebert later referred to it as the "Citizen Kane of cheerleader movies. '' Several of cast members from the Bring It On film franchise have gone on to greater fame or notoriety. Kirsten Dunst, Eliza Dushku, Gabrielle Union, Jesse Bradford, Clare Kramer, Lindsay Sloane, and several others from the original film were already notable entertainers and television actors or have grown into such roles since their participation in the original film. Ryan Drummond voiced Sonic the Hedgehog from 1999 through 2004. Felicia Day, who appeared in Bring It On Again, became a highly respected actress in Joss Whedon 's projects such as Dollhouse and Dr. Horrible 's Sing - Along Blog, as well as a screenwriter (The Guild), entrepreneur and web content creator. Bree Turner, who starred in Bring It On Again, would go on to star in NBC 's Grimm. Joshua Gomez, also from Bring It On Again, was going to be well known as Chuck regular Morgan Grimes. Bethany Joy Lenz and Hayden Panettiere, who appeared in Bring It On Again and Bring It On: All or Nothing, went on to find sizable television audiences due to their roles on the television programs One Tree Hill and Heroes / Nashville, respectively. Lenz also appeared with Michael Copon (who co-starred in Bring It On: In It to Win It) during One Tree Hill 's second season. Copon also starred in Power Rangers Time Force, Ashley Benson from In It to Win It, became known as Hanna Marin in the Freeform television series Pretty Little Liars and Cassandra Scerbo from In It to Win It, who later known as Nova Clarke in Syfy 's Sharknado film series. The R&B / Pop trio Blaque have a recurring role in Bring It On. Noteworthy R&B singer and film actress Christina Milian, also appears as the main character in Bring It On: Fight to the Finish. Brittany Anne Pirtle from Fight to the Finish, went on to star as the Yellow Power Ranger in Nickelodeon 's Power Rangers Samurai and Holland Roden from Fight to the Finish, became known as Lydia Martin in the MTV supernatural - drama Teen Wolf. Caity Lotz, Sara Lance / White Canary of the Arrowverse, played an unnamed cheerleader in All or Nothing. Bring It On has so far spawned a total of five direct - to - video sequels: The only sequel to feature any of the original crew from Bring It On was 2004 's Bring It On Again, which shared the film 's same producers. These producers did not return for the subsequent sequels, and none of the films share recurring cast members. Original star Eliza Dushku has even been quoted in interviews as never even having been invited to participate in the sequels. Steve Rash directed two of the sequels and Alyson Fouse has written four. Otherwise, none of the films in the Bring It On franchise share any personnel whatsoever. The five films that follow Bring It On share only tenuous links with one another. The plot of each film typically follows that of the one originally laid out in the first film - a competitive cheerleading team who has to change routines or other elements they have grown accustomed to in order to win. A stage version of the film premiered at the Alliance Theatre, Atlanta, Georgia on January 16, 2011. The musical has music by Lin - Manuel Miranda and Tom Kitt, lyrics by Amanda Green, and a book by Jeff Whitty. The director and choreographer is Andy Blankenbuehler, with a cast that includes Amanda LaVergne as Campbell, Adrienne Warren as Danielle, and Nick Blaemire as Randall and "award - winning competitive cheerleaders from across the country ''. The Alliance Theatre production was nominated for eight Suzi Bass Awards, winning awards for Choreography (Andy Blankenbuehler), Sound Design (Brian Ronan) and World Premiere Play or Musical. Additionally, the production was nominated for ten Atlanta Theater Fan Awards from www.AtlantaTheaterFans.com, more than any other production in 2011. The production won for Best Musical and Best Choreography (Andy Blankenbuehler). A national tour of the musical started at the Ahmanson Theatre, Los Angeles, in November 2011 through December 10, 2011 and then travels to San Francisco, Denver, Houston, and Toronto. The national tour stars Taylor Louderman as Campbell and Jason Gotay as Randall. The cast took part in a special celebration kicking off the national tour of the musical on October 22, 2011, which featured performances from the show. The New York Times reviewer wrote of the Ahmanson Theatre production: "After an opening number that truly dazzles as it reveals the cast 's impressive gymnastic prowess, the score hits its stride only when Campbell transfers to Jackson High. Driven by surging R&B grooves and churning lyrics that suggest the fingerprints of Mr. Miranda... the dance numbers for the Jackson crowd kick the musical into high gear for most of the first act... Like most entertainments about the trials and triumphs of the teenage years, ' Bring It On ' has as much sap as it does pep in its DNA. It 's distinguished primarily by the electrifying dance routines and the elaborate cheer - squad performances. '' The musical opened on Broadway at the St. James Theatre, in a limited run, starting on July 12, 2012, in previews, officially on August 1 through December 30, 2012.

where is mount rushmore located on a map

Mount Rushmore - wikipedia Mount Rushmore National Memorial is a sculpture carved into the granite face of Mount Rushmore, a batholith in the Black Hills in Keystone, South Dakota, United States. Sculptor Gutzon Borglum created the sculpture 's design and oversaw the project 's execution from 1927 to 1941 with the help of his son, Lincoln Borglum. Mount Rushmore features 60 - foot (18 m) sculptures of the heads of four United States presidents: George Washington (1732 -- 1799), Thomas Jefferson (1743 -- 1826), Theodore Roosevelt (1858 -- 1919), and Abraham Lincoln (1809 -- 1865). The memorial park covers 1,278.45 acres (2.00 sq mi; 5.17 km) and is 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level. South Dakota historian Doane Robinson is credited with conceiving the idea of carving the likenesses of famous people into the Black Hills region of South Dakota in order to promote tourism in the region. Robinson 's initial idea was to sculpt the Needles; however, Gutzon Borglum rejected the Needles because of the poor quality of the granite and strong opposition from Native American groups. They settled on Mount Rushmore, which also has the advantage of facing southeast for maximum sun exposure. Robinson wanted it to feature American West heroes like Lewis and Clark, Red Cloud, and Buffalo Bill Cody, but Borglum decided the sculpture should have broader appeal and chose the four presidents. After securing federal funding through the enthusiastic sponsorship of "Mount Rushmore 's great political patron '' U.S. Senator Peter Norbeck, construction on the memorial began in 1927, and the presidents ' faces were completed between 1934 and 1939. Upon Gutzon Borglum 's death in March 1941, his son Lincoln Borglum took over as leader of the construction project. Each president was originally to be depicted from head to waist. Lack of funding forced construction to end on October 31, 1941. Mount Rushmore has become an iconic symbol of the United States, and it has appeared in works of fiction, as well as being discussed or depicted in other popular works. It attracts over two million visitors annually. Originally known to the Lakota Sioux as "The Six Grandfathers '', the mountain was renamed after Charles E. Rushmore, a prominent New York lawyer, during an expedition in 1885. At first, the project of carving Rushmore was undertaken to increase tourism in the Black Hills region of South Dakota. After long negotiations involving a Congressional delegation and President Calvin Coolidge, the project received Congressional approval. The carving started in 1927 and ended in 1941 with no fatalities. As Six Grandfathers, the mountain was part of the route that Lakota leader Black Elk took in a spiritual journey that culminated at Black Elk Peak. Following a series of military campaigns from 1876 to 1878, the United States asserted control over the area, a claim that is still disputed on the basis of the 1868 Treaty of Fort Laramie (see section "Controversy '' below). Among American settlers, the peak was known variously as Cougar Mountain, Sugarloaf Mountain, Slaughterhouse Mountain, and Keystone Cliffs. It was named Mount Rushmore during a prospecting expedition by Charles Rushmore, David Swanzey (husband of Carrie Ingalls), and Bill Challis. Historian Doane Robinson conceived the idea for Mount Rushmore in 1923 to promote tourism in South Dakota. In 1924, Robinson persuaded sculptor Gutzon Borglum to travel to the Black Hills region to ensure the carving could be accomplished. Borglum had been involved in sculpting the Confederate Memorial Carving, a massive bas - relief memorial to Confederate leaders on Stone Mountain in Georgia, but was in disagreement with the officials there. The original plan was to make the carvings in granite pillars known as the Needles. However, Borglum realized that the eroded Needles were too thin to support sculpting. He chose Mount Rushmore, a grander location, partly because it faced southeast and enjoyed maximum exposure to the sun. Borglum said upon seeing Mount Rushmore, "America will march along that skyline. '' Congress authorized the Mount Rushmore National Memorial Commission on March 3, 1925. Between October 4, 1927, and October 31, 1941, Gutzon Borglum and 400 workers sculpted the colossal 60 foot (18 m) high carvings of U.S. presidents George Washington, Thomas Jefferson, Theodore Roosevelt, and Abraham Lincoln to represent the first 130 years of American history. These presidents were selected by Borglum because of their role in preserving the Republic and expanding its territory. The carving of Mount Rushmore involved the use of dynamite, followed by the process of "honeycombing '', a process where workers drill holes close together, allowing small pieces to be removed by hand. In total, about 450,000 short tons (410,000 t) of rock were blasted off the mountainside. The image of Thomas Jefferson was originally intended to appear in the area at Washington 's right, but after the work there was begun, the rock was found to be unsuitable, so the work on the Jefferson figure was dynamited, and a new figure was sculpted to Washington 's left. The Chief Carver of the mountain was Luigi del Bianco, artisan and headstone carver in Port Chester, NY. Del Bianco emigrated to the U.S. from Friuli in Italy, and was chosen to work on this project because of his remarkable skill at etching emotions and personality into his carved portraits. In 1933, the National Park Service took Mount Rushmore under its jurisdiction. Julian Spotts helped with the project by improving its infrastructure. For example, he had the tram upgraded so it could reach the top of Mount Rushmore for the ease of workers. By July 4, 1934, Washington 's face had been completed and was dedicated. The face of Thomas Jefferson was dedicated in 1936, and the face of Abraham Lincoln was dedicated on September 17, 1937. In 1937, a bill was introduced in Congress to add the head of civil - rights leader Susan B. Anthony, but a rider was passed on an appropriations bill requiring federal funds be used to finish only those heads that had already been started at that time. In 1939, the face of Theodore Roosevelt was dedicated. The Sculptor 's Studio -- a display of unique plaster models and tools related to the sculpting -- was built in 1939 under the direction of Borglum. Borglum had planned to make a secret room behind the hairline of Abraham Lincoln which was supposed to be a doorway to a chamber originally intended to hold some of America 's most treasured documents but was left unfinished due to his death. Borglum died from an embolism in March 1941. His son, Lincoln Borglum, continued the project. Originally, it was planned that the figures would be carved from head to waist, but insufficient funding forced the carving to end. Borglum had also planned a massive panel in the shape of the Louisiana Purchase commemorating in eight - foot - tall gilded letters the Declaration of Independence, U.S. Constitution, Louisiana Purchase, and seven other territorial acquisitions from Alaska to Texas to the Panama Canal Zone. In total, the entire project cost US $989,992.32. Unusually for a project of such size, no workers died during the carving. On October 15, 1966, Mount Rushmore was listed on the National Register of Historic Places. A 500 - word essay giving the history of the United States by Nebraska student William Andrew Burkett was selected as the college - age group winner in a 1934 competition, and that essay was placed on the Entablature on a bronze plate in 1973. In 1991, President George H.W. Bush officially dedicated Mount Rushmore. In a canyon behind the carved faces is a chamber, cut only 70 feet (21 m) into the rock, containing a vault with sixteen porcelain enamel panels. The panels include the text of the Declaration of Independence and the Constitution, biographies of the four presidents and Borglum, and the history of the U.S. The chamber was created as the entrance - way to a planned "Hall of Records ''; the vault was installed in 1998. Ten years of redevelopment work culminated with the completion of extensive visitor facilities and sidewalks in 1998, such as a Visitor Center, the Lincoln Borglum Museum, and the Presidential Trail. Maintenance of the memorial requires mountain climbers to monitor and seal cracks annually. Due to budget constraints, the memorial is not regularly cleaned to remove lichens. However, on July 8, 2005, Alfred Kärcher GmbH, a German manufacturer of pressure washing and steam cleaning machines, conducted a free cleanup operation which lasted several weeks, using pressurized water at over 200 ° F (93 ° C). The flora and fauna of Mount Rushmore are similar to those of the rest of the Black Hills region of South Dakota. Birds including the turkey vulture, bald eagle, hawk, and meadowlark fly around Mount Rushmore, occasionally making nesting spots in the ledges of the mountain. Smaller birds, including songbirds, nuthatches, and woodpeckers, inhabit the surrounding pine forests. Terrestrial mammals include the mouse, least chipmunk, red squirrel, skunk, porcupine, raccoon, beaver, badger, coyote, bighorn sheep, bobcat, elk, mule deer, yellow - bellied marmot, and American bison. The striped chorus frog, western chorus frog, and northern leopard frog also inhabit the area, along with several species of snake. Grizzly Bear Brook and Starling Basin Brook, the two streams in the memorial, support fish such as the longnose dace and the brook trout. Mountain goats are not indigenous to the region. Those living near Mount Rushmore are descendents of a tribe that Canada gifted to Custer State Park in 1924, which later escaped. At lower elevations, coniferous trees, mainly the ponderosa pine, surround most of the monument, providing shade from the sun. Other trees include the bur oak, the Black Hills spruce, and the cottonwood. Nine species of shrubs grow near Mount Rushmore. There is also a wide variety of wildflowers, including especially the snapdragon, sunflower, and violet. Towards higher elevations, plant life becomes sparser. However, only approximately five percent of the plant species found in the Black Hills are indigenous to the region. The area receives about 18 inches (460 mm) of precipitation on average per year, enough to support abundant animal and plant life. Trees and other plants help to control surface runoff. Dikes, seeps, and springs help to dam up water that is flowing downhill, providing watering spots for animals. In addition, stones like sandstone and limestone help to hold groundwater, creating aquifers. A study of the fire scars present in tree ring samples indicates that forest fires occur in the ponderosa forests surrounding Mount Rushmore around every 27 years. Large fires are not common. Most events have been ground fires that serve to clear forest debris. The area is a climax community. Recent pine beetle infestations have threatened the forest. Mount Rushmore is largely composed of granite. The memorial is carved on the northwest margin of the Black Elk Peak granite batholith in the Black Hills of South Dakota, so the geologic formations of the heart of the Black Hills region are also evident at Mount Rushmore. The batholith magma intruded into the pre-existing mica schist rocks during the Proterozoic, 1.6 billion years ago. Coarse grained pegmatite dikes are associated with the granite intrusion of Black Elk Peak and are visibly lighter in color, thus explaining the light - colored streaks on the foreheads of the presidents. The Black Hills granites were exposed to erosion during the Neoproterozoic, but were later buried by sandstone and other sediments during the Cambrian. Remaining buried throughout the Paleozoic, they were re-exposed again during the Laramide orogeny around 70 million years ago. The Black Hills area was uplifted as an elongated geologic dome. Subsequent erosion stripped the granite of the overlying sediments and the softer adjacent schist. Some schist does remain and can be seen as the darker material just below the sculpture of Washington. The tallest mountain in the region is Black Elk Peak (7,242 ft or 2,207 m). Borglum selected Mount Rushmore as the site for several reasons. The rock of the mountain is composed of smooth, fine - grained granite. The durable granite erodes only 1 inch (25 mm) every 10,000 years, thus was more than sturdy enough to support the sculpture and its long - term exposure. The mountain 's height of 5,725 feet (1,745 m) above sea level made it suitable, and because it faces the southeast, the workers also had the advantage of sunlight for most of the day. The Mount Rushmore area is underlain by well drained alfisol soils of very gravelly loam (Mocmount) to silt loam (Buska) texture, brown to dark grayish brown. Mount Rushmore has a humid continental climate (Dwb in the Köppen climate classification). It is inside a USDA Plant Hardiness Zone of 5a, meaning certain plant life in the area can withstand a low temperature of no less than − 20 ° F (− 29 ° C). The two wettest months of the year are May and June. Orographic lift causes brief but strong afternoon thunderstorms during the summer. Tourism is South Dakota 's second - largest industry, and Mount Rushmore is the state 's top tourist attraction. In 2012, 2,185,447 people visited the park. In the 1950s and 1960s, Sioux Benjamin Black Elk (son of medicine man Black Elk) was the "Fifth Face of Mount Rushmore '', posing for photographs with thousands of tourists. He became one of the most photographed people in the world. The ongoing conservation of the site is overseen by the US National Park Service. Physical efforts to conserve the monument have included replacement of the sealant applied originally by Gutzon Borglum, which had proved ineffective at providing water resistance (components include linseed oil, granite dust and white lead). A modern silicone replacement was used, disguised with granite dust. In 1998, electronic monitoring devices were installed to track movement in the topology of the sculpture to an accuracy of 3 mm. The site has been subsequently digitally recorded using a terrestrial laser scanning methodology in 2009 as part of the international Scottish Ten project, providing a record of unprecedented resolution and accuracy to inform the conservation of the site. This data was made accessible online to be freely used by the wider community to aid further interpretation and public access. The United States seized the area from the Lakota tribe after the Great Sioux War of 1876. The Treaty of Fort Laramie from 1868 had previously granted the Black Hills to the Lakota in perpetuity. Members of the American Indian Movement led an occupation of the monument in 1971, naming it "Mount Crazy Horse ''. Among the participants were young activists, grandparents, children and Lakota holy man John Fire Lame Deer, who planted a prayer staff atop the mountain. Lame Deer said the staff formed a symbolic shroud over the presidents ' faces "which shall remain dirty until the treaties concerning the Black Hills are fulfilled. '' In 2004, the first Native American superintendent of the park, Gerard Baker, was appointed. Baker has stated that he will open up more "avenues of interpretation '', and that the four presidents are "only one avenue and only one focus. '' The Crazy Horse Memorial is being constructed elsewhere in the Black Hills to commemorate the famous Native American leader as a response to Mount Rushmore. It is said to be larger than Mount Rushmore and has the support of Lakota chiefs; the Crazy Horse Memorial Foundation has rejected offers of federal funds. However, this memorial is likewise the subject of controversy, even within the Native American community. Because of its fame as a monument, Mount Rushmore has been depicted in multiple places in popular culture. It is often depicted as a cover for a secret location; shown with faces removed or modified (as in Superman II), or added; or parodied. Trey Parker and Matt Stone used the location as the headquarters for their movie Team America: World Police. The memorial was also famously used as the location of the climactic chase scene in Alfred Hitchcock 's 1959 movie North by Northwest. Deep Purple 's breakthrough album, 1970 's In Rock, parodies the sculpture. On August 11, 1952, the U.S. Post Office issued the Mount Rushmore Memorial commemorative stamp on the 25th anniversary of the dedication of the Mt. Rushmore National Memorial in the Black Hills of South Dakota. On January 2, 1974, a 26 - cent airmail stamp depicting the monument was also issued. Notes Further reading

when did the united states entered the first world war

American entry into World war I - wikipedia The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American people increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe. As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy. In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while Germany 's ally, the Ottoman Empire, clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars '' that would "make the world safe for democracy '', and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary. U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918. Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used submarines to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports. The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them -- often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation. The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies ' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria - Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front - line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies. Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us '', said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade ''. Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long - term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long - range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas '', which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America 's neutral rights by seizing ships. Wilson 's top advisor, Colonel Edward M. House commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way ''. When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down. German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above - water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability '' if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships. By January 1917, however, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America 's potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military. The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32 % and GNP increased by almost 20 %. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build - up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long - run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918. In 1913, J.P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American - based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, J. Pierpont Morgan. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America 's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan 's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan 's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. France 's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief. Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914. He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war. '' Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase. J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the Anglo - French Financial Commission, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US $500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests. The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913 -- 1914. As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low - growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments. By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60 % of the American weaponry and 40 % of the artillery shells used in the War. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939. Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings -- the camps were mostly informal: The first of these were the Non-Interventionists, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were pacifists, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst; Republicans Robert M. La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams. At the far - left end of the political spectrum the Socialists, led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit, were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war '' that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo, William English Walling and E. Haldeman - Julius. This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists. Next were the more moderate Liberal - Internationalists. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly. This groups 's views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace. Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson, his influential advisor Edward M. House, former President William Howard Taft, famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell, Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell. Finally, there were the so - called Atlanticists. Ardently pro-Entente, they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast, boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate, former Secretary of War Henry Stimson, journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York. A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper - middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war -- Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose. Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements. A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war! '', saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue. The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war ''. It won 2 % of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet '', its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end ''. When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman Meyer London, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die - hard opponents. Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist 's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government. The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation. Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy '', but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson 's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question. The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation. Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war. The African - American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, W.E.B. Du Bois called on African - Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more ''. Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality. Many had hoped the community 's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African - Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens. There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war. Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man 's war meant a poor man 's fight, '' and they wanted nothing of it. Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915: German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German - descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany 's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English - languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German - American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany 's position. Chicago 's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago 's Germania celebrated the Kaiser 's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history. '' German - American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war. Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman 's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war. President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war. A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to encourage Wilson 's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars ''. Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the Social Gospel, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme -- an aspect of American exceptionalism -- was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world. American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality. Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism, and the established German - American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914 -- 1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well - organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism. The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe. Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America 's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia ''. The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism. The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left - wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel. The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish - American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America 's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire ''. The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay. Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish - born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI. The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British. Irish - Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish - American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain 's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily self - determination. The Irish - American community thought they had Wilson 's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919. Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall - out from World War I. The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war. Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London - born Samuel Insull, Chicago 's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States ' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state 's mobilization. Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands. Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro - Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment. Albanian - Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire. Polish, Slovak, and Czech immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British. Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large - scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "Peace Ship ' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools. '' Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing. On July 24, 1915, the German embassy 's commercial attaché, Heinrich Albert, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin 's top espionage agent, debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage. But they did not get caught. Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916 -- 1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove '' 100 % loyalty. By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness '' movement emerged. Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation 's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York 's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo - American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization. The Preparedness movement had a "realistic '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America 's 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany 's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire (the world 's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro - Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so. Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training ''. They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years ' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service '' was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism ''. Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated. Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working - class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle - class leadership of most of small - town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing. The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape. In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet 's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro - Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas, heavy artillery, or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until World War II. "Realism '' was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored. Wilson 's program for the Army touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J.P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan. Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "military - industrial complex '' Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste ''. Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles ''). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides (Britain and Germany) treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly. '' The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy '' plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31 / June 1, 1916) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917. Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence. '' Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self - confidence. America 's rights and America 's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace '' gave way to "Peace with Honor ''. The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet ''. The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable National Guard, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action. The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor -- at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings. He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island an essential experience for would - be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers ' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. But according to Coletta he ignored the nation 's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans ''. Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy 's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels ' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who effectively ran the Department. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight. '' By 1916 a new factor was emerging -- a sense of national self - interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering -- two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated. Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision - making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department 's demand that Germany 's submarines obey outdated, 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans - Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper '' diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies. Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic, it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign minister, sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmerman invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States. Germany promised to pay for Mexico 's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration. The White House would release it to the press on March 1st. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves. In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war - zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years ' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals -- sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long - run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long - time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson -- the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled, from an American perspective, "Wilson 's War ''. In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy. '' If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes ''. Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies. The interpretation was popular among left - wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian '' wing of the Democratic party -- including the chairman of the tax - writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson 's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest. However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality. Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public 's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians, and English nurse Edith Cavell. American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London. Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received. Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war - cry, led by war - hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States ' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable. Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning ''. That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America 's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity '' dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser 's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve ''. To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy '' and later that it would be a "war to end war ''. The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson 's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America 's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin 's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory '', according to Wilson. On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators Harry Lane, William J. Stone, James Vardaman, Asle Gronna, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and George W. Norris voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with Claude Kitchin, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest. The United States Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on Austria - Hungary on December 7, 1917, citing Austria - Hungary 's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany. The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1.

to prepare the country for world war 1 what became an early focus

American entry into World war I - wikipedia The American entry into World War I came in April 1917, after more than two and a half years of efforts by President Woodrow Wilson to keep the United States out of the war. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the British, American public opinion reflected that of the president: the sentiment for neutrality was particularly strong among Irish Americans, German Americans and Scandinavian Americans, as well as among church leaders and among women in general. On the other hand, even before World War I had broken out, American opinion had been more negative toward Germany than towards any other country in Europe. Over time, especially after reports of atrocities in Belgium in 1914 and following the sinking of the passenger liner RMS Lusitania in 1915, the American citizens increasingly came to see Germany as the aggressor in Europe. As U.S. president, it was Wilson who made the key policy decisions over foreign affairs: while the country was at peace, the domestic economy ran on a laissez - faire basis, with American banks making huge loans to Britain and France -- funds that were in large part used to buy munitions, raw materials, and food from across the Atlantic. Until 1917, Wilson made minimal preparations for a land war and kept the United States Army on a small peacetime footing, despite increasing demands for enhanced preparedness. He did however expand the United States Navy. In 1917, with Russia experiencing political upheaval following widespread disillusionment there over the war, and with Britain and France low on credit, Germany appeared to have the upper hand in Europe, while Germany 's ally, the Ottoman Empire, clung stubbornly to its possessions in the Middle East. In the same year, Germany decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare against any vessel approaching British waters; this attempt to starve Britain into surrender was balanced against the knowledge that it would almost certainly bring the United States into the war. Germany also made a secret offer to help Mexico regain territories lost in the Mexican -- American War in an encoded telegram known as the Zimmermann Telegram, which was intercepted by British Intelligence. Publication of that communique outraged Americans just as German U-boats started sinking American merchant ships in the North Atlantic. Wilson then asked Congress for "a war to end all wars '' that would "make the world safe for democracy '', and Congress voted to declare war on Germany on April 6, 1917. On December 7, 1917, the U.S. declared war on Austria - Hungary. U.S. troops began arriving on the Western Front in large numbers in 1918. Britain used its large navy to prevent cargo vessels entering German ports, mainly by intercepting them in the North Sea between the coasts of Scotland and Norway. The wider sea approaches to Britain and France, their distance from German harbours and the smaller size of the German surface fleet all made it harder for Germany to reciprocate. Instead, Germany used submarines to lie in wait for, and then sink, merchant ships heading for enemy ports. The United States insisted on maintaining the traditional rights of ships registered in neutral countries and protested strongly against American ships being intercepted or sunk: the British seized American ships for supposed violations, while the Germans sank them -- often without warning, in violation of international law that said sailors must be allowed an opportunity to reach their lifeboats. After several violations, Germany stopped this practice but in early 1917 she decided to resume unrestricted submarine warfare, in the hope that this would starve out the British before the Americans could make any effective military retaliation. The British Royal Navy successfully stopped the shipment of most war supplies and food to Germany. Neutral American ships that tried to trade with Germany were seized or turned back by the Royal Navy who viewed such trade as in direct conflict with the Allies ' war efforts. The strangulation came about very slowly, because Germany and its allies controlled extensive farmlands and raw materials. It was eventually successful because Germany and Austria - Hungary had decimated their agricultural production by taking so many farmers into their armies. By 1918, German cities were on the verge of starvation; the front - line soldiers were on short rations and were running out of essential supplies. Germany also considered a blockade. "England wants to starve us '', said Admiral Alfred von Tirpitz, the man who built the German fleet and who remained a key advisor to the Kaiser Wilhelm II. "We can play the same game. We can bottle her up and destroy every ship that endeavors to break the blockade ''. Unable to challenge the more powerful Royal Navy on the surface, Tirpitz wanted to scare off merchant and passenger ships en route to Britain. He reasoned that since the island of Britain depended on imports of food, raw materials, and manufactured goods, scaring off a substantial number of the ships would effectively undercut its long - term ability to maintain an army on the Western Front. While Germany had only nine long - range U-boats at the start of the war, it had ample shipyard capacity to build the hundreds needed. However, the United States demanded that Germany respect the international agreements upon "freedom of the seas '', which protected neutral American ships on the high seas from seizure or sinking by either belligerent. Furthermore, Americans insisted that the drowning of innocent civilians was barbaric and grounds for a declaration of war. The British frequently violated America 's neutral rights by seizing ships. Wilson 's top advisor, Colonel Edward M. House commented that, "The British have gone as far as they possibly could in violating neutral rights, though they have done it in the most courteous way ''. When Wilson protested British violations of American neutrality, the British backed down. German submarines torpedoed ships without warning, causing sailors and passengers to drown. Berlin explained that submarines were so vulnerable that they dared not surface near merchant ships that might be carrying guns and which were too small to rescue submarine crews. Britain armed most of its merchant ships with medium calibre guns that could sink a submarine, making above - water attacks too risky. In February 1915, the United States warned Germany about misuse of submarines. On April 22, the German Imperial Embassy warned U.S. citizens against boarding vessels to Britain, which would have to face German attack. On May 7, Germany torpedoed the British passenger liner RMS Lusitania, sinking her. This act of aggression caused the loss of 1,198 civilian lives, including 128 Americans. The sinking of a large, unarmed passenger ship, combined with the previous stories of atrocities in Belgium, shocked Americans and turned public opinion hostile to Germany, although not yet to the point of war. Wilson issued a warning to Germany that it would face "strict accountability '' if it sank more neutral U.S. passenger ships. Berlin acquiesced, ordering its submarines to avoid passenger ships. By January 1917, however, Field Marshal Paul von Hindenburg and General Erich Ludendorff decided that an unrestricted submarine blockade was the only way to achieve a decisive victory. They demanded that Kaiser Wilhelm order unrestricted submarine warfare be resumed. Germany knew this decision meant war with the United States, but they gambled that they could win before America 's potential strength could be mobilized. However, they overestimated how many ships they could sink and thus the extent Britain would be weakened. Finally, they did not foresee that convoys could and would be used to defeat their efforts. They believed that the United States was so weak militarily that it could not be a factor on the Western Front for more than a year. The civilian government in Berlin objected, but the Kaiser sided with his military. The beginning of war in Europe coincided with the end of the Recession of 1913 -- 1914 in America. Exports to belligerent nations rose rapidly over the first four years of the War from $824.8 million in 1913 to $2.25 billion in 1917. Loans from American financial institutions to the Allied nations in Europe also increased dramatically over the same period. Economic activity towards the end of this period boomed as government resources aided the production of the private sector. Between 1914 and 1917, industrial production increased 32 % and GNP increased by almost 20 %. The improvements to industrial production in the United States outlasted the war. The capital build - up that had allowed American companies to supply belligerents and the American army resulted in a greater long - run rate of production even after the war had ended in 1918. In 1913, J.P. Morgan, Jr. took over the House of Morgan, an American - based investment bank consisting of separate banking operations in New York, London, and Paris, after the death of his father, J. Pierpont Morgan. The House of Morgan offered assistance in the wartime financing of Britain and France from the earliest stages of the war in 1914 through America 's entrance in 1917. J.P. Morgan & Co., the House of Morgan 's bank in New York, was designated as the primary financial agent to the British government in 1914 after successful lobbying by the British ambassador, Sir Cecil Spring Rice. The same bank would later take a similar role in France and would offer extensive financial assistance to both warring nations. J.P. Morgan &Co. became the primary issuer of loans to the French government by raising money from American investors. Morgan, Harjes, the House of Morgan 's French affiliated bank, controlled the majority of the wartime financial dealings between the House of Morgan and the French government after primary issuances of debt in American markets. Relations between the House of Morgan and the French government became tense as the war raged on with no end in sight. France 's ability to borrow from other sources diminished, leading to greater lending rates and a depressing of the value of the franc. After the war, in 1918, J.P. Morgan & Co. continued to aid the French government financially through monetary stabilization and debt relief. Because America was still a declared neutral state, the financial dealings of American banks in Europe caused a great deal of contention between Wall Street and the U.S. government. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan strictly opposed financial support of warring nations and wanted to ban loans to the belligerents in August 1914. He told President Wilson that "refusal to loan to any belligerent would naturally tend to hasten a conclusion of the war. '' Wilson at first agreed, but then reversed himself when France argued that if it was legal to buy American goods then it was legal to take out credits on the purchase. J.P. Morgan issued loans to France including one in March 1915 and, following negotiations with the Anglo - French Financial Commission, another joint loan to Britain and France in October 1915, the latter amounting to US $500,000,000. Although the stance of the U.S. government was that stopping such financial assistance could hasten the end of the war and therefore save lives, little was done to insure adherence to the ban on loans, in part due to pressure from Allied governments and American business interests. The American steel industry had faced difficulties and declining profits during the Recession of 1913 -- 1914. As war began in Europe, however, the increased demand for tools of war began a period of heightened productivity that alleviated many U.S. industrial companies from the low - growth environment of the recession. Bethlehem Steel took particular advantage of the increased demand for armaments abroad. Prior to American entrance into the War, these companies benefitted from unrestricted commerce with sovereign customers abroad. After President Wilson issued his declaration of war, the companies were subjected to price controls created by the U.S. Trade Commission in order to insure that the U.S. military would have access to the necessary armaments. By the end of the war in 1918, Bethlehem Steel had produced 65,000 pounds of forged military products and 70 million pounds of armor plate, 1.1 billion pounds of steel for shells, and 20.1 million rounds of artillery ammunition for Britain and France. Bethlehem Steel took advantage of the domestic armaments market and produced 60 % of the American weaponry and 40 % of the artillery shells used in the War. Even with price controls and a lower profit margin on manufactured goods, the profits resulting from wartime sales expanded the company into the third largest manufacturing company in the country. Bethlehem Steel became the primary arms supplier for the United States and other allied powers again in 1939. Historians divide the views of American political and social leaders into four distinct groupings -- the camps were mostly informal: The first of these were the Non-Interventionists, a loosely affiliated and politically diverse anti-war movement which sought to keep the United States out of the war altogether. Members of this group tended to view the war as a clash between British imperialism and German militarism, both of which they regarded as equally corrupt. Others were pacifists, who objected on moral grounds. Prominent leaders included Democrats like former Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan, industrialist Henry Ford and publisher William Randolph Hearst; Republicans Robert M. La Follette, Senator from Wisconsin and George W. Norris, Senator from Nebraska; and Progressive Party activist Jane Addams. At the far - left end of the political spectrum the Socialists, led by their perennial candidate for President Eugene V. Debs and movement veterans like Victor L. Berger and Morris Hillquit, were staunch anti-militarists and opposed to any US intervention, branding the conflict as a "capitalist war '' that American workers should avoid. However, after the US did join the war in April, 1917 a schism developed between the anti-war Party majority and a pro-war faction of Socialist writers, journalists and intellectuals led by John Spargo, William English Walling and E. Haldeman - Julius. This group founded the rival Social Democratic League of America to promote the war effort among their fellow Socialists. Next were the more moderate Liberal - Internationalists. This bipartisan group reluctantly supported a declaration of war against Germany with the postwar goal of establishing collective international security institutions designed to peacefully resolve future conflicts between nations and to promote liberal democratic values more broadly. This groups 's views were advocated by interest groups such as the League to Enforce Peace. Adherents included US President Woodrow Wilson, his influential advisor Edward M. House, former President William Howard Taft, famed inventor Alexander Graham Bell, Wall Street financier Bernard Baruch and Harvard University President Abbott Lawrence Lowell. Finally, there were the so - called Atlanticists. Ardently pro-Entente, they had strongly championed American intervention in the war since 1915. Their primary political motivation was to both prepare the US for war with Germany and to forge an enduring military alliance with Great Britain. This group actively supported the Preparedness Movement and was strong among the Anglophile political establishment of the northeast, boasting such luminaries as former President Theodore Roosevelt, Major General Leonard Wood, prominent attorney and diplomat Joseph Hodges Choate, former Secretary of War Henry Stimson, journalist Walter Lippman and Senators Henry Cabot Lodge, Sr. of Massachusetts and Elihu Root of New York. A cosmopolitan group of upper and upper - middle class businessmen based in the largest cities took the lead in promoting military preparedness and in defining how far America could be pushed around before it would fight back. Many public figures hated war -- Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan was the most prominent, and he resigned when he thought Wilson had become too bellicose. Grassroots opposition to American entry came especially from German and Irish elements. A surprising factor in the development of American public opinion was how little the political parties became involved. Wilson and the Democrats in 1916 campaigned on the slogan "He kept us out of war! '', saying a Republican victory would mean war with both Mexico and Germany. His position probably was critical in winning the Western states. Charles Evans Hughes, the GOP candidate, insisted on downplaying the war issue. The Socialist party talked peace. Socialist rhetoric declared the European conflict to be "an imperialist war ''. It won 2 % of the 1916 vote for Eugene V. Debs, blamed the war on capitalism and pledged total opposition. "A bayonet '', its propaganda said, "was a weapon with a worker at each end ''. When war began, however, about half the Socialists, typified by Congressman Meyer London, supported the decision and sided with the pro-Allied efforts. The rest, led by Debs, remained ideological and die - hard opponents. Many socialists came under investigation from the Espionage Act of 1917 and many suspected of treason were arrested, including Debs. This would only increase the Socialist 's anti-war groups in resentment toward the American government. The working class was relatively quiet, and tended to divide along ethnic lines. At the beginning of the war, neither working men nor farmers took a large interest in the debates on war preparation. Samuel Gompers, head of the AFL labor movement, denounced the war in 1914 as "unnatural, unjustified, and unholy '', but by 1916 he was supporting Wilson 's limited preparedness program, against the objections of Socialist union activists. In 1916 the labor unions supported Wilson on domestic issues and ignored the war question. The war at first disrupted the cotton market; Britain blockaded shipments to Germany, and prices fell from 11 cents a pound to only 4 cents. By 1916, however, the British decided to bolster the price to 10 cents to avoid losing Southern support. The cotton growers seem to have moved from neutrality to intervention at about the same pace as the rest of the nation. Midwestern farmers generally opposed the war, especially those of German and Scandinavian descent. The Midwest became the stronghold of isolationism; other remote rural areas also saw no need for war. The African - American community did not take a strong position one way or the other. A month after congress declared war, W.E.B. Du Bois called on African - Americans to "fight shoulder to shoulder with the world to gain a world where war shall be no more ''. Once war began and black men were drafted, they worked to achieve equality. Many had hoped the community 's help in the war efforts abroad would earn civil rights at home. When such civil liberties were still not granted, many African - Americans grew tired of waiting for recognition of their rights as American citizens. There was a strong antiwar element in the white South and border states. In rural Missouri for example, distrust of powerful Eastern influences focused on the risk that Wall Street would lead America into war. Across the South poor white farmers warned each other that "a rich man 's war meant a poor man 's fight, '' and they wanted nothing of it. Congressman James Hay, Democrat of Virginia was the powerful chairman of the House Committee on Military Affairs. He repeatedly blocked prewar efforts to modernize and enlarge the army. Preparedness was not needed because Americans were already safe, he insisted in January 1915: German Americans by this time usually had only weak ties to Germany; however, they were fearful of negative treatment they might receive if the United States entered the war (such mistreatment was already happening to German - descent citizens in Canada and Australia). Almost none called for intervening on Germany 's side, instead calling for neutrality and speaking of the superiority of German culture. As more nations were drawn into the conflict, however, the English - languages press increasingly supporting Britain, while the German - American media called for neutrality while also defending Germany 's position. Chicago 's Germans worked to secure a complete embargo on all arms shipments to Europe. In 1916, large crowds in Chicago 's Germania celebrated the Kaiser 's birthday, something they had not done before the war. German Americans in early 1917 still called for neutrality, but proclaimed that if a war came they would be loyal to the United States. By this point, they had been excluded almost entirely from national discourse on the subject. Once war started, they were harassed in so many ways that historian Carl Wittke noted in 1936, it was "one of the most difficult and humiliating experiences suffered by an ethnic group in American history. '' German - American Socialists in Milwaukee, Wisconsin actively campaigned against entry into the war. Leaders of most religious groups (except the Episcopalians) tended to pacifism, as did leaders of the woman 's movement. The Methodists and Quakers among others were vocal opponents of the war. President Wilson, who was a devout Presbyterian, would often frame the war in terms of good and evil in an appeal for religious support of the war. A concerted effort was made by pacifists including Jane Addams, Oswald Garrison Villard, David Starr Jordan, Henry Ford, Lillian Wald, and Carrie Chapman Catt. Their goal was to encourage Wilson 's efforts to mediate an end of the war by bringing the belligerents to the conference table. Finally in 1917 Wilson convinced some of them that to be truly anti-war they needed to support what he promised would be "a war to end all wars ''. Once war was declared, the more liberal denominations, which had endorsed the Social Gospel, called for a war for righteousness that would help uplift all mankind. The theme -- an aspect of American exceptionalism -- was that God had chosen America as his tool to bring redemption to the world. American Catholic bishops maintained a general silence toward the issue of intervention. Millions of Catholics lived in both warring camps, and Catholic Americans tended to split on ethnic lines in their opinions toward American involvement in the war. At the time, heavily Catholic towns and cities in the East and Midwest often contained multiple parishes, each serving a single ethnic group, such as Irish, German, Italian, Polish, or English. American Catholics of Irish and German descent opposed intervention most strongly. Pope Benedict XV made several attempts to negotiate a peace. All of his efforts were rebuffed by both the Allies and the Germans, and throughout the war the Vatican maintained a policy of strict neutrality. Jewish American sympathies likewise broke along ethnic lines, with recently arrived Yiddish speaking Jews inclined to Zionism, and the established German - American Jewish community largely opposed to it. In 1914 -- 1916, there were few Jewish forces in favor of American entry into the war. Many regarded Britain as hostile to Jewish interests. New York City, with its well - organized element numbering 1.5 million Jews, was the center of antiwar activism. The different Jewish communities worked together during the war years to provide relief to Jewish communities in Eastern Europe. Of greatest concern to Jews was the tsarist regime in Russia because it was notorious for tolerating pogroms and following anti-Semitic policies. As historian Joseph Rappaport reported through his study of Yiddish press during the war, "The pro-Germanism of America 's immigrant Jews was an inevitable consequence of their Russophobia ''. The fall of the tsarist regime in March 1917 removed a major obstacle for many Jews who refused to support tsarism. The draft went smoothly in New York City, and left - wing opposition to the war largely collapsed when Zionists saw the possibility of using the war to demand a state of Israel. The most effective domestic opponents of the war were Irish - American Catholics. They had little interest in the continent, but were neutral about helping the United Kingdom because it had recently enacted the Government of Ireland Act 1914, allowing Irish Home Rule. However, the Act was suspended until the war ended. John Redmond and the Irish Parliamentary Party (IPP) declared that Irish Volunteers should support America 's pro-Allied war efforts first; his political opponents argued that it was not the time to support Britain in its attempt to "strengthen and expand her empire ''. The attacks on the IPP and pro-Allied press showed a firm belief that a German victory would hasten the achievement of Irish independence. Yet rather than proposing intervention on behalf of the Germans, Irish American leaders and organizations focused on demanding American neutrality. But the increased contact between militant Irish nationalists and German agents in the United States only fueled concerns of where the primary loyalties of Irish Americans lay. Nevertheless, close to 1,000 Irish - born Americans died fighting with the U.S. armed forces in WWI. The Easter Rising in Dublin in April 1916 was crushed within a week and its leaders executed by firing squad. The mainstream American press treated the uprising as foolish and misguided, and theorized it was largely inspired by the Germans. Overall public opinion remained faithfully pro-British. Irish - Americans dominated the Democratic party in many large cities so Wilson had to take account of their views. They did not prevent him from being hostile to Germany, but they did force him to keep his distance from Britain. Indeed, Irish - American pressure influenced the United States into not accepting Britain 's war aims as its own and define its own objectives, primarily self - determination. The Irish - American community thought they had Wilson 's promise to promote Irish independence in exchange for their support of his war policies, but after the war they were bitterly disappointed by his refusal to support them in 1919. Wilson saw the Irish situation purely as an internal UK matter and did not perceive the dispute and the unrest in Ireland as comparable to the plight of the various nationalities in Europe as a fall - out from World War I. The progress of the Irish Race Conventions give a flavour of the differing and changing opinions during the war. Some British immigrants worked actively for intervention. London - born Samuel Insull, Chicago 's leading industrialist, for example, enthusiastically provided money, propaganda, and means for volunteers to enter the British or Canadian armies. After the United States ' entry, Insull directed the Illinois State Council of Defense, with responsibility for organizing the state 's mobilization. Immigrants from eastern Europe usually cared more about politics in their homeland than politics in the United States. Spokesmen for Slavic immigrants hoped that an Allied victory would bring independence for their homelands. Large numbers of Hungarian immigrants who were liberal and nationalist in sentiment, and sought an independent Hungary, separate from the Austro - Hungarian Empire lobbied in favor of the war and allied themselves with the Atlanticist or Anglophile portion of the population. This community was largely pro-British and anti-German in sentiment. Albanian - Americans in communities such as Boston also campaigned for entry into the war and were overwhelmingly pro-British and anti-German, as well as hopeful the war would lead to an independent Albania which would be free from the Ottoman Empire. Polish, Slovak, and Czech immigrants were enthusiastically pro-war and generally pro-British. Henry Ford supported the pacifist cause by sponsoring a large - scale private peace mission, with numerous activists and intellectuals aboard the "Peace Ship ' (the ocean liner Oscar II). Ford chartered the ship in 1915 and invited prominent peace activists to join him to meet with leaders on both sides in Europe. He hoped to create enough publicity to prompt the belligerent nations to convene a peace conference and mediate an end to the war. The mission was widely mocked by the press, which wrote about the "Ship of Fools. '' Infighting between the activists, mockery by the press contingent aboard, and an outbreak of influenza marred the voyage. Four days after the ship arrived in neutral Norway, a beleaguered and physically ill Ford abandoned the mission and returned to the United States; he had demonstrated that independent small efforts accomplished nothing. On July 24, 1915, the German embassy 's commercial attaché, Heinrich Albert, left his briefcase on a train in New York City, where an alert Secret Service agent, Frank Burke, snatched it up. Wilson let the newspapers publish the contents, which indicated a systematic effort by Berlin to subsidize friendly newspapers and block British purchases of war materials. Berlin 's top espionage agent, debonnaire Franz Rintelen von Kleist was spending millions to finance sabotage in Canada, stir up trouble between the United States and Mexico and to incite labor strikes. The British were engaged in propaganda too, though not illegal espionage. But they did not get caught. Germany took the blame as Americans grew ever more worried about the vulnerability of a free society to subversion. Indeed, one of the main fears Americans of all stations had in 1916 -- 1919 was that spies and saboteurs were everywhere. This sentiment played a major role in arousing fear of Germany, and suspicions regarding everyone of German descent who could not "prove '' 100 % loyalty. By 1915, Americans were paying much more attention to the war. The sinking of the Lusitania had a strong effect on public opinion because of the deaths of American civilians. That year, a strong "Preparedness '' movement emerged. Proponents argued that the United States needed to immediately build up strong naval and land forces for defensive purposes; an unspoken assumption was that America would fight sooner or later. General Leonard Wood (still on active duty after serving a term as Chief of Staff of the Army), former president Theodore Roosevelt, and former secretaries of war Elihu Root and Henry Stimson were the driving forces behind Preparedness, along with many of the nation 's most prominent bankers, industrialists, lawyers and scions of prominent families. Indeed, there emerged an "Atlanticist '' foreign policy establishment, a group of influential Americans drawn primarily from upper - class lawyers, bankers, academics, and politicians of the Northeast, committed to a strand of Anglophile internationalism. Representative was Paul D. Cravath, one of New York 's foremost corporation lawyers. For Cravath, in his mid-fifties when the war began, the conflict served as an epiphany, sparking an interest in international affairs that dominated his remaining career. Fiercely Anglophile, he strongly supported American intervention in the war and hoped that close Anglo - American cooperation would be the guiding principle of postwar international organization. The Preparedness movement had a "realistic '' philosophy of world affairs -- they believed that economic strength and military muscle were more decisive than idealistic crusades focused on causes like democracy and national self - determination. Emphasizing over and over the weak state of national defenses, they showed that America 's 100,000 - man Army even augmented by the 112,000 National Guardsmen, was outnumbered 20 to one by Germany 's army, which was drawn from a smaller population. Similarly in 1915, the armed forces of Great Britain and the British empire (the world 's most powerful military and economic power at the time), France, Russia, the Austro - Hungarian empire, Ottoman empire, Italy, Bulgaria, Romania, Serbia, Belgium, Japan and Greece were all larger and more experienced than the United States military, in many cases significantly so. Reform to them meant UMT or "universal military training ''. They proposed a national service program under which the 600,000 men who turned 18 every year would be required to spend six months in military training, and afterwards be assigned to reserve units. The small regular army would primarily be a training agency. Antimilitarists complained the plan would make America resemble Germany (which required two years ' active duty). Advocates retorted that military "service '' was an essential duty of citizenship, and that without the commonality provided by such service the nation would splinter into antagonistic ethnic groups. One spokesman promised that UMT would become "a real melting pot, under which the fire is hot enough to fuse the elements into one common mass of Americanism ''. Furthermore, they promised, the discipline and training would make for a better paid work force. Hostility to military service was strong at the time, and the program failed to win approval. In World War II, when Stimson as Secretary of War proposed a similar program of universal peacetime service, he was defeated. Underscoring its commitment, the Preparedness movement set up and funded its own summer training camps at Plattsburgh, New York, and other sites, where 40,000 college alumni became physically fit, learned to march and shoot, and ultimately provided the cadre of a wartime officer corps. Suggestions by labor unions that talented working - class youth be invited to Plattsburgh were ignored. The Preparedness movement was distant not only from the working classes but also from the middle - class leadership of most of small - town America. It had had little use for the National Guard, which it saw as politicized, localistic, poorly armed, ill trained, too inclined to idealistic crusading (as against Spain in 1898), and too lacking in understanding of world affairs. The National Guard on the other hand was securely rooted in state and local politics, with representation from a very broad cross section of American society. The Guard was one of the nation 's few institutions that (in some northern states) accepted blacks on an equal footing. The Democratic party saw the Preparedness movement as a threat. Roosevelt, Root and Wood were prospective Republican presidential candidates. More subtly, the Democrats were rooted in localism that appreciated the National Guard, and the voters were hostile to the rich and powerful in the first place. Working with the Democrats who controlled Congress, Wilson was able to sidetrack the Preparedness forces. Army and Navy leaders were forced to testify before Congress to the effect that the nation 's military was in excellent shape. In fact, neither the Army nor Navy was in shape for war. The Navy had fine ships but Wilson had been using them to threaten Mexico, and the fleet 's readiness had suffered. The crews of the Texas and the New York, the two newest and largest battleships, had never fired a gun, and the morale of the sailors was low. In addition, it was outnumbered and outgunned by the British, German, French, and Italian navies. The Army and Navy air forces were tiny in size. Despite the flood of new weapons systems unveiled by the British, Germans, French, Austro - Hungarians, Italians, and others in the war in Europe, the Army was paying scant attention. For example, it was making no studies of trench warfare, poison gas, heavy artillery, or tanks and was utterly unfamiliar with the rapid evolution of Aerial warfare. The Democrats in Congress tried to cut the military budget in 1915. The Preparedness movement effectively exploited the surge of outrage over the Lusitania in May 1915, forcing the Democrats to promise some improvements to the military and naval forces. Wilson, less fearful of the Navy, embraced a long - term building program designed to make the fleet the equal of the British Royal Navy by the mid-1920s, although this would not be achieved until World War II. "Realism '' was at work here; the admirals were Mahanians and they therefore wanted a surface fleet of heavy battleships second to none -- that is, equal to Britain. The facts of submarine warfare (which necessitated destroyers, not battleships) and the possibilities of imminent war with Germany (or with Britain, for that matter), were simply ignored. Wilson 's program for the Army touched off a firestorm. Secretary of War Lindley Garrison adopted many of the proposals of the Preparedness leaders, especially their emphasis on a large federal reserve and abandonment of the National Guard. Garrison 's proposals not only outraged the localistic politicians of both parties, they also offended a strongly held belief shared by the liberal wing of the Progressive movement. They felt that warfare always had a hidden economic motivation. Specifically, they warned the chief warmongers were New York bankers (like J.P. Morgan) with millions at risk, profiteering munition makers (like Bethlehem Steel, which made armor, and DuPont, which made powder) and unspecified industrialists searching for global markets to control. Antiwar critics blasted them. These special interests were too powerful, especially, Senator La Follette noted, in the conservative wing of the Republican Party. The only road to peace was disarmament, reiterated Bryan. Garrison 's plan unleashed the fiercest battle in peacetime history over the relationship of military planning to national goals. In peacetime, War Department arsenals and Navy yards manufactured nearly all munitions that lacked civilian uses, including warships, artillery, naval guns, and shells. Items available on the civilian market, such as food, horses, saddles, wagons, and uniforms were always purchased from civilian contractors. Armor plate (and after 1918, airplanes) was an exception that has caused unremitting controversy for a century. After World War II, the arsenals and Navy yards were much less important than giant civilian aircraft and electronics firms, which became the second half of the "military - industrial complex '' Peace leaders like Jane Addams of Hull House and David Starr Jordan of Stanford redoubled their efforts, and now turned their voices against the president because he was "sowing the seeds of militarism, raising up a military and naval caste ''. Many ministers, professors, farm spokesmen, and labor union leaders joined in, with powerful support from a band of four dozen southern Democrats in Congress who took control of the House Military Affairs Committee. Wilson, in deep trouble, took his cause to the people in a major speaking tour in early 1916, a warmup for his reelection campaign that fall. Wilson seems to have won over the middle classes, but had little impact on the largely ethnic working classes and the deeply isolationist farmers. Congress still refused to budge, so Wilson replaced Garrison as Secretary of War with Newton Baker, the Democratic mayor of Cleveland and an outspoken opponent of preparedness (Garrison kept quiet, but felt Wilson was "a man of high ideals but no principles ''). The upshot was a compromise passed in May 1916, as the war raged on and Berlin was debating whether America was so weak it could be ignored. The Army was to double in size to 11,300 officers and 208,000 men, with no reserve, and a National Guard that would be enlarged in five years to 440,000 men. Summer camps on the Plattsburg model were authorized for new officers, and the government was given $20 million to build a nitrate plant of its own. Preparedness supporters were downcast, the antiwar people were jubilant. America would now be too weak to go to war. Colonel Robert L. Bullard privately complained that "Both sides (Britain and Germany) treat us with scorn and contempt; our fool, smug conceit of superiority has been exploded in our faces and deservedly. '' The House gutted the naval plans as well, defeating a "big navy '' plan by 189 to 183, and scuttling the battleships. The battle of Jutland (May 31 / June 1, 1916) was used by the navalists to argue for the primacy of seapower; they then took control in the Senate, broke the House coalition, and authorized a rapid three - year buildup of all classes of warships. A new weapons system, naval aviation, received $3.5 million, and the government was authorized to build its own armor plate factory. The very weakness of American military power encouraged Berlin to start its unrestricted submarine attacks in 1917. It knew this meant war with America, but it could discount the immediate risk because the U.S. Army was negligible and the new warships would not be at sea until 1919 by which time the war would be over, with Germany victorious. The notion that armaments led to war was turned on its head: refusal to arm in 1916 led to war in 1917. Americans felt an increasing need for a military that could command respect. As one editor put it, "The best thing about a large army and a strong navy is that they make it so much easier to say just what we want to say in our diplomatic correspondence. '' Berlin thus far had backed down and apologized when Washington was angry, thus boosting American self - confidence. America 's rights and America 's honor increasingly came into focus. The slogan "Peace '' gave way to "Peace with Honor ''. The Army remained unpopular, however. A recruiter in Indianapolis noted that, "The people here do not take the right attitude towards army life as a career, and if a man joins from here he often tries to go out on the quiet ''. The Preparedness movement used its easy access to the mass media to demonstrate that the War Department had no plans, no equipment, little training, no reserve, a laughable National Guard, and a wholly inadequate organization for war. Motion pictures like The Battle Cry of Peace (1915) depicted invasions of the American homeland that demanded action. The readiness and capability of the U.S. Navy was a matter of controversy. The press at the time reported that the only thing the military was ready for was an enemy fleet attempting to seize New York harbor -- at a time when the German battle fleet was penned up by the Royal Navy. The Navy Secretary Josephus Daniels was a journalist with pacifist leanings. He had built up the educational resources of the Navy and made its Naval War College in Newport, Rhode Island an essential experience for would - be admirals. However, he alienated the officer corps with his moralistic reforms, including no wine in the officers ' mess, no hazing at the Naval Academy, and more chaplains and YMCAs. Daniels, as a newspaperman, knew the value of publicity. In 1915 he set up the Naval Consulting Board headed by Thomas Edison to obtain the advice and expertise of leading scientists, engineers, and industrialists. It popularized technology, naval expansion, and military preparedness, and was well covered in the media. But according to Coletta he ignored the nation 's strategic needs, and disdaining the advice of its experts, Daniels suspended meetings of the Joint Army and Navy Board for two years because it was giving unwelcome advice, chopped in half the General Board 's recommendations for new ships, reduced the authority of officers in the Navy yards where ships were built and repaired, and ignored the administrative chaos in his department. Bradley Fiske, one of the most innovative admirals in American naval history, in 1914 was Daniels ' top aide; he recommended a reorganization that would prepare for war, but Daniels refused. Instead he replaced Fiske in 1915 and brought in for the new post of Chief of Naval Operations an unknown captain, William Benson. Chosen for his compliance, Benson proved a wily bureaucrat who was more interested in preparing for an eventual showdown with Britain than an immediate one with Germany. Benson told Sims he "would as soon fight the British as the Germans ''. Proposals to send observers to Europe were blocked, leaving the Navy in the dark about the success of the German submarine campaign. Admiral William Sims charged after the war that in April 1917, only ten percent of the Navy 's warships were fully manned; the rest lacked 43 % of their seamen. Light antisubmarine ships were few in number, as if Daniels had been unaware of the German submarine menace that had been the focus of foreign policy for two years. The Navy 's only warfighting plan, the "Black Plan '' assumed the Royal Navy did not exist and that German battleships were moving freely about the Atlantic and the Caribbean and threatening the Panama Canal. Daniels ' tenure would have been even less successful save for the energetic efforts of Assistant Secretary Franklin D. Roosevelt, who effectively ran the Department. His most recent biographer concludes that, "it is true that Daniels had not prepared the navy for the war it would have to fight. '' By 1916 a new factor was emerging -- a sense of national self - interest and American nationalism. The unbelievable casualty figures in Europe were sobering -- two vast battles caused over one million casualties each. Clearly this war would be a decisive episode in the history of the world. Every American effort to find a peaceful solution was frustrated. Kendrick Clements claims bureaucratic decision - making was one of the main sources pushing the United States to declaring war on Germany and aligning itself with the Allies. He cites the State Department 's demand that Germany 's submarines obey outdated, 18th century sailing laws as one of the first missteps by the United States bureaucracy regarding the war. By doing so, the United States had essentially given Germany the choice of whether or not the U.S. would enter the war. Secretary of State William Jennings Bryan spent most of the fall of 1914 out of contact with the State Department, leaving the more conservative Robert Lansing with the ability to shape American foreign policy at the time. One of these decisions was made in response to British protests that the Germans were using U.S. radio towers to send messages to their warships. Immediately prior to the war starting in 1914, Britain had cut all cable communications leading out of Germany, including the trans - Atlantic cable. The US Government permitted German embassies to use the US cable lines for "proper '' diplomatic business. Germany argued that usage of the towers was necessary to allow efficient contact between the U.S. and Germany. Lansing responded by requiring both sides to give the U.S. Navy copies of the messages they sent over the towers. The French and British were still able to use the cables, forcing Germany to be the only belligerent required to provide the U.S. with their messages. This and other seemingly small decisions made by Lansing during this time would eventually stack up, shifting American support towards the Allies. Once Germany had decided on unrestricted submarine warfare in January 1917, and knowing it would be attacking all American ships in the North Atlantic, it tried to line up new allies, especially Mexico. Arthur Zimmermann, the German foreign minister, sent the Zimmermann Telegram to Mexico on January 16, 1917. Zimmerman invited Mexico (knowing their resentment towards America since the 1848 Mexican Cession) to join in a war against the United States. Germany promised to pay for Mexico 's costs and to help it recover the territory annexed by the U.S. in 1848. These territories included the present day states of California, Nevada, Utah, most of Arizona, about half of New Mexico and a quarter of Colorado. British intelligence intercepted and decoded the telegram and passed it to the Wilson administration. The White House would release it to the press on March 1st. Anger grew further as the Germans began sinking American ships, even as isolationists in the Senate launched a filibuster to block legislation for arming American merchant ships to defend themselves. In early 1917 Berlin forced the issue. Its declared decision on 31 January 1917 to target neutral shipping in a designated war - zone became the immediate cause of the entry of the United States into the war. Five American merchant ships went down in March. Outraged public opinion now overwhelmingly supported Wilson when he asked Congress for a declaration of war on April 2, 1917. Historians such as Ernest R. May have approached the process of American entry into the war as a study in how public opinion changed radically in three years ' time. In 1914 most Americans called for neutrality, seeing the war a dreadful mistake and were determined to stay out. By 1917 the same public felt just as strongly that going to war was both necessary and wise. Military leaders had little to say during this debate, and military considerations were seldom raised. The decisive questions dealt with morality and visions of the future. The prevailing attitude was that America possessed a superior moral position as the only great nation devoted to the principles of freedom and democracy. By staying aloof from the squabbles of reactionary empires, it could preserve those ideals -- sooner or later the rest of the world would come to appreciate and adopt them. In 1917 this very long - run program faced the severe danger that in the short run powerful forces adverse to democracy and freedom would triumph. Strong support for moralism came from religious leaders, women (led by Jane Addams), and from public figures like long - time Democratic leader William Jennings Bryan, the Secretary of State from 1913 to 1916. The most important moralist of all was President Woodrow Wilson -- the man who dominated decision making so totally that the war has been labelled, from an American perspective, "Wilson 's War ''. In 1917 Wilson won the support of most of the moralists by proclaiming "a war to make the world safe for democracy. '' If they truly believed in their ideals, he explained, now was the time to fight. The question then became whether Americans would fight for what they deeply believed in, and the answer turned out to be a resounding "Yes ''. Antiwar activists at the time and in the 1930s, alleged that beneath the veneer of moralism and idealism there must have been ulterior motives. Some suggested a conspiracy on the part of New York City bankers holding $3 billion of war loans to the Allies, or steel and chemical firms selling munitions to the Allies. The interpretation was popular among left - wing Progressives (led by Senator Robert La Follette of Wisconsin) and among the "agrarian '' wing of the Democratic party -- including the chairman of the tax - writing Ways and Means Committee of the House. He strenuously opposed war, and when it came he rewrote the tax laws to make sure the rich paid the most. (In the 1930s neutrality laws were passed to prevent financial entanglements from dragging the nation into a war.) In 1915, Bryan thought that Wilson 's pro-British sentiments had distorted his policies, so he became the first Secretary of State ever to resign in protest. However, historian Harold C. Syrett argues that business supported neutrality. Other historians state that the pro-war element was animated not by profit but by disgust with what Germany actually did, especially in Belgium, and the threat it represented to American ideals. Belgium kept the public 's sympathy as the Germans executed civilians, and English nurse Edith Cavell. American engineer Herbert Hoover led a private relief effort that won wide support. Compounding the Belgium atrocities were new weapons that Americans found repugnant, like poison gas and the aerial bombardment of innocent civilians as Zeppelins dropped bombs on London. Even anti-war spokesmen did not claim that Germany was innocent, and pro-German scripts were poorly received. Randolph Bourne criticized the moralist philosophy claiming it was a justification by American intellectual and power elites, like President Wilson, for going to war unnecessarily. He argues that the push for war started with the Preparedness movement, fueled by big business. While big business would not push much further than Preparedness, benefitting the most from neutrality, the movement would eventually evolve into a war - cry, led by war - hawk intellectuals under the guise of moralism. Bourne believes elites knew full well what going to war would entail and the price in American lives it would cost. If American elites could portray the United States ' role in the war as noble, they could convince the generally isolationist American public war would be acceptable. Above all, American attitudes towards Germany focused on the U-boats (submarines), which sank the Lusitania in 1915 and other passenger ships "without warning ''. That appeared to Americans as an unacceptable challenge to America 's rights as a neutral country, and as an unforgivable affront to humanity. After repeated diplomatic protests, Germany agreed to stop. But in 1917 the Germany military leadership decided that "military necessity '' dictated the unrestricted use of their submarines. The Kaiser 's advisors felt America was enormously powerful economically but too weak militarily to make a difference. On April 2, 1917, Wilson asked a special joint session of Congress to declare war on the German Empire, stating, "We have no selfish ends to serve ''. To make the conflict seem like a better idea, he painted the conflict idealistically, stating that the war would "make the world safe for democracy '' and later that it would be a "war to end war ''. The United States had a moral responsibility to enter the war, Wilson proclaimed. The future of the world was being determined on the battlefield, and American national interest demanded a voice. Wilson 's definition of the situation won wide acclaim, and, indeed, has shaped America 's role in world and military affairs ever since. Wilson believed that if the Central Powers won, the consequences would be bad for the United States. Germany would have dominated the continent and perhaps would gain control of the seas as well. Latin America could well have fallen under Berlin 's control. The dream of spreading democracy, liberalism, and independence would have been shattered. On the other hand, if the Allies had won without help, there was a danger they would carve up the world without regard to American commercial interests. They were already planning to use government subsidies, tariff walls, and controlled markets to counter the competition posed by American businessmen. The solution was a third route, a "peace without victory '', according to Wilson. On April 6, 1917, Congress declared war. In the Senate, the resolution passed 82 to 6, with Senators Harry Lane, William J. Stone, James Vardaman, Asle Gronna, Robert M. La Follette, Sr., and George W. Norris voting against it. In the House, the declaration passed 373 to 50, with Claude Kitchin, a senior Democrat, notably opposing it. Another opponent was Jeannette Rankin, who alone voted against entry into both World War I and World War II. Nearly all of the opposition came from the West and the Midwest. The United States Senate, in a 74 to 0 vote, declared war on Austria - Hungary on December 7, 1917, citing Austria - Hungary 's severing of diplomatic relations with the United States, its use of unrestricted submarine warfare and its alliance with Germany. The declaration passed in the United States House of Representatives by a vote of 365 to 1. President Wilson also came under pressure from Senator Henry Cabot Lodge, and from former President Theodore Roosevelt, who demanded a declaration of war on Ottoman Empire and Bulgaria, as Germany 's allies. President Wilson drafted a statement to Congress in December 1917 which said "I... recommend that Congress immediately declare the United States in a state of war with Austria - Hungary, with Turkey and with Bulgaria ''. But after further consultations decision on war against Germany 's other allies was postponed.

who was the first person inducted into the baseball hall of fame

Baseball Hall of Fame balloting, 1936 - wikipedia The first elections to select inductees to the Baseball Hall of Fame were held in 1936. Members of the Baseball Writers ' Association of America (BBWAA) were given authority to select individuals from the 20th century; while a special Veterans Committee, made up of individuals with greater familiarity with the 19th century game, was polled to select deserving individuals from that era. The intent was for 15 honorees to be selected before the 1939 ceremonies -- 10 from the 20th century and 5 from the 19th; additional players from both eras would be selected in later years. Voters were given free rein to decide for themselves in which group a candidate belonged, with neither group knowing the outcome of the other election; some candidates had their vote split between the elections as a result -- Cy Young, the pitcher with most wins in Major League history, finished 8th in the BBWAA vote and 4th in the Veterans vote. In addition, there was no prohibition on voting for active players, a number of whom received votes. Individuals who had been banned from baseball -- such as Shoeless Joe Jackson and Hal Chase -- were also not formally excluded, though few voters chose to include them on ballots. In the BBWAA election, voters were instructed to cast votes for 10 candidates, the same number of desired selections; in the Veterans ' election, voters were also instructed to vote for 10, although the desire for only 5 initial selections led to revisions in the way the votes were counted. Any candidate receiving votes on at least 75 % of the ballots in either election would be honored with induction to the Hall upon its opening in the sport 's supposed centennial year of 1939. A total of 226 ballots were cast, with 2,231 individual votes for 47 specific candidates, an average of 9.87 per ballot; 170 votes were required for election. Initial ballots included 33 players listed as suggestions, although revised ballots were later sent with an additional 7 names; when questions arose about players who had been omitted, voters needed to be reminded that these names were simply intended as suggestions rather than the entire field of possibilities, and that write - in votes were fully allowed. Candidates who were listed on the ballot as suggestions are indicated here with a †. The five candidates who received at least 75 % of the vote and were elected are indicated in bold italics; candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics: A total of 78 ballots were cast by players, writers, managers and officials who had first - hand familiarity with 19th - century baseball, resulting in 371 individual votes for 57 specific candidates; 59 votes were required for election. No candidates were elected, possibly because of a great deal of confusion regarding the voting procedure. The ballots which were issued in this vote also featured a list of suggested candidates, which was amended after complaints that Ed Delahanty, Willie Keeler and Cy Young should be on this ballot as well as that for the 20th century; but when some voters expressed doubts regarding the possibility of write - in votes, a letter including clearer instructions specifically allowing for write - ins had to be mailed. Many voters were also under the impression that they were to select an "All - Star team '' of 10 players, with one at each position; 58 ballots cast in this manner were sent back to the voters to be re-cast, although 10 voters returned the ballots unaltered, stating that was the way they wished to vote regardless of the instructions. The results were delayed for several days until early February while these reminders and revisions took place. It was further decided, during the tabulations and after the voting, that voters would each be restricted to 5 total votes in order to limit the initial 19th century selections to 5 players; but since most voters had cast votes for 10, it was ruled that each vote would only count as / in the total for that candidate -- making a 75 % tally nearly mathematically impossible. When the votes were tabulated with this method, only two candidates had totals reaching even 50 % of the required number. Plans for a runoff election featuring only the top 12 finishers, to be held prior to the 1939 opening of the Hall, never materialized; even with all the problems, the 1936 vote would remain the Hall 's most successful attempt to seek a wide vote from experts on the era regarding candidates from that period. Candidates who were listed as suggestions on the ballot are indicated here with a †. Candidates who have since been selected in subsequent elections are indicated in italics, as is Honus Wagner, who was elected in the BBWAA vote:

when did you can't touch this come out

U Ca n't Touch This - wikipedia "U Ca n't Touch This '' is a song co-written, produced and performed by MC Hammer from his 1990 album Please Hammer, Do n't Hurt ' Em. The track is considered to be Hammer 's signature song and is his most successful single. Along with Hammer, Rick James shares songwriting credits with Alonzo Miller because the song samples the prominent opening riff of "Super Freak ''. The song has been used or referenced in multiple television shows, films, commercials and other forms of media. It has also received numerous awards and recognitions. The song is notable as the winner of the Best R&B Song and a Best Rap Solo Performance and the first rap song to be nominated for Record of the Year at the 33rd Annual Grammy Awards in 1991 as well as the Best Rap Video and Best Dance Video at the 1990 MTV Video Music Awards. It peaked at number one in the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks and on the charts in several countries. The song samples the prominent opening riff of the Rick James song "Super Freak '', which is repeated throughout the recording. The lyrics describe Hammer as having "toured around the world, from London to the Bay '' and as being "magic on the mic '', which Hammer says coincides with James ' "beat that you ca n't touch ''. Additionally, the song lyrics "You ca n't touch this '' and "Stop! Hammer time! '' became pop culture catchphrases. Hammertime was later used as the title of a reality show starring Hammer on the A&E Network in the summer of 2009. The sample of "Super Freak '' that forms the basis of the song led Rick James and other performers on the original record to file a lawsuit for infringement of copyright. The suit was settled out of court when Hammer agreed to credit James as a songwriter, effectively granting James millions of dollars in royalties. The song was first performed publicly on a late 1989 episode of The Arsenio Hall Show. Because the song was not initially released as a single, listeners had to purchase the album, which as a result, went on to sell more than 18 million copies, gaining multi-platinum certifications from the RIAA, as well as in other countries. Directed by Rupert Wainwright, a music video was produced to promote the single, showing Hammer doing some of his signature dances, such as "The Running Man '' and the "Hammer Dance ''. In April 1990 "U Ca n't Touch This '' hit the Top 40. The song also secured a Best R&B Song and a Best Rap Solo Performance in 1991, a new category at the time and the first rap song to be nominated for Record of the Year. The single was a major success, reaching # 1 on the Billboard Hot R&B / Hip - Hop Singles & Tracks and no. 8 on the Billboard Hot 100. The track also performed successfully in other parts of the world, peaking at no. 1 in Australia, Netherlands, New Zealand and Sweden, and no. 3 on the UK Singles Chart. In September 1990, the video for "U Ca n't Touch This '' won an MTV Video Music Award for Best Rap Video and Best Dance Video and was nominated for Best Male Video, Best Editing, and Best Choreography. In 1991, Kids Incorporated covered "U Ca n't Touch This '' in the Season 7 episode "Pipe Dreams ''. In 1999, MTV 's 100 Greatest Videos Ever Made included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 71. In October 2000, VH1 's "100 Greatest Dance Songs '' included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 88. In May 2001, VH1 's 100 Greatest Videos included "U Ca n't Touch This '' at No. 59. In August 2005, "U Ca n't Touch This '' was certified gold. In December 2007, VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of the 90s '' included the song at No. 16. During 2008, the song ranked as No. 26 on VH1 's 100 Greatest Songs of Hip Hop. The song is used comically in various films of the 2000s and 2010s such as Bubble Boy, Charlie 's Angels: Full Throttle, Kung Pow! Enter the Fist, Shark Tale, White Chicks, Racing Stripes, Transformers: Age of Extinction and Transformers: The Last Knight, among others. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone In 1991, a parody entitled "I Ca n't Watch This '' was released by "Weird Al '' Yankovic for his album Off the Deep End, with lyrics complaining about bad TV shows overlaid on the song 's music track and featuring samples of various commercials during the breakdowns. A groove metal cover of the song was performed by the Austrian NDH band Stahlhammer, infused with death growls and heavy guitar riffs. Before the 1990 NFL season started, the Miami Dolphins parodied the song as "U Ca n't Touch Us ''. Peter Griffin parodies this song as "Ca n't Touch Me '' in the Family Guy episode, "E. Peterbus Unum '', giving examples of flaunting his diplomatic immunity, including telling MC Hammer that he can not sue for plagiarism and walking on the grass. Grup Vitamin, Turkish parody group, parodies this song as "Dokundur '' in "Bol Vitamin '' album in 1990 and as "Sürtündürt '' in "Grup Vitamin '' one in 1991. The TV sitcom Mrs. Brown 's Boys performed "U Ca n't Touch This '' as a dance routine at the end of the 2015 Christmas episode. The Annoying Orange parodies the song as "Ca n't Squash This ''. The theme song for the British children comedy talk TV show Hacker Time is a parody of the song, but the lyrics ended with "Sorted Hacker Time ''. The YouTube channel "How It Should Have Ended '' created a parody, titled "Not Worthy '', featuring various clips of Thor within the Marvel Cinematic Universe.

tyler perry house of payne calvin gets shot

Tyler Perry 's house of Payne (season 8) - Wikipedia The eighth and final season of Tyler Perry 's House of Payne began airing on October 21, 2011 and ended, with the series finale, on August 10, 2012. It stars LaVan Davis as Curtis Payne, Cassi Davis as Ella Payne, Allen Payne as CJ Payne, Lance Gross as Calvin Payne, Demetria McKinney as Janine Payne, Keshia Knight Pulliam as Miranda Payne and Palmer Williams, Jr. who joins the cast as Floyd Jackson, and consists of 62 episodes. It also stars Larramie "Doc '' Shaw as Malik and China Anne McClain as Jazmine who are both in limited amount of episodes due to the shows that they also starred in (Pair of Kings and A.N.T. Farm). Directed by: Kim Fields Ella 's mother and sister Evie visit, and Ella experiences the effects of their mother 's disease; Janine texts C.J. a sexy picture of herself. Note: Beginning with this episode, the show returned to regularly air 2 episodes a week on Fridays instead of Wednesdays. Guest - Stars: Aloma Wright as Eunice Williams and Janet Hubert - Whitten as Evie Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin finds out that Tracie checked Calvin Jr. out of the hospital. Calvin and Miranda try to find a place to stay. Directed by: Roger M. Bobb Curtis, Ella, and Floyd try to bring DeShawn a reality check when he wants to join a gang. C.J. and Calvin tussle over their living arrangements. Directed by: Kim Fields DeShawn is placed in a gifted - students program to avoid being expelled from school; Calvin and Miranda hire a contractor to repair their condo. Directed by: Kim Fields DeShawn bullies a classmate and lands himself in serious trouble; Miranda and Janine fight over petty things. Note: This episode featured Bobb'e J. Thompson talking to viewers about bullying. Directed by: Kim Fields C.J. forgets Janine 's 3 - years - sober anniversary; Ella gets DeShawn an ugly outfit for school - picture day. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J closes a fire station due to budget cuts, and Curtis disapproves of it. Calvin and Miranda want to move upstairs. Directed by: Chip Hurd Calvin and Miranda plan Calvin Jr. 's birthday party; Curtis and Ella have trouble with the Homeowners Association. Note: This is the 200th episode. Guest Star: Corey Holcomb as Damon Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J. hires Calvin, whose performance is disappointing. Meanwhile, Curtis tries painting Directed by: Tyler Perry Curtis wakes up as a Jefferson. Note: This was the first of several episodes where Demetria McKinney is credited as Demetria "Dee Dee '' McKinney. Special Guest Stars: Sherman Hemsley as George Jefferson and Marla Gibbs as Florence Directed by: Kim Fields Miranda frets over her unemployment; C.J. looks into firefighter response times. Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin is allowed supervised visits; Ella 's friend Felicia visits. Guest Stars: Corey Holcomb as Damon and Sheryl Lee Ralph as Felicia Starr Directed by: Kim Fields Janine sponsors a young girl; Curtis and Ella become DeShawn 's foster parents. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J. and Janine are not comfortable with Malik 's roommate; Claretha tries alternative cancer - fighting treatments. Guest Star: Denise Burse as Claretha Note: This was Denise Burse 's final appearance as Claretha. Directed by: Chip Hurd Malik gets hazed. Directed by: Chip Hurd Ella becomes director of the center; Malik mulls dropping out. Directed by: Tyler Perry Curtis becomes a contestant on Paynefully Fit, while Deshawn get advice about girls. Absent: Demetria McKinney as Janine, Lance Gross as Calvin, Keshia Knight Pulliam as Miranda, Larramie "Doc '' Shaw as Malik and China Anne McClain as Jazmine Directed by: Tyler Perry Miranda 's new client flirts with her while the family honors Curtis. Note: Demetria McKinney is credited as Demetria "Dee Dee '' McKinney. Absent: Larramie "Doc '' Shaw as Malik and China Anne McClain as Jazmine Directed by: Tyler Perry Miranda takes over renovating the condo while Calvin and Deshawn bond. Directed by: Tyler Perry The Payne 's say goodbye while praising God in church. Guest Stars: Troy Winbush as Travis Harris Directed by: Tyler Perry After Christian 's Christening, The family gets ready to have one last Sunday dinner at Curtis and Ella 's house. Unbeknownst to the family, as they prepare the meal, Calvin has been shot and is laying on C.J. and Janine 's floor. Directed by: Tyler Perry After being discovered by Janine, Calvin battles for his life at the hospital. Ella 's unwavering faith wo n't let the family get down. Note: This episode was rated TV - 14 - V Directed by: Tyler Perry The Payne family waits for Calvin to wake up, but the fight is n't over. Curtis decides not to move. Directed by: Tyler Perry Calvin might get discharged from the hospital after he finally awakened. Curtis attempts to mortgage his house for money to pay Calvin 's medical bills. Directed by: Tyler Perry Calvin has nightmares about being shot and is uncomfortable at home with Miranda who is overwhelmed with caring for an ailing husband, two kids, a career and home. Ella and Curtis are worried that Calvin is n't receiving proper care and wants him to move in with them. Curtis prepares the house for Calvin. Directed by: Tyler Perry A depressed Calvin admits to Ella that he think he would have been better off dead. The family is very concerned and Curtis has a heart to heart conversation with Calvin. Deshawn 's mother visits and wants Deshawn back. Deshawn decides to go live with her. Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin plans to get revenge on Travis Harris for shooting him. Curtis makes plans with Ella then pretends to be sick when he gets tickets to a baseball game. When footage of Curtis at the game is aired, Curtis does everything he can to keep Ella from finding out. Directed by: Kim Fields C.J. is left to look after the twins during the big game. Ella gets in the way of Calvin 's transition back home. Note: Beginning with this episode, Palmer Williams, Jr., who portrays Floyd joins the main cast Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin is invited back to work, then decides he is n't ready and does n't show. Floyd has a new girlfriend who looks awfully familiar to Curtis. Curtis realizes he knew the girlfriend, when she was a man. Directed by: Kim Fields Ella runs a gun buy back program at the Help Center that is threatened by rival gang members. Curtis, bored, wants to volunteer at the Help Center and causes mischief. Directed by: Kim Fields Curtis runs for neighborhood watch president. C.J. helps until he realizes he disagrees with some of Curtis 's policies. When Curtis challenges C.J., C.J. decides to run himself. Meanwhile, Malik runs up his parent 's credit card. Directed by: Kim Fields The family meets Malik 's new free - spirited girlfriend, Summer. Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin and Miranda 's condo gets foreclosed on and they are forced out. Not wanting to turn to his parents again, Calvin and Miranda try to make their own way and end up sleeping in a motel. Curtis tells Calvin to bring his family to their house. Floyd convinces Curtis to steal security service. Directed by: Kim Fields Ella is preparing to open a battered women 's home in the church 's unused classrooms, but it is shut down when C.J. cites dangerous fire code violations. Calvin borrows Curtis 's car and thinks he put a dent in it. Calvin feels guilty and tries to make up for it and Curtis allows him to. Directed by: Kim Fields Malik and Summer volunteer at a crisis hotline. Curtis goes overboard with the neighborhood watch as he tries to catch a criminal. Note: This episode features Larramie "Doc '' Shaw talking to viewers about suicide. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J. is offered perks as a city official. Miranda and Curtis bond. Directed by: Kim Fields C.J. and Janine have a fight which carries over into the office. Malik takes a class on evolution and does n't know if he believes in God. Directed by: Chip Hurd Malik tutors an athlete who can barely read. Curtis is overly canind with the newspapers and causes a PR scandal for C.J. and Janine. Note: This episode features Larramie "Doc '' Shaw talking to viewers about learning to read. Note: Demetria McKinney is credited as Demetria "Dee Dee '' McKinney for the rest of the series. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J. and Malik bumps heads when Malik leads a protest against a man being put to death. C.J. lead the arson investigation that put the man away. Directed by: Kim Fields Miranda is hurt when she overhears Curtis and Ella talking bad about her. C.J. 's department enjoys the softball team until a horrible Janine wants to join. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J gives Malik advice which leads to Malik marrying Summer. Calvin and Miranda have a hard time adjusting to living with Curtis and Ella. Directed by: Chip Hurd C.J., Janine and Miranda have a party and do n't invite Curtis and Ella. Malik and Summer argue over an obscure anniversary. Note: Bernard Jones reprises his role from Meet the Browns as Milo in this episode. Directed by: Chip Hurd Curtis does community service at the Help Center. Miranda does n't invite Janine to a concert. Directed by: Chip Hurd Malik finds out his friend is gay. Curtis loans Ella money. Directed by: Chip Hurd Malik and Summer have their marriage annulled. Miranda temps at the office when Janine needs an assistant. Note: Bernard Jones reprises his role from Meet the Browns as Milo in this episode. Directed by: Kim Fields Malik takes caffeine pills irresponsibly and Curtis subs for Ella at a Help Center training program. Directed by: Kim Fields Janine and Miranda co-chair a Help Center event and all they do is fight. Malik does n't want to stop wearing his wedding ring. Note: This episode features Keshia Knight Pulliam and Demetria McKinney talking to viewers about helping poor countries. Note: This was Larramie "Doc '' Shaw 's final appearance as Malik. Directed by: Kim Fields Curtis and Ella keep popping in unannounced to C.J. and Janine 's house. Jazmine is accused of cheating on an exam; she 's covering for a friend. Directed by: Kim Fields C.J. takes action when technology takes over the family. Directed by: Kim Fields C.J. coaches Jazmine 's soccer team. Directed by: Kim Fields Calvin 's behavior at work gets him suspended. Meanwhile, Jazmine wants Ella to teach her how to bake. Directed by: Chip Hurd Jazmine stands up to a cyber bully. Meanwhile, Miranda and Calvin have a pregnancy scare. Directed by: Chip Hurd Calvin takes Miranda 's money and goes to a strip club. C.J. gives Janine a bad evaluation. Directed by: Chip Hurd Floyd decides to host a night of fun and gambling at the Help Center, and Curtis gets quickly sucked in by the casino - like atmosphere and games. Jazmine lands herself in some serious trouble for talking during class time. Directed by: Chip Hurd Calvin and Miranda anticipates the prospects of having their own place. Jazmine job shadows the PR office with C.J. and Janine. Directed by: Chip Hurd Ella receives news of the death of her mother Eunice. Guest Star: Janet Hubert - Whitten as Evie Directed by: Tyler Perry Jazmine asks C.J. to go to the school dance with a boy. Note: This was China Anne McClain 's final appearance as Jazmine. Directed by: Chip Hurd Floyd 's new invention causes friction between him and Curtis. Calvin questions Miranda about an unusual amount in her bank account. Directed by: Tyler Perry Calvin and Miranda try to save their marriage before it becomes too late. Directed by: Chip Hurd Calvin faces his shooter Travis Harris in court when the shooter 's trial finally arrives. Directed by: Chip Hurd Curtis must deal with resentment after he is called back to work. Floyd learns important details of his heritage. Directed by: Chip Hurd In the series finale, Calvin and C.J. plan an anniversary celebration for Miranda and Janine. Miranda has to make a tough decision whether or not she stays with Calvin. In the end, Miranda decides to get a divorce from Calvin and walks out on him. The series ends when Calvin throws a vase of flowers at the door.

virginia tech vs tennessee chick fil a bowl

2009 Chick - fil - a Bowl - wikipedia The 2009 Chick - fil - A Bowl was a postseason college football bowl game between the Virginia Tech Hokies and the Tennessee Volunteers on December 31, 2009, in the Georgia Dome, Atlanta. Virginia Tech defeated Tennessee 37 -- 14. The game was part of the 2009 NCAA Division I FBS football season and was the concluding game of the season for both teams. The game, the 42nd edition of the Chick - fil - A Bowl -- called the Peach Bowl for much of its existence -- was televised in the United States on ESPN and the broadcast was seen by an estimated 4.87 million viewers. Each participating team was selected by the bowl game 's selection committee, which had paid contracts with the participating football conferences. The Chick - fil - A Bowl had the second pick of bowl - eligible teams from the Atlantic Coast Conference and the fifth pick from eligible teams in the Southeastern Conference. In picking Virginia Tech and Tennessee, the selection committee bypassed teams with better or similar records in order to create a matchup appealing to television audiences. Pregame media coverage focused on the close geographic rivalry between the two teams and the success of Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin in reversing his team 's poor fortune from the previous season. The game kicked off at 7: 37 p.m. EST and Virginia Tech jumped to an early lead with a first - quarter touchdown. Tennessee replied in the second quarter with two touchdowns of their own, but Virginia Tech kept the lead by scoring 10 points in the quarter. At halftime, Tech led 17 - 14. In the second half, Virginia Tech pulled away from Tennessee, scoring 20 unanswered points to win the game 37 - 14. In recognition of his performance during the game, Virginia Tech running back Ryan Williams was named the game 's most valuable player. By the end of the game, he had set a school record for most rushing yards in a season and conference records for most rushing touchdowns and most total touchdowns. Following the game, Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin resigned to become head coach of the University of Southern California Trojans football team. Several players from each team participated in postseason all - star games and a handful were selected to play in the National Football League through the 2010 NFL Draft. Beginning with the 2006 game, the Chick - fil - A Bowl purchased the right to select the highest - ranked Atlantic Coast Conference team after representatives from the Bowl Championship Series made their selection. The contract was renewed in 2009, extending that right through 2013. According to the official selection rules used in the 2009 -- 10 season, the team chosen to represent the ACC in the Chick - fil - A Bowl had to be within one conference victory of the remaining highest - ranked conference team or ranked more than five spaces ahead of the ACC team with the best conference record available in the final BCS standings. Following the conclusion of the 2009 college football regular season, the Chick - fil - A Bowl selection committee bypassed the ACC Championship Game loser, Clemson, in order to pick Virginia Tech, which had the same conference record. The committee believed a game featuring Virginia Tech would draw more television viewers and in - person attendance than Clemson, even though the Chick - fil - A Bowl was the third time that season Virginia Tech played a game in Atlanta. In choosing the SEC opponent, the Chick - fil - A Bowl selection committee had the right to select the first SEC school after the Bowl Championship Series, Cotton Bowl Classic, Capital One Bowl, and Outback Bowl made their selections. Just as in the ACC, the selection committee could not select an SEC team with two fewer losses than the highest available team. After the 2009 regular season ended, SEC champion Alabama was selected for the national championship game, and SEC runner - up Florida was picked by the Sugar Bowl to fill the SEC 's BCS tie - in. The Cotton Bowl selected Ole Miss, the Capital One Bowl picked LSU, and the Outback Bowl took Auburn. For its pick, the Chick - fil - A Bowl bypassed local team Georgia (No. 2 in the SEC 's eastern division) for Tennessee (No. 3 in the division) in order to set up a game against two geographic rivals and because Tennessee had defeated Georgia in a head - to - head matchup. The bowl earned the right to select these teams via its multimillion - dollar payout system, which guarantees a certain amount of money to the participating conferences. Before 2006, the Chick - fil - A Bowl (then known as the Peach Bowl) matched the No. 5 team in the SEC versus the No. 3 team in the ACC. After the bowl increased its payout to $2.8 million per squad, it then was given the second pick from the ACC, with the Gator Bowl dropping to third. After 2006, the Chick - fil - A Bowl has steadily increased its payouts in order to keep pace with the trend across college football. In the 2009 game, the ACC and SEC split a payout of $6.02 million, with the ACC receiving more because it offered an earlier selection. The Hokies went 10 - 4 in 2008, concluding the season with a 20 - 7 win in the 2009 Orange Bowl. Before the 2009 season started, Virginia Tech accepted an invitation to play Alabama in the Chick - fil - A Kickoff Game, a game organized by the Chick - fil - A Bowl to pit two high - profile teams against each other to create a bowl game - like atmosphere in the Georgia Dome at the start of the season. Virginia Tech was ranked No. 7 in the preseason polls, while Alabama was No. 5; the game was forecast as a competition between two possible national championship contenders. Alabama defeated Virginia Tech 34 - 24 and ultimately went on to win the national championship. Tech recovered from the loss by winning its next five games, including a last - second victory over 19th - ranked Nebraska and a 31 - 7 blowout victory over No. 9 Miami. The victories brought Tech to a 5 - 1 record and a No. 4 national ranking. On October 17, Virginia Tech traveled to Atlanta for the second time that season, this time to play 19th - ranked Georgia Tech. For the first time since 1962, Georgia Tech defeated a top - five team, beating Virginia Tech 28 - 23. Georgia Tech 's win gave it a tiebreaker against Virginia Tech in the Atlantic Coast Conference standings, but Virginia Tech made the tiebreaker moot by losing its next game, an ACC contest against North Carolina. Georgia Tech lost only one ACC game all season, a record that won it the ACC 's Coastal Division and the accompanying spot in the ACC Championship Game ahead of Virginia Tech, which was No. 2 in the division. Virginia Tech broke its two - game losing streak by defeating non-conference foe East Carolina on November 5. The victory was the start of a four - game win streak that brought Virginia Tech to the end of the regular season and restored its national ranking to No. 12 after falling to No. 23 following the North Carolina loss. The Tennessee Volunteers entered the 2009 season following a 2008 campaign that ended with a bowl - ineligible 5 - 7 record. After the 2008 season ended, Tennessee fired head coach Phillip Fulmer and replaced him with Lane Kiffin, who promised to turn the program around. Kiffin made an offseason splash by breaking the social norms among SEC head football coaches and violating a handful of NCAA rules. In a season - opening win over Western Kentucky, Kiffin appeared to have made a difference for Tennessee, as the Volunteers had their largest margin of victory in nine years. That victory was followed by consecutive losses, however, against UCLA and No. 1 - ranked Florida. Tennessee ended its losing streak with a win against Ohio, then began alternating wins and losses. The victory against Ohio was followed by a loss to Auburn. A win against Georgia preceded a loss to No. 2 Alabama on a last - second blocked field goal and a win against No. 22 South Carolina. After South Carolina, Tennessee beat Memphis to create its first winning streak of the season. That streak abruptly ended the following week, when Tennessee lost to Mississippi. The Volunteers won their last two games of the regular season -- against Vanderbilt and Kentucky -- bringing them to a record of 7 - 5. At no time during the season was Tennessee ranked in the national top - 25 polls, and Tennessee was never in consideration to play in the SEC Championship Game because of its early loss to Florida. In the weeks before the game, media coverage focused on the geographic rivalry between the two teams, the controversies surrounding Lane Kiffin, and the performances of the players on each team. Virginia Tech played in the Chick - fil - A Bowl in 2006, losing to Georgia 31 - 24, and the 2009 game was its fourth appearance in the game. It was Tennessee 's fifth appearance in the game, and the Volunteers had most recently lost to Clemson in the 2004 contest, 27 - 14. Entering the Chick - fil - A Bowl, Virginia Tech was 0 - 2 in games held in Atlanta during 2010, it had lost four consecutive games to SEC foes, and it had never won back - to - back bowl games (Tech won the 2009 Orange Bowl). Despite those factors, Virginia Tech was an early 4.5 - point favorite and was listed as a 5.5 - point favorite by spread bettors on the day before the game. The University of Tennessee and Virginia Tech are separated by only 233 miles (375 km) by road, and no major university lies between the two, creating an intense geographical rivalry in that region of the Appalachian Mountains. As Virginia Tech linebacker Cody Grimm said before the game, "(In) Southwest Virginia, you are either a Tennessee fan or a Tech fan. Now we actually get a chance to play them. '' Despite the proximity of the two schools, the 2009 Chick - fil - A Bowl was only their eighth football meeting. Tennessee held a 5 - 2 advantage in the series, but before 1994, the last meeting between them was in 1937. The 1994 meeting was in the 1994 Gator Bowl, which the Volunteers won 45 - 23. Each school rapidly sold its allotment of 17,000 tickets, and publicly available tickets were sold out before the matchup was announced. This gave the Chick - fil - A Bowl its 13th consecutive sellout. In the weeks leading up to the Chick - fil - A Bowl, the number of controversies surrounding Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin continued to grow. Throughout the regular season, he was linked to violations of NCAA rules and actions that appeared to fall outside the norm for SEC coaches. He was mentioned in a rap song by Lil Wayne, and his combative attitude toward opposing coaches caused friction within the SEC. In the second week of December, he was connected to an ongoing scandal in which Tennessee hostesses allegedly helped lure recruits to Tennessee, violating NCAA rules. Despite these problems, he was a successful recruiter, and gained commitments from sought - after recruits in the leadup to the Chick - fil - A Bowl. In addition to the off - the - field issues, Tennessee underwent a pair of coaching changes in the weeks before the Chick - fil - A Bowl. Wide receivers coach Frank Wilson and running backs coach Eddie Gran each decided in the first days of December to leave Tennessee for other SEC teams. In interviews, Kiffin said the coaching changes and stories surrounding him were not a distraction from his team 's bowl preparation. During the 2009 season, Virginia Tech was 28th nationally in scoring offense (number of points scored) and 55th in total offense. Most of the Hokies ' success came on the ground: Tech was 16th nationally in rushing offense but 98th in passing offense. A large reason for Virginia Tech 's offensive success was running back Ryan Williams, who broke Virginia Tech 's single - season rushing record that year. Entering the Chick - fil - A Bowl, he had 1,538 yards, only 110 short of the record. Tech running back Darren Evans, who tore his left anterior cruciate ligament before the season began, was held out of the Chick - fil - A Bowl, even though his recovery had progressed to the point that he could have participated. Virginia Tech also was rated higher than Tennessee in every major special teams category. The Hokies were in the top 25 in both kickoff return yardage defense and kickoff returns and were No. 16 nationally in turnover margin. At the conclusion of the 2009 regular season, Tennessee 's offense was the 32nd most successful squad in the nation, scoring an average of 30.58 points per game. In terms of yardage gained, Tennessee was 48th. There was n't much difference between the success of the rushing offense (43rd) and the passing offense (47th). Tennessee quarterback Jonathan Crompton, after struggling in 2008, improved significantly in 2009, when he passed for 2,565 yards and 26 touchdowns. In 2008, the Volunteers were 11th in the SEC in offense, averaging 145.8 yards per game. In 2009, they were third, averaging 225.6 yards per game. In addition to Crompton, running back Montario Hardesty also improved his performance from 2008 to 2009. In the season leading up to the Chick - fil - A Bowl, he had 1,306 rushing yards, just 158 short of the single - season Tennessee record, and 12 touchdowns. Entering the Chick - fil - A Bowl, Hardesty hoped to match the team 's rushing record, but doubted he would be able to because of past knee injuries that made it difficult to run on artificial turf. Volunteers tight end Luke Stocker, who caught 27 passes for 370 yards and six touchdowns in 2009, was a player Virginia Tech 's defense focused on in pregame preparation. Because Tennessee 's placekicking had been erratic during the regular season, Tennessee 's head coach held an open competition among his three kickers to compete for the starting placekicking job in the Chick - fil - A Bowl. In 2009, Virginia Tech was ranked 14th in total defense, sixth in passing defense, and 52nd in rushing defense. In scoring defense, the Hokies were 11th nationally, permitting an average of 15.75 points per game. The top individual performer on the defense was linebacker Cody Grimm, who tied for the most forced fumbles in college football during the regular season, with seven. In recognition of the achievement, he earned the Dudley Award, given annually to the top Division I football player in Virginia, and was named a first - team All - ACC and third - team All - America player. Cornerback Stephen Virgil, a starter for the Hokies in 10 of their regular - season games, was declared ineligible for the Chick - fil - A Bowl because of poor grades. Defensive coordinator Bud Foster was wooed by several other teams between the conclusion of the regular season and the Chick - fil - A Bowl, but Foster remained at Tech after the school created an annuity for Foster, granted if he remained with the team for five more years. Tennessee 's defense was prized for its success against opponents ' passing game. In 2009, the Volunteers were 10th nationally against the pass, permitting an average of 165.92 yards per game. Against the run, they were 58th. When both facets were combined, the defense was 16th, permitting an average of 308.83 yards per game. Much of the reason for Tennessee 's success against the pass was star safety Eric Berry, only the second player in Tennessee history to be named a unanimous All - American twice. He won the Jim Thorpe Award, given each year to the best defensive back in the nation. Joining Berry in the defensive secondary was Janzen Jackson, who returned to the field following three missed games caused by his alleged involvement in an armed robbery. Countering Jackson 's return, Tennessee lost defensive back Brent Vinson, who was dismissed from the team for reasons unrevealed at the time. Two months after the Chick - fil - A Bowl, Vinson was charged with tampering with evidence related to a murder investigation. Tennessee defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin, interviewed 10 days before the game, said Virginia Tech 's offensive strength presented problems for Tennessee. The 2009 Chick - fil - A Bowl kicked off at 7: 37 p.m. EST on December 31, 2009, in the Georgia Dome, Atlanta. Bowl officials announced 73,777 people attended the game, but that figure was based on the number of tickets sold rather than actual turnstile attendance. That attendance figure was the fourth - largest in Chick - fil - A Bowl history, including when the game was known as the Peach Bowl, and it was the 13th consecutive sellout for the game. The game was broadcast in the United States by ESPN, and was watched by an estimated 4.87 million people, earning it a Nielsen Rating of 4.2. That figure was the 10th highest among bowl games that season, and was a 36 percent increase from the previous year 's rating. The sportscasters for the broadcast were Sean McDonough, Matt Millen, and Holly Rowe. Because the game was played indoors, weather was not a factor. The ceremonial playing of the national anthem was performed by trumpeter Dan Oxley. The game 's referee was Ed Ardito, its umpire was Greg Adams, and its linesman was Jim Laborde, all of Conference USA. A military veteran from each school was invited to the ceremonial pregame coin toss to determine first possession. Tennessee won that ceremonial coin toss and chose to kick off to begin the game, ensuring the Volunteers received the ball to begin the second half. Tennessee placekicker Chad Cunningham delivered the ball from the tee, and Virginia Tech 's Dyrell Roberts returned it to the Tech 26 - yard line, where Virginia Tech began the game 's first offensive drive. Two running plays by Tech 's Ryan Williams gained 4 yards, then Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor completed a seven - yard pass for the game 's initial first down. Tech advanced as far as its 43 - yard line, but a five - yard false - start penalty prevented the Hokies from gaining another first down. They punted the ball to Tennessee, which began its first drive of the game from its 11 - yard line. Two running plays gained 11 yards and a first down, then Tennessee quarterback Jonathan Crompton began throwing the ball. His first pass the game fell incomplete, and his second was intercepted by Virginia Tech defender Rashad Carmichael, who ran it back to the Tennessee 44 - yard line. Tech 's second drive of the game thus began in Tennessee 's defensive half. The first play of the drive was a 20 - yard throw from Taylor to wide receiver Jarrett Boykin. That completed pass was the longest play of the drive, which continued through short rushes and passes. On the seventh play after the interception, Williams ran the ball forward one yard, crossing the goal line for the game 's first touchdown. Tech placekicker Matt Waldron successfully converted the extra point, and with 6: 56 remaining in the first quarter, Tech led 7 - 0. Virginia Tech 's post-score kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 25 - yard line, but the Volunteers failed to gain a first down on their second drive of the game, going three - and - out. They punted, returning the ball to Virginia Tech at the Hokies ' 31 - yard line. Taylor completed a 14 - yard pass to Roberts and a 10 - yard throw to Marcus Davis for two first downs, advancing the Hokies into Tennessee 's half of the field, but Virginia Tech 's drive petered out after Williams was tackled for a three - yard loss and the Hokies were unable to regain the lost yardage. Tech punted to the Tennessee 10 - yard line, where the Volunteers took over on offense with 1: 16 remaining in the quarter. Crompton completed a passing play that lost three yards, then Tennessee regained two of those yards with a running play as time expired in the quarter with Tech leading, 7 - 0. The second quarter began with Tennessee facing third down and 11 from its 9 - yard line. The first play of the quarter ended in a two - yard loss for Tennessee, and the Volunteers punted after their second consecutive three - and - out. Starting at Tennessee 's 46 - yard line after the punt, Tech quarterback Taylor completed a 42 - yard pass to Danny Coale on the Hokies ' first play of the quarter, giving Virginia Tech a first down at the Tennessee 4 - yard line. There, however, Tennessee 's defense stiffened. Tech was stopped for no gain on consecutive plays, but on third down the Volunteers committed a facemask penalty, giving Virginia Tech a first down at the 1 - yard line. Even then, it took Ryan Williams two plays to gain the momentum needed to cross the goal line for Virginia Tech 's second touchdown. The score and subsequent extra point gave the Hokies a 14 - 0 lead with 11: 56 remaining before halftime. Virginia Tech 's kickoff was downed for a touchback, and Tennessee started its drive from its 20 - yard line. On the second play of the possession, Crompton completed a 40 - yard pass to wide receiver Denarius Moore. The play gave Tennessee its first plays inside Virginia Tech territory, and the Volunteers capitalized on the field position. After two rushing plays were stymied for no gain or losses, Crompton completed a 15 - yard pass to wide receiver Gerald Jones. Crompton was sacked on the next play, but two plays later completed a 20 - yard throw to Jones, who ran out of bounds at the Tech 4 - yard line, giving Tennessee another first down. Two plays later, running back Montario Hardesty ran forward four yards into the end zone, halving Virginia Tech 's lead. After the extra point, Virginia Tech still led, 14 - 7, with 6: 43 remaining in the first half. Following Tennessee 's score, the two teams traded possessions as each offense went three - and - out. Virginia Tech 's offense then began a drive from its 40 - yard line with 3: 21 remaining in the half. Williams gained a first down with a pair of five - yard running plays, and Taylor gained 21 yards on another running play. Tech advanced to the Tennessee 31 - yard line, where Taylor was sacked for a loss of nine yards. In an effort to recover the lost field position, Taylor threw a pass downfield, but the ball was intercepted by Tennessee 's Janzen Jackson, who returned it to the Tech 48 - yard line. Tennessee 's offense entered the field of play with 1: 11 remaining in the quarter, and it moved quickly. On the first play of the drive, a Crompton pass was caught by Hardesty for a 47 - yard gain. Two plays later, Crompton completed a two - yard toss to Moore for a touchdown. The extra point tied the game at 14 with 18 seconds remaining before halftime. Tennessee 's post-touchdown kickoff was returned to the Tech 33 - yard line, but Virginia Tech decided to not run an inconsequential play to drain the final seconds from the clock and enter halftime. On the first play after the kickoff, Taylor threw a surprise pass downfield to Boykin, who was tackled at the Tennessee four - yard line. Instant replay revealed there were two seconds remaining on the game clock after the play, and Virginia Tech placekicker Matt Waldron came onto the field to complete a 21 - yard field goal as time expired. The Hokies thus regained a 17 - 14 lead at halftime. Because Virginia Tech received the ball to begin the game, Tennessee received the ball to begin the second half. After a short return, Tennessee 's offense started the half from its 30 - yard line. Crompton completed passes of 11 and 8 yards, then Virginia Tech 's defense halted the Tennessee advance and forced a punt. Virginia Tech 's offense began its first drive of the second half at its 26 - yard line, with 13: 02 remaining in the quarter. From the 26, Tech began an eight - play drive that saw Ryan Williams carry the ball on seven consecutive plays. Only the final play of the drive, a one - yard touchdown run by Tyrod Taylor, did n't feature the Tech running back. Williams opened the drive with a 21 - yard sprint and had a 32 - yard run during the possession that ended with Taylor 's touchdown at the 8: 42 mark in the quarter. The touchdown and extra point extended Tech 's lead to 24 - 14. Tennessee attempted to answer Tech 's score in its following possession. The Hokies ' kickoff resulted in a touchback, so the Volunteers began from their 20 - yard line. Montario Hardesty gained a first down with a 10 - yard run, then Crompton gained another first down with an 11 - yard pass. Tennessee continued to advance on running plays and a 14 - yard pass by Crompton, pushing the ball inside the Tech 30 - yard line. Once there, however, the Hokies rallied by sacking Crompton for a seven - yard loss. A two - yard run and an incomplete pass kept Tennessee from gaining another first down, setting up a fourth down. Rather than try an offensive play and possibly gain a first down or turn the ball over on downs, Tennessee punted, forcing Virginia Tech 's offense to start from its 11 - yard line. Building on the rushing success of its previous drive, Virginia Tech used fullback Josh Oglesby in tandem with Williams, who also figured prominently in the team 's second possession of the half. The two men combined for 19 yards on the first three plays of the drive, then Williams exited the game because of an injury. After play resumed, Taylor gained 10 yards on a rushing play and completed a 23 - yard pass before Oglesby carried the ball again. When the third quarter ended, Virginia Tech faced second down at the Tennessee 30 - yard line, still leading 24 - 14. Virginia Tech began the quarter in possession of the ball in Tennessee territory, attempting to capitalize upon a drive begun in the third quarter. Tennessee 's defense, however, allowed only one yard on the first two plays of the quarter, and Tech placekicker Waldron returned to the field to convert a 46 - yard field goal, extending Virginia Tech 's lead to 27 - 14 with 13: 33 left in the game. After Virginia Tech 's post-score kickoff and a short return, Tennessee 's offense started from its 31 - yard line. A five - yard penalty against Virginia Tech was followed by a five - yard first - down run by Hardesty. Tennessee attempted to move its offense quickly in order to maximize the chances of closing Virginia Tech 's lead by scoring fast. Crompton completed an 18 - yard pass, advancing the Volunteers into Tech territory, but he was sacked by the Tech defense and Tennessee committed a five - yard false start penalty, forcing the Volunteers to punt. The kick rolled into the end zone for a touchback, and Tech 's offense returned to the field at its 20 - yard line. As in the previous two drives, Virginia Tech relied upon its rushing offense: The first five plays of the drive were runs by David Wilson, who gained 26 yards. The Hokies then switched gears, surprising Tennessee, whose defense allowed a 30 - yard pass completion from Taylor to Boykin. Tech reverted to running plays, but Tennessee again allowed a long gain, as Roberts advanced 21 yards on a run, then Wilson ran three yards into the end zone. The touchdown and extra point gave Virginia Tech a 34 - 14 lead with 5: 14 remaining in the game. Tech 's kickoff was returned to the Tennessee 25 - yard line, but on the first play of the Volunteers ' drive, Crompton was sacked by Jason Worilds and fumbled the ball. The loose ball was recovered by Virginia Tech 's John Graves at the Tennessee 13 - yard line. The Hokies ' offense returned to the field and began running out the clock with running plays, which keep the game clock ticking as long as the ball carrier is tackled in the field of play. Three rushing plays failed to gain a first down, but they drained more than two minutes from the game clock, and Tech 's Waldron extended the Hokies ' lead to 37 - 14 with a 22 - yard field goal. Tennessee had one final opportunity to score after receiving Virginia Tech 's kickoff with 2: 38 remaining. Jonathan Crompton threw several passes downfield, completing throws of 9, 9, 8, and 26 yards, advancing the Volunteers toward the end zone. Inside the Virginia Tech red zone, however, the Volunteers found less success. They committed a false start penalty, advanced the ball with a five - yard run, then Crompton threw two incomplete passes. On fourth down, Crompton was sacked for a 14 - yard loss, the Volunteers ' final play of the game. Virginia Tech knelt on the ball to run the final seconds off the clock and clinch the 37 - 14 victory. In recognition of his performance, Virginia Tech running back Ryan Williams was named the game 's most valuable player. On 25 carries, Williams accumulated 117 rushing yards and two touchdowns. Williams also caught two passes: one that gained six yards and one that lost six yards. Williams ' performance, coupled with success early in the season, allowed him to set Tech 's single - season rushing record with 1,655 yards. The game was Williams ' 10th of at least 100 yards that season. Williams also set two ACC records: His touchdowns gave him 21 rushing touchdowns on the season and 22 total touchdowns. Alone, Williams had more rushing yards than all of Tennessee 's players combined. Tennessee 's leading rusher was Montario Hardesty, who carried the ball 18 times for 39 yards and a touchdown. Hardesty had 1,345 rushing yards on the season, the fourth - highest season total for any player in Tennessee 's history. Tennessee 's No. 2 rusher was Tauren Poole, who gained 15 yards on 3 carries. Collectively, Tennessee had just five yards net rushing, the second - least ever in a Tennessee bowl game and the least allowed by Virginia Tech in a bowl game. Most of Tennessee 's rushing gains were negated when quarterback Jonathan Crompton was sacked six times, losing 55 yards. Though ineffective on the ground, Crompton outperformed Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor in the passing game. Crompton completed 15 of 26 pass attempts for 235 yards, one touchdown, and one interception. Crompton finished the season with 27 touchdown passes, third-most in school history, and had the fourth-most pass attempts, ninth-most completions, and eighth-most yards for a Tennessee season. Virginia Tech quarterback Tyrod Taylor completed 10 of 17 passes for 209 yards and one interception. Tennessee 's Herman Lathers led all defenders with 12 total tackles, including 2 tackles for loss, both career highs. The game 's No. 2 tackler was Tennessee 's Dan Williams, who tied a career - high by recording nine tackles, including half a sack. Virginia Tech 's leading tackler was Lyndell Gibson, who had eight tackles, including half a tackle for loss. Virginia Tech 's John Graves, participating in his first game of the season, had two tackles for loss, including a sack, and forced a fumble. Virginia Tech 's other forced turnover was an interception caught by cornerback Rashad Carmichael. Tennessee 's Janzen Jackson had the Volunteers ' only interception. Virginia Tech kicker Matt Waldron set a school record for most field goals in a bowl game (3) and tied the school record for the longest bowl - game field goal with his 46 - yard kick. Virginia Tech 's victory gave the team its sixth consecutive 10 - win season and brought the Hokies to a final 2009 record of 10 - 3. It was the first time in school history that Tech won bowl games in consecutive years. Tennessee 's loss dropped it to 7 - 6, and the Volunteers remained unranked in the final college football polls of the year. Virginia Tech was credited for its bowl - game win and rose to 10th in both the Associated Press and coaches ' polls. Visiting fans generated an estimated $31.2 million in business for the Atlanta area. Several players from each team participated in all - star games following the Chick - fil - A Bowl. Virginia Tech 's Kam Chancellor, Sergio Render and Stephan Virgil played in the 2010 East -- West Shrine Game. Tennessee 's Morgan Cox, Chris Scott and Dan Williams played in the Senior Bowl, while Jonathan Crompton and Vladimir Richard participated in the Texas vs The Nation game. These all - star games were a chance for graduating players to highlight their skills before the 2010 NFL Draft, which took place in April. A handful of players from each team were selected through the draft to play for National Football League teams. Tennessee had six players selected, including two in the first round: safety Eric Berry was the fifth selection overall, followed by Dan Williams (26), Montario Hardesty (59), Jacques McClendon (129), Chris Scott (151), and Jonathan Crompton (168). Virginia Tech had five players selected: Jason Worilds was picked 52nd overall, followed by Kam Chancellor (133), Ed Wang (140), Brent Bowden (172), and Cody Grimm (210). In addition to player changes, Tennessee saw coaching changes. Two weeks after the Chick - fil - A Bowl defeat, Tennessee head coach Lane Kiffin announced he was leaving the team to become the new head coach of the University of Southern California football team. The decision shocked Tennessee administrators and fans, who believed Kiffin would stay longer than one season. To replace Kiffin, Tennessee hired Derek Dooley, who had been coaching football at Louisiana Tech. Defensive coordinator Monte Kiffin and assistant head coach and recruiting coordinator Ed Orgeron also left with Kiffin. They were replaced by Justin Wilcox and Chuck Smith, respectively. Dooley also changed position coaches, naming Terry Joseph defensive backs coach and Eric Russell special teams coach. To coach quarterbacks, he brought in Darin Hinshaw of Memphis. He hired Charlie Baggett to coach wide receivers and serve as assistant head coach, and added assistant coach Harry Hiestand and strength and conditioning coach Bennie Wylie. He retained offensive coordinator Jim Chaney from Kiffin 's staff. Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game. Pound sign (#) denotes national championship game.

what does it mean when the dentist says occlusal

Occlusion (Dentistry) - wikipedia Occlusion, in a dental context, means simply the contact between teeth. More technically, it is the relationship between the maxillary (upper) and mandibular (lower) teeth when they approach each other, as occurs during chewing or at rest. Malocclusion is the misalignment of teeth and jaws, or more simply, a "bad bite ''. Malocclusion can cause a number of health and dental problems. Static occlusion refers to contact between teeth when the jaw is closed and stationary, while dynamic occlusion refers to occlusal contacts made when the jaw is moving. Dynamic occlusion is also termed as articulation. During chewing, there is no tooth contact between the teeth on the chewing side of the mouth. Centric occlusion is the occlusion of opposing teeth when the mandible is in centric relation. Centric occlusion is the first tooth contact and may or may not coincide with maximum intercuspation. It is also referred to as a person 's habitual bite, bite of convenience, or intercuspation position (ICP). Centric relation, not to be confused with centric occlusion, is a relationship between the maxilla and mandible. Malocclusion is the result of the body trying to optimize its function in a dysfunctional environment. It can be associated with a number of problems, including crooked teeth, gum problems, the temporomandibular joint (TMJ), and jaw muscles. Teeth, fillings, and crowns may wear, break, or loosen, and teeth may be tender or ache. Receding gums can be exacerbated by a faulty bite. If the jaw is mispositioned, jaw muscles may have to work harder, which can lead to fatigue and or muscle spasms. This in turn can lead to headaches or migraines, eye or sinus pain, and pain in the neck, shoulder, or even back. Malocclusion can be a contributing factor to sleep disordered breathing which may include snoring, upper airway resistance syndrome, and / or sleep apnea (apnea means without breath). Untreated damaging malocclusion can lead to occlusal trauma. Some of the treatments for different occlusal problems include protecting the teeth with dental splints (orthotics), tooth adjustments, replacement of teeth, medication (usually temporary), a diet of softer foods, TENS to relax tensed muscles, and relaxation therapy for stress - related clenching. Removable dental appliances may be used to alter the development of the jaws. Fixed appliances such as braces may be used to move the teeth in the jaws. Jaw surgery is also used to correct malocclusion.

who was involved in the arms race cold war

Nuclear arms race - wikipedia The nuclear arms race was a competition for supremacy in nuclear warfare between the United States, the Soviet Union, and their respective allies during the Cold War. During this period, in addition to the American and Soviet nuclear stockpiles, other countries developed nuclear weapons, though none engaged in warhead production on nearly the same scale as the two superpowers. The first nuclear weapon was created by the U.S. during the Second World War and was developed to be used against the Axis powers. Scientists of the Soviet Union were aware of the potential of nuclear weapons and had also been conducting research on the field. The Soviet Union was not informed officially of the Manhattan Project until Stalin was briefed at the Potsdam Conference on July 24, 1945, by U.S. President Harry S. Truman, eight days after the first successful test of a nuclear weapon. Despite their wartime military alliance, the United States and Britain had not trusted the Soviets enough to keep knowledge of the Manhattan Project safe from German spies: there were also concerns that, as an ally, the Soviet Union would request and expect to receive technical details of the new weapon. When President Truman informed Stalin of the weapons, he was surprised at how calmly Stalin reacted to the news and thought that Stalin had not understood what he had been told. Other members of the United States and British delegations who closely observed the exchange formed the same conclusion. In fact Stalin had long been aware of the program, despite the Manhattan Project having a secret classification so high that, even as Vice President, Truman did not know about it or the development of the weapons (Truman was not informed until shortly after he became president). A ring of spies operating within the Manhattan Project, (including Klaus Fuchs and Theodore Hall) had kept Stalin well informed of American progress. They provided the Soviets with detailed designs of the implosion bomb and the hydrogen bomb. Fuchs ' arrest in 1950 led to the arrests of many other Russian spies, including Harry Gold, David Greenglass, and Ethel and Julius Rosenberg. In August 1945, on Truman 's orders, two atomic bombs were dropped on Japanese cities. The first bomb was dropped on Hiroshima, and the second bomb was dropped on Nagasaki by the B - 29 bombers named Enola Gay and Bockscar respectively. Shortly after the end of the Second World War in 1945, the United Nations was founded. During the United Nation 's first General Assembly in London in January 1946, they discussed the future of Nuclear Weapons and created the United Nations Atomic Energy Commission. The goal of this assembly was to eliminate the use of all Nuclear weapons. The United States presented their solution, which was called the Baruch Plan. This plan proposed that there should be an international authority that controls all dangerous atomic activities. The Soviet Union disagreed with this proposal and rejected it. The Soviets ' proposal involved universal nuclear disarmament. Both the American and Soviet proposals were refused by the UN. In the years immediately after the Second World War, the United States had a monopoly on specific knowledge of and raw materials for nuclear weaponry. American leaders hoped that their exclusive ownership of nuclear weapons would be enough to draw concessions from the Soviet Union but this proved ineffective. Just six months after the UN General Assembly, the United States conducted its first post-war nuclear tests. This was called Operation Crossroads. The purpose of this operation was to test the effectiveness of nuclear explosions on ships. These tests were performed at Bikini Atoll in the Pacific on 95 ships, including German and Japanese ships that were captured during World War II. One plutonium implosion - type bomb was detonated over the fleet, while the other one was detonated underwater. Behind the scenes, the Soviet government was working on building its own atomic weapons. During the war, Soviet efforts had been limited by a lack of uranium but new supplies in Eastern Europe were found and provided a steady supply while the Soviets developed a domestic source. While American experts had predicted that the Soviet Union would not have nuclear weapons until the mid-1950s, the first Soviet bomb was detonated on August 29, 1949, shocking the entire world. The bomb, named "First Lightning '' by the West, was more or less a copy of "Fat Man '', one of the bombs the United States had dropped on Japan in 1945. Both governments spent massive amounts to increase the quality and quantity of their nuclear arsenals. Both nations quickly began the development of a hydrogen bomb and the United States detonated the first hydrogen bomb on November 1, 1952, on Enewetak, an atoll in the Pacific Ocean. Code - named "Ivy Mike '', the project was led by Edward Teller, a Hungarian - American nuclear physicist. It created a cloud 100 miles wide and 25 miles high, killing all life on the surrounding islands. Again, the Soviets surprised the world by exploding a deployable thermonuclear device in August 1953 although it was not a true multi-stage hydrogen bomb. However, it was small enough to be dropped from an airplane, making it ready for use. The development of these two Soviet bombs was greatly aided by the Russian spies Harry Gold and Klaus Fuchs. On March 1, 1954, the U.S. conducted the Castle Bravo test, which tested another hydrogen bomb on Bikini Atoll. Scientists significantly underestimated the size of the bomb, thinking it would yield 5 megatons. However, it yielded 14.8 megatons, which is the largest nuclear explosion tested by the U.S. The explosion was so large the nuclear fallout exposed residents up to 300 miles away to significant amounts of radiation. They were eventually evacuated, but most of them experienced radiation poisoning and resulted in one death from a crew member of a fishing boat 90 miles from the explosion. The Soviet Union detonated its first "true '' hydrogen bomb on November 22, 1955, which had a yield of 1.6 megatons. On October 30, 1961, the Soviets detonated a hydrogen bomb with a yield of approximately 58 megatons. With both sides in the "cold war '' having nuclear capability, an arms race developed, with the Soviet union attempting first to catch up and then to surpass the Americans. Strategic bombers were the primary delivery method at the beginning of the Cold War. Missiles had long been regarded the ideal platform for nuclear weapons, and were potentially a more effective delivery system than bombers. Starting in the 1950s, medium - range ballistic missiles and intermediate - range ballistic missiles ("IRBM '' s) were developed for delivery of tactical nuclear weapons, and the technology developed to the progressively longer ranges, eventually becoming intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs). On October 4, 1957, the Soviet Union showed the world that they had missiles able to reach any part of the world when they launched the Sputnik satellite into Earth orbit. The United States launched its first satellite Explorer 1 on January 31, 1958. Meanwhile, submarine - launched ballistic missiles were also developed. By the 1960s, the "triad '' of nuclear weapon delivery was established, with each side deploying bombers, ICBMs, and SLBMs, in order to insure that even if a defense was found against one delivery method, the other methods would still be available. Some in the United States during the early 1960s pointed out that although all of the individual components of nuclear missiles had been tested separately (warheads, navigation systems, rockets), it was infeasible to test them all combined. Critics charged that it was not really known how a warhead would react to the gravity forces and temperature differences encountered in the upper atmosphere and outer space, and Kennedy was unwilling to run a test of an ICBM with a live warhead. The closest thing to an actual test was 1962 's Operation Frigate Bird, in which the submarine USS Ethan Allen (SSBN - 608) launched a Polaris A2 missile over 1,000 miles to the nuclear test site at Christmas Island. It was challenged by, among others, Curtis LeMay, who put missile accuracy into doubt to encourage the development of new bombers. Other critics pointed out that it was a single test which could be an anomaly; that it was a lower - altitude SLBM and therefore was subject to different conditions than an ICBM; and that significant modifications had been made to its warhead before testing. By the 1950s both the United States and Soviet Union had enough nuclear power to obliterate the other side. Both sides developed a capability to launch a devastating attack even after sustaining a full assault from the other side (especially by means of submarines), called a second strike. This policy became known as Mutual Assured Destruction: both sides knew that any attack upon the other would be devastating to themselves, thus in theory restraining them from attacking the other. Both Soviet and American experts hoped to use nuclear weapons for extracting concessions from the other, or from other powers such as China, but the risk connected with using these weapons was so grave that they refrained from what John Foster Dulles referred to as brinkmanship. While some, like General Douglas MacArthur, argued nuclear weapons should be used during the Korean War, both Truman and Eisenhower opposed the idea. Both sides were unaware of the details of the capacity of the enemy 's arsenal of nuclear weapons. The Americans suffered from a lack of confidence, and in the 1950s they believed in a non-existing bomber gap. Aerial photography later revealed that the Soviets had been playing a sort of Potemkin village game with their bombers in their military parades, flying them in large circles, making it appear they had far more than they truly did. The 1960 American presidential election saw accusations of a wholly spurious missile gap between the Soviets and the Americans. On the other side, the Soviet government exaggerated the power of Soviet weapons to the leadership and Nikita Khrushchev. In addition to the United States and the Soviet Union, three other nations, the United Kingdom, People 's Republic of China, and France developed nuclear weapons during the early cold war years. In 1952, the United Kingdom became the third nation to possess nuclear weapons when it detonated an atomic bomb in Operation Hurricane on October 3, 1952, which had a yield of 25 kilotons. Despite major contributions to the Manhattan Project by both Canadian and British governments, the U.S. Congress passed the Atomic Energy Act of 1946, which prohibited multi-national cooperation on nuclear projects. The McMahon Act fueled resentment from British scientists and Winston Churchill, as they believed that there were agreements regarding post-war sharing of nuclear technology, and led to Britain developing its own nuclear weapons. Britain did not begin planning the development of their own nuclear weapon until January 1947. Because of Britain 's small size, they decided to test their bomb on the Monte Bello Islands, off the coast of Australia. Following this successful test, under the leadership of Churchill, Britain decided to develop and test a hydrogen bomb. The first successful hydrogen bomb test occurred on November 8, 1957, which had a yield of 1.8 megatons. An amendment to the Atomic Energy Act in 1958 allowed nuclear cooperation once again, and British - U.S. nuclear programs resumed. During the Cold War, British nuclear deterrence came from submarines and nuclear - armed aircraft. The Resolution class ballistic missile submarines armed with the American - built Polaris missile provided the sea deterrent, while aircraft such as the Avro Vulcan, SEPECAT Jaguar, Panavia Tornado and several other Royal Air Force strike aircraft carrying WE. 177 gravity bomb provided the air deterrent. France became the fourth nation to possess nuclear weapons on February 13, 1960, when the atomic bomb "Gerboise Bleue '' was detonated in Algeria, then still a French colony (Formally a part of the Metropolitan France.) France began making plans for a nuclear - weapons program shortly after the Second World War, but the program did not actually begin until the late 1950s. Eight years later, France conducted its first thermonuclear test above Fangatuafa Atoll. It had a yield of 2.6 megatons. This bomb significantly contaminated the atoll with radiation for six years, making it off - limits to humans. During the Cold War, the French nuclear deterrent was centered around the Force de frappe, a nuclear triad consisting of Dassault Mirage IV bombers carrying such nuclear weapons as the AN - 22 gravity bomb and the ASMP stand - off attack missile, Pluton and Hades ballistic missiles, and the Redoutable class submarine armed with strategic nuclear missiles. The People 's Republic of China became the fifth nuclear power on October 16, 1964 when it detonated a 25 kiloton uranium - 235 bomb in a test codenamed 596 at Lop Nur. In the late 1950s, China began developing nuclear weapons with substantial Soviet assistance in exchange for uranium ore. However, the Sino - Soviet ideological split in the late 1950s developed problems between China and the Soviet Union. This caused the Soviets to cease helping China develop nuclear weapons. However, China continued developing nuclear weapons without Soviet support and made remarkable progress in the 1960s. Due to Soviet / Chinese tensions, the Chinese might have used nuclear weapons against either the United States or the Soviet Union in the event of a nuclear war between the United States and the Soviet Union. During the Cold War, the Chinese nuclear deterrent consisted of gravity bombs carried aboard H - 6 bomber aircraft, missile systems such as the DF - 2, DF - 3, and DF - 4, and in the later stages of the Cold War, the Type 092 ballistic missile submarine. On June 14, 1967, China detonated its first hydrogen bomb. On January 1, 1959, the Cuban government fell to communist revolutionaries, propelling Fidel Castro into power. The Soviet Union supported and praised Castro and his resistance, and the new government was recognized by the Soviet government on January 10. When the United States began boycotting Cuban sugar, the Soviet Union began purchasing large quantities to support the Cuban economy in return for fuel and eventually placing nuclear ballistic missiles on Cuban soil. These missiles would be capable of reaching the United States very quickly. On October 14, 1962, an American spy plane discovered these nuclear missile sites under construction in Cuba. President Kennedy immediately called a series of meetings for a small group of senior officials to debate the crisis. The group was split between a militaristic solution and a diplomatic one. President Kennedy ordered a naval blockade around Cuba and all military forces to DEFCON 3. As tensions increased, Kennedy eventually ordered U.S. military forces to DEFCON 2. This was the closest the world has been to a nuclear war. While the U.S. military had been ordered to DEFCON 2, reaching a nuclear war was still a ways off. The theory of mutually assured destruction seems to put the entry into nuclear war an unlikely possibility. While the public perceived the Cuban Missile Crisis as a time of near mass destruction, the leaders of the United States and the Soviet Union were working behind the sight of the public eye in order to come to a peaceful conclusion. Premier Khrushchev writes to President Kennedy in a telegram on October 26, 1962 saying that, "Consequently, if there is no intention to tighten that knot and thereby to doom the world to the catastrophe of thermonuclear war, then let us not only relax the forces pulling on the ends of the rope, let us take measures to untie that knot. '' It is apparently clear that both men wanted to avoid nuclear war due to mutually assured destruction which leads to the question of just how close the world was from experiencing a nuclear war. Eventually, on October 28, through much discussion between U.S and Soviet officials, Khrushchev announced that the Soviet Union would withdraw all missiles from Cuba. Shortly after, the U.S. withdrew all their nuclear missiles from Turkey in secret, which had threatened the Soviets. The U.S. 's withdrawal of their Jupiter Missiles from Turkey was kept private for decades after, causing the negotiations between the two nations to appear to the world as a major U.S. victory. This ultimately led to the downfall of Premier Khrushchev. By the 1970s, with the cold war entering its 30th year with no direct conflict between the superpowers, the United States and the Soviet Union entered a period of reduced conflict, in which the two powers engaged in trade and exchanges with each other. This period known as détente. This period included negotiation of a number of arms control agreements, building with the Nuclear Test Ban Treaty in the 1950s, but with significant new treaties negotiated in the 1970s. These treaties were only partially successful. Although both states continued to hold massive numbers of nuclear weapons and research more effective technology, the growth in number of warheads was first limited, and later, with the START I, reversed. In 1958, both the U.S. and Soviet Union agreed to informally suspend nuclear testing. However, this agreement was ended when the Soviets resumed testing in 1961, followed by a series of nuclear tests conducted by the U.S. These events led to much political fallout, as well as the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962. Something had to be done to ease the great tensions between these two countries, so on October 10, 1963, the Limited Test Ban Treaty (LTBT) was signed. This was an agreement between the U.S., the Soviet Union, and the U.K., which significantly restricted nuclear testing. All atmospheric, underwater, and outer space nuclear testing were agreed to be halted, but testing was still allowed underground. An additional 113 countries have signed this treaty since 1963. SALT I and SALT II limited the size of the states ' arsenals. Bans on nuclear testing, anti-ballistic missile systems, and weapons in space all attempted to limit the expansion of the arms race through the Partial Test Ban Treaty. In November, 1969, Strategic Arms Limitation Talks (SALT) begun. This was primarily due to the economic impact that nuclear testing and production had on both U.S. and Soviet economies. The SALT I Treaty, which was signed in May, 1972, produced an agreement on two significant documents. These were the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty (ABM Treaty) and the Interim Agreement on the Limitation of Strategic Offensive Arms. The ABM treaty limited each country to two ABM sites, while the Interim Agreement froze each country 's number of intercontinental ballistic missiles (ICBMs) and submarine - launched ballistic missiles (SLBMs) at current levels for five years. This treaty significantly reduced nuclear - related costs as well as the risk of nuclear war. However, SALT I failed to address how many nuclear warheads could be placed on one missile. A new technology, known as multiple - independently targetable re-entry vehicle (MIRV), allowed single missiles to hold and launch multiple nuclear missiles at targets while in mid-air. Over the next 10 years, the Soviet Union and U.S added 12,000 nuclear warheads to their already built arsenals. Throughout the 1970s, both the Soviet Union and United States replaced old missiles and warheads with newer, more powerful and effective ones. This continued to worsen Soviet - U.S relations. On June 18, 1979, the SALT II treaty was signed in Vienna. This treaty limited both sides ' nuclear arsenals and technology. However, this treaty as well as the era of the détente ended with the Soviet Union 's invasion of Afghanistan in January, 1980. The United States once again significantly increased military and nuclear spending, while the Soviets were unable to respond and continued to pursue the détente. In 1991, the START (Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty) was negotiated between the U.S. and the Soviet Union, to reduce the number and limit the capabilities of limitation of strategic offensive arms. This was eventually succeeded by the START II, START III, and New START treaties. Despite détente, both sides continued to develop and introduce more accurate weapons and weapons with more warheads ("MIRVs ''). The presidency of Ronald Reagan proposed a missile defense programmed tagged the Strategic Defense Initiative, a space based anti-ballistic missile system derided as "Star Wars '' by its critics; simultaneously, missile defense was also being researched in the Soviet Union. However, the SDI would require technology that had not yet been developed, or even researched. This system proposed both space - and earth - based laser battle stations. It would also need sensors on the ground, in the air, and in space with radar, optical, and infrared technology to detect incoming missiles. Simultaneously, however, Reagan initiated negotiations with Mikhail Gorbachev ultimately resulting in the Strategic Arms Reduction Treaty on reducing nuclear stockpiles. Due to high costs and complex technology for its time, the scope of the SDI project was reduced from defense against a massive attack to a system for defending against limited attacks, transitioning into the Ballistic Missile Defense Organization. During the mid-1980s, the U.S - Soviet relations significantly improved, Mikhail Gorbachev assumed control of the Soviet Union after the deaths of several former Soviet leaders, and announced a new era of perestroika and glasnost, meaning restructuring and openness respectively. Gorbachev proposed a 50 % reduction of nuclear weapons for both the U.S and Soviet Union at the meeting in Reykjavik, Iceland in October 1986. However, the proposal was refused due to disagreements over Reagan 's SDI. Instead, the Intermediate Nuclear Forces (INF) Treaty was signed on December 8, 1987 in Washington, which eliminated an entire class of nuclear weapons. Due to the dramatic economic and social changes occurring within the Soviet Union, many of its constituent republics began to declare their independence. With the wave of revolutions sweeping across Eastern - Europe, the Soviet Union was unable to impose its will on its satellite states and so its sphere of influence slowly diminished. By December 16, 1991, all of the republics had declared independence from the Union. The Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev resigned as the country 's President on December 25 and the Soviet Union was declared non-existent the following day. With the end of the Cold War, the United States and Russia cut down on nuclear weapons spending. Fewer new systems were developed and both arsenals were reduced; although both countries maintain significant stocks of nuclear missiles. In the United States, stockpile stewardship programs have taken over the role of maintaining the aging arsenal. After the Cold War ended, large inventories of nuclear weapons and facilities remained. Some are being recycled, dismantled, or recovered as valuable substances. As a result, a large amount of resources and money which was once spent on developing nuclear weapons in Soviet Union was then spent on repairing the environmental damage produced by the nuclear arms race, and almost all former production sites are now major cleanup sites. In the United States, the plutonium production facility at Hanford, Washington and the plutonium pit fabrication facility at Rocky Flats, Colorado are among the most polluted sites. Military policies and strategies have been modified to reflect the increasing intervals without major confrontation. In 1995, United States policy and strategy regarding nuclear proliferation was outlined in the document "Essentials of Post -- Cold War Deterrence '', produced by the Policy Subcommittee of the Strategic Advisory Group (SAG) of the United States Strategic Command. On April 8, 2010, former U.S. President Barack Obama and Russian President Dmitry Medvedev signed the New START Treaty, which called for a fifty percent reduction of strategic nuclear missile launchers and a curtailment of deployed nuclear warheads. The U.S. Senate ratified the treaty in December 2010 by a three - quarter majority. On December 22, 2016, U.S. President Donald Trump proclaimed in a tweet that "the United States must greatly strengthen and expand its nuclear capability until such time as the world comes to its senses regarding nukes, '' effectively challenging the world to re-engage in a race for nuclear dominance. The next day, Trump reiterated his position to Morning Joe host Mika Brzezinski of MSNBC, stating: "Let it be an arms race. We will outmatch them at every pass and outlast them all. '' In South Asia, India and Pakistan have also engaged in a technological nuclear arms race since the 1970s. The nuclear competition started in 1974 with India detonating the device, codename Smiling Buddha, at the Pokhran region of the Rajasthan state. The Indian government termed this test as a "peaceful nuclear explosion '', but according to independent sources, it was actually part of an accelerated covert nuclear program of India. This test generated great concern and doubts in Pakistan, with fear it would be at the mercy of its long -- time arch rival. Pakistan had its own covert atomic bomb projects in 1972 which extended over many years since the first Indian weapon was detonated. After the 1974 test, Pakistan 's atomic bomb program picked up a great speed and accelerated its atomic project to successfully build its own atomic weapons program. In the last few decades of the 20th century, India and Pakistan began to develop nuclear - capable rockets and nuclear military technologies. Finally, in 1998 India, under Atal Bihari Vajpayee government, test detonated 5 more nuclear weapons. While the international response to the detonation was muted, domestic pressure within Pakistan began to build steam and Prime Minister Nawaz Sharif ordered the test, detonated 6 nuclear war weapons (Chagai - I and Chagai - II) in a tit - for - tat fashion and to act as a deterrent. From the beginning of the Cold War, The United States, Russia, and other nations have all attempted to develop Anti-ballistic missiles. The United States developed the LIM - 49 Nike Zeus in the 1950s in order to destroy incoming ICBMs. Russia has, too, developed ABM missiles in the form of the A-35 anti-ballistic missile system and the later A-135 anti-ballistic missile system. Chinese state media has also announced to have tested anti-ballistic missiles, though specific information is not public. India has successfully developed its Ballistic Missile Shield in the programme Indian Ballistic Missile Defence Programme with the test fire of Prithvi Air Defense (PAD) and it has also developed a cruise missile defense Akash Air Defense (AAD) to intercept low flying missiles making India one of the five countries with Missile Shield.

which two of the following statements describe the benefits of continuous delivery (cd)

Continuous delivery - wikipedia Continuous delivery (CD) is a software engineering approach in which teams produce software in short cycles, ensuring that the software can be reliably released at any time. It aims at building, testing, and releasing software faster and more frequently. The approach helps reduce the cost, time, and risk of delivering changes by allowing for more incremental updates to applications in production. A straightforward and repeatable deployment process is important for continuous delivery. Continuous delivery and DevOps are similar in their meanings and are often conflated, but they are two different concepts. DevOps has a broader scope, and centers around the cultural change, specifically the collaboration of the various teams involved in software delivery (developers, operations, quality assurance, management, etc.), as well as automating the processes in software delivery. Continuous delivery, on the other hand, is an approach to automate the delivery aspect, and focuses on bringing together different processes and executing them more quickly and more frequently. Thus, DevOps can be a product of continuous delivery, and CD flows directly into DevOps. Continuous delivery is sometimes confused with continuous deployment. Continuous deployment means that every change is automatically deployed to production. Continuous delivery means that the team ensures every change can be deployed to production but may choose not to do it, usually due to business reasons. In order to do continuous deployment one must be doing continuous delivery. Continuous delivery treats the commonplace notion of a deployment pipeline as a lean Poka - Yoke: a set of validations through which a piece of software must pass on its way to release. Code is compiled if necessary and then packaged by a build server every time a change is committed to a source control repository, then tested by a number of different techniques (possibly including manual testing) before it can be marked as releasable. Developers used to a long cycle time may need to change their mindset when working in a CD environment. It is important to understand that any code commit may be released to customers at any point. Patterns such as feature toggles can be very useful for committing code early which is not yet ready for use by end users. Using NoSQL can eliminate the step of data migrations and schema changes, often manual steps or exceptions to a continuous delivery workflow. Other useful techniques for developing code in isolation such as code branching are not obsolete in a CD world, but must be adapted to fit the principles of CD - for example, running multiple long - lived code branches can prove impractical, as a releasable artifact must be built early in the CD process from a single code branch if it is to pass through all phases of the pipeline. Continuous delivery is enabled through the deployment pipeline. The purpose of the deployment pipeline has three components: visibility, feedback, and continually deploy. Continuous delivery takes automation from source control all the way through production. There are various tools that help accomplish all or part of this process. These tools are part of the deployment pipeline which includes continuous delivery. The types of tools that execute various parts of the process include: continuous integration, application release automation, build automation, application lifecycle management. To practice continuous delivery effectively, software applications have to meet a set of architecturally significant requirements (ASRs) such as deployability, modifiability, and testability. These ASRs require a high priority and can not be traded off lightly anymore. The CD book written by Jez Humble and David Farley popularized the term, however since its creation the definition has continued to advance and now has a more developed meaning. Companies today are implementing these continuous delivery principles and best practices. Difference in domains, e.g. medical vs. web, are still significant and affect the implementation and usage. Well - known companies that have this approach include Yahoo.com, Amazon.com, Facebook, Google, Paddy Power and Wells Fargo. Several benefits of continuous delivery have been reported. Obstacles have also been investigated. Several strategies to overcome continuous delivery adoption challenges have been reported.

where was the movie the thomas crown affair filmed

The Thomas Crown Affair (1968 film) - wikipedia The Thomas Crown Affair is a 1968 film directed and produced by Norman Jewison and starring Steve McQueen and Faye Dunaway. This heist film was nominated for two Academy Awards, winning Best Original Song for Michel Legrand 's "Windmills of Your Mind ''. A remake was released in 1999 and a second remake is currently in the development stages. Millionaire businessman - sportsman Thomas Crown (Steve McQueen) accomplishes a perfect crime by orchestrating four men to steal $2,660,527.62 from a Boston bank, along with a fifth man who drives the getaway car with the money and dumps it in a cemetery trash can. None of the men ever meets Crown face - to - face, nor do they know or meet each other before the robbery. Crown retrieves the money from the trash can after secretly following the driver of the getaway car. He deposits the money into an anonymous Swiss bank account in Geneva, making several trips, never depositing the money all at once so as to not draw undue attention to his actions. Independent insurance investigator Vicki Anderson (Faye Dunaway) is contracted to investigate the heist; she will receive 10 % of the stolen money if she recovers it. When Thomas first comes to her attention as a possible suspect, she intuitively recognizes him as the mastermind behind the robbery. Thomas does not need the money, and in fact masterminded the robbery as a game. Vicki makes it clear to him that she knows that he is the thief and that she intends to prove it. They start a game of cat and mouse, with the attraction between them evident. Their relationship soon evolves into an affair, complicated by Vicki 's vow to find the money and help Detective Eddie Malone (Paul Burke) bring the guilty party to justice. A reward offer entices the wife of the bank robbery 's getaway driver, Erwin Weaver (Jack Weston), to "fink '' on him. Vicki finds out that he was hired by a man he never saw, but whose voice he heard. She tries putting Erwin in the same room as Thomas, but there is no hint of recognition on either one 's part. However, while Vicki is clearly closing in on Thomas, using the Internal Revenue Service (IRS) as leverage against his liquid assets, he forces her to realize she is also becoming hemmed in -- by her emotions. When she seemingly persuades him to negotiate an end, his point is proven when a jealous Eddie stubbornly refuses to make any deal. Thomas organizes another robbery exactly like the first with different accomplices and tells Vicki where the "drop '' will be, because he has to know for sure that she is on his side. The robbery is successful, but there are gunshots and the viewer is left with the impression that people might have been killed, raising the stakes for Vicki 's decision. Vicki and the police stake out the cemetery, where they watch one of the robbers make the drop, and they wait for Thomas to arrive so they can arrest him. When his Rolls Royce arrives, however, she sees that Thomas has sent a messenger in his place, with a telegram asking her to bring the money and join him -- or else keep the Rolls Royce. She tears the telegram to bits and throws the pieces to the wind, looking up at the sky with tears in her eyes. Crown flies away in a jet. The use of split screens to show simultaneous actions was inspired by the breakthrough Expo 67 films In the Labyrinth and A Place to Stand, that latter of which pioneered the use of Christopher Chapman 's "multi-dynamic image technique '', images shifting on moving panes. Steve McQueen was on hand for an advance screening of A Place to Stand in Hollywood and personally told Chapman he was highly impressed; the following year, Norman Jewison had incorporated the technique into the film, inserting the scenes into the already finished product. The film also features a chess scene, with McQueen and Dunaway playing a game of chess, silently flirting with each other. The game depicted is based on a game played in Vienna in 1898 between Gustav Zeissl and Walter von Walthoffen. The photography is unusual for a mainstream Hollywood film, using a split - screen mode. McQueen undertook his own stunts, which include playing polo and driving a dune buggy at high speed along the Massachusetts coastline. This was similar to his starring role in the movie Bullitt, released a few months afterwards, in which he drove a Ford Mustang through San Francisco at more than 100 miles per hour (160 km / h). In an interview, McQueen would later say this was his favorite film. The car driven by Dunaway, referred to as "one of those red Italian things, '' is the first of only ten Ferrari 275 GTB / 4 NART Spyders built. Today, this model is one of the most valuable Ferrari road cars of all time. McQueen liked the car very much, and eventually managed to acquire one for himself. The dune buggy was a Meyers Manx, built in California on a VW beetle floor pan with a hopped - up Chevrolet Corvair engine. McQueen owned one, and the Manx, the original dune buggy, was often copied. Crown 's Rolls Royce carried Massachusetts vanity license tag "TC 100 '' for the film. Sean Connery had been the original choice for the title role, but turned it down -- a decision he later regretted. The character was portrayed by another actor who had portrayed James Bond, Pierce Brosnan, in the 1999 remake. A new remake is underway with Michael B. Jordan taking up the lead role from his forbearers. The film was filmed primarily on location in Boston and surrounding areas in Massachusetts and New Hampshire: Other locations included: The film was moderately successful at the box office, grossing $14 million on a $4.3 million budget. Even though it is now regarded as a cult movie, reviews at the time were mixed. Critics praised the chemistry between McQueen and Dunaway and Norman Jewison 's stylish direction, but considered the plotting and writing rather thin. Roger Ebert gave it 2 ​ ⁄ stars out of four and called it "possibly the most under - plotted, underwritten, over-photographed film of the year. Which is not to say it is n't great to look at. It is. '' The film won the Academy Award for Best Original Song for "Windmills of Your Mind '' by Michel Legrand (music), Marilyn Bergman and Alan Bergman (lyrics). It was also nominated for Original Music Score. The music was composed and conducted by Michel Legrand, scoring his first major American film. Director Norman Jewison had hoped to hire Henry Mancini for the project, but he was unavailable and recommended Legrand; he wrote his music as long pieces rather than specifically to scene timings, with the film later edited to the music by Legrand, Jewison and editor Hal Ashby. In addition, Legrand also had to prepare an original song to replace "Strawberry Fields Forever, '' used as the temp track for the glider scene. Taking Quincy Jones ' advice, Legrand worked with the Bergmans to compose "The Windmills of Your Mind '' and a second song, "His Eyes, Her Eyes ''; Noel Harrison recorded "The Windmills of Your Mind '' after Jewison failed to get his friend Andy Williams to do it, while Legrand himself performed "His Eyes, Her Eyes. '' While the film 's score was recorded in Hollywood (featuring, Vincent DeRosa, Bud Shank, Ray Brown and Shelly Manne), the album re-recording issued by United Artists Records on LP was done in France under the composer 's baton; Jewison said it was the favourite score for any of his films. The original album was later reissued on compact disc by Rykodisc (with five dialogue excerpts and the inclusion of "Moments Of Love '' and "Doubting Thomas '') in 1998, and by Varese Sarabande in 2004. In 2014 Quartet Records issued a limited edition CD featuring the previously released album tracks (1 - 13 below) and the premiere release of the film version. The 1999 remake stars Pierce Brosnan as Crown, Rene Russo as the insurance investigator, and Denis Leary as the detective. The original film 's co-star Faye Dunaway also appears as Crown 's therapist. This version is different from the original in that it is set in New York rather than Boston and the robbery is of a priceless painting instead of cash, amongst other story line differences. In 2016, The Hollywood Reporter announced that MGM is remaking the film again for the second time. Michael B. Jordan will star. The Russo brothers will produce the film.

who sings get ready cause here i come

Get Ready (the Temptations song) - wikipedia "Get Ready '' is a Motown song written by Smokey Robinson, which resulted in two hit records for the label: a U.S. No. 29 version by The Temptations in 1966, and a U.S. No. 4 version by Rare Earth in 1970. It is significant for being the last song Robinson wrote and produced for the Temptations, due to a deal Berry Gordy made with Norman Whitfield, that if "Get Ready '' did not meet with the expected degree of success, then Whitfield 's song, "Ai n't Too Proud To Beg '', would get the next release, which resulted in Whitfield more or less replacing Robinson as the group 's producer. The original Temptations version of "Get Ready '', produced by Smokey Robinson, was designed as an answer to the latest dance craze, "The Duck ''. The Temptations ' falsetto Eddie Kendricks sings lead on the song, which Robinson produced as an up - tempo dance number with a prominent rhythm provided by Motown drummer Benny Benjamin. In the song, Kendricks informs his lover to "get ready '' because "I 'm bringin ' you a love that 's true ''. Melvin Franklin sings lead on the pre-chorus: "fe, fi, fo, fum / look out / ' cause here I come '' along with several other similar lines. The song made it to number one on the U.S. R&B singles chart, while peaking at number twenty - nine on the pop charts. The B - side to "Get Ready '' was the ballad "Fading Away '', which was also led by Kendricks. The song talks about fading love with its narrator asking his soon - to - be-former - lover "Where is your love going? '' and saying how much she changed since they fell in love. Written by Miracles members Smokey Robinson, Pete Moore, & Bobby Rogers, and produced by Robinson, "Fading Away '' was later included on the Temptations 1966 album Gettin ' Ready along with the hit side. The group 's previous singles since "My Girl '' had all landed in the U.S. Pop charts (and R&B charts) Top 20. However, although it hit # 1 on the R&B charts (their first since "My Girl ''), "Get Ready '' was only a Top 30 hit (missing the Top 20 by nine positions), while "Fading Away '' missed all U.S. national charts. As was promised, the next single released would have Norman Whitfield 's song on it. When Whitfield 's "Ai n't Too Proud to Beg '' (also a number - one R&B hit) made it to thirteen on the pop charts, Motown chief Berry Gordy assigned him to be the Temptations ' new main producer. Ironically, the song did eventually become a Top 10 pop hit, but not by the Temptations, but by the Motown rock band Rare Earth. (The Temptations ' version did eventually reach no. 10 in the UK in 1969). Until the group recorded "Please Return Your Love To Me '' in 1968, this was their last song to feature lead vocals solely by Eddie Kendricks, as David Ruffin (who was with the group at the time), and later, Dennis Edwards, would be placed in that role in later songs. The Supremes covered the song on their 1966 album The Supremes A ' Go - Go. It was produced by Motown writing team Holland - Dozier - Holland. In 1967, Dusty Springfield performed a live version of the song at the British Broadcasting Corporation 's television series "Dusty ''. In 1970, The Miracles finally released their own cover version of the song on their 1970 album A Pocket Full of Miracles. The song was Ella Fitzgerald 's last US chart record (1969), reaching the Billboard "Bubbling Under The Top 100 '' survey and the Record World "Non-Rock Top 40 ''. Australian singer Carol Hitchcock released a version of the song which was produced by Stock, Aitken and Waterman in 1987 that became a moderate hit in her homeland, peaking at # 18, but only achieved minor UK success, peaking at # 56. Nancy Sinatra covered the song for her How Does It Feel? album in 1999. In 1990, the Temptations reprised the song for a promotional campaign by the American television network CBS. In this version, the line "get ready, ' cause here I come '' is changed to "get ready for CBS '' (which matches the tagline for these promos). The B - side, "Fading Away '', was later covered by Bobby Taylor & the Vancouvers in the late 1960s, and The Marvelettes in the early 1970s (with group member Wanda Young Rogers as lead); The Marvelettes version appears on the album The Return of the Marvelettes. The Hellacopters covered the song on their 2001 EP White Trash Soul. In 1970, Motown 's rock band Rare Earth released a cover version of the song as a single. Rare Earth 's version of "Get Ready '' was the band 's first recording for Motown, and was based upon a version of the song it performed as the closing numbers to their live performances. Their 45 RPM single version sold in excess of a million U.S. copies, earning a Gold certification from the RIAA. In the live show, each member of the band performed a solo, resulting in a twenty - one - minute rendition of the song. It has been debated on whether the actual recording for the album was really recorded at a concert. It has been noted that the audience sounds throughout the song are repetitive and canned. This has been done before with The Kingsmen 's version of "Louie Louie '' released on an album with party crowd noise dubbed in. The band wanted to release "Get Ready '' as a single, but Motown declined at first, issuing the unsuccessful "Generation, Light Up the Sky '' as the band 's first single. Finally deferring to the band 's wishes in February 1970, Motown released a three - minute edit of the song as a single, which became a hit. "Get Ready '' hit No. 2 on the Cash Box Top 100 and peaked at # 4 on the Billboard Hot 100, a far better performance than the original. It took up the entire second side of their Platinum - selling Motown album, also titled Get Ready. The Rare Earth version of the song also peaked at number twenty on the R&B chart. Today, "Get Ready '' is among the most familiar of both the Temptations ' and Rare Earth 's recordings. The B - side of the single of "Get Ready '' is "Magic Key '', which is found on the same album as "Get Ready ''. "Magic Key '' has a fast tempo, and uses a mixolydian chord progression with a key change on the chorus.

when is there no sun in the arctic

Polar night - wikipedia The polar night occurs in the northernmost and southernmost regions of the Earth when the night lasts for more than 24 hours. This occurs only inside the polar circles. The opposite phenomenon, the polar day, or midnight sun, occurs when the Sun stays above the horizon for more than 24 hours. "Night '' is understood as the center of the Sun being below a free horizon. Since the atmosphere bends the rays of the Sun, the polar day is longer than the polar night, and the area that is affected by polar night is somewhat smaller than the area of midnight sun. The polar circle is located at a latitude between these two areas, at the latitude of approximately 66.5 degrees. In the northernmost city of Sweden, Kiruna, at 67 ° 51'N, the polar night lasts for around 28 twenty - four - hour periods, while the midnight sun lasts around 50 twenty - four - hour periods. While it is day in the Arctic Circle it is night in the Antarctic Circle. Any planet or moon with a sufficient axial tilt that rotates with respect to its star significantly more frequently than it orbits the star (no tidal locking between the two) will experience the same phenomenon (a nighttime lasting more than one rotation period). The polar shortest day is not totally dark everywhere inside the polar circle, but only in places within about 5.5 ° of the poles, and only when the moon is well below the horizon. Regions located at the inner border of the polar circles experience polar twilight instead of polar night. In fact, polar regions typically get more twilight throughout the year than equatorial regions. For regions inside the polar circles, the maximum lengths of the time that the Sun is completely below the horizon varies from zero a quarter degree beyond the Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle to 179 days at the Poles. However, not all this time is classified as polar night since sunlight may be visible because of refraction. Also, the time when the Sun is above the horizon at the poles is 186 days. The numerical asymmetry occurs because the time when the Sun is partially above the horizon is counted towards the daytime. Also, the above numbers are average numbers: the ellipticity of the Earth 's orbit makes the South Pole receive a week more of Sun - below - horizon than the North Pole (see equinox). As there are various kinds of twilight, there also exist various kinds of polar night. Each kind of polar night is defined as when it 's darker than the corresponding kind of twilight. The descriptions below are based on relatively clear skies, so the sky will be darker in the presence of dense clouds. Polar twilight occurs in areas that are located at the inner border of the polar circles, where the Sun will be on or below the horizon all day on the winter solstice. There is then no true daylight at the solar culmination, only civil twilight. This means that the Sun is below the horizon, but by less than 6 °. During civil twilight, there may still be enough light for normal outdoor activities because of light scattering by the upper atmosphere and refraction. Street lamps may remain on and a person looking at a window from within a brightly lit room may see their reflection even at noon, as the level of outdoor illuminance will be below that of many illuminated indoor spaces. Sufferers of seasonal affective disorder tend to seek out therapy with artificial light, as the psychological benefits of daylight require relatively high levels of ambient light (up to 10,000 lux) which are not present in any stage of twilight, thus, the midday twilights experienced anywhere inside the polar circles are still "polar night '' for this purpose. The civil polar night period produces only a faint glow of light visible at midday. It happens when there is no civil twilight and only nautical twilight occurs at the solar culmination. Civil twilight happens when the Sun is between 0 and 6 ° below the horizon, and civil night when it is lower than that. Therefore, the civil polar night is limited to latitudes above 72 ° 34 ', which is exactly 6 ° inside the polar circle. Nowhere on mainland Europe is this definition met. On the Norwegian territory of Svalbard, however, civil polar night lasts from about 11 November until 30 January. Dikson, in Russia, experiences civil polar night for approximately a month. During dense cloud cover places like the coast of Finnmark (about 70 °) in Norway will get a darker "day ''. On the Canadian territory of Pond Inlet, Nunavut however civil polar night lasts from about 16 December until 26 December. During the nautical polar night period, there is no trace of daylight, except around midday. It happens when there is no nautical twilight and only astronomical twilight occurs at the solar culmination. Nautical twilight happens when the Sun is between six and twelve degrees below the horizon. There is a location at the horizon around midday with more light than others because of refraction. During nautical night, the Sun is lower than 12 ° below the horizon, so nautical polar night is limited to latitudes above 78 ° 34 ', which is exactly 12 ° within the polar circle, or 11.5 ° from the pole. Alert, Nunavut, the northernmost settlement in Canada and the world, experiences this from late November to mid-January. On the Canadian territory of Eureka, Nunavut in Canada experiences this December 2 to January 8. On the Norwegian territory of Svalbard Ny - Alesund experiences this mid to late December. The astronomical polar night is a period of continuous night where no astronomical twilight occurs. Astronomical twilight happens when the Sun is between twelve and eighteen degrees below the horizon and astronomical night when it is lower than that. Thus, the astronomical polar night is limited to latitudes above 84 ° 34 ', which is exactly 18 ° within the polar circle, or five and a half degrees from the pole. During the astronomical polar night stars of the sixth magnitude, which are the dimmest stars visible to the naked eye, will be visible throughout the entire day. This happens when the sun is between 18 and 23.5 degrees below the horizon. These conditions last about 11 weeks at the poles. The Amundsen -- Scott South Pole Station experiences this from May 15 to late July. The North Pole experiences this from November 14 to January 29. If an observer located on either the North Pole or the South Pole were to define a "day '' as the time from the maximal elevation of the Sun above the horizon during one period of daylight, until the maximal elevation of the Sun above the horizon of the next period of daylight, then a "polar - day '' as experienced by such an observer would be one Earth - year long. The concept of a night of almost one month in length has been the subject of the vampire movies Frostbite and 30 Days of Night. In these films, the vampires are drawn to the long duration of darkness, allowing them to openly kill and feed at will.

who use to drive the 12 car in nascar

Team Penske - Wikipedia IndyCar Series: 1. Josef Newgarden 3. Hélio Castroneves (part - time) 12. Will Power 22. Simon Pagenaud Monster Energy Cup Series: 2. Brad Keselowski 12. Ryan Blaney 22. Joey Logano Xfinity Series: 12. Austin Cindric (part - time) 22. Joey Logano, Brad Keselowski, Ryan Blaney, Paul Menard, Austin Cindric Virgin Australia Supercars Championship: (as DJR Team Penske): 12. Fabian Coulthard 17. Scott McLaughlin IndyCar Series: 2018 Indianapolis 500 (Indianapolis) Monster Energy Cup Series: 2018 Coca - Cola 600 (Charlotte) Xfinity Series: 2018 Alsco 300 (Charlotte) Team Penske (formerly Penske Racing) is an American professional stock car, open wheel and sports car racing team that currently competes in the IndyCar Series, the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, the NASCAR Xfinity Series and IMSA WeatherTech SportsCar Championship. Debuting at the 1966 24 Hours of Daytona, the team has also competed in various other types of professional racing such as Can Am, Trans Am and Formula One. Team Penske is a division of Penske Corporation, and is owned and chaired by Roger Penske. The team president is Tim Cindric. Penske has been involved with IndyCar racing since 1968, when they first fielded a stock block - powered Eagle with Mark Donohue. The team first competed at Indianapolis in 1969, and within three years had become the team to beat, winning the race with Donohue in 1972. In 1978, Roger Penske along with Pat Patrick, Dan Gurney, and several other team owners who had been participating in USAC events involving cars known as Champ Cars and IndyCars formed Championship Auto Racing Teams (CART). As of June 27, 2015, Penske Racing has won the Indianapolis 500 16 times, won the Indianapolis 500 pole position 17 times, as well as 200 open wheel IndyCar wins in USAC, CART and IRL (as of May 19, 2018), 29 of which are in 500 - Mile Races and 13 open wheel championships. Penske Racing has 1,463 starts in IndyCar races, 231 pole positions, 71 wins from pole, 47 double wins of which 8 are 1 -- 2 -- 3 finishes from the Pocono race on June 26, 1977, to January 1, 2015. In 2001, team Penske marked its return to the Indy 500 after a five - year absence due to the open wheel split, after the 1995 PPG IndyCar World Series season. Later, in 2001 Roger Penske announced he would leave CART for the IRL IndyCar Series. Team Penske currently fields four cars: the No. 2 Verizon Dallara / Chevrolet for Josef Newgarden, the No. 3 Shell Oil Company Dallara / Chevrolet driven by Hélio Castroneves, the No. 12 Verizon Wireless Dallara / Chevrolet driven by Will Power, and the No. 22 Penske Truck Rental Dallara / Chevrolet driven by Simon Pagenaud. Castroneves has won the Indianapolis 500 three times (2001, 2002 and 2009), as well as other CART and IRL races with Team Penske. Sam Hornish Jr. is the 2006 Indianapolis 500 winner and the (2001, 2002, and 2006) IndyCar Series Champion, with 16 IndyCar Wins. His 2001 and 2002 championships were with Panther Racing, prior to joining Team Penske. Juan Pablo Montoya is the 2015 Indianapolis 500 winner and the provisional leader in the championship with 2 wins in the season. The open - wheel racing portion of Penske Racing had been based in Reading, Pennsylvania since 1973 with the cars, during the Formula One and CART era, being constructed in Poole, Dorset, England as well as being the base for the F1 team. On October 31, 2005, Penske Racing announced after the 2006 IRL season, they would consolidate IRL and NASCAR operations at the team 's Mooresville North Carolina facility; with the flooding in Pennsylvania in 2006, the team 's operations were moved to Mooresville earlier than expected. Cigarette brand Marlboro had been a sponsor with Team Penske since the 1989 Indianapolis 500, and primary sponsor of all Team Penske IndyCars since 1991. Late in 2005, Team Penske announced that Marlboro would not appear on the cars any longer in accordance with the Tobacco Master Settlement Agreement restricting cigarette advertising by name. In 2007, the IndyCar Series cars began to carry "Team Penske '' insignia and sponsorship from Mobil 1 (although the cars remained painted in the Marlboro color scheme -- in Formula 1 the Scuderia Ferrari Marlboro has a similar set up). For 2009, Verizon Wireless, joined Exxon Mobil as associate sponsors, and the team was billed as Verizon Championship Racing. The third car was driven by Will Power, originally a substitute for Castroneves, carried the No. 12 and featured primary sponsorship of both Verizon Wireless brand and Roger Penske 's truck rental business. In 2010, Phillip Morris USA discontinued their relationship with Team Penske, ending a 19 - year partnership. The team subsequently changed their livery to black and white (similar to McLaren that have black - silver livery in 1997 -- 2005), reflecting Verizon sponsorship. Team Penske became a three - car team for the first time since 1994, with the addition of a full - time team for Power. Roger Penske announced a switch to Chevrolet powerplants for the 2012 IndyCar Series season. Once again, Penske would dominate the early portion of the season, winning 4 consecutive races, with Castroneves taking the season opener at St. Petersburg, and Power capturing wins at Barber, Long Beach, and São Paulo. Briscoe would have struggles throughout the season, but managed to find victory lane at Sonoma. However, Power would come up short in the championship after a crash at the season finale. Briscoe left the team after 2012 for other opportunities. In 2014, Will Power took the IndyCar Championship for Team Penske after 3 concurrent runner up finishes in 2010 - 2012. The 2015 season started well for Team Penske, Juan Pablo Montoya won the first race of the season, his second win for Penske since he arrived from NASCAR in 2014, with teammates Will Power, Helio Castroneves and Simon Pagenaud (first season with the team) finishing 2nd, 4th and 5th. Power got a win at the Grand Prix of Indianapolis in the 5th race of the season and just 2 weeks later, the Colombian Montoya won Indy 500 leading again teammate Will Power. Juan Pablo Montoya would lose the championship in the final race on a tie - breaker to Scott Dixon. Team Penske would go on to dominate 2016, filling the top 3 positions in the final standings. Capping the season with a dominating race victory, Simon Pagenaud won his first IndyCar championship, becoming the ninth Penske driver to be crowned champion. Roger Penske 's organization claimed its 14th such title and its second in three years (Power won in ' 14). Penske 's 1994 IndyCar World Series Championship was one of, if not the most dominating performance from a race team in history of American open wheel racing. Roger Penske had found the key to win but also found a way to run from the competition. The new Penske PC - 23 chassis with the Ilmor - Indy V8 engine would power the Penske drivers of Al Unser, Jr., Paul Tracy, and Emerson Fittipaldi. The team racked up 12 wins out of 16 races, collecting 10 poles and 28 podium finishes on their way to the championship. The team also dominated a controversial May at Indianapolis. Penske debuted a radical new Mercedes - Benz engine at Indy, the 500I. This engine used a provision in the rules intended for stock block pushrod engines such as the V - 6 Buick engines that allowed an extra 650 cm3 and 10 inches (4.9 psi / 33.8 kPa) of boost. This extra power (at least 900 horsepower, and rumored to be in excess of 1000) allowed the Penskes to run significantly faster, giving them the pole and outside front row on the grid for the 78th Indianapolis 500. Al Unser, Jr. and Emerson Fittipaldi dominated the race, eventually lapping the field with 16 laps to go in the 200 lap race when Fittipaldi made contact with the wall coming out of Turn 4, giving Al Unser, Jr. the lead and win. The only driver who finished on the lead lap was rookie Jacques Villeneuve. This one season gave Penske the Driver 's Championship with Al Unser, Jr., Constructor 's Cup with the Penske PC - 23, and Manufacturer 's Cup with the Ilmor - Indy V8 engine. (In the 1995 Indy 500 Penske failed to qualify any cars for the race) Formerly known as Penske Racing, Kranefuss - Penske Racing, Penske Racing South, Penske - Jasper Racing, Penske Championship Racing, and now simply known as Team Penske to conform with Penske 's other teams, Penske 's NASCAR team made its debut in 1972 at Riverside International Raceway. Mark Donohue was driving a factory - sponsored red - white - blue American Motors Matador. It was dubbed the "flying brick '' by many noting its squarish aerodynamics. The car finished 39th after rear end problems. The team ran part - time for a few years, fielding cars for several drivers including Donohue (won the 1973 Western 500 in the # 16 Matador), Dave Marcis, Donnie Allison, and Bobby Allison. The team went full - time with Bobby Allison in 1976 with a new, more aerodynamic fastback coupe, finishing 4th in the points. In 1980, the team fielded two races for Rusty Wallace, finishing 2nd in his first race at Atlanta. Penske sold his machinery to the Elliott family in 1977 and got out of NASCAR. The team did not run for eleven years, returning in 1991 with Wallace at the wheel again, with Rusty moving his Miller beer dollars to the new team from the recently suspended operations of Raymond Beatle 's Blue Max Racing team. Early in 2008, Roger Penske and Penske Racing won the 2008 Daytona 500 with Ryan Newman, the first time Penske has won a restrictor plate race, winning with a 1 -- 2 finish. In 2003, Penske switched from fielding Fords to Dodges. By 2011, however, Penske was the only NASCAR team running Dodges full - time as most of the former Dodge teams had either folded or switched to other brands such as Chevrolet, Ford or Toyota. Owner Roger Penske announced on March 1, 2012 that the team would return to Ford in 2013. In 2012, with Dodge, Brad Keselowski gave Penske his first Sprint Cup title. For the 2016 season Penske Racing South fielded the No. 2 Miller Lite Ford Fusion for Keselowski and the No. 22 Shell / Pennzoil Ford Fusion for Joey Logano. The team also supplies cars to the historic NASCAR team, Wood Brothers Racing, who fields Penske development driver Ryan Blaney on a full - time basis. In 2014, the team changed their name branding from "Penske Racing '' to "Team Penske '' to match their IndyCar name. In 2018, the team fielded the No. 2 Ford Fusion full - time for Brad Keselowski, the No. 22 Ford Fusion full - time for Joey Logano, and the No. 12 Ford Fusion full - time for Ryan Blaney in the Monster Energy NASCAR Cup Series, as well as the No. 22 Ford Mustang full - time for part - time drivers Brad Keselowski, Joey Logano, Ryan Blaney, and Paul Menard, and full - time driver Austin Cindric, and the No. 12 Ford Mustang part - time for full - time driver Austin Cindric in the NASCAR Xfinity Series. Cindric currently splits his full time 2018 schedule between the 22 and 12 for Team Penske, and the 60 of Roush Fenway Racing. In 2004, Penske occasionally ran a fourth car numbered 06, sponsored by Mobil 1. Craftsman Truck Series driver Travis Kvapil attempted four races, failing to qualify at Darlington, with a best finish of 21st at Martinsville. He would replace Brendan Gaughan in the 77 in 2005. Chad Blount also ran the car at Talladega, finishing 41st. The No. 06 returned in 2007 with Sam Hornish, Jr. in preparation for moving full - time in the 77 the next year. The No. 06 was sponsored by Penske Truck Rental and Mobil 1 Hornish, Jr. attempted eight races, but only qualified for the final two races of the season, with a best finish of 30th at Phoenix. The 2 car 's history can be traced back to the late 1970s with M.C. Anderson and Cale Yarborough driving the 27 Valvoline car, through the 80 's, the teams owners switched hands to Raymond Beadle and Blue Max Racing, the team picked up Rusty Wallace in 1986 and won a Championship in 1989. In 1990, the team barely made it through the season with the help of Roger Penske funding the team to keep going. By late 1990, the team was purchased as a base for Roger 's new team. During the offseason, the team changed numbers from 27 to 2 (Rusty 's old racing number) and kept the Miller Brewing Sponsorship. The No. 2 team has not seen many changes since its debut under the Penske banner in the 1991 Daytona 500, where it finished 27th after a crash late in the race. 1989 Winston Cup Champion Rusty Wallace drove the car from 1991 to 2005, with some form of Miller Beer as the primary sponsor of the No. 2. Wallace moved to Penske from Blue Max Racing, which suspended operations after 1990. The team in its first year won two races and finished 10th in points. In 1992, Wallace won one race and finished 13th in points. Things then turned around for him and Penske, winning 25 races over the next four years, despite never winning the championship. The team switched from Pontiac to Ford in 1994. The season finale at Atlanta Motor Speedway and the entire 1996 season saw a small change when the popular Miller Genuine Draft paint scheme was replaced with a red, blue and yellow splashed scheme that advertised the Miller brand. After winning five races that season, Wallace donned the blue and white colors of Miller Lite in 1997. After winning one race a piece over the next three years, he put together four wins and won nine Bud poles in 2000, the highest total of his career. In 2002, he failed to win races, marking the first year since 1985 that he did not score a win. After that year, the team switched manufacturers from Ford to Dodge. In 2004, Wallace announced the 2005 season would be his last in the Nextel Cup Series, citing his son 's racing career and wanting to concentrate on his Busch Series team, Rusty Wallace Racing, for the departure. During that season Wallace returned to victory lane for the first time since 2001 at Martinsville, one of his historically strong racetracks. Although he would n't win a race during his final season, Wallace qualified for the Chase for the Nextel Cup and finished eighth in series points. In order to replace the retiring Wallace, Penske tabbed 2004 Nexel Cup Champion Kurt Busch. However, this caused a problem with Busch 's then - current team, Roush Racing, as he was still under contract for the 2006 season. The situation was resolved thanks in part to the resolution of another disputed contract with Roush. Roush Racing signed Jamie McMurray to drive their No. 6 car for the 2006 season but his previous team owner, Chip Ganassi, would not let him drive for Roush. Eventually, an agreement was struck where McMurray was released from his team to replace Busch in the No. 97 car (which was then renumbered to 26), therefore freeing up Busch to drive the No. 2 car. He quickly brought the team back to victory lane by winning in his fifth start with the team at Bristol, his only win of 2006. The No. 2 team finished 16th in the season points. Busch won six additional races with the No. 2 car, his last being the 2010 Coca - Cola 600. He qualified for the Chase three times, with a best finish of fourth in the final standings. Brad Keselowski and the No. 12 team moved over to the No. 2 team for the 2011, with Nationwide Series crew chief Paul Wolfe replacing Jay Guy. The No. 2 team with Keselowski and Wolfe initially struggled for the first half of the season, although they won a fuel - milage race at Kansas. The team 's performance started to improve dramatically after Keselowski injured his leg during a testing crash at Road Atlanta. He and Wolfe grabbed two more wins at Pocono and at Bristol and rallied to make the 2011 Chase field. However, the final 10 races would be an up and down affair for the team, and they were knocked out of contention after finishing 18th at Phoenix. Nonetheless, Keselowski managed a fifth - place finish in points, a dramatic turnaround from his 2010 performance. 2012 would be better still for the team, as Keselowski won five races at Bristol, Talladega, Kentucky, Chicagoland, and Dover, with the last two being his first Chase wins. He would ultimately win Team Penske its first Sprint Cup title after a close battle with Jimmie Johnson. 2013 was a step back, as Keselowski opened the season with four top fives but struggled with consistency from there and eventually missed the Chase altogether. He would win a single race, at Charlotte in October, and rallied to finish fourteenth in points, the highest rank outside the Chase field (due to the Richmond scandal that resulted in Jeff Gordon getting an additional Chase berth). Keselowski recovered quickly in 2014, winning the third race of the year at Las Vegas after Dale Earnhardt, Jr. ran out of gas on the final lap. He later dominated and won Kentucky to become the first two - time winner at the track, and dominated the July race at Loudon and the September race at Richmond as well, to secure the top seed in the reformatted Chase for the Sprint Cup. Keselowski then won back to back for the first time in his career in the first Chase race at Chicagoland, to secure an immediate transfer into the Contender round of the new Chase. After suffering a blown tire at Kansas and tussling with Matt Kenseth and Denny Hamlin at Charlotte, Keselowski went to Talladega needing to win to make the Eliminator round, which he ultimately did after outbattling Ryan Newman on the final lap. However, he suffered a mechanical failure that caused him to wreck at Martinsville, and subsequently tangled with Jeff Gordon at Texas, which led to a post-race brawl that became one of the highlights of the season. Keselowski would ultimately be eliminated from the Chase after Phoenix, and finished fifth in the final points, with his six wins being a career high. Keselowski won his first race of 2015 at Auto Club Speedway after taking advantage of two late cautions to run down the dominant car of ex-teammate Kurt Busch. This would prove to be the only win of his season, but Keselowski once again advanced to the Eliminator round of the Chase before suffering another wreck at Martinsville, and after leading the majority of the Texas race only to be passed by Jimmie Johnson with six laps to go, Keselowski was once again eliminated from championship contention after Phoenix. Keselowski got back to his winning ways again in 2016, breaking through at Las Vegas for the second time in three seasons. He also scored his third win in the GEICO 500 at Talladega, then found his first Daytona win in the Coke Zero 400, followed by his third career win at Kentucky. Keselowski got his first win in 2017 after Kevin Harvick had trouble in the pits at Atlanta Motor Speedway. He was leading at Las Vegas when something broke in the car with two to go. He hung on for fifth. He remained consistent, winning the STP 500 for his first Martinsville win. He continued to be consistent until a strange crash early in the Coca - Cola 600, when a piece of metal from Jeffery Earnhardt pierced Chase Elliott 's grill and went into his engine, casing a mass oil leak and fire. Brad slid in the oil, right to Elliott 's rear end. Keselowski would go on to make the playoffs for the sixth time in his cup series career and score an additional win in the wreck infested Alabama 500 at the Talladega Superspeedway and have the dominant car at Martinsville before a late race caution and contact with Chase Elliott took him out of contention for the win and he would finish 4th. Keselowski made the final round at Homestead - Miami speedway finished 7th in the race and 4th in the final standings to champion Martin Truex Jr. The current 12 car started out in 1994 at Michigan as the No. 07 Ford driven by Robby Gordon and owned by German - American businessman and former Ford executive Michael Kranefuss along with Newman / Haas Racing co-principal Carl Haas. The car started and finished 38th after Gordon crashed on lap 70. After another start with Geoff Brabham at the Brickyard 400, the team -- known as Kranefuss - Haas Racing -- went full - time in 1995 with John Andretti driving the Kmart / Little Caesars - sponsored No. 37 Ford. Andretti won the pole at the Mountain Dew Southern 500 and finished 18th in the points. The team struggled in 1996 and Kranefuss decided to replace Andretti with Jeremy Mayfield in what amounted to a driver swap between Kranefuss - Haas and Cale Yarborough 's team as Andretti replaced Mayfield in Yarborough 's No. 98. The team picked up co-sponsorship from Royal Crown Cola for the following season and improved to be 13th in the points in 1997, but it was obvious the team would n't succeed if it only fielded one team. At the end of the season Kranefuss and Haas dissolved the partnership and the Kmart sponsorship moved over to Travis Carter 's team, which became Haas - Carter Motorsports and the Little Caesars sponsorship left the team. In 1998, Kranefuss and Penske Racing announced a merger, with Mayfield coming aboard to drive the No. 12 Mobil 1 - sponsored Ford Taurus as a teammate to Rusty Wallace. The move turned out to be a success, and Mayfield became the next big star. He won the pole at Texas, and at one point in the season, found himself in the points lead. At the Pocono 500 in June, he won his first NASCAR Cup Series race. Mayfield 's breakout year ended with a 7th - place finish in the points. Mayfield struggled in 1999, as he did not win and dropped 4 spots in the points. In 2000, he won the Pocono 500 and California 500. Midway through the season, Kranefuss sold his share of the team to Penske. Mayfield then suffered a concussion while practicing for the Brickyard 400. He missed two races recuperating from his injury and finished 24th in points. In 2001, Mayfield posted seven top ten finishes, but was fired following the race at Kansas. Rusty Wallace 's younger brother Mike Wallace took over, and came close to winning at Phoenix before settling for second place to Jeff Burton. Ryan Newman and his Alltel Wireless team took over the No. 12 car in 2002, although Mobil 1 stayed on as primary sponsor for several races per season. In his rookie year Newman waged a spirited battle with Jimmie Johnson for NASCAR Rookie of the Year honors. Newman won The Winston, and the fall event at New Hampshire, as well as six poles. Although he did n't win as many races as Johnson (one versus Johnson 's three) and finished behind him in the points (sixth place, seven points behind fifth - place Johnson), he finished ahead of Johnson to win Winston Cup Rookie of the Year. After the switch to Dodge in 2003, he won eight races and eleven poles, and finished 6th in points. In 2004, Newman won twice, earned nine pole positions, qualified for the inaugural Chase for the Nextel Cup, and finished seventh in points. Newman finished 2005 with eight pole positions, but only one win. He qualified for the Chase for the Cup for a second year in a row and ended up sixth in the final standings. He failed to win a race and missed the Chase in both 2006 and 2007. However, he found himself back in the winners circle early in 2008, taking victory in the 50th running of the Daytona 500 (the No. 2 of Kurt Busch finished second) to open the season, claiming Penske 's first Daytona 500 win. After the No. 12 team won the Daytona 500 in 2008, it struggled and Ryan Newman announced during the summer that he would leave to drive the No. 39 Chevrolet for Stewart - Haas Racing. The No. 12 car lost its sponsor in 2009 as Cellco Partners, a joint venture of Verizon and Vodafone, closed the deal to purchase Alltel in January 2009, thus voiding the terms of the grandfather clause that allowed the No. 12 car to run with a sponsor that is a direct competitor to that NASCAR series ' sponsor. The team announced that they would move the Wireless sponsorship to the IndyCar Series and the NASCAR Nationwide Series and renamed the team to Verizon Championship Racing, a reference to Verizon Wireless ' Penske - wide marketing through both its IndyCar and NASCAR sponsorships, complete with its heritage of champions (especially on Vodafone 's side, as it was a sponsor of Scuderia Ferrari). Penske hired David Stremme to race the car in a largely unbranded fashion for 2009, but he did not produce results and was fired toward the end of the season. Brad Keselowski, who had recently signed with Penske when he was unable to procure a seat at Hendrick Motorsports, took over the car toward the end of the 2009 season. He then ran the No. 12 full - time in 2010 again in an unbranded fashion, although FloTV and AAA sponsored several races. Keselowski moved to the No. 2 car following the season to replace Kurt Busch, who moved to the new No. 22. The No. 12 did not run any races in 2011. In 2012, Sam Hornish, Jr. drove the No. 12 at Kansas in April with SKF sponsorship. The No. 12 was also scheduled to run at the October Talladega race with Hornish, but after the termination of A.J. Allmendinger from the No. 22, Hornish replaced him full - time. Hornish 's SKF sponsorship was transferred to the No. 22 for this race. In 2013, Hornish again qualified at Kansas, but crashed out of the race in a multi-car wreck. He attempted the fall Talladega race, but failed to make the race after qualifying was rained out. With Hornish leaving for Joe Gibbs Racing, the part - time No. 12 was split by various Penske drivers in 2014. SKF sponsored three races, with Ryan Blaney at Kansas in April and Talladega in October, and Juan Pablo Montoya at Michigan in June. Montoya also drove the No. 12 in the Brickyard 400 with sponsorship from Penske Truck Rental. In June 2017, Penske implied that Ryan Blaney would soon drive a third Ford for Penske Racing, implying that Blaney might drive the No. 12 Ford. This was later confirmed a month later when they announced that Blaney would drive the No. 12 car in 2018, with Paul Menard replacing him in the 21 Wood Brothers Racing car, continuing the technical alliance that the two teams have. Penske 's No. 22 team originally began running in the ARCA RE / MAX Series in 2000 as the No. 27 Ford sponsored by Alltel and driven by Ryan Newman. Later in the year, the team made its NASCAR Cup Series debut with Newman at Phoenix as the No. 02 Alltel Ford, finishing 41st due to engine failure. In 2001, Newman split time between ARCA, the NASCAR Busch Series, and the NASCAR Cup Series. He drove in 15 Busch races and won at Michigan. In the Cup Series, he participated in seven events, and almost won The Winston Open before his engine expired in the closing laps. He put together two top - five finishes, which included a second - place finish at Kansas, and a pole in his abbreviated schedule. in 2004 after Penske merged with Jasper Motorsports. Brendan Gaughan was hired as the driver and the car was renumbered to 77, with Kodak sponsoring. Gaughan had four top - ten finishes and finished 28th in points in his rookie year. Gaughan was fired for lack of performance at the end of the season. Gaughan was immediately replaced by Travis Kvapil in 2005. Kodak continued to sponsor the team, though Mobil 1 came on to sponsor one race. Kvapil had two top - tens and finished 33rd in points. The No. 77 team shut down for the next two years due to a lack of sponsorship. In late 2007, Penske Racing announced that the No. 77 team would return to racing with Mobil 1 as a sponsor and that Sam Hornish, Jr., one of Penske 's IndyCar series drivers, would switch to NASCAR full - time and drive the car in 2008. The team underwent a points swap with Kurt Busch 's No. 2 car to guarantee Hornish a spot in the first five races while allowing Busch to qualify automatically if necessary with his Past Champion 's Provisional starts. The team did the same in 2009 as Bill Davis (formerly of Bill Davis Racing) sold the owner points from his No. 22 Toyota to Penske, which guaranteed Hornish a spot in the first five races of the season. Hornish 's performance improved enough in this year that the No. 77 ended the year in the top 35 in owner points. With the departure of Mobil 1 to Stewart Haas Racing for the 2011 season, Shell and Pennzoil came over to Penske and sponsored the newly renumbered No. 22 Cup car in 2011 with Kurt Busch (who had previously driven the team 's No. 2). The No. 22 shared the Shell sponsorship with Penske 's IndyCar driver Hélio Castroneves. The team won two races at Sonoma and Dover and made the Chase, but poor finishes during the Chase left Busch 11th in points. Busch and Penske Racing agreed to mutually part December 5, 2011. though there was strong speculation that he was fired for an incident involving reporter Jerry Punch that was caught on amateur video. On December 21, 2011, A.J. Allmendinger was announced as the driver for the 2012 season, moving over from Richard Petty Motorsports. He would team up with newly promoted crew chief Todd Gordon after the departure of Steve Addington to Stewart - Haas Racing. Allmendinger got off to a slow start to the season, but took advantage of a late wreck among the leaders to finish second at Martinsville. After he failed a drug test before the July Daytona race, he was removed from the car. Penske Nationwide series driver Sam Hornish, Jr. was named as replacement for the remainder of the season. Hornish challenged for a win at Watkins Glen, and ended up finishing fifth. After failing to record another top - 10 finish, Penske removed him from the car at season 's end. On September 4, 2012, Joey Logano was announced as Hornish 's replacement in the No. 22 car in 2013. Logano became the fourth driver of the No. 22 in three years, but had a successful 2013 season, making the Chase, and returned in 2014, becoming the first driver to return to the No. 22 car for more than a single season. Logano won five races in 2014, two more than in his entire previous career, and made the Championship round of the revamped Chase, only to suffer pit road miscues at Homestead that relegated him to fourth in the standings. Logano then began the 2015 season by winning the Daytona 500. He then won five further races, including repeat wins in the Bristol Night Race and the Kansas Chase race, part of a streak of three wins in a row that allowed him to sweep the Contender round of the 2015 Chase. However, a feud with Matt Kenseth derailed Logano 's season when Kenseth wrecked him out of the lead at Martinsville; heavy damage from a blown tire the next week at Texas and his failure to win at Phoenix resulted in Logano 's elimination from the Chase. Logano 's 2016 season saw him making it all the way back to Homestead, this time with three wins (Michigan, Talladega, Phoenix) with a shot to win the title. Logano was able to get past a late race incident with Carl Edwards and finished second in the standings behind Jimmie Johnson. Penske 's first entry in the now Xfinity Series was in 1997, with Cup driver Rusty Wallace at Auto Club Speedway. Wallace started 37th and finished 21st in his Miller Lite Ford. Penske Racing 's next foray into the Busch Series was in 2001. Ryan Newman drove 15 races in the 02 Alltel Ford in preparation for moving up to the NASCAR Cup Series the next year. "Rocket Man '' Newman had 6 poles and only two starts outside the top 5. Newman had 8 top 10 's including a win at Michigan International Speedway, and would finish 28th in points despite running less than half the season. In 2005, Penske returned to the second - tier series with Ryan Newman. Newman drove an Alltel / Mobil 1 / Sony Dodge numbered 39, his sprint car number whose digits coincidentally add up to the number 12 he used in the Cup Series. He ran only 9 of 25 races, but had four poles and six victories. In 2006, Newman and Kurt Busch shared the ride. Busch ran seven races and won twice; Newman 's best finish was 2nd in six starts. IndyCar Champion Sam Hornish, Jr. began racing the No. 39 in the last two races of the year, crashing out of both races. Newman also ran a 02 car at Watkins Glen, finishing 41st after an engine failure. The only race for the 39 in 2007 was at Watkins Glen International, where Kurt Busch started on the pole and finished 3rd. In 2013, Penske ran a third team part - time, numbered 48. Joey Logano ran the car at Watkins Glen with Discount Tire as the sponsor, starting 3rd and finishing 21st. Ryan Blaney then ran the car at Phoenix with AutoZone, finishing 10th. Brad Keselowski ran the car at Homestead with Discount Tire, winning the race. The 12 car debuted in 2007, running 20 total races. Kurt Busch ran 3 races with Penske Truck Rental, with a best finish of 4th at Las Vegas. Sam Hornish Jr. ran 9 races but had no top 10 's and four crashes. Ryan Newman ran 8 races with Kodak and Alltel, with a best finish of 3rd at Richmond. The team returned return on limited basis in 2008, with Hornish driving most of the races early in the season. Hornish attempted 10 races (failing to qualify for two) with fewer DNFs and a best finish of 11th at Darlington. ARCA Champion Justin Allgaier ran four races later in the year, with an 11th - place finish at Phoenix. In 2009, Justin Allgaier moved into the car full - time. After Verizon, taking on the sponsorship responsibilities of Alltel, was barred from sponsoring the No. 12 Cup car under terms of the Viceroy Rule -- preventing competition with title sponsor Sprint NEXTEL -- the company moved their sponsorship to the Nationwide Series. Allgaier was involved in a close rookie battle with Michael McDowell and Scott Lagasse Jr., but eventually won the 2009 Rookie of the Year, scoring 12 top 10s en route to a 6th - place points finish. Allgaier and Verizon returned for 2010. Justin took his first career victory in the fourth race of the season at Bristol Motor Speedway. The team had an impressive 20 top 10s and finished 4th in points. Due to Verizon 's departure from NASCAR for Penske 's IndyCar team, the No. 12 team scaled back to a limited schedule in 2011, prompting Allgaier to move to Turner Motorsports. Sam Hornish Jr., recently losing his Cup ride with Penske, took over the car on a limited basis with Alliance Truck Parts sponsoring his effort. Hornish won his first Nationwide Series race at Phoenix, a track where he had had success in IndyCar. Alex Tagliani drove the No. 12 in Montreal with sponsorship from Hot Wheels. Hornish returned for the full season in 2012, with expanded sponsorship from Alliance Truck Parts. Hornish had arguably his strongest season in stock cars to date after struggles in past Sprint Cup and Nationwide endeavors, scoring 10 top 5 's and 22 top 10 's en route to a fourth - place points finish. Hornish returned to the car in 2013, and scored his second NASCAR victory at Las Vegas. He was a strong contender for the drivers ' title, earning 4 poles, 16 top 5 's and 25 top 10 's, but ultimately finished second to Austin Dillon in the final points standings, despite Dillon not winning a race. Hornish was left without a full - time ride, as longtime owner Roger Penske did not have any opportunities for his former champion, though he did say Hornish deserved another opportunity at NASCAR 's top level. Sponsors Alliance Truck Parts, WURTH, and Detroit Genuine Parts would move up to sponsor Brad Keselowski 's Sprint Cup car in 2014. In 2014, after Hornish left for Joe Gibbs Racing, Team Penske narrowed down their Nationwide Series fleet to one full - time ride -- the No. 22 team -- leaving the No. 12 as a part - time ride. Ryan Blaney ran four races in the car, with Joey Logano running a single race at Watkins Glen, with sponsorship from Snap - on Tools and Western Star Trucks. Logano would win the pole with a new track record, and go on to win the race. In 2016, Ryan Blaney drove the No. 12 in May at Charlotte and again in July at Kentucky. Joey Logano then drove the No. 12 at Watkins Glen in August and again at Charlotte in October, winning both races. Snap - On Tools was the primary sponsor for all the races except the October Charlotte race, where PPG Industries was the primary sponsor. On August 12, 2016, Team Penske announced that the No. 12 would return to full - time competition. However, after sponsorship failed to materialize, the car would be brought out on a limited basis. Logano and Blaney would drive the car during the first half of the season, with Logano winning at Las Vegas and Blaney winning the summer Charlotte race. In 2009, Penske developmental driver Parker Kligerman made his debut at Kansas Speedway, winning the pole, leading 7 laps, and finishing a respectable 16th. Parker also attempted the season finale at Homestead, but failed to qualify, running the No. 42 car instead. For 2010, Penske Racing ran two full - time Nationwide series cars with Discount Tire and Ruby Tuesday coming on board to sponsor Brad Keselowski in the No. 22. They continued to use Dodge engines, despite Dodge cutting their Nationwide support. On November 6, 2010, Brad Keselowski and the No. 22 Discount Tire / Ruby Tuesday Nationwide team secured the NASCAR Nationwide driver championship by finishing 3rd at Texas Motor Speedway. By holding an insurmountable 465 - point lead over Carl Edwards with two races left in the season, the No. 22 team delivered Roger Penske 's first NASCAR title of any kind. For the 2011 season, Penske continued to run the No. 22 full - time with Brad Keselowski. In August, Keselowski suffered a hard crash while testing at Road Atlanta. He was replaced in the No. 22 by Hornish Jr., Kurt Busch, and Parker Kligerman. Formula 1 Champion Jacques Villeneuve drove the No. 22 at the road courses. The No. 22 team scored five wins with Keselowski and another with Busch at Watkins Glen. In 2012, Keselowski was scheduled to split the 22 ride, with Parker Kligerman running between 5 and 7 races. However, after only running three races with the team, Kligerman was replaced in both the Nationwide Series and his Camping World Truck Series ride at BKR with fellow up - and - coming driver Ryan Blaney, who ran the standalone oval races. Villeneuve was named to drive at Road America and Montreal for the team. In 2013, Brad Keselowski and Ryan Blaney were scheduled to share the No. 22, joined by new Penske driver Joey Logano. In June, former Penske Cup driver A.J. Allmendinger signed on to run two races in the 22, at the road courses Road America and Mid-Ohio. Allmendinger won the pole at Road America, then proceeded to win the race, his first career Nationwide win, after leading 29 laps. Allmendinger then won at Mid-Ohio after starting second and leading 73 of 94 laps. Ryan Blaney then won his first career race at Kentucky Speedway, after leading 96 of the final 100 laps of the race. The team won the Nationwide Owners ' Championship on the strength of twelve total race victories among the four drivers. This was the first Nationwide Owners title for Team Penske. In 2014, the No. 22 car was shared by Joey Logano, Brad Keselowski, Ryan Blaney, and Alex Tagliani in hopes of defending the Nationwide Owners ' Championship. Michael McDowell ran the car at Kentucky in September, the fifth driver to run the car in 2014. The No. 22 team beat the No. 54 JGR team once again for the owner 's title. They again beat the No. 54 team for the owners title in 2015, before going winless in 2016. In 2017 Brad Keselowski brought the 22 back to victory lane at Pocono after a last lap pass on Kyle Larson. The No. 22 team is known for its competition for the Nationwide Owner 's Championship with the equally strong Joe Gibbs Racing and their No. 18 and No. 20 teams. In an alliance with K - Automotive Racing (owned by Brad Keselowski 's brother Brian), Penske fielded the 26 car in select races in 2010, primarily Car of Tomorrow races. Nineteen - year - old Parker Kligerman debuted in the car at Daytona with Discount Tire, starting on the outside pole and finishing 13th. His next race was Montreal, where he scored a strong 8th - place finish. He then finished 15th at Richmond. At Charlotte in October, Kligerman qualified 8th, but crashed after only 3 laps and finished last. Sam Hornish Jr. ran the season finale in the 26, finishing 21st. Penske first fielded a blue Sunoco 1967 Chevrolet Camaro driven by Mark Donohue in this series designed for Pony cars like the Ford Mustang. Penske entered Camaros won the series championship in 1968 and 1969. Later they switched to a red / white / blue American Motors backed 1970 AMC Javelin, and later the restyled 1971 AMC Javelin AMX which had an aerodynamic tail spoiler and other features suggested by Donohue. American Motors won the Over 2.5 liter title in 1971, after which Penske withdrew from the championship. Penske Racing also had an alliance with pioneer Trans - Am team, Jocko 's Racing which won the 1976 Trans - Am Series championship in a Penske - leased car. Penske Racing entered a Lola T70 in the 1966 Can - Am Series for Mark Donohue, resulting in one win at Mosport. In 1967, Penske Racing entered two Lolas, one for Mark Donohue and one for George Follmer. 1968 saw Penske switch to a McLaren M6, which had won the series in 1967. Donohue won one race that year in Can - Am at Bridgehampton. With the McLaren domination of the Can - Am, Penske switched back to Lola Cars for his 1969 Can - Am efforts, but only entered the car in one race at Mid-Ohio. From 1972 to 1974, Penske was Porsche 's official partner in the CanAm Series. In late 1971, Penske and Mark Donohue helped to develop the tubocharged version of the Porsche 917. George Follmer won the series in 1972, and Donohue dominated CanAm in 1973 with the ultimate evolution of the 917, the 917 / 30. The rules were changed for 1974, and Penske raced only once this year. A Lola T70 Mk IIIb entered by Penske was the surprise winner of the 1969 24 Hours of Daytona. During the 1970 season the competition between the 5 - liter sportscars of Porsche and Ferrari turned to the advantage of the Porsche 917. In 1971, Ferrari decided to give up any official effort with the 5 - liter Ferrari 512. In order to prepare the 1972 season, the new works prototype Ferrari 312PB was presented and engaged by the factory in several races. Roger Penske bought a used 512 M chassis that was totally dismantled and rebuilt. The car was specially tuned for long races receiving many unique features, among them were a large rear wing and an aviation inspired quick refueling system. The engine was tuned by CanAm V8 specialist Traco, and was probably able to deliver more than 600 hp (450 kW). As of today it 's unknown to what extent Penske 's initiative was backed by Ferrari works. This 512M was painted in a blue and yellow livery and was sponsored by Sunoco and the Californian Ferrari dealer Kirk F. White. The car made the pole position for the 1971 24 Hours of Daytona and finished second despite an accident. For the 12 Hours of Sebring the "Sunoco '' made the pole again but finished the race at the sixth position after making contact with Pedro Rodrigez 's 917. Despite this misfortune the car had proved to be a serious opponent for the 917. Not only this car was the fastest on track in Daytona and Sebring but it was also the car that had the shortest refueling time. The presence of the 512 M "Sunoco '' forced Porsche to pursue his effort of research and development on the 917: The 917K short tail was modified, and the 917 LH aerodynamics received further improvements. New Magnesium chassis were developed. An entirely new car, the 917 / 20 was built as test - bed for future CanAm parts and aerodynamic "low - drag '' concepts. In Le Mans the "Sunoco '' Ferrari was unable to break the 200 mph (320 km / h) barrier on the straight while the Porsche 917 LH were lightning quick at speeds of over 240 mph (380 km / h). Mark Donohue qualified fourth anyway, which was obviously the result of an aerodynamic configuration that favored downforce over drag, which helped in the twistier sections. The car did not have much luck in the race though. In April 2005, it was announced that Porsche would build an Automobile Club de l'Ouest (ACO) sanctioned LMP2 Class Prototype that would be entered by Penske Racing in the American Le Mans Series. The Porsche RS Spyder made its successful debut at the ALMS season final race at Mazda Raceway Laguna Seca. The "Porsche Junioren '' factory drivers Sascha Maassen and Lucas Luhr finished 1st in LMP2 Class and 5th Overall in the 4 -- Hour Endurance Race. The livery of Penske Racing American Le Mans Series team was inspired by Jordan EJ12 's DHL Formula 1 livery driven by Giancarlo Fisichella and Takuma Sato. In 2006, Penske Motorsports fielded two LMP2 Porsche RS Spyder in the American Le Mans Series, but did not run the 2006 24 Hours of Le Mans in June. The Penske cars combined to win seven class victories and the overall win at Mid-Ohio. Penske Racing won the LMP2 team championship. Drivers Sascha Maassen and Lucas Luhr tied for first place in the driver 's championship, while Timo Bernhard finished fifth, Romain Dumas finished sixth, and Emmanuel Collard finished tenth. 2006 team lineup: In 2007, Penske Motorsports fielded two LMP2 Porsche RS Spyder Evo in the American Le Mans Series. Penske Motorsports for the 2nd year in a row did not compete in 2007 24 Hours of Le Mans in June. Penske 's two cars combined for eleven class victories and eight overall victories during the twelve race season. Penske won the LMP2 team championship, and team drivers Romain Dumas and Timo Bernhard finished tied for first in the LMP2 driver 's championship, while Sascha Maassen and Ryan Briscoe tied for third place. 2007 team lineup: Penske started out their 2008 season with an overall win in the 12 Hours of Sebring. This was Porsche 's first overall win in the race since 1988 in a Porsche 962. 2008 team lineup: In 2009, the No. 6 and No. 7 ALMS teams were used for Penske 's No. 12 Indycar, driven by Will Power in five races. The team announced in late 2009 that the ALMS teams would be dissolved and turned into the new No. 12 Verizon sponsored Indycar for Will Power to run full - time in 2010. In 2017, it was announced that Penske Racing would make a comeback to sportscar racing in IMSA 's WeatherTech SportsCar Championship for the 2018 season. They will run 2 Acura ARX - 05 DPis in the prototype (P) class. They ran the last race of 2017, the Petit Le Mans using the Oreca 07 LMP2 that the Acura DPi is based off, placing third. 2018 line - up: Penske entered the Formula One World Championship from 1974 to 1976. Although the cars were built at the British base in Poole, the team held an American licence. In 1971, Penske had sponsored the second McLaren entry in the 1971 Canadian and US GP, entering Mark Donohue, who took the car to a podium finish. The team returned three years later, in the 1974 Canadian GP, with their own chassis, the PC1, a standard tub built around a Cosworth DFV engine and a Hewland gearbox. Donohue took the car to 12th place on its debut. In 1975, Roger Penske mounted a full season attack with the PC1, Donohue managing to score a fifth place in the Swedish GP. However, the car was retired after the French GP and Penske entered a March 751 for the next three races, scoring another fifth in the British GP. However, Donohue crashed the car in the final practice session of the 1975 Austrian Grand Prix at Zeltweg and later died from his injuries. Penske missed the Italian race, returning only for the US GP, abandoning the March 751 in favor of the PC1 with Northern Irish driver John Watson. For 1976, Penske signed a sponsorship deal with Citibank and entered a brand new PC3 for Watson. In spite of a fifth place scored at the South African Grand Prix at Kyalami, the PC3 was evolved into the PC4, which was much more competitive, allowing Watson to score two podiums in France and Britain. Then, in the Austrian Grand Prix, the team scored their only F1 win, "forcing '' John Watson to shave his trademark beard. So far this has been the last time an American constructor won a F1 race. Still, Roger Penske was tired of Europe and at the end of the year decided to concentrate solely on Indycar racing, selling the remains of his European operations to Günther Schmidt of Germany. For 1977, the car was entered by Schmidt 's ATS Wheels business and run under the name of ATS Racing Team. The ATS - Penske PC4, now painted yellow, debuted in the 1977 United States Grand Prix West with Jean - Pierre Jarier at the wheel, where the Frenchman scored the team 's single point of the season. A second PC4 was eventually entered for Hans Heyer and Hans Binder but the team 's fortunes sunk and Schmidt quit after the Italian GP, before returning in 1978 with his own chassis. A third PC4 was built by Penske for Interscope Racing, who entered the car in the United States and Canadian Grands Prix, driven by American Danny Ongais with no results. In 1979 Penske designed and built the HR100 for wealthy Mexican ' gentleman driver ' Héctor Rebaque. The car was entered for the final three races of the season, but either failed to qualify or to finish in each case. In 2015, Team Penske entered the Australian V8 Supercars Championship, having purchased a 51 % stake in Dick Johnson Racing in September 2014. The team is known as DJR Team Penske. The team raced a single Ford Falcon FG X in 2015, initially with Marcos Ambrose driving car No. 17 and Scott Pye as a co-driver in the Endurance Cup. Following the Australian Grand Prix support race, Ambrose requested to step aside from driving to let Scott Pye become the main driver from Round 2 at Symmons Plains onwards. Ambrose then became the endurance co-driver in the Endurance Cup. In October 2015, DJR Team Penske announced a return to a two - car team in 2016 with Fabian Coulthard to drive car No. 12 and Scott Pye in car No. 17. Roger Penske later confirmed that Ambrose elected not to continue as a co-driver in 2016. For the 2017 season, Scott McLaughlin joined the team and became the new driver for the No. 17 Ford Falcon FG X Supercar. DJR Team Penske took out the 2017 Teams Championship in the Virgin Australia Supercars Championship. Penske Racing has the most Indianapolis 500 victories of any team in auto - racing history with 17 victories. In 1972, Penske driver Gary Bettenhausen led the most laps but lost an engine with 24 laps to go. His teammate Mark Donohue led the waning laps en route to Penske 's first Indianapolis 500 victory. In 1979, Penske driver Bobby Unser led the most laps of the Indianapolis 500 while teammate Rick Mears won the race, from the pole. Penske 's next 500 victory was one of the most controversial finishes in IndyCar history. Penske driver Unser won the pole position and led the most of the final 100 laps. On lap 140, Bobby Unser and former Penske driver Mario Andretti came out of the pits. Unser passed 11 cars under a yellow flag while Andretti passed 2 cars. Unser won the race, but was stripped of the victory the next morning in favor of Andretti. After a lengthy appeal, Unser was reinstated the victory and was instead fined $40,000 ($104,000 in today 's money). Unser retired from racing after the season was over in the fall - out of the controversy. Penske 's next Indy 500 win was with Rick Mears in 1984. Mears and former Penske driver Tom Sneva battled for the lead in the final 100 laps but after Sneva dropped out with a broken CV joint, Mears led the final 40 laps unchallenged to win by 2 - laps ahead of the field. The next year, first - year Penske driver Danny Sullivan led the final 61 laps en route to his first Indianapolis 500 victory after winning a 4 - lap shootout with Mario Andretti. In 1987, Penske driver Danny Ongais got taken out of the race due to injuries and former Penske driver Al Unser was tabbed as a temporary replacement. Unser won the race. 1988 was one of the most dominating performances by Penske Racing in the history of the Indianapolis 500. Penske 's team members, Sullivan, Unser and Mears qualified in the front row and proceeded to lead 192 of the race 's 200 laps, 91 by Sullivan, 89 by Mears, and 12 by Unser. Mears won the race. In 1991, Mears won an 18 - lap duel with Michael Andretti to win his 4th Indianapolis 500. Emerson Fittipaldi won the 500 in 1993 but angered American fans by drinking orange juice instead of the traditional milk. In 1994, the Penske team, consisting of Al Unser Jr., Paul Tracy and Emerson Fittipaldi led 193 of the race 's 200 laps, thanks to a new engine invented by Penske that went up to 1000 horsepower. The engine was later banned, which resulted in Penske Racing not qualifying a single car in the 1995 Indianapolis 500. Due to the open - wheel split, Penske did not field a car at the Indianapolis 500 from 1996 - 2000. In 2001, Penske Racing crossed a picket - line by fielding the team in the 500, consisting of rookie Hélio Castroneves and Gil de Ferran. The duo proceeded to lead the most laps, en route to the victory, giving Penske Racing a 1 - 2 finish, the first time in the team 's history. In a post-race interview, Roger Penske said that after the heartbreak in 1995, the win was the biggest of all his Indy 500 wins. In 2002, Castroneves barely beat Paul Tracy to win his second consecutive Indy 500. Controversy overshadowed the race when video tapes appeared to have shown that Tracy was ahead of Castroneves at the moment of a final - lap caution. After a lengthy appeal, Castroneves ' win was upheld on July 2. In 2003, Gil de Ferran won his first 500 and then retired when the season was over. Penske Racing has since proceeded to win the 500 in 2006, 2009, 2015, and 2018. Opened in 2002, the Penske Racing Museum in Scottsdale, Arizona, is located within a complex of Penske Automotive Group car dealerships at the Scottsdale 101 Auto Collection. The two - story, 9,000 - square - foot (840 m) museum houses approximately 20 historically significant Penske Racing cars, along with trophies, artwork, engines and other memorabilia dating from Penske Racing 's earliest origins up to the present day. Displays are rotated on a regular basis, but the museum focuses primarily on the team 's successes in the Indy 500 and NASCAR, with lesser emphasis on F1 and sports car racing. (key) (Results in bold indicate pole position; results in italics indicate fastest lap) (key) (key) * Season still in progress (italics indicates non-works entries; bold indicates championships won)

what album is like a stone on for audioslave

Audioslave (album) - wikipedia Audioslave is the eponymous debut studio album by American rock supergroup Audioslave. It was released on November 19, 2002, by Epic Records and Interscope Records. The album features the hit singles "Cochise '', "Show Me How to Live '', "What You Are '', "Like a Stone '', and "I Am the Highway ''. The album was later certified 3x platinum by the Recording Industry Association of America in the United States. "Like a Stone '' was nominated for a 2004 Grammy Award for Best Hard Rock Performance. Audioslave was formed after Zack de la Rocha left Rage Against the Machine and the remaining members were searching for another vocalist. Producer and friend Rick Rubin suggested that they contact Chris Cornell. Rubin played the remaining Rage Against the Machine band members the Soundgarden song "Slaves & Bulldozers '' to showcase his ability. Cornell was in the writing process of a second solo album, but decided to shelve that and pursue the opportunity to work with Tom Morello, Tim Commerford and Brad Wilk when they approached him. Morello described Cornell: "He stepped to the microphone and sang the song and I could n't believe it. It did n't just sound good. It sounded transcendent. And... when there is an irreplaceable chemistry from the first moment, you ca n't deny it. '' The quartet wrote 21 songs during 19 days of rehearsal and began working in the studio in late May 2001. Songs from the album were first heard when thirteen rough rehearsal demo tracks were leaked onto various peer - to - peer filesharing networks on May 16, 2002, six months before the official release of the album, under the name "Civilian '' (or "The Civilian Project ''). According to guitarist Tom Morello "it was very frustrating, especially with a band like this, there is a certain amount of expectation. '' He also said that the songs were not in their finished form and that in some cases "they were n't even the same lyrics, guitar solos, performances of any kind. '' In an earlier, July 2002 interview with Metal Sludge he spoke more explicitly about the incident, blaming "some jackass intern at Bad Animal Studios in Seattle '' for stealing the demos and putting them on the Internet without the band 's permission. The band was nearly derailed before the album 's release. Cornell was going through alcohol problems and a slot on the Ozzfest tour was canceled. During this time, there was a rumor that Cornell had checked himself into drug rehabilitation. He later confirmed it in an interview with Metal Hammer that was conducted from a clinic payphone. In a San Diego CityBeat article, Cornell explained that he went through "a horrible personal crisis '' during the making of the first record, staying in rehab for two months and separating from his wife. The problems were ironed out and he remained sober till his passing in 2017. The band toured through 2003, before resting in 2004 to record their second album. This album was released ten years after Rage Against the Machine 's (Morello, Commerford, and Wilk 's former band) debut album was released on November 3, 1992. The album cover was designed by Storm Thorgerson (with Peter Curzon and Rupert Truman) -- who, as leader of the group of artists known as Hipgnosis, was best known for his cover work for Pink Floyd. "We knew we were going to set this idea of the eternal flame, the graphic flame, in Lanzarote, a volcanic island, since volcanoes suited the brooding menace of Audioslave, '' Thorgerson recalled. An unreleased version of the cover, shot elsewhere at the same location, features a naked man looking at the flame. "We so nearly used it, '' said Thorgerson, "but we were not entirely sure of the nude figure. '' The album was released on November 19, 2002 and entered the Billboard 200 chart at position number seven after selling 162,000 copies in its first week. It was certified gold by the RIAA less than a month after its release, and by 2006 it had achieved triple platinum selling status. It is the most successful Audioslave album to date, having sold more than three million copies in the United States alone. The album spawned hits such as "Cochise '', "Like a Stone '' and "Show Me How to Live ''. Despite its commercial success, Audioslave received mixed reviews. Some critics lambasted the group 's effort as uninspired, and predictable. Pitchfork Media 's reviewers Chris Dahlen and Ryan Schreiber praised Cornell 's voice, but criticized virtually every other part of the album, calling it "the worst kind of studio rock album, rigorously controlled -- even undercut -- by studio gimmickry. '' They described Cornell 's lyrics as "complete gibberish '' and called producer Rick Rubin 's work "a synthesized rock - like product that emits no heat. '' Jon Monks from Stylus Magazine had the same opinion. He considered Rubin 's production over-polished and wrote that "lacking individuality, distinction and imagination this album is over-produced, overlong and over-indulgent. '' On the other hand, other critics praised the supergroup 's style reminiscent of 1970s heavy metal and compared it to Led Zeppelin and Black Sabbath, saying they add much - needed sound and style to contemporary mainstream rock music, and have the potential to become one of the best rock bands of the 21st century. In 2005, Audioslave was ranked number 281 in Rock Hard magazine 's book of The 500 Greatest Rock & Metal Albums of All Time. The track "Shadow on the Sun '' was also featured in Michael Mann 's 2004 film Collateral. All lyrics written by Chris Cornell; all music composed by Audioslave. The album was included among a group of 15 DualDisc releases that were test marketed in two cities: Boston and Seattle. The DualDisc has the standard album on one side, and bonus material on the second side. The DVD side of the Audioslave DualDisc featured the entire album in higher resolution 20bit 48 kHz sound, as well as some videos. The higher resolution DVD side of this disc has been termed a demonstration quality audiophile release. For a limited time the CD could be inserted into a CD - ROM and be used to access the ConnecteD website. Here, the user would be able to download bonus videos, interviews, photos, and a bonus track "Give ''. sales figures based on certification alone shipments figures based on certification alone

what does card not present on pending transactions mean

Card not present transaction - wikipedia A card not present transaction (CNP, MO / TO, Mail Order / Telephone Order, MOTOEC) is a payment card transaction made where the cardholder does not or can not physically present the card for a merchant 's visual examination at the time that an order is given and payment effected. It 's most commonly used for payments made over Internet, but also mail - order transactions by mail or fax, or over the telephone. Card not present transactions are a major route for credit card fraud, because it is difficult for a merchant to verify that the actual cardholder is indeed authorizing a purchase. If a fraudulent CNP transaction is reported, the acquiring bank hosting the merchant account that received the money from the fraudulent transaction must make restitution; whereas with a swiped (card present) transaction, the issuer of the card is liable for restitution. Because of the greater risk, some card issuers charge a greater transaction fee to merchants who routinely handle card not present transactions. The card security code (commonly CVV2) system has been set up to reduce the incidence of credit card fraud arising from CNP. If a card is not physically present when a customer makes a purchase, the merchant must rely on the cardholder, or someone purporting to be so, presenting card information indirectly, whether by mail, telephone or over the Internet. Shipping companies may guarantee delivery of goods to a location, but they are normally not required to check identification and they are usually not involved in processing payments for the merchandise. A common preventive measure for merchants is to allow shipment only to an address approved by the cardholder, and merchant banking systems offer simple methods of verifying this information. Before this and similar countermeasures were introduced, mail order carding was rampant as early as 1992. A carder would obtain the credit card information for a local resident and then intercept delivery of the illegitimately purchased merchandise at the shipping address, often by staking out the porch of the residence. Small transactions generally undergo less scrutiny, and are less likely to be investigated by either the card issuer or the merchant. CNP merchants must take extra precaution against fraud exposure and associated losses, and they pay higher rates for the privilege of accepting cards. Fraudsters bet on the fact that many fraud prevention features are not used for small transactions. Merchant associations have developed some prevention measures, such as single use card numbers, but these have not met with much success. Customers expect to be able to use their credit card without any hassles, and have little incentive to pursue additional security due to laws limiting customer liability in the event of fraud. Merchants can implement these prevention measures but risk losing business if the customer chooses not to use the measures. The United States Federal Trade Commission uncovered an operation running from 2006 to 2010 that netted more than $10 million in fraudulent charges on credit and debit cards. The perpetrators used more than 100 merchant accounts that they had created to do the billing. Each merchant account was attached to an Employer Identification Number belonging to a real merchant with a similar - sounding name. Each merchant account was tied to an 800 - number from CallMe800. Each account was also tied to a web site they had created. They also rented physical addresses from companies which rent virtual offices, such as formerly Regus, for each merchant account. These virtual office companies, which did not know of and were otherwise not involved in the scam, would then forward any mail received at the virtual office to Earth Class Mail, a digital mailroom service that scanned mail from the physical address of the merchant account and forwarded it as a PDF to email accounts that the scammers had established. The scammers also ensured that when they checked their online merchant accounts, that they used an IP address located near the billing address so as not to arouse suspicion. A charge of $9 was processed on about one million credit cards over the four - year period. Each card was billed a single time. Credit card companies only investigate if the charge is more than $10, because it costs about that much to run an investigation. Then the money was moved to bank accounts in Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia, Bulgaria, Cyprus, and Kyrgyzstan where the money could not be traced or recovered. The perpetrators experimented with a 20 - cent charge and that generated more suspicion than the $9 charge. Only about 10 percent of the fraudulent charges were ever reported or contested by the card owner that was billed.

i wish i knew you when i was young rod stewart

Ooh La La (Faces song) - wikipedia "Ooh La La '' is a 1973 song by the band Faces, written by Ronnie Lane and Ronnie Wood. It was the title song for the band 's last studio album, Ooh La La. The lead vocals were provided by Wood, a rarity in the band 's catalog, as most lead vocals were by Rod Stewart or less often by Ronnie Lane. Stewart and Lane recorded lead vocals for it; however, their producer suggested Wood give it a try, and that was the version that was used for the track which appeared on the record. Lane recorded his own version after leaving the Faces in 1973 with his new group, Slim Chance. Lane 's version featuring lyrics slightly altered from those he wrote for the Faces. Although Lane 's version was never released during his lifetime, it appeared as the title track of the 2014 Slim Chance compilation Ooh La La: An Island Harvest. Lane performed his version of the song right up until he retired from the music business in 1992. Wood performed the song in his solo concerts between 1987 -- 2012. The lyrics describe a dialogue between a grandfather and grandson, with the elder man warning the younger about the perils of relationships with women: "Poor old granddad, I laughed at all his words / I thought he was a bitter man; he spoke of women 's ways. '' The chorus laments, "I wish that I knew what I know now, when I was younger. '' In addition to being the closing title track of the Faces ' final studio album, the song also appeared as a US single in May 1973. The first compilation the song appeared on was the album Snakes and Ladders / The Best of Faces, and was one of the few songs that represented Ronnie Lane 's songwriting. It appeared again on the 1999 Faces retrospective Good Boys... When They 're Asleep and another time on the four - disc Five Guys Walk Into A Bar... It even appeared on the Ronnie Wood greatest hits compilation Ronnie Wood Anthology: The Essential Crossexion, where Wood stated in the liner notes that he always thinks of Lane when he plays it. Rod Stewart covered the song himself on his 1998 solo album When We Were the New Boys in tribute to the recently deceased Lane. It was released as the first single from the album and became a top 40 hit in the US and top 20 in the UK. Indie rock band Silkworm covered the song for their 2000 LP Lifestyle. Banjo player Danny Barnes covered the song on his 2003 release Dirt on the Angel. The song was covered by Counting Crows as a B - side for their 2003 single "If I Could Give All My Love (Richard Manuel Is Dead) '' and re-released on their 2012 studio - album "Underwater Sunshine ''. In late 2012, punk rocker Tim Armstrong, best known as frontman of Rancid, recorded a ska - flavored cover of the song under the moniker Tim Timebomb and Friends. Included in the recording, and featured in the video, were drummer Travis Barker of Blink - 182, bassist J Bonner, and keyboardist Kevin Bivona of The Transplants. American indie rock band Manchester Orchestra performed a version of the song in July 2013 for The A.V. Club 's A.V. Undercover series. Canadian band Hey Rosetta! recorded a version in 2014. Folk act Redbird included a version on their Live at the Cafe Carpe album. "Ooh La La '' was featured in the 1998 film Rushmore, played over the film 's final shot and closing credits. It was also included in the film 's 1999 soundtrack album. It was also used as the theme song for the 2003 BBC sitcom Grass. It was also featured in the 2004 movie Without a Paddle. "Ooh La La '' was performed live by Ronnie Wood at the 50th birthday celebration of the Fender Stratocaster in 2004. Episode 4 of the 2004 BBC miniseries Blackpool featured the Faces recording, accompanied on screen by the singing and dancing of the characters, as part of the story. The song is used in the HBO series Entourage in the fifth - season episode "ReDOMption ''. It is used in the Showtime series Californication in the third - season finale "Mia Culpa ''. It is the favorite song of Red Hot Chili Peppers ' vocalist Anthony Kiedis. It was played at the funeral of FBI Agent Elizabeth Keen, on the NBC series The Blacklist, season 3, episode 20 "The Artax Network ''. Used as background music during the "fish '' scene of season 1 episode 20 Young Sheldon.

when was the last time eagles were 5-1

NFC East - Wikipedia The NFC East is a division of the National Football League (NFL) 's National Football Conference (NFC). It currently has four members: the Philadelphia Eagles, the New York Giants, the Dallas Cowboys, and the Washington Redskins. The division was formed in 1967 as the National Football League Capitol Division, keeping with the theme of having all of the league 's divisions starting with the letter "C. '' The division was so named because it was centered on the capital of the United States, Washington, D.C. In 1967 and 1969 the teams in the NFL Capitol Division were Dallas, Philadelphia, Washington and the expansion New Orleans Saints, which had been replaced by the New York Giants for the 1968 season. Its most recent Super Bowl champions are the New York Giants. Previously, although the St. Louis Rams were geographically farther east than Dallas before moving back to Los Angeles, the Cowboys remained in the NFC East despite being the only team located in the Central Time Zone and the Rams stayed in the NFC West because of long - standing rivalries: the Cowboys with all three other teams in the East, and the Rams with the San Francisco 49ers in the West. The NFC East teams have combined to be the most successful division in the NFL since the 1970 NFL merger with 20 NFC Championship wins and 12 Super Bowl victories, the highest marks of any division in the NFL. Each of the current NFC East 's four teams has won at least three NFL titles during their existence; however, only Philadelphia has yet to win a championship in the Super Bowl era. The division features a number of prominent rivalries such as the Cowboys -- Redskins rivalry and Eagles -- Giants rivalry. Because the division 's teams are in some of the United States ' largest media markets (New York No. 1, Philadelphia, No. 4, Dallas - Fort Worth No. 5, and Washington No. 8), the NFC East receives a high amount of coverage from national sports media outlets. In the early 1990s the division claimed four consecutive Super Bowl champions, all 4 against the Buffalo Bills, with the Giants and Redskins respectively winning back - to - back in Super Bowls XXV and XXVI; and the Cowboys winning twice after in Super Bowls XXVII and XXVIII. Those same three teams won seven out of ten Super Bowls, from 1986 - 87 to 1995 - 96 (49ers won the other three). The Philadelphia Eagles are the only NFC East team to play in the city of the team 's naming, Philadelphia. The other three teams play in suburbs of the major cities they are named after. The Dallas Cowboys play in Arlington, Texas. The Washington Redskins play in Landover, Maryland and the New York Giants play in East Rutherford, New Jersey, where they share a stadium with the New York Jets. The only two other teams not from either East division to do so is the NFC West 's San Francisco 49ers, who started playing in the San Francisco suburb of Santa Clara in 2014, and the Arizona Cardinals, who play in the Phoenix suburb of Glendale. The NFC East can also be called the most valuable NFL Division. All four teams in the division are in the top ten of most valuable NFL franchises (Cowboys # 1; Giants # 3; Redskins # 5; Eagles # 10). The next closest division is the AFC North, which is not completed until the 26th ranked Cincinnati Bengals. Place cursor over year for division champ or Super Bowl team. There was one division sweep of the Capitol Division, 1969 Cowboys 6 - 0 The Philadelphia Eagles are the only team in the NFC East not to win a Super Bowl. The Cowboys lead with five, followed by the Giants with four, and the Redskins with three. In overall NFL history, however, the Giants lead with eight league championships, followed by the Redskins and Cowboys with five each, then the Eagles with three. There have been two division sweeps of the NFC East Division, the 1998 Dallas Cowboys (8 - 0) and the 2004 Philadelphia Eagles (6 - 0). To sort table above, click button to right of heading.

non small cell left lung cancer icd 10

Non-small - cell lung carcinoma - wikipedia Non-small - cell lung carcinoma (NSCLC) is any type of epithelial lung cancer other than small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC). NSCLC accounts for about 85 % of all lung cancers. As a class, NSCLCs are relatively insensitive to chemotherapy, compared to small cell carcinoma. When possible, they are primarily treated by surgical resection with curative intent, although chemotherapy is increasingly being used both pre-operatively (neoadjuvant chemotherapy) and post-operatively (adjuvant chemotherapy). The most common types of NSCLC are squamous cell carcinoma, large cell carcinoma, and adenocarcinoma, but there are several other types that occur less frequently. A few of the less common types are pleomorphic, carcinoid tumor, salivary gland carcinoma, and unclassified carcinoma. All types can occur in unusual histologic variants and as mixed cell - type combinations. Non-squamous cell carcinoma almost occupy the half of NSCLC. In the tissue classification, the centural type contains about one - ninth. Sometimes the phrase "not otherwise specified '', or NOS is used generically, usually when a more specific diagnosis can not be made. This is most often the case when a pathologist examines a small amount of malignant cells or tissue in a cytology or biopsy specimen. Lung cancer in never - smokers is almost universally NSCLC, with a sizeable majority being adenocarcinoma. On relatively rare occasions, malignant lung tumors are found to contain components of both SCLC and NSCLC. In these cases, the tumors should be classified as combined small cell lung carcinoma (c - SCLC), and are (usually) treated like "pure '' SCLC. Adenocarcinoma of the lung is currently the most common type of lung cancer in "never smokers '' (lifelong non-smokers). Adenocarcinomas account for approximately 40 % of lung cancers. Historically, adenocarcinoma was more often seen peripherally in the lungs than small cell lung cancer and squamous cell lung cancer, both of which tended to be more often centrally located. However, recent studies suggest that the "ratio of centrally - to - peripherally occurring '' lesions may be converging toward unity for both adenocarcinoma and squamous cell carcinoma. Squamous cell carcinoma (SCC) of the lung is more common in men than in women. It is closely correlated with a history of tobacco smoking, more so than most other types of lung cancer. According to the Nurses ' Health Study, the relative risk of SCC is approximately 5.5, both among those with a previous duration of smoking of 1 to 20 years, and those with 20 to 30 years, compared to never - smokers. The relative risk increases to approximately 16 with a previous smoking duration of 30 to 40 years, and approximately 22 with more than 40 years. Large cell lung carcinoma (LCLC) is a heterogeneous group of undifferentiated malignant neoplasms originating from transformed epithelial cells in the lung. LCLC 's have typically comprised around 10 % of all NSCLC in the past, although newer diagnostic techniques seem to be reducing the incidence of diagnosis of "classic '' LCLC in favor of more poorly differentiated squamous cell carcinomas and adenocarcinomas. LCLC is, in effect, a "diagnosis of exclusion '', in that the tumor cells lack light microscopic characteristics that would classify the neoplasm as a small - cell carcinoma, squamous - cell carcinoma, adenocarcinoma, or other more specific histologic type of lung cancer. LCLC is differentiated from small cell lung carcinoma (SCLC) primarily by the larger size of the anaplastic cells, a higher cytoplasmic - to - nuclear size ratio, and a lack of "salt - and - pepper '' chromatin. Many of the symptoms of NSCLC can be signs of other diseases, but having chronic or overlapping symptoms may be a signal of the presence of the disease. Some symptoms are indicators of less advanced cases while some may signal that the cancer has spread. Some of the symptoms of less advanced cancer include chronic cough, coughing up blood, chest pain, hoarseness, shortness of breath, wheezing, chest pain, weight loss, and loss of appetite. A few more symptoms associated with the early progression of the disease are feeling weak, being very tired, having trouble swallowing, swelling in the face or neck, and continuous or recurring infections like bronchitis or pneumonia. Signs of more advanced cases include bone pain, nervous system changes (headache, weakness, dizziness, balance problems, seizures), jaundice, lumps near the surface of the body, numbness of extremities due to Pancoast Syndrome, and nausea, vomiting and constipation brought on by hypercalcemia. Some more of the symptoms that indicate further progression of the cancer include shortness of breath, superior vena cava syndrome, trouble swallowing, large amounts of mucus, weakness, fatigue, and hoarseness. Smoking is by far the leading risk factor for lung cancer. Cigarette smoke contains more than 6,000 components, many of which lead to DNA damage (see table of tobacco - related DNA damages in Tobacco smoking). Other causes include radon, exposure to secondhand smoke, exposure to substances such as asbestos, chromium, nickel, beryllium, soot, or tar, family history of lung cancer, and air pollution. In general, DNA damage appears to be the primary underlying cause of cancer. Though most DNA damages are repairable, leftover un-repaired DNA damages from cigarette smoke are the likely cause of NSCLC. DNA replication past an un-repaired damage can give rise to a mutation because of inaccurate translesion synthesis. In addition, during repair of DNA double - strand breaks, or repair of other DNA damages, incompletely cleared sites of repair can lead to epigenetic gene silencing. Deficiencies in DNA repair underlie many forms of cancer. If DNA repair is deficient, the frequency of un-repaired DNA damages will increase and these will tend to cause inaccurate translesion synthesis leading to mutation. Furthermore, increased damages can elevate incomplete repair, leading to epigenetic alterations. As indicated as in the article Carcinogenesis, mutations in DNA repair genes occasionally occur in cancer. However, deficiencies of DNA repair due to epigenetic alterations that reduce or silence DNA repair gene expression occur much more frequently in cancer. Epigenetic gene silencing of DNA repair genes occurs frequently in NSCLC. At least nine DNA repair genes that normally function in relatively accurate DNA repair pathways are often repressed by promoter hypermethylation in NSCLC (see table). One DNA repair gene, FEN1, that functions in an inaccurate DNA repair pathway, is expressed at an increased level due to hypo -, rather than hyper -, methylation of its promoter region (deficiency of promoter methylation) in NSCLC (see table). The frequent deficiencies in accurate DNA repair, and the increase in inaccurate repair, likely cause the high level of mutation in lung cancer cells of more than 100,000 mutations per genome (see Whole genome sequencing). Staging is a formal procedure to determine how developed the cancer is. This determines treatment options. The American Joint Committee on Cancer (AJCC) and the International Union Against Cancer (UICC) recommend TNM staging, using a uniform scheme for non-small cell lung carcinoma, small - cell lung carcinoma and broncho - pulmonary carcinoid tumors. With TNM staging, the cancer is classified based on the size of the tumor and spread to lymph nodes and other organs. As the tumor grows in size and the areas affected become larger, the staging of the cancer becomes more advanced as well. There are several components of NSCLC staging which then influence physicians ' treatment strategies. The lung tumor itself is typically assessed both radiographically for overall size as well as by a pathologist under the microscope to identify specific genetic markers or to see if there has been invasion into important structures within the chest (e.g., bronchus or pleural cavity). Next, the patient 's nearby lymph nodes within the chest cavity known as the mediastinum will be checked for disease involvement. Finally, the patient will be evaluated for more distant sites of metastatic disease, most typically with brain imaging and or scans of the bones. The survival rates for stages I through IV decrease significantly due to the advancement of the disease. For stage I, the five - year survival rate is 47 %, stage II is 30 %, stage III is 10 %, and stage IV is 1 %. More than one kind of treatment is often used, depending on the stage of the cancer, the individual 's overall health, age, response to chemotherapy, and other factors such as the likely side effects of the treatment. After full staging, the NSCLC patient can typically be classified in one of three different categories: patients with early, non-metastatic disease (Stage I, II and select III tumors), patients with locally advanced disease confined to the thoracic cavity (e.g., large tumors, tumors involving critical chest structures or patients with positive mediastinal lymph nodes) or patients with distant metastasis outside of the thoracic cavity. NSCLCs are usually not very sensitive to chemotherapy and / or radiation, so surgery (lung resection to remove the tumor), remains the treatment of choice if patients are diagnosed at an early stage. If the person has a small, but inoperable tumor, they may undergo highly targeted, high intensity radiation therapy. New methods of giving radiation treatment allow doctors to be more accurate in treating lung cancers. This means less radiation affects nearby healthy tissues. New methods include Cyberknife and stereotactic body radiation therapy (SBRT). Certain people that are deemed to be higher risk may also receive adjuvant (ancillary) chemotherapy after initial surgery or radiation therapy. There are a number of possible chemotherapy agents which can be selected however most will involve the platinum - based chemotherapy drug called cisplatin. Other treatments include percutaneous ablation and chemoembolization. The most widely used ablation techniques for lung cancer are radiofrequency ablation, cryoablation, and microwave ablation. Ablation may be an option for patients whose tumors are near the outer edge of the lungs. Nodules less than 1 cm from the trachea, main bronchi, oesophagus and central vessels should be excluded from RFA given high risk of complications and frequent incomplete ablation. Additionally, lesions greater than 5 cm should be excluded and lesions 3 to 5 cm should be considered with caution given high risk of recurrence. As a minimally invasive procedure, it can be a safer alternative for patients who are poor candidates for surgery due to co-morbidities or limited lung function. A study comparing thermal ablation to sublobar resection as treatment for early stage NSCLC in older people found no difference in overall survival of the patients. It is possible that RFA followed by radiation therapy has a survival benefit due to synergysm of the two mechanisms of cell destruction. The treatment approach for people who have advanced NSCLC is first aimed at relieving pain and distress (palliative), however a wide variety of chemotherapy options exist. These agents include both traditional chemotherapies like cisplatin, which indiscriminately target all rapidly dividing cells, as well as newer targeted agents which are more tailored to specific genetic aberrations found within a person 's tumor. When choosing an appropriate chemotherapy approach, the toxicity profile (side effects of the drug) should be taken into account and balanced with the person 's comorbidities (other conditions or side effects that the person is experiencing). Carboplatin is a chemotherapy agent that has a similar effect on a person 's survival when compared to cisplatin, and has a different toxicity profile from cisplatin. At present there are two genetic markers which are routinely profiled in NSCLC tumors to guide further treatment decision making: mutations within epidermal growth factor (EGFR) and Anaplastic Lymphoma Kinase. There are also a number of additional genetic markers which are known to be mutated within NSCLC and may impact treatment in the future, including BRAF (gene), HER2 / neu and KRAS. For advanced NSCLC, a combined chemotherapy treatment approach that includes cetuximab, an antibody that targets the EGFR signalling pathway, is more effective at improving a person 's overall survival when compared to standard chemotherapy alone. Thermal ablations i.e. radiofrequency ablation, cryoablation, microwave ablation are appropriate for palliative treatment of tumor - related symptoms or recurrences within treatment fields. People with severe pulmonary fibrosis and severe emphysema with a life expectancy < 1 year should be considered poor candidates for this treatment. Roughly 10 -- 35 % of people who have NSCLC will have drug sensitizing mutations of the EGFR. The distribution of these mutations have been found to be race - dependent, with one study estimating that 10 % of Caucasians but 50 % of Asians will be found to have such tumor markers. A number of different EGFR mutations have been discovered, however certain aberrations will result in hyperactive forms of the protein. People with these mutations are more likely to have adenocarcinoma histology and be non-smokers or light smokers. These people have been shown to be sensitized to certain medications which block the EGFR protein known as tyrosine kinase inhibitors specifically, erlotinib, gefitinib, afatinib or osimertinib. Reliable identification of mutations in lung cancer needs careful consideration due to the variable sensitivity of diagnostic techniques. Up to 7 % of NSCLC patients have EML4 - ALK translocations or mutations in the ROS1 gene; these patients may benefit from ALK inhibitors which are now approved for this subset of patients. Crizotinib gained FDA approval in August 2011 and is an inhibitor of several kinases, specifically ALK, ROS1 and MET. Crizotinib has been shown in clinical studies to have response rates of ~ 60 % if patients are shown to have ALK positive disease. Several studies have also shown that ALK mutations and EGFR activating mutations are typically mutually exclusive. Thus, it is not recommended for patients who fail crizotinib to be switched to an EGFR - targeted drug such as erlotinib. NSCLC patients with advanced disease who are not found to have either EGFR or ALK mutations may receive bevacizumab which is a monoclonal antibody medication targeted against the vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF). This is based on an Eastern Cooperative Oncology Group study which found that adding bevacizumab to carboplatin and paclitaxel chemotherapy for certain patients with recurrent or advanced non-small - cell lung cancer (stage IIIB or IV) may increase both overall survival and progression free survival. In 2015 the US FDA approved the anti-PD - 1 agent nivolumab for advanced or metastatic squamous cell carcinoma. October 2, 2015, the FDA approved pembrolizumab for the treatment of metastatic non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) in patients whose tumors express PD - L1 and who have failed treatment with other chemotherapeutic agents. October 2016, pembrolizumab became the first immunotherapy to be used first line in the treatment of NSCLC if the cancer overexpresses PDL1 and the cancer has no mutations in EGFR or in ALK; if chemotherapy has already been administered, then pembrolizumab can be used as a second line treatment but if the cancer has EGFR or ALK mutations, agents targeting those mutations should be used first. Assessment of PDL1 must be conducted with a validated and approved companion diagnostic.

when does mens hockey start at the olympics

Ice Hockey at the 2018 Winter Olympics - wikipedia The ice hockey competitions of the 2018 Winter Olympics were played at two venues within the Gangneung Coastal Cluster in Gangneung, South Korea. The Gangneung Hockey Centre, which seats 10,000, and the Kwandong Hockey Centre, which seats 6,000, were both originally scheduled to be completed in 2016 but appear to have been completed in early 2017. Both venues contain Olympic - sized rinks (60 by 30 m (196.85 by 98.43 ft)). Twelve teams competed in the men 's tournament, which was to be held from 14 to 25 February, while eight teams competed in the women 's tournament, from 10 to 22 February. In a historic deal, the women 's tournament featured a combined Korean team with an expanded roster. The tournament featured 12 countries, eight qualifying through the IIHF World Ranking, 3 through subsequent qualifying tournaments, and the host South Korea men 's national ice hockey team. The format were the same as 2010 and 2014; three groups of four competed in three games to determine seeding, each playing every other team in their group, followed by four rounds of elimination games. Each group winner received a bye into the second round, along with the highest ranked of the remaining teams. The remaining eight teams played an eliminating qualification game to advance to the quarter - final round. Each quarter - final winner advanced to the semi-finals with the winners playing for the gold medal and the losers playing for the bronze. Qualification was determined by the IIHF World Ranking following the 2015 Men 's World Ice Hockey Championships. The top eight teams in the World Ranking received automatic berths into the Olympics, the host received an automatic berth, and the remaining teams competed to qualify for the remaining three spots. In April 2014 René Fasel indicated that the Koreans would need a ranking of 18th or better but in September of the same year the policy was apparently changed to guarantee the host a position. On 3 April 2017, the National Hockey League announced that its players would not be made available for selection for the national teams in the 2018 Winter Olympics. While it was "open to hearing from any of the other parties who might have an interest in the issue '', the NHL "confirmed that it has no interest or intention of engaging in any discussion that might make Olympic participation more attractive to the Clubs '' and that it would not schedule a break for the Olympics in the 2017 -- 18 season; to compensate, the NHL scheduled its all - star game and league - wide bye week for January, a month before the Olympics. The primary disagreement between the NHL, IIHF, and IOC appears to have been over who would pay to insure players. The IOC agreed to insure the players for the 2014 Olympics at a cost of $14 million, but was unwilling to pay again. IOC appeared concerned that if it continued to cover the costs of NHL players, other professional bodies would demand similar treatment. NHL Commissioner Gary Bettman noted that the NHL does not directly profit from their presence in the Olympics and that the IOC 's ambush marketing rules make it difficult for the league to capitalize on its players ' participation, adding that, "in fact, we kind of disappear for two weeks because historically the IOC has n't even let us join in promoting our participation in the Olympics ''. The American Hockey League, a minor professional league that has largely acted as a development league for the NHL, stated that it would allow its players to be loaned to national teams for the duration of the Olympics (although like the NHL, there will not be a break in the season for the Games). CBC Sports reported that AHL players under two - way contracts with NHL affiliates would still be prohibited from attending, but deputy commissioner Bill Daly denied the claim. Two weeks later, Daly reversed that position and stated that AHL players on two - way contracts would indeed be prohibited from the Olympics. In July, American television company NBC Sports announced that it would not air any NHL games during the Winter Olympics on any of its national networks. However, in January they added three NHL noon games on NBC. Unlike NHL, vast majority of European leagues will accommodate an Olympic break, headlined by Russia - based KHL 's 33 - days break, Sweden - based Swedish Hockey League 's 14 - days break, Switzerland - based National League 's 25 - days break, German - based Deutsche Eishockey Liga 's 26 - days break, Czech Republic - based Extraliga 's 18 - days break and Slovakia - based Tipsport liga 's 14 - days break. Conversely, Finland - based SM - liiga will not accommodate a break, but will allow its top players leave the clubs and participate in the Olympics. The women 's tournament ran from 10 to 22 February with eight nations competing. The format was the same as 2014. The top 4 seeded teams played in group A and the next four in group B. The top two seeds from group A received a bye from the quarterfinal round. The bottom two group A teams played the top two group B teams in the quarterfinal round. The winner of these two games played the top two group A teams in the semifinal round. The winners of the semifinal round played for the gold medal and the losers played for the bronze. Qualification was determined by the IIHF World Ranking following the 2016 IIHF Women 's World Championship. The top five teams in the World Ranking received automatic berths into the Olympics. South Korea gained direct entry by being host and all other teams competed to qualify for the remaining two spots. The 2018 Winter Olympic Ice hockey tournament saw a total of 223,892 spectators. The Men 's tournament, specifically, had a total of 138,327 spectators across the 30 game event, and the Women 's tournament had 85,565 spectators across the 22 game event. The tournaments were played in two locations, the Gangneug Hockey Centre, and the Kwandong Hockey Centre. The Gangneug Hockey Centre has a maximum capacity of 10,000 spectators. The Kwandong Hockey Centre has a maximum capacity of 6,000 spectators. At the 2018 Pyongyang Winter Olympics, ice hockey tournament, there was an average attendance of 4,610 spectators for the men 's tournament, and 3,889 spectators for the women 's tournament. The top four teams with the highest attendance for the men 's tournament were, respectively, Korea, the Czech Republic, Slovakia, and the United States of America. For the women 's tournament, the most attended games were, respectively, the United States of America, Korea, Finland, and Canada. A total of 496 athletes from 14 nations (including the IOC 's designation of Olympic Athletes from Russia) were scheduled to participate (the numbers of athletes are shown in parentheses). The IOC initially admitted 13 men 's or women 's teams to compete. Later, North Korean athletes were rostered to participate in the women 's tournament alongside South Korean athletes in a combined women 's Korean team. Men 's rosters can be made up of 25 players, while women 's rosters can consist of up to 23. The Czech, German, Norwegian, Slovakian, and Slovenian teams entered only the men 's competition, while the Japanese team alone entered only the women 's competition. All other teams played in both tournaments.

1 solar day is equal to how many hours

Day - wikipedia A day, a unit of time, is approximately the period of time during which the Earth completes one rotation with respect to the Sun (solar day). In 1960, the second was redefined in terms of the orbital motion of the Earth in year 1900, and was designated the SI base unit of time. The unit of measurement "day '', was redefined as 86 400 SI seconds and symbolized d. In 1967, the second and so the day were redefined by atomic electron transition. A civil day is usually 86 400 seconds, plus or minus a possible leap second in Coordinated Universal Time (UTC), and occasionally plus or minus an hour in those locations that change from or to daylight saving time. In common usage, it is either an interval equal to 24 hours or daytime, the consecutive period of time during which the Sun is above the horizon. The word day may also refer to a day of the week or to a calendar date, as in answer to the question, "On which day? '' The life patterns (circadian rhythms) of humans and many other species are related to Earth 's solar day and the day - night cycle. Several definitions of this universal human concept are used according to context, need and convenience. Besides the day of 24 hours (86 400 seconds), the word day is used for several different spans of time based on the rotation of the Earth around its axis. An important one is the solar day, defined as the time it takes for the Sun to return to its culmination point (its highest point in the sky). Because celestial orbits are not perfectly circular, and thus objects travel at different speeds at various positions in their orbit, a solar day is not the same length of time throughout the orbital year. Because the Earth orbits the Sun elliptically as the Earth spins on an inclined axis, this period can be up to 7.9 seconds more than (or less than) 24 hours. In recent decades, the average length of a solar day on Earth has been about 86 400.002 seconds (24.000 000 6 hours) and there are about 365.242 2 solar days in one mean tropical year. Ancient custom has a new day start at either the rising or setting of the Sun on the local horizon (Italian reckoning, for example, being 24 hours from sunset, oldstyle). The exact moment of, and the interval between, two sunrises or sunsets depends on the geographical position (longitude as well as latitude), and the time of year (as indicated by ancient hemispherical sundials). A more constant day can be defined by the Sun passing through the local meridian, which happens at local noon (upper culmination) or midnight (lower culmination). The exact moment is dependent on the geographical longitude, and to a lesser extent on the time of the year. The length of such a day is nearly constant (24 hours ± 30 seconds). This is the time as indicated by modern sundials. A further improvement defines a fictitious mean Sun that moves with constant speed along the celestial equator; the speed is the same as the average speed of the real Sun, but this removes the variation over a year as the Earth moves along its orbit around the Sun (due to both its velocity and its axial tilt). A day, understood as the span of time it takes for the Earth to make one entire rotation with respect to the celestial background or a distant star (assumed to be fixed), is called a stellar day. This period of rotation is about 4 minutes less than 24 hours (23 hours 56 minutes and 4.1 seconds) and there are about 366.242 2 stellar days in one mean tropical year (one stellar day more than the number of solar days). Other planets and moons have stellar and solar days of different lengths from Earth 's. A day, in the sense of daytime that is distinguished from night - time, is commonly defined as the period during which sunlight directly reaches the ground, assuming that there are no local obstacles. The length of daytime averages slightly more than half of the 24 - hour day. Two effects make daytime on average longer than nights. The Sun is not a point, but has an apparent size of about 32 minutes of arc. Additionally, the atmosphere refracts sunlight in such a way that some of it reaches the ground even when the Sun is below the horizon by about 34 minutes of arc. So the first light reaches the ground when the centre of the Sun is still below the horizon by about 50 minutes of arc. Thus, daytime is on average around 7 minutes longer than 12 hours. The term comes from the Old English dæg, with its cognates such as dagur in Icelandic, Tag in German, and dag in Norwegian, Danish, Swedish and Dutch. All of them from the Indo - European root dyau which explains the similarity with Latin dies though the word is known to come from the Germanic branch. As of October 17, 2015, day is the 205th most common word in US English, and the 210th most common in UK English. A day, symbol d, defined as 86 400 seconds, is not an SI unit, but is accepted for use with SI. The Second is the base unit of time in SI units. In 1967 -- 68, during the 13th CGPM (Resolution 1), the International Bureau of Weights and Measures (BIPM) redefined a second as ... the duration of 9 192 631 770 periods of the radiation corresponding to the transition between two hyperfine levels of the ground state of the caesium 133 atom. This makes the SI - based day last exactly 794 243 384 928 000 of those periods. Mainly due to tidal effects, the Earth 's rotational period is not constant, resulting in minor variations for both solar days and stellar "days ''. The Earth 's day has increased in length over time. This phenomenon is due to tides raised by the Moon which slow Earth 's rotation. Because of the way the second is defined, the mean length of a day is now about 86 400.002 seconds, and is increasing by about 1.7 milliseconds per century (an average over the last 2 700 years). (See tidal acceleration for details.) The length of a day circa 620 million years ago has been estimated from rhythmites (alternating layers in sandstone) as having been about 21.9 hours. The length of day for the Earth before the moon was created is still unknown. In order to keep the civil day aligned with the apparent movement of the Sun, a day according to Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) can include a negative or positive leap second. Therefore, although typically 86 400 SI seconds in duration, a civil day can be either 86 401 or 86 399 SI seconds long on such a day. Leap seconds are announced in advance by the International Earth Rotation and Reference Systems Service (IERS), which measures the Earth 's rotation and determines whether a leap second is necessary. Leap seconds occur only at the end of a UTC - calculated month, and have only ever been inserted at the end of June 30 or December 31. For civil purposes, a common clock time is typically defined for an entire region based on the local mean solar time at a central meridian. Such time zones began to be adopted about the middle of the 19th century when railroads with regularly occurring schedules came into use, with most major countries having adopted them by 1929. As of 2015, throughout the world, 40 such zones are now in use: the central zone, from which all others are defined as offsets, is known as UTC ± 00, which uses Coordinated Universal Time (UTC). The most common convention starts the civil day at midnight: this is near the time of the lower culmination of the Sun on the central meridian of the time zone. Such a day may be referred to as a calendar day. A day is commonly divided into 24 hours of 60 minutes, with each minute composed of 60 seconds. In the 19th century, an idea circulated to make a decimal fraction (​ ⁄ or ​ ⁄) of an astronomical day the base unit of time. This was an afterglow of the short - lived movement toward a decimalisation of timekeeping and the calendar, which had been given up already due to its difficulty in transitioning from traditional, more familiar units. The most successful alternative is the centiday, equal to 14.4 minutes (864 seconds), being not only a shorter multiple of an hour (0.24 vs 2.4) but also closer to the SI multiple kilosecond (1 000 seconds) and equal to the traditional Chinese unit, ke. The word refers to various similarly defined ideas, such as: For most diurnal animals, the day naturally begins at dawn and ends at sunset. Humans, with their cultural norms and scientific knowledge, have employed several different conceptions of the day 's boundaries. Common convention among the ancient Romans, ancient Chinese and in modern times is for the civil day to begin at midnight, i.e. 00: 00, and last a full 24 hours until 24: 00 (i.e. 00: 00 of the next day). Muslims fast from sunrise to sunset each day during the month of Ramadan. The Jewish day begins at either sunset or nightfall (when three second - magnitude stars appear). The "Damascus Document '', copies of which were also found among the Dead Sea scrolls, states regarding the observance of the Sabbath that "No one is to do any work on Friday from the moment that the Sun 's disk stands distant from the horizon by the length of its own diameter, '' presumably indicating that the monastic community responsible for producing this work counted the day as ending shortly before the Sun had begun to set. Medieval Europe also followed this tradition, known as Florentine reckoning: in this system, a reference like "two hours into the day '' meant two hours after sunset and thus times during the evening need to be shifted back one calendar day in modern reckoning. Days such as Christmas Eve, Halloween, and the Eve of Saint Agnes are remnants of the older pattern when holidays began during the prior evening. Prior to 1926, Turkey had two time systems: Turkish (counting the hours from sunset) and French (counting the hours from midnight). In ancient Egypt, the day was reckoned from sunrise to sunrise. In many cultures, nights are named after the previous day. For example, "Friday night '' usually means the entire night between Friday and Saturday. This difference from the civil day often leads to confusion. Events starting at midnight are often announced as occurring the day before. TV - guides tend to list nightly programs at the previous day, although programming a VCR requires the strict logic of starting the new day at 00: 00 (to further confuse the issue, VCRs set to the 12 - hour clock notation will label this "12: 00 AM ''). Expressions like "today '', "yesterday '' and "tomorrow '' become ambiguous during the night. Because Jews and Muslims begin their days at nightfall, "Saturday '' night, for example, is what most people would call Friday night. Validity of tickets, passes, etc., for a day or a number of days may end at midnight, or closing time, when that is earlier. However, if a service (e.g., public transport) operates from for example, 6: 00 to 1: 00 the next day (which may be noted as 25: 00), the last hour may well count as being part of the previous day. For services depending on the day ("closed on Sundays '', "does not run on Fridays '', and so on) there is a risk of ambiguity. For example, a day ticket on the Nederlandse Spoorwegen (Dutch Railways) is valid for 28 hours, from 0: 00 to 28: 00 (that is, 4: 00 the next day); the validity of a pass on Transport for London (TfL) services is until the end of the "transport day '' -- that is to say, until 4: 30 am on the day after the "expiry '' date stamped on the pass. In places which experience the midnight sun (polar day), daytime may extend beyond one 24 hour period and could even extend to months

who wrote the music for once more with feeling

Once More, with Feeling (Buffy the Vampire Slayer) - wikipedia "Once More, with Feeling '' is the seventh episode of the sixth season of the supernatural drama television series Buffy the Vampire Slayer (1997 -- 2003) and the only one in the series performed as a musical. It was written and directed by the show 's creator, Joss Whedon, and originally aired on UPN in the United States on November 6, 2001. "Once More, with Feeling '' explores changes in the relationships of the main characters, using the plot device that a demon -- credited as "Sweet '' but unnamed in the episode -- compels the people of Sunnydale to break into song at random moments to express hidden truths. The title of the episode comes from a line sung by Sweet; once the characters have revealed their truths and face the consequences of hearing each other 's secrets, he challenges them to "say you 're happy now, once more, with feeling ''. All of the regular cast performed their own vocals, although two actors were given minimal singing at their request. "Once More, with Feeling '' is the most technically complex episode in the series, as extra voice and dance training for the cast was interspersed with the production of four other Buffy episodes. It was Joss Whedon 's first attempt at writing music, and different styles -- from 1950s sitcom theme music to rock opera -- express the characters ' secrets in specific ways. The episode was well received critically upon airing, specifically for containing the humor and wit to which fans had become accustomed. The musical format allowed characters to stay true to their natures while they struggled to overcome deceit and miscommunication, fitting with the sixth season 's themes of growing up and facing adult responsibilities. It is considered one of the most effective and popular episodes of the series, and -- prior to a financial dispute in 2007 -- was shown in theaters with the audience invited to sing along. Throughout the series Buffy Summers (Sarah Michelle Gellar), in her role as the Vampire Slayer, is assisted by her close friends, who refer to themselves as the "Scooby Gang ''. These include Xander Harris (Nicholas Brendon), a young man without particular strengths or talents, but devoted to Buffy and her calling, and Willow Rosenberg (Alyson Hannigan), a young woman who has grown from a shy but gifted student into a strong woman and powerful user of magic. They are mentored by Buffy 's "Watcher '', Rupert Giles (Anthony Stewart Head), a paternal figure since the first season, when Buffy moved to Sunnydale after her parents ' divorce. Xander is engaged to Anya Jenkins (Emma Caulfield), a former vengeance demon who has become human. They have struggled with disclosing their engagement to the rest of the group and individually doubt their impending marriage. Buffy died at the end of the fifth season ("The Gift ''), sacrificing herself in place of her younger sister Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) in order to save the world. In the first episode of the sixth season, Willow, believing Buffy to be in Hell, used magic to bring her back from the grave. Buffy was in fact at peace, in what she thinks was heaven, but she has kept this a secret from her friends. Since her resurrection, Buffy has been lost and without inspiration to perform her duties as a Slayer. Willow is romantically involved with Tara Maclay (Amber Benson), a powerful but ethical witch. Tara has previously expressed concern at Willow 's use of her emergent magical powers for trivial or personal matters. In the preceding episode ("All the Way ''), Willow cast a spell to make Tara forget an argument about her abuse of magic. In the same episode, Dawn, who has been stealing from stores, including Anya 's magic shop, lies to Buffy and goes on a clandestine and almost deadly date. Left to take care of Dawn after the death of their mother Joyce Summers (Kristine Sutherland) in the fifth season ("The Body ''), Buffy has come to depend more heavily on Giles. Following Dawn 's date, Buffy asks Giles to shoulder responsibility for disciplining her, much to his discomfort. Buffy 's former nemesis is Spike (James Marsters), a vampire. In the fourth season The Initiative, a secret military organization whose mission is to evaluate and eliminate demonic beings, rendered Spike harmless by implanting a microchip in his head that causes him intense pain when he attacks humans. However, the chip does not affect him when he harms demons and he now often fights on Buffy 's side, after at first fighting just for the pleasure of brawling. His motivations changed when, in the fifth season, Spike realized he had fallen in love with Buffy. She initially rejected him, but after and just before her death they had begun to form a friendship of sorts. She has been confiding in him; prior to this episode, he is the only one to whom Buffy has revealed that she was in heaven. Throughout Buffy the Vampire Slayer, music serves as a narrative tool, integral to character development and action. The mood is set by music, characters discuss it, and writers use it to emphasize differences between generations. In an essay on the use of music in the series, Jacqueline Bach writes that in conjunction with the sixth season themes of growing up, "Once More, with Feeling '' gives music a central role instead of keeping it in the background. When Buffy is on patrol, she laments in song about how uninspired her life has become ("Going Through the Motions ''). The next morning at the Magic Box, the gang reveal that they also sang that evening. Led by Giles, the gang theorizes about the cause of the singing; they sense no immediate danger but agreeing that by working together they can overcome anything ("I 've Got a Theory / Bunnies / If We 're Together ''). Buffy learns that the whole town is affected when she looks outside the shop to see a large group (led by series writer and producer David Fury) singing and dancing about how a dry - cleaning service got their stains out ("The Mustard ''). Tara and Willow leave to "research '' at home, but dally along the way while Tara muses about how much Willow has improved her life ("Under Your Spell ''). The next morning, Xander and Anya perform a duet about their secret annoyances with each other and their respective doubts about their impending marriage ("I 'll Never Tell ''). They realize that the songs are bringing out hidden secrets, and later insist to Giles that something evil is to blame. As they argue, they walk past a woman (series writer and producer Marti Noxon) protesting a parking ticket ("The Parking Ticket ''). That evening, Buffy visits Spike, who angrily tells Buffy to leave him alone if she will not love him ("Rest in Peace ''). Dawn tells Tara she is glad that Tara and Willow have made up after their argument. Since Tara has no recollection of an argument, she suspects that Willow has used magic to alter her memory. She goes to the Magic Box to consult a book, leaving Dawn alone. Dawn starts to bemoan that no one seems to notice her ("Dawn 's Lament ''), but is soon seized by minions of Sweet (Hinton Battle), a zoot suit - wearing, tap - dancing, singing demon. They take Dawn to The Bronze, where her attempt to escape transforms into an interpretive dance with the minions ("Dawn 's Ballet '') before she meets Sweet. He tells Dawn that he has come to Sunnydale in response to her "invocation '', and he will take her to his dimension to make her his bride ("What You Feel '') when his visit is complete. At the Magic Box, Giles recognizes that he must stand aside if Buffy is to face her responsibilities in caring for Dawn instead of relying on him ("Standing '') and Tara finds a picture of the forget - me - not flower Willow used to cast a spell on her in a book of magic. Giles and Tara separately resolve to leave the people they love, respectively Buffy and Willow -- Giles wants to leave Buffy for her own good, while Tara wants to leave Willow because she has become horrified by Willow 's magical manipulation of their relationship ("Under Your Spell / Standing -- Reprise ''). Captured by Spike outside the store, one of Sweet 's minions conveys a challenge from Sweet for Buffy to rescue Dawn from The Bronze. Giles forbids the gang to assist Buffy, so she goes alone, despite having no will to do so; eventually Giles and the Scoobies change their minds and leave to catch up. Although Spike initially thinks that things would be better for him if Buffy was dead, he also changes his mind and decides to help Buffy; Sweet opines that Buffy is drawn to danger ("Walk Through the Fire ''). Meeting Sweet at The Bronze, Buffy offers a deal to Sweet: she will take the place of her sister if she ca n't kill him. When asked by Sweet what she thinks about life, Buffy gives her pessimistic take on its meaning ("Something to Sing About ''). When the others arrive, she divulges that Willow took her from heaven, and Willow reacts with horror at finding out what she 's done. Upon divulging this truth, Buffy gives up on singing and dances so frenetically that she begins to smoke -- on the verge of combusting as Sweet 's other victims have been shown to do -- until Spike stops her, telling her that the only way to go forward is to just keep living her life. Xander then reveals that he, not Dawn, called Sweet, hoping he would be shown a happy ending for his marriage plans. Sweet, after releasing Xander from the obligation to be Sweet 's "bride '', tells the group how much fun they have been ("What You Feel -- Reprise '') and disappears. The Scoobies realize that their relationships have been changed irreversibly by the secrets revealed in their songs ("Where Do We Go from Here? ''). Spike leaves The Bronze, but Buffy follows him out, and they kiss ("Coda ''). Joss Whedon had wanted to make a musical episode since the start of the series. This was heightened during the fifth season when he hosted a Shakespeare reading at his house, to which the cast was invited. They began drinking and singing, demonstrating to Whedon that certain cast members had musical talents. Whedon knew he would have to write an entire score, which would take weeks or months. During the first three seasons of Buffy, he was unable to take more than two weeks off at a time, and the constraints of writing and directing the show precluded him from putting forth the effort of preparing a musical. Whedon spoke to the show 's producer, Gareth Davies, about his idea; they agreed that a musical episode would be written. Whedon spent six months writing the music for "Once More, with Feeling ''. When he returned after the end of the fifth season, he presented Davies with a script and CD, complete with notated and orchestrated music, which Davies found "mind - boggling ''. The actors were initially bewildered; in 2012, James Marsters commented that "it 's obvious now that they were good songs but the thing was Joss and his wife Kai, they do n't sing very well. And they do n't play piano very well. The songs sounded really cheesy and horrible... We were saying, ' Joss, you 're ruining our careers. ' '' Preparing for the episode was physically difficult for some of the cast members, most of whom had little experience singing and dancing. They spent three months in voice training. Two choreographers worked with Whedon and the cast on dance sequences. Michelle Trachtenberg (Dawn), who is trained in ballet, requested a dance sequence in lieu of a significant singing part, and Alyson Hannigan (Willow), according to Whedon, begged him not to give her many lines. Sarah Michelle Gellar (Buffy) told the BBC that "It took something like 19 hours of singing and 17 hours of dancing in between shooting four other episodes '' and she was so anxious about singing that she "hated every moment of it ''. When Whedon suggested using a voice double for her, however, she said, "I basically started to cry and said, ' You mean someone else is going to do my big emotional turning point for the season? ' In the end, it was an incredible experience and I 'm glad I did it. And I never want to do it again. '' Davies was so impressed with Hinton Battle 's performance on Broadway in The Wiz that he asked Battle to play the demon Sweet. Battle, a three - time Tony - winner, wore prosthetic make - up for the first time to give him a demonic red face. Sweet was portrayed as "slick '', smooth and stylish; in contrast, most demons on the series were designed to be crude and ugly. The set for The Bronze was used frequently throughout the series, but stairs were built from the stage to maximize floor space for Battle 's dance. Running eight minutes longer than any in the series, the episode was also the most technical and complex. Whedon, who has stated this is one of his favorite Buffy episodes, used a widescreen letterbox format for filming (the only episode in the series to get this treatment), different lighting to bring out the sets more vibrantly, and long takes for shooting -- including a complicated shot with a full conversation, a song, and two choreographed dances that took 21 attempts to get right. These were designed to give viewers all the clues they needed to establish all the nuances of the relationships between characters. Davies commented that the intricacies of filming this episode were "infinitely more complicated than a regular Buffy '' episode, and Whedon stated in the DVD commentary that he was ambitious to prove what television is capable of, saying "it just depends how much you care ''. UPN, the television network that aired Buffy 's last two seasons, promoted the episode by displaying Gellar 's face on billboards with music notes over her eyes, and held a special premiere event. Network president Dean Valentine remarked he thought it was "one of the best episodes of television I ever saw in my life ''. Critics hailed the episode as successful in telling a complex story about all the characters in a unique way, while retaining the series ' effective elements of writing and character development. Throughout the show -- as in the rest of the series -- the characters self - consciously address their own dialogue and actions. Anya describes her own duet "I 'll Never Tell '' as "a retro pastiche that 's never gon na be a breakaway pop hit ''. With a characteristic dry demeanor, Giles explains that he overheard the information about Sunnydale residents spontaneously combusting as he was eavesdropping upon the police taking "witness arias ''. In her opening number, "Going Through the Motions '', Buffy sings that she feels as though she is playing a part: "nothing here is real, nothing here is right ''. The song introduces the character 's emotional state but also removes the barrier between the actor and the audience, as Gellar the actor portrays Buffy, who feels she is merely playing the part of the Slayer. This hints to the audience that the episode 's musical format is strange to the actors and characters. According to Buffy essayist Richard Albright, the lack of polish among cast members ' singing voices added to the authenticity of their breaking out into song for the first time in the series. Whedon included self - conscious dialogue and references about the characters being in a musical and showed their reluctance toward song and dance, so that the audience would feel more comfortable with the improbability of such a thing happening on the show. The dynamic nature of the characters was a unique element of writing in the series at the time. Once they were established in the twelve episodes of the first season, characters began to change and relationships were developed in the second. This continued through the series to the point of unpredictability that sometimes became unsettling to fans. Buffy essayist Marguerite Krause asserts that the monsters and demons faced by the Scoobies are thin symbolism for the show 's true focus: relationships and how to maintain or ruin them. Common among most of these relationships -- romantic, platonic, and familial -- is, according to Krause, a "failure to communicate, lack of trust, (and the) inability to envision or create a viable future ''. Miscommunication is worsened or sustained through multiple episodes and seasons, leading to overwhelming misunderstanding and critical turning points for the characters, some of whom do not recover. "Once More, with Feeling '' propelled the story arc for season six by allowing characters to confess previously taboo issues to themselves and each other. Whedon commented that he was "obsessive about progressing a plot in a song, about saying things we have n't said '', comparing the musical theater format to the fourth - season episode "Hush '', in which characters begin communicating when they stop talking. According to Buffy essayist Zoe - Jane Playdon, earlier episodes ' "false saccharine behaviour '' impedes the characters so crucially that it summons a demon to force them to be honest. The consequences in the episode of concealing truth, spontaneous combustion, is an allusion to Bleak House by Charles Dickens -- of whom Whedon is a fan -- where characters also face immolation for being deceitful. For Buffy, however, truth is slow in coming, as she continues to lie to the Scoobies, claiming to forget what she sang about in the graveyard during "Going Through the Motions ''. Buffy continues her charade in the chorus number "If We 're Together '', beginning the song by persuading others to join in one by one, as if each is convinced that she is still invested and in charge, and their strength as a group is infallible. Although she asks in verse "Apocalypse / We 've all been there / The same old trips / Why should we care? '', all the Scoobies join her, including Giles despite his suspicions that Buffy is no longer interested in her life. Secrets reveal themselves steadily throughout the episode. Xander fears that his future marriage will turn him into an argumentative drunk like his father. He attempts to avoid his fears through the song "I 'll Never Tell '', singing "' coz there 's nothing to tell '', after summoning Sweet to Sunnydale to show him that he and Anya will be happy. Amid the various annoyances Xander and Anya express through this song, some verses are clear - sighted observations of behavior, such as Anya 's accusation that Xander -- once in love with Buffy -- uses Buffy as a mother figure to hide behind. Anya also avoids the truth by burying herself in wedding plans without thinking critically about what being married will entail; instead she considers Xander an accessory to her desired lifestyle. Of all the characters, Anya is the most preoccupied with the style of singing and songs, demanding to know if Spike sang "a breakaway pop hit, or a book number '', and asking Dawn if the pterodactyl she facetiously says she gave birth to also broke into song. Anya and Xander 's duet is the only song in the episode to address the audience directly. During the long single - shot scene when she and Xander talk over each other insisting to Giles that evil must be at play, Anya refers to the audience, saying "It was like we were being watched... Like there was a wall missing... in our apartment... Like there were only three walls and not a fourth wall. '' Albright asserts that Anya 's constant preoccupation with her and others ' performances indicates that she has serious doubts about her future supporting role as Xander 's wife. Giles ' truth, according to Whedon, is that he realizes he must not "fight my kid 's battles or my kid will never grow up '', which he sings in "Standing '' while he throws knives at Buffy as part of her training. Whedon remarked that this touch "is the kind of complete turnaround that is a staple of the Buffy universe ''. Tara 's heartfelt love song also has an ironic subtext; although she appears to mean that she is fulfilled by her relationship with Willow, the lyrics include multiple allusions to Willow working her manipulative will over Tara, overlaid with Tara 's euphoric singing about her pleasure in their union. In Sex and the Slayer, Lorna Jowett calls the song between Willow and Tara the transformational event in their relationship, from Tara 's subservient bearing towards Willow, into a relationship of equals. Two Buffy essayists note that Willow and Giles sing together at the start of the episode, but later Tara and Giles share a duet to express the diminished part each plays in their respective relationships. Although "Once More, with Feeling '' allows all the characters to confess truthfully, with the exception of Willow, it does not resolve the behavior that demanded confession in the first place. At the end of the episode, Buffy kisses Spike, initiating a romance that she hides from her friends. Their relationship lasts until the end of the series, marked for a time by Buffy 's loathing of him because he has no soul. Her relationship with Spike, however, allows her to feel lust and attraction, which she yearns for after being pulled back from a heavenly dimension. In The Psychology of Joss Whedon, Mikhail Lubyansky writes that, although Buffy 's first step toward re-engaging with her life is telling the Scoobies the truth in the song "Something to Sing About '', she does not find meaning again until the end of the season. In his essay "A Kantian Analysis of Moral Judgment in Buffy the Vampire Slayer '', Scott Stroud explains that Buffy, as the central character throughout the series, is torn between her desires and her duty, in a Kantian illustration of free will vs. predeterminism, symbolized by her responsibility as a Slayer and her adolescent impulses. In earlier seasons, this takes the form of simpler pleasures such as dating and socializing, interspersed with defeating evil forces. It reaches a climax in the ultimate sacrifice when Buffy offers to die to save the world. However, "Once More, with Feeling '', according to Stroud, is the turning point at which she begins to face her responsibility to the community, her friends and her family. Not only does she continue her Slaying despite a lack of inspiration, but for the rest of the season she works at a humiliating job to provide for her sister and friends. "Once More, with Feeling '' was Joss Whedon 's first attempt at writing music, which he had always wanted to do. He learned how to play guitar to write several songs. Christophe Beck, a regular composer for the series, filled in the overture and coda and composed "Dawn 's Ballet ''. Whedon is a fan of Stephen Sondheim, and used him as the inspiration for much of the music, particularly with the episode 's ambiguous ending. Cast member James Marsters (Spike) said, "Some of Joss ' music is surprisingly complicated. Maybe it 's a Beatles thing. He does n't know enough to know what he ca n't do and he 's smashing rules. '' The episode 's musical style varies significantly. Buffy 's opening number, "Going Through the Motions '', was influenced heavily by the Disney song "Part of Your World '' sung by Ariel in The Little Mermaid. Whedon wanted to use a similar opening in which the heroine explains her yearning. While singing her song, Buffy fights three vampires and a demon who themselves break into a choreographed dance; Whedon wanted this to be fun but not distracting. The song ends with chord influences from Stephen Schwartz 's Pippin and a visual tribute to Disney: as Buffy stakes a vampire, it turns to dust that swirls around her face. Whedon chose the most complicated scene, with the most dancers and choreography in the classic style of musical theater, to accompany an 18 - second song ("The Mustard '') "to get it out of the way '' for more personal numbers later in the episode. Stephanie Zacharek of Salon.com considers this "brilliant because it frees even people who hate musicals to settle into the story without getting hung up on the genre 's conventions ''. The musical styles span from a jaunty 1950s sitcom arrangement of the Buffy theme in the opening credits -- the only episode in the series to begin without the normal version of the theme song and full cast roll, signifying a genre shift -- to Anya 's hard - rock version of "Bunnies ''. Whedon assigned Emma Caulfield the rock - opera format because Caulfield often sang in such a way to him on the set. Spike 's "Rest in Peace '' is also a rock song, which Whedon wrote after completing the episode 's first song, Tara 's "Under Your Spell '', a contemporary pop song with radio - play potential. Xander and Anya 's duet -- the most fun to shoot but difficult to write, according to Whedon -- is inspired by Fred Astaire - Ginger Rogers comedies as evidenced by the silken pajama costumes and art deco apartment setting. Musically, the song uses influences from Ira Gershwin, a Charleston rhythm, and jazz - like chord slides. Giles ' "Standing '' is a ballad to Buffy that she does not hear, unlike the songs revealing truths elsewhere in the episode. Whedon shot the scene so that Giles moves in real time while Buffy works out in slow motion, to accentuate Giles ' distance from her. Buffy 's not hearing his song was intentional; Whedon explained, "You can sing to someone in musicals and they can never know how you feel or how much you love them, even if they 're standing right in front of you ''. "Under Your Spell '' received attention from Buffy studies writers because it presents a frank and unflinching expression of lesbian romance. Buffy the Vampire Slayer was the first show in U.S. television history to portray a long - term lesbian relationship among the core cast of characters. Previous televised depictions of lesbian relations were primarily limited to single "coming out '' or "lesbian kiss '' episodes, showing lesbian - identified characters as affectionate but not erotic. Tara and Willow demonstrate throughout the series, and specifically in "Once More, with Feeling '', that they are "intensely sexual '', according to Buffy essayist Justine Larbalestier. Near the end of Tara 's song, she sings, "Lost in ecstasy / Spread beneath my Willow tree / You make me / Com -- plete '', as Tara levitates off the bed while Willow tacitly performs cunnilingus on her. Lorna Jowett called the song "the most erotic scene '' of the series. Whedon admitted on the DVD commentary for the episode that the song is "pornography '' and "probably the dirtiest lyric I 've ever written, but also very, very beautiful ''. Buffy essayist Ian Shuttleworth writes that Amber Benson (Tara) has "the sweetest singing voice of all the lead players '', referring to "Under Your Spell '' as "heavenly and salacious ''; author Nikki Stafford concurs, writing that Benson "has the most stunning voice, showing a surprising range ''. Whedon acknowledged that the "lyrical, heavenly quality '' of Benson 's voice led him to assign her the episode 's love song. Alyson Hannigan (Willow) was unwilling to sing much and her performance is "apprehensive '', according to Shuttleworth. He considers this an example of Tara 's quieter strength coming out in front of Willow 's showy demonstrations of powerful magic. Buffy studies scholar Rhonda Wilcox interprets Willow 's diminished role representing the show 's silence about Willow 's descent into addiction and darkness through the rest of the season. Benson remarked that Tara 's story arc is significant within the episode, starting out with ecstasy but soon recognizing the illusory circumstances surrounding her bliss and that "life ca n't be perfect all the time ''. The most complicated song, "Walk Through the Fire '', leads all the characters to the climax from different locations for different reasons, reminiscent of the "Tonight Quintet '' from West Side Story. When they all sing the chorus at once to the line "We will walk through the fire / And let it -- burn '', two fire trucks race behind the Scoobies as they proceed to the Bronze. Whedon called the shot the "single greatest thing we ever did ''. Each of the singers in this song, which "marries soft rock to the function of a dirge '', connects musically to earlier songs while foreshadowing Buffy 's next number and the final chorus, providing an ominous anxiety. Buffy 's numbers are the most complex, changing key and tempo when she begins to reveal the secrets she swore she never would. This appears specifically in "Something to Sing About '', which starts with uptempo platitudes: "We 'll sing a happy song / And you can sing along: / Where there 's life, there 's hope / Every day 's a gift / Wishes can come true / Whistle while you work... '' While singing, she kills Sweet 's minions with a pool cue. Whedon attempted to make the song tuneful yet chaotic to express the main point of the episode. It transitions suddenly into her desire to be like normal girls, then changes again, slowing the tempo as she challenges Sweet not to give her a song, but "something to sing about ''. Musicologist Amy Bauer categorizes the tempo shifts as "rock ballad to punk polka to hymn '' that indicates Buffy 's turmoil. The key and tempo slow again, as Buffy finally reveals "I live in hell / ' Cause I 've been expelled from heaven / I think I was in heaven '' with the chord changing from B minor to B diminished, each time she repeats "heaven ''. When replying to her, Spike has the same shift from minor to diminished each time he repeats the word "living. '' The episode nears the end with "Where Do We Go from Here? '', as the Scoobies stand dazed and disoriented, facing different directions. As they sing "Understand we 'll go hand in hand / But we 'll walk alone in fear '', they line up, hold hands, then fling each other 's hands away in a piece of what Whedon calls "literal choreography ''. Each of the eight characters in this line wears a color in the visible spectrum, a conscious decision by the costume designer. The couples in the group wear opposite colors (Giles in green and Buffy in red, Anya in blue and Xander in orange, Tara in yellow and Willow in purple), and Rhonda Wilcox interprets the color - coding and choreography to represent the "tension between the individual and the group ''. The characters as a chorus sing "The curtains close on a kiss, God knows / We can tell the end is near '', moments before Buffy runs out to kiss Spike and the show closes with actual curtains. As Spike and Buffy kiss, a swell of music accompanies them, similar to the ending of Gone with the Wind. Lyrics sung moments before, however, forecast the uncertainty of the relationship between Spike and Buffy, as well as their contrasting reasons for initiating any romance; Spike wants to feel love from Buffy, while she simply wants to feel. When the episode was originally broadcast in the United States on UPN on November 6, 2001, it received a Nielsen rating of 3.4 and a share of 5. This placed the episode in sixth place in its timeslot, and 88th among broadcast television for the week of November 5 -- 11, 2001. It was the most watched program on UPN that night, and the third most watched program that week, trailing episodes of Star Trek: Enterprise and WWF SmackDown. This was a decrease from the 3.7 rating received by the previous episode a week prior. "Once More, with Feeling '' received widespread critical acclaim from media and critics when it aired, during overseas syndication, and in reminiscences of the best episodes of Buffy after the series ended. Although Salon.com writer Stephanie Zacharek states "(t) he songs were only half - memorable at best, and the singing ability of the show 's regular cast ranged only from the fairly good to the not so great '', she also asserts that it works "beautifully '', paces itself gracefully, and is "clever and affecting ''. Zacharek 's unenthusiastic assessments of the music and cast 's singing abilities were not shared by other writers. Debi Enker in Australia 's The Age writes, "Giles (Anthony Stewart Head) and Tara (Amber Benson) are terrific, Xander (Nicholas Brendon) and Dawn (Michelle Trachtenberg) struggle valiantly, and Willow (Alyson Hannigan) barely sings a note ''. Tony Johnston in The Sunday Herald Sun writes that Gellar "struggles on some of her higher notes, but her dance routines are superb, Michelle Trachtenberg 's Dawn reveals sensual dance moves way beyond her tender years, and James Marsters ' Spike evokes a sort of Billy Idol yell to disguise his lack of vocal proficiency (...) The rest of the cast mix and match like ready - made Broadway troupers. '' Johnston counts "I 'll Never Tell '' as one of the episode 's "standout moments ''. Connie Ogle in The Miami Herald calls the songs "better and far more clever than most of the ones you 'll hear on Broadway these days ''. Writers agree that the episode was risky and could have failed spectacularly. Jonathan Bernstein in the British newspaper The Observer writes "What could have been, at best, an eccentric diversion and, at worst, a shuddering embarrassment, succeeded on every level (...) It provided a startling demonstration that creator Joss Whedon has a facility with lyrics and melody equal to the one he 's demonstrated for the past six seasons with dialogue, character and plot twists. Rather than adopt the ' Hey, would n't it be wacky if we suddenly burst into song? ' approach practised by Ally McBeal, the Buffy musical was entirely organic to the series ' labyrinthine progression. '' Johnston in the Sunday Herald Sun says, "There is just so much to this marvellously cheeky episode that suggests the show can take any route it pleases and pull it off '', while Debi Enker in The Age comments, "Whedon demonstrates yet again what Buffy aficionados have known and appreciated for years: that his wit, playfulness and readiness to take a risk make his television efforts rise way above the pack. '' Steve Murray in The Atlanta Journal - Constitution characterizes the episode as "scary in a brand - new way '', saying "Once More, with Feeling '' is "as impressive as Whedon 's milestone episodes ' Hush ' and ' The Body ' ''; the episode is "often hilarious '', according to Murray, and acts as "(b) oth spoof and homage, (parodying) the hokiness of musicals while also capturing the guilty pleasure and surges of feeling the genre inspires ''. Writing in the Toronto Star, Vinay Menon calls "Once More, with Feeling '' "dazzling '' and writes of "Joss Whedon 's inimitable genius ''; he goes on to say "(f) or a show that already violates conventions and morphs between genres, its allegorical narrative zigging and zagging seamlessly across chatty comedy, drama and over-the - top horror, ' Once More, with Feeling ' is a towering achievement (...) The show may be anchored by existential weightiness, it may be painted with broad, supernatural brushstrokes, but in the end, this coming - of - age story, filled with angst and alienation, is more real than any other so - called teen drama (...) So let 's add another line of gushing praise: ' Once More, with Feeling ' is rhapsodic, original, deeply affecting, and ultimately, transcendental. Quite simply, television at its best. '' The episode was nominated for an Emmy Award for Outstanding Musical Direction, but the National Academy of Television Arts and Sciences (NATAS) neglected to include the title on the ballots for Emmy nominations in 2002. NATAS attempted to remedy this by mailing a postcard informing its voters that it should be included, but the episode did not win. NATAS ' oversight, according to the Washington Post, was "another example of the lack of industry respect afforded one of television 's most consistently clever shows ''. Ogle in The Miami Herald vigorously protests this omission, writing, "(T) he most astonishing, entertaining hour (hour plus, actually) of TV in the past year slips by virtually unnoticed. Nothing here is real; nothing here is right. Buffy the Vampire Slayer 's musical episode, ' Once More, with Feeling ', registers a paltry outstanding music direction nomination. Nice for the musical directors. A stake through the aspirations of writer / director Joss Whedon, the beating creative heart of Buffy, the only TV writer brave and clever enough to use horror as one great big wonderful metaphor for growing up (...) ' Once More, with Feeling ' is TV of a different sort, something that comes along once in a lifetime and should not be buried but celebrated and rewarded. '' The episode was also nominated for a Best Dramatic Presentation Hugo Award and a Best Script Nebula Award, both given for excellence in science fiction and fantasy writing. In 2009 TV Guide ranked the episode # 14 on its list of "TV 's Top 100 Episodes of All Time ''. An album including all 14 songs in the episode, with Christophe Beck 's scores for three other Buffy episodes, was released by Rounder Records in September 2002 as season seven premiered. John Virant, president and chief executive of Rounder Records, told the Los Angeles Times, "I remember watching the episode when it aired last October, and after it was over, I said to my wife, ' That 's the best hour of TV I 've ever seen. Someone should put that (soundtrack) out. ' I inquired at Fox, just following up, and they said, ' Well, we tried, it did n't happen. If you want to take a run at it, feel free. ' '' AllMusic gives the album five out of five stars, stating that the music is "every bit as fun as the episode itself '', praising the voices of Benson, Marsters and Head. Reviewer Melinda Hill states it is "a must - have for Buffy fans, but it would n't be out of place in anyone 's collection ''. In addition to featuring on the sixth season box set, "Once More, with Feeling '' was individually released on DVD in Region 2 format on April 14, 2003, the only episode to be individually released. In Region 1, the episode was released on the sixth season box set on May 25, 2004, over a year later than the Region 2 release. Since the musical episode of Buffy aired, several other series have worked musical format into episodes, including Scrubs, ("My Musical '') in 2007, an episode of Grey 's Anatomy entitled "Song Beneath the Song '' in 2011 and Batman: The Brave and the Bold, ("Mayhem of the Music Meister! '') in 2009. The musical television episode was declared a genre, a gimmick, according to Mary Williams at Salon.com, for series that had run out of interesting story lines and characters. Both Williams and Margaret Lyons at New York magazine, however, declared "Once More, with Feeling '' the "gold standard '' for musical episodes. Despite this, Joss Whedon recognized the influence "Once More, with Feeling '' has had on other shows, but denied that it was primarily responsible for the rise in musical television episodes or series such as Glee, citing the popularity of High School Musical instead. Buffy the Vampire Slayer developed an enthusiastic fan following while it aired. Following its series finale, fans continued their appreciation in theater showings of "Once More, with Feeling '' where attendees are encouraged to dress like the show 's characters, sing along to the musical numbers, and otherwise interact in the style of The Rocky Horror Picture Show. Clinton McClung, a New York - based film programmer, got the idea for a sing - along from audience - participation showings of The Sound of Music in 2003. The next year, he began putting on sing - alongs to "Once More, with Feeling '' in Boston 's Coolidge Corner Theater, which became so popular that it went on the road. Audience members received props to use during key scenes, as well as directions (for example, to yell "Shut up, Dawn! '' at Buffy 's younger sister), and a live cast performed the episode alongside the screen. Buffy sing - alongs received growing media attention as they spread. At the 2007 Los Angeles Film Festival, a special screening and sing - along was held that featured both Marti Noxon and Joss Whedon giving brief speeches to the audience. In October 2007, after a dispute with the Screen Actors Guild over unpaid residuals, 20th Century Fox pulled the licensing for public screenings of "Once More, with Feeling '', effectively ending official Buffy sing - alongs. Whedon called the cancellation "hugely depressing '' and attempted to influence the studio to allow future showings.

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BMW - wikipedia BMW (Bayerische Motoren Werke in German, or Bavarian Motor Works in English) is a German multinational company which currently produces automobiles and motorcycles, and also produced aircraft engines until 1945. The company was founded in 1916 and has its headquarters in Munich, Bavaria. BMW produces motor vehicles in Germany, Brazil, China, India, South Africa and the United States. In 2015, BMW was the world 's twelfth largest producer of motor vehicles, with 2,279,503 vehicles produced. The Quandt family are long - term shareholders of the company, with the remaining stocks owned by public float. Automobiles are marketed under the brands BMW (with sub-brands BMW M for performance models and BMW i for plug - in electric cars), Mini and Rolls - Royce. Motorcycles are marketed under the brand BMW Motorrad. The company has significant motorsport history, especially in touring cars, Formula 1, sports cars and the Isle of Man TT. BMW 's origins can be traced back to three separate German companies: Rapp Motorenwerke, Bayerische Flugzeugwerke and Automobilwerk Eisenach. The history of the name itself begins with Rapp Motorenwerke, an aircraft engine manufacturer. In April 1917, following the departure of the founder Karl Friedrich Rapp, the company was renamed Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW).. BMW 's first product was the BMW IIIa aircraft engine. The IIIa engine was known for good fuel economy and high - altitude performance. The resulting orders for IIIa engines from the German military caused rapid expansion for BMW. After the end of World War I in 1918, BMW was forced to cease aircraft - engine production by the terms of the Versailles Armistice Treaty. To maintain in business, BMW produced farm equipment, household items and railway brakes. In 1922, former major shareholder Camillo Castiglioni purchased the rights to the name BMW, which led to the company descended from Rapp Motorenwerke being renamed Süddeutsche Bremse AG (known today as Knorr - Bremse). Castiglioni was also an investor in another aircraft company, called "Bayerische Flugzeugwerke '', which he renamed BMW. Automobilwerk Eisenach The disused factory of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke was re-opened to produce engines for busses, trucks, farm equipment and pumps, under the brand name BMW. BMW 's corporate history considers the founding date of Bayerische Flugzeugwerke (7 March 1916) to be the birth of the company. As the restrictions of the Armistice Treaty began to be lifted, BMW began production of motorcycles in 1923, with the R32 model. BMW 's production of automobiles began in 1928, when the company purchased the Automobilwerk Eisenach car company. Automobilwerk Eisenach 's current model was the Dixi 3 / 15, a licensed copy of the Austin 7 which had begun production in 1927. Following the takeover, the Dixi 3 / 15 became the BMW 3 / 15, BMW 's first production car. In 1932, the BMW 3 / 20 became the first BMW automobile designed entirely by BMW. It was powered by a four - cylinder engine, which BMW designed based on the Austin 7 engine. BMW 's first automotive straight - six engine was released in 1933, in the BMW 303. Throughout the 1930s, BMW expanded its model range to include sedans, coupes, convertibles and sports cars. With German rearmament in the 1930s, the company again began producing aircraft engines for the Luftwaffe. The factory in Munich made ample use of forced labour: foreign civilians, prisoners of war and inmates of the Dachau concentration camp. Among its successful World War II engine designs were the BMW 132 and BMW 801 air - cooled radial engines, and the pioneering BMW 003 axial - flow turbojet, which powered the tiny, 1944 -- 1945 -- era jet - powered "emergency fighter '', the Heinkel He 162 Spatz. The BMW 003 jet engine was first tested as a prime power plant in the first prototype of the Messerschmitt Me 262, the Me 262 V1, but in 1942 tests the BMW prototype engines failed on takeoff with only the standby Junkers Jumo 210 nose - mounted piston engine powering it to a safe landing. The few Me 262 A-1b test examples built used the more developed version of the 003 jet, recording an official top speed of 800 km / h (497 mph). The first - ever four - engine jet aircraft ever flown were the sixth and eighth prototypes of the Arado Ar 234 jet reconnaissance - bomber, which used BMW 003 jets for power. Through 1944 the 003 's reliability improved, making it a suitable power plant for air frame designs competing for the Jägernotprogramm 's light fighter production contract. which was won by the Heinkel He 162 Spatz design. The BMW 003 aviation turbojet was also under consideration as the basic starting point for a pioneering turboshaft powerplant for German armored fighting vehicles in 1944 -- 45, as the GT 101. Towards the end of the Third Reich, BMW developed some military aircraft projects for the Luftwaffe, the BMW Strahlbomber, the BMW Schnellbomber and the BMW Strahljäger, but none of them were built. During World War II, many BMW production facilities had been heavily bombed. BMW 's facilities in East Germany were seized by the Soviet Government and the remaining facilities were banned by the Allies from producing motorcycles or automobiles. During this ban, BMW used basic secondhand and salvaged equipment to make pots and pans, later expanding to other kitchen supplies and bicycles. In 1947, BMW was granted permission to resume motorcycle production and its first post-war motorcycle - the R24 - was released in 1948. BMW was still forbidden from producing automobiles, however the Bristol Aeroplane Company (BAC) was producing cars in England based on BMW 's pre-war models, using plans that BAC had taken from BMW 's German offices. Production of automobiles resumed in 1952, with the BMW 501 large sedan. Throughout the 1950s, BMW expanded their model range with sedans, coupes, convertibles and sports cars. In 1954, the BMW 502 was BMW 's first to use a V8 engine. To provide an affordable model, BMW began production of the Isetta micro-car (under licence from Iso) in 1955. Two years later, the four - seat BMW 600 was based on a lengthened version of the Isetta design. In 1959, the BMW 600 was replaced by the larger BMW 700 coupe / sedan. By 1959, BMW was in debt and losing money. The Isetta was selling well but with small profit margins. Their 501 - based luxury sedans were not selling well enough to be profitable and were becoming increasingly outdated. Their 503 coupé and 507 roadster were too expensive to be profitable. Their 600, a four - seater based on the Isetta, was selling poorly. The motorcycle market imploded in the mid-1950s with increased affluence turning Germans away from motorcycles and toward cars. BMW had sold their Allach plant to MAN in 1954. American Motors and the Rootes Group had both tried to acquire BMW. At BMW 's annual general meeting on 9 December 1959, Dr. Hans Feith, chairman of BMW 's supervisory board, proposed a merger with Daimler - Benz. The dealers and small shareholders opposed this suggestion and rallied around a counter-proposal by Dr. Friedrich Mathern, which gained enough support to stop the merger. At that time, the Quandt Group, led by half - brothers Herbert and Harald Quandt, had recently increased their holdings in BMW and had become their largest shareholder. In 1960, the development program began for a new range of models, called the "Neue Klasse '' (New Class) project. The resulting New Class four - door sedans, introduced in 1962, are credited for saving the company financially and establishing BMW 's identity as a producer of leading sports sedans. In 1965, the New Class range was expanded with the 2000 C and 2000 CS luxury coupes. The range was further expanded in 1966 with the iconic BMW 02 Series compact coupes. BMW acquired the Hans Glas company based in Dingolfing, Germany, in 1966. Glas vehicles were briefly badged as BMW until the company was fully absorbed. It was reputed that the acquisition was mainly to gain access to Glas ' development of the timing belt with an overhead camshaft in automotive applications, although some saw Glas ' Dingolfing plant as another incentive. However, this factory was outmoded and BMW 's biggest immediate gain was, according to themselves, a stock of highly qualified engineers and other personnel. The Glas factories continued to build a limited number of their existing models, while adding the manufacture of BMW front and rear axles until they could be closer incorporated into BMW. In 1968, BMW began production of its first straight - six engine since World War II. This engine coincided with the launch of the New Six large sedans (the predecessor to the 7 Series) and New Six CS large coupes (the predecessor to the 6 Series). The first 5 Series range of mid-size sedans were introduced in 1972, to replace the New Class sedans. The 5 Series platform was also used for the 6 Series coupes, which were introduced in 1976. In 1975, the first model of the iconic 3 Series range of compact sedans / coupes was introduced. The 7 Series large sedans were introduced in 1978. The 1978 BMW M1 was BMW 's first mid-engined sports car and was developed in conjunction with Lamborghini. It was also the first road car produced by BMW 's motorsport division, BMW M. In 1980, the M division produced its first model based on a regular production vehicle, the E12 M535i. The M535i is the predecessor to the BMW M5, which was introduced in 1985 based on the E28 plaftorm. In 1983, BMW introduced its first diesel engine, the M21. The first all - wheel drive BMW - the E30 325iX - began production in 1985, and in 1987 the E30 was BMW 's first model produced in a wagon / estate body style. The 1986 E32 750i was BMW 's first V12 model. The E32 was also the first sedan to be available with a long - wheelbase body style (badged "iL '' or "Li ''). The BMW M3 was introduced in 1985, based on the E30 platform. The 8 Series range of large coupes was introduced in 1989 and in 1992 was the first application of BMW 's first V8 engine in 25 years, the M60. It was also the first BMW to use a multi-link rear suspension, a design which was implemented for mass - production in the 1990 E36 3 Series. The E34 5 Series, introduced in 1988, was the first 5 Series to be produced with all - wheel drive or a wagon body style. In 1989, the limited - production Z1 began BMW 's line of two - seat convertible Z Series models. In 1993, the BMW 3 Series Compact was BMW 's first hatchback model (except for the limited production 02 Series "Touring '' models). These hatchback models formed a new entry - level model range below the other 3 Series models. In 1992, BMW acquired a large stake in California - based industrial design studio DesignworksUSA, which they fully acquired in 1995. The 1993 McLaren F1 is powered by a BMW V12 engine. In 1994, BMW bought the British Rover Group (which at the time consisted of the Rover, Land Rover, Mini and MG brands as well as the rights to defunct brands including Austin and Morris), and owned it for six years. By 2000, Rover was incurring huge losses and BMW decided to sell off several of the brands. The MG and Rover brands were sold to the Phoenix Consortium to form MG Rover, while Land Rover was taken over by Ford. BMW, meanwhile, retained the rights to build the new Mini, which was launched in 2001. In 1995, the E38 725tds was the first 7 Series to use a diesel engine. The E39 5 Series was also introduced in 1995, and was the first 5 Series to use rack - and - pinion steering and a significant number of suspension parts made from lightweight aluminium. The BMW Z3 two - seat convertible and coupe models were introduced in 1995. These were the first mass - produced models outside of the 1 / 3 / 5 Series and the first model to be solely manufactured outside Germany (in the United States, in this case). In 1998, the E46 3 Series was introduced, with the M3 model featuring BMW 's most powerful naturally aspirated engine to date. BMW 's first SUV, the BMW X5, was introduced in 1999. The X5 was a large departure from BMW 's image of sporting "driver 's cars '', however it was a very successful and resulted in other BMW X Series being introduced. The smaller BMW X3 was released in 2003. The 2001 E65 7 Series was BMW 's first model to use a 6 - speed automatic transmission. In 2002, the Z4 two - seat coupe / convertible replaced the Z3. In 2004, the 1 Series hatchbacks replaced the 3 Series Compact models as BMW 's entry level models. The 2003 Rolls - Royce Phantom was the first Rolls - Royce vehicle produced under BMW ownership. This was the end result of complicated contractual negotiations that began in 1998 when Rolls - Royce plc licensed use of the Rolls - Royce name and logo to BMW, but Vickers sold the remaining elements of Rolls - Royce Motor Cars to Volkswagen. In addition, BMW had supplied Rolls - Royce with engines since 1998 for use in the Rolls - Royce Silver Seraph. In 2005, BMW 's first V10 engine was introduced in the E60 M5. The E60 platform is also used for the E63 / E64, which reintroduced the 6 Series models after a hiatus of 14 years. BMW 's first turbocharged petrol engine was the six - cylinder N54, which debuted in the 2006 E92 335i. In 2011, the F30 3 Series was released, with turbocharged engines being used on all models. This shift to turbocharging and smaller engines was reflective of general automotive industry trends. The M3 model based on the F30 platform is the first M3 to use a turbocharged engine. BMW 's first turbocharged V8 engine, the BMW N63, was introduced in 2008. Despite the trend to downsizing, in 2008 BMW began production of its first turbocharged V12 engine, the BMW N74. In 2011, the F10 M5 became the first M5 model to use a turbocharged engine. In 2007, the production rights for Husqvarna Motorcycles was purchased by BMW for a reported 93 million euros. The BMW X6 SUV was introduced in 2008. The X6 attracted controversy for its unusual combination of coupe and SUV styling cues. In 2009, the BMW X1 compact SUV was introduced. The BMW 5 Series Gran Turismo fastback body style was also introduced in 2009, based on the 5 Series platform. Controversial designer Chris Bangle announced his departure from BMW in February 2009, after serving on the design team for nearly seventeen years. BMW 's first hybrid - powered car, the F01 ActiveHybrid 7, was introduced in 2010. BMW released their first electric car, the BMW i3 city car, in 2013. The i3 is also the first mass - production car to have a structure mostly made from carbon - fibre. BMW 's first hybrid sportscar (and their first mid-engined car since the M1) is called the BMW i8 and was introduced in 2014. The i8 is also the first car to use BMW 's first inline - three engine, the BMW B38. In 2013, the BMW 4 Series replaced the coupe and convertible models of the 3 Series. Many elements of the 4 Series remained shared with the equivalent 3 Series model. Similarly, the BMW 2 Series replaced the coupe and convertible models of the 1 Series in 2013. The 2 Series was produced in coupe (F22), five - seat MPV (F45) and seven - seat MPV (F46) body styles. The latter two body styles are the first front - wheel drive vehicles produced by BMW. The F48 X1 also includes some front - wheel drive models. The BMW X4 compact SUV was introduced in 2014. The 2016 G11 740e and F30 / F31 330e are the first plug - in hybrid versions of the 7 Series and 3 Series respectively. The name BMW is an abbreviation for Bayerische Motoren Werke (German pronunciation: (ˈbaɪ̯ʁɪʃə mɔˈthɔʁn̩ ˈvɛɐ̯kə) (listen)). The German name is not grammatically correct, because motorenwerke is a single word in German. The term Bayerische Motorenwerke (which has been used in several German publications and advertisements in the past) translates into English as Bavarian Motor Works, which has been used by BMW for marketing products in English - speaking countries. The suffix AG, short for Aktiengesellschaft, signifies an incorporated entity which is owned by shareholders. The terms Beemer, Bimmer and Bee - em are commonly used slang for BMW in the English language and are sometimes used interchangeably for cars and motorcycles. In the United States, some people prescribe that "beemer '' should be used specifically for motorcycles and "bimmer '' should be used for cars. Some of these people claim that "true aficionados '' make this distinction and those who do n't are "uninitiated. '' Usage in North American mainstream media also varies, for example the Canadian Globe and Mail prefers Bimmer and calls Beemer a "yuppie abomination '', and the Tacoma News Tribune says that it is "auto snobs '' who use the terms to distinguish between cars and motorcycles. An editor of Business Week was satisfied in 2003 that the question was resolved in favor of Bimmer by noting that a Google search yielded 10 times as many hits compared to Beemer, though googling gives very different results today. The circular blue and white BMW logo or roundel evolved from the circular Rapp Motorenwerke company logo, from which the BMW company grew, combined with the blue and white colors of the flag of Bavaria. The BMW logo still used today was created in 1917, albeit with various minor styling changes. The origin of the logo is often thought to be a portrayal of the movement of an aircraft propeller with the white blades cutting through a blue sky. However, this portrayal was first used in a BMW advertisement in 1929 - twelve years after the logo was created - so this is not the origin of the logo itself. BMW began production of motorcycle engines and then motorcycles after World War I. Its motorcycle brand is now known as BMW Motorrad. Their first successful motorcycle after the failed Helios and Flink, was the "R32 '' in 1923, though production originally began in 1921. This had a "boxer '' twin engine, in which a cylinder projects into the air - flow from each side of the machine. Apart from their single - cylinder models (basically to the same pattern), all their motorcycles used this distinctive layout until the early 1980s. Many BMW 's are still produced in this layout, which is designated the R Series. The entire BMW Motorcycle production has, since 1969, been located at the company 's Berlin - Spandau factory. During the Second World War, BMW produced the BMW R75 motorcycle with a sidecar attached. Having a unique design copied from the Zündapp KS750, its sidecar wheel was also motor - driven. Combined with a lockable differential, this made the vehicle very capable off - road, an equivalent in many ways to the Jeep. In 1982, came the K Series, shaft drive but water - cooled and with either three or four cylinders mounted in a straight line from front to back. Shortly after, BMW also started making the chain - driven F and G series with single and parallel twin Rotax engines. In the early 1990s, BMW updated the airhead Boxer engine which became known as the oilhead. In 2002, the oilhead engine had two spark plugs per cylinder. In 2004 it added a built - in balance shaft, an increased capacity to 1,170 cc and enhanced performance to 100 hp (75 kW) for the R1200GS, compared to 85 hp (63 kW) of the previous R1150GS. More powerful variants of the oilhead engines are available in the R1100S and R1200S, producing 98 and 122 hp (73 and 91 kW), respectively. In 2004, BMW introduced the new K1200S Sports Bike which marked a departure for BMW. It had an engine producing 167 hp (125 kW), derived from the company 's work with the Williams F1 team, and is lighter than previous K models. Innovations include electronically adjustable front and rear suspension, and a Hossack - type front fork that BMW calls Duolever. BMW introduced anti-lock brakes on production motorcycles starting in the late 1980s. The generation of anti-lock brakes available on the 2006 and later BMW motorcycles pave the way for the introduction of electronic stability control, or anti-skid technology later in the 2007 model year. BMW has been an innovator in motorcycle suspension design, taking up telescopic front suspension long before most other manufacturers. Then they switched to an Earles fork, front suspension by swinging fork (1955 to 1969). Most modern BMWs are truly rear swingarm, single sided at the back (compare with the regular swinging fork usually, and wrongly, called swinging arm). Some BMWs started using yet another trademark front suspension design, the Telelever, in the early 1990s. Like the Earles fork, the Telelever significantly reduces dive under braking. BMW Group, on 31 January 2013, announced that Pierer Industrie AG has bought Husqvarna for an undisclosed amount, which will not be revealed by either party in the future. The company is headed by Stephan Pierer (CEO of KTM). Pierer Industrie AG is 51 % owner of KTM and 100 % owner of Husqvarna. The current model lines of BMW automobiles are: The 1 Series (F20 / F21) is the entry level to BMW 's current model range. It is produced in 3 - door and 5 - door hatchback body styles. A 4 - door sedan variant (F52) is also sold in China. F20 1 Series F52 1 Series The 2 Series (F22 / F23) is BMW 's entry level coupes and convertibles. The 2 Series range also consists of the "Active Tourer '' (F45) and "Gran Tourer '' (F46) body styles, which are 5 - seat and 7 - seat MPVs respectively. F22 2 Series F45 2 Series F46 2 Series The 3 Series (F30 / F31 / F34) range is produced in 4 - door sedan, 4 - door wagon (estate) and 5 - door fastback ("Gran Turismo '') body styles. A long - wheelbase sedan variant (F35) is also sold in China. F30 3 Series F31 3 Series F34 3 Series F35 3 Series The 4 Series (F32 / F33 / F36) range is produced in 2 - door coupe, 2 - door convertible and 5 - door fastback ("Gran Coupe '') body styles. F32 4 Series F33 4 Series F36 4 Series The 5 Series (G30 / G31) range is produced in sedan and wagon body styles. A long - wheelbase sedan variant (G38) is also sold in China. G30 5 Series G31 5 Series The 6 Series (F06 / F12 / F13) range is produced in 2 - door coupe, 2 - door convertible and 4 - door fastback ("Gran Coupe '') body styles. F06 6 Series F12 6 Series F13 6 Series The 7 Series (G11 / G12) range is produced in the 4 - door sedan and long - wheelbase sedan body styles. G11 7 Series G12 7 Series The X models consist of the X1 (F48), X3 (G01), X4 (F26), X5 (F15) and X6 (F16). F84 X1 G01 X3 F26 X4 F15 X5 F16 X6 The Z Series consists of the Z4 (E89) 2 - seat roadster. E89 Z4 - front Sometimes the model series are referred to by their German pronunciation: "Einser '' ("One - er '') for the 1 Series, "Dreier '' ("Three - er '') for the 3 Series, "Fünfer '' ("Five - er '') for the 5 Series, "Sechser '' ("Six - er '') for the 6 Series and "Siebener '' ("Seven - er '') for the 7 Series. These are not actually slang, but are the normal way that such letters and numbers are pronounced in German. The BMW i is a sub-brand of BMW founded in 2011 to design and manufacture plug - in electric vehicles. The sub-brand initial plans called for the release of two vehicles; series production of the BMW i3 all - electric car began in September 2013, and the market launch took place in November 2013 with the first retail deliveries in Germany. The BMW i8 sports plug - in hybrid car was launched in Germany in June 2014. In 2014, BMW developed a prototype of street lights equipped with power sockets to charge electric cars, called Light and Charge. Two of these charging facilities were installed at BMW 's headquarters in Munich. In 2015, BMW in cooperation with SCHERM Group has started deploying electric trucks on European roads, making it the first company to ever do so. The truck itself is manufactured by the Terberg Group, one of the world 's largest independent specialist vehicle suppliers. Combined sales of the BMW i brand models reached the 50,000 unit milestone in January 2016. Two years after its introduction, the BMW i3 ranked as the world 's third best selling all - electric car in history. Global sales of the BMW i3 achieved the 50,000 unit milestone in July 2016. In February 2016, BMW announced the introduction of the "iPerformance '' model designation, which will be given to all BMW plug - in hybrid vehicles from July 2016. The aim is to provide a visible indicator of the transfer of technology from BMW i to the BMW core brand. The new designation will be used first on the plug - in hybrid variants of the latest BMW 7 Series. Global sales of all BMW plug - in electrified models achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in early November 2016, consisting of more than 60,000 BMW i3s, over 10,000 BMW i8s, and about 30,000 from combined sales of all BMW iPerformance plug - in hybrid models. As of November 2016, four BMW electrified models have been released, the BMW X5 xDrive40e iPerformance, BMW 225xe iPerformance Active Tourer, BMW 330e iPerformance, and the BMW 740e iPerformance. The BMW 530e iPerformance is scheduled to be released in Europe March 2017 as part of the upcoming seventh generation BMW 5 Series lineup. Global sales of all plug - in electrified models achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in early November 2016, consisting of more than 60,000 i3s, over 10,000 i8s, and about 30,000 from combined sales of all BMW iPerformance plug - in hybrid models. Combined global sales of BMW 's electrified models totaled more than 62,000 units in 2016, and 103,080 in 2017, including MINI brand electrified vehicles. BMW cumulative sales of BMW Group 's electrified vehicles passed the 200,000 unit milestone in December 2017. BMW produce a number of high - performance derivatives of their cars developed by their BMW M GmbH (previously BMW Motorsport GmbH) subsidiary. The current M models are: BMW has a long history of motorsport activities, including: 2016 BMW M4 DTM 2016 BMW M6 GT3 2016 BMW S1000RR Manufacturers employ designers for their cars, but BMW has made efforts to gain recognition for exceptional contributions to and support of the arts, including art beyond motor vehicle design. These efforts typically overlap or complement BMW 's marketing and branding campaigns. In 1975, Alexander Calder was commissioned to paint the 3.0 CSL driven by Hervé Poulain at the 24 Hours of Le Mans, which became the first in the series of BMW Art Cars. This led to more BMW Art Cars, painted by artists including Andy Warhol, Jenny Holzer, Roy Lichtenstein and others. The cars, currently numbering 17, have been shown at the Louvre, Guggenheim Museum Bilbao, Los Angeles County Museum of Art and New York 's Grand Central Terminal. 1975 Art Car by Alexander Calder 1979 Art Car by Andy Warhol 2010 Art Car by Jeff Koons BMW 's Munich headquarters represents the cylinder head of a 4 - cylinder engine. It was designed by Karl Schwanzer and was completed in 1972. The building has become a European icon and was declared a protected historic building in 1999. The main tower consists of four vertical cylinders standing next to and across from each other. Each cylinder is divided horizontally in its center by a mold in the facade. Notably, these cylinders do not stand on the ground; they are suspended on a central support tower. BMW Museum is a futuristic cauldron - shaped building, which was also designed by Karl Schwanzer and opened in 1972. The interior has a spiral theme and the roof is a 40 - metre diameter BMW logo. BMW 's exhibition space in Munich, BMW Welt, was designed by Coop Himmelb (l) au and opened in 2007. It includes a showroom and lifting platforms where a customer 's new car is theatrically unveiled to the customer. The BMW Central Building in Leipzig was designed by Zaha Hadid. BMW Museum interior BMW Welt In 2001 and 2002, BMW produced a series of 8 short films called The Hire, which had plots based around BMW models being driven to extremes by Clive Owen. The directors for The Hire included Guy Ritchie, John Woo, John Frankenheimer and Ang Lee. In 2016, a ninth film in the series was released. The 2006 "BMW Performance Series '' was a marketing event geared to attract black car buyers. It included the "BMW Pop - Jazz Live Series '' - a tour headlined by jazz musician Mike Phillips - and the "BMW Blackfilms.com Film Series '' highlighting black filmmakers. BMW was the principal sponsor of the 1998 The Art of the Motorcycle exhibition at the Solomon R. Guggenheim Museum and other Guggenheim museums, though the financial relationship between BMW and the Guggenheim was criticised in many quarters. In 2012, BMW began sponsoring Independent Collectors production of the BMW Art Guide, which is the first global guide to private and publicly accessible collections of contemporary art worldwide. The 2016 edition features 256 collections from 43 countries. BMW produces complete automobile at its factories in Germany (Munich, Dingolfing, Regensburg and Leipzig), United States (Greer), South Africa (Rosslyn) and China (Shenyang). BMW also has local assembly operation using complete knock down components in Thailand, Russia, Egypt, Indonesia, Malaysia, and India (Chennai), for 3, 5, 7 series and X3. In 2006, the BMW group (including Mini and Rolls - Royce) produced 1,366,838 four - wheeled vehicles, which were manufactured in five countries. In 2010, it manufactured 1,481,253 four - wheeled vehicles and 112,271 motorcycles (under both the BMW and Husqvarna brands). BMW Motorcycles are being produced at the company 's Berlin factory, which earlier had produced aircraft engines for Siemens. By 2011, about 56 % of BMW - brand vehicles produced are powered by petrol engines and the remaining 44 % are powered by diesel engines. Of those petrol vehicles, about 27 % are four - cylinder models and about nine percent are eight - cylinder models. On average, 9,000 vehicles per day exit BMW plants, and 63 % are transported by rail. Annual production since 2005 is as follows: Vehicles sold in all markets according to BMW 's annual reports. * Since 2008, motorcycle productions and sales figures include Husqvarna models. * * Excluding Husqvarna, sales volume up to 2013: 59,776 units. In China, BMW sold 415,200 vehicles between January and November 2014, through a network of over 440 BMW stores and 100 Mini stores. BMW has collaborated with other car manufacturers on the following occasions: In soccer (football), BMW sponsors Bundesliga club Eintracht Frankfurt. At the London 2012 Olympic games, BMW 's sponsorship included providing 4000 BMWs and Minis. BMW also made a six - year sponsorship deal with the United States Olympic Committee (USOC) in July 2010. In golf, BMW has sponsored various events, including the PGA Championship, the BMW Italian Open, the BMW Masters in China and the BMW International Open in Germany. In rugby, BMW sponsored the South Africa national rugby union team from 2011 to 2015. The company is a charter member of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency 's (EPA) National Environmental Achievement Track, which recognizes companies for their environmental stewardship and performance. It is also a member of the South Carolina Environmental Excellence Program. Since 1999, BMW has been named the world 's most sustainable automotive company every year by the Dow Jones Sustainability Index. The BMW Group is one of three automotive companies to be featured every year in the index. In 2001, the BMW Group committed itself to the United Nations Environment Programme, the UN Global Compact and the Cleaner Production Declaration. It was also the first company in the automotive industry to appoint an environmental officer, in 1973. BMW is a member of the World Business Council for Sustainable Development. In 2012, BMW was the highest automotive company in the Carbon Disclosure Project 's Global 500 list, with a score of 99 out of 100. The BMW Group was rated the most sustainable DAX 30 company by Sustainalytics in 2012. To reduce vehicle emissions, BMW is improving the efficiency of existing fossil - fuel powered models, while researching electric power, hybrid power and hydrogen for future models. BMW branded bicycles are sold online and through dealerships. The BMW Turbo Levo FSR 6Fattie electric mountain bike was produced in partnership with Specialized and the BMW Cruise e-Bike NBG III uses a Bosch motor and battery. DriveNow is a joint - venture between BMW and Sixt that was launched in Munich in June 2011, and now operates in thirteen cities around Europe. As of December 2012, DriveNow operates over 1,000 vehicles, which serve five cities worldwide and over 60,000 customers. In the United States, BMW launched the ReachNow car - sharing service in Seattle in April 2016. ReachNow currently operates in Seattle, Portland and Brooklyn. On 9 October 2014, BMW 's new South American automobile plant in Araquari, Santa Catarina assembled its first car, an F30 3 Series. The cars assembled at Araquari are the F20 1 Series, F30 3 Series, F48 X1, F25 X3 and Mini Countryman. Cars are assembled from complete knock - down components. The first BMW dealership in Canada was opened in 1969. In 1986, BMW established a head office in Canada. BMW sold 28,149 vehicles in Canada in 2008. Signing a deal in 2003 for the production of sedans in China, May 2004 saw the opening of a factory in the North - eastern city of Shenyang where Brilliance Auto produces BMW - branded automobiles in a joint venture with the German company. Bavarian Auto Group became sole importer of the BMW and Mini brands in 2003. At the BMW assembly plant in 6th of October City, the 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1 and X3 are assembled from complete knock - down components. BMW India was established in 2006 as a sales subsidiary in Gurugram. A BMW assembly plant was opened in Chennai in 2007, assembling 3 Series, 5 Series, 7 Series, X1, X3, X5, Mini Countryman and motorcycle models from complete knock - down components. BMW Japan Corp, a wholly owned subsidiary, imports and distributes BMW vehicles in Japan. In July 2014, BMW announced it was establishing a plant in Mexico, in the city and state of San Luis Potosi involving an investment of $1 billion. The plant will employ 1,500 people, and produce 150,000 cars annually, commencing in 2019. BMWs have been assembled in South Africa since 1968, when Praetor Monteerders ' plant was opened in Rosslyn, near Pretoria. BMW initially bought shares in the company, before fully acquiring it in 1975; in so doing, the company became BMW South Africa, the first wholly owned subsidiary of BMW to be established outside Germany. Unlike United States manufacturers, such as Ford and GM, which divested from the country in the 1980s, BMW retained full ownership of its operations in South Africa. Following the end of apartheid in 1994, and the lowering of import tariffs, BMW South Africa ended local production of the 5 Series and 7 Series, in order to concentrate on production of the 3 Series for the export market. South African -- built BMWs are now exported to right hand drive markets including Japan, Australia, New Zealand, the United Kingdom, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, as well as Sub-Saharan Africa. Since 1997, BMW South Africa has produced vehicles in left - hand drive for export to Taiwan, the United States and Iran, as well as South America. Three unique models that BMW Motorsport created for the South African market were the E23 M745i (1983), which used the M88 engine from the BMW M1, the BMW 333i (1986), which added a six - cylinder 3.2 - litre M30 engine to the E30, and the E30 BMW 325is (1989) which was powered by an Alpina - derived 2.7 - litre engine. BMWs with a VIN starting with "NC0 '' are manufactured in South Africa. BMW cars have been officially sold in the United States since 1956 and manufactured in the United States since 1994. The first BMW dealership in the United States opened in 1975. In 2016, BMW was the twelfth highest selling brand in the United States. The manufacturing plant in Spartanburg, South Carolina has the second highest production of the BMW plants worldwide, currently producing approximately 1,400 vehicles per day. The models produced at the Spartanburg plant are the X3, X4 and X5 SUV models. In addition to the South Carolina manufacturing facility, BMW 's North American companies include sales, marketing, design, and financial services operations in the United States, Mexico, Canada and Latin America. The slogan ' The Ultimate Driving Machine ' was first used in North America in 1974. In 2010, this long - lived campaign was mostly supplanted by ' Joy ', a campaign intended to make the brand more approachable and to better appeal to women, but by 2012 BMW had returned to ' The Ultimate Driving Machine '. BMW has garnered a reputation over the years for its April Fools pranks, which are printed in the British press every year. In 2010, they ran an advertisement in The Guardian announcing that customers would be able to order BMWs with different coloured badges to show their affiliation with the political party they supported. In 2013, BMW replaced the ' double - gong ' sound used at the end of TV and radio advertisements since 1999. The new sound was described as "introduced by a rising, resonant sound and underscored by two distinctive bass tones that form the sound logo 's melodic and rhythmic basis. '' The new sound was first used in the BMW 4 Series Concept Coupe TV commercial.

how did texas eventually become the 28th state of the union

Texas annexation - wikipedia The Texas Annexation was the 1845 incorporation of the Republic of Texas into the United States of America, which was admitted to the Union as the 28th state on December 29, 1845. The Republic of Texas declared independence from the Republic of Mexico on March 2, 1836. At the time the vast majority of the Texian population favored the annexation of the Republic by the United States. The leadership of both major U.S. political parties, the Democrats and the Whigs, opposed the introduction of Texas, a vast slave - holding region, into the volatile political climate of the pro - and anti-slavery sectional controversies in Congress. Moreover, they wished to avoid a war with Mexico, whose government refused to acknowledge the sovereignty of its rebellious northern province. With Texas 's economic fortunes declining by the early 1840s, the President of the Texas Republic, Sam Houston, arranged talks with Mexico to explore the possibility of securing official recognition of independence, with the United Kingdom mediating. In 1843, U.S. President John Tyler, then unaligned with any political party, decided independently to pursue the annexation of Texas in a bid to gain a base of popular support for another four years in office. His official motivation was to outmaneuver suspected diplomatic efforts by the British government for emancipation of slaves in Texas, which would undermine slavery in the United States. Through secret negotiations with the Houston administration, Tyler secured a treaty of annexation in April 1844. When the documents were submitted to the U.S. Senate for ratification, the details of the terms of annexation became public and the question of acquiring Texas took center stage in the presidential election of 1844. Pro-Texas - annexation southern Democratic delegates denied their anti-annexation leader Martin Van Buren the nomination at their party 's convention in May 1844. In alliance with pro-expansion northern Democratic colleagues, they secured the nomination of James K. Polk, who ran on a pro-Texas Manifest Destiny platform. In June 1844, the Senate, with its Whig majority, soundly rejected the Tyler -- Texas treaty. The pro-annexation Democrat Polk narrowly defeated anti-annexation Whig Henry Clay in the 1844 presidential election. In December 1844, lame - duck President Tyler called on Congress to pass his treaty by simple majorities in each house. The Democratic - dominated House of Representatives complied with his request by passing an amended bill expanding on the pro-slavery provisions of the Tyler treaty. The Senate narrowly passed a compromise version of the House bill (by the vote of the minority Democrats and several southern Whigs), designed to provide the incoming President - elect Polk the options of immediate annexation of Texas or new talks to revise the annexation terms of the House - amended bill. On March 1, 1845, President Tyler signed the annexation bill, and on March 3 (his last day in office), he forwarded the House version to Texas, offering immediate annexation (which preempted Polk). When Polk took office the next day, he encouraged Texas to accept the Tyler offer. Texas ratified the agreement with popular approval from Texans. The bill was signed by Polk on December 29, 1845, accepting Texas as the 28th state of the Union. Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 19, 1846. Following the annexation, relations between the United States and Mexico deteriorated due to an unresolved dispute over the border between Texas and Mexico, and the Mexican - American War broke out only a few months later. First mapped by Spain in 1519, Texas was part of the vast Spanish empire seized by the Spanish Conquistadors from its indigenous people for over 300 years. When the Louisiana territory was acquired by the United States from France in 1803, many in the U.S. believed the new territory included parts or all of present - day Texas. The US - Spain border along the northern frontier of Texas took shape in the 1817 -- 1819 negotiations between Secretary of State John Quincy Adams and the Spanish ambassador to the United States, Luis de Onís y González - Vara. The boundaries of Texas were determined within the larger geostrategic struggle to demarcate the limits of the United States ' extensive western lands and of Spain 's vast possessions in North America. The Florida Treaty of February 22, 1819 emerged as a compromise that excluded Spain from the lower Columbia River watershed, but established southern boundaries at the Sabine and Red Rivers, "legally extinguish (ing) '' any American claims to Texas. Nonetheless, Texas remained an object of fervent interest to American expansionists, among them Thomas Jefferson, who anticipated the eventual acquisition of its fertile lands. The Missouri crisis of 1819 -- 1821 sharpened commitments to expansionism among the country 's slaveholding interests, when the so - called Thomas proviso established the 36 ° 30 ' parallel, imposing free - soil and slave - soil futures in the Louisiana Purchase lands. While a majority of southern congressmen acquiesced to the exclusion of slavery from the bulk of the Louisiana Purchase, a significant minority objected. Virginian editor Thomas Ritchie of the Richmond Enquirer predicted that with the proviso restrictions, the South would ultimately require Texas: "If we are cooped up on the north, we must have elbow room to the west. '' Representative John Floyd of Virginia in 1824 accused Secretary of State Adams of conceding Texas to Spain in 1819 in the interests of Northern anti-slavery advocates, and so depriving the South of additional slave states. Then - Representative John Tyler of Virginia invoked the Jeffersonian precepts of territorial and commercial growth as a national goal to counter the rise of sectional differences over slavery. His "diffusion '' theory declared that with Missouri open to slavery, the new state would encourage the transfer of underutilized slaves westward, emptying the eastern states of bondsmen and making emancipation feasible in the old South. This doctrine would be revived during the Texas annexation controversy. When Mexico won its independence from Spain in 1821, the United States did not contest the new republic 's claims to Texas, and both presidents John Quincy Adams (1825 -- 1829) and Andrew Jackson (1829 -- 1837) persistently sought, through official and unofficial channels, to procure all or portions of provincial Texas from the Mexican government, without success. Spanish and Indigenous immigrants, primarily from North Eastern provinces of New Spain began to settle Texas in the late 17th century. The Spanish constructed chains of missions and presidios in what is today Louisiana, East Texas and South Texas. The first chain of missions was designed for the Tejas Indians, near Los Adaes. Soon thereafter, the San Antonio Missions were founded along the San Antonio River. The City of San Antonio, then known as San Fernando de Bexar, was founded in 1719. In the early 1760s, Jose de Escandon created five settlements along the Rio Grande River, including Laredo. Anglo - American immigrants, primarily from the Southern United States, began emigrating to Mexican Texas in the early 1820s at the invitation of the Texas faction of the Coahuila y Texas state government, which sought to populate the sparsely inhabited lands of its northern frontier for cotton production. Colonizing empresario Stephen F. Austin managed the regional affairs of the mostly American - born population -- 20 % of them slaves -- under the terms of the generous government land grants. Mexican authorities were initially content to govern the remote province through salutary neglect, "permitting slavery under the legal fiction of ' permanent indentured servitude ', similar to Mexico 's peonage system. A general lawlessness prevailed in the vast Texas frontier, and Mexico 's civic laws went largely unenforced among the Anglo - American settlers. In particular, the prohibitions against slavery and forced labor were ignored. The requirement that all settlers be Catholic or convert to Catholicism was also subverted. Mexican authorities, perceiving that they were losing control over Texas and alarmed by the unsuccessful Fredonian Rebellion of 1826, abandoned the policy of benign rule. New restrictions were imposed in 1829 -- 1830, outlawing slavery throughout the nation and terminating further American immigration to Texas. Military occupation followed, sparking local uprisings and a civil war. Texas conventions in 1832 and 1833 submitted petitions for redress of grievances to overturn the restrictions, with limited success. In 1835, an army under Mexican President Santa Anna entered its territory of Texas and abolished self - government. Texans responded by declaring their independence from Mexico on March 2, 1836. On April 20 -- 21, rebel forces under Texas General Sam Houston defeated the Mexican army at the Battle of San Jacinto. In June 1836, Santa Anna agreed to Texas independence, but the Mexican government refused to honor Santa Anna 's pledge. Texans, now de facto independent, recognized that their security and prosperity could never be achieved while Mexico denied the legitimacy of their revolution. In the years following independence, the migration of white settlers and importation of black slave labor into the vast republic was deterred by Texas 's unresolved international status and the threat of renewed warfare with Mexico. American citizens who considered migrating to the new republic perceived that "life and property were safer within the United States '' than in an independent Texas. The situation led to labor shortages, reduced tax revenue, large national debts and a diminished Texas militia. The Anglo - American immigrants residing in newly - independent Texas overwhelmingly desired immediate annexation by the United States. But, despite his strong support for Texas independence from Mexico, then - President Andrew Jackson delayed recognizing the new republic until the last day of his presidency to avoid raising the issue during the 1836 general election. Jackson 's political caution was informed by northern concerns that Texas could potentially form several new slave states and undermine the North - South balance in Congress. Jackson 's successor, President Martin Van Buren, viewed Texas annexation as an immense political liability that would empower the anti-slavery northern Whig opposition -- especially if annexation provoked a war with Mexico. Presented with a formal annexation proposal from Texas minister Memucan Hunt, Jr. in August 1837, Van Buren summarily rejected it. Annexation resolutions presented separately in each house of Congress were either soundly defeated or tabled through filibuster. After the election of 1838, new Texas president Mirabeau B. Lamar withdrew his republic 's offer of annexation due to these failures. Texans were at an annexation impasse when John Tyler entered the White House in 1841. William Henry Harrison, Whig Party presidential nominee, defeated US President Martin Van Buren in the 1840 general election. Upon Harrison 's death shortly after his inauguration, Vice-President John Tyler assumed the presidency. President Tyler was expelled from the Whig party in 1841 for repeatedly vetoing their domestic finance legislation. Tyler, isolated and outside the two - party mainstream, turned to foreign affairs to salvage his presidency, aligning himself with a southern states ' rights faction that shared his fervent slavery expansionist views. In his first address to Congress in special session on June 1, 1841, Tyler set the stage for Texas annexation by announcing his intention to pursue an expansionist agenda so as to preserve the balance between state and national authority and to protect American institutions, including slavery, so as to avoid sectional conflict. Tyler 's closest advisors counseled him that obtaining Texas would assure him a second term in the White House, and it became a deeply personal obsession for the president, who viewed the acquisition of Texas as the "primary objective of his administration ''. Tyler delayed direct action on Texas to work closely with his Secretary of State Daniel Webster on other pressing diplomatic initiatives. With the Webster - Ashburton Treaty ratified in 1843, Tyler was ready to make the annexation of Texas his "top priority ''. Representative Thomas W. Gilmer of Virginia was authorized by the administration to make the case for annexation to the American electorate. In a widely circulated open letter, understood as an announcement of the executive branch 's designs for Texas, Gilmer described Texas as a panacea for North - South conflict and an economic boon to all commercial interests. The slavery issue, however divisive, would be left for the states to decide as per the US Constitution. Domestic tranquility and national security, Tyler argued, would result from an annexed Texas; a Texas left outside American jurisdiction would imperil the Union. Tyler adroitly arranged the resignation of his anti-annexation Secretary of State Daniel Webster, and on June 23, 1843 appointed Abel P. Upshur, a Virginia states ' rights champion and ardent proponent of Texas annexation. This cabinet shift signaled Tyler 's intent to pursue Texas annexation aggressively. In late September 1843, in an effort to cultivate public support for Texas, Secretary Upshur dispatched a letter to the US Minister to Great Britain, Edward Everett, conveying his displeasure with Britain 's global anti-slavery posture, and warning their government that forays into Texas 's affairs would be regarded as "tantamount to direct interference ' with the established institutions of the United States ' ''. In a breach of diplomatic norms, Upshur leaked the communique to the press to inflame popular Anglophobic sentiments among American citizens. In the spring of 1843, the Tyler administration had sent executive agent Duff Green to Europe to gather intelligence and arrange territorial treaty talks with Great Britain regarding Oregon; he also worked with American minister to France, Lewis Cass, to thwart efforts by major European powers to suppress the maritime slave trade. Green reported to Secretary Upshur in July 1843 that he had discovered a "loan plot '' by American abolitionists, in league with Lord Aberdeen, British Foreign Secretary, to provide funds to the Texas in exchange for the emancipation of its slaves. Minister Everett was charged with determining the substance of these confidential reports alleging a Texas plot. His investigations, including personal interviews with Lord Aberdeen, concluded that British interest in abolitionist intrigues was weak, contradicting Secretary of State Upshur 's conviction that Great Britain was manipulating Texas. Though unsubstantiated, Green 's unofficial intelligence so alarmed Tyler that he requested verification from the US minister to Mexico, Waddy Thompson. John C. Calhoun of South Carolina, a pro-slavery extremist counseled Secretary Upshur that British designs on American slavery were real and required immediate action to preempt a takeover of Texas by Great Britain. When Tyler confirmed in September that the British Foreign Secretary Aberdeen had encouraged détente between Mexico and Texas, allegedly pressing Mexico to maneuver Texas towards emancipation of its slaves, Tyler acted at once. On September 18, 1843, in consultation with Secretary Upshur, he ordered secret talks opened with Texas Minister to the United States Isaac Van Zandt to negotiate the annexation of Texas. Face - to - face negotiations commenced on October 16, 1843. By the summer of 1843 Sam Houston 's Texas administration had returned to negotiations with the Mexican government to consider a rapprochement that would permit Texas self - governance, possibly as a state of Mexico, with Great Britain acting as mediator. Texas officials felt compelled by the fact that the Tyler administration appeared unequipped to mount an effective campaign for Texas annexation. With the 1844 general election in the United States approaching, the leadership in both the Democratic and Whig parties remained unequivocally anti-Texas. Texas - Mexico treaty options under consideration included an autonomous Texas within Mexico 's borders, or an independent republic with the provision that Texas should emancipate its slaves upon recognition. Van Zandt, though he personally favored annexation by the United States, was not authorized to entertain any overtures from the US government on the subject. Texas officials were at the moment deeply engaged in exploring settlements with Mexican diplomats, facilitated by Great Britain. Texas 's predominant concern was not British interference with the institution of slavery -- English diplomats had not alluded to the issue -- but the avoidance of any resumption of hostilities with Mexico. Still, US Secretary of State Upshur vigorously courted Texas diplomats to begin annexation talks, finally dispatching an appeal to President Sam Houston in January 1844. In it, he assured Houston that, in contrast to previous attempts, the political climate in the United States, including sections of the North, was amenable to Texas statehood, and that a two - thirds majority in Senate could be obtained to ratify a Texas treaty. Texans were hesitant to pursue a US - Texas treaty without a written commitment of military defense from America, since a full - scale military attack by Mexico seemed likely when the negotiations became public. If ratification of the annexation measure stalled in the US Senate, Texas could face a war alone against Mexico. Because only Congress could declare war, the Tyler administration lacked the constitutional authority to commit the US to support of Texas. But when Secretary Upshur provided a verbal assurance of military defense, President Houston, responding to urgent calls for annexation from the Texas Congress of December 1843, authorized the reopening of annexation negotiations. As Secretary Upshur accelerated the secret treaty discussions, Mexican diplomats learned that US - Texas talks were taking place. Mexican minister to the U.S. Juan Almonte confronted Upshur with these reports, warning him that if Congress sanctioned a treaty of annexation, Mexico would break diplomatic ties and immediately declare war. Secretary Upshur evaded and dismissed the charges, and pressed forward with the negotiations. In tandem with moving forward with Texas diplomats, Upshur was secretly lobbying US Senators to support annexation, providing lawmakers with persuasive arguments linking Texas acquisition to national security and domestic peace. By early 1844, Upshur was able to assure Texas officials that 40 of the 52 members of the Senate were pledged to ratify the Tyler - Texas treaty, more than the two - thirds majority required for passage. Tyler, in his annual address to Congress in December 1843, maintained his silence on the secret treaty, so as not to damage relations with the wary Texas diplomats. Throughout, Tyler did his utmost to keep the negotiations secret, making no public reference to his administration 's single - minded quest for Texas. The Tyler - Texas treaty was in its final stages when its chief architects, Secretary Upshur and Secretary of the Navy Thomas W. Gilmer, died in an accident aboard USS Princeton on February 28, 1844, just a day after achieving a preliminary treaty draft agreement with the Texas Republic. The Princeton disaster proved a major setback for Texas annexation, in that Tyler expected Secretary Upshur to elicit critical support from Whig and Democratic Senators during the upcoming treaty ratification process. Tyler selected John C. Calhoun to replace Upshur as Secretary of State and to finalize the treaty with Texas. The choice of Calhoun, a highly regarded but controversial American statesman, risked introducing a politically polarizing element into the Texas debates, but Tyler prized him as a strong advocate of annexation. With the Tyler - Upshur secret annexation negotiations with Texas near consummation, Senator Robert J. Walker of Mississippi, a key Tyler ally, issued a widely distributed and highly influential letter, reproduced as a pamphlet, making the case for immediate annexation. In it, Walker argued that Texas could be acquired by Congress in a number of ways -- all constitutional -- and that the moral authority to do so was based on the precepts for territorial expansion established by Jefferson and Madison, and promulgated as doctrine by Monroe in 1823. Senator Walker 's polemic offered analysis on the significance of Texas with respect to slavery and race. He envisioned Texas as a corridor through which both free and enslaved African - Americans could be "diffused '' southward in a gradual exodus that would ultimately supply labor to the Central American tropics, and in time, empty the United States of its slave population. This "safety - valve '' theory "appealed to the racial fears of northern whites '' who dreaded the prospect of absorbing emancipated slaves into their communities in the event that the institution of slavery collapsed in the South. This scheme for racial cleansing was consistent, on a pragmatic level, with proposals for overseas colonization of blacks, which were pursued by a number of American presidents, from Jefferson to Lincoln. Walker bolstered his position by raising national security concerns, warning that in the event annexation failed, imperialist Great Britain would maneuver the Republic of Texas into emancipating its slaves, forecasting a dangerous destabilizing influence on southwestern slaveholding states. The pamphlet characterized abolitionists as traitors who conspired with the British to overthrow the United States. A variation of the Tyler 's "diffusion '' theory, it played on economic fears in a period when slave - based staple crop markets had not yet recovered from the Panic of 1837. The Texas "escape route '' conceived by Walker promised to increase demand for slaves in fertile cotton - growing regions of Texas, as well as the monetary value of slaves. Cash - poor plantation owners in the older eastern South were promised a market for surplus slaves at a profit. Texas annexation, wrote Walker, would eliminate all these dangers and "fortify the whole Union. '' Walker 's pamphlet brought forth strident demands for Texas from pro-slavery expansionists in the South; in the North, it allowed anti-slavery expansionists to embrace Texas without appearing to be aligned with pro-slavery extremists. His assumptions and analysis "shaped and framed the debates on annexation but his premises went largely unchallenged among the press and public. The Tyler - Texas treaty, signed on April 12, 1844, was framed to induct Texas into the Union as a territory, following constitutional protocols. To wit, Texas would cede all its public lands to the United States, and the federal government would assume all its bonded debt, up to $10 million. The boundaries of the Texas territory were left unspecified. Four new states could ultimately be carved from the former republic -- three of them likely to become slave states. Any allusion to slavery was omitted from the document so as not to antagonize anti-slavery sentiments during Senate debates, but it provided for the "preservation of all (Texas) property as secured in our domestic institutions. '' Upon the signing of the treaty, Tyler complied with the Texans ' demand for military and naval protection, deploying troops to Fort Jesup in Louisiana and a fleet of warships to the Gulf of Mexico. In the event that the Senate failed to pass the treaty, Tyler promised the Texas diplomats that he would officially exhort both houses of Congress to establish Texas as a state of the Union upon provisions authorized in the Constitution. Tyler 's cabinet was split on the administration 's handling of the Texas agreement. Secretary of War William Wilkins praised the terms of annexation publicly, touting the economic and geostrategic benefits with relation to Great Britain. Secretary of the Treasury John C. Spencer was alarmed at the constitutional implications of Tyler 's application of military force without congressional approval, a violation of the separation of powers. Refusing to transfer contingency funds for the naval mobilization, he resigned. Tyler submitted his treaty for annexation to the Senate, delivered April 22, 1844, where a two - thirds majority was required for ratification. Secretary of State Calhoun (assuming his post March 29, 1844) had sent a letter to British minister Richard Packenham denouncing British anti-slavery interference in Texas. He included the Packenham Letter with the Tyler bill, intending to create a sense of crisis in Southern Democrats. In it, he characterized slavery as a social blessing and the acquisition of Texas as an emergency measure necessary to safeguard the "peculiar institution '' in the United States. In doing so, Tyler and Calhoun sought to unite the South in a crusade that would present the North with an ultimatum: support Texas annexation or lose the South. President Tyler expected that his treaty would be debated secretly in Senate executive session. However, less than a week after debates opened, the treaty, its associated internal correspondence, and the Packenham letter were leaked to the public. The nature of the Tyler - Texas negotiations caused a national outcry, in that "the documents appeared to verify that the sole objective of Texas annexation was the preservation of slavery. '' A mobilization of anti-annexation forces in the North strengthened both major parties ' hostility toward Tyler 's agenda. The leading presidential hopefuls of both parties, Democrat Martin Van Buren and Whig Henry Clay, publicly denounced the treaty. Texas annexation and the reoccupation of Oregon territory emerged as the central issues in the 1844 general election. In response, Tyler, already ejected from the Whig party, quickly began to organize a third party in hopes of inducing the Democrats to embrace a pro-expansionist platform. By running as a third - party candidate, Tyler threatened to siphon off pro-annexation Democratic voters; Democratic party disunity would mean the election of Henry Clay, a staunchly anti-Texas Whig. Pro-annexation delegates among southern Democrats, with assistance from a number of northern delegates, blocked anti-expansion candidate Martin Van Buren at the convention, which instead nominated the pro-expansion champion of Manifest Destiny, James K. Polk of Tennessee. Polk unified his party under the banner of Texas and Oregon acquisition. In August 1844, in the midst of the campaign, Tyler withdrew from the race. The Democratic Party was by then unequivocally committed to Texas annexation, and Tyler, assured by Polk 's envoys that as President he would effect Texas annexation, urged his supporters to vote Democratic. Polk narrowly defeated Whig Henry Clay in the November election. The victorious Democrats were poised to acquire Texas under President - elect Polk 's doctrine of Manifest Destiny, rather than on the pro-slavery agenda of Tyler and Calhoun. As a treaty document with a foreign nation, the Tyler - Texas annexation treaty required the support of a two - thirds majority in the Senate for passage. But in fact, when the Senate voted on the measure on June 8, 1844, fully two - thirds voted against the treaty (16 -- 35). The vote went largely along party lines: Whigs had opposed it almost unanimously (1 -- 27), while Democrats split, but voted overwhelmingly in favor (15 -- 8). The election campaign had hardened partisan positions on Texas among Democrats. Tyler had anticipated that the measure would fail, due largely to the divisive effects of Secretary Calhoun 's Packenham letter. Undeterred, he formally asked the House of Representatives to consider other constitutional means to authorize passage of the treaty. Congress adjourned before debating the matter. The same Senate that had rejected the Tyler -- Calhoun treaty by a margin of 2: 1 in June 1844 reassembled in December 1844 in a short lame - duck session. (Though pro-annexation Democrats had made gains in the fall elections, those legislators -- the 29th Congress -- would not assume office until March 1845.) Lame - duck President Tyler, still trying to annex Texas in the final months of his administration, wished to avoid another overwhelming Senate rejection of his treaty. In his annual address to Congress on December 4, he declared the Polk victory a mandate for Texas annexation and proposed that Congress adopt a joint resolution procedure by which simple majorities in each house could secure ratification for the Tyler treaty. This method would avoid the constitutional requirement of a two - thirds majority in the Senate. Bringing the House of Representatives into the equation boded well for Texas annexation, as the pro-annexation Democratic Party possessed nearly a 2: 1 majority in that chamber. By resubmitting the discredited treaty through a House - sponsored bill, the Tyler administration reignited sectional hostilities over Texas admission. Both northern Democratic and southern Whig Congressmen had been bewildered by local political agitation in their home states during the 1844 presidential campaigns. Now, northern Democrats found themselves vulnerable to charges of appeasement of their southern wing if they capitulated to Tyler 's slavery expansion provisions. On the other hand, Manifest Destiny enthusiasm in the north placed politicians under pressure to admit Texas immediately to the Union. Constitutional objections were raised in House debates as to whether both houses of Congress could constitutionally authorize admission of territories, rather than states. Moreover, if the Republic of Texas, a nation in its own right, were admitted as a state, its territorial boundaries, property relations (including slave property), debts and public lands would require a Senate - ratified treaty. Democrats were particularly uneasy about burdening the United States with $10 million in Texas debt, resenting the deluge of speculators, who had bought Texas bonds cheap and now lobbied Congress for the Texas House bill. House Democrats, at an impasse, relinquished the legislative initiative to the southern Whigs. Anti-Texas Whig legislators had lost more than the White House in the general election of 1844. In the southern states of Tennessee and Georgia, Whig strongholds in the 1840 general election, voter support dropped precipitously due to the pro-annexation excitement in the Deep South -- and Clay lost every Deep South state to Polk. Northern Whigs ' uncompromising hostility to slavery expansion increasingly characterized the party, and southern members, by association, had suffered from charges of being "soft on Texas, therefore soft on slavery '' by Southern Democrats. Facing congressional and gubernatorial races in 1845 in their home states, a number of Southern Whigs sought to erase that impression with respect to the Tyler - Texas bill. Southern Whigs in the Congress, including Representative Milton Brown and Senator Ephraim Foster, both of Tennessee, and Representative Alexander Stephens of Georgia collaborated to introduce a House amendment on January 13, 1845 that was designed to enhance slaveowner gains in Texas beyond those offered by the Democratic - sponsored Tyler - Calhoun treaty bill. The legislation proposed to recognize Texas as a slave state which would retain all its vast public lands, as well as its bonded debt accrued since 1836. Furthermore, the Brown amendment would delegate to the U.S. government responsibility for negotiating the disputed Texas - Mexico boundary. The issue was a critical one, as the size of Texas would be immensely increased if the international border were set at the Rio Grande River, with its headwaters in the Rocky Mountains, rather than the traditionally recognized boundary at the Nueces River, 100 miles to the north. While the Tyler - Calhoun treaty provided for the organization of a total of four states from the Texas lands -- three likely to qualify as slave states -- Brown 's plan would permit Texas state lawmakers to configure a total of five states from its western region, south of the 36 ° 30 ' Missouri Compromise line, each pre-authorized to permit slavery upon statehood, if Texas designated them as such. Politically, the Brown amendment was designed to portray Southern Whigs as "even more ardent champions of slavery and the South, than southern Democrats. '' The bill also served to distinguish them from their northern Whig colleagues who cast the controversy, as Calhoun did, in strictly pro - versus anti-slavery terms. While almost all Northern Whigs spurned Brown 's amendment, the Democrats quickly co-opted the legislation, providing the votes necessary to attach the proviso to Tyler 's joint resolution, by a 118 -- 101 vote. Southern Democrats supported the bill almost unanimously (59 -- 1), while Northern Democrats split strongly in favor (50 -- 30). Eight of eighteen Southern Whigs cast their votes in favor. Northern Whigs unanimously rejected it. The House proceeded to approve the amended Texas treaty 120 -- 98 on January 25, 1845. The vote in the House had been one in which party affiliation prevailed over sectional allegiance. The bill was forwarded the same day to the Senate for debate. By early February 1845, when the Senate began to debate the Brown - amended Tyler treaty, its passage seemed unlikely, as support was "perishing ''. The partisan alignments in the Senate were near parity, 28 -- 24, slightly in favor of the Whigs. The Senate Democrats would require undivided support among their colleagues, and three or more Whigs who would be willing to cross party lines to pass the House - amended treaty. The fact that Senator Foster had drafted the House amendment under consideration improved prospects of Senate passage. Anti-annexation Senator Thomas Hart Benton of Missouri had been the only Southern Democrat to vote against the Tyler - Texas measure in June 1844. His original proposal for an annexed Texas had embodied a national compromise, whereby Texas would be divided in two, half slave - soil and half free - soil. As pro-annexation sentiment grew in his home state, Benton retreated from this compromise offer. By February 5, 1845, in the early debates on the Brown - amended House bill, he advanced an alternative resolution that, unlike the Brown scenario, made no reference whatsoever to the ultimate free - slave apportionment of an annexed Texas and simply called for five bipartisan commissioners to resolve border disputes with Texas and Mexico and set conditions for the Lone Star Republic 's acquisition by the United States. The Benton proposal was intended to calm northern anti-slavery Democrats (who wished to eliminate the Tyler - Calhoun treaty altogether, as it had been negotiated on behalf of the slavery expansionists), and allow the decision to devolve upon the soon - to - be-inaugurated Democratic President - elect James K. Polk. President - elect Polk had expressed his ardent wish that Texas annexation should be accomplished before he entered Washington in advance of his inauguration on March 4, 1845, the same day Congress would end its session. With his arrival in the capital, he discovered the Benton and Brown factions in the Senate "paralyzed '' over the Texas annexation legislation. On the advice of his soon - to - be Secretary of the Treasury Robert J. Walker, Polk urged Senate Democrats to unite under a dual resolution that would include both the Benton and Brown versions of annexation, leaving enactment of the legislation to Polk 's discretion when he took office. In private and separate talks with supporters of both the Brown and Benton plans, Polk left each side with the "impression he would administer their (respective) policy. Polk meant what he said to Southerners and meant to appear friendly to the Van Burenite faction. '' Polk 's handling of the matter had the effect of uniting Senate northern Democrats in favor of the dual alternative treaty bill. On February 27, 1845, less than a week before Polk 's inauguration, the Senate voted 27 -- 25 to admit Texas, based on the Tyler protocols of simple majority passage. All twenty - four Democrats voted for the measure, joined by three southern Whigs. Benton and his allies were assured that Polk would act to establish the eastern portion of Texas as a slave state; the western section was to remain unorganized territory, not committed to slavery. On this understanding, the northern Democrats had conceded their votes for the dichotomous bill. The next day, in an almost strict party line vote, the Benton - Milton measure was passed in the Democrat - controlled House of Representatives. President Tyler signed the bill the following day, March 1, 1845 (Joint Resolution for annexing Texas to the United States, J. Res. 8, enacted March 1, 1845, 5 Stat. 797). Senate and house legislators who had favored Benton 's renegotiated version of the Texas annexation bill had been assured that President Tyler would sign the joint house measure, but leave its implementation to the incoming Polk administration. But, during his last day in office, President Tyler, with the urging of his Secretary of State Calhoun, decided to act decisively to improve the odds for the immediate annexation of Texas. On March 3, 1845, with his cabinet 's assent, he dispatched an offer of annexation to the Republic of Texas by courier, exclusively under the terms of the Brown -- Foster option of the joint house measure. Secretary Calhoun apprised President - elect Polk of the action, who demurred without comment. Tyler justified his preemptive move on the grounds that Polk was likely to come under pressure to abandon immediate annexation and reopen negotiations under the Benton alternative. When President Polk took office on March 4, he was in a position to recall Tyler 's dispatch to Texas and reverse his decision. On March 10, after conferring with his cabinet, Polk upheld Tyler 's action and allowed the courier to proceed with the offer of immediate annexation to Texas. The only modification was to exhort Texans to accept the annexation terms unconditionally. Polk 's decision was based on his concern that a protracted negotiation by US commissioners would expose annexation efforts to foreign intrigue and interference. While Polk kept his annexation endeavors confidential, Senators passed a resolution requesting formal disclosure of the administration 's Texas policy. Polk stalled, and when the Senate special session had adjourned on March 20, 1845, no names for US commissioners to Texas had been submitted by him. Polk denied charges from Senator Benton that he had misled Benton on his intention to support the new negotiations option, declaring "if any such pledges were made, it was in a total misconception of what I said or meant. '' On May 5, 1845, Texas President Jones called for a convention on July 4, 1845, to consider the annexation and a constitution. On June 23, the Texan Congress accepted the US Congress 's joint resolution of March 1, 1845, annexing Texas to the United States, and consented to the convention. On July 4, the Texas convention debated the annexation offer and almost unanimously passed an ordinance assenting to it. The convention remained in session through August 28, and adopted the Constitution of Texas on August 27, 1845. The citizens of Texas approved the annexation ordinance and new constitution on October 13, 1845. President Polk signed the legislation making the former Lone Star Republic a state of the Union on December 29, 1845 (Joint Resolution for the admission of the state of Texas into the Union, J. Res. 1, enacted December 29, 1845, 9 Stat. 108). Texas formally relinquished its sovereignty to the United States on February 14, 1846. The joint resolution and ordinance of annexation have no language specifying the boundaries of Texas, but only refer in general terms to "the territory properly included within, and rightfully belonging to the Republic of Texas '', and state that the new State of Texas is to be formed "subject to the adjustment by this (U.S.) government of all questions of boundary that may arise with other governments. '' According to George Lockhart Rives, "That treaty had been expressly so framed as to leave the boundaries of Texas undefined, and the joint resolution of the following winter was drawn in the same manner. It was hoped that this might open the way to a negotiation, in the course of which the whole subject of the boundaries of Mexico, from the Gulf to the Pacific, might be reconsidered, but these hopes came to nothing. '' There was an ongoing border dispute between the Republic of Texas and Mexico prior to annexation. Texas claimed the Rio Grande as its border based on the Treaties of Velasco, while Mexico maintained that it was the Nueces River and did not recognize Texan independence. In November 1845, President James K. Polk sent John Slidell, a secret representative, to Mexico City with a monetary offer to the Mexican government for the disputed land and other Mexican territories. Mexico was not inclined nor able to negotiate due to instability in the government and popular nationalistic sentiment against such a sale. Slidell returned to the United States, and Polk ordered General Zachary Taylor to garrison the southern border of Texas, as defined by the former Republic, in 1846. Taylor moved into Texas, ignoring Mexican demands to withdraw, and marched as far south as the Rio Grande, where he began to build a fort near the river 's mouth on the Gulf of Mexico. The Mexican government regarded this action as a violation of its sovereignty, and immediately prepared for war. Following a United States victory and the signing of the Treaty of Guadalupe Hidalgo, Mexico ceded its claims to Texas and the Rio Grande border was accepted by both nations. The formal controversy over the legality of the annexation of Texas stems from the fact that Congress approved the annexation of Texas as a state, rather than a territory, with simple majorities in each house, instead of annexing the land by Senate treaty, as was done with Native American lands. Tyler 's extralegal joint resolution maneuver in 1844 exceeded strict constructionist precepts, but was passed by Congress in 1845 as part of a compromise bill. The success of the joint house Texas annexation set a precedent that would be applied to Hawaii 's annexation in 1897. Republican President Benjamin Harrison (1889 -- 1893) attempted, in 1893, to annex Hawaii through a Senate treaty. When this failed, he was asked to consider the Tyler joint house precedent; he declined. Democratic President Grover Cleveland (1893 -- 1897) did not pursue the annexation of Hawaii. When President William McKinley took office in 1897, he quickly revived expectations among territorial expansionists when he resubmitted legislation to acquire Hawaii. When the two - thirds Senate support was not forthcoming, committees in the House and Senate explicitly invoked the Tyler precedent for the joint house resolution, which was successfully applied to approve the annexation of Hawaii in July 1898.

explain what is meant by body image including reference to positive and negative body image

Body image - wikipedia Body image is a person 's perception of the aesthetics or sexual attractiveness of their own body. The phrase body image was first coined by the Austrian neurologist and psychoanalyst Paul Schilder in his book The Image and Appearance of the Human Body (1935). Human society has at all times placed great value on beauty of the human body, but a person 's perception of their own body may not correspond to society 's standards. The concept of body image is used in a number of disciplines, including psychology, medicine, psychiatry, psychoanalysis, philosophy and cultural and feminist studies. The term is also often used in the media. Across these disciplines and media there is no consensus definition, but body image may be expressed as how one views themselves in the mirror, or in their minds. It incorporates the memories, experiences, assumptions, and comparisons of one 's own appearance, and overall attitudes towards their height, shape, and weight. An individual 's impression of their body is also assumed to be a product of ideals cultivated by various social and cultural ideals. The issues surrounding body image can be examined through, body negativity, and body positivity. Negative body image consists of a disoriented view of one 's shape; whereby they often feel self - conscious or feel ashamed, and assume others are more attractive. Aside from having low self - esteems, suffers typically fixate on altering their physical appearances. Long - term behavior could thus potentially lead to higher risks of eating disorders, isolation, and mental illnesses. Positive body image on the other hand, is described as a clear true perception of one 's figure. In addition to celebrating and appreciating the body, it also requires an understanding that an individual 's appearance does not reflect their character or self worth. A 2007 report by the American Psychological Association found that a culture - wide sexualization of girls and women was contributing to increased female anxiety associated with body image. Similar findings associated with body image were found by an Australian government Senate Standing Committee report on the sexualization of children in the media. However, other scholars have expressed concern that these claims are not based on solid data. Body image can have a wide range of psychological effects and physical effects. Throughout history, it has been extremely difficult for people to live up to the standards of society and what they believe the ideal body is. There are many factors that lead to a person 's body image, some of these include: family dynamics, mental illness, biological predispositions and environmental causes for obesity or malnutrition, and cultural expectations (e.g., media and politics). People who are both underweight and overweight can have poor body image. However, because people are constantly told and shown the cosmetic appeal of weight loss and are warned about the risks of obesity, those who are normal or overweight on the BMI scale have higher risks of poor body image. This is something that can lead to a change in a person 's body image. Often, people who have a low body image will try to alter their bodies in some way, such as by dieting or undergoing cosmetic surgery. Society often constructs our behaviours and beliefs, such as personal developments, physiological and psychological interactions, and the common "perception of our bodies as a reflection of self worth ''. Body image struggles have been prevalent for many centuries now, especially with the rapid constant shifts in ideal body types. In the past, norms were typically set by cultural beliefs, genders, or social standings. Despite these being prevalent today, changes in the fashion and media industries are other influences at hand. During Ancient Egyptian times, the perfect woman was said to have a slender figure, with narrow shoulders, and a tall waist. Yet, females were emboldened in their beauty habits and general independence. Standards were reformed in Ancient Greece, when society began worshipping the male figure instead. As men faced greater pressures on beauty and perfection, women sported a fuller and plump figure, with fair skin tones becoming more popular. The pale skin craze was soon adopted in the Han Dynasty, but waist sizes narrowed. Overall figures shrunk, as the Chinese associated petite with femininity. With the need to reflect her husband 's status, the behaviours and outward appearances of the wife grew incredible crucial during the Italian Renaissance. Since size was linked to wealth, women maintained bodies with full hips and an ample bosom. The Victorian Era witnessed a similar movement, but the popularity of the corset cinching the waist, led to the desirable hourglass figure. The era also introduced the Gibson Girl, which was the first sign of influence by the fashion and media industries. Created by Charles Gibson, he envisioned femininity as slim and tall, with large busts and wide hips, but a narrow waist. These girls were also often shown in magazines such as Harper 's Bazaar and LIFE, which resulted in a link between trendy fashions and styles, and the maintenance of active lifestyles and healthy well - beings After the occurrence of World War I, the Gibson Girl transformed into the Flapper, which dominated the period of the "Roaring Twenties ''. Women transitioned towards androgynous looks, whereby hairstyles were kept short, and wore brassieres that flatten the chest. Loose clothing was also a trend, as it downplayed the waist by lowering it below the navel, resulting in a straight boyish figure. Dress senses soon become more casual as well, and is said to have been a representation of the reduction in social or political tension after the war, or an extensive disagreement with the Prohibition movement. With advertisements increasingly advocating the need to achieve a thinner frame, many women therefore pursued diets and exercises. Although slimmer body types were favoured, a sporty and healthy appearance was still prized above the frail and sickly look from the Victorian Era. The 1930 's and 1940 's witnessed the devastating effects of the 2 World War, which unfortunately led to The Great Depression. While men were out on the battlefield, females began entering the workface. This resulted in more formal and traditional military dress styles for women, which caused another shift in body image. While waists ' remained thin but prominent, the media embraced a more curvaceous look similar to the hourglass figure, through the addition of broad shoulders and large breasts as well. Since this era was part of the golden age of Hollywood, many celebrities continued to influence this trend by wearing tight fitted clothing that emphasized their figures. Pin - up girls and sex symbols radiating glamour soon followed in the 1950 's, and the proportions of the hourglass figure expanded. Notable names include Marilyn Monroe, Sophia Loren, and Jessica Rabbit. In order to achieve this ideal figure, women consumed weight - gain supplements. The release of Playboy magazine and the Barbie doll during this era were other additions in the need to achieve this ideal. Depictions of the perfect woman; however, slowly grew thinner from 1960 's onwards. The "Swinging Sixties '' saw a similar look to the Flapper with the emergence of high - fashion model Twiggy, who promoted the thin and petite frame, with long slender legs, and an adolescent but androgynous figure. Other characteristics include, small busts, narrow hips, and flat stomachs. Hence, many women either underwent diets or switched to weight - loss supplements to achieve the new look. This eventually resulted in an increase in anorexia nervosa sufferers during the 1970 's. Nonetheless, greater importance was soon placed on fitness, and actress Farrah Fawcett introduced a more toned and athletic body type. The exercise craze continued in the 1980 's with Jane Fonda and the release of workout videos, motivating women to be thin but fit and svelte. This era also saw the rise of tall, long legged supermodels; such as Naomi Campbell and Cindy Crawford, dominating the industry, and setting a new beauty standard for females around the world. Greater issues arose in the 1990 's, when supermodel Kate Moss popularized the stick - thin figure instead. The fashion industry pushed her image further with the ' heroin - chic ' look, which dominated the catwalks during that time. This was communicated through waifish appearances, bony structures, thin limbs, and an androgynous figure. Although this extreme period was only short - lived, the 2000 's saw the rise of the Victoria 's Secret models, who altered beauty norms to include slim but healthy figures, with large breasts and bottoms, flat and visible abs, and prominent thigh gaps. Hence, women started pursuing cosmetic surgery practices; on top of diets and exercise regimes, to attain the perfect appearance. Nevertheless, curves are back in season and positive measures are now being taken to promote a better body image. The emergence of fitness trends, plus - size models, and other better role models in the fashion and media industries are other factors at work too. Contrariwise, the advancement of technologies, and the pressures from the media, has unfortunately triggered an even greater societal importance on the way we look as an indication of our personal value. On account of the evolution of society today; text messaging, e-mails, social media, and other technological advancements, have dominated an individual 's sequence of physical interactions. Although technology provides the convenience of connecting with others, its association with the media has resulted in a "platform of delivery in which we intercept and interpret messages about ourselves, our self - worth, and our bodies ''. According to a study by Dove, only 4 % of women thought they were beautiful, while approximately 70 % of women and girls believed the media 's portrayal of impractical beauty standards fuelled their appearance anxieties. As a result, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported that, 91 % of women were most unhappy with their bodies, while 40 % will consider cosmetic surgery to fix their flaws. Women "all over the world are evaluated and oppressed by their appearances ''; be it age, skin tone, or size. Men are falling victims to this issue as well. A large facet of "social currency for girls and women continues to be rooted in physical appearance ''. With accessories and apparel designed to enhance a look; social media, magazines, and marketing campaigns and advertisements, also add to the burden of perfection. This is still prevalent today, whereby female bodies are staged as the ultimate commodity, and used for the selling of products. The ultimate purpose of advertisements is thus to appeal to the insecurities of individuals, in hopes of selling them the solution. Marketers fuelling negative body imagery are also highly aware that those who undergo these problems, are more likely to purchase. For that reason, advertisements regularly advocate the ability to achieve a particular look through retouched images, the sexual objectification of women, and products accompanied with explicit messages. The need for body satisfaction and appearance esteem continues to increase with the abundance of; billboards, magazines, and conversations, displaying "unrealistic images of beauty '' (LiveLifeGetActive, 2016). Weight prejudices brought up in the media or social settings are also prevalent within society. The tendency to link physical attractive qualities with positive personal qualities has been documented since the 1970s. People assign positive personality traits and overall life outcomes to those they perceive as attractive both mentally and physically. The very thin and beautiful models within the media are therefore seen as the most successful and socially desirable people on the planet. In most societies, thinness is typically associated with happiness, success, youthfulness, and social acceptability. This ideal is heavily portrayed throughout the mainstream media, whereby women are assumed to be perfect in every way. In addition, the idea that a person can never be too thin or too rich, makes it difficult for females to attain any sort of happiness about their personal appearance. Hence, a women 's attitude towards her body are thus a result of comparing it with those depicted in the media, along with society 's obsession with thinness. The emphasis on thinness and on an ideal female body shape and size is psychologically detrimental to the well - being of many young women. Many have thus resorted to grooming, dieting, and surgical pursuits, in order to be happy. Global eating disorder rates such as, anorexia and bulimia are gradually rising in adolescent girls. The National Eating Disorders Association, reported that 95 % of individuals aged 12 to 26 currently suffer from an eating disorder, and anorexia is the third most common illness amongst teenagers. Based on another study by Dove, 87 % of individuals with low body - esteems often avoid eating, and would rather place their health at risk for the sick of beauty. With the habitual use of social media, teenage girls in particular, are most prone "to internalize negative messages and obsess about weight loss to obtain a thin appearance ''. As a result, pressures from social media doubles for adolescent girls between the ages of 13 to 18 years old, and more than half of have already reported the need to diet. The pressure on females "to cope with the effects of culturally induced body insecurity '' is therefore severe, with many others previously citing that "their lives would be better if they were not judged by their looks and body shape, (as) this is leading to low self - esteem, eating disorders, mental health problems and depression ''. Besides the need to be thin, young, and rich, there is also a weight prejudice within our society that is brought up in media, social settings, with friends, or even by parents. The tendency to link physical attractive qualities with positive personal qualities has been documented since the 1970s. People assign positive personality traits and overall life outcomes to those they perceive as attractive both mentally and physically. These high standards for women to follow and live up to mixed with the practical impossibilities of achieving such standards develops an attitude from women that thinness is extremely desirable. Even the average size of clothing women wear has changed drastically within the past decades, as a size 8 used to be considered small to average and is now nearly plus size. Actress / Comedian Amy Schummer spoke out on the issue of size when she was featured in Glamour Magazine as a "Plus Size Woman. '' Upon the magazines publication, Schummer fired a tweet saying, "I think there 's nothing wrong with being plus size. Beautiful healthy women. Plus size is considered size 16 in America. I go between a size 6 and a 8. '' Women who value this idea of having to be extremely thin and a size 2 or 4 have body dissatisfaction, and take part in cosmetic surgeries or weight loss behaviors (such as dieting) to try to become the standard that they so commonly see. The problem in which people, specifically women, are constantly comparing themselves to the people and images in the media leads to individuals believing they are more overweight than they actually are. However, other researchers have contested the claims of the media effects paradigm. An article by Christopher Ferguson, Benjamin Winegard, and Bo Winegard, for example, argues that peer effects are much more likely to cause body dissatisfaction than media effects, and that media effects have been overemphasized. It also argues that one must be careful about making the leap from arguing that certain environmental conditions might cause body dissatisfaction to the claim that those conditions can cause diagnosable eating disorders. Body Gossip is an organization founded in 2006 and run by Ruth Rogers and Natasha Devon which campaigns for all body shapes, sizes and issues, whatever race, gender or age. Males also face similar burdens in regards to attractiveness, whereby the media 's depiction of the ideal muscular physique has caused numerous body dissatisfaction issues amongst young men Teenage boys in particular, are now three times more likely to suffer from Body Dysmorphic Disorder (BDD), with numbers reaching 45 % since 1991. BDD is a mental illness whereby an individual compulsively focuses on physical self - perceived flaws. According to a study by Rawhide, 18 % of adolescent males were most worried about their weight and physique (Malcore, 2016), while 29 % frequently thought about their appearances. Moreover, 50 % had recently complained about the way they look. The main causes of male body issues on the other hand, include 25 % being teased about their weight, while 33 % specified social media as the source for self - consciousness. A number of respondents also admitted to being affected by negative body talk from others. While women face expectations to be increasingly thin, endorsements featuring the muscular ideal therefore causes numerous problems for men. Granting both genders may share the idealised image of narrow waists and hips, other characteristics specific to the mesomorphic and muscular V - shaped body, include broad shoulders, a well - developed upper body, (and) toned six - pack abs. The importance men placed on muscle and weight may be traced back to the release of G.I. Joe. The "bulked - up action heroes, along with the brawny characters in many video games, present an anatomically impossible ideal for boys, much as Barbie promotes proportions that are physically impossible for girls ''. Males are thus exposed to extensive imaging of men with bulging muscles, who often act as warriors or fighters, solving problems with their fists. By watching their heroes fight and punch, boys learn that aggression is essential and that they should strive to have huge muscles too. If these role models were smiling, less hyper - masculinized, or less aggressive, boys would not learn from such a young age that hyper - masculinity is the only successful way to be a ' man '. Regardless of the lower number of products targeting males, negative messages can be communicated through fitness websites, video games, pop culture, movies, and other types of media as well. Based on a report by the Picture of Health, 53 % of boys cited advertisements as a "major source of pressure to look good; (though) social media (57 %) and friends (68 %) exerted more influence, while celebrities (49 %) were slightly less persuasive ''. In spite of this, 22 % of adolescent boys thought that the ideals depicted by the media were aspirational, while 33 % cited it was healthy. With rising pressures to achieve a muscular physique, many teenage boys thus participate in extreme workouts and weight trainings for long periods of the day. Some eventually abuse supplements and steroids to further increase muscle mass. In 2016, 10.5 % acknowledged the use of muscle - enhancing substances, while 5 to 6 % of respondents admitted to the use of steroids. Although dieting is often overlooked, a significant increase in eating disorders is present among men. Currently, 1 out of 4 men suffer from eating disorders, while 31 % have admitted to purging or binge eating in the past. The fashion industry is a prime target of body image issues, with models often facing second - hand criticism. Fashion industry insiders believe that clothes hang better on tall, thin women; however, critics argue that catwalk models communicate an unhealthy and unrealistic body image to the public. In the world of fashion, it often seems as if measurements, or the number or alphabet carried defines an individual. Based on a survey participated by 13 to 17 year olds in the U.S., 90 % "felt pressured by fashion and media industries to be skinny '', with 65 % believing that the body image portrayed were too thin. Furthermore, more than 60 % habitually compare themselves to models, while 46 % will strive to achieve it. The underlying issue with brands featuring underweight models, therefore revolves around expressing "the message that an unhealthy body type is the most socially valued ''. For eating disorders sufferers, viewing these images could consequently strengthen desires to lose weight. The severity of this matter continues to rise as fashion magazines directed at females, subtly promote thinness and diet practices, and are heavily relied on by teenagers for beauty and fashion advice. Seventeen magazine in particular, recorded one of the highest number of articles devoted to appearances, leading to 69 % of girls stating it influenced their ideal body shape. In addition, 50 % of advertisements featured also used beauty appeal to sell products. With the high number of publications featuring articles promoting unhealthy weight loss, the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services reported an astounding 90 % of teenage girls voiced the need to change their appearances, while 81 % of 10 year olds were already afraid of being fat. As a result, many argue that fashion and media 's powerful role on body image and self - perception, will spiral into eating disorders, According to a survey by the Manchester Metropolitan University, "self - esteem and views of body image suffered after the participants were shown magazine pictures of models, (suggests) that media portrayal of images can prolong anorexia and bulimia in women and may even be a cause of it ''. According to Dove 's Global Beauty And Confidence report, "a total of 71 % of women and 67 % of girls want to call on the media to do a better job portraying women of diverse physical appearance, age, race, shape and size ''. In addition, 67 % of men now strongly believe that it is unacceptable for brands to use photo manipulation techniques to alter the body image of a model. To counter such issues, the fashion magazine industry has made efforts in including ' real ' women, and reducing or banning the use of airbrushing tools. Despite the amount of feminist features in magazines though, "body fascism is (still) reinforced by the advertisements, fashion stories and beauty pages ''. Likewise, fashion brands and retailers adopt vanity sizing in their assortments to intentionally raise a customer 's self - esteem while shopping in stores. This involves labelling clothes with smaller sizes than the actual cut of the items, to trick and attract the consumer. The strategy was based on research reporting the lowering of customer self - esteems and interests, in products with larger sizing labels. Less is usually known about the pressures models in the industry face, but striving hard to meet the requirements of their agency or brand is a main facet. Among the group, 69 % were told to tone up, while 62 % cited that their agencies required them to lose weight or change their body shape. Another 54 % of models; however, revealed that they would be dropped by their agencies if they failed to comply. Hence, models habitually weigh themselves under the healthy Body Mass Index (BMI) level. A study published in the International Journal of Eating Disorders, discovered that a majority of models had a body mass index (BMI) of 17.41, which qualifies for anorexia. In the past twenty years, runway models have also transformed from a typical size 6 - 8 to 0 - 2. The average weight of a typical model in the United States was also recorded to be twenty - three percent less than an average woman in society. This phenomenon has caused countless of models to suffer from illness such as eating disorders and anorexia nervosa. In extreme cases, some models have died due to complications caused by eating disorders. In 2006, the fashion industry came under fire due to the untimely death of two models; Luisel Ramos, and Ana Carolina Reston. Both girls suffered complications from their eating disorders, and were severely underweight. Owing to the intensifying burdens, an high number of models are therefore willing to participate in intensive exercise regimes, diets, fasts, and detoxes; in order to maintain or lose weight. In addition, 17 % have admitted to stimulant abuse, while another 8 % frequently engaged in self - induced vomiting. With the aim of protecting models and projecting a healthier body image, Spain, Italy, Brazil, and Israel, "passed bills that prohibit models from working with a Body Mass Index (BMI) below 18.5 ''. The UK and U.S., chose to use less compelling tactics of cultivating the general public through the promotion of education campaigns in society. France on the other hand, introduced a new regulation this year preventing the employment of extremely skinny models, and the need for a medical certificate to verify their health. This was an update to the previous law passed that prohibited agencies from using models with a BMI lower than 18. France is also working on ensuring retailers specify airbrushed images in magazines, websites, and advertisements. However, some argue that these laws may not be effective as, majority of individuals are already aware of digital retouching techniques, and may even use it themselves. Due to the criticisms surrounding the glamourising of eating disorders, brands are actively playing their part in cultivating better body images too. Fashion conglomerates; Kering and LVMH, recently "announced that they will no longer hire models smaller than a U.S. size 2 ''. Not only will this improve the working conditions of models, both companies hope it may inspire others to follow suit. Although, the industry is moving in the right direction, it is arguable that the banning of size zero could be seen as a discriminatory act; similar to thin shaming. For that reasons, focus should be placed on altering beauty norms, rather than blame the wearer for their size. Moreover, the announcement of a small and minimum dress size, which does not fit the average body type of most countries, continues to "send the message that super slim body types is the ' ideal ' ''. Attributable to the level of interest in women who do not match the proportions of average models, plus - size models are slowly emerging in the mainstream media. With several utilising their positions to promote body positivity, their continued presence in the industry, undoubtedly reign beneficial to the health of other models and customers. Prominent names include Ashley Graham; who is the face of popular plus - size retailer Lane Bryant, and Iskra Lawrence; who is a classified role model for lingerie and swimwear retailer Aerie. Fashion magazines are beginning to include plus - size models as well, with Sports Illustrated gaining worldwide attention when it showcased the first plus - size model on the cover of its swimsuit issue. Fashion designers are also strong supporters for embracing diversity and healthy body ideals in fashion. Christian Siriano specifically, shocked the fashion world by casting five plus - size models for his New York Fashion Week shows. Despite the box - office success of Ghostbusters, Siriano also made global headlines after he designed a gown for actress Leslie Jones, because no one else would. Although a high number of plus - size models dominated the runways this year, print advertisements saw a decrease, with only 2.2 % casted. Models who publicly advocate their opinions of the fashion industry are growing as well, especially with the criticism and strain placed on their well - beings. Many have notably used Instagram as a tool to "encourage self - acceptance, fight back against body - shamers, and post plenty of selfies celebrating their figure ''. In the U.S., a group of plus - size models launched the # DearNYFW campaign, which targeted the fashion industry 's harmful approach towards their bodies. This movement was broadcast across different social media platforms, with other models using the hashtag to share their experience, in hopes of persuading the American fashion industry to start "prioritizing health and celebrate diversity on the runway ''. In regards to men falling victims to body image issues, fashion photographer Tarik Carroll released a photo series titled the EveryMAN Project. The prject showcased large - framed queer and transgender men of color, with the purpose of "challenging hyper - masculinity and gender norms, while bringing body - positivity to the forefront ''. Furthmore, Caroll aims to enlighten society about body image struggles in men, after hearing the complaints of male models. The lack of fashion - forward plus - size clothing in the fashion industry on the other hand, has given rise to the # PlusIsEqual movement. There was often a misconception by retailers that full - figured women were not interested in purchasing trendy styles. However, high - street brands such as Forever 21, and ASOS, have increased product offerings to include plus - size options for their customers. Other brands include, Victoria Beckham who plans to release a range of high - street clothing with sizes up to XXXL in the upcoming months, and Nike who expanded their plus size collection to cater for sizes 1X to 3X. In regards to the criticisms surrounding the term plus - size causing unnecessary labeling, Kmart therefore replaced its numerical sizing with positive tags such as, "lovely '' and "fabulous '' instead. Protesting against photo retouching is another important aspect towards body positivity, with the most famous example being Aerie 's ArieReal campaign. Since 2014, the movement promised to display "campaign spreads and brand imagery with stomach rolls, gapless thighs and other perceived flaws that would normally have been edited out of the ads ''. Other brands such as Neon Moon, which is a feminist lingerie brand from London, deeply believes in embracing and advocating the beauty of flaws, instead of the need to retouch their models for aesthetic purposes. Hence, campaigns often feature a range of "diverse models and lack of airbrushing as a marketing tool ''. U.S. e-tailer ModCloth on the other hand, explored other methods including, employing their staff as models for the swimwear collection. In the past, exposure to photos or articles were primarily found in traditional media; however, the accessibility of the internet today has resulted in an infinite array online. The world we inhabit is transpiring into a saturated place driven by imageries, which "force (narrower) standards of beauty than ever before ''. One of the greatest influence the internet has on body image, is the creation of social media. Users are constantly bombarded by notifications, posts, and photos about the lives of others; "sending messages about what we could, should, or would be if we only purchased certain products, made certain choices, or engaged in certain behaviors ''. Despite the ability to create and control content on social media, "the same unattainable body ideals we see in traditional media are also reflected in the online environment ''. Over-engagement with social networking platforms and images will therefore, also "encourage a psychological adoption of unrealistic beauty ideals..., (which) can lead to poor body image and low self - esteem ''. In 2016, psychologists confirmed the relationship between social media usage and body image anxieties, dieting, and the goal towards thinness. Based on a survey, 56 % of women acknowledged the effect of the "social media culture in driving the pressure for perfection and negative body image ''; whereby it forces them to look a certain way. These platforms further reiterate the need for individuals to compare themselves with others online, resulting in higher expectations towards their standards of beauty. Hence, 42 % of women stated social media caused them to feel worse about their bodies, while another study by the University of South Australia, discovered that individuals who frequently uploaded or viewed appearance - related items were more likely to internalise the thin ideal. Applications such as Instagram have become a "body - image battleground '', while the "selfie '' is now the universal lens in which individuals use to criticise their bodies and others. Facebook and Snapchat also allow users to receive appearance approvals and community acceptance through the ratio of views, comments, and likes. Since individuals who use social media platforms often only display the highpoints of their lives, a survey by Common Sense reported that 22 % felt bad if their posts were ignored, or if it did not receive the amount of attention they hoped for. Hence, this could serve as a trigger for more insecurities, with many utilising digital manipulation techniques as well, to modify their photos in order to meet the media - crafted ideals of thinness and perfection. According to research by the Renfrew Center Foundation, 50 % of men and 70 % of 18 to 35 year old women edited their images before uploading. Therefore, 35 % of respondents were also actively concerned about being tagged in unattractive photos, while 27 % fretted about their appearances online. Yet, with the presence of fake imagery, a majority of individuals still habitually fixate on the lifestyles and belongings of others. With the growth of the wellness industry in recent years, social media platforms have witnessed an assortment of fitness influencers and trends. Followers obsessively pursue these diet and exercise regimes posted as a way to remain healthy, while the influencers hope it generates body positivity in return. Yet, these bloggers and companies have received numerous criticism because the "drive for "wellness '' and "clean eating '' has become stealthy covers for more dieting and deprivation ''. Likewise, reports have also shown that the messages delivered by "fitspiration '' websites are sometimes identical to the "thinspiration '' or pro-anorexia types. This is evident through "language inducing guilt about weight or the body, and promoted dieting ''. Although the wellness trend may not lead to eating disorders, the marketing of restrictive diets to young women as a form of self care could potentially cause "increasingly disordered eating '', whereby they became more concerned with ingredients and limited certain types of food. This illness is better known as Orthorexia; which is the obsession with the right and wrong types of food. As an attempt to tackle such issues, the UK launched a national campaign called Be Real, after findings showed 76 % of secondary school students who learnt about body confidence in class felt more positive about themselves. The goal of this movement was thus to improve body confidence through educational resources provided to schools, and persuading the media, businesses, and the diet industry to endorse different body shapes and sizes instead. Despite the negative outcomes of technological advancements altering the perceptions of an individual 's body image and mental health, the cultivation of social media is still beneficial. Parallel to traditional media, it may be employed as a tool to share and spread body positivity. Social networking sites and applications ultimately build a platform for users to speak out on issues, with many industry insiders utilising their online leverage to protest for change. Previous techniques brands and influencers have tested include, the promotion of a positive body image through popular hashtags and marketing campaigns, and the formation of groups that support self - love and the banning of body shaming. In response to the criticism of social media driving eating disorders, platforms such as Instagram, have banned the use of ' thinspiration ' and ' thinspo ' related hashtags. Other solutions include transformation photos, and the promotion of hashtags such as # SelfLove and # BodyPositivity. Transformation photos are side - by - side images displaying an individual 's fitness or weight - loss progress. Although, it aims to "serve as inspiration for people looking to change themselves physically or live healthier lives '', some users have utilised this technique to showcase the level of deceptiveness within social media. Likewise, in an effort to actively help those suffering from eating disorders, Eating Disorder Hope launched the Pro-Recovery Movement. The project involved hosting of live Twitter chat encouraging sufferers to celebrate self - love and a positive body image, through recovery subject matters. Other organizations such as ProjectHEAL, introduced a campaign called # WhatMakesMeBeautiful, with the aim of celebrating different talents, personalities, and other non-appearance related attributes that also make one beautiful. This movement was especially successful among the eating disorder community; hence, emphasising the "need for social media movements that celebrate self - love and looking at beauty through a different lens ''. Body image is often measured by asking the subject to rate their current and ideal body shape using a series of depictions. The difference between these two values is the measure of body dissatisfaction. There are many negative effects that body dissatisfaction can have these include: that some research suggests a link between body dissatisfaction in girls and smoking. Also having this body dissatisfaction can affect a girl 's comfort with her sexuality when she 's older and may lead them to consider cosmetic surgery. Monteath and McCabe found that 44 % of women express negative feelings about both individual body parts and their bodies as a whole. The magazine, Psychology Today found that 56 % of the women and about 40 % of the men who responded to their survey in 1997 were dissatisfied with their overall appearance. American youth (37.7 % of males and 51 % of females) express dissatisfaction with their bodies. In America, the dieting industry earns roughly 40 billion dollars per year. A Harvard study (Fat Talk, Harvard University Press) published in 2000 revealed that 86 % of teenage girls are on a diet or believe they should be on one. Dieting has become a very common thing to not only teenage girls but even younger children as well. The National Eating Disorders Association has found out that 51 % of 9 - and 10 - year - old girls actually feel better about themselves when they are on a diet. There are currently more than 40 "instruments '' used to measure body image. All of these instruments can be put into three categories: figure preferences, video projection techniques, and questionnaires. Because there are so many ways to measure body image, it makes it difficult to draw meaningful research generalizations. Many factors have to be taken into account when measuring body image, including gender, ethnicity, culture, and age. In figure preferences the use of silhouettes is the most commonly used method. There are many issues with this method though; for one, the drawings are not realistic looking and were originally portrayed as adults so it made them unsuitable for children. Silhouettes are used to show to the subject and have them react to the different body types. In one study participants were shown a series of images flashing before them; each image was a picture of them but either increased weight or decreased weight. They were measured in self - report by responding to the pictures. Also they were measured by startle - based measures and testing their eyeblink response. "The startle response is a complex set of physiological changes that occur in response to unexpected and intense stimulus. '' These measurements can be useful because "Objective, psychophysiological measures, like the affect modulated startle eyeblink response, are less subject to reporting bias. '' Questionnaires are another very commonly used method of measurement. One example of a questionnaire is BASS; it is a 9 - item subscale of the Multidimensional Body - Self Relations Questionnaire. It uses a rating scale from − 2 to + 2 and assesses eight body areas and attributes and overall appearance (face, hair, lower torso, mid-torso, upper torso, muscle tone, height, and weight). Questionnaires can have confounding variable though. For instance, "Acquiescent response style (ARS), or the tendency to agree with items on a survey, is more common among individuals from Asian and African cultures. '' Gender differences related to body image are increasingly prevalent between men and women. Throughout all stages of life, women have more body dissatisfaction than men. Although dissatisfaction is more common in women, men are becoming more negatively affected than women. In a longitudinal study that assessed body image across time and age between men and women, men placed greater significance on their physical appearance than women, even though women report body image dissatisfaction more often. Adolescence is where this difference is most notable. One reason for this is because males are being targeted in the media more heavily today. Historically, and for a much longer period of time, the media has immoderately targeted females, which may explain why they are becoming less sensitized to the effects. This information suggests that appearance pressure and concerns are continuing to affect both men and women in western culture. Men 's body image is a topic of increasing interest in both academic articles and in the popular press. Current research indicates many men wish to become more muscular than they currently perceive themselves to be, often desiring up to 26 pounds of additional muscle mass. According to the study, western men desire muscle mass over that of Asian men by as much as 30 pounds. The desire for additional muscle has been linked to many men 's concepts about masculinity. A variety of research has indicated a relationship between men 's endorsement of traditionally masculine ideas and characteristics, and their desire for additional muscle. Some research has suggested this relationship between muscle and masculinity may begin early in life, as boys ' action figures are often depicted as super-muscular, often beyond the actual limits of human physiology. The connection between masculinity and muscle is however a cultural trend traced as far back as the Classical antiquity and linked to the war performance and its peaceful substitutes, the athletic events. In addition, men with lower, more feminine, Waist -- hip ratio (WHR) feel less comfortable and self - report lower body esteem and self - efficacy than men with higher, more masculine, WHRs. In general, research shows that body image in regards to appearance becomes less of a stress for women as they age. Studies show a decline in dissatisfaction of body image in college - aged women as they progress from the first semester of college to subsequent semesters. Their appearance rating of themselves tends to increase, while males ' do not significantly change and often become worse. This suggests that the early years of college serve as a period for body image development, which can later affect the mental and physical well being of an individual. Studies have found that females tend to think more about their body shape and endorse thinner figures than men even into old age. When female undergraduates were exposed to depictions of thin women their body satisfaction decreased, but rose when exposed to larger models. In addition, many women engage in fat talk (speaking negatively about the weight - related size / shape of one 's body), a behavior that has been associated with weight dissatisfaction, body surveillance, and body shame. In addition, women who overhear others using fat talk may also experience an increase in body dissatisfaction and guilt. As a result, women may experience concerns related to body image in a number of different ways and from a variety of sources. As men and women reach older age, body image takes on a different meaning. Research studies show that the importance attached to physical appearance decreases with age. Physical appearance remains important later in life, but the functional aspects of the body take precedence over contentment with appearance. Women are reported to benefit from the ageing process, becoming more satisfied with their images, while men begin to develop more insecurities and issues. Women reach a certain stage where they are no longer subject to the social pressures that heavily emphasize the importance of appearance. Men from the same studies are reported as becoming increasingly dissatisfied with their physical appearance as they age. Men are also less likely to implement appearance - enhancing activities into their daily lives. The older women become the more satisfied with their body image they are likely to become because of the relief of stress from societal pressures. The older men become, the more dissatisfied they are likely to become due to increased physical and perceived incompetency. Since there are significant differences between men and women across all ages, gender serves as a better predictor of body dissatisfaction and sociocultural perceived influences than age. The desire to lose weight is highly correlated with poor body image, with more women than men wanting to lose weight. Kashubeck - West et al. reported that when considering only men and women who desire to lose weight, sex differences in body image disappear. In her book The Beauty Myth, Naomi Wolf reported that "thirty - three thousand women told American researchers they would rather lose ten to fifteen pounds than achieve any other goal. '' Through repeated images of excessively thin women in media, advertisement, and modeling, thinness has become associated with not only beauty, but happiness and success. As Charisse Goodman put it in her article, "One Picture is Worth a Thousand Diets, '' advertisements have changed society 's ideas of beauty and ugliness: "Indeed to judge by the phrasing of the ads, ' slender ' and ' attractive ' are one word, not two in the same fashion as ' fat ' and ' ugly. ' '' This idea of beauty has become drastically more narrow and unachievable, putting increased pressure on people looking to satisfy society 's standards. Research by Martin and Xavier (2010) shows that people feel more pressure from society to be thin after viewing ads featuring a slim model. Ads featuring a larger sized model resulted in less pressure to be thin. People also felt their actual body size was larger after viewing a slim model as compared to a larger model. Many, like journalist Marisa Meltzer, have argued this contemporary standard of beauty to be described as anorexic thinness, an unhealthy idea that is not representative of a natural human body: "Never before has the ' perfect ' body been at such odds with our true size. '' However, these figures do not distinguish between people at a low or healthy weight who are in fact overweight, between those whose self - perception as being overweight is incorrect and those whose perception of being overweight is correct. Recent developments, such as the Body Volume Index have addressed this problem in part by measuring weight distribution, but although 3D images of ourselves help to improve body perception, an objective appraisal of our own body image remains a difficult task for us to undertake. Post-1997 studies indicate that around 64 % of American adults are overweight, such that if the 56 % / 40 % female / male dissatisfaction rates in the Psychology Today study have held steady since its release, those dissatisfaction rates are if anything disproportionately low: although some individuals continue to believe themselves to be overweight when they are not, those persons are now outnumbered by persons who might be expected to be dissatisfied with their body but are not. In turn, although social pressure to lose weight has adverse effects on some individuals who do not need to lose weight, those adverse effects are arguably outweighed by that social pressure 's positive effect on the overall population, without which the recent increases in obesity and associated health and social problems (described in both popular and academic parlance as an "obesity epidemic '') would be even more severe than they already are. Miss Representation is a documentary by Jennifer Siebel Newsom, exploring and displaying the role that mainstream media plays in society today with regards to women and the under - representation of women in influential positions. Prominent women in today 's society were featured in discussing how the media has impacted their life along with their views on how the media is impacting the lives of people from an early age. These media messages have a severe impact on how individuals carry themselves along with what aspects bog them down like insecurities with body image. This film encourages viewers to start to see beyond the message and not compare themselves to these picture perfect computer - generated images. The 2007 documentary America the Beautiful explores how the fashion and beauty industries are contributing to the problems that individuals feel regarding body image due to their beauty obsession. The film discusses a wide range of topics like plastic surgery, dieting, eating disorders, the modeling industry along with the fashion industry and much more. Young middle - school aged girls were portrayed in the beginning of the film and asked if they found themselves beautiful. The girls who are around the ages of 13 had decided that they were not beautiful. In today 's society, people are starting to see themselves as ugly at an earlier age than ever before. As individuals who identify as ugly increase, the number of body image issues also increase. In a study performed by Leslie J. Heinberg of Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, and J. Kevin Thompson of the University of South Florida, results showed that women exposed to appearance based advertisements experienced a significant growth in depression, anxiety, anger, and body dissatisfaction. In a study done at Old Dominion University, Thomas F. Cash, Julie R. Ancis and Melissa D. Strachan studied college women and their attitudes toward gender, feminist identity and body image. "Relative to men, women are considerably more psychologically invested in their appearance. Moreover, women 's poor evaluations of and stronger investments in their looks potentiate greater body - image dysphoria in women 's daily lives. '' A contributing factor in this scenario that leads women to greater objectification of their bodies are the images that are seen throughout media. Women who are portrayed in the media often possess unattainable beauty. "Furthermore, the social construct of femininity is partially tied to perceived beauty, as evinced by the ' what is beautiful sex - typed ' stereotype. '' These internalized ideals along with the pursuit for this unattainable beauty of one 's body image can lead to body dysmorphic disorder, body objectification, eating disorders, anxiety, depression and other related psychological difficulties. In the same study from Arizona State University, it was said that the idea of beauty is generated from these media messages. "Cultural messages about beauty (i.e what it is, how it should be cultivated, and how it will be rewarded) are often implicitly conveyed through media representations of women. '' In the study from Old Dominion University, the authors state the importance of research in this area. "Given the centrality of body image in clinical and subclinical eating disturbances that are so prevalent among women, research on gender and body image has substantial importance. '' Even though there is research being done, there is still much more work to be done to help individuals who struggle with their body image. To combat unhealthy body image issues among women, in 2015, France passed a law requiring models to be declared healthy by a doctor to participate in fashion shows. It also requires re-touched images to be marked as such in magazines. Perceptions of races have drastically changed over the years dating all the way back to the medieval era referencing light and dark, good and evil. Hundreds of years later perceptions would be changed again with the Atlantic slave trade which left ideas of idealism for Caucasians and a negative idea of any other race. Caucasian nationalists also believed that all races originated from the ' white ' race, "Goldsmith maintained that all humans sprung from one common parent and attributed the variations in the human family to the influence of climate, culture, and custom ''. With this extreme racism of the time the black body was studied, displayed and scrutinized for any minor difference. "The ideas about beauty we contend with in the twenty - first century draw in part on very old ways of thinking about human bodies and African difference. '' In the 1960s the Black is Beautiful movement and Black Power movement took form and shook the world in a display of racial pride. Today 's perceptions of different races has come a long way in bringing a positive mentality to racial body image but there are still some core issues in today 's society. The fashion industry is known for not being inclusive of more races in their runways and ad campaigns, and several studies that have been conducted prove that the lack of racial diversity can contribute to body image issues amongst non-white minorities. In one such experiment, conducted in 2003, 3 photographs of attractive white, black and Asian women were shown to a group of white, black and Asian students. The study concluded that Asian women thought that the photograph of the white woman was the most attractive, and reported high levels of body dissatisfaction. Such dissatisfaction may even cause these individuals to suffer psychologically due to the pressure to embody these ideals, and may result in them going through several means to change their physical appearance in order to match the Eurocentric idea of beauty. Weight loss is one such method. For instance, Mexican American women who have been attuned to mainstream US culture reported greater body dissatisfaction and have described their ideal body types to be similar to the white norm. In spite of the fact that certain ethnicities naturally have different body types, this ideal has led to disordered eating amongst Latinas. Plastic surgery is another method, and is especially popular in Asia for "Westernizing '' facial features. Two of the most popular treatments are rhinoplasty (nose lifts), and blepharoplasty (eyelid lifts), which are done to make these features look more Caucasian. Skin lightening products are also prevalent in countries where non-white ethnicities are the majority, and the industry makes billions of dollars every year. In India alone, whitening products make up 45 % of the skin care market. Plenty of these whitening cosmetics are known to have dangerous side effects due to the ingredients in them; hydroquinone, for instance, is known to cause irritation and leukemia while mercury is known to cause rashes and pigmentation. In spite of these effects, industries like the fashion industry have not significantly featured women of color (and when they have, the women may have either been significantly "whitewashed '' -- with digitally lightened skin and hair -- or may already have features that are considered "white ''). The fashion industry believes that by advertising unattainable standards of beauty, they fuel a customer demand by "creating a craving that ca n't be satisfied ''. However, a study by Elle Canada has proven the exact opposite: products featured by models that accurately represent the consumer 's race -- as well as weight and age -- will increase the consumer 's willingness to purchase a product.

the summer of the beautiful white horse short summary

The Summer of the Beautiful white horse - wikipedia "The Summer of the Beautiful White Horse '' is a short story by William Saroyan, published within the collection My Name Is Aram (1940). It tells the story of two boys, Aram and Mourad, who belong to a very poor Armenian tribe. "The Summer of the Beautiful White Horse '' is narrated by nine - year - old Aram Garoghlanian, a member of an Armenian community living among the lush fruit orchards and vineyards of California. One morning Aram is awakened at four in morning by his thirteen - year - old cousin Mourad, who is thought to be demented by everyone except Aram, and has a way with animals. Aram is astonished to see that Mourad is sitting on a beautiful white horse. Aram has always wanted to ride a horse, but his family is too poor to afford one. However, in spite of being poor, the Garoghlanian tribe is noted for its honesty, and trust, as a result it is unthinkable that Mourad would have stolen the horse. Aram felt that his cousin could n't have stolen the horse. Aram was invited to ride on the horse with Mourad. The idea of Mourad stealing the horse drained away from Aram 's mind as when he felt that it would n't become stealing unless they offer to sell the horse. They enjoyed rides on the horse for a few hours. Mourad 's crazy behavior was considered to be of natural descent from their uncle Khosrov, even though his father, Zorab, was a practical man. Uncle Khosrove was an enormous man who was always furious, impatient, and irritable. He would roar for everyone to stop talking and say It is no harm, pay no attention to it. In fact, one day, when his son came and told them that their house was on fire, Khosrov silenced him by roaring "Enough. It is no harm ''. After a short time of riding, Mourad wanted to ride alone on the horse. Aram had the same longing, but when he sat on the horse and kicked its muscles it reared and snorted and raced forward, eventually dropping Aram off its back. After half an hour they found the horse and hid it in the barn of a deserted vineyard of a farmer named Fetvajian which had once been his pride. That afternoon, an Assyrian farmer named John Byro -- an Assyrian friend of the Garoghlanians -- came to Aram 's house. He reported to Aram 's mother that his white horse which had been stolen a month ago was still missing. Hearing this, Aram concludes that, Mourad must have had the horse for a long time. Khosrove, who was at Aram 's house when Byro came, shouted - "it 's no harm '' to such an extent that Byro was forced to leave to avoid responding. Aram ran to Mourad to inform him about Byro 's arrival. Aram also pleads with Mourad not to return the horse until he could learn to ride. Mourad disagrees saying that Aram would take at least a year to learn, but promises he would keep it for six months at most. This became a routine. Mourad came daily to pick Aram to ride, and Aram continuously fell off the horse 's back after every attempt. Two weeks later, when they were going to take the horse back to its hiding place, they met Byro on the road. The farmer was extremely surprised. He recognised his horse but refused to believe that the boys had stolen it. He said "the horse is the twin of my horse '' and "a suspicious man would believe his eyes instead of his heart '', but Byro, knowing the Garoghlanian tribe for its honesty, discarded his suspicion and left. This incident apparently struck the children 's conscience. They returned the horse to John Byro ' s barn. He was overjoyed.

el coronel no tiene quien le escriba chapter 1 summary

No One Writes to the colonel - wikipedia No One Writes to the Colonel (Spanish: El coronel no tiene quien le escriba) is a novella written by the Colombian novelist and Nobel Prize in Literature winner Gabriel García Márquez. It also gives its name to a short story collection. García Márquez considered it his best book, saying that he had to write One Hundred Years of Solitude so that people would read No One Writes to the Colonel. The novel, written between 1956 and 1957 while living in Paris in the Hotel des Trois Colleges and first published in 1961, is the story of an impoverished, retired colonel, a veteran of the Thousand Days ' War, who still hopes to receive the pension he was promised some fifteen years earlier. The colonel lives with his asthmatic wife in a small village under martial law. The action opens with the colonel preparing to go to the funeral of a town musician whose death is notable because he was the first to die from natural causes in many years. The novel is set during the years of "La Violencia '' in Colombia, when martial law and censorship prevail. Unlike many other García Márquez works, the novel mostly does not fall within the magic realism genre, as it includes only one magical event. The main characters of the novel are not named, adding to the feeling of insignificance of an individual living in Colombia. The colonel and his wife, who have lost their son to political repression, are struggling with poverty and financial instability. The corruption of the local and national officials is evident and this is a topic which García Márquez explores throughout the novel, by using references to censorship and the impact of government on society. The colonel desperately tries to sell their inheritance from their only son who is now dead and eventually the only reminder of his existence is a rooster that the colonel trains to take part in a cockfight. In his memoir Vivir para contarla (Living to Tell the Tale, 2002), García Márquez explained that the novel was inspired by his grandfather, who was also a colonel and who never received the pension he was promised. However, there is also speculation that García Márquez took inspiration from his experience of unemployment in 1956 after the newspaper he had been working for shut down. The daily lives he witnessed during this time are said to be one of his inspirations for this novel. A motion picture based on the novella was made in 1999. Directed by Arturo Ripstein, it stars Fernando Luján as the colonel.

how many pages is the book it by stephen king

It (novel) - wikipedia It is a 1986 horror novel by American author Stephen King. It was his 22nd book, and his 18th novel written under his own name. The story follows the experiences of seven children as they are terrorized by an entity that exploits the fears and phobias of its victims to disguise itself while hunting its prey. "It '' primarily appears in the form of a clown to attract its preferred prey of young children. The novel is told through narratives alternating between two periods, and is largely told in the third - person omniscient mode. It deals with themes that eventually became King staples: the power of memory, childhood trauma and its recurrent echoes in adulthood, the ugliness lurking behind a façade of small - town quaintness, and overcoming evil through mutual trust and sacrifice. King has stated that he first conceived the story in 1978, and began writing it in 1981. He also stated that he originally wanted the title character to be a troll like the one in the children 's story Three Billy Goats Gruff, but who inhabited the local sewer system rather than just the area beneath one bridge. He also wanted the story to interweave the stories of children and the adults they later become. The novel won the British Fantasy Award in 1987, and received nominations for the Locus and World Fantasy Awards that same year. Publishers Weekly listed It as the best - selling book in the United States in 1986. It has been adapted into a 1990 two - part miniseries directed by Tommy Lee Wallace, and into a 2017 film and its 2019 sequel directed by Andy Muschietti. During a heavy rainstorm in Derry, Maine, six - year - old George "Georgie '' Denbrough is chasing a paper boat that was given to him by his older brother, Bill, down a gutter. The boat is washed down a storm drain and Georgie peers in, seeing a pair of glowing yellow eyes. Georgie is confronted by a man dressed in a silver clown suit who introduces himself as "Mr. Bob Gray '', a.k.a. "Pennywise the Dancing Clown ''. Pennywise offers Georgie a balloon which he cautiously refuses. The clown then entices Georgie to reach into the drain to retrieve his boat and severs his arm, causing his death. The following June, Benjamin "Ben '' Hanscom, an overweight eleven - year - old boy, is harassed by a gang of bullies led by the feared Henry Bowers. On the last day of school, Ben hides from his tormentors in the Barrens after an altercation with the "Bowers Gang ''. Ben befriends Edward "Eddie '' Kaspbrak and William "Bill '' Denbrough. The three boys later befriend fellow misfits Richard "Richie '' Tozier, Stanley "Stan '' Uris, and Beverly "Bev '' Marsh, forming the "Losers Club ''. In July of the same summer, the Losers are joined by Michael "Mike '' Hanlon. As the summer draws on, the Losers realize that they 've each had an encounter with a seemingly omniscient, alien shape - shifting entity which takes the form of whatever they fear the most: Ben as a mummy, Eddie as a leper, Bill as Georgie 's ghost, Richie as a werewolf, Stan as two drowned boys, Mike as a flesh eating bird, and Beverly as a fountain of blood spurting from her bathroom sink. Due to the unknown origin of the monster, the Losers refer to the creature as "It '' and link It with a series of recent child murders, including that of Edward "Eddie '' Corcoran who is killed by the monster in the form of the Gill - man. The Losers begin to suspect that It has control over Derry due to the number of unsolved disappearances and violent tragedies which go unnoticed or seem to be forgotten by the adults in the town. They begin to investigate It 's origins, discovering that It arrived in Derry millions of years ago. The Losers also learned that It awakens every 27 years from a slumber in the town 's sewers, usually after a terrible event or tragedy, and feeds for 12 - 16 months. The Losers decide to put an end to It and Ben makes two silver slugs out of a silver dollar, believing that silver will harm It. The kids go to the house on Neibolt Street where Eddie, Bill, and Richie had previously encountered It. It attacks them in the form of a werewolf. However, Beverly shoots a slug from Bill 's slingshot, injuring It, and causing It to flee back to the sewers. Henry, accompanied by his two closest friends, Victor "Vic '' Criss and Reginald "Belch '' Huggins, chase the Losers into the sewers with the intention of killing them. The narrative changes and "It '' informs the reader that it existed originally in a void between our universe and others in a dimension known as the Macroverse, boasting of It 's superiority to anything on Earth. It also explains that it chooses to prey on children because their fears are easier to interpret in a physical form. Back in the sewers, It attacks the three bullies in the form of Frankenstein 's monster, ripping Vic 's head off and mutilating Belch 's face. Henry, driven insane, chases after the Losers and gets lost. He eventually washes out of the sewers into a nearby river and is blamed for all of the child murders. Meanwhile, Bill discovers the "Ritual of Chüd '', allowing him to enter the Macroverse to confront It and discover It 's true form; a mass of destructive orange lights referred to as the "Deadlights ''. During the ritual, Bill also encounters "The Turtle '', the creator of the universe, who created It while vomiting after a stomach - ache. The Turtle explains that It can only be defeated during a battle of wills. With the help of The Turtle, Bill is able to defeat It and send it back to its slumber. After the battle, the Losers get lost in the sewers until Beverly has sex with all the boys to connect childhood and adulthood while bringing unity back to the group. The Losers swear a blood oath to return to Derry, should It return in the future. In July 1984, at the annual Derry carnival, three youths brutally attack a gay man named Adrian Mellon and throw him off a bridge. The boys are arrested and charged with murder when Mellon 's mutilated corpse is found. One of the boys claims that he saw a clown dressed in a silver suit kill Mellon underneath the bridge. Adrian 's partner, the other victim in the attack, had also noticed the clown but the prosecutors convince him not to mention it during the trial. When a string of child murders occurs in Derry once again, an adult Mike Hanlon, now the town 's librarian and the only one of the Losers to remain in Derry, calls up the six former members of the Losers Club, all now in their thirties, and reminds them of their childhood promise to return should the killings start again. Bill Denbrough is now a successful horror writer living in England with his actress wife, Audra. Beverly Marsh is a fashion designer in Chicago, and is married to an abusive man named Tom Rogan. Eddie Kaspbrak has moved to New York City, where he runs a limousine rental company and has married a hysterical, codependent woman similar to his controlling mother. Richie Tozier lives in Los Angeles and works as a disc jockey. Ben Hanscom is now thin and a successful architect, living in Nebraska. Stan Uris is a wealthy accountant residing in Atlanta, Georgia. Prior to Mike 's phone calls, the Losers had buried the horror of their encounters with It. However, all but Stan reluctantly agree to return to Derry. After Mike 's phone call, Stan is so terrified of facing It again that he slits his wrists in the bathtub, writing "IT '' on the wall in his own blood. Tom refuses to let Beverly go and tries to beat her, but she lashes out at him before fleeing, causing him serious injury. The five return to Derry with only the slightest awareness of why they are doing so, remembering only the absolute terror and their promise to return. The Losers meet for lunch, where Mike reminds them that It awakens once roughly every 27 years for 12 -- 16 months at a time, feeding on children before going into slumber again. The group decides to kill It once and for all. At Mike 's suggestion, each person explores different parts of Derry to help restore their memories. While exploring, Eddie, Richie, Beverly, and Ben are faced with manifestations of It (Eddie as Belch Huggins in leper form, Richie as a Paul Bunyan statue, Beverly as the witch from Hansel & Gretel, and Ben in the form of Dracula). Bill finds his childhood Schwinn, "Silver '', and brings it to Mike 's. Three other people are also converging on the town: Audra, who is worried about Bill; Tom, who plans to kill Beverly; and Henry Bowers, who has escaped from Juniper Hill Mental Asylum with help from It. Mike and Henry have a violent confrontation at the library. Mike is nearly killed but Henry escapes, severely injured. Henry is driven to the hotel where It instructs him to kill the rest of the Losers. Henry attacks Eddie, breaking his arm once again, but in the fight, Henry is killed. It appears to Tom and orders him to capture Audra. Tom brings Audra to its lair. Upon seeing It 's true form, Audra becomes catatonic and Tom drops dead from shock. Bill, Ben, Beverly, Richie, and Eddie learn that Mike is near death and realize they are being forced into another confrontation with It. They descend into the sewers and use their strength as a group to "send energy '' to a hospitalized Mike, who fights off a nurse that is under the control of It. They reach Its lair and find It has taken the form of a giant spider. Bill and Richie enter It 's mind through the Ritual of Chüd, and are able to injure It. Eddie helps successfully bring Bill and Richie back from the Ritual, but in the process It rips off Eddie 's arm, killing him. It runs away to tend to its injuries, but Bill, Richie, and Ben chase after It and find that It has laid eggs. Ben stays behind to destroy the eggs, while Bill and Richie head toward their final confrontation with It. Bill fights his way inside its body, locates It 's heart and destroys it. The group meets up to head out of its lair, and although they try to bring Audra and Eddie 's bodies with them, they are forced to leave Eddie behind. They make it to the surface and realize that the scars on their hands from when they were children have disappeared, indicating that their ordeal is finally over. During the Ritual, the worst storm in Maine 's history sweeps through Derry, destroying most of the buildings as the downtown area collapses. Mike concludes that Derry is finally dying. Richie returns to LA, Ben and Beverly leave town together, and while Mike is in the hospital, Bill stays in Mike 's house to look after Audra in hopes she will snap out of her catatonic state. The Losers gradually begin to forget about It, Derry, and each other. Mike 's memory of his friends and events with It also begins to fade, as well as his Derry memoir and journal, much to his relief, and he considers starting a new life elsewhere. Before Bill leaves Derry, he takes Audra, still catatonic, for a ride on Silver, rushing through downtown Derry like he did as a kid. Audra awakens her from her catatonia with no recollection of what happened upon arriving in Maine. The Losers Club is a group of seven eleven - year - old misfit children who are united by their unhappy lives. They share the same misery and torment from being the victims of a gang of local bullies led by the increasingly sociopathic Henry Bowers and band together as they struggle to overcome It. The seven children find themselves caught up in a nefarious situation, which they can not quite comprehend but against which they must fight. Described as a mysterious, eldritch demonic entity of evil, It is a monster of unknown origin that preys on Derry 's children and humans every twenty - seven years, stating It finds the fear in children akin to "salt (ing) the meat ''. Among It 's powers is shapeshifting into a form that induces fear while killing the victim, normally assuming the form of a middle - aged man dressed in a clown costume, calling itself "Pennywise the Dancing Clown '' and occasionally Bob or Robert Gray, modeled after Bozo, Clarabell and Ronald McDonald. It can also manipulate people and use them as pawns in doing its bidding, either by assuming a form most familiar to them, promising them their desires or through subliminal influence. Because of this control over what happens in Derry, many of the child murders It commits are never solved; the adults of Derry act as though either nothing is happening or they have forgotten about It. Its true form as perceived by the human eye is that of a giant spider that houses Its essence: namely writhing orange lights (termed "Deadlights ''), looking directly into which can either kill a person or drive them insane. It 's awakening and returns to hibernation mark the greatest instances of violence during its time awake, such as the disappearance of over three hundred settlers from Derry Township in 1740 -- 43. In 1957, It awoke during a great storm which flooded part of the city, whereupon It went on a feeding spree, starting by murdering Georgie Denbrough. However, the Losers Club forced It to return to an early hibernation when heavily wounded by the young Bill Denbrough in the first Ritual of Chüd. As the story opens, It has awakened approximately 27 years later and is first seen when three bullies beat up a homosexual couple, Adrian Mellon and Don Hagarty. It kills Adrian after the bullies throw him off a bridge. When the adult members of the Losers Club gather, It recognizes them as a threat and resolves to drive them away both through illusions and by controlling Henry Bowers, the Losers ' long - time childhood bully. Bill, Richie, Beverly, Eddie, and Ben manage to confront It 's spider form after It arranges to have Audra in its possession. It is finally destroyed in the second Ritual of Chüd, and an enormous storm damages the downtown part of Derry to signify It 's death. In the novel Dreamcatcher, when Mr. Gray tries to put a worm in Derry 's water by use of the Standpipe, It is no longer there due to the 1985 flood. In its place is a memorial featuring a cast - bronze statue of two children and a plaque underneath, dedicated to the victims of the 1985 flood and of It. The plaque has been vandalized with graffiti reading, "PENNYWISE LIVES ''. The character has been named by several outlets as one of the scariest clowns in film or pop culture. The Bowers Gang is a group of seven twelve - year - old neighborhood bullies who attend the same school as and are the worst enemies of the Losers Club after It. The gang is led by the crazed and mischievous Henry Bowers, while also being co-led by Henry 's two best friends and sidekicks, the smarter and more moral Victor "Vic '' Criss and the unusually larger, stronger, and more slow - witted Reginald "Belch '' Huggins. Although the fates of three of them (Peter Gordon, Steve "Moose '' Sadler, Gard Jagermeyer) were never made official, it is stated in the novel that the remaining child murders during the summer of 1958 after that of minor character Jimmy Cullum were of all of Henry 's friends, creating the assumption that they were attacked and killed by It (possibly as means to worsen Henry 's sociopathism). On December 13, 2011, Cemetery Dance published a special limited edition of It for the 25th anniversary of the novel (ISBN 978 - 1 - 58767 - 270 - 5) in three editions: an unsigned limited gift edition of 2,750, a signed limited edition of 750, and a signed and lettered limited edition of 52. All three editions are oversized hardcovers, housed in a slipcase or traycase, and feature premium binding materials. This anniversary edition features a new dust jacket illustration by Glen Orbik, as well as numerous interior illustrations by Alan M. Clark and Erin Wells. The book also contains a new afterword by Stephen King discussing his reasons for writing the novel. In 1990, the novel was adapted into a television miniseries starring Tim Curry as Pennywise the Clown, John Ritter as Ben Hanscom, Harry Anderson as Richie Tozier, Richard Masur as Stan Uris, Tim Reid as Mike Hanlon, Annette O'Toole as Beverly Marsh, Richard Thomas as Bill Denbrough, Olivia Hussey as Audra Phillips, Dennis Christopher as Eddie Kaspbrak, and Michael Cole as Henry Bowers. The younger versions of the characters were played by Brandon Crane (Ben), Seth Green (Richie), Ben Heller (Stan), Marlon Taylor (Mike), Emily Perkins (Beverly), Jonathan Brandis (Bill), Adam Faraizl (Eddie), and Jarred Blancard (Henry). The miniseries was directed by Tommy Lee Wallace and scripted by Wallace and Lawrence D. Cohen. The first of a two - part feature film adaptation, It, was released on September 8, 2017. It is directed by Andy Muschietti, with a screenplay by Chase Palmer, Cary Fukunaga and Gary Dauberman. Instead of a dual narrative, the first film is solely an adaptation of the section that features the characters as children, though the setting has been updated to the late 1980s. It stars Bill Skarsgård as Pennywise and Jaeden Lieberher as Bill Denbrough. Supporting roles are played by Finn Wolfhard, Sophia Lillis, Jack Dylan Grazer, Wyatt Oleff, Chosen Jacobs, Jeremy Ray Taylor, Owen Teague, Nicholas Hamilton, Logan Thompson and Jake Sim. The second film, yet to be produced, will adapt the "adult '' section and update the setting to the 2010s.

girlfriends' guide to divorce season 4 how many episodes

List of Girlfriends ' Guide to divorce episodes - wikipedia Girlfriends ' Guide to Divorce in an American drama television series on Bravo. It was delveloped by Marti Noxon and based on the Girlfriend 's Guide book series by Vicki Iovine. The series premiered on December 2, 2014. The show was renewed for a second season which premiered on December 1, 2015. It is Bravo 's first original scripted series. On April 13, 2016, Bravo renewed the show for three more seasons. Season three began on January 11, 2017. Season four began on August 17, 2017. Abby pursues a relationship with Nate, but has trouble trying to connect with him on a deeper level. At the suggestion of everyone around her, Lyla tries to find methods of de-stressing. She later fights with Phoebe after trying a special massage without warning of what it entails. Max and Ford are honored at the Family Equality Gala, but Max has trouble getting with the program. Phoebe pursues a relationship with a married man as a way of "saving the relationship ''.

where are the canine teeth located in humans

Canine tooth - wikipedia In mammalian oral anatomy, the canine teeth, also called cuspids, dog teeth, fangs, or (in the case of those of the upper jaw) eye teeth, are relatively long, pointed teeth. However, they can appear more flattened, causing them to resemble incisors and leading them to be called incisiform. They developed and are used primarily for firmly holding food in order to tear it apart, and occasionally as weapons. They are often the largest teeth in a mammal 's mouth. Most species that develop them normally have four per mammal, two in the upper jaw and two in the lower, separated within each jaw by its incisors; humans and dogs are examples. In most species, canines are the anterior-most teeth in the maxillary bone. The four canines in humans are the two maxillary canines and the two mandibular canines. The Narwal has the longest canines, which can reach lengths from about 1.5 to 3.1 m (4 ft 11 in to 10 ft 2 in). There are four canine teeth: two in the upper (maxillary) and two in the lower (mandibular) arch. A canine is placed laterally to each lateral incisor. They are larger and stronger than the incisors, and their roots sink deeply into the bones, and cause well - marked prominences upon the surface. The crown is large and conical, very convex on its labial surface, a little hollowed and uneven on its lingual surface, and tapering to a blunted point or cusp, which projects beyond the level of the other teeth. The root is single, but longer and thicker than that of the incisors, conical in form, compressed laterally, and marked by a slight groove on each side. The lingual surface also presents two depressions on either side of the surface separated by a ridge in between; these depressions are known as mesial and distal lingual fossae. In humans, the upper canine teeth (popularly called eye teeth, from their position under the eyes) are larger and longer than the lower, and usually present a distinct basal ridge. Eruption typically occurs between the ages of eleven and twelve years. Occasionally they are congenitally missing. From a facial aspect, maxillary canines are approximately one millimetre narrower than the central incisor. Their mesial aspects resemble the adjacent lateral incisors, while their distal aspects anticipate the first premolars. They are slightly darker and more yellow in color than the other anterior teeth. From a lingual aspect, they have well developed mesial and distal marginal ridges and a well - developed cingulum. A prominent lingual ridge divides the lingual aspect in half and creates the mesial and distal lingual fossae between the lingual ridge and the marginal ridges. From a proximal aspect, they resemble the incisors, but are more robust, especially in the cingulum region. Incisally, they are visibly asymmetrical, as the mesial incisal edge is slightly shorter than the distal incisal edge, which places the cusp slightly mesial to the long axis of the tooth. They are also thicker labiolingually than mesiodistally. Because of the disproportionate incisal edges, the contacts are also asymmetrical. Mesially, the contact sits at the junction of the incisal and middle third of the crown, while distally, the contact as more cervical, in the middle of the middle third of the crown. The lower canine teeth are placed nearer the middle line than the upper, so that their summits correspond to the intervals between the upper canines and the lateral incisors. Eruption typically occurs between the ages of nine and ten years of age. From a facial aspect, the mandibular canine is notably narrower mesiodistally than the maxillary one, even though the root may be just as long (and at times bifurcated). A distinctive feature is the nearly straight outline this tooth has compared to the maxillary canine which is slightly more bowed. As in the maxillary canine, the mesial incisal edge (or cusp ridge) is shorter than the distal side, however, the cusp is displaced slightly lingual relative to the cusp of the maxillary canine. Lingually, the surface of the tooth is much more smooth compared to the very pronounced surface of the maxillary canine, and the cingulum is noted as less developed. With many species, the canine teeth in the upper or lower jaw, or in both, are much larger in the males than in the females, or are absent in females, except sometimes a hidden rudiment. Certain antelopes, the musk - deer, camel, horse, boar, various apes, seals, and the walrus, offer instances. In non-mammals, teeth similar to canines may be termed "caniniform '' ("canine - shaped '') teeth. Medical animation showing Canine teeth and their arrangement in the mouth of an adult human being. Mouth (oral cavity) Left maxilla. Outer surface. Base of skull. Inferior surface. Unerupted permanent teeth underlie the deciduous teeth. This article incorporates text in the public domain from the 20th edition of Gray 's Anatomy (1918)

who is pictured on the american dollar below

United States one - dollar bill - wikipedia The United States one - dollar bill ($1) is a denomination of United States currency. An image of the first U.S. President (1789 -- 97), George Washington, based on a painting by Gilbert Stuart, is currently featured on the obverse (front), and the Great Seal of the United States is featured on the reverse (back). The one - dollar bill has the oldest overall design of all U.S. currency currently being produced (The current two - dollar bill obverse design dates from 1928, while the reverse appeared in 1976). The obverse design of the dollar bill seen today debuted in 1963 (the reverse in 1935) when it was first issued as a Federal Reserve Note (previously, one dollar bills were Silver Certificates). The inclusion of the motto, "In God We Trust, '' on all currency was required by law in 1955, and first appeared on paper money in 1957. An individual dollar bill is also less formally known as a one, a single, a buck, a bone, and a bill. The Federal Reserve says the average life of a $1 bill in circulation is 5.8 years before it is replaced because of wear. Approximately 42 % of all U.S. currency produced in 2009 were one - dollar bills. (approximately 73⁄8 × 31⁄8 in ≅ 187 × 79 mm) (6.14 length × 2.61 width × 0.0043 in thickness = 156 × 66.3 × 0.11 mm) In 1929, all currency was changed to the size which is familiar today. The first one - dollar bills were issued as silver certificates under Series of 1928. The Treasury seal and serial numbers were dark blue. The obverse was nearly identical to the Series of 1923 $1 silver certificate, but the Treasury seal featured spikes around it and a large gray ONE replaced the blue "1 DOLLAR. '' The reverse, too, had the same border design as the Series of 1923 $1 bill, but the center featured a large ornate ONE superimposed by ONE DOLLAR. These are commonly known as "Funnybacks '' due to the rather odd - looking "ONE '' on the reverse. These $1 silver certificates were issued until 1934. In 1933, Series of 1928 $1 United States Notes were issued to supplement the supply of $1 Silver Certificates. Its Treasury seal and serial numbers were red and there was different wording on the obverse of the note. However, a month after their production, it was realized that there would be no real need for these notes and production was stopped. A small number of these $1 bills entered circulation and the rest were kept in Treasury vaults until 1949 when they were issued in Puerto Rico. In 1934, the design of the $1 silver certificate was changed. This occurred with that year 's passage of the Silver Purchase Act, which led to a large increase in dollar bills backed by that metal. Under Washington 's portrait, ONE SILVER DOLLAR was changed to ONE DOLLAR. The Treasury seal was moved to the right and superimposed over ONE, and a blue numeral 1 was added to the left. The reverse remained the same. A year later, in 1935, the design of the one - dollar bill was changed again. On the obverse, the blue numeral 1 was changed to gray and made smaller, the gray ONE to the right was removed, the Treasury seal was made smaller and superimposed by WASHINGTON D.C., and a stylized ONE DOLLAR was added over the treasury seal. The reverse was also changed to its current design, except for the absence of IN GOD WE TRUST. World War II brought about special issues of one - dollar bills in 1942. Special $1 Silver Certificates were issued for Hawaii in case of a Japanese invasion. HAWAII was printed vertically on the left and right side of the obverse and also horizontally across the reverse. The seal and serial numbers were changed to brown. Special Silver Certificates were also issued as payment for Allied troops in North Africa about to begin their assault into Europe. The only difference on these one - dollar bills was a yellow instead of blue seal. Both of these types of notes could be declared worthless if they fell into enemy hands. The next change came in 1957 when the $1 bill became the first piece of paper U.S. currency to bear the motto IN GOD WE TRUST; it was added over the word ONE on the reverse. Initially the BEP began printing the motto on notes printed with the new 32 note press, but soon Series of 1935G bills printed on a 18 note press featured the motto. The final production of $1 Silver Certificates occurred in late 1963. In 1964, the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver coin ended and in 1968 the redemption of Silver Certificates for silver bullion ended. Production of one - dollar Federal Reserve Notes was undertaken in late 1963 to replace the soon - to - be obsolete $1 Silver Certificate. The design on the reverse remained the same, but the border design on the obverse underwent considerable modification, as the mostly abstract filigrees were replaced with designs that were mostly botanical in nature. In addition, the word "one, '' which appeared eight times around the border in small type, was eliminated. The serial numbers and treasury seal were printed in green ink. This was the first time the one - dollar bill was printed as a Federal Reserve Note. The $1 bill became the first denomination printed at the new Western Currency Facility in February 1991, when a shipment of 3.2 million star notes from the Dallas FRB was produced. Though bill denominations of $5 and higher have been redesigned twice since 1995 as part of ongoing anti-counterfeiting efforts, there are currently no plans to redesign the $1 or $2 bills. Since 1933, the one - dollar bill has been the exclusive experimental denomination among circulating US currency; however, an exception was made in August 1981 for several Richmond $10 notes produced on Natick test paper. The first experiment was conducted in January and February of that year to assess the effects of using different ratios of cotton to linen in the make - up of the bills. Series 1928A and 1928B $1 silver certificates with serial number block letters X-B and Y-B were used as the experimental group; the Z-B block was used as the control group. The results of the experiment were inconclusive. In 1937, another test was conducted, similar in style to the 1933 experiment. This test used Series 1935 one - dollar bills. The particular notes used in this experiment can be identified by their serial numbers. Notes ranging from A00000001B to A06180000B and B00000001B -- B03300000B were the experimental group and notes ranging from C00000001B to C03300000B were part of the control group. No conclusive results were found. A better known test was done in 1942 during World War II to test alternative types of paper. This was a precautionary measure in case the current type of paper supply could not be maintained. Series 1935A notes made of the special paper and were printed with a red "S '' to the right of the treasury seal, while notes of the control group were printed with a red R. Because they have some collector value, fake red S 's and R 's have been applied to regular Series 1935A notes to try to pass them at a higher value; checking a note 's serial numbers can prevent this. Serial numbers of the R group range from S70884001C to S72068000C and serial numbers of the S group range from S73884001C to S75068000C. Sometime in the early to mid-1960s, the BEP experimented with a new firm, the Gilbert Paper Company, to see if they could duplicate the usual paper production. The BEP selected a series of notes printed by the Philadelphia FRB as the test subjects. Serial numbers for this group range from C60800001A to C61440000A. One - dollar bills were again the subject of experimentation in May 1992, when the BEP began to test a web - fed Intaglio printing press. Because of a need for greater quantities of $1 FRNs, the BEP sent out REQUEST FOR PROPOSALS (RFP) (year 1985) NO. BEP - 85 - 73 to procure a web - fed intaglio printing press to dramatically increase the production of currency notes within the confines of their current (1985) 14th & C street facility. Instead of printing one side of a square sheet of 32 notes at a time, the web - fed press used 96 engraved images or plate - cylinder to print the back of the note, then another 96 image engraved plate - cylinder to print the front of the note. Both sides of notes were printed from a continuous roll of paper. The Alexander - Hamilton intaglio Web press printed both sides of intaglio at the same time. The web - press was designed as a full - blown production press as opposed to an experimental press. The notes were issued in Series 1988A, 1993, and 1995. Because of mechanical problems and operator error, as well as the sometimes poor quality of the notes, production was ended in July 1996. Web notes can be identified by the back plate number next to IN GOD WE TRUST and the removal of face check letters and quadrant numbers. The portrait of George Washington is displayed in the center of the obverse of the one - dollar bill, as it has been since the 1869 design. The oval containing George Washington is propped up by bunches of bay laurel leaves. To the left of George Washington is the Federal Reserve District seal. The name of the Federal Reserve Bank that issued the note encircles a capital letter (A -- L), identifying it among the twelve Federal Reserve Banks. The sequential number of the bank (1: A, 2: B, etc.) is also displayed in the four corners of the open space on the bill. Until the redesign of the higher denominations of currency beginning in 1996, this seal was found on all denominations of Federal Reserve notes. Since then it is only present on the $1 and $2 notes, with the higher denominations only displaying a universal Federal Reserve System seal, and the bank letter and number beneath the upper left serial number. To the right of George Washington is the Treasury Department seal The scales represent justice. The chevron with thirteen stars represents the original thirteen colonies. The key below the chevron represents authority and trust; 1789 is the year that the Department of the Treasury was established. The series 1969 dollar bills were the first to use a simplified Treasury seal, with the wording in English instead of Latin. Below the FRD seal (to the left of George Washington) is the signature of the Treasurer of the U.S., which occasionally varies, and below the USDT Seal (right side) is the Secretary of the Treasury 's signature. To the left of the Secretary 's signature is the series date. A new series date, or addition or change of a sequential letter under a date, results from a change in the Secretary of the Treasury, the Treasurer of the United States, and / or a change to the note 's appearance such as a new currency design. On the edges are olive branches entwined around the 1s. A small plate serial number - letter combination is on the lower right, and a small plate position (check) letter is on the upper left corner of the note. If "FW '' appears before the lower right plate number it indicates that the bill was produced at the satellite Bureau of Engraving and Printing facility in Fort Worth, Texas. Currency has been printed here since Series 1988A. No "FW '' means the bill was made at the main plant in Washington, D.C.. The reverse of the one - dollar bill has an ornate design that incorporates both sides of the Great Seal of the United States to the left and right of the word ONE. This word appears prominently in the white space at the center of the bill in a capitalized, shadowed, and seriffed typeface. A smaller image of the word "ONE '' is superimposed over the numeral "1 '' in each of the four corners of the bill. "THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA '' spans the top of the bill, "ONE DOLLAR '' is emblazoned along the bottom, and above the central "ONE '' are the words "IN GOD WE TRUST, '' which became the official motto of the United States in 1956 by an Act of Congress. Below the reverse of the Great Seal on the left side of the bill are the words "THE GREAT SEAL, '' and below the obverse on the right side are the words "OF THE UNITED STATES. '' The Great Seal, originally designed in 1782 and added to the dollar bill 's design in 1935, is surrounded by an elaborate floral design. The renderings used were the typical official government versions used since the 1880s. The reverse of the seal on the left features a barren landscape dominated by an unfinished pyramid of 13 steps, topped by the Eye of Providence within a triangle. At the base of the pyramid are engraved the Roman numerals MDCCLXXVI (1776), the date of American independence from Britain. At the top of the seal stands a Latin phrase, "ANNUIT COEPTIS, '' meaning "He favors our undertaking. '' At the bottom of the seal is a semicircular banner proclaiming "NOVUS ORDO SECLORUM '' meaning "New Order of the Ages '' that is a reference to the new American era. To the left of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill. The obverse of the seal on the right features a bald eagle, the national bird and symbol of the United States. Above the eagle is a radiant cluster of 13 stars arranged in a six - pointed star. The eagle 's breast is covered by a heraldic shield with 13 stripes that resemble those on the American flag. As on the first US flag, the stars and stripes stand for the 13 original states of the union. The eagle holds a ribbon in its beak reading "E PLURIBUS UNUM '', a Latin phrase meaning "Out of many (states), one (nation) '', a de facto motto of the United States (and the only one until 1956). In its left talons the eagle holds 13 arrows, and in its right talons it holds an olive branch with 13 leaves and 13 olives, representing, respectively, the powers of war and peace. To the right of this seal, a string of 13 pearls extends toward the edge of the bill. A plate position (check) number is normally found to the left of the eagle. Except for significant errors, and series 1988A web notes printed in small batches for some of the Federal Reserve districts (those from others are more common), green seal dollars are of little collector value. However, two notes have generated public interest, although neither is scarce. In 1963 dollar bills were produced for the Eleventh Federal Reserve District, headquartered in Dallas. Since the FRD jurisdictions are sequentially numbered, notes received the corresponding letter "K '', for the 11th letter of the alphabet. Some people noticed that the 1963 Dallas note, with the number "11 '' and a "K '' surrounded by a black seal, appeared about the time President John F. Kennedy was shot in Dallas in November 1963. The bill was not a commemorative issue and there was no connection between it and the shooting. In 1968 -- 69 Joseph W. Barr was Secretary of the Treasury for only 31 days and his signature appeared solely on the 1963B dollar bill. It was thought that his brief tenure might make these notes valuable, but use of their plates continued for some time afterwards and over 400 million were printed. Thus they are very common. In modern times, the one dollar bill is used much more than the dollar coin, despite the U.S. Government 's efforts to promote the latter. There are organizations specifically aimed at either preventing (Save the Greenback) or advocating (Coin Coalition) the complete elimination of the one - dollar bill in favor of the dollar coin. On November 29, 2012, a House subcommittee met to consider replacing the dollar bill. This action took place after the seventh Government Accountability Office report on the subject. The latest report claimed that switching to dollar coins would save $4.4 billion over thirty years. However, according to polls, few Americans want to give up dollar bills. Recent budgets passed by Congress have included provisions to prevent the Treasury Department from spending any of its funds to redesign the one - dollar bill, largely because of potential cost impacts on the vending machine industry.

the three parts of the federal reserve system are the

Federal Reserve System - Wikipedia The Federal Reserve System (also known as the Federal Reserve or simply the Fed) is the central banking system of the United States of America. It was created on December 23, 1913, with the enactment of the Federal Reserve Act, after a series of financial panics (particularly the panic of 1907) led to the desire for central control of the monetary system in order to alleviate financial crises. Over the years, events such as the Great Depression in the 1930s and the Great Recession during the 2000s have led to the expansion of the roles and responsibilities of the Federal Reserve System. The U.S. Congress established three key objectives for monetary policy in the Federal Reserve Act: maximizing employment, stabilizing prices, and moderating long - term interest rates. The first two objectives are sometimes referred to as the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate. Its duties have expanded over the years, and currently also include supervising and regulating banks, maintaining the stability of the financial system, and providing financial services to depository institutions, the U.S. government, and foreign official institutions. The Fed conducts research into the economy and provides numerous publications, such as the Beige Book and the FRED database. The Federal Reserve System is composed of several layers. It is governed by the presidentially appointed Board of Governors or Federal Reserve Board (FRB). Twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, located in cities throughout the nation, regulate and oversee privately owned commercial banks. Nationally chartered commercial banks are required to hold stock in, and can elect some of the board members of, the Federal Reserve Bank of their region. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) sets monetary policy. It consists of all seven members of the Board of Governors and the twelve regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents, though only five bank presidents vote at a time (the president of the New York Fed and four others who rotate through one - year voting terms). There are also various advisory councils. Thus, the Federal Reserve System has both public and private components. It has a structure unique among central banks, and is also unusual in that the United States Department of the Treasury, an entity outside of the central bank, prints the currency used. The federal government sets the salaries of the board 's seven governors. The federal government receives all the system 's annual profits, after a statutory dividend of 6 % on member banks ' capital investment is paid, and an account surplus is maintained. In 2015, the Federal Reserve made a profit of $100.2 billion and transferred $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury. Although an instrument of the US Government, the Federal Reserve System considers itself "an independent central bank because its monetary policy decisions do not have to be approved by the President or anyone else in the executive or legislative branches of government, it does not receive funding appropriated by the Congress, and the terms of the members of the Board of Governors span multiple presidential and congressional terms. '' The primary motivation for creating the Federal Reserve System was to address banking panics. Other purposes are stated in the Federal Reserve Act, such as "to furnish an elastic currency, to afford means of rediscounting commercial paper, to establish a more effective supervision of banking in the United States, and for other purposes ''. Before the founding of the Federal Reserve System, the United States underwent several financial crises. A particularly severe crisis in 1907 led Congress to enact the Federal Reserve Act in 1913. Today the Federal Reserve System has responsibilities in addition to ensuring the stability of the financial system. Current functions of the Federal Reserve System include: Banking institutions in the United States are required to hold reserves‍ -- ‌amounts of currency and deposits in other banks‍ -- ‌equal to only a fraction of the amount of the bank 's deposit liabilities owed to customers. This practice is called fractional - reserve banking. As a result, banks usually invest the majority of the funds received from depositors. On rare occasions, too many of the bank 's customers will withdraw their savings and the bank will need help from another institution to continue operating; this is called a bank run. Bank runs can lead to a multitude of social and economic problems. The Federal Reserve System was designed as an attempt to prevent or minimize the occurrence of bank runs, and possibly act as a lender of last resort when a bank run does occur. Many economists, following Milton Friedman, believe that the Federal Reserve inappropriately refused to lend money to small banks during the bank runs of 1929. Because some banks refused to clear checks from certain other banks during times of economic uncertainty, a check - clearing system was created in the Federal Reserve System. It is briefly described in The Federal Reserve System‍ -- ‌Purposes and Functions as follows: By creating the Federal Reserve System, Congress intended to eliminate the severe financial crises that had periodically swept the nation, especially the sort of financial panic that occurred in 1907. During that episode, payments were disrupted throughout the country because many banks and clearinghouses refused to clear checks drawn on certain other banks, a practice that contributed to the failure of otherwise solvent banks. To address these problems, Congress gave the Federal Reserve System the authority to establish a nationwide check - clearing system. The System, then, was to provide not only an elastic currency‍ -- ‌that is, a currency that would expand or shrink in amount as economic conditions warranted‍ -- ‌but also an efficient and equitable check - collection system. In the United States, the Federal Reserve serves as the lender of last resort to those institutions that can not obtain credit elsewhere and the collapse of which would have serious implications for the economy. It took over this role from the private sector "clearing houses '' which operated during the Free Banking Era; whether public or private, the availability of liquidity was intended to prevent bank runs. Through its discount window and credit operations, Reserve Banks provide liquidity to banks to meet short - term needs stemming from seasonal fluctuations in deposits or unexpected withdrawals. Longer term liquidity may also be provided in exceptional circumstances. The rate the Fed charges banks for these loans is called the discount rate (officially the primary credit rate). By making these loans, the Fed serves as a buffer against unexpected day - to - day fluctuations in reserve demand and supply. This contributes to the effective functioning of the banking system, alleviates pressure in the reserves market and reduces the extent of unexpected movements in the interest rates. For example, on September 16, 2008, the Federal Reserve Board authorized an $85 billion loan to stave off the bankruptcy of international insurance giant American International Group (AIG). In its role as the central bank of the United States, the Fed serves as a banker 's bank and as the government 's bank. As the banker 's bank, it helps to assure the safety and efficiency of the payments system. As the government 's bank or fiscal agent, the Fed processes a variety of financial transactions involving trillions of dollars. Just as an individual might keep an account at a bank, the U.S. Treasury keeps a checking account with the Federal Reserve, through which incoming federal tax deposits and outgoing government payments are handled. As part of this service relationship, the Fed sells and redeems U.S. government securities such as savings bonds and Treasury bills, notes and bonds. It also issues the nation 's coin and paper currency. The U.S. Treasury, through its Bureau of the Mint and Bureau of Engraving and Printing, actually produces the nation 's cash supply and, in effect, sells the paper currency to the Federal Reserve Banks at manufacturing cost, and the coins at face value. The Federal Reserve Banks then distribute it to other financial institutions in various ways. During the Fiscal Year 2013, the Bureau of Engraving and Printing delivered 6.6 billion notes at an average cost of 5.0 cents per note. Federal funds are the reserve balances (also called Federal Reserve Deposits) that private banks keep at their local Federal Reserve Bank. These balances are the namesake reserves of the Federal Reserve System. The purpose of keeping funds at a Federal Reserve Bank is to have a mechanism for private banks to lend funds to one another. This market for funds plays an important role in the Federal Reserve System as it is what inspired the name of the system and it is what is used as the basis for monetary policy. Monetary policy is put into effect partly by influencing how much interest the private banks charge each other for the lending of these funds. Federal reserve accounts contain federal reserve credit, which can be converted into federal reserve notes. Private banks maintain their bank reserves in federal reserve accounts. The Federal Reserve regulates private banks. The system was designed out of a compromise between the competing philosophies of privatization and government regulation. In 2006 Donald L. Kohn, vice chairman of the Board of Governors, summarized the history of this compromise: Agrarian and progressive interests, led by William Jennings Bryan, favored a central bank under public, rather than banker, control. But the vast majority of the nation 's bankers, concerned about government intervention in the banking business, opposed a central bank structure directed by political appointees. The legislation that Congress ultimately adopted in 1913 reflected a hard - fought battle to balance these two competing views and created the hybrid public - private, centralized - decentralized structure that we have today. The balance between private interests and government can also be seen in the structure of the system. Private banks elect members of the board of directors at their regional Federal Reserve Bank while the members of the Board of Governors are selected by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate. The Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, enacted in 1978 as Public Law 95 - 320 and 31 U.S.C. section 714 establish that the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System and the Federal Reserve banks may be audited by the Government Accountability Office (GAO). The GAO has authority to audit check - processing, currency storage and shipments, and some regulatory and bank examination functions, however, there are restrictions to what the GAO may audit. Under the Federal Banking Agency Audit Act, 31 U.S.C. section 714 (b), audits of the Federal Reserve Board and Federal Reserve banks do not include (1) transactions for or with a foreign central bank or government or non-private international financing organization; (2) deliberations, decisions, or actions on monetary policy matters; (3) transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee; or (4) a part of a discussion or communication among or between members of the Board of Governors and officers and employees of the Federal Reserve System related to items (1), (2), or (3). See Federal Reserve System Audits: Restrictions on GAO 's Access (GAO / T - GGD - 94 - 44), statement of Charles A. Bowsher. The Board of Governors in the Federal Reserve System has a number of supervisory and regulatory responsibilities in the U.S. banking system, but not complete responsibility. A general description of the types of regulation and supervision involved in the U.S. banking system is given by the Federal Reserve: The Board also plays a major role in the supervision and regulation of the U.S. banking system. It has supervisory responsibilities for state - chartered banks that are members of the Federal Reserve System, bank holding companies (companies that control banks), the foreign activities of member banks, the U.S. activities of foreign banks, and Edge Act and "agreement corporations '' (limited - purpose institutions that engage in a foreign banking business). The Board and, under delegated authority, the Federal Reserve Banks, supervise approximately 900 state member banks and 5,000 bank holding companies. Other federal agencies also serve as the primary federal supervisors of commercial banks; the Office of the Comptroller of the Currency supervises national banks, and the Federal Deposit Insurance Corporation supervises state banks that are not members of the Federal Reserve System. Some regulations issued by the Board apply to the entire banking industry, whereas others apply only to member banks, that is, state banks that have chosen to join the Federal Reserve System and national banks, which by law must be members of the System. The Board also issues regulations to carry out major federal laws governing consumer credit protection, such as the Truth in Lending, Equal Credit Opportunity, and Home Mortgage Disclosure Acts. Many of these consumer protection regulations apply to various lenders outside the banking industry as well as to banks. Members of the Board of Governors are in continual contact with other policy makers in government. They frequently testify before congressional committees on the economy, monetary policy, banking supervision and regulation, consumer credit protection, financial markets, and other matters. The Board has regular contact with members of the President 's Council of Economic Advisers and other key economic officials. The Chair also meets from time to time with the President of the United States and has regular meetings with the Secretary of the Treasury. The Chair has formal responsibilities in the international arena as well. The board of directors of each Federal Reserve Bank District also has regulatory and supervisory responsibilities. If the board of directors of a district bank has judged that a member bank is performing or behaving poorly, it will report this to the Board of Governors. This policy is described in United States Code: Each Federal reserve bank shall keep itself informed of the general character and amount of the loans and investments of its member banks with a view to ascertaining whether undue use is being made of bank credit for the speculative carrying of or trading in securities, real estate, or commodities, or for any other purpose inconsistent with the maintenance of sound credit conditions; and, in determining whether to grant or refuse advances, rediscounts, or other credit accommodations, the Federal reserve bank shall give consideration to such information. The chairman of the Federal reserve bank shall report to the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System any such undue use of bank credit by any member bank, together with his recommendation. Whenever, in the judgment of the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System, any member bank is making such undue use of bank credit, the Board may, in its discretion, after reasonable notice and an opportunity for a hearing, suspend such bank from the use of the credit facilities of the Federal Reserve System and may terminate such suspension or may renew it from time to time. The Federal Reserve plays an important role in the U.S. payments system. The twelve Federal Reserve Banks provide banking services to depository institutions and to the federal government. For depository institutions, they maintain accounts and provide various payment services, including collecting checks, electronically transferring funds, and distributing and receiving currency and coin. For the federal government, the Reserve Banks act as fiscal agents, paying Treasury checks; processing electronic payments; and issuing, transferring, and redeeming U.S. government securities. In the Depository Institutions Deregulation and Monetary Control Act of 1980, Congress reaffirmed that the Federal Reserve should promote an efficient nationwide payments system. The act subjects all depository institutions, not just member commercial banks, to reserve requirements and grants them equal access to Reserve Bank payment services. The Federal Reserve plays a role in the nation 's retail and wholesale payments systems by providing financial services to depository institutions. Retail payments are generally for relatively small - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's retail clients‍ -- ‌individuals and smaller businesses. The Reserve Banks ' retail services include distributing currency and coin, collecting checks, and electronically transferring funds through the automated clearinghouse system. By contrast, wholesale payments are generally for large - dollar amounts and often involve a depository institution 's large corporate customers or counterparties, including other financial institutions. The Reserve Banks ' wholesale services include electronically transferring funds through the Fedwire Funds Service and transferring securities issued by the U.S. government, its agencies, and certain other entities through the Fedwire Securities Service. The Federal Reserve System has a "unique structure that is both public and private '' and is described as "independent within the government '' rather than "independent of government ''. The System does not require public funding, and derives its authority and purpose from the Federal Reserve Act, which was passed by Congress in 1913 and is subject to Congressional modification or repeal. The four main components of the Federal Reserve System are (1) the Board of Governors, (2) the Federal Open Market Committee, (3) the twelve regional Federal Reserve Banks, and (4) the member banks throughout the country. The seven - member Board of Governors is a federal agency. It is charged with the overseeing of the 12 District Reserve Banks and setting national monetary policy. It also supervises and regulates the U.S. banking system in general. Governors are appointed by the President of the United States and confirmed by the Senate for staggered 14 - year terms. One term begins every two years, on February 1 of even - numbered years, and members serving a full term can not be renominated for a second term. "(U) pon the expiration of their terms of office, members of the Board shall continue to serve until their successors are appointed and have qualified. '' The law provides for the removal of a member of the board by the President "for cause ''. The board is required to make an annual report of operations to the Speaker of the U.S. House of Representatives. The Chair and Vice Chair of the Board of Governors are appointed by the President from among the sitting Governors. They both serve a four - year term and they can be renominated as many times as the President chooses, until their terms on the Board of Governors expire. The current members of the Board of Governors are as follows: Indicates the date of term expiration for the individual nominated to this vacant position. In late December 2011, President Barack Obama nominated Jeremy C. Stein, a Harvard University finance professor and a Democrat, and Jerome Powell, formerly of Dillon Read, Bankers Trust and The Carlyle Group and a Republican. Both candidates also have Treasury Department experience in the Obama and George H.W. Bush administrations respectively. "Obama administration officials (had) regrouped to identify Fed candidates after Peter Diamond, a Nobel Prize - winning economist, withdrew his nomination to the board in June (2011) in the face of Republican opposition. Richard Clarida, a potential nominee who was a Treasury official under George W. Bush, pulled out of consideration in August (2011) '', one account of the December nominations noted. The two other Obama nominees in 2011, Yellen and Raskin, were confirmed in September. One of the vacancies was created in 2011 with the resignation of Kevin Warsh, who took office in 2006 to fill the unexpired term ending January 31, 2018, and resigned his position effective March 31, 2011. In March 2012, U.S. Senator David Vitter (R, LA) said he would oppose Obama 's Stein and Powell nominations, dampening near - term hopes for approval. However Senate leaders reached a deal, paving the way for affirmative votes on the two nominees in May 2012 and bringing the board to full strength for the first time since 2006 with Duke 's service after term end. Later, on January 6, 2014, the United States Senate confirmed Yellen 's nomination to be Chair of the Federal Reserve Board of Governors; she is slated to be the first woman to hold the position and will become Chair on February 1, 2014. Subsequently, President Obama nominated Stanley Fischer to replace Yellen as the Vice Chair. In April 2014, Stein announced he was leaving to return to Harvard May 28 with four years remaining on his term. At the time of the announcement, the FOMC "already is down three members as it awaits the Senate confirmation of... Fischer and Lael Brainard, and as (President) Obama has yet to name a replacement for... Duke... Powell is still serving as he awaits his confirmation for a second term. '' Allan R. Landon, former president and CEO of the Bank of Hawaii, was nominated in early 2015 by President Obama to the board. In July 2015, President Obama nominated University of Michigan economist Kathryn M. Dominguez to fill the second vacancy on the board. The Senate had not yet acted on Landon 's confirmation by the time of the second nomination. Daniel Tarullo submitted his resignation from the board on February 10, 2017, effective on or around April 5, 2017. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) consists of 12 members, seven from the Board of Governors and 5 of the regional Federal Reserve Bank presidents. The FOMC oversees and sets policy on open market operations, the principal tool of national monetary policy. These operations affect the amount of Federal Reserve balances available to depository institutions, thereby influencing overall monetary and credit conditions. The FOMC also directs operations undertaken by the Federal Reserve in foreign exchange markets. The FOMC must reach consensus on all decisions. The president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York is a permanent member of the FOMC; the presidents of the other banks rotate membership at two - and three - year intervals. All Regional Reserve Bank presidents contribute to the committee 's assessment of the economy and of policy options, but only the five presidents who are then members of the FOMC vote on policy decisions. The FOMC determines its own internal organization and, by tradition, elects the Chair of the Board of Governors as its chair and the president of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York as its vice chair. Formal meetings typically are held eight times each year in Washington, D.C. Nonvoting Reserve Bank presidents also participate in Committee deliberations and discussion. The FOMC generally meets eight times a year in telephone consultations and other meetings are held when needed. The Federal Advisory Council, composed of twelve representatives of the banking industry, advises the board on all matters within its jurisdiction. There are 12 Federal Reserve Banks, each of which is responsible for member banks located in its district. They are located in Boston, New York, Philadelphia, Cleveland, Richmond, Atlanta, Chicago, St. Louis, Minneapolis, Kansas City, Dallas, and San Francisco. The size of each district was set based upon the population distribution of the United States when the Federal Reserve Act was passed. The charter and organization of each Federal Reserve Bank is established by law and can not be altered by the member banks. Member banks, do however, elect six of the nine members of the Federal Reserve Banks ' boards of directors. Each regional Bank has a president, who is the chief executive officer of their Bank. Each regional Reserve Bank 's president is nominated by their Bank 's board of directors, but the nomination is contingent upon approval by the Board of Governors. Presidents serve five - year terms and may be reappointed. Each regional Bank 's board consists of nine members. Members are broken down into three classes: A, B, and C. There are three board members in each class. Class A members are chosen by the regional Bank 's shareholders, and are intended to represent member banks ' interests. Member banks are divided into three categories: large, medium, and small. Each category elects one of the three class A board members. Class B board members are also nominated by the region 's member banks, but class B board members are supposed to represent the interests of the public. Lastly, class C board members are appointed by the Board of Governors, and are also intended to represent the interests of the public. The Federal Reserve Banks have an intermediate legal status, with some features of private corporations and some features of public federal agencies. The United States has an interest in the Federal Reserve Banks as tax - exempt federally created instrumentalities whose profits belong to the federal government, but this interest is not proprietary. In Lewis v. United States, the United States Court of Appeals for the Ninth Circuit stated that: "The Reserve Banks are not federal instrumentalities for purposes of the FTCA (the Federal Tort Claims Act), but are independent, privately owned and locally controlled corporations. '' The opinion went on to say, however, that: "The Reserve Banks have properly been held to be federal instrumentalities for some purposes. '' Another relevant decision is Scott v. Federal Reserve Bank of Kansas City, in which the distinction is made between Federal Reserve Banks, which are federally created instrumentalities, and the Board of Governors, which is a federal agency. Regarding the structural relationship between the twelve Federal Reserve banks and the various commercial (member) banks, political science professor Michael D. Reagan has written that: ... the "ownership '' of the Reserve Banks by the commercial banks is symbolic; they do not exercise the proprietary control associated with the concept of ownership nor share, beyond the statutory dividend, in Reserve Bank "profits. ''... Bank ownership and election at the base are therefore devoid of substantive significance, despite the superficial appearance of private bank control that the formal arrangement creates. A member bank is a private institution and owns stock in its regional Federal Reserve Bank. All nationally chartered banks hold stock in one of the Federal Reserve Banks. State chartered banks may choose to be members (and hold stock in their regional Federal Reserve bank) upon meeting certain standards. The amount of stock a member bank must own is equal to 3 % of its combined capital and surplus. However, holding stock in a Federal Reserve bank is not like owning stock in a publicly traded company. These stocks can not be sold or traded, and member banks do not control the Federal Reserve Bank as a result of owning this stock. From the profits of the Regional Bank of which it is a member, a member bank receives a dividend equal to 6 % of its purchased stock. The remainder of the regional Federal Reserve Banks ' profits is given over to the United States Treasury Department. In 2015, the Federal Reserve Banks made a profit of $100.2 billion and distributed $2.5 billion in dividends to member banks as well as returning $97.7 billion to the U.S. Treasury. About 38 % of U.S. banks are members of their regional Federal Reserve Bank. The GAO and an outside auditor regularly audit the Board of Governors, the Federal Reserve banks, and individual member banks. Audits do not cover "most of the Fed 's monetary policy actions or decisions, including discount window lending (direct loans to financial institutions), open - market operations and any other transactions made under the direction of the Federal Open Market Committee ''... (nor may the GAO audit) "dealings with foreign governments and other central banks. '' As of August 27, 2012, the Federal Reserve Board has been publishing unaudited financial reports for the Federal Reserve banks every quarter. This is an expansion of prior financial reporting practices. Greater transparency is offered with more frequent disclosure and more detail. November 7, 2008, Bloomberg L.P. News brought a lawsuit against the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System to force the board to reveal the identities of firms for which it has provided guarantees during the financial crisis of 2007 -- 2008. Bloomberg, L.P. won at the trial court and the Fed 's appeals were rejected at both the United States Court of Appeals for the Second Circuit and the U.S. Supreme Court. The data was released on March 31, 2011. The term "monetary policy '' refers to the actions undertaken by a central bank, such as the Federal Reserve, to influence the availability and cost of money and credit to help promote national economic goals. What happens to money and credit affects interest rates (the cost of credit) and the performance of an economy. The Federal Reserve Act of 1913 gave the Federal Reserve authority to set monetary policy in the United States. The Federal Reserve sets monetary policy by influencing the federal funds rate, which is the rate of interbank lending of excess reserves. The rate that banks charge each other for these loans is determined in the interbank market and the Federal Reserve influences this rate through the three "tools '' of monetary policy described in the Tools section below. The federal funds rate is a short - term interest rate that the FOMC focuses on, which affects the longer - term interest rates throughout the economy. The Federal Reserve summarized its monetary policy in 2005: The Federal Reserve implements U.S. monetary policy by affecting conditions in the market for balances that depository institutions hold at the Federal Reserve Banks... By conducting open market operations, imposing reserve requirements, permitting depository institutions to hold contractual clearing balances, and extending credit through its discount window facility, the Federal Reserve exercises considerable control over the demand for and supply of Federal Reserve balances and the federal funds rate. Through its control of the federal funds rate, the Federal Reserve is able to foster financial and monetary conditions consistent with its monetary policy objectives. Effects on the quantity of reserves that banks used to make loans influence the economy. Policy actions that add reserves to the banking system encourage lending at lower interest rates thus stimulating growth in money, credit, and the economy. Policy actions that absorb reserves work in the opposite direction. The Fed 's task is to supply enough reserves to support an adequate amount of money and credit, avoiding the excesses that result in inflation and the shortages that stifle economic growth. There are three main tools of monetary policy that the Federal Reserve uses to influence the amount of reserves in private banks: The Federal Reserve System implements monetary policy largely by targeting the federal funds rate. This is the interest rate that banks charge each other for overnight loans of federal funds, which are the reserves held by banks at the Fed. This rate is actually determined by the market and is not explicitly mandated by the Fed. The Fed therefore tries to align the effective federal funds rate with the targeted rate by adding or subtracting from the money supply through open market operations. The Federal Reserve System usually adjusts the federal funds rate target by 0.25 % or 0.50 % at a time. Open market operations allow the Federal Reserve to increase or decrease the amount of money in the banking system as necessary to balance the Federal Reserve 's dual mandates. Open market operations are done through the sale and purchase of United States Treasury security, sometimes called "Treasury bills '' or more informally "T - bills '' or "Treasuries ''. The Federal Reserve buys Treasury bills from its primary dealers. The purchase of these securities affects the federal funds rate, because primary dealers have accounts at depository institutions. The Federal Reserve education website describes open market operations as follows: Open market operations involve the buying and selling of U.S. government securities (federal agency and mortgage - backed). The term ' open market ' means that the Fed does n't decide on its own which securities dealers it will do business with on a particular day. Rather, the choice emerges from an ' open market ' in which the various securities dealers that the Fed does business with‍ -- ‌the primary dealers‍ -- ‌compete on the basis of price. Open market operations are flexible and thus, the most frequently used tool of monetary policy. Open market operations are the primary tool used to regulate the supply of bank reserves. This tool consists of Federal Reserve purchases and sales of financial instruments, usually securities issued by the U.S. Treasury, Federal agencies and government - sponsored enterprises. Open market operations are carried out by the Domestic Trading Desk of the Federal Reserve Bank of New York under direction from the FOMC. The transactions are undertaken with primary dealers. The Fed 's goal in trading the securities is to affect the federal funds rate, the rate at which banks borrow reserves from each other. When the Fed wants to increase reserves, it buys securities and pays for them by making a deposit to the account maintained at the Fed by the primary dealer 's bank. When the Fed wants to reduce reserves, it sells securities and collects from those accounts. Most days, the Fed does not want to increase or decrease reserves permanently so it usually engages in transactions reversed within a day or two. That means that a reserve injection today could be withdrawn tomorrow morning, only to be renewed at some level several hours later. These short - term transactions are called repurchase agreements (repos) ‍ -- ‌the dealer sells the Fed a security and agrees to buy it back at a later date. To smooth temporary or cyclical changes in the money supply, the desk engages in repurchase agreements (repos) with its primary dealers. Repos are essentially secured, short - term lending by the Fed. On the day of the transaction, the Fed deposits money in a primary dealer 's reserve account, and receives the promised securities as collateral. When the transaction matures, the process unwinds: the Fed returns the collateral and charges the primary dealer 's reserve account for the principal and accrued interest. The term of the repo (the time between settlement and maturity) can vary from 1 day (called an overnight repo) to 65 days. The Federal Reserve System also directly sets the "discount rate '', which is the interest rate for "discount window lending '', overnight loans that member banks borrow directly from the Fed. This rate is generally set at a rate close to 100 basis points above the target federal funds rate. The idea is to encourage banks to seek alternative funding before using the "discount rate '' option. The equivalent operation by the European Central Bank is referred to as the "marginal lending facility ''. Both the discount rate and the federal funds rate influence the prime rate, which is usually about 3 percentage points higher than the federal funds rate. Another instrument of monetary policy adjustment employed by the Federal Reserve System is the fractional reserve requirement, also known as the required reserve ratio. The required reserve ratio sets the balance that the Federal Reserve System requires a depository institution to hold in the Federal Reserve Banks, which depository institutions trade in the federal funds market discussed above. The required reserve ratio is set by the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System. The reserve requirements have changed over time and some history of these changes is published by the Federal Reserve. As a response to the financial crisis of 2008, the Federal Reserve now makes interest payments on depository institutions ' required and excess reserve balances. The payment of interest on excess reserves gives the central bank greater opportunity to address credit market conditions while maintaining the federal funds rate close to the target rate set by the FOMC. In order to address problems related to the subprime mortgage crisis and United States housing bubble, several new tools have been created. The first new tool, called the Term Auction Facility, was added on December 12, 2007. It was first announced as a temporary tool but there have been suggestions that this new tool may remain in place for a prolonged period of time. Creation of the second new tool, called the Term Securities Lending Facility, was announced on March 11, 2008. The main difference between these two facilities is that the Term Auction Facility is used to inject cash into the banking system whereas the Term Securities Lending Facility is used to inject treasury securities into the banking system. Creation of the third tool, called the Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF), was announced on March 16, 2008. The PDCF was a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now the Fed is able to lend directly to primary dealers, which was previously against Fed policy. The differences between these three new facilities is described by the Federal Reserve: The Term Auction Facility program offers term funding to depository institutions via a bi-weekly auction, for fixed amounts of credit. The Term Securities Lending Facility will be an auction for a fixed amount of lending of Treasury general collateral in exchange for OMO - eligible and AAA / Aaa rated private - label residential mortgage - backed securities. The Primary Dealer Credit Facility now allows eligible primary dealers to borrow at the existing Discount Rate for up to 120 days. Some measures taken by the Federal Reserve to address this mortgage crisis have not been used since the Great Depression. The Federal Reserve gives a brief summary of these new facilities: As the economy has slowed in the last nine months and credit markets have become unstable, the Federal Reserve has taken a number of steps to help address the situation. These steps have included the use of traditional monetary policy tools at the macroeconomic level as well as measures at the level of specific markets to provide additional liquidity. The Federal Reserve 's response has continued to evolve since pressure on credit markets began to surface last summer, but all these measures derive from the Fed 's traditional open market operations and discount window tools by extending the term of transactions, the type of collateral, or eligible borrowers. A fourth facility, the Term Deposit Facility, was announced December 9, 2009, and approved April 30, 2010, with an effective date of June 4, 2010. The Term Deposit Facility allows Reserve Banks to offer term deposits to institutions that are eligible to receive earnings on their balances at Reserve Banks. Term deposits are intended to facilitate the implementation of monetary policy by providing a tool by which the Federal Reserve can manage the aggregate quantity of reserve balances held by depository institutions. Funds placed in term deposits are removed from the accounts of participating institutions for the life of the term deposit and thus drain reserve balances from the banking system. The Term Auction Facility is a program in which the Federal Reserve auctions term funds to depository institutions. The creation of this facility was announced by the Federal Reserve on December 12, 2007, and was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets. The reason it was created is that banks were not lending funds to one another and banks in need of funds were refusing to go to the discount window. Banks were not lending money to each other because there was a fear that the loans would not be paid back. Banks refused to go to the discount window because it is usually associated with the stigma of bank failure. Under the Term Auction Facility, the identity of the banks in need of funds is protected in order to avoid the stigma of bank failure. Foreign exchange swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were opened so the banks in Europe could have access to U.S. dollars. Federal Reserve Chairman Ben Bernanke briefly described this facility to the U.S. House of Representatives on January 17, 2008: the Federal Reserve recently unveiled a term auction facility, or TAF, through which prespecified amounts of discount window credit can be auctioned to eligible borrowers. The goal of the TAF is to reduce the incentive for banks to hoard cash and increase their willingness to provide credit to households and firms... TAF auctions will continue as long as necessary to address elevated pressures in short - term funding markets, and we will continue to work closely and cooperatively with other central banks to address market strains that could hamper the achievement of our broader economic objectives. It is also described in the Term Auction Facility FAQ The TAF is a credit facility that allows a depository institution to place a bid for an advance from its local Federal Reserve Bank at an interest rate that is determined as the result of an auction. By allowing the Federal Reserve to inject term funds through a broader range of counterparties and against a broader range of collateral than open market operations, this facility could help ensure that liquidity provisions can be disseminated efficiently even when the unsecured interbank markets are under stress. In short, the TAF will auction term funds of approximately one - month maturity. All depository institutions that are judged to be in sound financial condition by their local Reserve Bank and that are eligible to borrow at the discount window are also eligible to participate in TAF auctions. All TAF credit must be fully collateralized. Depositories may pledge the broad range of collateral that is accepted for other Federal Reserve lending programs to secure TAF credit. The same collateral values and margins applicable for other Federal Reserve lending programs will also apply for the TAF. The Term Securities Lending Facility is a 28 - day facility that will offer Treasury general collateral to the Federal Reserve Bank of New York 's primary dealers in exchange for other program - eligible collateral. It is intended to promote liquidity in the financing markets for Treasury and other collateral and thus to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. Like the Term Auction Facility, the TSLF was done in conjunction with the Bank of Canada, the Bank of England, the European Central Bank, and the Swiss National Bank. The resource allows dealers to switch debt that is less liquid for U.S. government securities that are easily tradable. The currency swap lines with the European Central Bank and Swiss National Bank were increased. The Primary Dealer Credit Facility (PDCF) is an overnight loan facility that will provide funding to primary dealers in exchange for a specified range of eligible collateral and is intended to foster the functioning of financial markets more generally. This new facility marks a fundamental change in Federal Reserve policy because now primary dealers can borrow directly from the Fed when this used to be prohibited. As of October 2008, the Federal Reserve banks will pay interest on reserve balances (required and excess) held by depository institutions. The rate is set at the lowest federal funds rate during the reserve maintenance period of an institution, less 75 bp. As of October 23, 2008, the Fed has lowered the spread to a mere 35 bp. The Term Deposit Facility is a program through which the Federal Reserve Banks will offer interest - bearing term deposits to eligible institutions. By removing "excess deposits '' from participating banks, the overall level of reserves available for lending is reduced, which should result in increased market interest rates, acting as a brake on economic activity and inflation. The Federal Reserve has stated that: Term deposits will be one of several tools that the Federal Reserve could employ to drain reserves when policymakers judge that it is appropriate to begin moving to a less accommodative stance of monetary policy. The development of the TDF is a matter of prudent planning and has no implication for the near - term conduct of monetary policy. The Federal Reserve initially authorized up to five "small - value offerings are designed to ensure the effectiveness of TDF operations and to provide eligible institutions with an opportunity to gain familiarity with term deposit procedures. '' After three of the offering auctions were successfully completed, it was announced that small - value auctions would continue on an ongoing basis. The Term Deposit Facility is essentially a tool available to reverse the efforts that have been employed to provide liquidity to the financial markets and to reduce the amount of capital available to the economy. As stated in Bloomberg News: Policy makers led by Chairman Ben S. Bernanke are preparing for the day when they will have to start siphoning off more than $1 trillion in excess reserves from the banking system to contain inflation. The Fed is charting an eventual return to normal monetary policy, even as a weakening near - term outlook has raised the possibility it may expand its balance sheet. Chairman Ben S. Bernanke, testifying before House Committee on Financial Services, described the Term Deposit Facility and other facilities to Congress in the following terms: Most importantly, in October 2008 the Congress gave the Federal Reserve statutory authority to pay interest on balances that banks hold at the Federal Reserve Banks. By increasing the interest rate on banks ' reserves, the Federal Reserve will be able to put significant upward pressure on all short - term interest rates, as banks will not supply short - term funds to the money markets at rates significantly below what they can earn by holding reserves at the Federal Reserve Banks. Actual and prospective increases in short - term interest rates will be reflected in turn in higher longer - term interest rates and in tighter financial conditions more generally... As an additional means of draining reserves, the Federal Reserve is also developing plans to offer to depository institutions term deposits, which are roughly analogous to certificates of deposit that the institutions offer to their customers. A proposal describing a term deposit facility was recently published in the Federal Register, and the Federal Reserve is finalizing a revised proposal in light of the public comments that have been received. After a revised proposal is reviewed by the Board, we expect to be able to conduct test transactions this spring and to have the facility available if necessary thereafter. The use of reverse repos and the deposit facility would together allow the Federal Reserve to drain hundreds of billions of dollars of reserves from the banking system quite quickly, should it choose to do so. When these tools are used to drain reserves from the banking system, they do so by replacing bank reserves with other liabilities; the asset side and the overall size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet remain unchanged. If necessary, as a means of applying monetary restraint, the Federal Reserve also has the option of redeeming or selling securities. The redemption or sale of securities would have the effect of reducing the size of the Federal Reserve 's balance sheet as well as further reducing the quantity of reserves in the banking system. Restoring the size and composition of the balance sheet to a more normal configuration is a longer - term objective of our policies. In any case, the sequencing of steps and the combination of tools that the Federal Reserve uses as it exits from its currently very accommodative policy stance will depend on economic and financial developments and on our best judgments about how to meet the Federal Reserve 's dual mandate of maximum employment and price stability. In sum, in response to severe threats to our economy, the Federal Reserve created a series of special lending facilities to stabilize the financial system and encourage the resumption of private credit flows to American families and businesses. As market conditions and the economic outlook have improved, these programs have been terminated or are being phased out. The Federal Reserve also promoted economic recovery through sharp reductions in its target for the federal funds rate and through large - scale purchases of securities. The economy continues to require the support of accommodative monetary policies. However, we have been working to ensure that we have the tools to reverse, at the appropriate time, the currently very high degree of monetary stimulus. We have full confidence that, when the time comes, we will be ready to do so. The Asset Backed Commercial Paper Money Market Mutual Fund Liquidity Facility (ABCPMMMFLF) was also called the AMLF. The Facility began operations on September 22, 2008, and was closed on February 1, 2010. All U.S. depository institutions, bank holding companies (parent companies or U.S. broker - dealer affiliates), or U.S. branches and agencies of foreign banks were eligible to borrow under this facility pursuant to the discretion of the FRBB. Collateral eligible for pledge under the Facility was required to meet the following criteria: On October 7, 2008, the Federal Reserve further expanded the collateral it will loan against to include commercial paper using the new Commercial Paper Funding Facility (CPFF). The action made the Fed a crucial source of credit for non-financial businesses in addition to commercial banks and investment firms. Fed officials said they 'll buy as much of the debt as necessary to get the market functioning again. They refused to say how much that might be, but they noted that around $1.3 trillion worth of commercial paper would qualify. There was $1.61 trillion in outstanding commercial paper, seasonally adjusted, on the market as of October 1, 2008, according to the most recent data from the Fed. That was down from $1.70 trillion in the previous week. Since the summer of 2007, the market has shrunk from more than $2.2 trillion. This program lent out a total $738 billion before it was closed. Forty - five out of 81 of the companies participating in this program were foreign firms. Research shows that Troubled Asset Relief Program (TARP) recipients were twice as likely to participate in the program than other commercial paper issuers who did not take advantage of the TARP bailout. The Fed incurred no losses from the CPFF. A little - used tool of the Federal Reserve is the quantitative policy. With that the Federal Reserve actually buys back corporate bonds and mortgage backed securities held by banks or other financial institutions. This in effect puts money back into the financial institutions and allows them to make loans and conduct normal business. The bursting of the United States housing bubble prompted the Fed to buy mortgage - backed securities for the first time in November 2008. Over six weeks, a total of $1.25 trillion were purchased in order to stabilize the housing market, about one - fifth of all U.S. government - backed mortgages. The first attempt at a national currency was during the American Revolutionary War. In 1775, the Continental Congress, as well as the states, began issuing paper currency, calling the bills "Continentals ''. The Continentals were backed only by future tax revenue, and were used to help finance the Revolutionary War. Overprinting, as well as British counterfeiting, caused the value of the Continental to diminish quickly. This experience with paper money led the United States to strip the power to issue Bills of Credit (paper money) from a draft of the new Constitution on August 16, 1787, as well as banning such issuance by the various states, and limiting the states ' ability to make anything but gold or silver coin legal tender on August 28. In 1791, the government granted the First Bank of the United States a charter to operate as the U.S. central bank until 1811. The First Bank of the United States came to an end under President Madison because Congress refused to renew its charter. The Second Bank of the United States was established in 1816, and lost its authority to be the central bank of the U.S. twenty years later under President Jackson when its charter expired. Both banks were based upon the Bank of England. Ultimately, a third national bank, known as the Federal Reserve, was established in 1913 and still exists to this day. The first U.S. institution with central banking responsibilities was the First Bank of the United States, chartered by Congress and signed into law by President George Washington on February 25, 1791, at the urging of Alexander Hamilton. This was done despite strong opposition from Thomas Jefferson and James Madison, among numerous others. The charter was for twenty years and expired in 1811 under President Madison, because Congress refused to renew it. In 1816, however, Madison revived it in the form of the Second Bank of the United States. Years later, early renewal of the bank 's charter became the primary issue in the reelection of President Andrew Jackson. After Jackson, who was opposed to the central bank, was reelected, he pulled the government 's funds out of the bank. Jackson was the only President to completely pay off the debt. The bank 's charter was not renewed in 1836. From 1837 to 1862, in the Free Banking Era there was no formal central bank. From 1846 to 1921, an Independent Treasury System ruled. From 1863 to 1913, a system of national banks was instituted by the 1863 National Banking Act during which series of bank panics, in 1873, 1893, and 1907 occurred The main motivation for the third central banking system came from the Panic of 1907, which caused renewed demands for banking and currency reform. During the last quarter of the 19th century and the beginning of the 20th century, the United States economy went through a series of financial panics. According to many economists, the previous national banking system had two main weaknesses: an inelastic currency and a lack of liquidity. In 1908, Congress enacted the Aldrich -- Vreeland Act, which provided for an emergency currency and established the National Monetary Commission to study banking and currency reform. The National Monetary Commission returned with recommendations which were repeatedly rejected by Congress. A revision crafted during a secret meeting on Jekyll Island by Senator Aldrich and representatives of the nation 's top finance and industrial groups later became the basis of the Federal Reserve Act. The House voted on December 22, 1913, with 298 voting yes to 60 voting no. The Senate voted 43 -- 25 on December 23, 1913. President Woodrow Wilson signed the bill later that day. The head of the bipartisan National Monetary Commission was financial expert and Senate Republican leader Nelson Aldrich. Aldrich set up two commissions -- one to study the American monetary system in depth and the other, headed by Aldrich himself, to study the European central banking systems and report on them. In early November 1910, Aldrich met with five well known members of the New York banking community to devise a central banking bill. Paul Warburg, an attendee of the meeting and longtime advocate of central banking in the U.S., later wrote that Aldrich was "bewildered at all that he had absorbed abroad and he was faced with the difficult task of writing a highly technical bill while being harassed by the daily grind of his parliamentary duties ''. After ten days of deliberation, the bill, which would later be referred to as the "Aldrich Plan '', was agreed upon. It had several key components, including a central bank with a Washington - based headquarters and fifteen branches located throughout the U.S. in geographically strategic locations, and a uniform elastic currency based on gold and commercial paper. Aldrich believed a central banking system with no political involvement was best, but was convinced by Warburg that a plan with no public control was not politically feasible. The compromise involved representation of the public sector on the Board of Directors. Aldrich 's bill met much opposition from politicians. Critics charged Aldrich of being biased due to his close ties to wealthy bankers such as J.P. Morgan and John D. Rockefeller, Jr., Aldrich 's son - in - law. Most Republicans favored the Aldrich Plan, but it lacked enough support in Congress to pass because rural and western states viewed it as favoring the "eastern establishment ''. In contrast, progressive Democrats favored a reserve system owned and operated by the government; they believed that public ownership of the central bank would end Wall Street 's control of the American currency supply. Conservative Democrats fought for a privately owned, yet decentralized, reserve system, which would still be free of Wall Street 's control. The original Aldrich Plan was dealt a fatal blow in 1912, when Democrats won the White House and Congress. Nonetheless, President Woodrow Wilson believed that the Aldrich plan would suffice with a few modifications. The plan became the basis for the Federal Reserve Act, which was proposed by Senator Robert Owen in May 1913. The primary difference between the two bills was the transfer of control of the Board of Directors (called the Federal Open Market Committee in the Federal Reserve Act) to the government. The bill passed Congress on December 23, 1913, on a mostly partisan basis, with most Democrats voting "yea '' and most Republicans voting "nay ''. Key laws affecting the Federal Reserve have been: The Federal Reserve records and publishes large amounts of data. A few websites where data is published are at the Board of Governors Economic Data and Research page, the Board of Governors statistical releases and historical data page, and at the St. Louis Fed 's FRED (Federal Reserve Economic Data) page. The Federal Open Market Committee (FOMC) examines many economic indicators prior to determining monetary policy. Some criticism involves economic data compiled by the Fed. The Fed sponsors much of the monetary economics research in the U.S., and Lawrence H. White objects that this makes it less likely for researchers to publish findings challenging the status quo. The net worth of households and nonprofit organizations in the United States is published by the Federal Reserve in a report titled Flow of Funds. At the end of the third quarter of fiscal year 2012, this value was $64.8 trillion. At the end of the first quarter of fiscal year 2014, this value was $95.5 trillion. The most common measures are named M0 (narrowest), M1, M2, and M3. In the United States they are defined by the Federal Reserve as follows: The Federal Reserve stopped publishing M3 statistics in March 2006, saying that the data cost a lot to collect but did not provide significantly useful information. The other three money supply measures continue to be provided in detail. The Personal consumption expenditures price index, also referred to as simply the PCE price index, is used as one measure of the value of money. It is a United States - wide indicator of the average increase in prices for all domestic personal consumption. Using a variety of data including United States Consumer Price Index and U.S. Producer Price Index prices, it is derived from the largest component of the gross domestic product in the BEA 's National Income and Product Accounts, personal consumption expenditures. One of the Fed 's main roles is to maintain price stability, which means that the Fed 's ability to keep a low inflation rate is a long - term measure of their success. Although the Fed is not required to maintain inflation within a specific range, their long run target for the growth of the PCE price index is between 1.5 and 2 percent. There has been debate among policy makers as to whether the Federal Reserve should have a specific inflation targeting policy. Most mainstream economists favor a low, steady rate of inflation. Low (as opposed to zero or negative) inflation may reduce the severity of economic recessions by enabling the labor market to adjust more quickly in a downturn, and reduce the risk that a liquidity trap prevents monetary policy from stabilizing the economy. The task of keeping the rate of inflation low and stable is usually given to monetary authorities. One of the stated goals of monetary policy is maximum employment. The unemployment rate statistics are collected by the Bureau of Labor Statistics, and like the PCE price index are used as a barometer of the nation 's economic health. The Federal Reserve is self - funded. The vast majority (90 % +) of Fed revenues come from open market operations, specifically the interest on the portfolio of Treasury securities as well as "capital gains / losses '' that may arise from the buying / selling of the securities and their derivatives as part of Open Market Operations. The balance of revenues come from sales of financial services (check and electronic payment processing) and discount window loans. The Board of Governors (Federal Reserve Board) creates a budget report once per year for Congress. There are two reports with budget information. The one that lists the complete balance statements with income and expenses as well as the net profit or loss is the large report simply titled, "Annual Report ''. It also includes data about employment throughout the system. The other report, which explains in more detail the expenses of the different aspects of the whole system, is called "Annual Report: Budget Review ''. These detailed comprehensive reports can be found at the Board of Governors ' website under the section "Reports to Congress '' One of the keys to understanding the Federal Reserve is the Federal Reserve balance sheet (or balance statement). In accordance with Section 11 of the Federal Reserve Act, the Board of Governors of the Federal Reserve System publishes once each week the "Consolidated Statement of Condition of All Federal Reserve Banks '' showing the condition of each Federal Reserve bank and a consolidated statement for all Federal Reserve banks. The Board of Governors requires that excess earnings of the Reserve Banks be transferred to the Treasury as interest on Federal Reserve notes. Below is the balance sheet as of July 6, 2011 (in billions of dollars): NOTE: The Fed balance sheet shown in this article has assets, liabilities and net equity that do not add up correctly. The Fed balance sheet is missing the item "Reserve Balances with Federal Reserve Banks '' which would make the figures balance. In addition, the balance sheet also indicates which assets are held as collateral against Federal Reserve Notes. The Federal Reserve System has faced various criticisms since its inception in 1913. Critique of the organization and system has come from sources such as writers, journalists, economists, and financial institutions as well as politicians and various government employees. Criticisms include transparency, doubt of efficacy due to what is seen by some as poor historical performance and traditionalist concerns about the debasement of the value of the dollar. From the beginning, the Federal Reserve has been the subject of many popular conspiracy theories, that typically link the Fed to numerous other supposed conspiracies. Bundled references

what is the difference between ncaa and acha hockey

American Collegiate Hockey Association - wikipedia The American Collegiate Hockey Association (ACHA) is a chartered non-profit corporation that is the national governing body of non-varsity or club level college ice hockey in the United States. The organization provides structure, regulations, promotes the quality of play, sponsors National Awards and National Tournaments. The ACHA currently has three men 's and two women 's divisions and includes approximately 450 teams from across the United States. Teams offer few athletic scholarships and typically receive far less university funding. The ACHA offers an opportunity for college hockey programs that struggle with large budgets and Title IX issues, as an alternative to the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA) financial structure. Sometimes, NCAA and ACHA teams will compete against one another. The ACHA 's primary mission is to support the growth of two - year and four - year collegiate hockey programs nationwide. The ACHA identifies standards that serve to unite and regulate teams at the collegiate level. The ACHA emphasizes academic performance, institutional sanction, eligibility criteria, and standards of play and opportunities for national competition, and the ACHA promotes all aspects of collegiate hockey stressing the personal development of individual athletes as well as national recognition for member organizations. In order to do this, the ACHA has developed organizational by - laws and a Policies and Procedures Manual to provide the policy foundation for the organization as it works to fulfill its purpose. These documents are reviewed yearly at the ACHA 's annual meeting. The ACHA 's policies cover team and player eligibility, rules of play, ranking procedures, national tournament procedures, and other administrative issues, although the ACHA parallels the NCAA Division III with most eligibility requirements, recruitment processes, gameplay rules, etc. The league holds its annual meeting in conjunction with the annual convention of the American Hockey Coaches Association, in the month of April in Naples, Florida. The ACHA was established on April 20, 1991. Fifteen charter members met during the Chicago Showcase in Skokie, Illinois at the North Shore Hilton. These member teams had been playing college hockey for many years but wished to legitimize its play by standardizing some of its procedures. The members that created the organization were: Tom Keegan (ACHA), Al Murdoch (Iowa State), Joe Battista (Penn State), Jim Gilmore (Ohio), Ernie Ferrari (Stanford), Howard Jenks (California - Berkeley), Jeff Aikens (North Dakota State), Don Spencer (West Virginia), Jim Barry (Navy), Scott Fuller (Navy), Leo Golembiewski (Arizona), Ron Starr (DePaul), Cary Adams (PCHA), Jim Warden (PCHA), and Jack White (UCLA). The inaugural year of the ACHA was the 1991 -- 1992 season. The goal of the organization was to create an impartial governing body to monitor national tournaments, player eligibility, and general oversight. Over the years the ACHA quickly grew to over 150 teams in three men 's divisions. A Women 's Division was added in 2000 with a second Women 's division being added for the 2006 -- 2007 season. By the 2001 -- 2002 season, marking their 10th year anniversary, the ACHA had a total of 179 teams registered with 33 teams in Division 1, 100 teams in Division 2, 18 teams in Division 3, and 20 teams in the Women 's Division. By the 2002 -- 2003 season that number raised to over 250 teams, with Division 3 adding over 80 teams alone. By the 2003 -- 2004 season the number raised to 278 teams: 40 teams in D - 1, 124 teams in D - 2, 87 teams in D - 3, and 27 teams in the Women 's Division. By the summer of 2007 ACHA membership had reached 360 teams (M1 - 54, M2 - 190, M3 - 139, W1 - 32, W2 - 8), that cover 48 of the 50 states. During the summer of 2009 the University of Alaska Fairbanks established a Women 's Division 2 team becoming the 49th state in the ACHA. Hawaii is currently the only state without an ACHA team. Every year since 2003, the Men 's Division 1 Showcase has been an event that features some of the top teams in the ACHA. ACHA partners with Fasthockey.com to broadcast many of the league 's games. In 2017, the ACHA adopted a new hosting format for holding the annual National Championship Tournament for all Men 's & Women 's Divisions. Then ACHA Executive Director Michael Walley championed an idea to hold all of the ACHA 's National Championship Tournaments in 1 major U.S. city, in partnership with that city 's National Hockey League team. The inaugural year saw the 2017 ACHA National Championship Tournament Festival held in Columbus, Ohio, in partnership with the NHL 's Columbus Blue Jackets. Then ACHA Executive Director Michael Walley assumed the role of Tournament Director for the inaugural tournament. In July 2017, after undergoing a nationwide search, Russ Slagle was selected by the ACHA 's Board of Directors and appointed to fill the vacant staff position of ACHA National Tournament Director. The ACHA includes both Men 's and Women 's Divisions. The Men 's side is made up of three Divisions: 1, 2, and 3. Division 3 was the last to be established in 1999. Each division has its own distinguishing set of guidelines which are explained below. The Women 's side has two divisions. Division 1 began in 2000 and Division 2 is the most recent addition to the ACHA with its inception in 2006. Despite most teams non-varsity status, the caliber of ACHA play can be quite high, especially in Division 1. Many large universities that do not sponsor hockey at the NCAA varsity level have become powerhouses, such as Ohio University, Indiana University, and Illinois. Additionally, several universities that do sponsor NCAA varsity hockey teams also field an ACHA - affiliated teams. Of all non-varsity sports activities, the ACHA - affiliated hockey teams generally garner the most attention at their universities, such as Missouri State where it is the third largest spectator sport. The same can be said for the Arizona and University of Georgia who draws the third largest fan base behind football and basketball. All ACHA teams are members of USA Hockey and the American Hockey Coaches Association (AHCA). ACHA Men 's Division 1 comprises 57 teams. Some of these teams also compete against NCAA Hockey D1 and D3 Schools throughout the during the pre-season in informal exhibition games. There are seven conferences along with Independent teams that compete annually for the Murdoch Cup, which is awarded to the Men 's ACHA Division 1 National Champion. Twenty teams compete in the National Tournament. These top - twenty teams are ranked / selected by way of computer rankings, and as determined by auto - berths from the seven regular - season Conference champions. At Nationals, teams ranked 1 -- 12 all receive first - round byes, with teams ranked 13 -- 20 matching up 20 vs 13 (etc.), for the rights to play in the second - round in pre-determined bracket slots. Conferences ACHA Men 's Division 2 is currently the largest division in the ACHA, it includes approximately 200 teams in 12 conferences and Independents. These teams are divided into four Regions (Central, Northeast, Southeast and West). A total of 16 teams qualify for the National Tournament, four from each region. Each month of the season a ranking of the top 15 teams in region is released. After the final ranking in February the top two seeds from each region earn an automatic berth into Nationals. Seeds 3 -- 10 compete in their respective single - elimination Regional Tournaments, with the two teams who win both of their games also earning a Nationals berth. The National Tournament is a pool play format with the winners of each pool advancing to the semifinals. The semifinal match - ups are the winner of Pool A vs. Pool C and Pool B vs. Pool D. Conferences ACHA Men 's Division 3 consists of approximately 140 teams in ten conferences and Independents. These teams are also divided into four Regions (Atlantic, North, Pacific and South). A total of 16 teams qualify for the National Tournament in the same manner as Division 2. The National Tournament has also been conducted in the same manner as Division 2 since 2010. Before that it was single elimination and every team played four games. The one exception is the semifinals match - ups. The winner of Pool A plays the winner of Pool B and the winner of Pool C plays the winner of Pool D. Conferences ACHA Women 's Division 1 includes 23 teams for the 2016 -- 17 season, with all but independents Liberty and McKendree playing in one of the three WD1 conferences. Eight teams qualify for the national tournament each season: automatic bids are awarded to the playoff champions of the Central Collegiate Women 's Hockey Association and the Western Women 's Collegiate Hockey League, with the remainder of the field determined by taking the highest - placing teams from the last of a series of weekly rankings (the rankings are calculated through a computer component and the consolidated opinion of the WD1 competition committee, with each weighted 50 percent). At nationals, the eight teams are paired off by ranking (1 vs. 8, 2 vs. 7, etc.) for a best - of - three first round, with the winners of those series advancing to the semifinals. Conferences ACHA Women 's Division 2 includes 41 teams for the 2016 -- 17 season, with 27 standing as a member of one of four conferences. All teams are sorted into either the East Region (22 teams) or the West Region (19 teams). At the end of the year, the top six teams from each region in the final edition of a quarterly ranking (calculated similarly to the WD1 rankings, with an exception being that each region has its own competition committee) are invited to the ACHA National Tournament. The WD2 tournament differs from WD1 in that teams are divided into pools and play a round robin to determine the semifinalists. East Region Conferences West Region Conference Players are selected from only ACHA Men 's D1 to represent USA Hockey in the Winter World University Games, an IIHF and FISU event. ACHA Men 's D2 and D3 division created the Select Teams to offer opportunities for the other Men division 's to experience International hockey and they are ACHA events. The Division 2 & Division 3 Selects Teams alternate going over to Europe each year during the Holiday Break to play European teams. The players are chosen from a round robin tournament in the spring usually in Pennsylvania. The tournament pits each conference 's elite players against each other. The original ACHA logo was created by Dave Kammerdeiner of the West Virginia University Art Department under the direction of Don Spencer for a cost of $50. In August 2003, the ACHA held an official contest to design a new logo, with the winning school receiving free registration for the 2003 -- 2004 season. The University of Washington 's Husky Hockey team won the contest, with former graphic - design intern Tom Eykemans designing the new version of the logo (as shown above). The Zoë M. Harris Award is given to the player of the year in each ACHA women 's division. Tampa Bay Lightning (NHL) Boston Pride (NWHL II), 2017 -- present Buffalo Beauts (NWHL II), 2015 -- 16 Brampton Thunder (CWHL), 2016 -- 17 Toronto Furies (CWHL), 2017 -- 18 Media related to American Collegiate Hockey Association at Wikimedia Commons

shahrukh khan full movies dilwale dulhania le jayenge

Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge - wikipedia Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (English: The Big - Hearted Will Take Away the Bride), also known by the initialism DDLJ, is an Indian romance film, directed by Aditya Chopra (in his directorial debut), produced by his father Yash Chopra, and written by Javed Siddiqui with Aditya Chopra. Released on 20 October 1995, the film stars Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol. The plot revolves around Raj and Simran, two young non-resident Indians, who fall in love during a vacation through Europe with their friends. Raj tries to win over Simran 's family so the couple can marry, but Simran 's father has long since promised her hand to his friend 's son. The film was shot in India, London and Switzerland, from September 1994 to August 1995. Earning ₹ 1.06 billion (valued at about US $32,766,000 in 1995) in India and ₹ 160 million (valued at about US $4,946,000 in 1995) overseas, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge became the highest grossing Bollywood film of the year, and one of the most successful Indian films of all time. It won 10 Filmfare Awards, the most for a single film at that time, and won the National Film Award for Best Popular Film Providing Wholesome Entertainment. Its soundtrack album became one of the most popular of the 1990s. Many critics praised the film, which connected with different segments of society by simultaneously promoting strong family values and the following of one 's own heart. Its success led other film makers to target the non-resident Indian audience, which was deemed more lucrative for them. It spawned many imitations of its story and style, and homages to specific scenes. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was one of only three Hindi films in the reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, and was placed twelfth on the British Film Institute 's list of top Indian films of all time. It is the longest - running film in the history of Indian cinema. As of 2018, over 20 years after its first release, it is still being shown at the Maratha Mandir theatre in Mumbai. Raj Malhotra (Shah Rukh Khan) and Simran Singh (Kajol) are non-resident Indians living in London. Simran was raised by her strict and conservative father, Baldev Singh (Amrish Puri), while Raj 's father (Anupam Kher) was very liberal. Simran always dreams of meeting her ideal man. Her mother Lajjo (Farida Jalal) warns her against this, saying dreams are good but one should not blindly believe they come true. One day, Baldev receives a letter from his friend Ajit (Satish Shah), who lives in Punjab. Ajit wants to keep a promise he and Baldev made to each other 20 years ago -- to have Simran marry his son Kuljeet (Parmeet Sethi). Simran is disappointed -- she does not want to marry someone whom she has never met. One evening, Raj enters Baldev 's shop after closing time to buy beer. Baldev refuses and Raj grabs a case of beer, throws the money on the counter and runs away. Baldev, infuriated, calls Raj a disgrace to India. Meanwhile, Raj 's father has agreed to his request to go on a train trip across Europe with his friends, and Simran 's friends have invited her to go on the same trip. Simran asks her father to let her see the world before her marriage, and he reluctantly agrees. On the trip, Raj and Simran meet. Raj constantly flirts with Simran, much to her irritation. The two miss their train to Zurich and are separated from their friends. They start to travel with one another and become friends. Raj falls in love with Simran on the journey; when they part ways in London, Simran realises she is in love with him too. Simran tells her mother about the boy she met; Baldev overhears the conversation and becomes furious with Simran. He says the family will move to India the next day. Meanwhile, Raj tells his father about Simran and that she will soon be getting married. When Raj says he believes Simran loves him too, his father encourages him to go after her. In India, Baldev is reunited with his relatives and his friend Ajit. Simran and her younger sister Chutki take an instant dislike to Simran 's fiancé Kuljeet because of his arrogance. Simran can not forget Raj and is miserable about having to marry Kuljeet. Her mother tells her to forget Raj because she knows Baldev will never accept their relationship. The next morning, Simran is reunited with Raj when he arrives outside of the house where she is staying. She begs him to run away with her. Raj refuses and says he will only marry Simran with her father 's consent. Raj befriends Kuljeet and is quickly accepted by both families. Later, Raj 's father arrives in India and also becomes friends with Simran 's and Kuljeets 's families. Eventually Lajjo and Chutki discover that Raj is the boy Simran fell in love with in Europe. Lajjo also tells Raj and Simran to run away, but he still refuses. Baldev recognises Raj from the beer incident, but eventually accepts him. However, after he discovers a photograph of Raj and Simran together in Europe, he insults and slaps Raj and tells him to leave. As Raj and his father are waiting at the railway station, Kuljeet, who is angry on hearing of Raj 's love for Simran, arrives with his friends and attack them. Eventually Baldev and Ajit arrive and stop the fight. Raj boards the departing train with his father. Simran then arrives with her mother and sister; she tries to join Raj on the train but Baldev stops her. Simran begs him to let her go, saying she can not live without Raj. Baldev realises nobody loves his daughter more than Raj does. He lets her go, and she runs and catches the train as it departs. Credits adapted from British Film Institute. Aditya Chopra assisted his father, director and producer Yash Chopra, during the making of Chandni (1989), Lamhe (1991) and Darr (1993). During this time, Aditya wrote several of his own scripts, including one he assumed would be his first film, but eventually became his second, Mohabbatein (2000). For three years, he worked on the story that would become Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge before approaching his father to direct it. Yash did not want to, and tried to persuade Aditya to do it himself. As they were discussing ideas for the script, Aditya conceived the notion that Raj would seek permission for marriage from Simran 's stern father, rather than eloping with her. He then became excited about the possibility of directing the film himself. After his mother, the playback singer Pamela Chopra, agreed that the idea was sound, he decided to make this his directorial debut. Aditya wanted to make a wholesome film that people could watch repeatedly. He wanted to diverge from the typical plot line of the time, in which lovers run away when their parents object, and show that if their love was strong enough, the parents would eventually understand. In May 1994, Aditya read the first draft of the script to several members of the Yash Raj Films production team assigned to work with him, including a cinematographer, an art director and a dialogue writer. They were not impressed, but Aditya held fast to his ideas. He was given total editorial control by his father, the producer, and made the film according to his own tastes and sensibilities. Aditya struggled with both the dialogue writer Javed Siddiqui and the song lyricist Anand Bakshi to develop words that were "young - sounding ''. There were personal clashes over writing credits on the final script. Pamela 's friend Honey Irani believed she deserved a writing credit that she did not receive, and Siddiqui believed Aditya did not deserve partial credit for the dialogue. After Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, neither of them ever worked with Yash Raj Films again. After approving the script, Yash was consulted about the songs, but mostly left the creative process to his son, and has firmly denied that he was a ghost director on the project. He did not shoot a single frame, and did not even view some portions of the film until it was nearly completed. Aditya originally wanted the film to be about a relationship between an Indian and an American. He wanted Tom Cruise for the role of Raj but was dissuaded by Yash, who did not want to use a foreign star. They decided their characters would be non-resident Indians (NRIs). Aditya approached Shah Rukh Khan to play the role of Raj. Shah Rukh was initially not interested because of the romantic nature of the role, having had success playing villainous roles. Aditya then asked Saif Ali Khan to play the lead role because he was having problems persuading Shah Rukh to do it. Saif declined for unknown reasons, as did Aamir Khan, causing Aditya to continue pursuing Shah Rukh. Aditya and Shah Rukh had four meetings over several weeks; he finally persuaded Shah Rukh by telling him he could never be a superstar unless he became "every woman 's dream man, and every mother 's dream son ''. Since then, Shah Rukh has expressed his gratitude to Aditya for helping to make him a star with this film. Shah Rukh said that fellow actor Salman Khan also encouraged him to do the role, saying that he thought the film would be very successful. Shah Rukh has also noted the similarities in the film 's script to his own relationship with Gauri Khan before their marriage. Kajol was the first choice to play Simran, to which she quickly agreed; she was a good friend of Aditya. She and Shah Rukh had previously worked together in the successful films Baazigar (1993) and Karan Arjun (1995). Kajol said her character was very difficult for her to relate to, whereas Shah Rukh said Raj 's personality was very similar to his own. Aditya chose the name Raj for the character, and the mandolin that he played, based on his admiration for the actor Raj Kapoor. After a successful screen test, Parmeet Sethi was chosen over Armaan Kohli for the role of Kuljeet Singh. In addition to his assistant director Sameer Sharma, Aditya asked for two additional assistants, his brother Uday Chopra and his friend Karan Johar. Johar also played a small role in the film as Raj 's friend. Sharmishta Roy was the film 's art director and Manish Malhotra was its costume designer. While Malhotra had many new ideas, Aditya wanted to keep the clothing style simple; he did not want it to distract from the story. Despite this, Malhotra was responsible for the idea of Simran wearing a green dress in the song "Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna '', an unusual colour for a Punjabi bride. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was filmed in several 5 -, 10 - and 20 - day schedules between September 1994 and August 1995. The first sequence filmed was for the song "Ho Gaya Hai Tujhko '' with Kajol and Shah Rukh in Switzerland. The European journey scenes and songs were mainly filmed in Saanen, Montbovon and Gstaad, Switzerland. Other scenes were shot in England, at locations including Trafalgar Square, King 's Cross railway station and Angel Underground station. Film 's cinematographer Manmohan Singh, a regular collaborator with Chopra, shot the song "Tujhe Dekha To '', including the iconic mustard fields scenes with Shah Rukh and Kajol in the mustard fields in Gurgaon on the outskirts of the National Capital Region Delhi. Saroj Khan was the choreographer throughout most of the production, but after several disputes between her and Aditya, she was replaced by Farah Khan near the end of the shoot. After the film 's eventual success, Saroj apologised to Aditya for underestimating him, but she never worked with him again. Farah choreographed the song "Ruk Ja O Dil Deewane '', during which Aditya did not tell Kajol that Shah Rukh was going to drop her, as he wanted to capture her genuine reaction. The film 's title was suggested by actress Kirron Kher; it came from the song "Le Jayenge Le Jayenge '', in the film Chor Machaye Shor (1974). The Raj character sings parts of this song during the story, and it recurs at the end. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge is believed to be the only Bollywood film with a "Title suggested by '' credit. The film has since become universally known by the acronym DDLJ. Towards the end of the principal photography, Shah Rukh had to split his time between this film and Trimurti (1995), spending half of his day on each film. In early August 1995, when filming on Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was not yet finished, a release date in October around the time of the Diwali festival was decided upon. Composers Jatin and Lalit Pandit were given only 10 days to complete the background score, and the first copies were printed on 30 September. After filming was complete, Aditya decided to make a Hollywood - style documentary of the film - making process, which had not been done before in India. Karan Johar and Uday were put in charge because they had already been recording some of the process. On 18 October, two days before the film 's release, the 30 - minute special Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, The Making was broadcast on television by Doordarshan. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge repeats the usual conservative agenda of family, courtship and marriage, but it proposes that Indian family values are portable assets that can be upheld regardless of country of residence. To prove this, Raj, an NRI who was brought up in London, is portrayed as the story 's "good guy '', whereas Kuljeet, raised in India, is portrayed as the villain. This is a reversal of the roles in typical Indian films, which usually portray Indians as being morally superior to Westerners. Here, NRIs are validated as potential model Indians citizens. The story aims to capture the struggle between traditional family values and the modern value of individualism. Although Raj and Simran want to be together regardless of her father 's plans for her, Raj tries to win over his girlfriend 's father rather than simply eloping with her. In this and other Indian stories, family values are ultimately considered more important than the romantic plot. Moral values and rules of conduct take precedence over individual desires. The film implies that "Indianness '' can be defined by the importance of family life; whether at home or abroad, it is the Indian family system that is recognised as the social institution that most defines Indian identity. In Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge, the purity / sanctity of women is being related that of the nation. In the scene after Raj and Simran spend the night together, and Simran is concerned that something happened, Raj tells her: "You think I am beyond values, but I am a Hindustani, and I know what a Hindustani girl 's izzat (honour) is worth. Trust me, nothing happened last night. '' This speaks to the Indian diaspora and their need to try and sustain their value system, and the man 's responsibility to protect the Indian woman 's sexual purity. In The Routledge Encyclopedia of Films, Ranjani Mazumdar says the film has a running theme of unfulfilled desires, which is exemplified by Raj 's father telling him to enjoy life because his own was a struggle, and Simran 's mother telling her to run away with Raj because she was unable to live her own dreams. Scott Jordan Harris, writing for Roger Ebert 's website, says the film 's popularity lies in its ability to effectively convey two opposing themes appealing to different portions of society. He said, "It argues that we should follow our hearts and chase happiness wherever it leads, regardless of the obstacles in our paths, while simultaneously suggesting we should respect the ways of our elders, particularly our parents, and do nothing that challenges their will ''. Rachel Dwyer said the film was important for presenting marriage as an understanding between parents and children. While fighting the old tradition of the arranged marriage, it still encouraged the importance of seeking parental consent, even for a love marriage. According to Patricia Uberoi, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge reiterates the theme of Hum Aapke Hain Koun...! (1994) in a self - conscious manner while also linking it explicitly to the fact that the protagonists tend to remind themselves and each other of what it means to be an Indian. The Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge soundtrack features seven songs composed by Jatin Lalit, a duo consisting of the brothers Jatin and Lalit Pandit. Anand Bakshi wrote the lyrics and Lata Mangeshkar, Asha Bhosle, Kumar Sanu, Abhijeet Bhattacharya and Udit Narayan performed the vocals. Jatin Lalit was considered for the job when singer Asha Bhosle contacted Yash Chopra after meeting the duo. It was their first collaboration with Yash Raj Films. They secured the job after singing "Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna '' for Yash. In return, they ensured she sang one song, "Zara Sa Jhoom Loon Main ''. Pamela Chopra helped them select tunes and instruments to give some of the songs a Punjabi flavour. Bhasker Gupta, writing for AllMusic, said the soundtrack was the best of Jatin Lalit 's career, and that it "marked the beginning of the fifth wave in Indian cinema... ''. The soundtrack became the best - selling Bollywood soundtrack of the year, with 9 -- 12 million units sold according to HMV, although it is estimated the same number or more copies were pirated. More than 1 million of those sales occurred prior to the film 's release. In 2005, the album was judged the top Hindi soundtrack of all time by voters on the BBC Asian Network website. Anand Bakshi won his third Filmfare Best Lyricist award after 14 years, having two nominations for this film. The wedding song "Mehndi Laga Ke Rakhna '' from the film became an all - time hit; it is played at weddings across the South Asian diaspora. The following is the track listing. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge opened on 20 October 1995 to sold - out shows worldwide. Every show in every theatre in Mumbai -- save one -- was completely full for the first week. The film was popular among both resident Indians and NRIs. At San Francisco 's 720 - seat Naz theatre, 1,000 people arrived for the first showing, and the theatre staff were forced to run another show late that night. In the UK, the film ran for over a year, and as of 2017, the Maratha Mandir cinema hall in Mumbai has been showing it for more than 22 years. The film earned ₹ 1.06 billion (valued at about US $32,766,000 in 1995) in India and ₹ 160 million (valued at about US $4,946,000 in 1995) overseas; it became the biggest Bollywood grosser of the year, and the second highest - grossing film of the 1990s behind Hum Aapke Hain Koun...!. It was the second Bollywood film to gross over ₹ 1 billion worldwide, and one of the biggest Bollywood earners of all time. Adjusted for inflation, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge is among the highest - grossing Hindi films ever; its domestic net income (₹ 533 million at the time) is approximately ₹ 4.58 billion (US $71 million) when adjusted for inflation. As of 2009, the film had generated over ₹ 60 million (US $940,000) in revenues for the Maratha Mandir since its release. In later years, that theatre ran one matinee show per day at reduced ticket prices, which averaged about 50 % occupancy. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge received many favourable reviews. An initial review by weekly magazine Screen said of Aditya Chopra, "A young master arrives ''. Tom Vick, reviewing the film for Allmovie, said, "An immensely likeable movie, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge performs the rarely achieved feat of stretching a predictable plot over three hours and making every minute enjoyable. '' When the film toured the U.S. in 2004 as part of the Cinema India showcase, "The Changing Face of Indian Cinema '', Charles Taylor reviewed the film for Salon and said, "It 's a flawed, contradictory movie -- aggressive and tender, stiff and graceful, clichéd and fresh, sophisticated and naive, traditional and modern. It 's also, I think, a classic. '' Writing for NDTV, Anupama Chopra said, "Perhaps the innocence of Raj and Simran 's romance in which they can spend the night together without sex because Raj, the bratish NRI understands the importance of an Indian woman 's honor. Perhaps it 's the way in which the film artfully reaffirms the patriarchal status quo and works for all constituencies -- the NRI and the local viewer. Or perhaps it 's the magic of Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol who created a template for modern love, which was hip and cool but resolutely Indian. '' She also called the film a milestone that shaped Hindi cinema through the 1990s, and one of her personal favourites. In 2004, Meor Shariman of The Malay Mail called the film a "must watch '' for Bollywood fans, and also for those seeking an introduction to Bollywood. Raja Sen gave a reflective review for Rediff.com in 2005, calling the film one of the best Hindi films made in the previous 20 years. He said "Shah Rukh Khan gives a fabulous performance, redefining the Lover for the 1990s with great panache '', and called Kajol a "real - as - life actress bringing warmth and credulity '' to her role. Sen called the film well balanced and said only the fight scene and some mother - daughter dialogue can wear after multiple viewings. Omer M. Mozaffar, writing for Roger Ebert 's website in 2012, likened the film to a Disney Princess story, saying, "the young princess feeling trapped by the traditional patriarchy, seeking freedom through discovering the world, but finally finding it through silent, but inappropriate love. The Little Mermaid. Beauty (of the Beast). Jasmine (friends with Aladdin). Pocahontas. Aurora (Sleeping Beauty). And here, Simran. '' Scott Jordan Harris, also writing for Roger Ebert in 2014, called it "one of the world 's favorite films '', and said it plays as a masterful soap opera, with one of the best screen couples ever seen. Sogosurvey conducted an online survey in 2016 in which approximately 47 % of the people who participated voted Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge as Bollywood 's most evergreen love story. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge was ranked among The Times of India 's list of the "10 Bollywood movies you must see before you die ''. It was one of three Hindi films in the film reference book 1001 Movies You Must See Before You Die, the others being Mother India (1957) and Deewaar (1975). It was placed twelfth on the British Film Institute 's list of top Indian films of all time. It is one of the films on Box Office India 's list of "Biggest Blockbusters Ever in Hindi Cinema ''. The film won a National Film Award and 10 Filmfare Awards, setting the record at the time for the most Filmfare trophies. In 2001, Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge overtook Sholay (1975), which had run for over five years at the Minerva theatre, as the longest - running film in Indian cinema history. It has been showing at the Maratha Mandir theatre (which was famous for having shown Mughal - e-Azam (1960) for three years) since its original release in 1995. There are often people in the audience who have seen the film 50 or more times, but still clap, cheer, mouth the dialogues and sing along with the songs, raising comparisons with The Rocky Horror Picture Show (1975), the longest running film in America. When a theatre strike in early 2011 threatened the film 's uninterrupted run, the producer Yash Chopra contacted theatre owners to try and ensure the film would continue. He hoped the film would continue to run for at least 1,000 weeks, which it achieved in December 2014. To commemorate the event, cast members including Shah Rukh Khan, Kajol, Anupam Kher, Farida Jalal, Mandira Bedi and Pooja Ruparel appeared on the television show Comedy Nights with Kapil. Shah Rukh Khan, Kajol and director Aditya Chopra also attended a live chat with fans and a black tie event at the theatre on 12 December. The same day, they launched a coffee table book written by Aditya Chopra about the making of the film. Also in December, Yash Raj Films announced the availability of a collection of commemorative, licensed merchandise from various suppliers to mark the event. The Maratha Mandir 's management ended the film 's run after 1,009 weeks on 19 February 2015 because of low attendance (the last show was viewed by 210 people). However, after an outpouring of support from fans, and talks with the production company, they decided to reinstate the film. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge spawned many imitators of its story and style, especially throughout the 1990s. According to the Encyclopaedia of Hindi Cinema, it and a handful of other films and young directors started a trend for "designer '' films. The authors said that these were "a carefully packaged and branded product in which every little visual and physical detail... is of utmost importance ''. In Bollywood 's Top 20: Superstars of Indian Cinema, Namrata Joshi said Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge "reinvented Bollywood romances so decisively that we can neatly divide them into two eras -- before DDLJ and after DDLJ ''. Yash Raj Films was previously known for using locations outside India for item numbers in its films. Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge started the trend for films designed to appeal to the Indian diaspora, which have foreign locations as integral parts of the story. The characters are themselves diaspora and tend to be able to move with ease between India and the West. Some later films that followed this trend include Pardes (1997), Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), Kal Ho Naa Ho (2003), Salaam Namaste (2005), Neal ' n ' Nikki (2005) and Kabhi Alvida Naa Kehna (2006). Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge became the first Hindi film blockbuster to feature NRIs as main characters. It helped to establish the diaspora market as a vital source of revenue for the industry; that market was seen as a safer financial investment than the desi market. Several later films have paid homage to Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. The Karan Johar - produced Humpty Sharma Ki Dulhania (2014) was directly inspired by it. The films Jab We Met (2007), Bodyguard (2011), Chalo Dilli (2011), Yeh Jawaani Hai Deewani (2013) and Chennai Express (2013) include scenes similar to the climactic train sequence, wherein a woman is running to catch a moving train and is helped aboard by a man with his outstretched arm. The British film Slumdog Millionaire (2008) contained a similar train scene, and its final dance sequence was partially shot at the same railway station as the Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge finale. Audiences appreciated the screen chemistry between Shah Rukh Khan and Kajol, who later worked together in several successful films including Kuch Kuch Hota Hai (1998), Kabhi Khushi Kabhie Gham... (2001), My Name Is Khan (2010), and Dilwale (2015), and are often referred to as Indian cinema 's most loved on - screen couple. Shah Rukh Khan credits this film with making him a star, and says it "changed the entire scene for romantic movies of the 90s ''. During an interview in 2002, he said "Whatever I 'll stand for as an actor, in the whole of my career, whenever it ends, it will start with and end at Dilwale ''. The actress Farida Jalal said the film gave her career a boost, saying she got many offers and "could quote any price ''. It also helped the young careers of Pooja Ruparel, who received advertising offers, and of Sharmistha Roy. The British Film Institute (BFI) commissioned a book about Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. It was the first Hindi film chosen for a series of studies on international films, called "BFI Modern Classics ''. The author was Anupama Chopra and the book was released in 2002. It was reissued in paperback by Harper - Collins as Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge: The Making of a Blockbuster in 2004. After an unexpectedly long delay, the film was released on DVD by Yash Raj Films in 2002. The release included The Making and 300 Weeks Celebration documentaries, Success Story (highlights from the film 's premiere), clips from the 41st Filmfare Awards ceremony and other interviews. In 2006, members of the film crew were honoured at a dinner event to celebrate the film 's 500th week since release. It was hosted by the Consulate General of Switzerland in Mumbai and by Switzerland Tourism. In 2010, Yash Raj Films signed an agreement with Indian and Swiss tour companies to provide a tour package called "YRF Enchanted Journey '', to allow visitors to Switzerland to view filming locations used for famous Yash Raj films including Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge. In 2014, Yash Raj Films released Aditya Chopra Relives... Dilwale Dulhania Le Jayenge (As Told to Nasreen Munni Kabir), an attractive but expensive book about the making of the film. In response to Indian prime minister Narendra Modi quoting the line "May the force be with you '' from the American film franchise Star Wars during a visit to the U.S., President Barack Obama decided to quote a line from a Hindi film during his visit to India in January 2015. He chose a line from this film, "Senorita, bade bade deshon mein... '' (Miss, in large countries...), and added "you know what I mean ''.