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Air | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air | Air refers to the Earth's atmosphere. Air is a mixture of many gases and tiny dust particles. It is the clear gas in which living things live and breathe. It has an indefinite shape and volume. It has mass and weight, because it is matter. The weight of air creates atmospheric pressure. There is no air in outer space.
Air is a mixture of about 78% of nitrogen, 21% of oxygen, 0.9% of argon, 0.04% of carbon dioxide, and very small amounts of other gases. There is an average of about 1% water vapour.
Animals live and need to breathe the oxygen in the air. In breathing, the lungs put oxygen into the blood, and send back carbon dioxide to the air. Plants need the carbon dioxide in the air to live. They give off the oxygen that we breathe. Without it we die of asphyxia.
Wind is moving air, this is refreshing. This causes weather.
Air can be polluted by some gases (such as carbon monoxide, hydrocarbons, and nitrogen oxides), smoke, and ash. This air pollution causes various problems including smog, acid rain and global warming. It can damage people's health and the environment.
Since early times, air has been used to create technology. Ships moved with sails and windmills used the mechanical motion of air. Aircraft use propellers to move air over a wing, which allows them to fly. Pneumatics use air pressure to move things. Since the late 1900s, air power is also used to generate electricity.
Air is invisible: it cannot be seen by the eye, though a shimmering in hot air can be seen.
Air is one of the four classical elements in Greek theory. It was considered an intervening element, somewhere between fire and water, and the driving force for the birth of the cosmos.
Brief history
Earth's atmosphere has changed much since its formation.
Original atmosphere
At first it was mainly a hydrogen atmosphere. It has changed dramatically on several occasions—for example, the Great Oxygenation Event 2.4 billion years ago, greatly increased oxygen in the atmosphere from practically no oxygen to levels closer to present day. Humans have also contributed to significant changes in atmospheric composition through air pollution, especially since industrialisation, leading to rapid environmental change such as ozone depletion and global warming.
Second atmosphere
Outgassing from volcanism, supplemented by gases produced during the late heavy bombardment of Earth by huge asteroids, produced the next atmosphere, consisting largely of nitrogen plus carbon dioxide and inert gases.
Third atmosphere
The constant re-arrangement of continents by plate tectonics influences the long-term evolution of the atmosphere. Carbon dioxide was transferred to and from large continental carbonate stores. Free oxygen did not exist in the atmosphere until about 2.4 billion years ago. The Great Oxygenation Event is shown by the end of the banded iron formations.
Related pages
Air pollution
Air craft
References
Basic English 850 words
Physics
Atmosphere | [
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American English | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20English | American English or US English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United States of America. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as British English. Most types of American English came from local dialects in England.
Use
Many people today know about American English even if they live in a country where another type of English is spoken. This may be because people hear and read American English through the media, for example movies, television, and the Internet, where the most common form of English is American English.
Because people all over the world use the English language, it gets many new words. English has been changing in this way for hundreds of years. For example, the many millions who speak Indian English frequently add American English words to go along with its British English base and many other words from the various Indian languages.
Sometimes people learn American English as it is spoken in the US. For example, in telephone call centers in India and other places, people often learn American English to sound more like their customers who call from the US. These people often keep using American English in everyday life.
Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English.
Vocabulary
There are also some words in American English that are a bit different from British English, e.g.:
aeroplane is called "airplane"
ladybird is called "ladybug"
lift is called "elevator"
toilet is called "bathroom", "restroom" or "comfort station"
lorry is called "truck"
nappies are called "diapers"
petrol is called "gas" (or "gasoline")
the boot of a car is called a "trunk"
a dummy is called a "pacifier"
trousers are called "pants"
underground is called "subway"
football is called "soccer"
braces are "suspenders" ("suspenders" in British-English are a type of clothing worn around the lower leg by males to stop socks/sox from sagging, and around the upper leg by women wearing stockings)
Regional accents
General American English is the kind most spoken in mass media. It more vigorously pronounces the letter "R" than some other kinds do. "R-dropping" is frequent in certain places where "r" sound is not pronounced after a vowel. For example as in the words "car" and "card" sounding like "cah" and "cahd". This occurs in the Boston area.
References | [
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Native American | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Native%20American | Native Americans (also called Aboriginal Americans, American Indians, Amerindians or indigenous peoples of the Americas) are the people and their descendants, who were in the Americas when Europeans arrived.
Sometimes these people are called Indians, but this may be confusing, because it is the same word used for people from India. When Christopher Columbus explored, he did not know about the Americas. He was in the Caribbean but thought he was in the East Indies, so he called the people Indians.
There are many different tribes of Native American people, with many different languages. Some tribes were hunter-gatherers who moved from place to place. Others lived in one place and built cities and kingdoms.
Many Native Americans died after the Europeans came to the Americas. There were diseases that came with the Europeans but were new to the Native Americans. There were battles with the Europeans. Many native people were hurt, killed, or forced to leave their homes by settlers who took their lands.
Today, there are more than three million Native Americans in Canada and the U.S. combined. About 51 million more Native Americans live in Latin America. Many Native Americans still speak native languages and have their own cultural practices, while others have adopted some parts of Western culture. Many Native Americans face problems with discrimination and racism.
Origins
The ancestors of Native Americans came to the Americas from Asia. Some of them may have come to America 15,000 years ago when Alaska was connected to Siberia by the Bering land bridge.
The earliest people in the Americas came from Siberia when there was an ice bridge across the Bering Strait. The cold but mainly grassy plain which connected Siberia with Canada is called Beringia. It is reckoned that a few thousand people arrived in Beringia from eastern Siberia during the Last Glacial Maximum before moving into the Americas sometime after 16,500 years before the present (BP). This would have occurred as the American glaciers blocking the way southward melted, but before the bridge was covered by the sea about 11,000 years BP.
Before European colonization, Beringia was inhabited by the Yupik peoples on both sides of the straits. This culture remains in the region today, with others. In 2012, the governments of Russia and the United States announced a plan to formally establish "a transboundary area of shared Beringian heritage". Among other things this agreement would establish close ties between the Bering Land Bridge National Preserve and the Cape Krusenstern National Monument in the United States and Beringia National Park in Russia.
Native Americans are divided into many small nations, called First Nations in Canada and tribes elsewhere.
Culture
Each Native American tribe has their own culture. The cultures can be grouped together depending on region. For example, the tribes living in Mesoamerica have similar cultures.
Food
Native Americans ate many different things depending on where they lived.
Native Americans from Mesoamerica introduced vanilla, avocados, and chocolate to the world.
Religion
Before Europeans came, the native peoples of the Americans practiced many different religions. Each tribe had their own different beliefs.
Today, many Native Americans practice Christianity, a religion that was brought to the Americas by Europeans. Meanwhile, others still practice their own religions.
Languages
Native Americans today speak over a thousand different languages. Some of these languages had writing systems before Europeans came.
Many of these languages are endangered because more people are speaking European languages and not teaching Native American languages to their kids.
Music
Native Americans make musical instruments using the things around them.
Art
Native Americans make a lot of different art.
Today
North America
United States
According to the 2010 United States census, 0.9% of Americans say they are Native American, 2.9 million people, and 1.7% of Americans say they are both Native American and something else. They are not evenly spread out through the United States. About a third of the people in Alaska are Native Alaskan and about a sixth of the people in Oklahoma are Native American.
In the United States, most Native Americans live in cities. About 28% of Native Americans live on reservations. Many Native Americans are poor, and 24% are extremely poor. The history of violence against Native Americans persists today in higher rates of violence against Native American people than white people.
Mexico
Most Mexicans are of Native American ancestry.
Canada
Canada has a higher Native American population than the United States.
Central America
Guatemala
About 40% of the people of Guatemala identify as Native American. Many indigenous groups in the country are descendants of the Maya.
Many Native Americans in Guatemala are poor. Many of them have left the country to find better jobs elsewhere.
South America
Bolivia
The majority of Bolivians belong to indigenous groups.
Peru
Peru has a large indigenous population, around 80% of Peru's population identify as indigenous or mestizo.
Indigenous activism
In the later half of the 20th century, many Native Americans started to protest the unfair treatment they experienced from the societies they lived in.
Some Native Americans have become famous in politics. For example, an Aymara man named Evo Morales was elected as president of Bolivia in 2005. He was the first indigenous presidential candidate in Bolivia and South America.
Related pages
First Nations
Plains Indians
Native Americans in the United States
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Apple | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple | Apple is the edible fruit of a number of trees, known for this juicy, green or red fruits. The tree (Malus spp.) is grown worldwide. Its fruit is low-cost and popular, and is harvested all over the world.
Applewood is a type of wood that comes from this tree.
The apple tree comes from southern Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Uzbekistan, and northwestern part of China. Apples have been grown for thousands of years in Asia and Europe. They were brought to North America by European settlers. Apples have religious and mythological significance in many cultures.
Apples are generally propagated by grafting, although wild apples grow readily from seed. Apple trees are large if grown from seed, but small if grafted onto roots (rootstock). There are more than 10000 known cultivars of apples, with a range of desired characteristics. Different cultivars are bred for various tastes and uses: cooking, eating raw and cider production are the most common uses.
Trees and fruit are attacked by fungi, bacteria and pests. In 2010, the fruit's genome was sequenced as part of research on disease control and selective breeding in apple production.
Worldwide production of apples in 2013 was 90.8 million tonnes. China grew 49% of the total.
Botanical information
The apple has a small, leaf-shedding tree that grows up to tall. The apple tree has a broad crown with thick twigs.
The leaves are alternately arranged simple ovals. They are 5 to 12 centimetres long and 3–6 centimetres (1.2–2.4 in) wide. It has a sharp top with a soft underside. Blossoms come out in spring at the same time that the leaves begin to bud. The flowers are white. They also have a slightly pink color. They are five petaled, and 2.5 to 3.5 centimetres (0.98 to 1.4 in) in diameter. The fruit matures in autumn. It is usually 5 to 9 centimetres (2.0 to 3.5 in) in diameter. There are five carpels arranged in a star in the middle of the fruit. Every carpel has one to three seeds.
Wild ancestors
The wild ancestor of apple trees is Malus sieversii. They grow wild in the mountains of Central Asia in the north of Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, and Xinjiang, China, and possibly also Malus sylvestris. Unlike domesticated apples, their leaves become red in autumn. They are being used recently to develop Malus domestica to grow in colder climates.
History
The apple tree was possibly the earliest tree to be cultivated. Its fruits have become better over thousands of years. It is said that Alexander the Great discovered dwarf apples in Asia Minor in 300 BC. Asia and Europe have used winter apples as an important food for thousands of years. From when Europeans arrived, Argentina and the United States have used apples as food as well. Apples were brought to North America in the 1600s. The first apple orchard on the North American continent was said to be near Boston in 1625. In the 1900s, costly fruit industries, where the apple was a very important species, began developing.
In culture
Paganism
In Norse mythology, the goddess Iðunn gives apples to the gods in Prose Edda (written in the 13th century by Snorri Sturluson) that makes them young forever. English scholar H. R. Ellis Davidson suggests that apples were related to religious practices in Germanic paganism. It was from there, she claims, that Norse paganism developed. She points out that buckets of apples were discovered in the place of burial for the Oseberg ship in Norway. She also remarks that fruit and nuts (Iðunn having been described as changing into a nut in Skáldskaparmál) have been discovered in the early graves of the Germanic peoples in England. They have also been discovered somewhere else on the continent of Europe. She suggests that this may have had a symbolic meaning. Nuts are still a symbol of fertility in Southwest England.
Cooking
Sometimes apples are eaten after they are cooked. Often apples are eaten uncooked. Apples can also be made into drinks. Apple juice and apple cider are apple drinks.
The flesh of the fruit is firm with a taste anywhere from sour to sweet. Apples used for cooking are sour, and need to be cooked with sugar, while other apples are sweet, and do not need cooking. There are some seeds at the core, that can be removed with a tool that removes the core, or by carefully using a knife.
The scientific name of the apple tree genus in the Latin language is Malus. Most apples that people grow are of the Malus domestica species.
Most apples are good to eat raw (not cooked), and are also used in many kinds of baked foods, such as apple pie. Apples are cooked until they are soft to make apple sauce.
Apples are also made into the drinks apple juice and cider. Usually, cider contains a little alcohol, about as much as beer. The regions of Brittany in France and Cornwall in England are known for their apple ciders.
Apple cultivars
If one wants to grow a certain type of apple it is not possible to do this by planting a seed from the wanted type. The seed will have DNA from the apple that the seeds came from, but it will also have DNA from the apple flower that pollinated the seeds, which may well be a different type. This means that the tree which would grow from planting would be a mixture of two. In order to grow a certain type of apple, a small twig, or 'scion', is cut from the tree that grows the type of apple desired, and then added on to a specially grown stump called a rootstock. The tree that grows will only create apples of the type needed.
There are more than 7,500 known cultivars (varieties) of apples. Different cultivars are available for temperate and subtropical climates. One large collection of over 2,100 apple cultivars is at the National Fruit Collection in England. Most of these cultivars are grown for eating fresh (dessert apples). However, some are grown simply for cooking or making cider. Cider apples are usually too tart to eat immediately. However, they give cider a rich flavor that dessert apples cannot.
Most popular apple cultivars are soft but crisp. Colorful skin, easy shipping, disease resistance, 'Red Delicious' apple shape, and popular flavor are also needed. Modern apples are usually sweeter than older cultivars. This is because popular tastes in apples have become different. Most North Americans and Europeans enjoy sweet apples. Extremely sweet apples with hardly any acid taste are popular in Asia and India.
In the United Kingdom
In the United Kingdom there are about 3000 different types of apples. The most common apple type grown in England is the 'Bramley seedling', which is a popular cooking apple.
Apple orchards are not as common as they were in the early 1900s, when apples were rarely brought in from other countries. Organizations such as Common Ground teach people about the importance of rare and local varieties of fruit.
In North America
Many apples are grown in temperate parts of the United States and Canada. In many areas where apple growing is important, people have huge celebrations:
Annapolis Valley Apple Blossom Festival - held five days every spring (May-June) in Nova Scotia
Shenandoah Apple Blossom Festival - held six days every spring in Winchester, Virginia.
Washington State Apple Blossom Festival - held two weeks every spring (April-May) in Wenatchee, Washington
Varieties of apples
There are many different varieties of apples, including:
Aport
Cox's Orange Pippin
Fuji (apple)
Gala
Golden Delicious (sometimes called a Green Delicious Apple)
Granny Smith
Jonathan
Jonagold
McIntosh
Pink Lady
Red Delicious
Winesap
Family
Apples are in the group Maloideae. This is a subfamily of the family Rosaceae. They are in the same subfamily as pears.
References
Further reading
Potter D. et al 2007. Phylogeny and classification of Rosaceae. Plant Systematics and Evolution. 266 (1–2): 5–43.
Other websites
Basic English 850 words
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Animal | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Animal | Animals (or Metazoa) are living creatures with many cells. They are eukaryotes. Animals get energy from other living things. Usually they eat them or are parasites. Some have photosynthetic protists as symbionts.
The study of animals is called zoology. The study of ancient life is called palaeontology.
Most animals are mobile, meaning they can move around. Animals take in oxygen, and give out carbon dioxide. This cellular respiration is part of their metabolism (chemical working). In both these ways they are different from plants. Also, the cells of animals have different cell membranes to other eukaryotes like plants and fungi.
Plants are also multicellular eukaryotic organisms, but live by using light, water and basic elements to make their tissues.
Grouping animals
There are many different types of animals. The common animals most people know are only about 3% of the animal kingdom. When biologists look at animals, they find things that certain animals have in common. They use this to group the animals in a biological classification. Several million species may exist, but biologists have only identified about one million.
Animals can mainly be divided into two main groups: the invertebrates and the vertebrates. Vertebrates have a backbone, or spine; invertebrates do not. Vertebrates are the only group to have an adaptive immune system, which may be partly responsible for their size and success.
Vertebrates are:
fish (or 'fishes': both ways are correct)
amphibians
reptiles
birds
mammals
Some invertebrates are:
insects
spiders
crustaceans
molluscs (like a snail or squid)
worms
jellyfish
Life styles
The animal mode of nutrition is called heterotrophic because they get their food from other living organisms. Some animals eat only plants; they are called herbivores. Other animals eat only meat and are called carnivores. Animals that eat both plants and meat are called omnivores.
The environments animals live in vary greatly. By the process of evolution, animals adapt to the habitats they live in. A fish is adapted to its life in water and a spider is adapted to a life catching and eating insects. A mammal living on the savannahs of East Africa lives quite a different life from a dolphin or porpoise catching fish in the sea.
The fossil record of animals goes back about 600 million years to the Ediacaran period, or somewhat earlier. During the whole of this long time, animals have been constantly evolving, so that the animals alive on Earth today are very different from those on the edges of the sea-floor in the Ediacaran.
Everyday language
In scientific usage, humans are animals. But in everyday use, humans are often not regarded as animals.
Related pages
List of animal phyla
Ethology, the study of animal behaviour
References
Animals
Basic English 850 words | [
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Black pudding | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20pudding | Black pudding is an English name for zwarte pudding. It is food made by cooking down the blood of any mammal (usually pigs or cattle) with meat, fat or filler until it is thick enough to congeal (become firm or solid) when cooled.
Types of black pudding
In Great Britain, blood sausage is called "black pudding". The ingredients include pig's blood, suet, bread, barley and oatmeal. The most common kind of German Blutwurst is made from fatty pork meat, beef blood and filler such as barley. Though already cooked and "ready to eat" it is usually served warm.
Other kinds of blood sausage include boudin noir (France), boudin rouge (Creole and Cajun) and morcilla (Spain).
History
A legend says that blood sausage was invented in a bet between two Bavarian butchers drunk on the alcoholic drink absinthe during the 14th century. Homer's Odyssey from Ancient Greece says that "As when a man besides a great fire has filled a sausage with fat and blood and turns it this way and that and is very eager to get it quickly roasted...".
Related pages
Sausage
Sausage | [
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British English | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20English | British English or UK English is the dialect of the English language spoken in the United Kingdom. It is different in some ways from other types of English, such as American English. British English is widely spoken throughout most countries that were historically part of the British Empire.
Use in other countries
American English is used in the United States. In Canada, the accent sounds extremely similar to American English but with few exceptions (see Canadian English). Canada has mixed the spelling rules of American and British English to form its own spelling rules.
All members of the Commonwealth of Nations learn British English, while American English is often learnt in the Americas, Japan and South Korea. The United Kingdom and Ireland use British layout keyboards, while Australia, South Africa, Canada, New Zealand and the US use American layout keyboards. In continental Europe, English as a second language is sometimes taught in American English, except in Scandinavia and the Netherlands where British English is taught.
Pronunciation
In the United Kingdom, the spelling remains the same but the pronunciation varies with local dialect. For example, a person from a place near London may not pronounce his "r"s the same as a person from Scotland. Across the country, the accent is different. For instance, in Liverpool, people may speak with a "Scouse" accent, in Birmingham with a "Brummie" accent and in London with a "Cockney" accent.
Spelling
There are many words that sound the same in both American and British English but have different spellings. British English often keeps more traditional ways of spelling words than American English. Many of the British English rules are also used in other countries outside of the United Kingdom. Most of those countries are members of the Commonwealth of Nations.
Vocabulary
In British English, "dock" refers to the water in the space between two "piers" or "wharfs". In American English, the "pier" or "wharf" could be called a "dock", and the water between would be a "slip".
Some common differences:
British English – American English
accelerator – throttle
autumn – fall
biscuit – cookie
bonnet – hood (of a car)
boot – trunk (of a car)
bum – butt
caravan – trailer, mobile home
chips – French fries
courgette – zucchini
crisps – chips
face flannel – washcloth
flat – apartment
football – soccer
garden – yard
handbag – purse
jumper – sweater
lift – elevator
lorry – truck
manual gearbox – stick shift
metro, underground, tube – subway
motorway – freeway
mum – mom
nappy – diaper
number plate – license plate
pants - underpants
pavement – sidewalk
pram – stroller
petrol – gas or gasoline
phone box - phone booth
post – mail, mailbox
railway – railroad
shopping trolley – shopping cart
take-away – take-out
trousers – pants - Only Superman wears his pants outside of his trousers
torch – flashlight
tram – streetcar
Other websites
British and American English differences
Dialects of English | [
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Black | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black | In light, black is lack of all color. In painting, however, the black pigment is the combination of all colors. In heraldry, black is called "sable". It is the opposite of white.
Origin of black
The word "black" comes from Old English blæc ("black, dark", also, "ink"), from Proto-Germanic *blakkaz ("burned"), and from Proto-Indo-European *bhleg-. Black is the darkest color/tone on a scale.
Black in science
In science, an object that is black absorbs the light that hits it. Because these objects do not reflect any light, the human eye can't see any color coming from that object. The brain then sees these objects as black.
A way to create black objects is to mix pigments. A pigment works by reflecting only the color of the pigment. For example, a blue pigment absorbs all colors except blue. By mixing pigments in the right quantities, black can be made.
In sunlight, black objects become quickly warm because they absorb much light.
Meaning of black
Black is associated with power, elegance, formality, safety, birth, male, and mystery. Black is a dark color, the darkest color there is. Black, along with gray and white, is a neutral color. This means that it is not a hot color or a cool color.
Black is a color seen with fear and the unknown (black holes). It can have a bad meaning (blackbird, black bunny) or a good meaning ('in the black', 'black is beautiful'). Black can stand for strength and power. It can be a formal, elegant, and high-class color (black tie, black Mercedes, black man). Black clothing is dark in emo and goth subculture.
Related pages
List of colors
Blackbody radiation
Black people
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Country | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Country | A country is a territory with distinct political boundaries and borders that claims sovereignty over a specific geographic area with a permanent population, controlled by its own government that enters relations with other states, or a piece of land that's under the control of its own government.
There is no universally accepted answer as to how many countries in the world there actually are, however the minimum answer is 193 for the 193 United Nations members.
This number can become bigger in other ways. For example, there are two United Nations observer states. The Vatican City State and the State of Palestine. This would add two to the list of United Nations member states, there for the number of countries the would be 195.
Taiwan is also sometimes classified as a country. However, there is an ongoing disputes over Taiwan's sovereignty with the People's Republic of China.
This can be developed on even further by adding the constituent countries of the United Kingdom, The Kingdom of the Netherlands and the Kingdom of Denmark which could add anywhere from three to eleven countries to the prior number.
There are a number of disputed areas that have declared independence from their parent state and receive limited recognition. For example, Kosovo, Artsakh, Transnistria and Abkhazia, Northern Cyprus. These are just some of the many examples of territories with limited to no recognition that are sometimes classed as countries.
There is a lot of controversy surrounding the above examples and quite often any one of these territories may be counted as countries purely based on opinion. If all of the above were added the list of U.N members there could be anything up to 211 countries based on the previous examples given.
There are however many more territories with unique political circumstances that could also be counted.
Depending on how loosely the dictionary definition for the word country is used there could be anything from 193 countries in the world or more. The matter is purely subjective depending on varying opinions and there has never been any consideration as to what the maximum number of countries in the world could be.
There are multiple organisations that have their own lists of countries, one example being the Travellers Century Club which recognises 327 countries as of 01/01/18.
Constituent country
Constituent country is a term sometimes used, usually by official institutions, in contexts in which a number of countries compose a long entity or grouping. The Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD) has used the term referring to the former Yugoslavia, and the European institutions like the Council of Europe often use it in reference to the European Union.
Territorial dispute
A disputed territory is that territory whose sovereignty is jealously desired by two or more countries. Usually the administration of the territory is carried out by one of the countries that claims sovereignty, while the other country does not recognize the sovereignty over the territory of the other country. This does not usually happen in land or sea areas on which none possesses effective control, such as Antarctica, or only partially. It can also be considered as a disputed territory to those areas that are given by two different governments, and therefore are divided.
References
Other websites
Geography Trainer 1.3.5 - Educational game aimed at school children to teach world capitals
Geography Trainer US States 1.1 game
List of countries
Geography Site Country Profiles - Based on the CIA World Factbook
Basic English 850 words | [
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City | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/City | A city is a heavily inhabited community that may include structures, buildings, bridges, rivers or lakes, and landmarks.
A city has many buildings and streets. It has houses, hotels, condominiums, and apartments for many people to live in, shops where they may buy things, places for people to work, and a government to run the city and keep law and order in the city. People live in cities because it is easy for them to find and do everything they want there. A city usually has a "city center" where government and business occur and suburbs where people live outside the center.
Definition
No rule is used worldwide to decide why some places are called "city," and other places are called "town."
Some things that make a city are :
A long history. Although many cities today have only been around for tens or hundreds of years, there are a few which have been so for thousands of years. For example, Athens, Greece was founded in 1000 BC and Rome, Italy has existed since 700 BC.
A large population. Cities can have millions of people living in and around them. Among them are Tokyo, Japan, and the Tokyo Metropolis around it, which includes Yokohama and Chiba.
In Japan, the population of a city ( 市 ) is at least over 50,000 persons. and among cities, there are various grades according to laws, which the central government of Japan governs.
A center where business and government takes place. The first case is often described as the financial capital, such as Frankfurt in Germany. The second case is true for different levels of government, whether they are local or part of a larger region (for example, Atlanta, Georgia, or the capital of the United States Washington, D.C.) Cities that contain the government of the region it is in are called capitals. Almost every country has its own capital.
Special powers called town privileges which have been given by the government of the country or its ruler. Europe during the Middle Ages was a great example of having town privileges.
Having a cathedral or a university. This rule is found in the United Kingdom. The smallest "cathedral cities" are St. David's and St. Asaph's which are both in Wales, Ripon and Wells which are in England.
In American English, people often call all places where many people live cities. (See below: Size of cities )
Size of cities
The sizes of cities can be very different. This depends on the type of city. Cities built hundreds of years ago and which have not changed much are much smaller than modern cities. There are two main reasons. One reason is that old cities often have a city wall, and most of the city is inside it. Another important reason is that the streets in old cities are often narrow. If the city got too big, it was hard for a cart carrying food to get to the marketplace. People in cities need food, and the food always has to come from outside the city.
Cities that were on a river like London could grow much bigger than cities that were on a mountain like Sienna in Italy, because the river made a transport route for carrying food and other goods, as well as for transporting people. London has been changing continually for hundreds of years, while Sienna, a significant city in the 1300s, has changed very little in 700 years.
Modern cities with modern transport systems can grow very large, because the streets are wide enough for cars, buses, and trucks, and there are often railway lines.
In the US, the word city is often used for towns that are not very big. When the first European people went to America, they named " city " to new places. They hoped the places would be great cities in the future. For example, Salt Lake City was the name given to a village of 148 people. When they started building the town, they made street plans and called it Great Salt Lake City (for the nearby Great Salt Lake).
Now, 150 years later, it really is a big city.
In modern times many cities have grown bigger and bigger. The whole area is often called a "metropolis" and can sometimes include several small ancient towns and villages. The metropolis of London includes London, Westminster, and many old villages such as Notting Hill, Southwark, Richmond, Greenwich, etc. The part that is officially known as the " City of London " only takes up one square mile. The rest is known as "Greater London. " Many other cities have grown in the same way.
These giant cities can be exciting places to live, and many people can find good jobs there, but modern cities also have many problems. Many people cannot find jobs in the cities and have to get money by begging or by crime. Automobiles, factories, and waste create a lot of pollution that makes people sick.
Urban history
Urban history is history of civilization. The first cities were made in ancient times, as soon as people began to create civilization . Famous ancient cities which fell to ruins included Babylon, Troy, Mycenae and Mohenjo-daro.
Benares in northern India is one among the ancient cities which has a history of more than 3000 years. Other cities that have existed since ancient times are Athens in Greece, Rome and Volterra in Italy, Alexandria in Egypt and York in England.
In Europe, in the Middle Ages, being a city was a special privilege, granted by nobility. Cities that fall into this category, usually had (or still have) city walls. The people who lived in the city were privileged over those who did not. Medieval cities that still have walls include Carcassonne in France, Tehran in Iran, Toledo in Spain and Canterbury in England.
Features
Infrastructure
People in a city live close together, so they cannot grow all their own food or gather their own water or energy. People also create waste and need a place to put it. Modern cities have infrastructure to solve these problems. Pipes carry running water, and power lines carry electricity. Sewers take away the dirty water and human waste. Most cities collect garbage to take it to a landfill, burn it, or recycle it.
Transport is any way of getting from one place to another. Cities have roads which are used by automobiles (including trucks), buses, motorcycles, bicycles, and pedestrians (people walking). Some cities have trains and larger cities have airports. Many people in cities travel to work each day, which is called commuting.
Buildings and design
Houses and apartments are common places to live in cities. Great numbers of people in developing countries (and developed countries, in the past) live in slums. A slum is poorly built housing, without clean water, where people live very close together. Buildings are usually taller in the city center, and some cities have skyscrapers.
City streets can be shaped like a grid, or as a "wheel and spokes": a set of rings and lines coming out from the center. Streets in some older cities like London are arranged at random, without a pattern. The design of cities is a subject called urban planning. One area of the city might have only shops, and another area might have only factories. Cities have parks, and other public areas like city squares.
United States politics
Cities in the US are usually very-left leaning. The best examples of these would be New York, New York, and Washington, D.C. For example, in Louisiana, the only Democratic delegate in US Congress who is a Democrat was elected from a district comprising in New Orleans. Below is a list of states and the major city/cities that provide much of the liberal support in them :
Atlanta, Georgia: 5 of the 16 delegates representing Georgia in the US Congress are Democrats. All hail from districts in Atlanta.
New Orleans, Louisiana: the only Democratic delegate from Louisiana in the US Congress was elected from a New Orleans district.
Kansas City, Kansas: the only Democratic congressman from Kansas was elected from a district in Kansas City.
Las Vegas, Nevada: all of the Democrats in the US House who represent Nevada are from Las Vegas.
Salt Lake City, Utah: the only Democrat representing Utah in the US Congress was elected from a Salt Lake City district.
Chicago, Illinois: if it weren't for Chicago, the state of Illinois would be as conservative as Indiana.
Louisville, Kentucky: the only Democrat representing Kentucky in the US Congress was elected from a Louisville district.
World's largest cities
These cities have more than 10 million people and can be called megacities:
Tokyo, Japan - 37+ million
Mexico City, Mexico - 21 million
Mumbai, India - 20 million
São Paulo, Brazil - 18 million
Lagos, Nigeria - 13 million
Calcutta, India - 13 million
Buenos Aires, Argentina - 12 million
Seoul, South Korea - 12 million
Beijing, China - 12 million
Karachi, Pakistan - 12 million
Dhaka, Bangladesh - 11 million
Manila, Philippines - 11 million
Cairo, Egypt - 11 million
Osaka, Japan - 11 million
Rio de Janeiro, Brazil - 11 million
Tianjin, China - 10 million
Moscow, Russia - 10 million
Lahore, Pakistan - 10 million
Gallery of cities
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Fruit | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fruit | In botany, a fruit is a plant structure that contains the plant's seeds.
To a botanist, the word fruit is used only if it comes from the part of the flower which was an ovary. It is an extra layer round the seeds, which may or may not be fleshy. However, even in the field of botany, there is no general agreement on how fruits should be classified. Many do have extra layers from other parts of the flower.
In general speech, and especially in cooking, fruits are a |sweet product, and many botanical fruits are known as vegetables. This is how ordinary people use the words. On this page, we describe what botanists call a fruit.
The fleshy part of a fruit is called the mesocarp. It is between the fruit's skin (exocarp) and the seeds. The white part of an apple, for example, is the "fleshy" part of the apple. Usually, when we eat a fruit, we eat the "fleshy" part.
Types of fruits
Berry
If the entire fruit is fleshy, except for maybe a thin skin, the fruit is called a berry. A berry might contain one seed or many. Grapes, avocados, and blueberries are berries. They all have a thin skin, but most of the fruit is fleshy. Don't get confused by the name of fruits like strawberries, because actually they are not berries. The seeds are on the outside: on a real berry, the seed or seeds are inside the fruit.
Pepo
A pepo (pronounced pee' po) is a modified berry. Its skin is hard and thick and is usually called a "rind". Pumpkins and watermelons, for instance, are pepos.
Hesperidium
A hesperidium is another modified berry. It has a leathery skin that is not as hard as the skin of a pepo. All citrus fruit like oranges and lemon are hesperidiums.
Pome
A pome (pohm) is a fruit that has a core surrounded by fleshy tissue that one can eat. The core is usually not eaten. Berries are different - the seeds are inside the fleshy part, not separated from it by a core. apples and pears are pomes.
Drupe
Drupes are also called stone fruit. A drupe is a fleshy fruit with a hard stone around the seed. We usually call this 'stone' the 'pit' of the fruit. Peaches and olives are drupes. Actually, the almond fruit is a drupe, too, though we eat the seed that is inside the 'pit' of the almond fruit.
Botanical fruits
Since fruits are produced from fertilised ovaries in flowers, only flowering plants produce fruits. Fruits are an evolutionary 'invention' which help seeds get dispersed by animals.
The botanical term includes many that are not 'fruits' in the common sense of the term. such as the vegetables squash, pumpkins, cucumbers, tomato, peas, beans, corn, eggplant, and sweet pepper and some spices, such as allspice and chillies.
Accessory fruits
An accessory fruit or false fruit (pseudocarp) is a fruit in which some of the flesh is derived not from the ovary but from some adjacent tissue.
A fig is a type of accessory fruit called a syconium. Pomes, such as apples and pears, are also accessory fruits: the core is the true fruit.
Non-botanical fruits
Strictly speaking, these are not botanical fruits:
any produced by non-flowering plants, like juniper berries, which are the seed-containing female cones of conifers.
fleshy fruit-like growths that develop from other plant tissues (like rhubarb).
Area of agreement
These are fruits which you can buy in shops, and which are also acceptable as botanical fruits:
berry fruits: redcurrant, gooseberry, cranberry, blueberry Also, but not commonly known as berry fruits, are tomato, avocado, banana.
false berries: raspberry, strawberry, blackberry: they are aggregate fruits (see below). The yew berry is not a fruit at all because the yew is a conifer.
stone fruits or drupes: plum, cherry, peach, apricot, olive.
citrus fruits, like oranges, grapefruits, and tangerines.
aggregate fruits: raspberries, blackberries.
multiple fruits: pineapples, figs.
Many fruits come from trees or bushes. For plants, fruits are a means of dispersal, usually by animals. When the fruit is eaten, the seed(s) are not digested, and get excreted. Where fruits have big stones, just the soft parts are eaten.
Most fruits we eat contain a lot of water and natural sugars, and many are high in Vitamin C. They have a large amount of dietary fibre. Fruits are usually low in protein and fat content, but avocados and some nuts are exceptions to this. Not only humans, but our closest living relatives (primates) are keen fruit-eaters. So are many other groups of herbivorous mammals and many birds.
Seedless fruits
Seedlessness is an important feature of some fruits of commerce. Commercial bananas, pineapple, and watermelons are examples of seedless fruits. Some citrus fruits, especially oranges, satsumas, mandarin oranges, and grapefruit are valued for their seedlessness.
Seedless bananas and grapes are triploids, and seedlessness results from the abortion of the embryonic plant which is produced by fertilisation. The method requires normal pollination and fertilisation.
Related pages
List of fruit
References
Basic English 850 words | [
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Human body | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20body | The human body is the body of a person. It is the physical structure of a person.
The body is a thing that can be hurt or killed. Its functions are stopped by death. You need your muscles and your joints to move.
Study of the human body
Some people study the human body. They look at where it is different from, or the same as, other animals' bodies. These animals can be alive today. Or they can be extinct animals like other hominids. (Hominids are primates that are close to humans. Neanderthals and Homo erectus were hominids.) Some people study how the human body works and lives in its environment. Some people study what people think about their body. Artists study how to draw or paint the human body.
Fields of study
Many different fields of study look at the human:
Biology is a field of science. It studies living things. It looks at how the human body works. It studies how the human body came from evolution. It studies how genetics makes the human body.
Anatomy studies the parts of the body and how they work together.
Ecology studies the environment including how humans affect it.
Physical anthropology is a field of science. It compares humans to other hominids. It also studies all other hominid bodies. They look at how humans and chimpanzees are the same or different.
Psychology is a field of medicine. It looks at how people think and feel. The brain is part of the body. How we think and feel comes from the brain. So psychologists study the body. They study how the brain lets us be who we are.
Religion also talks about the body. Some religions see the body as where the soul lives. Some see the body as like a church. This is because a church is where people worship God. These people think God should be worshiped inside people. Some religions think the body is made from chakras that connect us to the universe.
Medicine sees the body like a machine. Doctors want to fix problems with the body. They study how to fix the problems, called diseases.
Parts of human body
Head
Ear
Face
Forehead
Eyebrow
Eye
Cheek
Nose
Mouth
Lips
Chin
Neck
Torso
Chest
Breast
Abdomen
Pelvis
Back
Upper limb
Shoulder
Axilla
Elbow
Forearm
Wrist
Hand
Finger
Lower limb
Buttocks
Thigh
Knee
Calf
Ankle
Foot
Organ system
Various organ systems give the body the ability to live and do things.
Circulatory system
The circulatory system is the body system that moves blood around the body.
Digestive system
The digestive system is the parts of the body that digest food.
Endocrine system
The endocrine system includes those organs of the body which produce hormones.
Immune system
The immune system is the set of tissues which work together to resist infections.
Integumentary system
The integumentary system is everything covering the outside of an animal's body.
Lymphatic system
The lymphatic system is a network of thin vessels that branch into tissues throughout the body.
Musculoskeletal system
The musculoskeletal system consists of the human skeleton and attached muscles.
Nervous system
The nervous system is a body system which sends signals around the body.
Reproductive system
The reproductive system is the part of an organism that makes them able to sexually reproduce.
Respiratory system
The respiratory system is the body getting rid of carbon dioxide and taking in oxygen.
Urinary system
The urinary system is a system of organs that makes urine/pee and takes it out of the body.
The human body and other animals
The human body is like other animals. The skeleton, muscles and other parts are very much like those of other primates. Our body is also like other mammals, and somewhat like other vertebrates. DNA differences follow a similar pattern. The human genome is closer to that of other primates than to other vertebrates, and closest to chimpanzee.
References
Anatomy | [
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Apple Macintosh | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Macintosh | The Apple Macintosh or just “Mac” is a line of personal computers made by the American company Apple Inc. The Macintosh was one of the first computers in which the people could use a mouse for pointing on a screen which had icons. This new way of working with a computer (interface) was known as graphical user interface. It was this feature of the Macintosh that made it so popular.
History
Processor history
The Apple–Intel transition was when Apple changed the CPU of Macintosh computers from PowerPC processors to Intel x86 processors. It was announced at the 2005 World Wide Developers Conference. Steve Jobs announced it.
Macintoshes were different than other personal computers for many years based on their central processor unit (CPU). At the start, Macs used Motorola 68000 chips instead of Intel chips. Later, Macs used PowerPC chips. In 2006, Macs started to use Intel chips. In 2020, Macs started to use Apple Silicon chips. Today, Macs are sold with Apple M1 chips.
Macintoshes
Software
The Mac does not have the Windows operating system installed on it. It has its own range of operating systems, known as macOS. The newest operating system is known as “Big Sur". Macs can run both Windows and macOS at the same time with help of a program called “Boot Camp”, which comes on every Mac.
In general, Macintosh computers cost more than other computers of the same speed.
Related pages
iMac
MacBook
MacBook Air
MacBook Pro
Other popular products of Apple include iPod, iPhone and iPad.
References
Computers
Macintosh | [
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New York City | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/New%20York%20City | New York, or New York City (NYC), is the largest city by population in the United States. It is at the southern end of the state of New York. New York's population is similar to London in the United Kingdom with over 8 million people currently living in it, and over 22 million people live in the bigger New York metropolitan area. It is the financial capital of the U.S. since it is home to the nation's stock market, Wall Street, and the One World Trade Center.
Being on one of the world's largest natural harbors, New York City is made up of five boroughs, each of which is a county of the state of New York. The five boroughs—Brooklyn, Queens, Manhattan, the Bronx, and Staten Island—were combined into one city in 1898. The city and its metropolitan area are an important place for legal immigration to the United States. As many as 800 languages are spoken in New York, making it the most linguistically diverse city in the world. New York has more than 3.2 million people born outside the United States, the biggest foreign-born population of any city in the world as of 2016.
New York City started as a trading post created by colonists from the Dutch Republic in 1624 on Lower Manhattan; the post was named New Amsterdam in 1626. In 1664, the English controlled the city and the areas around it, and were renamed New York after King Charles II of England gave the lands to his brother, the Duke of York. New York was the capital of the United States from 1785 until 1790, and has been the biggest U.S. city since 1790. The Statue of Liberty welcomed millions of immigrants as they came to the U.S. by ship in the late 19th and early 20th centuries, and it is a symbol of the U.S. and its ideals of liberty and peace. In the 21st century, New York has grew into a global hub of creativity and entrepreneurship and environmental sustainability, and as a symbol of freedom and cultural diversity. In 2019, New York was voted the best city in the world in a survey of over 30,000 people from 48 cities worldwide, because of its cultural diversity.
Many districts and landmarks in New York City are well known, including three of the world's ten most visited tourist places in 2013. A record 62.8 million tourists came to New York City in 2017. Times Square is the colorful area of the Broadway Theater District, one of the world's busiest pedestrian intersections, and a famous area for the world's entertainment industry. Many of the city's landmarks, skyscrapers, and parks are known around the world. Manhattan's real estate market is one of the most expensive in the world. New York has more Chinese people outside of China than anywhere in the world, with many Chinatowns across the city. The New York City Subway is the biggest single-operator rapid transit system worldwide, with rail stations. The city has over 120 colleges and universities, including Columbia University, New York University, Rockefeller University, and the City University of New York system, which is the biggest urban public university system in the United States. The world's two largest stock exchanges, the New York Stock Exchange, located on Wall Street in the Financial District of Lower Manhattan, and NASDAQ, headquartered in Midtown Manhattan, are both in Manhattan.
History
Name
In 1664, the city was named after the Duke of York, who would become King James II of England. James's older brother, King Charles II, had chosen the Duke proprietor of the former territory of New Netherland, including the city of New Amsterdam, which England had recently taken from the Dutch.
Early history
The oldest part of the city, the island of Manhattan, still has its original Lenape name. Although Native people such as the Lenape and Canaries had lived there for many thousands of years, New York City was first explored by Europeans in the 1500s. Florentine explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano found the entrance to New York Harbor in the year 1524 he gived to this site the name of New Angoulême in the honor of Francois 1st. In 1609, the English explorer Henry Hudson rediscovered New York Harbor while looking for the Northwest Passage to the Orient for the Dutch East India Company. Hudson's first mate said it was "a very good Harbour for all windes" and the river was "a mile broad" and "full of fish".
Juan Rodriguez (transliterated to Dutch as Jan Rodrigues) was one of the first people associated with Europe to live there. He was a merchant from Santo Domingo. He was born in Santo Domingo of Portuguese and African descent, and he came to Manhattan during the winter of 1613–14. He trapped for pelts and traded with the local people as a representative of the Dutch. Broadway, from 159th Street to 218th Street in Upper Manhattan, is named Juan Rodriguez Way in his honor.
Dutch control
New York City was settled by Europeans from The Netherlands in 1624. The Dutch called the whole area of New York Netherland (New Netherland) and they named a fort and town on the south end of Brooklyn.
In 1626, the Dutch colonial Director-General Peter Minuit, acting for the Dutch West India Company, bought the island of Manhattan from the Canarsie, a small Lenape band. He paid "the value of 60 guilders" (about $900 in 2018). A false story says that Manhattan was bought for $24 worth of glass beads. 1626 was also the year the Dutch began to bring black slaves there.
After the purchase, New Amsterdam grew slowly. In 1647, Peter Stuyvesant started his job as the last Director-General of New Netherland. During this time, the number of people of New Netherland grew from 2,000 to 8,000.
Island New Amsterdam (New Amsterdam), after the capital city of the Netherlands, which was to become present-day New York. The English took over the colony in 1664 during the second Anglo-Dutch War. They changed the name to New York, to honor the Duke of York, who later became King James II of England and James VII of Scotland. The Dutch surrendered Nieuw Amsterdam without fighting.
English control
By the time the English took New York, there were many other Dutch towns in what would become New York City, including Breukelen (Brooklyn), Vlissingen (Flushing), and Nieuw Haarlem (Harlem). There were already some English towns in the area also, such as Gravesend in Brooklyn and Newtown in Queens. Dutch, English and other people had been living together in New York for a long time.
New York became more important as a trading port while under British rule in the early 1700s. It also became a center of slavery as the British increased the slave trade and built a slave market in the city. 42% of households owned slaves by 1730, the highest percentage outside Charleston, South Carolina.
The 1735 trial and acquittal in Manhattan of John Peter Zenger, who had been accused of seditious libel after criticizing colonial governor William Cosby, helped to create the freedom of the press in North America. In 1754, Columbia University was created under charter by King George II; it was called King's College, and it was in Lower Manhattan.
American Revolution
New York quickly grew to become a large and important port city. The Stamp Act Congress met in New York in October 1765, as the Sons of Liberty. It organized in the city, and they skirmished over the next ten years with British troops stationed there. The important Battle of Long Island of the American Revolution was fought in Brooklyn in 1776; it was the biggest battle of the war. The Americans lost the battle. The British used the area as its headquarters for the war in North America.
New York was the capital of the United States under the Articles of Confederation from 1785 to 1788. When the US Constitution was made, it stayed as the capital from 1789 until 1790. In 1789, the first President of the United States, George Washington, was inaugurated; the first United States Congress and the Supreme Court of the United States each met for the first time, and the United States Bill of Rights was written, all at Federal Hall on Wall Street. By 1790, New York grew bigger than Philadelphia, so it become the biggest city in the United States. By the end of 1790, because of the Residence Act, Philadelphia became the new capital.
Nineteenth century
During the nineteenth century, New York City's population grew from ~60,000 to ~3.43 million. The number of black people in New York City reached more than 16,000 in 1840. Even though slavery and the slave trade were abolished in New York, the slave trade continued illegally for many years.
The Great Irish Famine brought a many Irish immigrants; more than 200,000 were living in New York by 1860, more than a quarter of the city's population. There was also many people from German provinces, and Germans made up another 25% of New York's population by 1860.
During the American Civil War, many white people in the city supported the Confederate States of America, and July 1863 they killed many black New Yorkers in a riot.
Modern history
In 1898, the cities of New York and Brooklyn came together with the Bronx, Staten Island, and the western towns in Queens County to make Greater New York. This is the total area of the City of New York today. Around this time, many new immigrants came into New York City. They came in at Ellis Island, an island in New York's harbor near the Statue of Liberty. Many of them then moved to the Lower East Side neighborhood in Manhattan, which had over a million people living in just a few square miles.
Early in the twentieth century, with better transportation, more people moved to outer parts of the greater city, and many commuted to Manhattan. Many skyscrapers and other big buildings were put up to provide places to work.
In the 1970s, many jobs were lost due to industrial restructuring. This caused New York City to have economic problems and high crime rates. Though the financial industry grew, which greatly helped the city's economy in the 1980s, New York's crime rate continued to increase through that decade and into the beginning of the 1990s. By the mid 1990s, crime rates started to drop a lot due to different police strategies, better economic opportunities, gentrification, and new residents, both Americans and new immigrants from Asia and Latin America. Important new sectors, such as Silicon Alley, started in the city's economy. New York's population reached all-time highs in the 2000 census and then again in the 2010 census.
New York had most of the economic damage and biggest loss of human life from the September 11, 2001 attacks. Two of the four planes taken over that day were flown into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, destroying them and killing 2,192 civilians, 343 firefighters, and 71 police officers. The North Tower became the tallest building ever to be destroyed anywhere.
Hurricane Sandy brought a destructive storm surge to New York City on the evening of October 29, 2012, flooding numerous streets, tunnels and subway lines in Lower Manhattan and other areas of the city and cutting off electricity in many parts of the city and its suburbs.
Geography
During the Wisconsin glaciation, 75,000 to 11,000 years ago, the New York City area was at the edge of a big ice sheet over deep. Erosion and the ice moving lead to the creation of what is now Long Island and Staten Island. It also left bedrock at a shallow depth, providing a solid foundation for most of Manhattan's skyscrapers.
New York City is located in the Northeastern United States, in southeastern New York State, approximately halfway between Washington, D.C. and Boston. The city includes all of Manhattan Island and Staten Island, and the western end of Long Island. There are also many smaller islands.
Water divides several parts of the city. The Hudson River flows through the Hudson Valley into New York Bay. Between New York City and Troy, New York, the river is an estuary. The Hudson River separates the city from the U.S. state of New Jersey. Part of the Hudson River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx on one side, and the State of New Jersey on the other side. The East River forms the border between Manhattan on one side, and Brooklyn and Queens on the other side. The Harlem River forms the border between Manhattan and the Bronx (except for a small part of Manhattan that is on the mainland). Part of Long Island Sound separates the Bronx and Queens. Newtown Creek is part of the border between Brooklyn and Queens. Some parts of the city are very separate from the others because of water, such as Rockaway in Queens and City Island in the Bronx. A small piece of land in Manhattan is international territory and belongs to the United Nations Headquarters. The country of Somalia is the only country whose national flag copied the colors of the UN. The Bronx River, which flows through the Bronx and Westchester County, is the only entirely fresh water river in the city.
The city's total area is , including of land and of this is water. The tallest place in the city is Todt Hill on Staten Island. It is at above sea level, and it is the tallest place on the Eastern Seaboard that is south of Maine. The summit of the ridge is mostly woodland as part of the Staten Island Greenbelt.
The hallmark of New York city is its many skyscrapers, especially in Manhattan. In New York City there are about 5600 skyscrapers. 48 of them are over 200 metres tall, which is the highest number of skyscrapers in one area in the world.
Boroughs
New York City has five boroughs: Manhattan, Brooklyn, Queens, the Bronx, and Staten Island.
Manhattan
Manhattan (New York County) is the geographically smallest and most densely populated borough. It has Central Park and most of the city's skyscrapers. It is sometimes locally known as The City.
Brooklyn
Brooklyn (Kings County), on the western end of Long Island, has the most people living in it than any other borough. Brooklyn is known for its cultural, social, and ethnic diversity, an independent art scene, unique neighborhoods, and unique architecture.
Queens
Queens (Queens County), on Long Island north and east of Brooklyn, is geographically the biggest borough and the most ethnically diverse county in the United States. It is also the most ethnically diverse urban area in the world.
The Bronx
The Bronx (Bronx County) is New York City's northernmost borough. It is the only New York City borough with most of the land being on the mainland United States. The Yankee Stadium, the baseball park of the New York Yankees, and the biggest cooperatively owned housing complex in the United States, Co-op City, are in the Bronx. The Bronx Zoo, the world's largest metropolitan zoo, is also in the Bronx. It is big and has more than 6,000 animals. Rap and hip hop culture were created in the Bronx. Pelham Bay Park is the biggest park in New York City, at .
Staten Island
Staten Island (Richmond County) is the most suburban of the five boroughs. Staten Island is connected to Brooklyn by the Verrazano-Narrows Bridge. It is connected to Manhattan by way of the free Staten Island Ferry, a daily commuter ferry which has clear views of the Statue of Liberty, Ellis Island, and Lower Manhattan. In central Staten Island, the Staten Island Greenbelt is about big, including of walking trails and one of the last untouched forests in the city.
Climate
Under the Köppen climate classification, New York City experiences a humid subtropical climate (Cfa) that borders a humid continental climate (Dfa). The average temperature in January, the area's coldest month, is . However, temperatures in winter could for a few days be as low as and as high as . Summers are typically hot and humid with a July average of . New York City gets some snow in winter.
People
New York City currently has over 9 million people. Over 20 million people live in the New York metropolitan area including the city. The majority of the people in New York City belong to ethnic groups that are minorities in the US. New York City has had large numbers of immigrants for centuries. In the early 19th Century, they came from Ireland and Germany. Later in the 19th century, they came from Italy, Russia and Eastern Europe. Today, many are from Puerto Rico, Haiti, the Dominican Republic and Colombia. Other ethnic groups living in New York City are Turks, Indians, Mexicans, Filipinos, Eastern Europeans, Jamaicans, Trinidadians, Caribbeans and Chinese. New York City has one of the largest Hispanic and Latino population in the United States.
Economy
New York City is a global hub of business and commerce, as a center for banking and finance, retailing, world trade, transportation, tourism, real estate, new media, traditional media, advertising, legal services, accountancy, insurance, theater, fashion, and the arts in the United States. The Port of New York and New Jersey is also a big part of the economy. It received a record cargo volume in 2017, over 6.7 million TEUs. New York City's unemployment rate fell to its record low of 4.0% in September 2018.
Many Fortune 500 companies are headquartered in New York City, as are many multinational corporations. One out of ten private sector jobs in the city is with a foreign company. New York City has been ranked first among cities around the world in getting capital, business, and tourists. New York City's role as the top global center for the advertising industry can be seen with "Madison Avenue". The city's fashion industry has about 180,000 employees with $11 billion in annual wages.
Chocolate is New York City's biggest specialty-food export, with up to $234 million worth of exports each year. Entrepreneurs were creating a "Chocolate District" in Brooklyn , while Godiva, one of the world's biggest chocolatiers, continues to be headquartered in Manhattan.
Wall Street
New York City's most biggest economic part is the U.S. financial industry, also known as Wall Street. The city's securities industry, which has 163,400 jobs in August 2013, continues to be the biggest part of the city's financial sector and an important economic part. In 2012, Walls Street made 5.0 percent of the city's private sector jobs, 8.5 percent ($3.8 billion) of its tax revenue, and 22 percent of the city's total wages, including an average salary of $360,700.
In Lower Manhattan, there is the New York Stock Exchange, on Wall Street, and the NASDAQ, at 165 Broadway, representing the world's biggest and second biggest stock exchanges, respectively. Investment banking fees on Wall Street totaled about $40 billion in 2012, while in 2013, senior New York City bank officers who manage risk and compliance functions earned as much as $324,000 every year. In fiscal year 2013–14, Wall Street's securities industry made 19% of New York State's tax revenue.
Many of the world's biggest media conglomerates are also in the city. Manhattan had more than 500 million square feet (46.5 million m2) of office space in 2018, making it the biggest office market in the United States. Midtown Manhattan, with 400 million square feet (37.2 million m2) in 2018, is the biggest central business area in the world.
Media and entertainment
WNBC NBC
WCBS CBS
WABC American Broadcasting Company
USA Network
Showtime (TV channel)
HBO
New York is an important place for the American entertainment industry, with many movies, television series, books, and other media being set there. , New York City was the second biggest center for filmmaking and television production in the United States, making about 200 feature films every year, making about 130,000 jobs. The filmed entertainment industry has been growing in New York, providing nearly $9 billion to the New York City economy as of 2015. By amount, New York is the world leader in independent film production—one-third of all American independent films are created there. The Association of Independent Commercial Producers is also based in New York.
New York City is also an important place for the advertising, music, newspaper, digital media, and publishing industries, and it is the biggest media market in North America. Some of the city's media conglomerates and companies include Time Warner, the Thomson Reuters Corporation, the Associated Press, Bloomberg L.P., the News Corporation, The New York Times Company, NBCUniversal, the Hearst Corporation, AOL, and Viacom. Seven of the world's top eight global advertising agency networks have their headquarters in New York. Two of the top three record labels' headquarters are in New York: Sony Music Entertainment and Warner Music Group. Universal Music Group also has offices in New York.
More than 200 newspapers and 350 magazines have an office in the city, and the publishing industry has about 25,000 jobs. Two of the three national daily newspapers with the biggest circulations in the United States are published in New York: The Wall Street Journal and The New York Times, which has won the most Pulitzer Prizes for journalism. Big tabloid newspapers in the city include The New York Daily News, which was created in 1919 by Joseph Medill Patterson, and The New York Post, created in 1801 by Alexander Hamilton. The city also has a many ethnic presses, with 270 newspapers and magazines published in more than 40 languages. El Diario La Prensa is New York's biggest Spanish-language daily newspaper, and it is the oldest in the United States. The New York Amsterdam News, published in Harlem, is a big African American newspaper. The Village Voice, historically the biggest alternative newspaper in the United States, announced in 2017 that it would end publication of its print version, and it will only publish online.
New York is also an important place for non-commercial educational media. The oldest public-access television channel in the United States is the Manhattan Neighborhood Network, created in 1971.
Education
The New York City Public Schools system, managed by the New York City Department of Education, is the biggest public school system in the United States. It serves about 1.1 million students in more than 1,700 different primary and secondary schools.
The New York City Charter School Center helps the creation of new charter schools. There are about 900 additional private secular and religious schools in the city.
College and university
More than 600,000 students are enrolled in New York City's more than 120 colleges and universities, which is the most of any city in the United States and more than other major global cities such as London, and Tokyo. More than half a million are just in the City University of New York (CUNY) system , including both degree and professional programs. New York City's colleges and universities had also higher average scores than those two cities in 2019, according to the Academic Ranking of World Universities. New York City has many famous private universities such as Barnard College, Columbia University, Cooper Union, Fordham University, New York University, New York Institute of Technology, Rockefeller University, and Yeshiva University; many of these universities are ranked as some of the best universities in the world.
Government
The mayor of New York is Eric Adams, a Democrat. The city also has a City Council that makes some local laws. Most laws in New York City are set by the state government in Albany.
Transportation
Subway transportation is provided by the New York City Subway system, one of the biggest in the world. Pennsylvania Station, the busiest train station in the United States, is here.
John F. Kennedy International Airport, which is in the Queens borough of New York, is one of the busiest airports in the United States.
Famous sights
References
Notes
Other websites
NYC Go, official tourism website of New York City
.
1620s establishments in the Thirteen Colonies
1624 establishments
17th-century establishments in New York
Former capitals of the United States | [
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Peace | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Peace | Peace is a time without any fights or wars. In a larger sense, peace (or peacefulness) can mean a state of harmony, quiet or calm that is not disturbed by anything at all, like a still pond with no ripples.
Many people and organizations want peace. One organization that was set up to bring peace among the nations and try to make war a thing of the past was the League of Nations after World War I. When it did not stop World War II, it was replaced by the United Nations which tries to make the world peaceful. This means that if any member is attacked or invaded by another country without attacking that country first, the other members will come to help the country that was attacked first. This idea was used by the United Nations to defend both South Korea and Kuwait when they were attacked.
Martin Luther King, Jr. wrote in a letter he sent from the Birmingham jail that, "True peace is not merely the absence of tension: it is the presence of justice." In other words, Real peace is more than just problems being gone: there must be fairness to have peace.
Alfred Nobel created an annual award, the Nobel Peace Prize, for the person who had done the most to bring peace to the world.
Religious beliefs and peace
Buddhists think that peace can be gotten once all suffering ends.To get rid of suffering and get this peace, many try to follow a set of teachings called the Four Noble Truths
Jews and Christians believe that true peace comes from a personal relationship with God. Jesus Christ (also called the "Prince of Peace" in the Book of Isaiah) said: "Peace I leave with you; my peace I give you. I do not give to you as the world gives. Do not let your hearts be troubled and do not be afraid." ()
Inner peace
Inner peace (or peace of mind) refers to a state of being mentally and spiritually at peace, with enough knowledge and understanding to keep oneself strong in the face of stress. Being "at peace" is considered by many to be healthy and the opposite of being stressed or anxious. Peace of mind is generally associated with bliss and happiness.
Peace of mind, serenity, and calmness are descriptions of a disposition free from the effects of stress. In some cultures, inner peace is considered a state of consciousness or enlightenment that may be cultivated by various forms of training, such as prayer, meditation, Tai chi chuan or yoga, for example. Many spiritual practices refer to this peace as an experience of knowing oneself.
Movements and activism
Peace movement
A movement that seeks to get ideals such as the ending of a particular war, minimize inter-human violence in a particular place or type of situation, often linked to the goal of achieving world peace. Means to achieve these ends usually include advocacy of pacifism, non-violent resistance, conscientious objector, diplomacy, boycotts, moral purchasing, supporting anti-war political candidates, demonstrations, and lobbying to create legislation on human rights or of international law.
Theories on peace
Many different theories of "peace" exist in the world of peace studies, which involves the study of conflict transformation. The definition of "peace" can vary with religion, culture, or subject of study.
Peace is a state of balance and understanding in yourself and between others, where respect is gained by the acceptance of differences, tolerance persists, conflicts are resolved through dialog, people's rights are respected and their voices are heard, and everyone is at their highest point of serenity without social tension.
Related pages
Ceasefire
Pacifism
Peace makers
Peace treaty
World peace
Peace
Basic English 850 words
Society | [
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Red | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Red | Red is the color that is on the outside edge of the rainbow. It is one of the three primary colors, along with blue and yellow. Red light has a wavelength between 630-740 nanometers.
It is sometimes used to mark things that are wrong, important or dangerous.
Red is also commonly used as a warning to stop.
Meaning of red
Red can represent passion, anger, rage or love.
In many countries, a red light shows cars when they should stop.
In politics, "red" is a symbol of Communism. The "Red Army" can refer to the army of the old Soviet Union, or the People's Republic of China. It is also related to the Red Brigade.
Red is the color of heat and blood, so it is associated with energy, war, danger, strength, power, determination, as well as passion, desire and love.
Red is an emotionally intense color. It is thought that it tends to raise blood pressure and make people breathe faster. It is very easy to notice, which is why stop signs, stoplights, and fire equipment are usually painted red. In heraldry, red is often used to indicate courage. It is a color found in many national flags.
Red brings attention to text and images on the Internet.
In advertising, red is often used to cause erotic feelings.
Red is widely used to indicate danger.
Red is associated with energy, so it may be used to promote energy drinks, games, cars, items related to sports and high physical activity.
Comparison of purple, magenta, rose and red
Tones of red color comparison chart
Light Amour (Pink Mist) (Xona.com color list “Amour Light”) (Hex: #FDF6FA) (RGB: 253, 246, 250)
Light Pink Lace ((Xona.com color list "Pink Lace Light") (Hex: #FFF1FB) (RGB: 255, 241, 251)
Amour (Red Mist) (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #F9EAF3) (RGB: 249, 234, 243)
Bubble Gum (Crayola Magic Scents) (Hex: #FFD3F8) (RGB: 255, 211, 248)
Pink Lace (Xona.com color list) (Hex: #FFDDF4) (RGB: 255, 221, 207)
Champagne Pink (Pantone TPX 12-1107) (Hex: #F1DDCF) (RGB: 241, 221, 207)
Light Cupid (Xona.com color list “Cupid Light”) (Hex: #FDE3F0) (RGB: 253, 227, 240)
Light Chantilly (Xona.com color list “Chantilly Light”) (Hex: #FCE5F2) (RGB: 252, 229, 242)
Pale Light Pink (Xona.com color list “Pink Light”) (Hex: #FFE4E9) (RGB: 255, 228, 233)
Piggy Pink (Crayola) (Hex: #FDDDE6) (RGB: 253, 221, 230)
Pale Pink (Hex: #FACCCA) (RGB: 249, 204, 202)
Baby Pink (Light Pink) (Hex: #F4C2C2) (RGB: 244, 194, 194)
Pink (X11 color) (Tamarisk) (Hex: #FFC0CB) (RGB: 255, 192, 203)
Cotton Candy (Crayola) (Hex: #FFB7D5) (RGB: 255, 183, 213)
Medium Pink (web color "Light Pink") (Hex: #FFB6C1) (RGB: 255, 182, 193)
Cherry Blossom Pink (Hex: #FFB7C5) (RGB: 255, 183, 197)
Nadashiko Pink (Hex: #F6ADC6) (RGB: 246, 173, 198)
Carnation Pink (Crayola) (Hex: #FFA6C9) (RGB: 246, 166, 201)
Tickle Me Pink (Crayola) (Hex: #FC80A5) (RGB: 252, 128, 165)
Raspberry Pink (Hex: #E25098) (RGB:226, 80, 155)
Pink (Light Red) (web color) (Hex: #FD6C9E) (RGB: 253, 108, 158)
Brink Pink (Crayola) (Hex: #FB607F) (RGB: 251, 96, 127)
Dark Pink (Hex: #E75480) (RGB: 234, 84, 128)
Puce (Hex: #CC8899) (RGB: 204, 136, 153)
Pastel Pink (Hex: #DEA5A4) (RGB: 222, 165, 164)
Light Salmon Pink (Hex: #FF9999) (RGB: 255, 153, 153)
Salmon Pink (Crayola "Salmon") (Hex: #FF91A4) (RGB: 255, 145, 164)
Medium Salmon (Hex: #FF8C69) (RGB: 255, 140, 105)
Salmon (web color) (Hex: #FA8072) (RGB: 250, 128, 114)
Dark Salmon (web color) (Hex: #E9967A) (RGB: 233, 150, 122)
Coral Pink (Hex: #F88379) (RGB: 248, 131, 121)
Light Coral (web color) (Hex: #F08080) (RGB: 240, 128, 128)
Light Carmine Pink (Hex: #E66761) (RGB: 230, 103, 97)
Carmine Pink (Hex: #EB4C42) (RGB: 235, 76, 66)
<li style = "background-color: #e34234;"> Vermilion (Cinnabar) (Hex: #F34234) (RGB: 227, 66, 52)<li>
Coral Red (Hex: #FF4040) (RGB: 255, 64, 64)
Carmine Red (Hex: #FF0038) (RGB: 255, 0, 56)
<li style = "background-color: #ff3f34;"> Red-Orange (Crayola) (Hex: #FF3F34) (RGB: 255, 63, 52)<li>
<li style = "background-color: #ff3f00;"> Electric Vermilion (Mandarin Red) (Hex: #FF3F00) (RGB: 255, 63, 0)<li>
<li style = "background-color: #ff4500;"> Orange-Red (web color) (Hex: #FF4500) (RGB: 255, 69, 0)<li>
Coquelicot (Red Poppy) (Hex: #FF3800) (RGB: 255, 56, 0)
<li style = "background-color: #ff6347;"> Tomato (web color) (Hex: #FF6347) (RGB: 255, 99, 71)<li>
Terracotta (Hex: #E2725B) (RGB: 226, 114, 91)
Scarlet (Hex: #FF2400) (RGB: 255, 36, 0)
Carol Red (Apple Red) (Hex: #EF3038) (RGB: 239, 48, 36)
Lust (Hex: #E62020) (RGB: 230, 32, 32)
Red (Hex: #FF0000) (RGB: 255, 0, 0)
Pigment Red (Hex: #ED1C24) (RGB: 237, 28, 36)
Quinacridone Red (Liquitex Heavy Body) (Hex: #E8192F) (RGB: 232, 25, 47)
Crimson (web color) (Hex: #DC143C) (RGB: 220, 20, 60)
Ruby (Hex: #E0115F) (RGB: 224, 17, 95)
Raspberry (Hex: #E00000) (RGB: 224, 0, 0)
Razzmatazz (Crayola) (Hex: #E3256B) (RGB: 227, 37, 107)
Cerise (Hex: #DE3163) (RGB: 222, 49, 99)
Alizarin Crimson (Rose Madder)(Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #E32636) (RGB: 227, 38, 54)
Electric Crimson (Hex: #FF003F) (RGB: 255, 0, 63)
American Rose (American Beauty) (Hex: #FF033E) (RGB: 255, 3, 62)
Radical Red (Crayola) (Bright Amaranth Pink) (Hex: #FF355E) (RGB: 255, 53, 94)
Amaranth (Hex: #E52B50) (RGB: 229, 43, 80)
Rich Carmine (Chinese Carmine) (Hex: #D70040) (RGB: 215, 0, 64)
Utah Crimson (Hex: #D3003F) (RGB: 211, 0, 63)
Fire Engine Red (Hex: #CE2029) (RGB: 206, 22, 32)
Harvard Crimson (Hex: #C90016) (RGB: 201, 0, 22)
Cardinal (Hex: #C41E3A) (RGB: 196, 30, 58)
Bright Maroon (Crayola Maroon) (Hex: #C32148) (RGB: 195, 33, 72)
Rich Maroon (Maroon (X11)) (web color) (Hex: #B03060) (RGB: 176, 48, 96)
Raspberry Rose (Hex: #B3446C) (RGB: 179, 68, 108)
Raspberry Glace (Hex: #915F6D) (RGB: 145, 95, 109)
Deep Carmine (Hex: #A9203E) (RGB: 169, 32, 62)
Crimson Glory (Hex: #BE0032) (RGB: 190, 0, 50)
<li style = "background-color: #b80049; color: #ffffff"> Bright Tyrian Purple (Hex: #B80049) (RGB: 184, 0, 73)<li>
Medium Carmine (Hex: #AF4035) (RGB: 175, 64, 53)
Mahogany (Hex: #C04000) (RGB: 192, 64, 0)
Venetian Red (Hex: #C80815) (RGB: 200, 8, 21)
Persian Red (Hex: #CC3333) (RGB: 204, 51, 51)
Holly (Hex: #CB4154) (RGB: 203, 65, 84)
Dark Terra Cotta (Hex: #CC4E3C) (RGB: 204, 78, 92)
Chestnut (Indian Red [web color]) (Hex: #CD5C5C) (RGB: 205, 92, 92)
Fuzzy Wuzzy Brown (Crayola) (Hex: #C45655) (RGB: 196, 86, 55)
Deep Chestnut (Vermont Maple Syrup) (Crayola Chestnut) (Hex: #B94E48) (RGB: 185, 78, 72)
Redwood (Pantone TPX 18-1443) (Hex: #A45A52) (RGB: 164, 90, 82)
Rose Taupe (Hex: #905D5D) (RGB: 144, 93, 93)
Dark Chestnut (Hex: #986960) (RGB: 152, 105, 96)
Rust (Hex: #B7410E) (RGB: 183, 65, 14)
Cognac (Xona.com Color List) (Hex: #9F381D) (RGB: 159, 56, 29)
Burnt Umber (Hex: #8A3324) (RGB: 138, 51, 36)
Vivid Burgundy (Hex: #9F1D35) (RGB: 159, 29, 53)
Medium Red (Hex: #B10304) (RGB: 177, 3, 4)
Carnelian (Hex: #B31B1B) (RGB: 179, 27, 27)
Fire Brick (web color) (Hex: #B22222) (RGB: 178, 34, 34)
Upsdell Red (Hex: #AE2029) (RGB: 174, 22, 42)
Red-Brown (web color Brown) (Hex: #A52A2A) (RGB: 165, 42, 42)
Rufous (Hex: #A81C07) (RGB: 168, 28, 7)
Tea (Tea Red) (Orange Pekoe Tea) (Hex: #9C0D07) (RGB: 156, 13, 7)
Sangria (Hex: #92000A) (RGB: 146, 0, 10)
Vivid Auburn (Hex: #922724) (RGB: 147, 39, 36)
Burgundy (Hex: #900020) (RGB: 144, 0, 32)
Medium Tyrian Purple (Hex: #990024) (RGB: 97, 64, 81)
Carmine (Hex: #960018) (RGB: 150, 0, 24)
<li style = "background-color: #8b0000; color: #ffffff"> Dark Red (Hex: #8B0000) (RGB: 139, 0, 0)<li>
Maroon (web color) (Hex: #800000) (RGB: 128, 0, 0)
Deep Red (Crayola Red) (Hex: #850101) (RGB: 133, 1, 1)
Barn Red (Hex: #7C0A02) (RGB: 124, 10, 2)
Falu Red (Hex: #801818) (RGB: 128, 24, 24)
Tuscan Red (Hex: #7B3636) (RGB: 123, 54, 54)
Auburn (Hex: #712F26) (RGB: 113, 47, 38)
Persian Plum (Xona.com color list) (Prune) (Hex: #701C1C) (RGB: 112, 28, 28)
Dark Raspberry (Hex: #E30B5C) (Xona.com Color List Raspberry) (RGB: 227, 11, 92)
<li style = "background-color: #66023c; color: #ffffff"> Tyrian Purple (Imperial Purple) (Hex: #66023C) (RGB: 102, 2, 60)<li>
Caput Mortuum (Hex: #592720) (RGB: 89, 39, 32)
Related pages
List of colors
Amaranth
Burgundy
Carmine
Cerise
Coral
Crimson
Fuchsia
Magenta
Maroon
Mauve
Orange-red
Pink
Raspberry
Redhead
Rose
Sangria
Other websites
rouge in easy French
Basic English 850 words | [
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0.028287775814533234,
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0.0090178232640028,
0.018943127244710922,
0.00001873878136393614,
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Roman Empire | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Roman%20Empire | The Roman Empire was the largest empire of the ancient world. Its capital was Rome, and its empire was based in the Mediterranean. The Empire dates from 27 BC, when Octavian became the Emperor, or Augustus, until it fell in 476 AD, marking the end of the Ancient World and the beginning of the Middle Ages, or Dark Ages.
The empire was the third stage of Ancient Rome. Rome was first ruled by Roman kings, then by the Roman Republic, then by an emperor.
Augustus Caesar ruled the Roman Republic and Roman Empire so Rome was a republic before it was an empire.
Tiberius Caesar ruled Rome as also and appointed Pontius Pilate.
Many modern lands were once part of the Roman Empire, for example Britain (not Scotland), Spain, Portugal, France, Italy, Greece, Turkey, Germany, Egypt, Levant, Crimea, Switzerland, and the north coast of Africa. The main language of the Roman Empire was Latin with Greek as an important secondary language, especially in the Eastern provinces of the Empire.
The western half of the Roman Empire lasted for about 500 years till the barbarian general Odoacer defeated its final emperor Romulus Augustus. On the other hand, the eastern half, consisting of the Balkans, Anatolia, The Levant and Egypt, continued for about a thousand years more (the Levant and Egypt were lost to the Arabs in the 8th century). The eastern part was called the Byzantine Empire. Its capital was Constantinople, now called Istanbul.
Governing the Empire
In order to control their large empire, the Romans developed ideas about law and government. They developed the best army in the world at that time, and ruled by force. They had fine engineering, and built roads, cities, and outstanding buildings. The Empire was divided into provinces, each with a governor plus civil and military support. Letters, both official and private, went constantly to and from Rome.
Trade was most important for Rome, a city of more than a million people, by far the largest city in the world. They needed, and got, wheat from Egypt, tin from Britannia, grapes from Gaul, and so on. In return, the Romans built provincial capitals into fine cities, protected them from raids by barbarians, and provided education and career opportunities for young people in the provinces, such as jobs in the Roman Army.
In principle, emperors had absolute control, and could do as they pleased. In practice, they faced some difficult problems. They had a staff of what we call 'civil servants' and the advice of the Roman Senate. The emperor had to decide what were the most important issues facing the Empire, and what should be done about them. Most of them tried to do two things. One was to do things to improve the life of Romans in peacetime. The other was to fight and defeat Rome's enemies. A wealthy empire always has enemies.
With kings and emperors, a big problem is the order of succession. Kings were sometimes followed by their eldest son, if he was capable of ruling. For Roman emperors, more often it would be an adopted son. It worked like this. The emperor would notice an outstanding young man from one of the best families. He would adopt him as his son. Before he died he would make clear whom he thought should succeed him, by making him a Roman consul, or by stating in his will that the younger man should succeed him. Sometimes this worked; sometimes it did not. Every now and then there would be a civil war between claimants to the throne.
An adopted son or two gave the emperor more choices. Some emperors had no son; some had sons who did not survive. Later on, emperors grew so weak that the Roman army would just pick one of their generals to be the next emperor. This often led to civil war. The life stories of the emperors can be found in List of Roman emperors.
The Romans fought many wars against other countries, and against barbarians several times. They enjoyed watching violent sports. They enjoyed watching chariots races, and fights between gladiators (men using weapons). Unlike in modern sports, the fighters were often killed in fights. Romans enjoyed these shows in the Colosseum.
The Romans had great civil engineering. They built many large public buildings and villas, aqueducts to carry water, stone bridges and roads. Some of these things can still be seen today. Many famous writers were Romans, including Cicero and Virgil.
The New Testament of the Bible tells about the Romans in the life of Jesus Christ. During Jesus' life, the Romans, who were pagans, ruled his country. Later, several emperors tried to destroy Christianity but they did not succeed. By 312 the emperor Galerius allowed people freedom to follow Christianity, and the next year, a general, Constantine, became emperor and converted to Christianity.
The city of Rome was taken over several times by barbarians, notably in 410 when the Goths sacked the city (looting). The last Western Roman emperor, Romulus Augustus, resigned in 476 . The Roman Empire would last another 1,000 years as the Byzantine Empire in the east.
The main coin of the Roman Empire was the silver denarius. Later denarii were smaller.
Various reasons have been given for the fall of Rome. Edward Gibbon wrote The Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire in which he investigated various ideas. Chief among them was (in his opinion) was the effect of Christianity on the ability of the Empire to defend itself militarily.
Other historians blame the unstable system of leadership. In a 50-year period, only 2 out of 22 emperors died a natural death. Most of the emperors were assassinated.
References
Other websites
An old map of the Roman Empire in 400 AD
BBC, Romans for Children , website on ancient Rome for children at the level of primary school
Rome Unleashed, interactive educational website on ancient Rome for students | [
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State | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/State | In politics, a state is a country which has control over a geographic area or territory. States have three main features:
Control over a geographic area, or territory
A people, the population of the state.
Institutions which have the power to make laws.
There are different forms of government a state may have, for example a republic or a monarchy. Sometimes states form their own countries. At other times many states work together to form a country (like the United States). Most states also have armed forces, civil service, law and police.
Different definitions
The definition above is very broad. It is based on ideas by Georg Jellinek (1851-1911). Other people had other ideas:
Max Weber (1864-1920) had another definition: According to him, a state is a community of people which has "the monopoly to legitimately use physical force within a well-defined area".
Another definition is form political science: A state is a system of public institutions which are there to regulate the issues of a society.
Some philiospohers, such as Aristotle, Rousseau and Hegel had a moralistic view: In their opinion, a state arises when individuals reach their goals and that of society. According to Hegel, the state is the reason God came into the world; it is the power of reason. This reason manifests as His will.
Because of the different definitions, there's no universally accepted definition of state. The one given at the start of the article is now part of international law.
History
Early states
The earliest states were just human settlements. A group of farmers and merchants working together could be 'states' since people can control them and protect them.
More organized states could be monarchies such as early Egypt under the Pharaoh. Following this were larger more military-based states such as the Babylonian Empire or Roman Empire. The most famous early states, however, were the Ancient Greek city-states. Some of them had democracy.
From military to modern state
When the military-based state, the Roman Empire, fell, lots of little states were made and each was also military-based and controlled by a king. These states did not often work together and war raged. However, once people within the state itself started fighting (what's called a Civil war), the kings had to make peace and start parliaments.
Modern states
Modern states soon started in the late 15th century. The main states in Europe were:
England under the Tudors
Spain under the Habsburg
France under the Bourbons
Russia under Catherine the Great and Alexander II of Russia
These states all tried to improve their politics and economy and became more and more like the states today. They formed proper boundaries for their lands and worked with power within the state itself more, such as the Church or the nobility. They made armies, tax systems and embassies all to help make them more powerful and stable.
Different types of state
Types of state can be separated into two categories: democracy and dictatorship. However, just because a group of states are all democratic does not mean that they follow the same rules. Iran, Pakistan, France, Germany and the United States of America are all states. Each of them sees itself as a democracy. Each of them however has a different idea of what democracy really means.
Different states of the same 'category' can also function differently. For example, two democratic states may be quite different if one has a well-trained police or army while the other does not. Therefore, the word 'state' only tells us what type of government that state follows (democratic or dictatorship) and does not tell us about the country itself.
Sub-categories of state
There are lots of sub-types of state branching off from democracy and dictatorship. The main ones are Pluralism, Marxism and Institutionalism.
Pluralism
Pluralism has been very popular in the United States. It shows the state as a neutral place for settling arguments between other states. Pluralism tells us that all people are not equal, but still allows each group of people to tell the state what to do. This type of state is called a polyarchy.
Also in a pluralist state, politics, the military and the economy are all united and work together. This means that all power in the state is 'diffused' across the people who live there.
Marxism
Marxism is an ideology advocating for the rights of workers and labourers of society. It was started by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels. Marxism rejects the idea that a state is there to protect business interest, and is definitely not a neutral place for settling arguments.
The main job of a Marxist state is to protect the labour and financial situation of the peasant classes. With such reforms, a Marxist state focuses on collectivising resources and creating a planned economy to ensure the well-being of the workers.
Both Marxist and Pluralist states have to react to the activities of groups of people in the state itself. Institutionalist states do not see themselves as 'instruments' to be controlled, they are more just geographical areas. In this area, the people just form groups themselves. An institutionalist state can be made up of both Marxist and Pluralist people, both which have the power to control themselves and not influence the other parties of the state.
Anarchism
Anarchism is when a group of people have complete freedom and do not believe in having a state at all. Anarchists are a lot like Marxists, since they do not believe that all people are equal, but they believe (opposite to Marxists) that a country can work without any organizations in it. Law and order are not necessary.
Anarchists (such as Bakunin and Kropotkin in the 19th century), often want a form of Marxism but ignoring some of their rules. They want workers to manage themselves and simply get paid for what they do, rather than getting paid in wages.
Related pages
Country
Sovereign state
International relations
List of sovereign states
Montevideo Convention
Nation
Social contract
U.S. state
Unitary state
Province
Political economy
Constitutional economics
Local government
References
Social sciences
International law | [
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Saturn | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn | Saturn is the sixth planet from the Sun located in the Solar System. It is the second largest planet in the Solar System, after Jupiter. Saturn is one of the four gas giant planets, along with Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune.
Saturn is the English transliteration from the Latin word Saturnus, in Roman religion, the god of sowing or seed. The Romans equated him with the Greek agricultural deity Kronos. Saturn was named after the Roman god Saturnus (called Kronos in Greek mythology). Saturn's symbol is ♄ which is the symbol of Saturnus' sickle.
Inside Saturn is probably a core of iron, nickel, silicon and oxygen compounds, surrounded by a deep layer of metallic hydrogen, then a layer of liquid hydrogen and liquid helium and finally, an outer gaseous layer.
Saturn has 82 known moons orbiting the planet. 53 are officially named and 29 are waiting to be named. The largest moon is Titan, which is larger in volume than the planet Mercury. Titan is the second-largest moon in the Solar System. The largest moon is Jupiter's moon, Ganymede. There is also a very large system of rings around Saturn. These rings are made of ice with smaller amounts of rocks and dust. Some people believe that the rings were caused by a moon impact or other event. Saturn is about 1,433,000,000 km (870,000,000 mi) on average from the Sun. Saturn takes 29.6 Earth years to revolve around the Sun.
Physical features
Saturn is an oblate spheroid, meaning that it is flattened at the poles, and it swells out around its equator. The planet's equatorial diameter is , while its polar diameter (the distance from the north pole to the south pole) is ; a 9% difference. Saturn has a flattened shape due to its very fast rotation, once every 10.8 hours.
Saturn is the only planet in the Solar System that is less dense than water. Even though the planet's core is very dense, it has a gaseous atmosphere, so the average specific density of the planet is 0.69 g/cm3. This means if Saturn could be placed in a large pool of water, it would float.
Atmosphere
The outer part of Saturn's atmosphere is made up of about 96% hydrogen, 3% helium, 0.4% methane and 0.01% ammonia. There are also very small amounts of acetylene, ethane and phosphine.
Saturn's clouds show a banded pattern, like the cloud bands seen on Jupiter. Saturn's clouds are much fainter and the bands are wider at the equator. Saturn's lowest cloud layer is made up of water ice, and is about thick. The temperature here is quite low, at 250 K (-10°F, -23°C). However scientists do not agree about this. The layer above, about thick, is made up of ammonium hydrosulfide ice, and above that is a layer of ammonia ice clouds thick. The highest layer is made up of hydrogen and helium gases, which extends between and above the water cloud tops. Auroras are also known to form in Saturn in the mesosphere. The temperature at Saturn's cloud tops is extremely low, at 98 K (-283 °F, -175 °C). The temperatures in the inner layers are much higher than the outside layers because of the heat produced by Saturn's interior.
Saturn's winds are some of the fastest in the Solar System, reaching 1,800 km/h (1,118 mph), ten times faster than winds on Earth.
Storms and spots
Saturn's atmosphere is also known to form oval shaped clouds, similar to the clearer spots seen in Jupiter. These oval spots are cyclonic storms, the same as cyclones seen on Earth. In 1990, the Hubble Space Telescope found a very large white cloud near Saturn's equator. Storms like the one in 1990 were known as Great White Spots. These unique storms only exist for a short time and only happen about every 30 Earth years, at the time of the summer solstice in the Northern Hemisphere.
Great White Spots were also found in 1876, 1903, 1933, and 1960. If this cycle continues, another storm will form in about 2020.
The Voyager 1 spacecraft found a hexagonal cloud pattern near Saturn's north pole at about 78°N. The Cassini−Huygens probe later confirmed it in 2006. Unlike the north pole, the south pole does not show any hexagonal cloud feature. The probe also discovered a hurricane-like storm locked to the south pole that clearly showed an eyewall. Until this discovery, eyewalls had only been seen on Earth.
Interior
Saturn's interior is similar to Jupiter's interior. It has a small rocky core about the size of the Earth at its center. It is very hot; its temperature reaches 15,000 K (). Saturn is so hot that it gives out more heat energy into space than it receives from the Sun. Above it is a thicker layer of metallic hydrogen, about deep. Above that layer is a region of liquid hydrogen and helium. The core is heavy, with about 9 to 22 times more mass than the Earth's core.
Magnetic field
Saturn has a natural magnetic field that is weaker than Jupiter's. Like the Earth's, Saturn's field is a magnetic dipole. Saturn's field is unique in that it is perfectly symmetrical, unlike any other known planet. This means the field is exactly in line with the planet's axis. Saturn generates radio waves, but they are too weak to be detected from Earth. The moon Titan orbits in the outer part of Saturn's magnetic field and gives out plasma to the field from the ionised particles in Titan's atmosphere.
Rotation and orbit
Saturn's average distance from the Sun is over 1,400,000,000 km (869,000,000 mi), about nine times the distance from the Earth to the Sun. It takes 10,759 days, or about 29.8 years, for Saturn to orbit around the Sun. This is known as Saturn's orbital period.
Voyager 1 measured Saturn's rotation as being 10 hours 14 minutes at the equator, 10 hours 40 minutes closer to the poles, and 10 hours 39 minutes 24 seconds for the planet's interior. This is known as its rotational period.
Cassini measured the rotation of Saturn as being 10 hours 45 minutes 45 seconds ± 36 seconds. That is about six minutes, or one percent, longer than the radio rotational period measured by the Voyager 1 and Voyager 2 spacecraft, which flew by Saturn in 1980 and 1981.
Saturn's rotational period is calculated by the rotation speed of radio waves released by the planet. The Cassini−Huygens spacecraft discovered that the radio waves slowed down, suggesting that the rotational period increased. Since the scientists do not think Saturn's rotation is actually slowing down, the explanation may lie in the magnetic field that causes the radio waves.
Planetary rings
Saturn is best known for its planetary rings which are easy to see with a telescope. There are seven named rings; A, B, C, D, E, F, and G rings. They were named in the order they were discovered, which is different to their order from the planet. From the planet the rings are: D, C, B, A, F, G and E.
Scientists believe that the rings are material left after a moon broke apart. A new idea says that it was a very large moon, most of which crashed into the planet. This left a large amount of ice to form the rings, and also some of the moons, like Enceladus, which are thought to be made of ice.
History
The rings were first discovered by Galileo Galilei in 1610, using his telescope. They did not look like rings to Galileo, so he called them "handles". He thought that Saturn was three separate planets that almost touched one another. In 1612, when the rings were facing edge on with the Earth, the rings disappeared, then reappeared again in 1613, further confusing Galileo. In 1655, Christiaan Huygens was the first person to recognise Saturn was surrounded by rings. Using a much more powerful telescope than Galilei's, he noted Saturn "is surrounded by a thin, flat, ring, nowhere touching...". In 1675, Giovanni Domenico Cassini discovered that the planet's rings were in fact made of smaller ringlets with gaps. The largest ring gap was later named the Cassini Division. In 1859, James Clerk Maxwell showed that the rings cannot be solid, but are made of small particles, each orbiting Saturn on their own, otherwise, it would become unstable or break apart. James Keeler studied the rings using a spectroscope in 1895 which proved Maxwell's theory.
Physical features
The rings range from to above the planet's equator. While the equatorial circumference of Saturn is 378,675 km (235,298 miles).As proved by Maxwell, even though the rings appear to be solid and unbroken when viewed from above, the rings are made of small particles of rock and ice. They are only about thick; made of silica rock, iron oxide and ice particles. The smallest particles are only specks of dust while the largest are the size of a house. The C and D rings also seem to have a "wave" in them, like waves in water. These large waves are high, but only moving slowly at about each day. Some scientists believe that the wave is caused by Saturn's moons. Another idea is the waves were made by a comet hitting Saturn in 1983 or 1984.
The largest gaps in the rings are the Cassini Division and the Encke Division, both visible from the Earth. The Cassini Division is the largest, measuring wide. However, when the Voyager spacecrafts visited Saturn in 1980, they discovered that the rings are a complex structure, made out of thousands of thin gaps and ringlets. Scientists believe this is caused by the gravitational force of some of Saturn's moons. The tiny moon Pan orbits inside Saturn's rings, creating a gap within the rings. Other ringlets keep their structure due to the gravitational force of shepherd satellites, such as Prometheus and Pandora. Other gaps form due to the gravitational force of a large moon farther away. The moon Mimas is responsible for clearing away the Cassini gap.
Recent data from the Cassini spacecraft has shown that the rings have their own atmosphere, free from the planet's atmosphere. The rings' atmosphere is made of oxygen gas, and it is produced when the Sun's ultraviolet light breaks up the water ice in the rings. Chemical reaction also occurs between the ultraviolet light and the water molecules, creating hydrogen gas. The oxygen and hydrogen atmospheres around the rings are very widely spaced. As well as oxygen and hydrogen gas, the rings have a thin atmosphere made of hydroxide. This anion was discovered by the Hubble Space Telescope.
Spokes
The Voyager space probe discovered features shaped like rays, called spokes. These were also seen later by the Hubble telescope. The Cassini probe photographed the spokes in 2005. They are seen as dark when under sunlight, and appear light when against the unlit side. At first it was thought the spokes were made of microscopic dust particles but new evidence shows that they are made of ice.
They rotate at the same time with the planet's magnetosphere, therefore, it is believed that they have a connection with electromagnetism. However, what causes the spokes to form is still unknown. They appear to be seasonal, disappearing during solstice and appearing again during equinox.
Moons
Saturn has 53 named moons, and another 29 which are still being studied. Many of the moons are very small: 33 are less than in diameter and 13 moons are less than . Seven moons are large enough to be a near perfect sphere caused by their own gravitation. These moons are Titan, Rhea, Iapetus, Dione, Tethys, Enceladus and Mimas. Titan is the largest moon, larger than the planet Mercury, and it is the only moon in the Solar System to have a thick, dense atmosphere. Hyperion and Phoebe are the next largest moons, larger than in diameter.
In December 2004 and January 2005 a man-made satellite called the Cassini−Huygens probe took lots of close photos of Titan. One part of this satellite, known as the Huygens probe, then landed on Titan. Named after the Dutch astronomer Christiaan Huygens, it was the first spacecraft to land in the outer Solar System. The probe was designed to float in case it landed in liquid.
Enceladus, the sixth largest moon, is about in diameter. It is one of the few outer solar system objects that shows volcanic activity. In 2011, scientists discovered an electric link between Saturn and Enceladus. This is caused by ionised particles from volcanos on the small moon interacting with Saturn's magnetic fields. Similar interactions cause the northern lights on Earth.
Exploration
Saturn was first explored by the Pioneer 11 spacecraft in September 1979. It flew as close as above the planet's cloud tops. It took photographs of the planet and a few of its moons, but were low in resolution. It discovered a new, thin ring called the F ring. It also discovered that the dark ring gaps appear bright when viewed towards the Sun, which shows the gaps are not empty of material. The spacecraft measured the temperature of the moon Titan.
In November 1980, Voyager 1 visited Saturn and took higher resolution photographs of the planet, rings, and moons. These photos were able to show the surface features of the moons. Voyager 1 went close to Titan and gained much information about its atmosphere. In August 1981, Voyager 2 continued to study the planet. Photos taken by the space probe showed that changes were happening to the rings and atmosphere. The Voyager spacecraft discovered a number of moons orbiting close to Saturn's rings, as well as discovering new ring gaps.
On July 1, 2004, the Cassini−Huygens probe entered into orbit around Saturn. Before then, it flew close to Phoebe, taking very high-resolution photos of its surface and collecting data. On December 25, 2004, the Huygens probe separated from the Cassini probe before moving down towards Titan's surface and landed there on January 14, 2005. It landed on a dry surface, but it found that large bodies of liquid exist on the moon. The Cassini probe continued to collect data from Titan and a number of the icy moons. It found evidence that the moon Enceladus had water erupting from its geysers. Cassini also proved, in July 2006, that Titan had hydrocarbon lakes, located near its north pole. In March 2007, it discovered a large hydrocarbon lake the size of the Caspian Sea near its north pole.
Cassini observed lightning occurring in Saturn since early 2005. The power of the lightning was measured to be 1,000 times more powerful than lightning on Earth. Astronomers believe that the lightning observed in Saturn is the strongest ever seen.
Notes
Refers to the level of one bar atmospheric pressure
Orbital information is based on the barycentre of the Saturn system, the centre of mass, not the geometric centre. Barycentre measurements are used because they are not changed by the daily movement of the moons.
Related pages
List of planets
References
Notes
Further reading
Theoretical description of the rings of Saturn.
A WAV file of radio emissions from Saturn. | [
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The Sun | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Sun | The Sun is the star at the center of the Solar System.
The Sun may also mean:
Publications
United Kingdom
The Sun (United Kingdom), a current daily national tabloid
The Sun (1792–1806), a defunct British newspaper
The Sun (1893–1906), a defunct British newspaper
United States
The Sun (magazine), a monthly literary and photography magazine
The Sun (Lowell), a daily newspaper in Massachusetts
The Sun (New York City), a defunct daily newspaper in New York (1833–1950)
The New York Sun, 2002–2008
The Sun (Sheridan), a defunct weekly newspaper in Oregon (1890–2014)
Sun, later the Ann Arbor Sun, a defunct underground newspaper in Michigan
The Sun, later called Peck's Sun, a Wisconsin newspaper founded by George Wilbur Peck
The U.S. Sun, the U.S. online edition of The Sun (United Kingdom)
Elsewhere
Sun Newspapers (Northern Territory), community newspapers in Darwin, Australia
The Sun (Hong Kong), a defunct Chinese-language newspaper (1999–2016)
The SUN (Hong Kong), an English-language newspaper for Filipinos
The Sun (Malaysia), a daily Malaysian tabloid
The Sun (New Zealand), a defunct New Zealand newspaper
The Sun (Nigeria), a daily Nigerian newspaper
The Sun (Rangoon), a defunct Burmese newspaper (1911–1954)
The Sun (Sydney), a defunct Australian tabloid (1910–1988)
Arts and entertainment
Movies
The Sun (movie), a 2005 Russian biographical movie
Music
Artists
The Sun (American band)
The Sun (Estonian band)
The Sun (Italian band), previously under the name Sun Eats Hours
Albums
The Sun (Cat Empire album)
The Sun (Fridge album)
The Sun, an album by FanFan
Songs
"The Sun", by Maroon 5 from the 2002 album Songs About Jane
"The Sun", a 2014 single by Parov Stelar
"The Sun", an original Barney song from Barney in Outer Space
Fictional and literary uses
The Sun (Tarot card), a trump card in the tarot deck
The Sun (wordless novel), a 1919 book of woodcut prints by Frans Masereel
Ash-Shams ("The Sun"), the ninety-first sura of the Qur'an
The Sun, a The House of the Dead III character
Other
The Sun (St. Paul's Churchyard), a historical bookseller in London
Related pages
Sun (disambiguation)
Sun (newspaper)
The Sunday Sun (disambiguation), name of various newspapers
Le Soleil (French for "The Sun"), name of various newspapers
Die Son (Afrikaans for "The Sun"), a daily South African tabloid | [
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Vatican City | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Vatican%20City | Vatican City (; officially Vatican City State, ) is an independent sovereign state and the smallest country in the world by size, at 0.49 km². Its territory is completely surrounded by Italy and it is only one of three countries in the world that are enclaves of another country (the others being San Marino, also in Italy, and Lesotho in southern Africa). Also, it is the only country in the world that is an enclave of a city, as all of the land around it is part of Rome, the capital of Italy. The Vatican City is a city-state, because all its territory is urban and built-up.
The Vatican City is the headquarters of the Roman Catholic Church and its government, the Holy See. Its head of state is the Pope which is, religiously speaking, the Bishop of Rome and head of the Roman Catholic Church. The current Pope, Pope Francis, former cardinal Jorge Mario Bergoglio, was elected on 13 March 2013.
Established on 11 February 1929 with the Lateran Agreement (Patti Lateranensi) signed by Benito Mussolini and Pope Pius XI, the Vatican City is also important for its culture and art. The Vatican's masterpieces are very well known in the world: St. Peter's Square, St. Peter's Basilica, the Sistine Chapel, the Vatican Museums and the Apostolic Palace, where the Pope lives. There are also hundreds of other sculptures and pictures.
History
The Pope used to rule the Papal States, which included most of Italy. Catholic popes had generally tried to stop Italy from becoming one country because they feared they would lose their control of at least one of the Papal States. In 1861 Italy was unified under the King of Savoy, but Rome and Latium remained unconquered. On September 20, 1870 Italian troops invaded. Rome became capital of the new kingdom.
The Pope claimed he was a prisoner of the Italian state and excommunicated all the people who helped invade the Papal state. This stopped Catholics from taking part in public life under Catholic government.
In 1929 Benito Mussolini, decided to sign an agreement with the Holy See, called the Lateran Treaty, which created the Vatican State. Another treaty gave the Vatican money each year to compensate for the lost territories.
Politics and Government
The government structure is theocracy with the pontifical leader being the highest authority. The pope is elected by the College of Cardinals which can lead the Roman Catholic Church and the city-state itself. The Pope also holds the title of "Bishop of Rome".
People
Population
Vatican City has a population of 453 people, and 246 of them are citizens. The citizens of the Vatican include the Pope, all the cardinals, all the ambassadors (who are called nuncios) and other diplomats, all the Swiss Guards, and other important people. Also, there are 372 Vatican citizens who live in other countries, including cardinals and nuncios. Vatican citizenship cannot be passed to children and spouses; and, except for the Pope and cardinals, Vatican citizenship is lost when the term of office comes to an end, for the Swiss Guards, nuncios and diplomats, and other people working for the Vatican.
Language
The Vatican does not have a law declaring an official language. Italian is the main language used. The Holy See's official language is Latin.
Religion
The official religion of the Vatican is Roman Catholic Christianity, and because the state is ruled by a Pope, it is a theocracy.
Gallery
References
Notes
Current monarchies
1929 establishments in Italy | [
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Cold War | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cold%20War | The Cold War was the tense fighting between the United States and its allies and the Soviet Union (also called the USSR) and its allies between the end of World War II and the fall of the Soviet Union. It is called the "Cold" War because the Americans and the Soviet Union never actually fought each other directly. Instead, they attacked each other in conflicts known as proxy wars where a powerful country starts a war that they don't fight in.
Conflicting countries
Most of the countries on one side were allied by NATO, whose most powerful country was the United States. Most of the countries on the other side were allied by the Warsaw Pact, whose most powerful country was the Soviet Union.
The Western Bloc was the name of the capitalist countries led by the United States. The North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO) is an alliance created in 1949 and included the United States, the United Kingdom, France, West Germany, Canada, Netherlands, Belgium, Luxembourg, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Norway, Denmark, Greece, and Turkey. Other countries allied with the Western Bloc include Israel, Brazil, South Korea, Kenya (1960-1991), Bangladesh (1964-1968), Pakistan, North Yemen, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Philippines, South Africa, Australia and New Zealand.
The Eastern Bloc was the group of socialist countries led by the Soviet Union. The Warsaw Pact was an alliance created in 1955 and included the USSR, Albania, Bulgaria, Czechoslovakia, East Germany, Hungary (until 1976), Poland, and Romania. Other countries allied with the Eastern Bloc included Angola (1975–1991), Cuba, Bolivia, Cambodia (1977–1979), South Yemen, Tunisia, Nepal, Bhutan, Libya (1974–1991), Mongolia (1976–1988), Jamaica, North Korea, China and Laos (1975–1991).
Background
In February 1917, Tsar Nicholas II of the Russian Empire was overthrown because people were unhappy with their living conditions (like being a serf), especially during World War I. The new government in Russia was a democratic socialist government. Unfortunately, it was ineffective, and people were still unhappy. In November 1917, a communist group called the Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, overthrew the new government and were supported by groups of workers called Soviets. The Bolsheviks created a new communist government called the Russian Soviet Federation Socialist Republic (also called simply Soviet Russia or the Russian SFSR).
However, not everyone supported the communists. Many countries that had been part of the Russian Empire had left, such as Latvia, Lithuania, Estonia, and Belarus. The Russian Civil War began, with the Soviet Russian Red Army fighting against the White Army of anticommunist Russians. The White Army was not very united or organized. The Allied Powers of World War I, such as the United States, the United Kingdom, and France, invaded Russia to support the White Army and stop the Red Army. The Red Army eventually won the war in 1922, and established the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (also called the Soviet Union), along with the newly-formed Socialist Republics of Ukraine, Armenia, Azerbaijan and Georgia.
The start of the Cold War in 1947 was caused by a belief that all governments would become either communist or capitalist. The Western Allies feared that the Soviet Union would spread communism to the rest of Europe and was very concerned that Soviet agents had learnt how to make atomic bombs after the war.
Both nations had opposed Nazi Germany although the United States worked with Nazi scientists and Soviet Union had chosen not to fight with Germany in the Molotov-Ribbentrop pact and the two occupied Poland in 1939. However, Germany turned against the Soviet Union in June 1941 and invaded it during Operation Barbarossa.
After World War II
After World War II, Germany was left in ruins. The victorious Allies that occupied it split it into four parts. in the western half of Germany, one part was given to the United States, one to the United Kingdom, and one to France. The eastern half was occupied by the USSR. The city of Berlin was also split among the four countries even though it was entirely within the eastern half.
The Federal Republic of Germany (Bundesrepublik Deutschland or BRD), or West Germany, was recognized by the Western Allies in June 1949 and was a capitalist democracy. West Berlin was considered a part of the country. The Soviets named their section of Germany the German Democratic Republic (Deutsche Demokratische Republik or DDR), or East Germany, later in 1949; it was a communist dictatorship.
From April 1948 to May 1949, the Soviets blockaded West Berlin to prevent the city from using West Germany's currency. The United States and its allies supplied the city by airplanes until September 1949 in what became known as the Berlin Airlift. Many East Germans wanted to live in West Germany for having greater quality of life and political freedom. In 1961, the East German government built the Berlin Wall, dividing the two halves of the city, and heavily guarded it to prevent more people from escaping to the west. The wall was considered a symbol of the Cold War and the Iron Curtain that divided Europe.
1950s
Espionage, or "spying," has been around for a long time and was very important during the Cold War. After its successful nuclear espionage in the Manhattan Project, the Soviets created their spy organs, especially the KGB. The CIA led Americans efforts abroad, and the FBI led counterespionage. Catching foreign spies and fighting domestic subversion were KGB functions.
In 1953, the Soviet leader Joseph Stalin died, and Nikolai Bulganin and Nikita Khrushchev took his place. Khrushchev later took sole control of the Soviet Union. Khrushchev's Secret Speech marked a period of de-Stalinization, and Khrushchev tried to undo many of the things done by Stalin (such as the Gulag prisons and Stalin's cult of personality).
In the United States, there was a "Red Scare", and when the Soviets detonated their own atom bomb, there was a big political fallout and the United States government made everybody scared about communists. Famous people in many fields who had been Communist sympathizers like in the past like Larry Adler lost their positions. Many actors were 'blacklisted' and so were not hired to act in movies, which ruined their careers. US Senator Joseph McCarthy was believed by many when he accused some important Americans of being communists, including some high government officials.
The 1950s were the beginning of the Space Race between the United States and the Soviet Union. It began with the Soviets putting the Sputnik 1 satellite into orbit around the Earth as the first country in space. The United States responded by starting NASA and soon sent up its own satellites. The Soviets also sent the first man (Yuri Gagarin) into Earth orbit and claimed that proved communism to be the better ideology.
In the 1950s, the United States (under President Dwight Eisenhower) created a policy called "New Look" to cut defense spending and to increase the number of nuclear weapons as a deterrent in order to prevent the Soviet Union from attacking the West. The Soviets also increased their nuclear force, which resulted in mutual assured destruction.
In the Suez Crisis of 1956, the Cold War alliances were broken in an important way for the first time with the Soviet Union and United States favoring one side and Britain and France the other. The Western Allies also decided to let Soviet troops suppress the Hungarian Revolution of 1956.
US Vice-President Richard Nixon engaged in several talks with Khrushchev during the 1950s. One of these was the 1959 "Kitchen Debate" in a model kitchen in Moscow. The debates highlighted the political and economic differences between the Americans and the Soviets. The following year, the United States U-2 spy plane crashed in the Soviet Union. Tensions between the two countries increased.
Cuban Missile Crisis (1962)
After the United States had invaded Cuba and failed in the Bay of Pigs, the Soviet Union attempted to supply Cuba with nuclear missiles. The missiles in Cuba would have allowed the Soviet Union to target almost the entire United States effectively. In response the United States sent a large number of ships to blockade Cuba to prevent the Soviet Union from sharing the weapons. The United States and Soviet Union agreed that the Soviet Union would no longer give nuclear weapons to Cuba if the United States didn't invade Cuba again. That was the highest period of tension during the Cold War and was the closest the world came to a nuclear war, with possible global conflict to follow.
Détente (1962–1981)
After the agreement that ended the Cuban Missile Crisis, relations between both sides eased up. Several treaties, designed to reduce the number of nuclear weapons, were signed. In 1964, the US under President Lyndon Johnson invaded North Vietnam, which resulted in a humiliating defeat for the Americans and South Vietnam in 1975. During this period of détente, the United States began building a good relationship with the People's Republic of China, which had once been an ally of the Soviet Union.
End
The policy of détente ended in 1981, when US Pesident Ronald Reagan ordered a massive military buildup to challenge Soviet influence around the world. The United States began to support anticommunists all over the world with money and weapons. The idea was to help them overthrow their communist governments.
The Soviets had a slow economy during this decade because military spending was at an all-time high. They tried to keep up with the United States in military spending but could not do so. In the Soviet war in Afghanistan, which started in 1979, the Soviets had a difficult time fighting resistance groups, with some of them armed and trained by the United States. The Soviets' failed invasion of Afghanistan is often compared to the American failure during the Vietnam War.
In the late 1980s, the new Soviet leader, Mikhail Gorbachev, made an effort to make an ally of the United States to fix world problems caused by the war, with the ultimate aim of eliminating nuclear weapons. However, that did not take place because Reagan insisted on having a nuclear missile defense system. The people of the Soviet Union were divided. Some wanted Gorbachev to fight harder to eliminate nuclear weapons, but others did not want him to be talking to the United States at all. The mixed feelings created an atmosphere of political infighting, and the people were no longer united behind one goal. Also, the Communist Party started to crumble.
After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 and without communist rule holding together the countries that comprised the Soviet Union, it was divided into smaller countries in 1991 like Russia, Ukraine, Lithuania and Georgia. Eastern Europe got very poor and broken and returned to capitalism. The Cold War was over.
Not all historians agree on when the Cold War ended. Some think it ended when the Berlin Wall fell, but others think it ended when the Soviet Union collapsed in 1991.
References
Other websites
Cold War -Citizendium
Cold War | [
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Capital city | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Capital%20city | A capital city, or capital town or capital, is a city or town, specified by law or constitution, by the government of a country, or part of a country, such as a state, province, or county. It usually serves as the location of the government's central meeting place and offices. Most of the country's leaders, embassy and officials work in the capital city. This doesn't have to be the case though: Monaco, Nauru, Switzerland and Vatican City are examples of countries that do not have a capital city. Israel said Jerusalem was its capital: Most countries don't recognise this, and most embassies are in Tel Aviv. In Japan, the city of Tokyo, which was the capital, was disbanded in 1943. Today, the 23 city districts (called wards) have the role of capital city. Each district is a city of its own, though.
Size
Capitals are usually among the largest cities in their regions and often are the biggest. For example, Montevideo is Uruguay's capital and its biggest city. The capital may also be the most important center of commerce, as in London or Bangkok.
However, a capital is not always the largest city in a country. For example, the capital of India is New Delhi, which is smaller than Mumbai.
In countries with subdivisions like the United States, the capitals of the federated states are often not the biggest cities. For example, New York City is the biggest city in the United States and in New York State, but is not the capital of either. The capital the country is Washington, DC, and the capital of the state is Albany.
An unusual case exists in Canada since the federal capital, Ottawa, is not the largest city in its province, Ontario, which is Toronto. However, Toronto is the capital of Ontario, so Toronto is a provincial capital but not a federal one.
Number
Some countries have more than one capital for different purposes. For example, Bolivia has two (Sucre and La Paz) and South Africa has three (Pretoria, Cape Town, and Bloemfontein). In a city-state like Singapore, Monaco, and the Vatican City, the capital is the country.
Not all countries have capitals. Nauru is a country that does not officially have a capital, but the district of Yaren, which is where the government is, can be called the de facto capital. Also, although many people consider the city of Bern in Switzerland to be the capital of the country, it is by law not the capital but the "federal city."
Location
Capitals can be in cities that are already there like Athens or Rome, or a new town can be built and made the capital like Canberra and Alexandria. Countries can change capitals from time to time. Several cities have been the capital of China. The United States once had its capital in Philadelphia and later in New York City but moved to the new city of Washington, D.C. in 1800. Rio de Janeiro was the capital of Brazil until the new city of Brasilia was built between 1956 and 1960.
Reykjavík, the capital of Iceland, is the world's northernmost capital city.
Seat of government
Most countries have their seat of government within their capital. However, Malaysia has its capital at Kuala Lumpur, but its seat of government is at Putrajaya. In the Netherlands, the constitution calls Amsterdam the capital, but the seat of government is The Hague.
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Sky | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sky | The sky is the appearance of the atmosphere around the surface of the planet from our point of view. We see many objects that are actually in space such as the Sun, the Moon, and stars because they are in the sky. On a clear day the sky appears blue. At night it appears from very dark blue to black. The deepness of the blue increases as we look toward the horizon, and up to the point above us.
The sky, which is made up of gas molecules, is blue because of the random scattering of sunlight by the molecules. Rayleigh scattering defines the amount of scattering of light rays. Blue light scatters much more than red, which is why the sky appears blue on a clear day. Depending on the time of day, the sky may appear different colors. At dawn or dusk the sky may appear red, orange, or even green and purple depending on how low the sun is and how close it is to night.
Other planets have skies too. Because the types of gases in their atmospheres are different, they have different sky colors. For example, the sky on Mars is red.
Many things can be seen in the sky. There are objects from space like the Sun, Moon, and stars. There are also many weather events seen in the sky. For example, these can be clouds, rain, lightning, or fog. Weather is caused by different patterns and temperatures in the atmosphere. Other things that can be seen in the sky are birds, other flying animals, and aircraft.
Other websites
Day Sky Images
Night Sky Images
Sky Photo Gallery
Why is the sky blue?
References
Basic English 850 words | [
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Bible | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible | The Bible, also known as the Holy Bible, is a group of religious texts of Judaism and Christianity, it contains the both Old Testament and The New Testament. The word Bible comes from the Greek word τὰ (biblía) which means "books" in English, because it is many books in one book. It includes laws, stories, prayers, songs, and wise words. A number of texts are both in the Hebrew Bible, used by Jews, and this Christian one.
In considering the source and inspiration for the Bible one must see what the Bible says of itself. Several verses of scripture define the source, intent, and Author. 2 Peter 1:21 says this - "No prophecy was ever made by the act of human will, but men moved by the Holy Spirit spoke from God." Isaiah 55:11 tells us that His is a word of power - "So shall My sword be that goes forth from My mouth; It shall not return to Me void, But it shall accomplish what I please, And it shall prosper in the thing for which I sent it." Hebrews 4:12 says this - "For the word of God is alive and active. Sharper than any double-edged sword, it penetrates even to dividing soul and spirit, joints and marrow; it judges the thoughts and attitudes of the heart."
When talking about the Bible, a book is used to speak about a number of texts. All the texts that make a book are believed to belong together. Most of the time, people believe they were written or collected by the same person. The Bible contains different kinds of such books. Some are history, telling the stories of the Jews, Jesus, or Jesus' followers. Some are collections of wise sayings. Some are God's commands to his people, which he expects them to obey. Some are songs of praise to God. Some are books of prophecy, messages from God that he gave through chosen people called prophets.
Different groups of Christians do not agree which texts should be included in the Bible. Christian Bibles range from the 66 books of the Protestant canon to 81 books in the Ethiopian Orthodox Bible. The oldest surviving Christian Bible is the Codex Sinaiticus, a Greek manuscript from the fourth century AD. The oldest complete Hebrew manuscripts date from the Middle Ages.
How it was written
For a long time the texts were passed on by word of mouth from generation to generation. The Bible was written long ago in Aramaic, Hebrew, and Greek. Translations were made later into Latin and some other languages. Now there are translations in English and many other languages. The books of the Hebrew Bible—what Christians call the Old Testament—were not all written at the same time. It took hundreds of years (about 1200 years). The process of putting it all together began around 400 B.C. The books of the New Testament, which was originally written in Greek, began to be collected together in about 100 A.D. It tells about events that happened between 4 B.C. and 70 A.D. These events included the birth, life, death and resurrection of Jesus. It also tells how his followers went around spreading his message. It ends with a description of how the world will end when Jesus returns to earth. Most of the writers of the New Testament were apostles of Jesus. These were people who said they had seen Jesus alive after his crucifixion.
Translations and versions
A translation is when a scribe takes the source in one language and writes it in another language. Most texts of the Bible were written in Ancient Greek or in Aramaic or Hebrew.
The first to provide a translation into Latin was Jerome, in the 5th century. He started what is known as the Vulgate today. Wufila translated the Bible into the Gothic language. In the early Middle Ages, people such as Petrus Valdes, and Jan Hus provided translations.
The New Testament was first translated into English in 1382 by John Wycliffe, and his associates translated the Old Testament. The translation was made from the Vulgate Latin bible. Wycliffe did this so that people could see for themselves what the Bible said. The translation was completed in 1382. There were some later editions by other people to the Wycliffe bible, as it is called. It was translated into Middle English, the language of his day. Wycliffe did not have Church permission to do this, but he was protected by John of Gaunt, one of the most powerful men in the kingdom. After both Wycliffe and his protector were dead, the Church declared Wycliffe a heretic in 1415, and banned his writings. The Council of Constance decreed Wycliffe's works should be burned and his remains exhumed (dug up). Why was the Church so opposed? The translations challenged the Church's authority over the people. In church, explaining the Bible was the priest's work. Whatever he said could not be challenged. Once the ordinary people could read the Bible, they might have other opinions.
The next step in translation was done in 1525 by William Tyndale. His translation was into Early Modern English, which we can just about understand today. Tyndale also did it without Church permission. His was the first translation to be printed, and several thousand copies were made. He had no protector, and his fate was terrible. He fled to Europe, but the agents of Thomas More (Chancellor of England at the time) eventually found him. Both Tyndale and his printer were executed by burning at the stake.
Another well known translation is the 1611 King James translation (commonly known as the Authorized King James Version of the Bible).
Some texts were written by historians who tried to show what Ancient Israel was like. Other texts are poems about God and his work. And others were used to make laws. Followers of Judaism and Christianity consider the Bible sacred but they do not all agree about what belongs in the Bible. What is considered part of the Bible changed with history. Different denominations include certain parts or leave out other parts. There is not one single version of the Bible; both the content of the books and their order may change.
Languages do not match. When a translation is done, the translator has to decide between translation word for word, or capturing the sense of the text. When he decides to capture the sense, he will choose other words in the target language. This is called paraphrasing.
Today there are dozens of versions of the Bible. Some are translations and some are paraphrases. A paraphrased version is where people take a translation and put it in their own words. As the Bible has been translated into modern languages, it is also possible that there are different translations of the same texts. The Bible is the best selling book of all time. 2.5 billion to more than 6 billion copies of the Bible have been sold to date. A complete version of the Bible exists in 471 languages. Parts have been translated in 2225 languages. Most Bibles can be found in the British Museum in London.
Old Testament
The Christian Bible is a collection of 66 books. The first 39 books are the Old Testament. It is the first part of the God's story of salvation. "Salvation" is God's long work of saving us from our sins. "Sin" is what happened when people decided to live their own way instead of God's way in the world that God created. That was when God began His great work of saving us from our sins.
To prepare the way, God had to destroy the whole world by a great flood, except for the family of Noah. Then God raised up a new people for Himself. They were the ancient Hebrews. God promised the Hebrews they would bring His salvation to the whole world.
The first five books of the Old Testament are mostly the story of how God chose the ancient Hebrews and taught them his laws. Following these are the twelve books that tell the history of the Hebrews. The next five are books of poetry and wisdom. One of these five books, the "Psalms", is a book of songs showing mainly how God wants to be worshiped.
The last seventeen books of the Old Testament were written by Hebrew prophets. These books tell about God's disappointment with the ancient Hebrews and His promise to bring them back to friendship with Him. The prophets also foretell a great surprise God was planning for the world-He was going to send His very own Son, the Messiah (the "Anointed One"), the Saviour, to save us from our sins.
You can read about this Messiah in the New Testament.
In the Old Testament, Tanakh was mostly written in Hebrew; a few parts were written in Aramaic. This part of the Bible is considered to be holy by Jews as well as Christians.
There are also a few books of the Old Testament's time called Deuterocanonical by those Churches that accept them as part of the Bible, and Apocrypha by those that do not.
New Testament
The second part is called the New Testament. The main part of this book is the story of the life of Jesus Christ. The four different versions of this story in the New Testament are called the Gospels. After the Gospels, there is also the story of what happened to the Church after Jesus's death and resurrection. Part of this is told through letters by early Christian leaders, especially Saint Paul. The final book of the Bible tells about a vision that St. John, one of the disciples of Jesus, had. In the vision John saw what would happen at the end of the world. This included judgement for evil and happiness for the people who had followed Jesus. One of the most quoted verses in the Bible is John 3:16: "For God so loved the world that He gave His one and only Son, that whoever believes in Him shall not perish [die] but have eternal life." NIV
Views about the Bible
People have different ideas about the Bible. Christians believe it is God's Word to people. The Jews believe that only the Old Testament is from God. Protestants and Catholics believe that the Old and New Testaments are God's Word. Catholics also believe that the books called Apocrypha or Deuterocanonical are part of the Bible. Sometimes different denominations disagree over exactly what the Bible means.
According to Islam, the Injil itself is to be followed but it is believed to have been corrupted with time. The Qur'an is believed to be the successor.
Atheists do not believe that gods exist, so the Bible is only an ancient book.
Deists believe in God, but they believe that the Bible was written by people, so they don't see it as important.
Some people in the Bible
Abraham
King David
Isaac
Jacob
James (son of Zebedee)
Jesus Christ
John the Apostle
Joseph
Luke the Evangelist
Mark the Evangelist
The Virgin Mary
Matthew the Evangelist
Moses
Joshua
Noah
Saint Peter
Saint Paul
Timothy
Adam
Eve
References
Entre Galilée et l'Église : la Bible., Une mise au point. Étude. Joël COL. , AutoEdition Méguila, 2003.
Other websites
The Bible Gateway: the complete Bible online
The Bible in Simple English | [
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] |
Saturn (disambiguation) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Saturn%20%28disambiguation%29 | Saturn is a planet in the Solar System. It might also mean:
Saturn (mythology), the Roman god
Saturn Corporation, an automobile company owned by General Motors
Saturn Award, honors the top works in science fiction, fantasy, and horror in movie, television, and home video
Saturn Moscow Oblast, a Russian football team from the Moscow suburb of Ramenskoye
Sega Saturn, a 32-bit video game console made by Sega
People
Perry Saturn (born 1966), retired American professional wrestler who is best known for wrestling with WWF and Extreme Championship Wrestling (ECW) | [
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] |
List of U.S. states | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20U.S.%20states | This article lists the 50 states of the United States. It also lists their populations, the date they became a state or agreed to the United States Declaration of Independence, their total area, land area, water area, and the number of representatives in the United States House of Representatives.
Washington D.C., (Washington, District of Columbia) is a federal district and capital of the United States and is not considered a state. The United States also has sovereignty over 14 other territories. These are not included in this list.
Map of the U.S States
Click on any state to learn more about that state.
List of states
Other websites
Notes
References | [
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Birmingham City F.C. | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birmingham%20City%20F.C. | Birmingham City Football Club, is an English football club.
The club play in the Championship, their current manager is Gary Monk. Their home ground is St.Andrews
Name
1875-1888 Small Heath Alliance F.C.
1888-1905 Heath F.C.
1905-1945 Birmingham F.C.
1945-present Birmingham City F.C.
League position
Former position
References
Other websites
BCFC Fanzine
English football clubs
Birmingham
1875 establishments in England | [
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Manchester City F.C. | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Manchester%20City%20F.C. | Manchester City Football Club is an English football club. The club is coached by Pep Guardiola and the team is currently playing in the English Premier League.
The club plays in the Premier League and is owned by a royal family from Abu Dhabi. As of 1 September 2008 they are the richest club in the Premier League. They won the 2011–12 Premier League championship, their first in the top flight since the 1967–68 season. After finishing second in 2012–13, they won the Premier League championship again in 2013–14. Their current stadium is the Etihad Stadium (noncommercial name: City of Manchester Stadium). The stadium is part-owned by Manchester City Council, and could only be built on the understanding that Manchester City would take a tenancy after the 2006 Commonwealth Games, which the club agreed to do. The owner of Manchester City Sheik Mansour bought 200 million pounds.
Name
1880-1887 St Mark's (West Gorton)
1887–1894 Ardwick F.C.
1894–present Manchester City F.C.
Players
Current squad
Out on loan
The following players have previously made a league or cup appearance for Manchester City and are currently on loan at other teams:
Other players with first-team appearances
Retired numbers
Player of the Year
Source:
References
1880 establishments in the United Kingdom
Premier League clubs
Sport in Manchester | [
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Basque Country (greater region) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basque%20Country%20%28greater%20region%29 | The Basque Country (Basque: Euskal Herria) is a region in Southwestern Europe that is within the borders of France and Spain.
Description
It is the home of the Basque people. It is at the western end of the Pyrenees on the Bay of Biscay. Its boundaries are complicated, as it consists of seven districts: four within Spain and three within France.
History
Origins
No one knows when the Basques came to Europe. Many say that they have been in Europe since the Neolithic period at the end of the Stone Age, but others say that they were here even earlier.
The first written information about the Basque Country is from the Roman times, when the Basque people already spoke their own language. During the fall of the Western Roman Empire, the Basque Country was isolated from the invading Goths.
Middle Ages
During the Muslim invasion of Southern Europe, the Basque Country split in two: the Castilian and the Navarrese lands. A war with France later split the Navarrese zone in two.
After the Reconquista, the Castilian Basque lands and Navarre became part of the new country: Spain. Since then, Basque people from the Spanish area of the Basque Country have had their own government and have fought to gain the northern part of the Basque Country from France.
Now
Today, three of the Basque districts in Spain (Araba, Bizkaia, and Gipuzkoa) form the Autonomous Community of the Basque Country. The political unit is one of 17 autonomous communities in Spain.
The fourth Basque district in Spain (Navarra) is its own separate autonomous community of Spain.
The three districts in the North (French) Basque Country are Lapurdi (Labourd), Nafarroa Beherea (Basse-Navarre) and Zuberoa/Xiberoa (Soule).
Population
The entire region has a surface area of 20,664 km2 (7978 sq mi). The Autonomous Community of the Basque Country has 7,234 km2 (2793 sq mi), and its population is about 2,000,000 - about 5% of the total population of Spain. Basque and Spanish are spoken, and its largest city is Bilbao although the capital is Vitoria-Gasteiz.
Famous people
Miguel de Unamuno
Maurice Ravel (through his mother)
Che Guevara (through his mother)
St. Ignatius Loyola
Louis Daguerre
Pío Baroja
Largest cities
Bilbao
Donostia
Gazteiz
Iruña
Biarritz
Baiona
Maule
Donibane Garazi
Other websites
The official website of the Basque Autonomous Community
Geography of France
Geography of Spain | [
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Wave (physics) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wave%20%28physics%29 | A wave is a kind of oscillation (disturbance) that travels through space and matter. Wave motions transfer energy from one place to another.
Examples
Waves are found everywhere in the natural world. Examples of waves are:
Sound
Water waves
Seismic waves (earthquakes)
Electromagnetic waves
Light waves
Radio waves
Properties
Waves have properties that can be measured. All waves can be pictured by adding sine waves.
Sine waves can be measured too. The shape of a sine wave is given by its amplitude, phase, wavelength and frequency. The speed that the sine wave moves can be measured. The amplitude and wavelength of the sine wave are shown in the picture.
The highest point on a wave is called the crest. The lowest point is called the trough. The crest of a wave and the trough of a wave are always twice the wave's amplitude apart from each other. The part of the wave halfway in between the crest and the trough is called the baseline.
Complicated waveforms (like the sound waves of music) can be made by adding up sine waves of different frequencies. This is how mp3 audio files are converted from their compressed form into the music we can hear. Complex waves can be separated into sine waves by Fourier analysis.
Waves and matter
Some waves can move through matter while others cannot. For instance, some waves can move through empty space, light waves for example. Sound waves, on the other hand, cannot move through empty space. Inherently, all waves carry energy from one place to another when they move. In some applications of technology, waves may carry meaningful information from one place to another, such as news on the radio.
Usually, after a wave moves through matter, the matter is the same as it was before the wave was introduced, though in some cases, matter can be affected by waves traveling through it. In 1922, Louis de Broglie found out that all waves are also particles, and all particles are also waves.
Types
In matter:
Transverse wave: the vibrations of particles are perpendicular ⊥ to the direction of travel of the wave. Transverse waves have crests and troughs. Wave crests and troughs move along a travelling transverse wave.
Longitudinal wave: the vibrations of particles are parallel to the direction of travel of wave. Longitudinal waves have compressions and rarefactions. Compressions and rarefactions move along a travelling longitudinal wave.
Standing wave: a wave that remains in a constant position.
Travelling wave: The blue waves move off to the right. They are traveling waves. The red waves do not move. They are standing waves.
Solitary wave or soliton: Solitary waves were first observed in a river channel in 1834. Something gets a bulge of water starting moving up the channel and the bulge on the surface of the water continues to move up the stream.
Light waves can move through space. Light is different from wind or water because light sometimes acts like waves and sometimes it acts as little bits called "particles." The nature of light is a big part of quantum mechanics.
Related pages
List of wave topics
Notes
Wave physics | [
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City of London | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20London | The City of London is a district of Greater London. The City's boundaries have remained almost unchanged since the Middle Ages. Although it is now only a small part of the metropolis, it is a notable part of central London. The City holds city status in its own right, and is also a separate ceremonial county. Often referred to as the City, or the Square Mile, it is just over one square mile, in area.
It is here in the City of London where most of the United Kingdom's financial trade is done. It is a very small area, covering only a square mile, and has a very small resident population (8,000). However, many people come to work here and during the day it can be very busy, with some 300,000 people in it.
"London" now refers to Greater London, which is made up of 32 boroughs (including the City of Westminster and the City of London). The City is in central London and is the oldest part of the city, dating back to Roman times. The City of London has its own mayor, the Lord Mayor of London, an office separate from (and much older than) the Mayor of London. There are other ancient features, dating back to medieval times. The City has its own police force, the City of London Police.
Financial markets
The City vies with New York City as the financial capital of the world: many banking and insurance institutions have their headquarters there. The London Stock Exchange (shares and bonds), Lloyd's of London (insurance) and the Bank of England are all based in the City.
Over 500 banks have offices in the City, and the City is an established leader in trading in Eurobonds, foreign exchange, energy futures and global insurance. The Alternative Investment Market, a market for trades in equities of smaller firms, is a recent development. In 2008, the City of London accounted for 4% of UK GDP.
London is the world's greatest foreign exchange market, with much of the trade conducted in the City of London. Of the $3.98 trillion daily global turnover, as measured in 2007, trading in London accounted for around $1.36 trillion, or 34.1% of the total. The Pound Sterling, the currency of the United Kingdom, is globally the fourth most traded currency and the third most held reserve currency.
Since 1991 Canary Wharf, a few miles east of the City in Tower Hamlets, has become a second centre for London's financial services industry and houses many banks and other institutions formerly located in the Square Mile. This development does not appear to have damaged the City: growth has continued in both locations.
History
The City is the site of Roman Londinium, and the archaeological remains are on display in the Museum of London, City Wall.
The City has many churches designed by Sir Christopher Wren, including St Paul's Cathedral. The City was the site of the Great Fire of London in 1666.
References
Ceremonial counties of England
City of London | [
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City of Westminster | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/City%20of%20Westminster | The City of Westminster is a city and London borough. It is to the west of the City of London. Its most important area, Westminster, contains the Houses of Parliament, Whitehall, Downing Street and Westminster Abbey. | [
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Queen | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen | A queen is a woman who rules a country, because of inheritance. A queen usually comes to power after the death of the previous king or queen, who is her parent. A country that is ruled by a queen is called a kingdom – the same as a country ruled by a king.
The wife of a king is also called a queen. However, the husband of a queen is not always called a king. For example, the last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth), who was called Queen Elizabeth. He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter, who is also called Elizabeth. She became Queen Elizabeth II. She was married to The Duke of Edinburgh until his death on April 9, 2021; but when she became Queen he did not become King.
Many people who study government think a country should not have a monarchy. They argue that rulers ought to be elected, or that monarchs are often corrupt. Aristotle’s “Politics” compares the different forms of government which a state may have. He claims monarchy to be one of the worst regimes because one leader may be easily corrupted, even if they were selected as the most wise and deserving ruler of an entire group.
Many people in countries such as the UK want to keep their royal family as they have remained a traditional icon and source of income for the country. However, in the UK their influence in the rule of the country is very small, leaving government to the governing political party elected by the people. This is because in a constitutional monarchy the monarch has only the power of head of state.
Queen regnant
A queen regnant is head of state, and has all the powers of a sovereign.
A queen regnant does not keep the title of queen if she abdicates (resigns). No queen has ever abdicated in the history of the United Kingdom, but three abdications have occurred in the Kingdom of the Netherlands:
Queen Wilhelmina abdicated in 1948 and became Princess Wilhelmina. Her daughter became Queen Juliana.
Queen Juliana abdicated and became Princess Juliana.
Queen Beatrix abdicated in 2013 and became Princess Beatrix.
Queen consort
A queen consort is the wife of a king. She is not the head of state, and does not have any powers unless they are given by the King or another law.
The last King of Britain (George VI) had a wife (Elizabeth) who was called Queen Elizabeth. He had no sons, so he was followed by his elder daughter. She is also called Elizabeth and became Queen Elizabeth II. She was married to the late Duke of Edinburgh; but when she became Queen he did not become King.
Queen dowager
A queen dowager is the widow of a king.
A queen consort usually keeps the title of Queen after her husband's death, for example
Queen Alexandra, widow of King Edward VII of the United Kingdom
Queen Mary, widow of King George V of the United Kingdom and
Queen Elizabeth, widow of King George VI of the United Kingdom, she was given the title Queen Elizabeth the Queen Mother because her daughter is also called Elizabeth. | [
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Weather | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Weather | Weather is the day-to-day or hour-to-hour change in the atmosphere. Weather includes wind, lightning, storms, hurricanes, tornadoes, rain, hail, snow, and lots more. Energy from the Sun affects the weather too.
Climate tells us what kinds of weather usually happen in an area at different times of the year.
Changes in weather can affect our mood and life. We wear different clothes and do different things in different weather conditions. We choose different foods in different seasons.
Weather stations around the world measure different parts of weather. Ways to measure weather are wind speed, wind direction, temperature and humidity. People try to use these measurements to make weather forecasts for the future. These people are scientists that are called meteorologists. They use computers to build large mathematical models to follow weather trends.
Severe weather can hurt people and their property. It can also just be a bother. Some examples of severe weather are:
Tropical cyclones
Rainstorms
Drought
Heat waves
Tornadoes
Causes of weather
Weather happens because different parts of the Earth get different amounts of heat from the Sun. This makes different climates. The tropics get the most heat because the Sun shines straight down on them, while the poles get the least heat because the Sun shines on them from a low angle. Warmer air is lighter than cooler air and rises higher in the sky by convection.
The air always has some water mixed with it. This is called humidity. When it cools, the water can change from a gas to a liquid through condensation. Then the water can fall from the sky as rain or snow. After the air rises, it gets colder and goes back towards the ground. Because the air lost its water before, it is dry when it comes back to the ground. When two air masses of different temperatures meet, this is called a warm front or cold front. The ways that the air moves around the Earth are called atmospheric circulation.
Other websites
Weather
Internet Geography's weather page
The Weather Channel
National Weather Service
Natural events
Basic English 850 words | [
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British Columbia | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Columbia | British Columbia (BC) is the westernmost province in Canada. It was originally two separate colonies of Great Britain, the colony of Vancouver Island, and the colony of British Columbia. British Columbia joined the Canadian Confederation In 1871. The capital of British Columbia is Victoria, but the city with the most people is Vancouver.
History
Early History
Before European contact, British Columbia was home to large numbers of indigenous people. These people, for the large part, still live in the province. Because BC has a large amount of resources, the native people who dwelled here lived comfortably enough. The large number of resources, in particular, led to the creation of very complex hierarchical societies in British Columbia, long before the government of the Europeans.
Oregon Dispute
See Also Fort Vancouver, Oregon
The Oregon dispute was an important factor in determining the physical shape of British Columbia, and as the political impetus for British investment in protecting her lands in British Columbia. During the middle of the 19th century, the Democratic Party of the United States, appealing to the public attraction to the Manifest Destiny (a philosophy preaching American Supremacy and expansionism), declared that the United States had a claim over the entirety of Columbia District/Oregon Territory. This attitude was reflected even further, as 54*-40' or fight, referring to the end of Columbia District, and the start of Russian Territory of Alaska. This alarming attitude, caused many in London to fear that yet another war, in less than a century, was brewing. Ultimately, however, it was resolved, at the 49th parallel. British Columbia lost Fort Vancouver (now Vancouver, Washington), and lots of the gulf islands. To this day, the Oregon Treaty is criticized by historians, as being too lenient for the Americans.
Hudson's Bay Corporation
While British Columbia was technically a British colony, it was the private corporation, the Hudson's Bay Company that really ran the place. The first Governor of Vancouver Island (then a separate colony), actually resigned over the fact that the Queen, had no say, above the interests of the Colony. After him, the next governor of the Island, was also, coincidentally, the head of the HBC's operations in British Columbia and Vancouver Island.
Gold Rush
The first major gold rush in British Columbia started in 1858, after gold was discovered, on the upper reaches of the Fraser River. The sudden onslaught of uncouth Americans led to the declaration that British Columbia shall be a crown colony, instead of the unincorporated region it was, after the Oregon spat. James Douglas was appointed the governor of the newly formed colony, as well as the Colony of Vancouver Island, and for military convenience, the Capital of British Columbia was declared Queensboro, then renamed New Westminster. As massive numbers of Americans came, fears that the Americans would try to bluster themselves another chunk of territory became more and more concrete. Thus, a contingent of Royal Engineers and Marines were deployed to New Westminster. To this day, the neighbourhood of Sapperton, is known, for its history as a site of the barracks for the Engineers, nicknamed the Sappers. The infrastructure ordered by James Douglas, to support the vast amount of capital flowing from the gold industry, caused high debt for British Columbia. By 1864, British Columbia was £200,000 in debt, plus an additional £18,000, from various spats with natives, and constant policing required to maintain law and order. Its vast amount of gold was useless, while BC was in debt. British Columbia amalgamated with Vancouver Island, forming one super-colony. Vancouver Island would undertake the debt, and British Columbia's capital would be in Victoria.
Confederation With Canada
British Columbia at the middle of the 19th century, had 3 options: Remain a colony of Britain, annex itself to the United States, or join the Dominion of Canada. The option of remaining a colony was undesirable, for Britain had long adopted a "little Briton" policy, under which the key to economic efficiency, and reduction of bloat, was to cut off connections to its various colonies. The option of joining with Canada was also viewed as impractical, and unlikely to occur; the closest Canadian neighbor lay more than a thousand kilometers away, to the east. For most British Colombians, annexation to the United States seemed most logical. Ultimately, however, British Columbia did confederate. The advocacy of the Confederation League, resulted in British Colombian's demanding that BC join Canada. On July 20, 1871, British Columbia joined Canada. In return, BC was absolved of its debt, which became Canada's responsibility, and Canada promised to build a railway to BC within 10 years.
Industry
British Columbia's industry is primarily, and has always been, resource centered. For large parts of its history, including the entire time it was a colony, BC was dominated by the big 4: Forestry, Mining, Logging, and Agriculture, which have shaped British Columbia's culture, and society.
Forestry in British Columbia
British Columbia's forestry industry has always been booming. BC had a bonanza of massive trees, thanks to its location in the Pacific Rainforest region. This provided ample opportunity for entrepreneurs to build businesses. Massive sawmills sprung up, all over British Columbia, especially in what is now Vancouver and surrounding regions. However, this required massive amounts of human capital - which was surprisingly in short supply. To overcome this, massive numbers of immigrants were invited to Vancouver, and places like so. This changed BC's demographic makeup so much, that to try to stop it, the government passed several acts, to try and limit the number of immigrants. However, the change was already underway - BC subsequently became one of the most diverse places in North America, with people calling it home, from places like Asia, Europe, and even the Pacific Islands.
Mining in British Columbia
British Columbia's large mineral resources also led to a large mining industry. For the most of the 19th century, and well into the 20th century, mining was highly profitable. For the immigrants, once again, this was another opportunity to exploit. Large numbers of immigrants, skilled from their experience mining at home, filled up the labour demands, and quickly, new towns were formed. The city of Nanaimo, for instance, was founded thanks to a large amount of coal found in its harbour. Coal especially, was the fuel of the industry, as coal was required for everything it the time, from ships, to trains, to the heater in everyone's homes.
Fishing in British Columbia
Thanks to BC's location on the coast, fishing has been very prevalent in British Columbia. Before agriculture had developed very far in BC, and well before farming fish was even a viable option, fishing was the only reliable way to get food. The native people of BC already had a very active fishing industry, with large hauls of salmon, and other creatures sustaining them. When civilization came, the fishing industry took off, as everybody needed to eat, and there was not enough agricultural goods to go around. In fishing, once again, it was the immigrants that pulled it off. Mostly Japanese workers, and their families, came. Using their rich heritage of industrialized fishing, they were able to out compete every other fisherman, that by the turn of the century, the dockyards, canneries, and fishing fleets were filled to the brim with the Japanese. Only the forced Japanese internment in WW2 put a halt to the monopoly the Japanese had on fishing in British Columbia. Today, fishing is still a powerful force, although fettered by ordinances to prevent overfishing.
Agriculture in British Columbia
The agriculture industry in BC is, and always has been humble. However, as they say, good things come in small packages, and the agricultural goods of BC, are about as good as they come. Due to the fact that BC has only about 2% arable land, the remainder being too dry, or too cold, or too remote, or a plethora of other reasons, BC has never been able to sustain a primary food agricultural industry. Even today, BC cannot grow enough food to feed its entire population, and imports foods instead, from the eastern provinces, such as Alberta, and Saskatchewan. However, where BC does grow food, the food is scrumptious, and award-winning. The Okanagan valley, is known for its award-winning fruits, and wine-related products. However, that is not where all the food is produced. In the Fraser valley delta, large amounts of other food crops are grown, such as wheat, and berries.
Housing in British Columbia
The value of real estate in British Columbia has increased a lot in recent years. Property assessed values have increased by $1-trillion since 2007. In 2018 the value was $1.861 trillion. In 2007 it was only $808 billion.
Health care
The provincial health insurance plan in British Columbia is called Medical Services Plan (MSP). In order to join MSP a person:
must be a citizen of Canada or be lawfully admitted to Canada for permanent residence
must make his or her home in B.C.; and
Eligible B.C. residents (citizens of Canada or persons who are lawfully admitted to Canada for permanent residence) who are outside B.C. for vacation purposes only, are allowed a total absence of up to seven months in a calendar year.
Politics
British Columbia's premier is John Horgan, leader of the provincial New Democratic Party, a social democratic party. The NDP governs British Columbia through a deal with the provincial Green Party, led by Andrew Weaver. The BC Liberal Party is the main opponent to the NDP, and is led by Andrew Wilkinson. Other parties are active in British Columbia, such as the Conservative Party, led by Scott Anderson, although only the NDP, BC Liberal Party, and Green Party currently have seats.
Flags
The flag of British Columbia was adopted in 1960. It is based on the provincial arms and the union jack.
References
Other websites
Provincial Archives including online photo database
Vancouver Public Library; Historical Photographs of BC & the Yukon
B.C. Multicultural Photographs from the Vancouver Public Library - searchable photo database
BC Govt online map archive
1871 establishments
1870s establishments in Canada
Provinces and territories of Canada | [
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Black hole | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20hole | A black hole is a region of space from which nothing, not even light, can escape. According to the general theory of relativity, it starts existing when spacetime gets curved by a huge mass. There is a sphere around the black hole. If something goes inside the sphere, it can not leave. This sphere is called the event horizon. A black hole is black because it absorbs all the light that hits it. It reflects nothing, just like a perfect black body in thermodynamics. Under quantum mechanics, black holes have a temperature and emit Hawking radiation, which makes them slowly get smaller.
Because black holes are very hard to see, people trying to see them look for them by the way they affect other things near them. The place where there is a black hole can be found by tracking the movement of stars that orbit somewhere in space. Or people can find it when gas falls into a black hole, because the gas heats up and is very bright. This can be found by Earth or Earth-orbiting telescopes. Inside a black hole the rules of physics are very different.<ref>Wald, Robert M. 1992. Space, time, and gravity: the theory of the Big Bang and black holes. University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-87029-8</ref>
Astronomers have found evidence of supermassive black holes at the center of almost all galaxies. In 2008 astronomers found evidence that a supermassive black hole of more than four million solar masses is near the Sagittarius A* part of the Milky Way galaxy.
History
In 1783, an English clergyman named John Michell wrote that it might be possible for something to be so heavy you would have to go at the speed of light to get away from its gravity. Gravity gets stronger as something gets more massive. For a small thing, like a rocket, to escape from a larger thing, like Earth, it has to escape the pull of the Earth's gravity or it will fall back. The speed that it must travel to get away is called escape velocity. Bigger planets (like Jupiter) and stars have more mass, and have stronger gravity than Earth. Therefore, the escape velocity would need to be much faster. John Michell thought it was possible for something to be so big that the escape velocity would need to be faster than the speed of light, so even light could not escape. In 1796, Pierre-Simon Laplace wrote about the same idea in the first and second editions of his book Exposition du système du Monde (it was removed from later editions).
Some scientists thought Michell might be right, but others thought that light had no mass and would not be pulled by gravity. His theory was forgotten.
In 1916 Albert Einstein wrote an explanation of gravity called general relativity.
Mass causes space (and spacetime) to bend, or curve. Moving things "fall along" or follow the curves in space. This is what we call gravity.
Light always travels at the same speed, and is affected by gravity. If it seems to change speed, it is really traveling along a curve in spacetime.
A few months later, while serving in World War I, the German physicist Karl Schwarzschild used Einstein's equations to show that a black hole could exist. The Schwarzschild radius is the size of the event horizon of a non-rotating black hole. This radius was the measurement where the escape velocity was equal to the speed of light. If the radius of a star is smaller, then light is unable to escape, and it would be a dark star, or black hole.
In 1930, Subrahmanyan Chandrasekhar predicted that stars heavier than the sun could collapse when they ran out of hydrogen or other nuclear fuels to burn.Penrose, Roger 1996. Chandrasekhar, black holes and singularities. Journal of Astrophysics and Astronomy. 17 (3–4): 213–231. Bibcode:1996JApA...17..213P. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.496.2529. doi:10.1007/BF02702305. S2CID 119807977. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 July 2018. Retrieved 4 September 2017. In 1939, Robert Oppenheimer and H. Snyder calculated that a star would have to be at least three times as massive as the Sun to form a black hole. In 1967, John Wheeler invented the name "black hole" for the first time. Before that, they were called "dark stars".
In 1970, Stephen Hawking and Roger Penrose showed that black holes must exist. Although the black holes are invisible (they cannot be seen), some of the matter that is falling into them is very bright.
As of spring 2019, there was an image of a black hole, or rather, the things orbiting the black hole. The image required many photos from different locations. One of the team members (Katie Bouman) made a compilation of all the images into one singular image.
In 2020, Roger Penrose, Reinhard Genzel and Andrea Ghez were awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics for their work on the theory of black holes.
Formation of black holes
The gravitational collapse of huge (high-mass) stars cause "stellar mass" black holes. Star formation in the early universe may have created very massive stars. When they collapsed they produced black holes of up to 103 solar masses. These black holes may be the seeds of the supermassive black holes found in the centers of most galaxies.
Most of the energy released in gravitational collapse is given off very quickly. A distant observer sees the material falling in slowly and then stop just above the event horizon because of gravitational time dilation. The light given off just before the event horizon is delayed an infinite amount of time. So the observer never sees the formation of the event horizon. Instead, the collapsing material seems to become dimmer and increasingly red-shifted, eventually fading away.
Supermassive black holes
Black holes have also been found in the middle of almost every galaxy in the known universe. These are called supermassive black holes (SBH), and are the biggest black holes of all. They formed when the Universe was very young, and also helped to form all the galaxies.
Quasars are believed to be powered by gravity collecting material into supermassive black holes in the centers of distant galaxies. Light cannot escape the SBHs at the center of quasars, so the escaping energy is made outside the event horizon by gravitational stresses and immense friction on the incoming material.
Huge central masses (106 to 109 solar masses) have been measured in quasars. Several dozen nearby large galaxies, with no sign of a quasar nucleus, have a similar central black hole in their nuclei. Therefore, it is thought that all large galaxies have one, but only a small fraction are active (with enough accretion to power radiation) and so are seen as quasars.
Effect on light
At the middle of a black hole, there is a gravitational center called a singularity. It is impossible to see into it because the gravity prevents any light escaping. Around the tiny singularity, there is a large area where light which would normally pass by gets sucked in as well. The edge of this area is called the event horizon. The area beyond the event horizon is the black hole. The gravity of the black hole gets weaker at a distance. The event horizon is the place farthest away from the middle where the gravity is still strong enough to trap light.
Outside the event horizon, light and matter will still be pulled toward the black hole. If a black hole is surrounded by matter, the matter will form an "accretion disk" (accretion means "gathering") around the black hole. An accretion disk looks something like the rings of Saturn. As it gets sucked in, the matter gets very hot and shoots x-ray radiation into space. Think of this as the water spinning around the hole before it falls in.
Most black holes are too far away for us to see the accretion disk and jet. The only way to know a black hole is there is by seeing how stars, gas and light behave around it. With a black hole nearby, even objects as big as a star move in a different way, usually faster than they would if the black hole was not there.
Since we cannot see black holes, they must be detected by other means. When a black hole passes between us and a source of light, the light bends around the black hole creating a mirror image. That effect is called gravitational lensing.Dyson F.W; Eddington A.S. & Davidson C. 1920. A determination of the deflection of light by the Sun's gravitational field, from observations made at the total eclipse of 29 May 1919. Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society A: Mathematical, Physical and Engineering Sciences. 220 (571–581): 291–333.
Hawking radiation
Hawking radiation is black body radiation which is emitted by black hole, due to quantum effects near the event horizon. It is named after the physicist Stephen Hawking, who provided a theoretical argument for its existence in 1974.
Hawking radiation reduces the mass and the energy of the black hole and is therefore also known as black hole evaporation''. This happens because of the virtual particle-antiparticle pairs. Due to quantum fluctuations, this is when one of the particles falls in and the other gets away with the energy/mass. Because of this, black holes that lose more mass than they gain through other means are expected to shrink and ultimately vanish. Micro black holes (MBHs) are predicted to be larger net emitters of radiation than larger black holes and should shrink and dissipate faster.
Properties of black holes
The no hair theorem states that a stable black hole has only three independent physical properties: mass, charge, and angular momentum. If this is true, then any two black holes that have the same values for these three properties will look the same. As of 2020, it is unclear if the no hair theorem is true for real black holes.
The properties are special, because all three can be measured from outside the black hole. For example, a charged black hole repels other like charges just like any other charged object. Similarly, the total mass inside a sphere containing a black hole can be found by using the gravitational analog of Gauss's law, far away from the black hole. The angular momentum or spin can also be measured from far away.
References
Galaxies
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Phases of the Moon | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Phases%20of%20the%20Moon | The phases of the Moon are the different ways the Moon looks from Earth over about a month.
As the Moon orbits around the Earth, the half of the Moon that faces the Sun will be lit up. The different shapes of the lit portion of the Moon that can be seen from Earth are known as phases of the Moon. Each phase repeats itself every 29.5 days.
The same half of the Moon always faces the Earth, because of tidal locking. So the phases will always occur over the same half of the Moon's surface.
A phase is an angle of the moon to the earth so it appears differently every day.
Phases
The moon goes through 8 major phases.
A new moon is when the moon cannot be seen because we are looking at the unlit half of the Moon. The new moon phase occurs when the Moon is directly between the Earth and Sun. A solar eclipse can only happen at new moon.
A waxing crescent moon is when the Moon looks like a crescent and the crescent increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. This phase is usually only seen in the west.
The first quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waxing crescent phase. It comes a week after new moon.
A waxing gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape increases ("waxes") in size from one day to the next. The waxing gibbous phase occurs between the first quarter and full moon phases.
A full moon is when we can see the entire lit portion of the Moon. The full moon phase occurs when the Moon is on the opposite side of the Earth from the Sun, called opposition. A lunar eclipse can only happen at full moon.
A waning gibbous moon occurs when more than half of the lit portion of the Moon can be seen and the shape decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next. The waning gibbous phase occurs between the full moon and third quarter phases.
The last quarter moon (or a half moon) is when half of the lit portion of the Moon is visible after the waning gibbous phase.
A waning crescent moon is when the Moon looks like a crescent and the crescent decreases ("wanes") in size from one day to the next.
"Blue moon"
A second full moon in one calendar month is usually called a "blue moon" and this occurs approximately every 3 years. The idiom "Once in a blue moon" refers to something that does not happen often (like a blue moon).
Super Pink Moon
A supermoon or Super Pink Moon takes place when moon's orbit is at its closest to the Earth. Supermoon take place each year between March and May. As Moon is exceptionally close to Earth; full Moon appears up to 7% larger and 15% brighter than a typical full moon. Traditionally any full moon that occurred in April was called a pink moon because it marked the blooming of Moss pink a wildflower.
Related pages
Extraterrestrial sky
Phases of the Earth
Super Pink Moon
References
Moon | [
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Percentage | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Percentage | Percent means out of one hundred. It is often shown with the symbol "%". It is used even if there are not a hundred items. The number is then scaled so it can be compared to one hundred. Percent is also used to indicate changes in numerical quantities.
For example, we have a bowl of fruit with three apples and one orange. The percentage of apples is 3 out of 4, or 3/4 = 75/100 = 75%.
A percentage is only one way of writing a ratio; one can also write it as a fraction or decimal. There are ways to convert fractions to percentages or decimals to percentages.
Uses
Percentages are useful in practice, because it allows one to compare things that are not out of the same number. For example, exam marks are often percentages, which can compare them even if there are more questions on one exam paper than the other.
Related pages
Annual percentage rate
Percentile
Per mille
References
Mathematics | [
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Air space | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20space | Air space is the area of the air that is controlled by a country or organisation. You have to have the permission of the controller to enter their air space in an airplane. The air traffic controllers make sure the planes go in the right place and do not hit each other or something else. Some countries are very protective of their air space.
Aviation
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Snow | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Snow | Snow is a form of ice. Snow forms when water in the atmosphere becomes frozen. Snow comes in all different shapes and sizes.
At the freezing point of water (0° Celsius, 32° Fahrenheit), snow melts and becomes liquid water. Sometimes, the snow will melt very fast and become water vapor. This is called sublimation. The opposite, where water vapor becomes snow, is called deposition.
Snow is used for some winter sport activities like skiing and sledding. Sometimes people make artificial snow so they can ski. People also commonly build things out of snow for fun.
Snow can also be dangerous, as it can lower visibility and make driving very difficult. When it snows, the snow will melt a little during the daytime and freeze again at night. This makes ice which can make driving conditions very treacherous. Snow plows are used to remove snow from roads to make driving easier and safer. Also, sand or salt may be added to the road to help tires grip the road. When salt is mixed with snow, the snow will melt more easily. This is because salt water has a lower melting point than fresh water (water without salt).
A blizzard is a dangerous type of a snowstorm. A blizzard produces strong winds that keep the snow in the air, thus reducing visibility. Sometimes it produce thunder snow, which is snow with lightning and thunder.
References
Snow
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Brain | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Brain | The brain is the part of the body which lets animals make sense of things. It gets input from sense organs, and changes behavior in response to this information. In humans, the brain also controls our use of language, and is capable of abstract thought. The brain is the main control centre of the whole body. The brain is made up of special cells called nerves, which are connected with each other and with other nerves in our body. In all animals the delicate brain is protected in some way. In ourselves, and all vertebrates, it is protected by the bones of the skull.
Function
The brain does the thinking, learning, and feeling for the body. For humans, it is the source of consciousness. The brain also controls basic autonomic body actions, like breathing, digestion, heartbeat, that happen automatically. These activities, and much else, are governed by unconscious functions of the brain and nervous system. All the information about the world gathered by our senses is sent through nerves into the brain, allowing us to see, hear, smell, taste and feel things. The brain processes this information, and we experience it as pictures, sounds, and so on. The brain also uses nerves to tell the body what to do, for example by telling muscles to move or our heart to beat faster.
This is generally true but some activity is caused by the spinal cord directly, for example, reflex actions do not involve the brain. In lower animals, a good deal is done without their brain being involved.
All vertebrates have brains and, over time, their brains have evolved to become more complex. Some simple animals, however, like sponges, do not have anything like a brain. Segmented invertebrates have ganglions in each segment, and a ring of nervous tissue around the alimentary canal at the front. This acts to bring sense data from the front into play with the movement of the body.
Parts
In mammals, the brain is made of three main parts: the cerebrum, the cerebellum and the brainstem. The surface of the cerebrum is the cerebral cortex, which all vertebrates have. Mammals also have an extra layer, the neocortex. This is the key to the behaviour which is typical of mammals, especially humans.
Cerebral cortex
The cortex has sensory, motor, and association areas. The sensory areas are the areas that receive and process information from the senses. The motor areas control voluntary movements, especially fine movements performed by the hand. The right half of the motor area controls the left side of the body, and vice versa. Association areas produce a meaningful experience of the world, and supports abstract thinking and language. This enables us to interact effectively. Most connections are from one area of the cortex to another, rather than to subcortical areas; The figure may be as high as 99%.
Cerebellum
The cerebellum coordinates muscles so they work together. It is also the centre of maintaining position and balance, a vital part of movement helping with simple motor skills.
Brain stem
The brain stem is at the back of the brain (actually underneath it in humans). It joins the rest of the brain with the spinal cord. It has lots of different parts that control different jobs in the body: for instance, the brain stem controls breathing, heartbeat, sneezing, eye blinking, and swallowing. Body temperature and hunger are also controlled by parts of the brain stem.
Size
The volume of the human brain (relative to the size of the whole body) is very large, compared to that of most other animals. The human brain also has a very large surface (called cortex) for its size, which is possible because it is very wrinkled. If the human cortex were flattened, it would be close to a square meter in area. Some other animals also have very wrinkled brains, such as dolphins and elephants. Here is a rule of thumb: the larger an animal is, the larger its brain will be.p15 Even allowing for that, the human brain, and in particular the neocortex, is very large. We know it increased in size four-fold over the last several million years of evolution.p79 There are ideas about why this happened, but no-one is quite sure. Most theories suggest complex social activity and the evolution of language would make a larger brain advantageous.p80 As an additional note, Einstein's brain weighed only 1,230 grams, which is less than the average adult male brain (about 1,400 grams). The detailed organisation of a brain obviously matters, but in ways which are not understood at present.
Number of cells
A human brain accounts for about 2% of the body's weight, but it uses about 20% of its energy. It has about 50–100 billion nerve cells (also called neurons), and roughly the same number of support cells, called glia. The job of neurons is to receive and send information to and from the rest of the body, while glia provide nutrients and guide blood flow to the neurons, allowing them to do their job. Each nerve cell has contact with as many as 10,000 other nerve cells through connections called synapses.
Related pages
Spinal cord
Vertebrate brain
Human Connectome Project
References
Other websites
Sylvius: 400+ structure neuroanatomical visual glossary; used by over half of U.S. medical schools
High-resolution cytoarchitectural primate brain atlases
Kolata, Gene 2013. The New York Times. In a first, experiment links brains of two rats February 28, 2013
Pais-Vieira, Miguel et al 2013. Nature Scientific Reports 3, #1319. A brain-to-brain interface for real-time sharing of sensorimotor information doi:10.1038/srep01319
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List of color topics | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20color%20topics | This is a list of color topics.
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List of bones of the human skeleton | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20bones%20of%20the%20human%20skeleton | A typical adult human skeleton consists of the following 206 bones. Some people have slightly more or fewer. Some bones are called "proximal" meaning nearer the torso, some as "intermediate" and some as "distal" meaning farther.
In the skull (22):
Cranial bones:
frontal bones
Parietal bone (2)
temporal bones (2)
occipital bone
sphenoid bone
ethmoid bone
Facial bones:
mandible
maxilla (2)
palatine bone (2)
zygomatic bone (2)
nasal bone (2)
lacrimal bone (2)
vomer bone
inferior nasal conchae (2)
In the middle ears (6):
malleus (2)
incus (2)
stapes (2)
In the throat (1):
hyoid bone
In the shoulder girdle (4):
scapula or shoulder blade (2)
clavicle or collarbone (2)
In the thorax (25):
sternum
ribs (2 x 12)
In the vertebral column (24):
cervical vertebrae (7) incl. atlas & axis
thoracic vertebrae (12)
lumbar vertebrae (5)
In the arms (6):
humerus (2)
radius (2)
ulna (2)
In the hands (54):
Wrist (carpal) bones:
scaphoid bone (2)
lunate bone (2)
triquetral bone (2)
pisiform bone (2)
trapezium (2)
trapezoid bone (2)
capitate bone (2)
hamate bone (2)
Palm or metacarpal bones:
metacarpal bones (5 × 2)
Finger bones or phalanges:
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
In the pelvis (4):
coccyx
sacrum
ossa coxae (hip bones or innominate bones) (2)
In the legs (8):
femur (2)
patella (2)
tibia (2)
fibula (2)
In the feet (52):
Ankle (tarsal) bones:
calcaneus (heel bone) (2)
talus (2)
navicular bone (2)
medial cuneiform bone (2)
intermediate cuneiform bone (2)
lateral cuneiform bone (2)
cuboid bone (2)
Instep bones:
metatarsal bone (5 × 2)
Toe bones:
proximal phalanges (5 × 2)
intermediate phalanges (4 × 2)
distal phalanges (5 × 2)
The infant skeleton has the following bones in addition to those above:
sacral vertebrae (4 or 5), which fuse in adults to form the sacrum
coccygeal vertebrae (3 to 5), which fuse in adults to form the coccyx
ilium, ischium and pubis, which fuse in adults to form the pelvic girdle
Science-related lists | [
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] |
List of wave topics | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/List%20of%20wave%20topics | This is a list of wave topics, by Wikipedia page.
0-9
21 cm line
A
Abbe prism
Airy disc
Alfvén wave
amphidromic point
amplitude
amplitude modulation
analog sound vs. digital sound
atmospheric diffraction
atmospheric wave
atmospheric waveguide
audience wave
B
Babinet's principle
bandwidth limited pulse
beat
Berry phase
Bloch wave
blueshift
Brillouin scattering
C
carrier wave
chirp (frequency)
circular polarization
closed waveguide
coherence (physics)
coherence length
collimated light
Compton effect
continuous wave
cutoff wavelength
D
decollimation
delta waves
dielectric waveguide
diffraction
dispersion (optics)
dispersion relation
dominant wavelength
Doppler effect
Doppler radar
E
E-skip
echo (phenomenon)
electromagnetic wave
electromagnetic wave cut-off
Elliott wave
elliptical polarization
evanescent wave
F
F wave
frequency
frequency modulation
fundamental frequency
G
Gaussian beam
geometric optics
gravity wave
groundwave
group delay
group velocity
H
harmonic
holography
Huygens' principle
I
in phase
interferometry
inverse scattering
K
knife-edge effect
L
linear elasticity
linear polarization
longitudinal wave
longwave
M
Mach wave
Mach-Zender interferometer
mediumwave
megatsunami
microwave
microwave auditory effect
microwave oven
microwave plasma
microwaving
Mie scattering
Millimeter Cloud Radar
monochromator
multipath propagation
O
optical waveguide
out of phase
overtone
P
phase (waves)
phase difference
phase inversion
phase modulation
phase velocity
plane wave
polarization
pressure wave
pulse-density modulation
Q
quadrature
quadrature amplitude modulation
quantum optics
quantum tunneling
R
radar
radar astronomy
Radar gun
radio propagation
radio waves
Rayleigh scattering
Rayleigh-Jeans law
redshift
reflection coefficient
relativistic Doppler effect
ring modulation
ring wave guide
ripple tank
Rossby wave
S
sample (signal)
sawtooth wave
Seiche
seismic wave
seismograph
seismology
Sellmeier equation
shock wave
shortwave
sine wave
single-sideband modulation
skywave
soliton
sonar
square wave
standing wave
standing wave ratio
surface-wave-sustained mode
surfing
Synthetic aperture radar
T
tidal power
transverse mode
transverse wave
triangle wave
trigonometric function
tsunami
U
ultraviolet catastrophe
Underwater wave
V
vestigial-sideband modulation
voltage standing wave ratio
W
wave drag
wave equation
wave front
wave model
wave period
waveform
waveform monitor
waveguide
wavenumber
wavenumber-frequency diagram
waverider
wave velocity
wave-particle duality
wavefunction
wavefunction collapse
wavelength
wavelength-division multiplexing
Wien's law
X
X-band radar
Z
zero-dispersion slope
zero-dispersion wavelength
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White dwarf | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20dwarf | A white dwarf is a compact star. Their matter is squashed together. Gravitation has pulled the atoms close together, and taken off their electrons. The mass of a white dwarf is similar to the mass of the Sun, but its volume is similar to that of the Earth.
White dwarfs are the final evolutionary state of all stars whose mass is not high enough to become a neutron star. Over 97% of the stars in the Milky Way will become white dwarf stars.§1 After the hydrogen–fusing lifetime of a main-sequence star ends, it will expand to a red giant which fuses helium to carbon and oxygen in its core. If a red giant does not have enough mass to fuse carbon, around 1 billion K, inactive carbon and oxygen will build up at its center. After shedding its outer layers to form a planetary nebula, it will leave behind the core, which is the white dwarf.
The material in a white dwarf no longer undergoes fusion reactions, so the star has no source of energy. It is not supported by the heat of fusion against gravitational collapse.
A star like our Sun will become a white dwarf when it has run out of fuel. Near the end of its life, it will go through a red giant stage, and then lose most of its gas, until what is left contracts and becomes a young white dwarf.
History
White dwarfs were discovered in the 18th century. The first white dwarf star, called 40 Eridani B, was discovered on 31 January 1783 by William Herschel.p73 It is part of a three star system called 40 Eridani.
The second white dwarf was discovered in 1862, but was at first thought to be a red dwarf. It was a small star near the star Sirius. This companion star, called Sirius B, had a surface temperature of about 25,000 kelvin, so it was thought of as a hot star. However, Sirius B was about 10,000 times fainter than the primary, Sirius A. Scientists have discovered that the mass of Sirius B is almost the same as that of the Sun. This means that once, Sirius B was a star similar to our own Sun.
In 1917, Adriaan van Maanen discovered a white dwarf which is called Van Maanen 2. It was the third white dwarf to be discovered. It is the closest white dwarf to Earth, except for Sirius B.
Radiation and temperature
A white dwarf has low luminosity (total amount of light given off) but a very hot core. The core might be 107 K, while the surface is only 104 K.
A white dwarf is very hot when it is formed, but since it has no source of energy, it will gradually radiate away its energy and cool. This means that its radiation, which gives it a blue or white colour at the start, lessens over time. Over a very long time, a white dwarf will cool to temperatures at which it will no longer emit light. Unless the white dwarf gets matter from a companion star or some other source, its radiation comes from its stored heat. This is not replaced.
White dwarfs cool slowly for two reasons. They have an extremely small surface area to radiate this heat from, so they cool gradually, remaining hot for a long time. Also, they are very opaque. The degenerate matter that makes up the bulk of a white dwarf stops light and other electromagnetic radiation, so radiation does not carry away much energy.
Eventually, all white dwarfs will cool down into black dwarfs, so called because they lack the energy to create light. No black dwarfs exist yet because it takes longer than the current age of the universe for a white dwarf to cool down. A black dwarf is what will be left of the star after all of its energy (heat and light) is used up.
Re-ignition
White dwarfs may re-ignite and explode as supernovas if they get more material. There is a maximum mass for a white dwarf to remain stable. This is known as the Chandrasekhar limit.
A dwarf might pull in material from a companion star, for example, bringing it over the Chandrasekhar limit. The extra mass would start a carbon-fusion reaction. Astronomers think this re-igniting might be the cause of Type Ia supernovas.
References
Types of stars | [
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Human penis | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20penis | The human penis is a male body part found on the outside of the body. It is used for urination and for sexual reproduction. The main sexual function of the penis is to be inserted into a female's vagina and deliver semen which may cause pregnancy. This activity is called sexual intercourse.
There are many slang words for penis. They include dick, cock, and schlong. A euphemism for penis is male member.
Structure
The human penis exits the abdomen above the scrotum and hangs freely outside the body. The main visible part is called the shaft.
The human penis has three parts.
Body of the penis: Main visible part of the penis. The urethra runs underside of the penis.
Root of the penis: Invisible part of the penis. It reaches near the anus and contains the bulb of penis and the crus of penis. The crus of penis is attached to the pubic bone.
Skin of the penis: The shaft is covered by the skin. The skin is not attached tightly to the inner tissue. So it can move freely on the shaft.
The human penis is made up of three rod-shaped tissues. It has two corpora cavernosa (special pieces of muscle) next to each other and a corpus spongiosum (spongy muscle) between them.
The end of the corpus spongiosum forms the glans penis. The glans penis is covered by the foreskin in uncircumcised males. The rounded base of the glans is called the corona. The area on the bottom of the penis, where the foreskin is attached, is known as the frenulum of prepuce.
The urethra, the tube where urine and semen travel through, runs down the corpus spongiosum (spongy tissue), and opens at the tip of the penis. The opening is called urinary meatus. Sperm are made in the testes (ball-like organs) and stored in the epididymis (layer of tissue) around the testes. During ejaculation, sperm are pushed up the vas deferens. Fluids are added by the seminal vesicles, the prostate gland and the bulbourethral glands to make semen.
In sexual reproduction
Erection
A penis can become erect if a male is sexually aroused (or sometimes during sleep, even though there is no sexual stimulation). In an erection, the penis fills with blood. The blood makes the penis become longer, thicker and harder. Veins taking blood away from the penis get smaller, so less blood is taken through. Arteries bringing blood to the penis get wider, bringing more blood to the penis.
Ejaculation
Ejaculation is when semen is pushed from the penis. It usually happens during an orgasm. Males can ejaculate during sexual intercourse or by masturbation.
In reproductive sexual intercourse between a male and female, the erect penis is inserted into the vagina and moved in and out. The vagina places pressure on the penis, which can cause the male to have an orgasm and ejaculate into the vagina, causing insemination.
Other forms of sex, like anal and oral sex, can also cause stimulation, and therefore orgasm and ejaculation. In masturbation, a male can stimulate the penis and other sensitive areas of the body, such as the scrotum, by rubbing the genital area. Ejaculation may also happen during sleep (called a 'wet dream'). A male must have started puberty before he can ejaculate. During orgasm, muscles push semen from the penis. Semen moves through the urethra and comes out of the hole at the tip of the penis.
Penis size in humans
The length and thickness of the penis is different for different people. The size of a soft penis (not erect) is much smaller than when it is erect. Some penises grow more when they get hard than other penises. In most cases, whether a penis is big or small, it can still be used for sex. It averages out to be around 3 to 6 inches long when not erect. The average size of an erect human penis is between 13 – 16 cm (5.1– 6 in). The average circumference of a penis is 12.3 cm (4.85 in) when fully erect. The penis grows bigger during puberty. At the start of puberty, the average length of the penis is . The penis reaches adult size about 5 years later. A study done in 1996 found the mean length of an adult man's penis is when it is not erect. The average length of an erect penis is about .
Circumcision
The foreskin is a fold of skin that covers the end of the penis. Cutting off the foreskin is called circumcision. The foreskin is connected to the head of the penis. During circumcision, the foreskin is removed from the penis. Circumcision is usually performed on infant males for medical, religious or cultural reasons like in the USA, Philippines and South Korea.
In Europe only Jews and Muslim men are circumcised of religious reason. Uncommon by christian europe male.
Some males have the foreskin cut off when they are adults because they have problems with their foreskin. Some males have the foreskin cut off because they want to change how their penis looks.
In common speech, you can say that someone is cut or uncut, meaning circumcised or not circumcised .
In some religions, babies and young boys have their foreskin cut off. This is expected in Islam and Judaism. It is not required according to Christianity. In Judaism, infant males are required to have their foreskin removed as a sign of the covenant (ancient promise) made with God.
Skin color
A young boy's penis skin is the same color as his other skin. Around age 12-15, a boy's penis skin gets slightly darker. This is normal because of puberty. This is caused by sex hormones (natural chemicals), especially testosterone. Testosterone makes more melanin. Melanin is the amino acid that causes skin color. (Sunlight also makes more melanin so skin gets a sun tan.)
Usually a teenager or man's penis side skin is slightly darker than other skin on his body. The tip (glans) of the penis is usually pink or red color even if the penis side skin is dark. If the man is not circumcised, the tip is usually covered by the foreskin. The foreskin is about the same color as the skin on the side of the penis.
If a man's penis skin changes color and he doesn't know why, he should go to a doctor. He could have an infection, diabetes or cancer. A sunburn on the penis can happen quickly. If a man is outside without clothes, he will get a sun tan. That is normal. Too much sun causes a sunburn. Doctors say to use sunscreen (sun cream) before and after nude swimming. A sunburn can happen in a few minutes on a very sunny day.
Culture
Since the oldest cultures the penis has assumed a strong importance as a symbol of fertility used also in religious ceremonies to propitiate the reproductive capacity of men and beasts. For example, in Roman paganism the god Priapus is characterized by a huge penis.
Related pages
Phallus
Scrotum
Testicles
Vagina
Fellatio
References
Other websites
Kinsey Institute on the penis
Anatomy of the male reproductive system | [
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Chemical change | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chemical%20change | A chemical change (chemical reaction) is a change of materials into other materials with different properties.
Chemical changes occur when a substance combines with another to form a new substance, or, chemical decomposition into two or more different substances. These processes are called chemical reactions.
Burning of wood is a chemical change as new substances which cannot be changed back (e.g. carbon dioxide) are formed. For example, if wood is burned in a fireplace, there is not wood anymore but ash. Other examples include burning of a candle, rusting of iron, baking a cake, etc. Special details that describe how a chemical change takes place are called chemical properties.
Compare: physical change. The opposite of a chemical change is a physical change. Physical changes are a change in which no new substances are formed, and the substance which is changed is the same. For instance, if a stick of wood is broken, there is still a stick of wood; it is just broken.
More examples include changes of shape, changes of states, passing electricity through a copper wire, breaking of wood, shattering of glass, pouring of water, etc. Special details which do not change in a substance without new substances being formed are called physical properties.
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Physical change | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical%20change | A physical change is a type of change in which the form of matter is altered but one substance is not transformed into another. The size or shape of matter may be changed, but no chemical reaction occurs.
All physical changes are reversible and their mass does not change. Some examples are changes of shape, changes of states, and passing electricity through a copper wire. Physical changes could be: melting, freezing, boiling/evaporating, condensing, deposition and sublimation.
Many physical changes also involve the rearrangement of atoms most noticeably in the formation of crystals. Many chemical changes are irreversible, and many physical changes are reversible, but reversibility is not a certain criterion for classification. Although chemical changes may be recognized by an indication such as odor, color change, or production of a gas, every one of these indicators can result from physical change.
Chemistry
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Victoria, British Columbia | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Victoria%2C%20British%20Columbia | Victoria is the capital city of the province of British Columbia, Canada. It is named after Queen Victoria. Over 350,000 people live in the Victoria area. Many people work for the government or in tourism. It is warmer than other Canadian cities in the winter, so many Canadians move there when they retire.
Victoria is on Vancouver Island. Most people travel there by boat (ferry) from Vancouver, or from Washington State. Victoria has three ferry docks and an airport, Victoria International Airport.
Victoria has one of the mildest climates in Canada, with gardens blooming year-round.
Some tourist attractions are the Butchart Gardens and the Royal British Columbia Museum. Some of the best-known buildings are the government buildings and the Empress Hotel, and both are by the Inner Harbour.
The first people to live in the area were the Coast Salish native people. People from England built Fort Victoria in 1843. Victoria became a city in 1862.
18,000 students study at the University of Victoria. Other people study at Camosun College, Royal Roads University, University Canada West, Victoria College of Art, and the Canadian College of Performing Arts. Students from all over the world study at Pearson College, near Victoria.
The Canadian navy has ships in a part of the city called Esquimalt.
Some of the parks include Beacon Hill Park, East Sooke Park, Mount Work Park, and Mount Douglas Park.
There are many flowers in Victoria; it is called the "city of gardens." It is a lot drier than places nearby, and has little snow.
Some well-known people from Victoria are:
Jamie Benn (hockey)
Emily Carr (art)
Steve Nash (basketball)
David Foster (music)
Nelly Furtado (singer)
Kyle Germaine Johnson (Pro Biker)
Regions of Victoria
The Victoria area is made up of 13 parts. Four of them make up Greater Victoria:
Victoria
Saanich
Esquimalt
Oak Bay
Three of them make up the Saanich Peninsula:
Sidney
Central Saanich
North Saanich
The others make up the Western Communities:
Colwood
Langford
View Royal
Metchosin
Sooke
Highlands | [
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American (word) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20%28word%29 | The word American is used to mean a person or a thing from the United States or any country in the Americas - North America, Central America, and South America. In English, the most common use of this word is to mean a person or a thing from the United States.
Even though the islands in the Caribbean Sea are close to the Americas, people who speak English do not usually use the word "American" for people or things from these islands.
Due to the ambiguity of the word, some languages avoid using the word to refer to someone and/or thing from the United States and use more specific demonyms instead, such as Spanish estadounidense and German US-Amerikaner, for example. Yankee is sometimes used within the English language too (though the word historically refers specifically to a inhabitant of New England).
A Native American is someone who is mostly descended from the people who lived in the Americas before the Europeans arrived. Native Americans are also called First Nations and Indians.
There is no language "American." Some important languages used in the Americas are English, French, Portuguese, and Spanish. Some people still use Native American languages. Quechua is the largest.
North America
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Luke McCormick | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luke%20McCormick | Luke McCormick (b. 15 August 1983) is an English football player. He was born August 15, 1983 in Coventry, England. He is a goalkeeper. He plays for the English football team Swindon Town.
In the 2003/04 season, McCormick played when Romain Larrieu could not. Larrieu injured his knee. McCormick played instead. Plymouth Argyle beat Stockport County on 24 January 2004. The score was 2-0. In this match McCormick set a new club record of seven clean sheets in a row. A clean sheet is a game where the other side gets no goals.
McCormick was voted the most promising player of the 2003/04 season by Plymouth Argyle fans.
On 7 June 2008. McCormick was arrested on suspicion for killing two people by dangerous driving. Subsequently, he was released by Plymouth Arygle and was jailed for seven years on 6 October 2008 but could be out in three and a half years.
Club career statistics
|-
|2000-01||rowspan="5"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="2"|Third Division||1||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||1||0
|-
|2001-02||0||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||0||0
|-
|2002-03||rowspan="2"|Second Division||3||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||3||0
|-
|2003-04||40||0||1||0||colspan="2"|-||41||0
|-
|2004-05||League Championship||23||0||colspan="2"|-||1||0||24||0
|-
|2004-05||Boston United||League Two||2||0||colspan="2"|-||colspan="2"|-||2||0
|-
|2005-06||rowspan="3"|Plymouth Argyle||rowspan="3"|League Championship||1||0||colspan="2"|-||2||0||3||0
|-
|2006-07||40||0||5||0||1||0||46||0
|-
|2007-08||30||0||2||0||3||0||35||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
140||0||8||0||7||0||155||0
|}
References
British criminals
English association football goalkeepers
People from Coventry
1983 births
Living people | [
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Head of state | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Head%20of%20state | The head of state is the figurehead of a state, who represents the unity of the state. However, the head of state may not have very much real power.
In a modern republic, the head of state is a president, usually elected by the people or by a parliament. In a monarchy, the head of state is the king or queen. Some countries have different systems - for example Recep Tayyip Erdoğan of Turkey is both the Head of State and Head of Government which is known as an executive system.
In a modern monarchy, the head of state usually has little real power. Instead, the most powerful person is the head of government. This is usually the leader of the political party that wins the most seats in an election. In these cases, the king is considered to be the leader of the country, but must always take the decisions that the head of government advises them to make. The king or queen carries out national ceremonies. The United Kingdom works like this, with the Prime Minister heading the government.
A president may be the most powerful person in the country. This is true in the United States. However, sometimes there is a head of government, as well as a president. The president then acts very much like a king or queen, leaving the real decisions to the head of government. The Republic of Ireland works like this.
In older times, and in some modern countries, the head of state has absolute power, this called an absolute monarchy which the Pope in the Vatican has. | [
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Radio wave | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Radio%20wave | Radio waves make up part of the electromagnetic spectrum. These waves are packets of energy with differing wavelengths, similar to visible light waves, X-rays or gamma rays, except longer.
A radio wave, like other electromagnetic waves, is similar to an ocean surface wave or any other type of wave. Both types of wave have a hill and valley shape, repeating over and over. A wavelength is measured as the distance from the top of one crest to the top of its neighboring crest. While the wavelength of visible light is very very small, less than one micrometer and much less than the thickness of a human hair, radio waves can have a wavelength from a couple centimeters to several meters. They also have a radio frequency.
The smallest radio waves are called microwaves. Shortwaves are not quite so small. There are also medium and long waves. Antennas designed to send and receive radio waves are usually similar in size to the wavelength they are to use. Many radio antennas (like those on cars) are made long because they receive signals of FM radio (a few meters, several feet) or AM radio (hundreds of meters, about a thousand feet).
Uses
Manmade radio waves have been used since the 19th century for communication. Radar was developed in the 20th century, using radio waves to 'see' distant objects by bouncing waves off an object and seeing how long it takes for the waves to return. Radios also use these waves to send and receive information.
Radio waves from other planets were first discovered in the 1930s by Karl Guthe Jansky, working for Bell Laboratories. Bell was detecting noise (electronics) on radio channels, and had Jansky try to find the source of this static, or interference. After identifying noise that came from lightning, he spent much time looking into the remainder. Surprisingly, some of the interference was coming from space! This discovery eventually led astronomers to look at radio waves along with light waves to find things in the sky. These radio astronomers use giant Radio telescopes, shaped like satellite dishes, to gather and study the waves.
Radio waves are used for many things today. Broadcasting and communications satellites and mobile phones and many computers communicate by radio waves.
Wave physics
Radio technology
Electromagnetic radiation | [
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Lance Armstrong | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lance%20Armstrong | Lance Edward Armstrong (born September 18, 1971 in Plano, Texas, USA) is an American former bicycle rider. He used drugs which helped him in competition. In 2012 the US Anti-Doping Agency (USADA) took away all his titles from 1998 to 2006. In 2012, he was also banned forever from cycling competitions.
Before his titles were taken away, he won the Tour de France seven times in a row, from 1999 to 2005. He did this several years after having brain surgery, testicular surgery, and a long course of chemotherapy in 1996. The chemotherapy was to treat testicular cancer that spread to his brain and lungs. Armstrong used to race for the Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team, but was only team leader during the Tour de France.
Armstrong retired from professional cycling in 2011.
Teams and victories
Major results
1992 - Motorola
Settimana Bergamasca (stage 6)
Vuelta a Galicia (Stage 4a)
Trittico Premondiale (Stage 2) (or GP Sanson)
First Union Grand Prix (Atlanta)
Fitchburg-Longsjo Classic (overall, 1 stage win)
1993 - Motorola
World Cycling Champion - UCI Road World Championships
US National Cycling Champion - CoreStates USPRO National Road Championships
Tour de France (Stage 8)
Tour of America (overall)
Trofeo Laigueglia
Tour du Pont (2nd overall, 1 stage win)
Tour of Sweden (3rd overall, 1 stage win)
Thrift Drug Classic
Kmart West Virginia Classic (overall, 2 stage wins)
1994 - Motorola
Thrift Drug Classic
Tour du Pont (1 stage win)
1995 - Motorola
Tour de France (Stage 18)
Clásica de San Sebastián
Paris-Nice (Stage 5)
Tour du Pont (overall, mountains, 3 stage wins)
Kmart West Virginia Classic (overall, 2 stage wins)
Tour of America (overall)
1996 - Motorola
Tour du Pont (overall, 5 stage wins)
La Flèche Wallonne
1997 - Cofidis
Sprint 56K Criterium (Austin, TX)
1998 - U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Rheinland-Pfalz Rundfahrt (overall)
Tour de Luxembourg (overall, 1 stage win)
Cascade Classic
Vuelta a España (4th overall)
1999 - U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 4 stage wins)
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (ITT) (Prologue)
Route du Sud (Stage 4)
Circuit de la Sarthe (ITT) (Stage 4)
2000 - U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 1 stage win)
GP des Nations
GP Eddy Merckx (with Viatcheslav Ekimov)
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (ITT) (Stage 3)
Bronze medal in the 2000 Summer Olympics Individual Time Trial, Men
2001 - U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 4 stage wins)
Tour de Suisse (overall, 2 stage wins)
2002 - U.S. Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 4 stage wins)
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (Stage 6)
GP du Midi Libre (overall)
Profronde van Stiphout (post-Tour criterium)
2003 - US Postal Service Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 1 stage win, Team Time Trial)
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (overall, Stage 3 ITT)
2004 - US Postal Service pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 5 stage wins, Team Time Trial)
Tour de Georgia (overall, 2 stage wins)
Tour du Languedoc-Roussillon (Stage 5)
Volta ao Algarve (ITT) (Stage 4)
Profronde van Stiphout (post-Tour criterium)
2005 - Discovery Channel Pro Cycling Team
Tour de France (overall, 1 stage win, Team Time Trial)
Critérium du Dauphiné Libéré (points classification)
2009 - Astana Prop Cycling Team
Tour Down Under
Tour of California 7th place
Amateur cycling and triathlon years
1991 - Subaru-Montgomery / US National Team
National Amateur Road Race Champion
Settimana Bergamasca (overall and youth classifications)
Tour de Gastown criterium (Vancouver, BC)
Challenge of Champions Triathlon (Monterey, CA)
1990 - Subaru-Montgomery
National Sprint Triathlon Champion
Stonebridge Ranch Triathlon (McKinney, TX)
1989
National Sprint Triathlon Champion
Waco Triathlon (Waco, TX)
1988
Athens YMCA Triathlon (Athens, TX) (course record)
River Triathlon (Shreveport, LA) (course record)
1987
Hillcrest Tulsa Triathlon
1984
IronKids Triathlon National Champion
References
1971 births
2000 Summer Olympics
American adoptees
American cyclists
American Olympic bronze medalists
Cancer survivors
Doping cases in cycling
Living people
Sportspeople from Texas
Tour de France cyclists
People from Plano, Texas | [
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Adam Smith | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Adam%20Smith | Adam Smith (16 June 1723 – 17 July 1790) was a Scottish economist, who is called the Father of Modern Economics.
The Wealth of Nations
His book, An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, published in 1776, was very important. People call the book just The Wealth of Nations. It stated some of the ideas on which modern economics is based off, especially market economics.
In the Wealth of Nations Adam Smith asks 'what can a person do that is best for his country?' He decides that if every person does what is best for themself and their little circle of family and friends, then the country will do better. This is because every person knows a lot about their own situation (what they need and what they want, what works and what does not work), much more than the government knows. This sort of thinking is called "liberal theory", a main part of liberalism.
He was also a philosopher who wanted to know why people thought (felt) that some things are good and others bad.
The Theory of Moral Sentiments
He wrote an earlier book, in 1759, called The Theory of Moral Sentiments. He thought that empathy was very important in ethics. Empathy is when you see how someone else is feeling, imagine what it feels like, and then end up feeling the same way: for Smith, empathy is like "putting yourself in someone else's shoes". For example, empathy makes us feel happy to see someone else who is happy, or feel sorry for someone who is sad. Empathy may even make us feel pain when we see someone in pain (as if we had been hurt or affected). Both Smith and his friend David Hume, who was another Scottish philosopher, wrote about the importance of sympathy in ethics.
References
Related pages
Political economy
Constitutional economics
Other websites
Wealth of Nations from the Adam Smith Institute
An inquiry into the nature and causes of the wealth of nations by Adam Smith. London : J. M. Dent & sons, ltd. ; New York : E. P. Dutton & co.
Works and Correspondence of Adam Smith from the Online Library of Liberty
The Theory of Moral Sentiments at the Library of Economics and Liberty
1723 births
1790 deaths
18th-century British philosophers
British economists
Scottish scientists
Scottish writers | [
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Salt Lake City | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Salt%20Lake%20City | Salt Lake City is a city in the United States of America. It is the capital and largest city of the state of Utah. It was founded by the Mormons and is the official headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints. It is named after the Great Salt Lake, which it is near. The city's population was estimated at 191,180 in 2013.
The city was founded in 1847 by Brigham Young and his Mormon followers. They extensively irrigated and cultivated the arid valley. Due to its proximity to the Great Salt Lake, the city was originally named "Great Salt Lake City"–the word "great" was dropped from the official name in 1868. Although Salt Lake City is still home to the headquarters of The Church of Jesus Christ of Latter-day Saints (LDS Church), less than half the population of Salt Lake City proper is Mormon today.
Immigration of international LDS members, mining booms, and the construction of the first transcontinental railroad initially brought economic growth, and the city was nicknamed the "Crossroads of the West". It was traversed by the Lincoln Highway, the first transcontinental highway, in 1913, and presently two major cross-country freeways, I-15 and I-80, intersect in the city. Salt Lake City has since developed a strong outdoor recreation tourist industry based primarily on skiing. It was host to the 2002 Winter Olympics. It is the industrial banking center of the United States.
Education
In 1847 pioneer Jane Dillworth held the first classes in her tent for the children of the first LDS families. In the last part of the 19th century, there was much controversy over how children in the area should be educated. LDS and non-LDS parents could not agree on the level of religious influence in schools. Today, many LDS youths in grades 9 through 12 attend some form of religious instruction, referred to as seminary. Students are released from public schools at various times of the day to attend seminary. LDS seminaries are usually located on church-owned property adjacent to the public school and within walking distance.
Because of high birth rates and large classrooms, Utah spends less per student than any other state. At the same time, Utah spends more per capita than any state with the exception of Alaska. Recently, money was approved for the reconstruction of more than half of the elementary schools and one of the middle schools in the Salt Lake City School District, which serves most of the area within the city limits. There are twenty-three K-6 elementary schools, five 7-8 middle schools, three 9-12 high schools (Highland, East, and West, with the former South High being converted to the South City campus of the Salt Lake Community College), and an alternative high school (Horizonte) located within the school district. In addition, Highland has recently been selected as the site for the charter school Salt Lake School for the Performing Arts (SPA). Many Catholic schools are located in the city, including Judge Memorial High School. Rowland Hall-St. Mark's School, established in 1867 by Episcopal Bishop Daniel Tuttle, is the area's premier independent school.
The Salt Lake City Public Library system consists of the main library downtown, and five branches in various neighborhoods. The main library, designed by renowned architect Moshe Safdie, opened in 2003. In 2006, the Salt Lake City Public Library was named "Library of the Year" by the American Library Association.
Colleges in Salt Lake City include the University of Utah, Westminster College, Salt Lake Community College, Stevens-Henager College, Eagle Gate College, The Art Institute of Salt Lake City and LDS Business College. Utah State University and BYU also operate education centers in the city. There are also many trade and technical schools such as Healing Mountain Massage School and the Utah College of Massage Therapy. The University of Utah has good research and medical programs. It was one of the original four universities to be connected to ARPANET, the predecessor to the Internet, in 1969, and was also the site of the first artificial heart transplant in 1982.
Events
1847 - The Mormon pioneers first arrive to settle Utah.
2002 - The Olympic Winter Games were held in Salt Lake City.
References
County seats in Utah
State capitals in the United States
Olympic cities
1847 establishments in the United States
19th-century establishments in Utah | [
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British Isles | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British%20Isles | The British Isles are an archipelago (a group of islands) in north-western Europe. They have a long geographical and geological history. The first people were in Britain by 800,000 years ago (Happisburgh footprints).
The biggest islands are called Great Britain and Ireland, followed by the Isle of Man. Great Britain, the biggest island, is home to three countries. These are England, Wales and Scotland. The island of Ireland is divided into Northern Ireland and the Republic of Ireland. Great Britain is the biggest island of Europe and Ireland is the third biggest.
England, Wales, Scotland and Northern Ireland join together to make the United Kingdom.
Some people include the Channel Islands of Jersey, Guernsey, Sark in the term "British Isles", but they are a lot closer to France than to Great Britain. In politics, they are British islands but in geology they are French islands.
The term tends not to be used in the Republic of Ireland because many people feel it implies that Ireland is politically British.
The writings of the Roman cartographer Ptolemy used the name "Great Britain" for the larger island in the 2nd century AD. He used the name "Megale Britannia" or "Great Britain" () to show the difference between this island and Ireland. For Ireland, Ptolemy used the name "Mikra Britannia" or "Little Britain" ().
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Human science | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20science | Human science is the science of humans: what makes them different from animals, and their limits, which tend to be the same as those of other animals. Because human bodies are animal bodies, human science is part of biology which leads to Life Science. However human behaviour includes the use of words, measures, numbers, knowing time and having memory, and such habits as trade - thus economics and psychology are considered to be part of human science. A general human science is anthropology which studies only the differences between humans and near relatives.
One important debate in human science is whether the exchange of culture (or in economics instructional capital), is only among humans or if it also goes on among our Great Ape near relatives. If so, then culture is part of primatology and there is no clear line between human science and life sciences.
Another name for human science is Social Science, since the most complex thing about humans is how they relate to each other in society. The most general social science is ethics, or economics, depending on your point of view.
However, life science also deals with humans as objects of study (notably in medicine), while hard science such as chemistry deals with humans as the observer who does the study - sets the scale at which observation can happen, incurs observer effects - as studied in philosophy of science.
Often sciences have different names based on whether they study humans or not. For instance economics is the study of how humans make a living, while ecology is the study of how non-humans make a living. Medicine is normally restricted to humans while veterinary medicine refers to the same techniques made on other species. One relies more on ethics and less on economics when dealing with humans, at least according to any ethical tradition.
The living, social, and sensory observing aspects of humans are probably all part of the human sciences to the degree they affect how humans view themselves.
Specific human sciences are (in addition to anthropology and ethics and economics) include psychology, sociology and linguistics. There is debate as to whether mathematics is something human or if it is universal - see philosophy of mathematics on this.
Related pages
humanities
sense
ecology
Social sciences | [
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Human development theory | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Human%20development%20theory | Even though economics is all about choice on the basis of what is available rather than what should be available, the big question relates to who decides how resources should be distributed and how economics can embrace a trade-off between different groups which each seek to make the most of their allocation of resources. If "what should be" cannot be incorporated, the subject of economics will be as dry as desert as described by Ayn Rand. The challenge therefore is to construct a model combining "what is" to "what should be" and make the same acceptable to common man as well as politicians. Not being able to sell the idea as such is a defeat to the discipline. The issue is that of influence and not of theory, as Adam Smith perceived that no group of business men ever met other than to exploit the consumer.
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Position | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Position | Position is a way to explain where something is.
Location
The words which indicate position are called prepositions.
Left, middle, and right
To find which is your left hand side, hold your hands palms down, point your index fingers and stick your thumbs out at right angles. The finger and thumb of your left hand will form a capital letter L.
If the letter L you make is reversed, you found your right hand. Left and right are called opposite sides.
Middle is between up and down and is between left and right.
Middle means the same as center.
encyclopedia Examples
Far and near
Far means that something is a long way away from you. Near means it is close to you. Things can also be near and far other persons and other things.
In sports
In many sports, the term "position" is used to show what occupation a person has on their team. For example, in baseball, positions include catcher, shortstop and pitcher.
In math and physics
The position of something is where that thing is in space and time. Usually people use Cartesian coordinates to write down a position. So a scientist might say that the balloon was at x, y, z when it popped at a certain time.
In society
The position of a person is his status or responsibility in a community or group of people. It is called rank in the army.
In a factory the manager is a typical position.
Basic English 850 words
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God Save the Queen | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/God%20Save%20the%20Queen | "God Save the Queen" has been the national anthem of the United Kingdom since 1745. Its also the royal anthem of the Commonwealth realms, played alongside their official national anthems. Its composer remains unknown to this date.
When the ruling monarch is a king instead of a queen, the title of the anthem then becomes "God Save the King".
The tune for "God Save the Queen" was used in many countries as a national anthem. Apart from the German state, many of which were linked to Great Britain by marriage, Liechtenstein and Switzerland used the tune. Switzerland changed to a different tune in the 1960s. Liechtenstein still uses the tune.
The tune is both American and British. In the 1930s the United States chose an official anthem. "The Star-Spangled Banner" was chosen instead of the equally popular "My Country 'tis of Thee" which used the "God Save the Queen" tune.
Lyrics
Standard version
God save our gracious Queen,
Long live our noble Queen,
God save the Queen:
Send her victorious,
Happy and glorious,
Long to reign over us:
God save the Queen.
O Lord, our God, arise,
Scatter her enemies,
And make them fall.
Confound their politics,
Frustrate their knavish tricks,
On thee our hopes we fix:
God save us all.
Thy choicest gifts in store,
On her be pleased to pour;
Long may she reign:
May she defend our laws,
And ever give us cause
To sing with heart and voice
God save the Queen.
Original lyrics: "God Save the King"
God save great George our king
God save our noble king,
God save the king!
Send him victorious
Happy and glorious
Long to reign over us
God save the king!
Latin verse
O Deus optime
Salvum nunc facito
Regem nostrum
Sic laeta victoria
Comes et gloria
Salvum iam facito
Tu dominum.
French version used in Canada
Dieu protège la Reine
De sa main souveraine !
Vive la Reine !
Qu'un règne glorieux,
Long et victorieux
Rende son peuple heureux.
Vive la Reine !
Māori version used in New Zealand
Me tohu e t'Atua
To matou Kuini pai:
Kia ora ia
Meinga kia maia ia,
Kia hari nui, kia koa,
Kia kuini tonu ia,
Tau tini noa.
References
National anthems
British music
British monarchy | [
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] |
Air force | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Air%20force | An air force is the branch of a country's military which fights in the air. The air force is made up of aircraft such as fighters, bombers, helicopters and transport aircraft. When a navy has its own air force it is called Naval Aviation.
Air forces began in the early 20th century, usually as part of the army. Most countries separated their air forces in the 1930s and 1940s.
Aircraft in an air force sometimes fly in a formation. Formations are when the aircraft fly in a pattern. Air forces is part of the military.
The biggest air force in the world is the United States Air Force (USAF).
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Bible study | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bible%20study | Bible study is intensive reading of the Bible.
For Christians, study of the Bible is often part of daily life. A lot of other people are also interested in this piece of world literature.
In Europe before the 16th century it was not possible for most people to study the Bible. Books were written using only the languages Latin and Greek. Only people who had learned to read those languages could study the Bible. The Roman Catholic Church said people could not translate the Bible into other languages, for example Italian or English because many people could not read and it took the lifetime of a monk, by himself, to translate the Bible.
When the Reformation started in 16th century Europe, the Bible was translated into several languages. Many books were printed in these languages. People were then able to read the Bible in their own language.
Related pages
Biblical study, the academic study of the Bible
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] |
Richard Nixon | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Richard%20Nixon | Richard Milhous Nixon (January 9, 1913 – April 22, 1994) was an American politician. He was the 37th president of the United States, serving from 1969 to 1974, when he became the only president to resign. Before that, Nixon was the 36th vice president (from 1953 to 1961 under President Dwight D. Eisenhower), and a U.S. Representative and Senator from California. He was a Republican.
Nixon was born in Yorba Linda, California. He attended Duke University and graduated from its law school in 1937. After graduating, he returned to California to practice law. In 1942, he and his wife Pat moved to Washington to work for the federal government. During World War II, he served on active duty in the Naval Reserve.
Nixon began his career in politics after he was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. During this time, he became well known as an anti-Communist. In 1950, he was elected to the Senate. In 1953, he became the vice president of the United States, under President Dwight D. Eisenhower. He served in this position for eight years. In 1960, Nixon ran for president. He was defeated by John F. Kennedy. Two years later, in 1962, Nixon ran for governor of California. He also lost this election to Pat Brown. In 1968, he ran for president for a second time. He won the election, defeating Hubert Humphrey and George Wallace in a close election.
As president, Nixon got the United States to stop being involved in the Vietnam War. He ended the military draft in 1973. In 1972, Nixon visited China. This visit would eventually create diplomatic relations between the two nations. The same year, he signed the Anti-Ballistic Missile Treaty with the Soviet Union.
Domestically, Nixon imposed wage and price controls for 90 days. He had Southern schools desegregated (ending the separation of people by their race). He established the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) as well as the Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA). He also began the War on Cancer. He presided over the Apollo 11 Moon landing in 1969. In 1972, Nixon was re-elected in a landslide, defeating George McGovern.
In his second term, Nixon ordered an airlift to resupply Israeli losses in the Yom Kippur War, a war which led to the oil crisis at home. In 1973, he had lost a lot of political support because of the Watergate scandal. On August 9, 1974, Nixon resigned, becoming the first American president to do so. His successor, Gerald Ford, pardoned him.
After resigning, Nixon wrote many books and visited many other countries. He died on April 22, 1994, after suffering a stroke. He is not ranked high in presidential opinion polls. Evaluations of Nixon have been difficult, as he was able to accomplish good things as president, even though he resigned due to a scandal.
Early life, belief & Californian heritage
Nixon was born on January 9, 1913 in his family's home in Yorba Linda, California, to Hannah and Francis Nixon. He is the only president born in California. He was named for King Richard the Lionhearted, and was raised as a Quaker. His brother Edward, was a businessman. Herbert Hoover was the only other United States President to belong to the Quaker faith (as a coincidence, Hoover was also one of just three presidents, one of whom was Nixon, to hail from California). Nixon was raised in Whittier, California. His father was of Scotch-Irish ancestry and his mother was of German, English, and Irish ancestry. He attended Whittier High School, Whittier College, and Duke University. He served in the Navy during World War II. Later, he married Thelma Nixon (later Patricia Nixon) and had two daughters, Tricia and Julie.
Harvard Scholarship & More
Nixon received a scholarship to Harvard, but declined to help his family on the farm. Nixon was also tapped to join the FBI. He was very pleased, but at the last minute was rejected due to budget cuts.
Early political career
Congressional career
California congressman (1947–1950)
Nixon was elected to the House of Representatives in 1946. When in the House, he was a member of House Un-American Activities Commission, a group of Congressmen that tried to expose people in the United States who might have been Communists.
U.S. Senate (1950–1953)
He was later elected a Senator in 1950 after running a controversial campaign against Helen Gahagan Douglas.
Vice president (1953–1961)
In the 1952 presidential election, Dwight D. Eisenhower selected Nixon to be vice-president. People accused him of receiving illegal money contributions to his campaign and some people wanted Eisenhower to pick a different vice president, but Eisenhower still kept Nixon. Nixon after the accusations made a speech saying that no matter what people accuse him of illegally receiving during the campaign, he is still going to keep one campaign gift: his dog named Checkers.
The Republican Party decided to keep Nixon as their vice-presidential candidate and when Eisenhower won the election, Nixon became vice-president of the United States from 1953 to 1961. During his vice-presidency, he was very busy and traveled across the world to places like South America. While he was vice president, he went to the Soviet Union and had a debate with the Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev. They were both arguing that their country was better.
1960 presidential election
In the presidential election of 1960, he ran against Democrat John F. Kennedy. Kennedy was expected to win at first (because he won the first television debate against Nixon), but as Election Day came closer and closer, Nixon was catching up. In the end, Kennedy won, but it was a very close election.
1962 California gubernatorial election
In 1962, Nixon lost the election for governor of California to Pat Brown. After losing, Nixon said "you don't have Nixon to kick around any more, because, gentlemen, this is my last press conference.", leading many experts to say that Nixon's political career was over.
1968 presidential election
In 1968, Richard Nixon defeated Hubert Humphrey in the presidential election and became president of the United States in 1969. Although Humphrey lost the popular vote narrowly, he lost the electoral college in a landslide, carrying just fifteen states.
Presidency, 1969–74
Nixon took over the Vietnam War from Lyndon Johnson and continued it with the strategy of slowly withdrawing U.S. troops, so that the South Vietnamese troops could take over the fighting by themselves. Nixon secretly bombed many enemy targets in Cambodia and North Vietnam while bringing home the American troops, to make it easier for South Vietnam to win. When his spreading the bombing to Cambodia and Laos became known in 1970, it caused larger protests than ever in America, including at Kent State and even in Washington, DC, where more than 12,000 were arrested in May 1971 at the peak of the protests. Partly because of the amount of opposition, Nixon sped up troop withdrawal and ended the draft.
Nixon was very successful in diplomacy (relations negotiations with foreign countries). He began a policy called "détente" which reduced tensions between the United States and the Soviet Union. The two countries would get along and sign treaties that would limit the production of nuclear weapons between both sides. Nixon traveled to communist China and established a very good relationship with them. Before that, there was almost no relationship between the United States and China. It opened up the door for decades of trade in the future, which is why many items in the United States were made in China. His diplomacy with China is seen as one of his greatest accomplishments. Later, under President Carter, the U.S. broke relations with the Republic of China and recognized communist China, not Taiwan, as the legal government of China.
At home, Nixon put many reforms into law. He created the Environmental Protection Agency, supported anti-drug laws, supported anti-crime laws, and supported anti-discrimination laws. When inflation (meaning the value of money goes down and prices go up) was high, he ordered that prices should be frozen for 90 days. Although, he was known as a conservative Republican before he became president, while he was President, he supported some of the liberal ideas that Democrats supported. In 1974, Nixon made a speech that outlined a plan for universal health care.
Nixon was re-elected by a landslide in 1972 with most Americans approving of him, but soon after, Nixon's reputation would be destroyed and most Americans would disapprove of him. Due to a scandal called "Watergate" during which Nixon attempted to protect (or possibly ordered) men to burglarize the Democratic National Headquarters, Congress was going to put him on trial in a process called impeachment (to remove him from power). Nixon tried to cover up the scandal, but eventually, the Supreme Court ordered him to send his taped conversations (which included him talking about covering up Watergate) to them. Alexander Haig thought Nixon would be convicted and kicked out of office. To prevent this, Nixon resigned (quit) the presidency in 1974.
Post-presidency
Nixon's second vice president, Gerald Ford, gave Nixon a pardon of any crimes Nixon committed during Watergate. Ford wanted to end the crisis as quickly as possible, because the nation faced more important problems. Many people blamed Ford for letting Nixon go free, and voted against him when he ran in the 1976 election.
Nixon's public image never fully recovered, but he still got some approval back from Republicans as he frequently defended his legacy. He remained as a consultant to later Presidents, and to other people in government and the media especially to British journalist David Frost. His memoirs are considered important readings. His work in negotiating with China in the early 1970s was praised for improving relations between his country and theirs. Nixon died of a stroke in 1994, ten months after his wife Pat died. Not being able to defend his legacy any longer, his overall approval rating fell, and most everyone today acknowledges his wrongdoings related to Watergate. The house where he was born is now part of the Richard M. Nixon Presidential Library and Museum. He was buried at the library.
Related pages
Death and state funeral of Richard Nixon
References
Other websites
Nixon's White House Biography
Text, audio, and video of Nixon's famous "Checkers" speech
1913 births
1994 deaths
Lawyers from California
Cardiovascular disease deaths in the United States
Deaths from stroke
People from Whittier, California
People of the Vietnam War
Presidents of the United States
Quakers
Recipients of the Nishan-e-Pakistan
Time People of the Year
1960 United States presidential candidates
1964 United States presidential candidates
1968 United States presidential candidates
1972 United States presidential candidates
United States representatives from California
United States senators from California
US Republican Party politicians
Yorba Linda, California
20th-century American politicians
Watergate scandal | [
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White blood cell | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/White%20blood%20cell | The job of white blood cells (also called leukocytes) is to fight infections and cancer. They also remove poison, waste and damaged cells from the body.
The number of white blood cells increases when a person is fighting infection or disease and decrease when a person is healthy.
Types of white blood cells
Lymphocytes
Lymphocytes are round white blood cells a bit bigger than a red blood cell. Their center is round and they have little cytoplasm. Part of the lymphatic system, these target specific germs or poisons using their antibodies. There are three known types of lymphocytes, called T-cells, B-cells, and natural killer cells (NK cells).
B-cells make antibodies, which are little molecules that attach to viruses or bad cells. These tell other cells to destroy the viruses or bad cells, like a flag.
T-cells can either help make more B-cells, or kill cells with antibodies.
Natural killer cells kill cells in the body that have been infected by a virus or that are part of a tumor. They are part of the innate immune system.
Monocytes
Monocytes are reserve cells which turn into macrophages and dendritic cells, which work together in tissues to fight disease. Monocytes have a kidney bean shaped center and lots of cytoplasm. They may appear as macrophages in a non-round shape when they pass through tissue to eat germs, "junk" cells, and dead cells.
Granulocytes
The next three types of white blood cells are referred to as granulocytes since they all contain rough, grain-like particles that assist in attacking viruses and bacteria. Granulocytes are also called polymorphonuclear leukocytes because of the shape of the nucleus, which has three segments.
Neutrophils
Neutrophils are the most abundant type of white blood cells in mammals, 70% of leukocytes. They are an essential part of the immune system. They get to the site of an injury within minutes, and make up much of the content of pus. They have a short life-span of a couple of days.
The nucleus, which looks like a string of beads, does not take up stain strongly. Like phagocytes, they actually eat the bacteria and dead cells. They also release a bunch of proteins which work to damage the bacteria.
Basophils
Basophils, or basophil granulocytes, are rare granulocytes. If you collected 1000 white blood cells, only 13 of them would be basophils. Their nucleus is hidden by granules which turn dark blue in color when stained. Basophils carry histamine and heparin. They appear at the sites of ectoparasite infection, or allergies. We don't know exactly how they work.
Eosinophils
Eosinophils, or acidophils, are leukocytes. They are one of the immune system components which combat parasites and certain infections. As with mast cells and basophils, they part causes of allergy and asthma. Eosinophils are round cells with a lobed nucleus and granules which turn red when stained. These granules are packed with proteins that can be poured out to help destroy invaders.
Cell testing
A test called a differential count shows how many white blood cells there are in a person's blood, and how many of each type are there.
References
Cell biology
Immunology | [
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Black Hand | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20Hand | Black Hand or Crna Ruka, officially Ujedinjenje ili Smrt ("Unification or Death") was a secret group of Serbian nationalists (Pan-Serbians). It was founded in 1911 in Serbia.
Their aim was to create a country from other countries where Serbs lived, including Bosnia-Herzegovina which was a part of Austria-Hungary since 1908.
Killing of Franz Ferdinand
Five members of The Black Hand were in Sarajevo, Serbia, on 28 June, 1914 where Archduke Franz Ferdinand, the heir to the throne in Austria-Hungary, visited with his wife. Ferdinand was driven through the city in a convertible car. The members of the Black Hand attempted to kill Ferdinand by throwing grenades at his car. One of the grenades bounced off his car and exploded under the car following Ferdinand's. One of the members swallowed cyanide and attempted to jump into the river, however the cyanide was old, and the river was shallow, so he was arrested. One of the men, a Bosnian student called Gavrilo Princip, went to a cafe after failing to kill Ferdinand.
The Archduke and his wife decided to go and visit the people who were injured in the explosion in hospital, however the driver took a wrong turn and stopped outside the cafe where Princip was eating. Princip saw this and went outside. He took out a gun and shot at Ferdinand; two bullets hit the archduke, one hit his wife, and the other hit the car. Both Ferdinand and his wife died shortly after.
Austria-Hungary blamed Serbia for the assassination. Austria-Hungary then declared war on Serbia, and Russia joined the war on Serbia's side because the people of Serbia were Slavic, like Russia, and the Slavic countries had agreed to help each other if they were attacked. Since Russia is a large country it had to move soldiers closer to the war, but Germany feared that Russia's soldiers would also attack Germany. Russia did not like Germany because of things Germany had done in the past to become stronger. Germany declared war on Russia, and used a plan to attack Russia that had been created before the war, but it also involved attacking France and Belgium. France and Great Britain joined the war because Great Britain had agreed to help Belgium if it were ever attacked by someone else.
This quickly led to a full-scale war. Austria-Hungary declared war on Serbia. Both country's allies became involved in the war, and soon most of Europe became involved.
The Black Hand also killed Alexander I of Serbia and Draga Mašin.
References
20th century in Europe
Serbia
1911 establishments in Europe
1910s establishments in Serbia | [
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Umbrella | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Umbrella | An umbrella is a hand tool that is used to stop rain from falling on a person. It is also used to make shade and protect people from sunlight. An umbrella made for protection from the sunlight is called a parasol. And a plastic umbrella is cheap but it is fragile.
Basic English 850 words
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American Civil War | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Civil%20War | The American Civil War (1861–1865) was a civil war in the United States of America. It was fought when 11 Southern states left the United States and formed the Confederate States of America (also called the Confederacy). The US government and the states that remained loyal to it were called the Union.
The main cause of the war was slavery, which was allowed in the South, including all 11 Confederate States. Slavery was illegal in most of the North. The Confederate States tried to leave the Union after Abraham Lincoln, who disliked slavery, was elected US president. The Union believed that it was illegal for the states to break away. There were five states that allowed slavery which stayed in the Union.
The war began on April 12, 1861, when Confederate forces attacked Fort Sumter, a fort in South Carolina that was held by Union soldiers. The war lasted four years and caused much damage in the South. Most battles were in northern states until 1862 and in southern states after 1862.
After four years of fighting, the Union won the war, and soon, slavery was made illegal everywhere in the United States of America.
Background
When the United States of America was founded in 1776, most states allowed slavery. However, over the next 84 years, the Northern states decided that slavery was a bad thing and banned it. The Southern states kept slavery legal. Slaves from Africa grew tobacco, cotton and other cash crops in those states. It was very different in the North, where the Industrial Revolution led to more people working in factories instead of on farms.
The United States became divided into slave and free states. By 1860, those groups were angry at each other. Few people wanted to end slavery in the South and so Americans argued on whether slavery should be allowed to spread to the territories and new states in the west. In the late 1850s, there was fighting in Kansas over whether the territory should allow slavery.
Abraham Lincoln from the Republican Party won the 1860 United States presidential election. He then did not want to ban slavery in the states. Like nearly everyone else, he believed that the US Constitution did not allow the federal government to ban slavery (the amendment to ban slavery was passed later, in 1865). He also thought that banning it suddenly would anger the South.
Instead, Lincoln and his Republican Party thought that slavery should be banned in US territories. They thought that slavery would die out if it could not go to new places.
Lincoln became president on March 4, 1861. In the four months between the election and the day that Lincoln became president, seven Southern states declared their independence from the Union. The outgoing US president, James Buchanan, said that was against the law but he could do nothing to stop them.
The Republican Party treated secession as a rebellion. No country in the world ever recognized the Confederacy as a separate nation. That was because of diplomacy on the part of the Union, anti-slavery feelings in Europe and the northern blockade of southern ports, and of war against the United States.
The first seven states to join the Confederacy were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, Louisiana, and Texas. Four others joined after the fighting began: Virginia, Arkansas, Tennessee, and North Carolina. The Confederacy claimed Kentucky and Missouri belonged to them, but they never joined the Confederacy. Kentucky, Missouri, and Maryland were slave states that tried to avoid taking sides. Delaware supported the Union although it was a slave state. Also, the western counties of Virginia chose to remain in the Union and created a new state, West Virginia.
Fighting begins
Fighting started when the Confederates shot and threw bombs at Fort Sumter, a Union Army fort in South Carolina. Lincoln then asked the Union states to bring soldiers to fight the Confederates.
The Confederates said that all forts and other federal buildings in the South belonged to them. Fort On April 12, 1861, Confederate forces attacked the fort and forced the Union soldiers in it to surrender. Lincoln then asked every Union state for volunteers to join the Union Army. Four more southern slave states joined the Confederates, rather than supply forces to fight against them.
The US Navy stopped other ships from going in or out of southern ports. That stopped the Confederacy from selling its cotton and other goods and also made it harder for the South to buy weapons and military supplies.
The war
The American Civil War was fought in three important land areas, or "theaters." The Eastern Theater was the land east of the Appalachian Mountains. The Western Theater included everything between the Appalachian Mountains and the Mississippi River and along the river. The Trans-Mississippi Theater included territory west of the Mississippi River.
Both the United States and the Confederacy had their capital cities in the Eastern Theater. Washington, DC, had been the US capital since 1800. When the South seceded, its first capital was Montgomery, Alabama, but it moved the capital to Richmond, Virginia. Both cities are only about 90 miles (145 km) apart.
One of the first battles of the war was fought in Virginia. The First Battle of Bull Run, on July 21, 1861, was a Confederate victory. The Union Army of the Potomac then tried to capture Richmond in the Peninsula Campaign during the spring of 1862, but Robert E. Lee became leader of the Army of Northern Virginia and defeated the Union Army. He then won the Second Battle of Bull Run in August 1862. Lee tried to win the war by invading Maryland, but he lost the Battle of Antietam and retreated to Virginia.
There was much fighting between ships in the war, but the Union had a stronger and bigger navy. Lincoln put the Confederates under a blockade and so the Union Navy would not let any ships into or out of southern ports. The Confederates used ships called blockade runners to bring things from Europe like weapons. The navies of each side also fought on the rivers. The ships included ironclads, which were protected by iron on their sides, and cottonclads, which used cotton along their sides. During the Battle of Hampton Roads, the Confederate ironclad Virginia fought against the Union ironclad Monitor. It was the first time in world history that two ironclads fought each other.
In the Western Theater, much of the fighting happened along the Mississippi River. Ulysses S. Grant was an important Union general in the West. The Confederates tried to send their soldiers into the state of Kentucky in the summer of 1861. In the early months of 1862, the Union Army made the Confederates retreat from Kentucky and from western Tennessee. They tried to recapture western Tennessee by attacking Grant's army at the Battle of Shiloh, but Grant won the battle. The Confederates then tried to send their soldiers into eastern Kentucky in the fall of 1862 but lost the Battle of Perryville and then left Kentucky.
The North won control of almost all of the Mississippi River by capturing the cities along the river in the fall of 1862 and the spring of 1863. However, the Confederacy still held Vicksburg, an important city and fort. If they held, the Confederates could move soldiers and supplies from one side of the river to the other. Grant started the Siege of Vicksburg during the month of May 1863. The siege continued until July 4, 1863, when the Confederates there surrendered to Grant. That was one of the turning points in the war by dividing the Confederacy into two parts.
There were also battles west of the Mississippi River Valley in the Trans-Mississippi Theater. For example, two important battles were the Battle of Wilson's Creek and the Battle of Pea Ridge. The Confederates tried to invade New Mexico in February and March 1862 but they were defeated at the Battle of Glorieta Pass. After the Union captured Vicksburg, the area became separated from the rest of the Confederate States. Other battles happened in the area after the capture of Vicksburg.
During the Siege of Vicksburg in the west, another turning point came in the east. After winning some battles, Lee decided to invade the North again. Lee and his Army of Northern Virginia went into Pennsylvania. The Confederate Army met the Union Army near Gettysburg, Pennsylvania and fought the Battle of Gettysburg, which lasted from July 1 to 3, 1863. More soldiers died at Gettysburg than in any other Civil War battle, which the Union won. Lee and his troops were pushed back into the South and could no longer invade the North.
Lincoln then decided that Grant was his best general and put Grant in control of all Union armies. Lincoln also made William Tecumseh Sherman the general in charge of the Union troops in Georgia. Grant led many attacks on Lee's army. The battles were made up the Overland Campaign.
Meanwhile, Sherman burned Atlanta and Savannah to try to weaken the South and to make it harder to supply the Confederate Army. He then marched north through South Carolina and North Carolina. Confederate General Joseph E. Johnston attacked Sherman at the Battle of Bentonville. Sherman won the battle. Even in the 20th century, Southerners remember Sherman's march as destroying many homes, farms, and railroads, but his soldiers are blamed for things that they could not have done since they were too far away.
Eventually, Lee decided that he had too few soldiers to keep on fighting the Union, which had more soldiers and supplies. He surrendered to Grant on April 9, 1865 near Appomattox Court House. Later, many other Confederate armies surrendered as well. The last Confederate general to surrender was Brigadier General Stand Watie, who surrendered on June 23, 1865, in Oklahoma.
After the war ended, Lincoln pardoned all of the Confederate soldiers and so they could not be arrested or punished for fighting against the Union. The South would be allowed to rejoin the United States but only later. Some Confederates did not want to return to the United States and moved to places like México or Brazil.
Why the Union won
Historians have had different ideas about whether the Confederacy could have won the war. Most of them, such as James McPherson, say that it would have been difficult but possible. The Union had far more people, money and industry. By most estimates, the Union had over 2 million soldiers while the Confederacy had 1 million.
One advantage the Confederacy had was that they only needed to defend their land, whereas the Union could only win if they took full control the Confederate states. Furthermore, the Union could only fight the war if their people wanted them to keep fighting. Lincoln had opponents in the North (the Copperheads) who wanted the war to end. If the Confederacy had defended itself for long enough, it may have led to more people in the Union turning against the war and supporting the Copperheads. However, Lincoln held on to his support and won the 1864 election.
The Union Navy blocked ships from going into the Confederate ports. Although some ships managed to get past, most could not. The Confederacy had big money problems because they could not sell cotton and other goods to other countries. The Confederacy collected less taxes than the Union, so they printed money to pay for the war. This caused inflation (rising prices).
Another factor was that the Confederacy could not get help from outside. They had hoped that Britain and France would support the Confederacy because they wanted to buy their cotton. However, Britain and France did not give them help. There were three reasons for this. Firstly, they thought that slavery was wrong. Secondly, they did not want to become enemies of the United States. Thirdly, they could get cotton from elsewhere.
Most historians also think that Abraham Lincoln was a better leader than Jefferson Davis. Don E. Fehrenbacher says that Lincoln's skills helped keep the Border States and ordinary people on his side. Lincoln left his generals alone if they did a good job and fired them if they did not. Davis lacked a clear plan, tried to do too many tasks at once and often chose people to do jobs just because they were his friends. He annoyed his generals and other Confederate politicians. William Cooper says that better leadership helped the Union, but they were already more likely to win.
After the war
Many soldiers on both sides died during the war. Most of the war was fought in the South. Many railroads, farms, houses and other things were destroyed, and most people there became very poor.
The period after the war, called Reconstruction, lasted from the end of the war to 1877. The Union Army stayed in some Southern states and made them occupied territory. Three important amendments were added on to the US Constitution. The amendments were proposed (or suggested) by the US government. Although not every American supported them, they got enough support to pass:
The Thirteenth Amendment says that slavery is not allowed anywhere in the United States, which completed the work of the Emancipation Proclamation.
The Fourteenth Amendment makes it clear that all people born in the United States are citizens, and all citizens have equal rights.
The Fifteenth Amendment says that people in the United States could not be kept from voting because of their race.
After the war, some of the Union Army's leaders went into politics. Generals Grant, Hayes, Garfield, Harrison, and McKinley became US presidents. Other veterans were elected to other offices.
The Southern states were allowed to ask to rejoin the union. When they were accepted, that could send senators and representatives to the US Congress again and make their own state laws. During Reconstruction, black Americans built schools and other social infrastructure. Some of the schools became the historically-black colleges that still exist. After southern states rejoined the Union, most of them made laws that limited what black people could do.
The Amnesty Act of 1872 restored the rights to vote and to hold political office for most former members of the Confederacy. Some of them also became politicians.
References
Other sources
Gibboney, Douglas Lee. Tragic Glory: A Concise, Illustrated History of the Civil War. Fredericksburg, Virginia: Sergeant Kirkland's, 1997. .
Roland, Charles P. An American Iliad: The Story of the Civil War. New York: McGraw-Hill, 2002. .
Other websites
Civilwar.com
American Civil War Citizendium
Wars involving the United States
Rebellions in North America
19th century rebellions | [
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Independence | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence | The word independence means "not dependent", or not having to depend on anyone or anything else. It also means being strong and able to survive alone. Anything can be dependent or independent. When people talk about independence, it may be about people or countries, where it is often being spoken about as a good thing. For places, it may mean sovereignty or autonomy. In science, as in independent variable the word does not mean it is good or bad.
In countries
A country gets its independence when it is no longer part of another country. Sometimes countries get their independence in a war, as when the United States left the British Empire in the American War of Independence. Countries can also get their independence peacefully, like Canada and Norway did. Help from another country may be needed to get independence, like in World War II, when the allies freed many countries that had been controlled by the Axis powers and, temporarily, vice versa. Attempts to gain independence may lead to civil war and may be unsuccessful.
Examples
Singapore gained independence from Malaysia in 1965. The newest country to get its independence was South Sudan. Other countries that became independent not long ago are Bosnia and Herzegovina in 1992, Eritrea in 1993 and East Timor in 2002. However, some countries have political parties that discuss whether their country should become independent. Some examples of these are the Scottish National Party (SNP) or the Puerto Rican Independence Party (PIP).
Related pages
Declaration of independence
Autonomy
Nationalism
Politics
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Film (disambiguation) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Film%20%28disambiguation%29 | Film may refer to:
the art and industry of making motion pictures
movies - also called motion pictures or films.
photographic film
a thin skin or membrane, or any covering or coating
a thin layer of liquid (film (liquid)) on water or solid stuff | [
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Photographic film | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Photographic%20film | Photographic film is a sheet of plastic for recording visual scenes. The plastic has been specially treated to be sensitive to light. The image is recorded on the plastic when the plastic is exposed to light. Film is kept in small canisters (boxes) which protect it from the light. A normal photographic film may hold up to 40 pictures.
Once all pictures have been recorded, the film has to undergo a special chemical treatment. This is called developing a film or film processing. That treatment makes the pictures visible (you can see them), and the exposed film is no longer sensitive to light.
Different kinds of films exist. Some require more light to be exposed than others. Some are black and white only; they record no colors. There are also special films which can record infrared light.
Films also come in different sizes. 35 millimeter film, the most used size, comes in metal cans or canisters, but there are other camera films that come in paper wrappings or in single sheets.
Uses
Film can only be used once. After that, it cannot be used again (if it is accidentally used again, this results in an artifact called a multiple exposure). When not in use, film needs to be covered from light, otherwise it will record any lights that shine on it. This will make it useless to record a picture. Film comes in a can called a canister to cover it from light rays.
Film needs the right amount of light to make a picture. If the picture is too bright or too dark, it will not record correctly. The longer that the film keeps recording, the more light it will get. If what is being photographed is bright, it will be recorded faster. If it is darker, the film will need more time to record.
Films that need less time to record the picture are known as "faster" films. Different speeds of films are marked with an ISO number. The higher the number, the faster the films. Films can only make a picture from focused lights. If there is no lens to focus light, the film will only turn white from receiving just the light. If a film with an ISO level of 200 instead of 100 is used, it will only need half as much time to record a picture of the same scene.
Examples of ISO numbers are ISO 50, ISO 100, IS0 200, ISO 400, ISO 800, and ISO 1600. The ISO number is sometimes called the ''ASA number'' or the ''film speed''. When the ISO number is low, for example ISO 50, the film takes a long time to record the picture. This is called a slow film. This means the shutter has to stay open for a long time. When the ISO number is high, for example ISO 800, the picture is made in a very short time. This is a fast film. This means the shutter has to open and close quickly.
Before photographic film was invented, photography used glass dry plates. In the 21st century, most cameras don't use film anymore.
References
Related pages
Advanced Photo System
Camera
Photography | [
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Holy Roman Empire | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Holy%20Roman%20Empire | The Holy Roman Empire should not be mistaken for the Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Empire (; ), occasionally but unofficially referred to as the Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation, was a group of regions and free cities in central Europe under the rule of an emperor who was elected by the princes and magistrates of the regions and cities within the empire.
When Charlemagne died, his Frankish Empire was given to his children and divided into three different countries: West Francia, Lotharingia and East Francia. The Holy Empire started when Otto I of East Francia became emperor in 962, and it was ended by Napoleon in 1806. The emperors claimed to be heirs of Charlemagne and that the Empire dates from 800, when Charlemagne became Frankish Emperor.
In the 17th century the Empire was shattered by the Thirty Years' War (1618-1648). Nearly thirty percent of the population of the Empire was killed. The Holy Roman Empire of the German Nation lost parts of its territory.
Until the 13th century, the Holy Roman Empire was powerful. Later, all the duchies and counties inside the Empire started to get more power. At the end, the emperors had little real power anymore, and the country existed only in name. The last emperor abolished the empire in 1806 during the Napoleonic Wars.
Politics
It is known in popular culture that Voltaire, a French philosopher in the 18th century, once said that "the nation was neither holy, nor Roman, nor an empire." to criticize the very decentralized state of the empire during the 1700's and its claim as the successor to the Roman Empire.
The Empire was in fact Germanic and not Roman since it was mainly in the regions of present-day Germany and Austria. It was not really holy since, after Charles V in 1530, no emperors were crowned by the Pope. It was only really an Empire by name: the territories it covered were mostly independent. The Empire had its own central government and armed forces that acted as one. It was ruled by the House of Habsburg before that fell in 1806. Napoleon forced the emperor to abdicate when France began invading the Holy Roman Empire during the First French Empire. The Emperor made himself emperor of Austria and ended the Holy Roman Empire.
The Holy Roman Empire was not a highly centralized state like most countries today. Instead, it was divided into dozens – eventually hundreds – of individual entities governed by kings, dukes, counts, bishops, abbots, and other rulers. They were collectively known as princes. The Emperor directly ruled some areas. At no time could the Emperor simply issue decrees and govern autonomously over the Empire. His power was severely restricted by the various local leaders.
In the 16th century the Holy Roman Empire (HRE) had to deal with the rebellion of the Frisians lead by Pier Gerlofs Donia and Wijerd Jelckama. This lasted from 1515 until 1523.
The Empire was one of the rare states in Europe that had an elective monarchy. This meant that the Emperor was chosen by a small group of Prince-electors. Common practice was to just elect the deceased Emperor or Empress 's heir to the throne.
References
Notes
States and territories disestablished in the 19th century
1806 disestablishments
1800s disestablishments in Europe | [
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Puppet state | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Puppet%20state | A puppet state is a country that is officially independent but is not so in practice. Puppet governments are usually kept in power by military force provided by an occupying country.
It is a biased term and is used in criticizing the government of the alleged puppet state.
Examples
Examples of puppet states before World War II are:
Far Eastern Republic (puppet state of the Soviet Union).
Kingdom of Holland (puppet state of the First French Empire)
Kingdom of Poland (1916-1918) (puppet state of the German Empire)
Panama (puppet state of the United States)
Grand Duchy of Warsaw (puppet state of the First French Empire)
Emirate of Mongda (puppet state of the Ottoman Empire)
World War II
In World War II the Axis countries created some puppet states, like:
Kingdom of Albania (1939-1943, puppet state of Italy)
Hungarian State of National Unity (1944-1945, puppet state of Nazi Germany)Government of National Unity (Hungary)
Manchukuo (1932-1945, puppet state of the Empire of Japan)
Independent State of Croatia (1941- 1945, puppet state of Italy and Nazi Germany)
Slovak Republic (1939-1945, puppet state of Nazi Germany)
Free State of Burma (1943-1945, puppet state of the Empire of Japan)
After Italy surrendered in World War II the Italian Social Republic was a puppet state created by Germany.
Cold War
During the Cold War (1945-1989) these Eastern European countries were puppet states of the Soviet Union:
People's Republic of Bulgaria (Soviet Union)
Czechoslovak Socialist Republic (Soviet Union)
East Germany (Soviet Union)
Hungarian People's Republic (Soviet Union)
Socialist Republic of Romania (Soviet Union)
Polish People's Republic (Soviet Union)
Democratic Republic of Albania (Soviet Union)
Mongolian People's Republic (Soviet Union)
North Korea (Soviet Union), (until 1976)
Next are economic puppets:
Austria (mostly in the north east including Vienna and the old Soviet occupation zone until 1955) (Soviet Union)
In some of these countries the people overthrew the government, but each time they did that (before 1989) the Soviet Union and some of its other puppet states invaded and put the old government back in power. The Soviet Union had also some puppet states outside Europe, such as Mongolia. Some of these countries had more independence from the Soviet Union. For example, the Romanian government sided against the Soviets when they went into Czechoslovakia.
The United States also had some puppet states during the Cold War:
Cuba (United States), (before 1959)
Guatemala (United States), (until 1991)
South Korea A.K.A United States Army Military Government in Korea (United States), (Until 1948)
Republic of Vietnam A.K.A South Vietnam (United States), (Until 1975)
Japan A.K.A Allied Occupation of Japan (United States), (Until 1952)
Now
There are these countries that can be called puppet states now:
Donetsk People’s Republic (puppet state of Russia)
Luhansk People’s Republic (puppet state of Russia)
South Ossetia (puppet state of Russia)
Abkhazia (puppet state of Russia)
Transnistria (puppet state of Russia)
Republic of Artsakh (puppet state of Armenia between 1991-2020, puppet state of Russia since 2020)
Islamic Republic of Afghanistan (2004-2021, puppet state of United States)
This also includes the Transitional Islamic State of Afghanistan, (2002-2004)
Republic of Iraq (puppet state of United States), (2003-2018)
This also includes the Coalition Provisional Authority, (2003-2004)
Related pages
Banana republic
Satellite state
Politics | [
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Garden | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Garden | A garden is usually a piece of land that is used for growing flowers, trees, shrubs, and other plants. The act of caring for a garden by watering the flowers and plants and removing the weeds is called gardening.
Types of gardens
There are many types of gardens. People have small private gardens in the backyard outside their house. Some gardens are built indoors in malls, public buildings, or greenhouses. Greenhouses are special buildings where plants are grown. A greenhouse has a transparent glass or plastic roof and walls that let sunlight in.
Water gardens are plants that are grown in ornamental (decorative) pools and ponds. People doing water gardening plant water lilies and other aquatic (water) plants.
Gardening can be done outside of the home, as well. There are in city gardens, botanical gardens (places where plants are grown), zoos which have gardens, and theme parks which have gardens. These types of gardens are cared for by people called gardeners or groundskeepers.
Gardens compared with farms
Gardens are related to farms (agriculture); both gardens and farms are used for growing plants. But farms are much larger than gardens. A farm may have hundreds of square kilometers of plants and crops. A garden in a person's backyard is usually only measures a few square meters.
Farms are businesses which sell the crops, fruit, and vegetables that are produced. Some gardens are businesses, which charge a fee to enter the garden. However, private gardens in people's backyards are used as a hobby or as a recreation, not as a business.
Features of gardens
In addition to plants, many gardens also have landscaping features such as pathways, seats, rock gardens, ponds, fountains, a small stream with or without a waterfall. Some incorporate gazebos and structural designs to accommodate for places to sit or to place a hammock for a siesta. Roman gardens will have its own columns, fountains and statures placed at strategic places depending on its sizes and uses. Japanese gardens have their own unique designs and features.
Role of gardens
Some gardens are created in people's backyards, outside their home (note that in Britain the whole area is called a "garden", not a "yard"). People with gardens in their backyards use gardens as a place to do gardening. Gardening is a type of physical activity which can use enough energy and increase your heart rate that it can be rated as a form of exercise for to relax and exercise certain muscles depending on whether on the activity you do that day such as planting, pruning, weeding, or simply just walk around your garden continuously for 15 minutes or more.
Many people find gardens relaxing especially if the garden is full flowers with strong scents. Some flowers like roses, bougainvilleas, orchids and many others are just beautiful to look at. Many people think that gardens are very beautiful and a place to relax and /or entertain. A garden can have a place to barbecue, to sit and to read.
In many countries and cultures, designing pretty gardens is considered to be an art. In Japan, for instance, Zen monks build decorative gardens with stone and waterfall features using natural materials such as bamboo, rock and BONSAI trees like spruce, pine, and other trees with they trained into miniature forms. In Europe in the 1700s, kings and queens had formal gardens built (for example, the gardens at Versailles, France). In China they also feature Chinese forms of gardens. Now some enterprising people start to have herbal gardens to feature useful herbs used in alternative, traditional, and homeopathic medicine
Related pages
Botanical garden
List of garden plants
Zoo
Plants
Basic English 850 words | [
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Apple Inc. | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apple%20Inc. | Apple Inc. is a multinational company that makes personal computers (the Macintoshes), mobile devices (iPod, iPhone and iPad), and software (macOS, iOS, watchOS and tvOS). Apple calls its computers Macintoshes or Macs, and it calls its laptops MacBooks. Their line of mobile music players is called iPod, their smartphone line is called iPhone and their tablet line is called iPad. Apple sells their products all around the world. Apple Inc. used to be called Apple Computer, Inc., but Apple changed their name after introducing the original iPhone.
Apple Inc. is a public company and trades on the NASDAQ under the stock ticker AAPL. On March 19, 2015, it became one of the 30 components of the Dow Jones Industrial Average.
General history
Apple was started in 1976 by Steve Jobs and Steve Wozniak. Before they made the company, they sold "blue boxes", which had telephone buttons on them. People could use them to make telephone calls from payphones without paying any money. It did this by pretending to be a telephone operator. The company's first product is now called the Apple I computer. They were almost ready to sell it, but a problem happened. Steve Wozniak was working for the computer company Hewlett-Packard, and the papers that said he could work there said he had to give everything he invented to the company before he could do what he wanted to do with it. He showed the first Apple I to the boss at Hewlett-Packard, but they did not want his computer. Wozniak was then free to do what he wanted to do with the Apple I. It began selling in 1976. In 1977, they made their second computer, called the Apple II, which later became very successful compared to Apple I.
iPod
Before the iPhone, the most popular product made by Apple was the iPod. It was first sold in 2001, and Apple sold over 100 million in six years. iPods are used to play music. Recent iPod Touches have a LED screens, can take and show pictures, record, view and edit videos, record word and voice memos, can connect to the Internet for features such as e-mail, and downloading apps from the App Store. The latest iPod Touch is made with a 64-bit architecture.
There are several different types of iPods:
iPod shuffle (4th generation)
iPod shuffle 2 GB - This model has no screen. Instead, it has a click wheel to control the music, and is very small. It was the cheapest iPod at the time. People can sync playlists and Genius mixes but apart from that, it has only basic music playback functions, and also has feature called VoiceOver. It comes in five different colors: silver, orange, pink, green, and blue. A polished stainless steel version is available. It can store about 1,000 songs.
iPod nano
iPod nano 8 GB - The 8GB could store about 2,000 songs. It was discontinued.
iPod nano 16 GB - Comes in space gray, purple, blue, silver, green, yellow, and pink. It can hold about 4,000 songs.
iPod classic
iPod classic 160 GB - comes in black or silver. This is the chunkiest and most original looking iPod, but the best music holder. It can hold about 40,000 songs.
iPod touch
iPod touch 8 GB - Apple announced the fifth generation iPod Touch in 2012, equipping it with a front and rear facing camera, a better display, a better processor for faster performance, and it has a thin new design. It can also run the latest operating system, iOS 9. This makes it a lot closer to the iPhone 5. The 8GB model is discontinued.
iPod touch 16 GB - has a multi-touch screen and looks much like the iPhone. It can be used to view high quality media and to use the Internet, using built-in Wi-fi. Some say it is like an iPhone without the phone. This model can hold about 4,000 songs, but was discontinued in September 2009, and was now put up again to replace the 8 GB in June 2013.
iPod touch 32 GB - This model can hold about 7,000 songs. It first went on sale in February 2008.
iPod touch 64 GB - This model can hold about 14,000 songs. It first went on sale in September 2009.
(PRODUCT) RED
The red iPod shuffle, iPod nano, and iPod touch models, and a few more products, are part of the "(PRODUCT) RED" program. This means that some of the profits from these iPods goes to the Global Fund to fight AIDS in Africa.
Computers
Apple makes computers. Newer computers by Apple run the OS X operating system, which is included with the Mac.
Laptops
MacBook (very skinny and light laptop designed for average users, discontinued)
MacBook Pro (more powerful and fast laptop designed for professional users)
MacBook Air (skinny and light laptop, less expensive than MacBook , but does not include a Retina display option which the Macbook did. After the Macbook was discontinued the Air got the Retina display)
Desktops
Mac Mini (a very tiny, but fully functional computer that does not come with its own monitor, keyboard, or mouse. Used mainly for home and school)
iMac (a computer where everything is built in behind the screen, designed for many uses, such as home, school, and professional (i.e.: Photoshop) use)
Mac Pro (a very powerful, fast computer that does not come with its own monitor, for professional people who need fast computers, i.e.: movie editing)
Software
Apple also makes software for their computers. Some of the software that Apple makes is:
iLife (a set of programs designed for everyday use) contains iMovie, a program for making movies, GarageBand, a program for making music, iPhoto, a program for organizing photos, iTunes, a program for organizing (and buying) music, iWeb (not sold or updated any more), a program for making web pages, and iDVD (also no longer sold or updated), a program to make DVDs. These programs are considered very simple to use.
iWork (a set of programs for office work) contains Pages, a program for making documents and Keynote, a program for making slideshows, and "Numbers" for making spreadsheets. These apps are available on Apple Mac computers, iPhones, iPads and iPod Touchs.
Professional program to make movies called Final Cut Pro, a program for music making called Soundtrack Pro, Motion, a program for high-quality moving graphics authorship, and DVD Studio Pro, a program used to make professional DVDs.
Final Cut Express (a set of programs similar to Final Cut Pro, but simplified and cheaper)
Aperture (for professional photographers to edit their photos, no longer supported or updated)
Logic Studio (A set of programs where professionals can edit and produce audio)
Logic Express (a set of programs similar to Logic Studio, but simplified and cheaper)
Most computer users in the world use Microsoft Windows, the rival to Mac OS X. About 10% of computer users use Apple's Macintosh computers. It is not legal to run Apple's Mac OS X on a Windows computer. However, it is allowed to run Windows on modern Macintosh computers. Even though Apple makes their computers to run Mac OS X, they also make software that allows you to install Windows. This software is called Boot Camp.
Mobile devices
Apple is perhaps most famous for its mobile devices, which are small computers that are easy to carry around. They have touchscreens with multi-touch technology instead of a separate keyboard and mouse. Most of these products run an operating system called iOS. It is very similar to the Android software made by Google. iOS can do a lot of different things, and it does so by running "apps", which are programs similar to those on a PC. Users can download and buy more apps for their device from Apple's App Store.
iPhone
The iPhone is a mobile phone that can be used to make calls, send text messages, play games and music, show photos and videos (like an iPod), browse the Internet, and do much more. It was one of the first smartphones in the world when the first version was announced in 2007. Apple makes and sells a different model every year, with new models being faster and more powerful and having a newer version of iOS than those that come before them. The newest iPhones released are the iPhone 12 and the iPhone 12 Pro which run on iOS 14. Many cellular carriers around the world sell iPhones, including Sprint, Verizon, AT&T, and T-Mobile in the US.
iPad
The iPad is a tablet computer, similar to the iPhone and iPod Touch but with a much larger display - while a typical iPhone has a screen about 4 to 5 inches in size, iPads have screens from 8 to 12 inches big. The first iPad was introduced in 2010 and along with the iPhone, new and better models are made and sold every year. A new iPad will ship with the latest iPad OS software if it is supported.
Apple Watch
The Apple Watch is an example of "wearable technology", because it is worn around the wrist in the same way as a traditional wristwatch. However, it is much more than a wristwatch. It not only tells the time and date but also tracks the fitness of the person wearing it and monitors the person's health. It can also do many of the same things that an iPhone can do, such as use Apple's Siri personal assistant, but it needs to be "paired" with an iPhone for it to do these things, meaning that it will not work if you do not have an iPhone. The Apple Watch has many different designs: there is the standard version, a "Sport" version designed for athletes, and an "Edition" version which is made as a fashion product. These all run "watchOS", a modified version of iOS.
Apple TV
The Apple TV is a box that plugs into a TV. It can connect wirelessly to any computer that has the Apple program iTunes on it. The Apple TV can play music and show photos or videos from iTunes on the TV. Like other Apple products, Apple TV is regularly updated with new software and features. The most recent version comes with a new remote control and includes the Siri voice assistant. It uses tvOS, a TV version of iOS.
Environment
Following several campaigns (for example, Green my Apple), Apple has made their products better for the environment. Previously, the notebook line removed many toxins and improved the products battery life and recharge cycles. Apple products used to ship with chargers and EarPods, but recently Apple has removed the chargers and EarPods from the boxes of most of their products to make the cases smaller. Apple says they did this to make it easier to make and save resources and energy.
Improvements
The MacBook uses a power efficient CPU, M1, and has a power-efficient Retina display, and is slimmer than previous models.
The MacBook, MacBook Pro, and MacBook Air have highly recyclable aluminium and glass enclosures, mercury-free displays and arsenic-free display glass. The printed circuit boards, electrical components, mechanical parts, and internal cables are BFR-free and PVC-free.
The MacBook, MacBook Air, MacBook Pro, and the LED Cinema Display contain energy-efficient LED display technology. The MacBook LED-backlit display uses 30% less power compared to conventional CCFL-backlit displays.
Sleep-mode energy usage has decreased 93% between the first-generation and current-generation iMac. This is due to improvements in CPU power management and increased hardware efficiency.
Between the fourth-generation iPod nano and the first-generation iPod nano, the packaging is 32% lighter and uses 54% less volume.
Apple products are compliant with the European Directive on the Restriction of the Use of Certain Hazardous Substances in Electrical and Electronic Equipment, also known as the RoHS directive. Examples of materials restricted by RoHS include lead, mercury, cadmium, hexavalent chromium, and PBB and PBDE flame retardants. Apple met many of the RoHS requirements long before the July 2006 deadline.
Starting from the iPhone 12, iPhone 12 Pro and Apple Watch Series 6, Apple products stopped shipping with chargers and EarPods as an incentive for users to reuse previous accessories.
People
CEOs
1977–1981: Michael Scott
1981–1983: Mike Markkula
1983–1993: John Sculley
1993–1996: Michael Spindler
1996–1997: Gil Amelio
1997–2011: Steve Jobs (Interim CEO 1997–2000)
2004, 2009, 2011–present: Tim Cook (Acting CEO during Steve Jobs' health issues; replaced Steve Jobs after he resigned)
Directors
the following individuals sit on the board of Apple Inc.
Arthur D. Levinson, Chairman and CEO of Genentech
Tim Cook
James A. Bell, retired President of Boeing
Al Gore, Former Vice President of the United States
Andrea Jung, Chairman and CEO of Avon Products
Ronald Sugar, former chairman and CEO of Northrop Grumman
Susan Wagner, co-founder of BlackRock
Executives
Arthur D. Levinson, Chairman
Tim Cook, CEO
Jeff Williams, COO
Employees
Since the formation of the Apple Computer Company in 1977, Apple has employed over 95,000 people worldwide. The majority of Apple's employees have been in the United States but Apple has substantial manufacturing, sales, marketing, and support organizations worldwide, with some engineering operations in Paris and Tokyo.
Apple employees include employees of companies Apple owns, and less important, but still relevant companies such as FileMaker Inc. and Braeburn Capital.
Controversy
Apple Corps has sued Apple Inc. many times for trademark infringement. In the first case, Apple Inc. agreed not to go into the music industry. Apple Corps believes this agreement was broken when Apple Inc. launched the iTunes Store, Apple's online music store.
The two companies had trouble in the past, over the use of the Apple name. They made a deal that Apple Computers would not act as a music company. When Apple Computer Inc. began to sell their iPod, and set up their iTunes music store, Apple Corps believed they had broken their agreement, and took them to court. Apple Computers won the case, but the two companies later worked out a new deal. This deal now means that the Beatles music is now on the iTunes store, whereas it was not there before. Apple Computers was then renamed as Apple Inc. because of its mobile technology business. Steve Jobs, then CEO of Apple, Inc., has said in the past that he loves music from The Beatles, which can be considered to be very ironic.
Related pages
Pixar, an animation studio founded by Steve Jobs, one of the founders of Apple.
References
Other websites
1976 establishments in California
Steve Jobs | [
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Sailor Moon | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sailor%20Moon | Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon or Sailor Moon is a shojo manga by Naoko Takeuchi. It was adapted to an anime series by Toei Animation CO., LTD. Sailor Moon was one of the most popular anime/manga series during the 1990s, spanning five seasons, four movies, and multiple video games. It continues to hold a strong fanbase with many fansites devoted to it.
Summary
Usagi (Serena in English) is an eighth grader who is clumsy, a crybaby and who also gets bad grades. One day, she meets a talking cat named Luna, who tells her that she is Sailor Moon, a superhero. She has to fight monsters to save people from getting their energy stolen by evil beings. Usagi has some friends who fight evil along with her. They are named Sailor Mercury, Sailor Venus, Sailor Mars, and Sailor Jupiter. They make up a team called the Sailor Senshi (Senshi means soldier or guardian in Japanese). The Sailor Senshi are named after different planets in the solar system. Each of the Sailor Senshi uses magical powers to become a Sailor Senshi. They are also young Japanese girls. Their real names are not Sailor Mercury, Sailor Venus, Sailor Mars, and Sailor Jupiter. For example, when Sailor Mercury is not fighting evil, her name is Ami Mizuno (Amy in English). The name of Sailor Venus is Minako Aino (Mina in English). The name of Sailor Mars is Rei Hino (Raye in English). The name of Sailor Jupiter is Makoto Kino (Lita in English). Each of them has a transformation sequence where they turn into their Sailor Senshi form, with many colourful effects.
Mamoru Chiba (called Darien Chiba in the English manga and Darien Shields in the English anime) is Usagi's boyfriend. He uses magic powers to transform into a man named Tuxedo Mask, who fights evil along with the Sailor Senshi. In the future, Usagi and Mamoru get married and become the king and queen of the earth. Their daughter, named Chibiusa (Rini in the English version), travels through time to help them and the Sailor Senshi.
Usagi has a cat named Luna, named after the Latin word for moon. Minako has a cat named Artemis after the Greek goddess of the moon (although Artemis is a male cat). Luna and Artemis are not ordinary cats. They can talk, and they have moon symbols on their foreheads. They can also turn into humans in the manga, and Luna turns into a human in one of the anime movies. In the future, they have a kitten named Diana (Diana is the name of the Roman moon goddess).
Later on there are some other Sailor Senshi. They are named after the planets Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto (now a dwarf planet). Sailor Saturn's real name is Hotaru Tomoe. Sailor Uranus' real name is Haruka Tenoh (Amara in English). Sailor Neptune's real name is Michiru Kaioh (Michelle in English). Sailor Pluto's real name is Setsuna Meioh (Trista in English). In the manga and anime series, Haruka and Michiru are lesbians, but in the English anime they were changed to cousins. This is because the English anime was made for younger children than the anime series.
Each Sailor Senshi has different powers. Sailor Moon has powers of love and healing. Sailor Mercury has powers of water and ice. Sailor Mars has fire powers, Sailor Jupiter has electricity and plant powers, and Sailor Venus has light and energy powers. Sailor Chibi Moon, (called Sailor Mini Moon in the English version) has love and sugar powers. Sailor Saturn is death and rebirth, Sailor Neptune is water, Sailor Uranus is earth, and Sailor Pluto has time and death powers. Tuxedo Mask can throw roses against enemies.
The Manga
In the manga there are five series: Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon, Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon R(eturn/omance), Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon Super Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon SuperS Bishoujo Senshi Sailor Moon Stars. Sailor Moon was originally serialized in the Japanese manga magazine by Kodansha. Afterwards Kodansha published the completed series in volumes. There are eighteen volumes total.
The Anime
The anime stayed close to the story from the manga. However, due to its popularity, Toei made more seasons and produced movies. Sailor Moon was licensed to be aired in the United States by DIC Entertainment (a company that makes TV and film). DIC cut out some scenes and changed some of the dialogue to make it more acceptable for children. Many anime fans did not like the changes. Due to their complaints, ADV Films and later Pioneer Inc. made uncut versions.
The following TV series and movies were made:
Original TV Series (1992-1997)
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon R
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon S
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon SuperS
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon Stars
Revived TV Series (2014-present)
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon Crystal
Movies
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon R: The Movie
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon S: The Movie
Pretty Soldier Sailor Moon SuperS: The Movie
Worldwide date
December 28, 1991 (Japan)
March 3, 1992 (UK)
May 14, 1992 (France)
July 10, 1992 (Italy)
November 24, 1993 (USA)
January 19, 1994 (Australia)
March 10, 1994 (Mexico)
April 3, 1994 (Brazil)
June 28, 1994 (Germany)
July 10, 1994 (Iceland)
October 7, 1994 (New Zealand)
February 5, 1995 (Ireland)
June 19, 1995 (Canada)
August 10, 1995 (Spain)
October 20, 1995 (Portugal)
November 30, 1995 (Turkey)
December 10, 1995 (Taiwan)
March 20, 1996 (South Korea)
May 10, 1996 (Egypt)
July 20, 1996 (Israel)
September 10, 1996 (India)
December 20, 1996 (Russia)
March 10, 1997 (Poland)
May 20, 1997 (Netherlands)
July 10, 1997 (Hungary)
References
Manga
Anime
Animated television series
1995 television series debuts
2000 television series endings | [
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UK Independence Party | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/UK%20Independence%20Party | The United Kingdom Independence Party (often called UKIP, said "you-kipp") is a political party in the United Kingdom. Its policies promote conservatism, national conservatism, and Euroscepticism. Their main policy is for the UK to leave the European Union.
The party was founded in 1993, and they first won seats in the European Parliament in 1999. They won 3 seats in 1999, which was increased to 12 in 2004 and 13 in 2009. It is now 9. The party does not do well under Britain's 'First-past-the-post' system of elections and only has one seat in the British House of Commons, although they received 3.8 million votes (12.6% of the total vote) at the 2015 UK general election.
Supporters of UKIP mostly believe in the following things:
- The United Kingdom should leave the European Union.
- There should be more referendums on certain issues.
- British people should not have to carry ID cards.
In 2008 UKIP banned people who used to be members of the British National Party (BNP) from joining.
On 9 October 2014 Douglas Carswell became UKIP's first elected MP. Carswell quit the party in March 2017.
May 2014 local elections
In the May 2014 local elections UKIP got 30% of the vote in Sunderland. The party gained 155 local council seats across the country.
2015 general election
UKIP came third in the May 2015 general election, after the Labour Party and the Conservative Party. The party got 12.9% of the vote and gained one seat.
2017 general election
In the 2017 general election, UKIP's share of the vote went down to 1.8 and they didn't win any seats. The next day UKIP's leader Paul Nuttall resigned.
Current members
There are currently over 20,000 people who are members of the UKIP.
Gerard Batten becomes leader (2018)
In February 2018 Gerard Batten become leader of the party firstly on an interim basis before winning the UKIP leadership election in April 2018 unopposed.
2018 UK local elections
In the 2018 UK local elections UKIP lost 124 of the 126 seats it was defending, and gained a single seat in Derby.
Accusations of embracing the far-right
Since the election of Batten as leader of the party there have been accusations that UKIP is embracing the far-right. Those saying the party was moving to the right began early in Battern's leadership when he began to focus the party around rejecting Islamic ideology and when a quote arose of Battern calling Islam a "death cult". In September 2018 Battern was also criticised for attending an anti-Muslim rally in Sunderland. These accusations grew much stronger after the far-right activist Tommy Robinson was appointed an advisor to Battern in November 2018. This led to many of UKIP's MEPs and former party leaders Nigel Farage and Paul Nuttall to leave the party, as well as the party's leader in Scotland.
Sources
Other websites
UKIP homepage
1993 establishments in the United Kingdom
Political parties in the United Kingdom
Nationalist organisations in the United Kingdom
Eurosceptic parties
Brexit | [
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Independence and Democracy | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Independence%20and%20Democracy | Independence and Democracy is a group in the European Parliament. It used to be called the Group of Europe of Democracies and Diversities. It has about 37 members in it. The members of this group either want their country to leave the European Union, or want to change it.
Members
Vladimir Železný (Czech Republic)
Junibevaegelsen (June Movement) (Denmark)
Mouvement pour la France (Movement for France) (France)
Popular Orthodox Rally (Greece)
Lega Nord (Northern League) (Italy)
ChristenUnie-SGP (Netherlands)
League of Polish Families (Poland)
Kathy Sinnott (Republic of Ireland)
Junilistan (June List) (Sweden)
United Kingdom Independence Party (United Kingdom)
European Parliament | [
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Wario Land 4 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wario%20Land%204 | Wario Land 4 is a video game released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 as a part of the Wario video game series. It was later released for the Virtual Console for the Nintendo 3DS as an ambassador game in 2011.
Plot
The main plot of this video game is to save a princess that has been turned into a cat and needs to be saved. Wario arrives and has to defeat a golden diva that has turned the princess in to a cat.
References
2001 video games
Game Boy Advance games
Game Boy Advance-only games
Wario | [
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Queen Victoria | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%20Victoria | Queen Victoria (born Alexandrina Victoria (24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 1837 to 1901. She was born to a German princess and an English prince. She became Queen of the United Kingdom Great Britain at the age of 18 after her uncle King William IV died. She inherited the throne because her father's three elder brothers died without leaving any legitimate children.
She was taught by her governess, Louise Lehzen, and Reverend George Davys. She learned to speak and read German and French well. Queen Victoria enjoyed dancing, drawing, horse riding and singing. She had lessons as a child from the famous opera singer Luigi LaBlache. She liked to paint and could play the piano. She kept a regular diary throughout her life.
Victoria married her first cousin, Prince Albert, in 1840. He supported science, trade and art in Britain. Victoria and Albert had nine children. They believed that a good family life and Christianity were very important. In general, English people followed their example.
The Great Exhibition at Crystal Palace opened in 1851. It happened partly because of Albert's hard work. The exhibition showed the success of British people in Victorian times.
In 1861, Prince Albert died and Victoria stayed away from public life.
Britain became more powerful in the following years, and in 1877, Victoria got the title 'Empress of India'. Victoria was very interested in India, but she never went there to the subcontinent. Her son went there instead.
In 1897, Victoria celebrated 60 years of being monarch. This surpassed her grandfather King George III. She was queen for 63 years, seven months longer than any other king or queen of Britain. People called her the 'grandmother of Europe' because many of Victoria's children became kings, princes and princesses of other countries.
After she died from a brain haemorrhage, her son Edward VII became King of the United Kingdom and Emperor of India from 22 January 1901 till his death 6 May 1910.
Children
Ancestors
References
Other websites
Queen Victoria Citizendium
1819 births
1901 deaths
Kings and Queens of the United Kingdom
Cardiovascular disease deaths in England
Deaths from cerebral hemorrhage
English Anglicans
House of Hanover
House of Saxe-Coburg and Gotha
Indian monarchs
Royalty from London | [
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The White Stripes | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20White%20Stripes | The White Stripes were an American rock band from Detroit, Michigan. There were two people in the band:
Jack White (vocals, guitar)
Meg White (drums)
The garage rock duo were known for their trademark red, white, and black colors and clothing, their frequent use of the number three, and their peppermint motif.
Their debut album was titled The White Stripes. It was released in 1999. Their second album was De Stijl. It was released in 2000. They became very famous in 2001 when they released their third album White Blood Cells. Their fourth album, Elephant, won a Grammy Award. It was released in 2003. Their fifth album, released in 2005, was titled Get Behind Me Satan. Their most recent album, Icky Thump, was released in June 2007.
Jack and Meg White were married when they started the band, but have since divorced. Jack has remarried and has two children, Scarlett and Henry Lee.
After a long break, the White Stripes officially announced the end of the band on February 2, 2011.
Discography
The White Stripes (1999)
De Stijl (2000)
White Blood Cells (2001)
Elephant (2003)
Get Behind Me Satan (2005)
Icky Thump (2007)
1990s establishments in Michigan
1997 establishments in the United States
1990s American music groups
2000s American music groups
2010s American music groups
2011 disestablishments in the United States
American punk bands
American rock bands
Blues bands
Grammy Award winners
Musical duos
Musical groups disestablished in 2011
Musical groups established in 1997
Musical groups from Detroit, Michigan | [
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Neil Armstrong | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neil%20Armstrong | Neil Alden Armstrong (August 5, 1930 – August 25, 2012) was an American astronaut and engineer and is known as the first person to walk on the moon. On July 20, 1969, Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin landed on the moon in a small spacecraft that had been sent to the moon using the Saturn V rocket. The mission was called Apollo 11. They both walked on the moon, and millions of people watched and heard this event on live television.
He earned a BSc degree in Aeronautical Engineering from the Purdue University and an MSc degree in Aerospace Engineering from the University of Southern California. In 1970 he received an Honorary Doctorate of Engineering from the Purdue University. In 1971 he became professor of aerospace engineering at the University of Cincinnati. After graduating (1955) from Purdue University, he joined the National Aeronautics and Space Administration, then known as the National Advisory Committee for Aeronautics, serving as a civilian test pilot at Edwards Air Force Base, Lancaster, Calif.
In 2005 he received the Honorary Doctorate of letters from the University of Southern California. The Houston Chronicle newspaper reported on October 1, 2006, that Australian computer programmer Peter Shann Ford found the missing "a" from Armstrong's famous first words on the Moon. Ford reported that he downloaded the audio recording from a NASA web site and analyzed it using editing software originally intended for use with hearing disabled people. Armstrong is said to have been pleased with Ford's finding of the missing "a".
Career
Prior to being an astronaut, Armstrong was called to Pensacola Naval Air Station in Florida in 1949 before he could complete his degree. There he earned his pilots wings at 20 years of age, making him the youngest flyer in his squadron. While studying for his aeronautical engineering degree, the Korean War broke out in 1950, in which he flew 78 combat missions. His plane was shot down once and he was also awarded 3 Air Medals. Later, he became a skilful test pilot, flying right to the atmosphere’s edge, at , in the experimental rocket powered aircraft the X-15.
Armstrong went on his first mission into space on the 16th of March 1966, in the spacecraft Gemini 8, as the command pilot. He docked the Gemini 8 successfully with an Agena target craft that was in orbit already. Although the docking was smooth enough, while the spacecrafts orbited together, they started to roll and pitch. Armstrong then managed to undock the Gemini, and regained control of the spacecraft by using the retro rockets. However, this resulted in the astronauts having to make an emergency landing into the Pacific Ocean. Following the fatal explosion of the space shuttle Challenger in January 1986, Armstrong was appointed deputy chief of the presidential commission set up to investigate the disaster.
Moon Landing
His most famous quote is: "That's one small step for (a) man, one giant leap for mankind. "
He spoke those words when he set his foot on the moon. He wanted to say "That's one small step for a man…", but for some reason the "a" was never spoken. Armstrong thought he had said it. Listening to the audio shows that the "for" runs on smoothly, giving no time for "a" to be spoken. Armstrong prefers written quotations to include the "a" in parentheses.
Personal Life
Armstrong was married to Janet Shearon from 1956 until they divorced in 1994, they had three children; Mark, Eric, and Karen. Lastly he married Carol Held Knight from 1994 until his death in 2012.
Some years after returning from the Moon, he visited the 2,000 year-old King Herod's Temple Mount in the city of Jerusalem. While he was there, Neil Armstrong said it was more exciting to step on the stone steps where Jesus Christ walked than even stepping on the Moon.
His biography describes him as a deist.
Death
Armstrong died on the morning of August 25, 2012 from complications of a blocked coronary artery after surgery in a hospital in Cincinnati, Ohio. He was 82 years old. In July 2019, The New York Times reported that Armstong died after nurses removed the wires connected to his temporary pacemaker. He began to bleed internally and his blood pressure dropped and the doctors did not perform surgery on time to save him.
References
Other websites
Biography on About.com
1930 births
2012 deaths
American deists
American astronauts
American aviators
Apollo astronauts
Deaths from surgical complications
Deaths from hemorrhage
Scientists from Cincinnati, Ohio
Congressional Gold Medal recipients | [
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British | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/British | A British person or object comes from the United Kingdom of Great Britain (England, Scotland, Wales) and Northern Ireland. It is sometimes used by the Isle of Man or the Channel Islands (near France). It can also be used for some overseas places like Gibraltar (near Spain) or the Falkland Islands (near South America).
The term "British" is often used to describe something unique to the UK, for example British people, 'the British way of life' or 'the British weather'.
A British person can also be called a Briton. A unique symbol of the "British" is the Union Jack flag which is recognised globally as a symbol of the United Kingdom. The flag is made up of a combination of the flags of the countries that are part of the United Kingdom.
The British Isles are Great Britain, Ireland, and some smaller islands. The British Isles include the United Kingdom and the Republic of Ireland.
Although being British is a collective identity, the countries of England, Scotland, Northern Ireland, and Wales have separate identities and flags which make them unique.
References
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Paul Martin | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20Martin | Paul Martin Jr. (born August 28, 1938) is a Canadian politician. He was the 21st Prime Minister of Canada. He was also the leader of the Liberal Party of Canada. He became prime minister December 12, 2003, when Jean Chrétien stepped down. He won an election on June 28, 2004, because the Liberals won more seats than the other political parties; but they did not win a majority of the seats, so he led a minority government. There was another election on January 23, 2006; his party lost this election, so Stephen Harper became the next prime minister.
Martin was greatly respected, as a Finance Minister, around the world for his fiscal management, because of the growth in the economy and for taking the government out of deficit.
His tenure as Prime Minister is generally seen as a disaster by most Canadians.
Martin was born in Windsor, Ontario. His father was a member of the Canadian House of Commons for thirty-three years and was a part of the cabinet. Martin graduated from the University of Toronto in 1961 with a B.A. in history and philosophy and from the University of Toronto Law School in 1965. He married Sheila Martin in 1965.
He was elected to parliament from the riding of LaSalle-Émard in Montreal, Quebec in 1988. He was finance minister from 1993 until 2002. He became known for balancing the budget (ending government borrowing of money). In 2003, he was elected leader of the Liberal party, and was appointed prime minister one month later.
Mr. Martin's government made same-sex marriage legal. It also had problems with the Sponsorship scandal in 2004. In 2006, Parliament passed a vote of no confidence, which forced a national election to be held on January 23. The Liberals lost the election and Martin lost his position as prime minister. Soon afterwards, he resigned his position as leader of the Liberal Party.
After fourteen months in office, Paul Martin got the nickname "Mr. Dithers". He was called so by the magazine The Economist. They say this is because he changed his opinion too often.
References
Other websites
1938 births
Living people
Privy Councillors (Canada)
Members of the House of Commons of Canada from Quebec
Politicians from Montreal | [
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Sally Ride | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sally%20Ride | Sally Kristen Ride (May 26, 1951 – July 23, 2012) was an American astronaut and astrophysicist. She was the first American woman to reach outer space.
Ride was born on May 26, 1951. She was born in the neighborhood of Encino in Los Angeles, California. She earned a Ph.D. in physics from Stanford University. She joined NASA in 1978. She was an astronaut until 1987. In order to be an astronaut and go into space, Sally Ride had to train for a year. Training included adapting to gravity, water survival, radio communications, and navigation. She went on the Space Shuttle Challenger in June 1983. This trip was the first time an American woman was in space. She helped design the robot arm for the space shuttle. The robot arm lifts heavy objects in space. Ride was the first person to use the robot arm in space. The robot arm put a satellite in space that showed how the sun affected weather. Ride flew to space twice.
She worked on the commissions that investigated the Space Shuttle Challenger and Space Shuttle Columbia disasters. Ride became a professor in 1989. She was the professor of physics and director of the Oklahoma Space Institute at the University of California.
She was married to astronaut Steven Hawley from 1982 until they divorced in 1987. At the time of her death, Ride had been in a relationship with writer Tam O'Shaughnessy for 27 years.
On July 23, 2012, Ride died of pancreatic cancer at her home in La Jolla, a neighborhood of San Diego, California. She was 61.
References
American astronauts
American physicists
Cancer deaths in San Diego County
Deaths from pancreatic cancer
LGBT people from Los Angeles
LGBT scientists
Scientists from Los Angeles
1951 births
2012 deaths | [
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Birth | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth | Birth (to be born) means when a baby animal comes out of its egg, or out of its mother after pregnancy. It is sometimes thought of as the beginning of life. It is also known as calving in livestock or whelping in meat-eating mammals.
Related medical words
Childbirth is the process at the end of a human pregnancy that results in a baby being born.
Natural childbirth is the technique of minimizing medical intervention, particularly anaesthetics, during childbirth.
Multiple birth is the birth of two (twins), three (triplets), four (quadruplets), etc., babies resulting from a single pregnancy.
Birth pangs are the pains felt by the mother during labor
Caesarean section or C-section is surgical birth through the wall of the abdomen.
Afterbirth is the birth of the placenta following the birth of the baby.
Birth canal is the term used for the vagina during birth
Birth control is the prevention of pregnancy.
Birth defect is a physical or mental abnormality present at the time of birth.
Complications may cause a miscarriage or spontaneous abortion to occur.
Infertility treatments are devices, medications, or behavior patterns to increase the probability of pregnancy.
Premature birth is the birth of an infant before the full term of pregnancy.
Stillbirth is the birth of a dead fetus or infant.
Changes in pelvis during human pregnancy
In adult females the pelvis is shaped differently from males. The differences are connected with allowing the baby to pass through the birth canal successfully. Also, during pregnancy, a hormone called relaxin softens the ligaments in the pelvis area. This produces a little bit of extra space for the baby's head to get through. The process is hard to describe in words, but fortunately there is an excellent video which explains what goes on.
Baby Centre expert advice: how pregnancy changes your pelvis.
Legal meanings
Birth certificate is a legal document describing details of a person's birth.
Birthday is a day to celebrate that the person has lived a certain number of years.
In some countries a person is considered of illegitimate birth if the child is born of parents not legally married to one another.
Spiritual meanings
Born again -a term used primarily in Protestantism, is associated with salvation, conversion, and spiritual rebirth. See Gospel of John chapter 3.
Rebirth is a belief that a person is born again after their death based on the karma of their previous births.
Virgin birth of Jesus is the Christian doctrine that asserts that Jesus Christ was born to a virgin, and thus that his conception was carried out without an earthly father.
Related pages
Death
Fertilisation
Home birth
Pregnancy
References
Pregnancy and childbirth | [
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Cannes Film Festival | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cannes%20Film%20Festival | The Cannes Film Festival is an event held every year in Cannes, France. The festival previews films from around the world.
Only those who are invited can attend the festival. The top film wins the Palme d'Or. The second most prestigious trophy is the Grand Prix. A jury selects which film earns the prizes. The jury is led by an internationally recognized personality of cinema. Being appointed to this position is the recognition of an outstanding career.
Past winners of the Palme d'Or
1939 - 1960
1939 Union Pacific (United States)
1946 Hets (Sweden)
1946 The Lost Weekend (United States)
1946 De røde enge (Denmark)
1946 Neecha Nagar (India)
1946 Brief Encounter (United Kingdom)
1946 María Candelaria (Mexico)
1946 Великий перелом (Soviet Union)
1946 La symphonie pastorale (France)
1946 Die Letzte Chance (Switzerland)
1946 Muži bez křídel (Czechoslovakia)
1946 Roma, città aperta (Italy)
1949 The Third Man (United Kingdom)
1951 Fröken Julie (Sweden)
1951 Miracolo a Milano (Italy)
1952 The Tragedy of Othello: The Moor of Venice (United States)
1952 Due soldi di speranza (Italy)
1953 Le Salaire de la peur (France)
1954 Jigokumon (Japan)
1955 Marty (United States)
1956 Le monde du silence (France)
1957 Friendly Persuasion (United States)
1958 Летят журавли (Soviet Union)
1959 Orfeu Negro (France)
1960 La Dolce Vita (Italy)
1961 - 1980
1961 Une aussi longue absence (France)
1961 Viridian (Spain)
1962 O Pagador de Promessas (Brazil)
1963 Il Gattopardo (Italy)
1964 Les Parapluies de Cherbourg (France)
1965 The Knack (United Kingdom)
1966 Un homme et une femme (France)
1966 Signore & signori (Italy)
1967 Blowup (Italy)
1969 If.... (United Kingdom)
1970 M*A*S*H (United States)
1971 The Go-Between (United Kingdom)
1972 La classe operaia va in paradiso (Italy)
1972 Il Caso Mattei (Italy)
1973 The Hireling (United Kingdom)
1973 Scarecrow (United States)
1974 The Conversation (United States)
1975 Chronicle of the Years of Fire (Algeria)
1976 Taxi Driver (United States)
1977 Father and Master (Italy)
1978 L'Albero degli zoccoli (Italy)
1979 Apocalypse Now (United States)
1979 Die Blechtrommel (West Germany)
1980 All That Jazz (United States)
1980 Kagemusha (Japan)
1981 - 2000
1981 Czlowiek z zelaza (Poland)
1982 Missing (United States)
1982 Yol (Turkey)
1983 Narayama bushiko (Japan)
1984 Paris, Texas (West Germany)
1985 Otac Na službenom putu (Yugoslavia)
1986 The Mission (United Kingdom)
1987 Sous le soleil de Satan (France)
1988 Pelle erobreren (Denmark)
1989 Sex, Lies, and Videotape (United States)
1990 Wild at Heart (United States)
1991 Barton Fink (United States)
1992 Den goda viljan (Denmark)
1993 霸王别姬 (China)
1993 The Piano (New Zealand)
1994 Pulp Fiction United States
1995 Underground (Federal Republic of Yugoslavia)
1996 Secrets & Lies (United Kingdom)
1997 Ta'm e guilass (Iran)
1997 Unagi (Japan)
1998 Mia aioniotita kai mia mera (Greece)
1999 Rosetta (Belgium)
2000 Dancer in the Dark (Denmark)
2001 - 2020
2001 La stanza Del figlio (Italy)
2002 The Pianist (France)
2003 Elephant (United States)
2004 Fahrenheit 9/11 (United States)
2005 L'enfant (Belgium)
2006 The Wind that Shakes the Barley (United Kingdom)
2007 4 luni, 3 săptămâni şi 2 zile (Romania)
2008 Entre les murs (France)
2009 Das weiße Band, Eine deutsche Kindergeschichte (Austria)
2010 Lung Bunmi Raluek Chat / ลุงบุญมีระลึกชาติ (Thailand)
2011 The Tree of Life (United States)
2012 Amour (Austria)
2013 Blue Is the Warmest Colour (Tunisia)
2014 Winter Sleep (Turkey)
2015 Dheepan (France)
2016 I, Daniel Blake (United Kingdom)
Other awards
Feature Movies
Grand Prix
Prix de la mise en scène
Prix du Jury
Prix du scénario
Prix d'interprétation féminine du Festival de Cannes
Prix d'interprétation masculine du Festival de Cannes
Prix un certain regard
Short Movies
Palme d'Or du Festival de Cannes - court métrage
Prix du Jury - court métrage
Other
Camera d'Or - Created in 1978 to honor the best first movie in any category
Other websites
Home page
Cannes Film Festival at the Internet Movie Database
Film Festival
Entertainment in France
Festivals in Europe
Lists of movies
Movie festivals
1939 establishments
1930s establishments in France | [
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Paul McCartney | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paul%20McCartney | Sir James Paul McCartney (born 18 June 1942) is an English singer, songwriter and composer. He is internationally known as a singer and bassist of the Beatles. With singer and guitarist John Lennon, he contributed music and lyrics to a lot of the band's songs.
Early Life
Paul was born at Walton Centre for Neurology and Neurosurgery (Past is Walton Hospital) in Walton, Liverpool, England, He was son of Jim and Mary McCartney, He had one brother is Michael McCartney and stepsister is called Ruth.
The Beatles (1962–1970)
McCartney began writing songs before he was sixteen, and has written well over two hundred. His most famous song is "Yesterday", recorded by the Beatles in 1965. Since then around 2000 artists have recorded the song. Other songs written by McCartney for The Beatles include "Can't Buy Me Love", "Hey Jude", "Penny Lane", "Eleanor Rigby" and "Let It Be".
Often, Beatles songs would have "Lennon/McCartney" written on the record, and it would look like that they had written it together. In fact, most Lennon/McCartney songs were written by only one of them, or with one adding only small parts to the other's work. Each counted on the other to help make their songs better, so they agreed to share the credit equally.
Solo music
Since the Beatles had stopped working together in 1971, McCartney started a new band called Wings with his wife Linda. Wings also had many hit records, including "Band On The Run" and "Mull Of Kintyre". McCartney wrote "Live and Let Die", which became the theme song to a James Bond film with the same title. Wings disbanded in 1981.
Later McCartney recorded a single called "Ebony and Ivory" with Stevie Wonder, then "The Girl is Mine" and "Say, Say, Say" with Michael Jackson. A song with Jackson called "The Man" was released on McCartney's fifth solo album Pipes of Peace. He and Jackson became friends, but this ended after Jackson outbid McCartney for ownership of the publishing company which owned most of the Beatles's music.
McCartney had other hit songs, and also wrote and starred in the movie, Give My Regards to Broad Street, with Linda. The theme song from the movie, "No More Lonely Nights", was also a hit, but the movie did poorly, and McCartney's popularity suffered. He had to work hard to prove his talent was still strong. He co-wrote new songs with Elvis Costello, and began touring more often than he had in years.
Along with popular music, McCartney also began composing classical music, including an oratorio about Liverpool. McCartney was knighted for his contributions to music and to British culture, and for his charity work. He bought John Lennon's former school, Quarry Bank, which he then turned into a performing arts school.
In 1990, the minor planet 4148 was named "McCartney" in his honour. In 2010, he was honoured by President Barack Obama with the Gershwin Prize for his contributions to popular music. He returned to the White House later that year as a recipient of the Kennedy Center Honors. In 2012, he became the last Beatle to receive a star on the Hollywood Walk of Fame.
Personal life
McCartney married Linda Eastman, a photographer, in 1969. She had a daughter, Heather, whom he adopted. McCartney and Linda had three more children together, named Mary, Stella and James. Stella became a popular fashion designer after she grew up.
Linda died in 1998 of breast cancer (McCartney's mother also died from the same disease in 1956). He married model Heather Mills in 2002; the couple's child Beatrice was born in 2003. McCartney and Mills separated in 2006, and, after a long battle over a settlement, McCartney and Mills divorced in March 2008.
McCartney married New Yorker Nancy Shevell, 51, in a civil ceremony at Old Marylebone Town Hall, London, on 9 October 2011. The couple had been dating since November 2007.
Paul is dead
There was an urban legend that said that McCartney died in a car crash in 1966 and was replaced by a look-alike.
Discography
Solo
McCartney (1970)
Ram (1971)
McCartney II (1980)
Tug of War (1982)
Pipes of Peace (1983)
Press to Play (1986)
Снова в СССР (1988)
Flowers in the Dirt (1989)
Off the Ground (1993)
Flaming Pie (1997)
Run Devil Run (1999)
Driving Rain (2001)
Chaos and Creation in the Backyard (2005)
Memory Almost Full (2007)
Kisses on the Bottom (2012)
New (2013)
Egypt Station (2018)
McCartney III (2020)
References
Paul McCartney
1942 births
Living people
British bass guitarists
English guitarists
English pianists
English singer-songwriters
English composers
Grammy Award winners
Kennedy Center honorees
Musicians from Liverpool
The Beatles members
Knights Bachelor
Companions of Honour
Members of the Order of the British Empire | [
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Meal | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Meal | A meal is a serving of food eaten by human beings. Meals usually include several different types of food, such as grains, vegetables, fruit, and in some cases, meat. Meals have different names by time they are taken or by the type of food that is eaten.
Types
In North America and in Europe, people usually eat three meals a day. The morning meal is called breakfast. It usually includes foods made from grain (cereal, porridge, or bread), fruit (apple, banana, or an orange), and milk products (milk, yogurt, or cottage cheese). Many people drink coffee or tea with their breakfast.
Around noon, people eat their lunch. People who are working at jobs are given a break to eat their lunch. The lunch meal includes foods such as a sandwich, soup, vegetables, fruit, and milk. In some countries, such as Italy, people serve an alcoholic drink with lunch. In England, some people have a glass of beer with their lunch.
In the evening, people eat their supper or dinner. Dinners are different in different countries. Usually dinners include a "main course" such as roast beef, a grain (such as rice or pasta), a vegetable (such as carrots or cauliflower) and a dessert (called a "sweet" or "pudding" in England).
In some cases, a starter or appetizer is served before the dinner. Appetizers are a small serving of food such as olives, cheese, or bread. In many countries, people serve an alcoholic drink with dinner, such as wine or beer.
Examples
Fish and chips - United Kingdom | [
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Queen (band) | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Queen%20%28band%29 | Queen are a British rock band formed in London in 1970. They are one of the most commercially successful bands in history, selling over 300 million records worldwide. The original lineup consisted of Freddie Mercury (lead vocals, piano), Brian May (lead guitar, vocals), Roger Taylor (drums, vocals), and John Deacon (bass guitar).
Freddie Mercury died of an AIDS-related bronchopneumonia on November 24, 1991 aged 45. In 1997 John Deacon retired to spend more time with his family. The other two former members toured with Paul Rodgers from 2005 to 2009. In December 2018 it was announced Queen & Lambert will bring its Rhapsody Tour to The Forum in 2019. Three of their biggest hits were "Bohemian Rhapsody”, "We Will Rock You", and "We Are the Champions".
Formation
With his friend Tim Staffell, Brian May started a band called 1984 in the mid 1960's. The band broke up after a little bit and then May decided to make another band and teamed up with two other college students named Tim Staffell and Roger Taylor. They called themselves "Smile" with Roger Taylor on drums and vocals, Tim Staffell on vocals and bass and Brian May on guitar and vocals. They did a few hits such as "April Lady". Tim Staffell became friends with another college student, Farrokh Bulsara (to be later known as Freddie Mercury) and Farrokh became a big fan of Smile and encouraged them a lot. Later on, Tim left Smile to join Humpy Bongs and Farrokh Bulsara subsequently joined the band on vocals and piano in 1970. Then Farrokh came up with the name Queen, so they changed it from "Smile" to "Queen". They then started auditions for a new bassist. They were going through several bassists during this time and none of them stuck, only lasting for about a few minutes. None of the auditioners managed to suit the place of the new bassist, but finally in 1971, they settled on John Deacon. Queen's first album was released in 1973 and it was called Queen with songs such as "Seven Seas of Rhye" and "Liar". Farrokh Bulsara changed his name to Freddie Mercury after the lyrics "Mother Mercury, look what they've done to me" in "My Fairy King". Brian May has a degree in Astrophysics.
Personnel
Current members
Brian May – lead guitar (1970–present)
Roger Taylor – drums, vocals (1970–present)
Deceased members
Freddie Mercury – vocals, piano (1970–1991)
Past members
John Deacon – bass guitar (1971–1997)
Guest members
Paul Rodgers – vocals (2004–2009)
Adam Lambert – vocals (2009–present)
Album Hits
Queen – Keep Yourself Alive – 1973
Queen II – Seven Seas of Rhye – 1974
Sheer Heart Attack – Killer Queen – 1974
A Night at The Opera – Bohemian Rhapsody, You're My Best Friend, I'm In Love With My Car – 1975
A Day at the Races – Somebody to Love, Good Old Fashioned Lover Boy – 1976
News of the World – We Are The Champions/ We Will Rock You (Double A side single) – 1977
Jazz – Bicycle Race/ Fat Bottomed Girls (Double A side single), Don't Stop Me Now – 1978
The Game – Another One Bites the Dust, Crazy Little Thing Called Love – 1980
Flash Gordon – Flash's Theme – 1980
Hot Space – Under Pressure – 1982
The Works – Radio Ga Ga, I Want To Break Free, Hammer To Fall – 1984
A Kind of Magic – One Vision, A Kind of Magic, Who Wants to Live Forever – 1986
The Miracle – I Want It All – 1989
Innuendo – The Show Must Go On, These Are the Days of Our Lives – 1991
Made in Heaven – Heaven For Everyone – 1995
The Cosmos Rocks – C-lebrity – 2008
Studio albums
Queen (1973)
Queen II (1974)
Sheer Heart Attack (1974)
A Night at the Opera (1975)
A Day at the Races (1976)
News of the World (1977)
Jazz (1978)
The Game (1980)
Flash Gordon (1980)
Hot Space (1982)
The Works (1984)
A Kind of Magic (1986)
The Miracle (1989)
Innuendo (1991)
Made in Heaven (1995)
References
1970 establishments in England
1970s British music groups
1980s British music groups
1990s British music groups
2000s British music groups
2010s British music groups
English rock bands
Musical groups established in 1970
Musical groups from London
one of the best bands in the 60s and 70s | [
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American Samoa | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20Samoa | American Samoa (; , ; also or ) is a territory of the United States. It is part of the Samoan Islands in the southern Pacific Ocean.
In 1899, Germany and the U.S. divided the Samoan group of islands. The U.S. got the smaller group of islands on the east side. These islands had a good harbor near the capital city, Pago Pago. The western islands were run by Germany and then by New Zealand and are now the independent country Samoa.
Officially, American Samoa is an "unorganized" territory. This means that the U.S. Congress has not passed an Organic Act. But the people who live in American Samoa rule themselves. Their constitution became effective on July 1, 1967.
The capital of American Samoa is Pago Pago, but the seat of government is Fagatogo.
Citizenship
People who are born in American Samoa are called U.S. nationals, not U.S. citizens. This means they have some of the same rights as citizens but not all of them. Unlike people who are not Americans at all, American Samoans can go to any other part of the United States they want and live there for as long as they want. But they are not allowed to vote, to be on juries in court, to run for office, or to hold any job that the employee has to be a citizen to hold. For contrast, someone born in Puerto Rico or Guam is a citizen, so if they move to a state, they are allowed to vote in that state and in all federal elections.
Some American Samoans like that they are not American citizens and others do not. Some American Samoans say that being nationals and not citizens makes it easier for them to keep the fa'a Samoa, the Samoan way of life. In 2019, three American Samoans living in Utah sued the U.S. government to say they are citizens. The judge agreed with them. The judge said that the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution says that anyone born in any part of the United States is a citizen, and that should mean American Samoans too. But the next day, he said they should not register to vote until after an appeal judge has seen the case.
In 2016, the United States Supreme Court decided they did not want to look at a case about whether American Samoans are citizens.
References
Notes
Other websites
Government of American Samoa
NOAA's National Weather Service - American Samoa
1967 establishments in Oceania
1967 establishments in the United States | [
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White | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/White | White is a color. White light can be made by putting all the other colors of light on the spectrum together. These other colors are red, orange, yellow, green, blue, indigo, and violet.
Meaning of white
White is linked with light, goodness, innocence, purity, cleanliness and virginity. It is sometimes thought to be the color of perfection. The opposite of black, white usually has a positive connotation. White can stand for a successful beginning. In heraldry, white depicts faith and purity.
In advertising, white is linked with coolness and cleanliness because it is the color of snow. You can use white to show simplicity in high-tech products. White is an appropriate color for charitable organizations; angels are usually imagined wearing white clothes. White is associated with hospitals, doctors, and cleanliness, so you can use white to show safety when promoting medical products. White is often linked with low weight, low-fat food, and dairy products.
Tones of white color comparison chart
White (Hex: FFFFFF) (RGB: 255, 255, 255)
Baby Powder (Hex: FEFEFA) (RGB: 254, 254, 250)
Snow (Hex: FFFAFA) (RGB: 255, 250, 250)
Ivory (Hex: FFFFF0) (RGB: 255, 255, 240)
White Smoke (Hex: F5F5F5) (RGB 245, 245, 245)
Ghost White (Hex: F8F8FF) (RGB 245, 245, 245)
Gainsboro (Hex: DCDCDC) (RGB: 220, 220, 220)
Related pages
List of colors
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Pope John Paul II | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Pope%20John%20Paul%20II | Pope John Paul II (; ; ), sometimes called Saint John Paul or John Paul the Great, born Karol Józef Wojtyła (; 18 May 1920 – 2 April 2005), was the 264th Pope of the Catholic Church from 16 October 1978 to his death in 2 April 2005. He was the second longest-serving pope in history. As a Pole, he was the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. The last non-Italian pope was Pope Adrian VI, who died in 1523.
He is the first pope to have visited the White House, and a mosque. He traveled more than any other pope before him, visiting many of the countries of the world. He is also famous for starting the annual World Youth Day. After he was beatified, his title was changed to Blessed John Paul II. John Paul II was canonized by Pope Francis on 27 April 2014 which means that the Polish Pope is now known as Saint John Paul II.
Early life
Karol Józef Wojtyła was born on 18 May 1920 in Wadowice, Poland. His parents were Karol Wojtyła, who was a military officer, and Emilia Kaczorowska, who was a seamstress. He was the youngest of three children. He was nine years old when his mother died in 1929. His father supported him so that he could study. His brother was a doctor. He died when Wojtyła was twelve. He lost everyone in his family - a sister, brother, mother, and father - before he became a priest. He played sports. He liked football (soccer) as a goalkeeper.
Wojtyła went to Marcin Wadowita high school in Wadowice. In 1938, he studied drama at the Jagiellonian University in Kraków. He worked as a volunteer librarian. He was an athlete, actor, and playwright. He did two months military training in the Academic Legion. This training was compulsory. He would not hold or fire a weapon.
When he was young, he met many Jewish people. They lived in that area. In 1939, Nazi forces closed the Jagiellonian University. All men, except for the disabled, had to have a job. From 1940 to 1944, Wojtyła worked in a restaurant. He also worked in a limestone quarry, and then as a salesman for a chemical factory. He did not want to be sent to Germany. If he was sent, he would be made to join the German army. His father died of a heart attack in February 1941.
On 29 February 1944, Wojtyła was knocked down by a German truck (lorry). He thought he would be badly treated. The German officers sent him to a hospital. He spent two weeks there with head and shoulder injuries. It was at this time that he decided that he must become a priest. When he left hospital, the young Polish men were being sent to Germany for training. He escaped to the house of the Archbishop. He hid there till after the war. On the night of 17 January 1945, the Germans left the city. The priests and teacher and students went back to the seminary. There was a big clean-up to be done. Wojtyła offered to clean out the lavatories.
That month, Wojtyła found a fourteen-year-old Jewish refugee named Edith Zierer. She was trying to reach her parents. She had collapsed from hunger. He gave her food and helped her go to the railway station. She did not hear of him again until the day came when he was elected Pope.
Priest
Karol Wojtyła was ordained as a priest by Cardinal Adam Stefan Sapieha on 1 November 1946.
Bishop
In 1958, Wojtyła then became the youngest bishop in Poland at the age of 38. In 1962 he took part in the Second Vatican Council and helped write two very important documents. One was about Religious freedom and the other one was about the work of the church in the Modern World.
In 1963 Bishop Wojtyła became Archbishop of Kraków.
Cardinal
On 26 June 1967, Pope Paul VI raised Archbishop Wojtyła's rank to the rank of a cardinal.
Pope
John Paul II became Pope on 16 October 1978. John Paul II was the first non-Italian pope in 455 years. He was pope for 26 years, making him the second longest serving pope after Pope Pius IX who held the office for 31 years and seven months. He was also the first and only Slavic pope. John Paul II was the most traveled pope in history with 104 international trips.
During his lifetime he learned many foreign languages. He spoke Polish as his native language, and learned Latin and Ancient Greek in school. On the day that he officially became Pope, he spoke to people in Italian, English, German, French, Spanish, Czech and Portuguese. He also spoke a little Lithuanian, Hungarian, Russian and Ukrainian.
John Paul II beatified many people. This means that the Pope gave these people the title of "Blessed". One example is the painter Fra Angelico, who lived in the 1400s. After studying his life and teaching, it was decided that he should officially be called "the Blessed Fra Angelico". John Paul II gave more people the title of "Blessed" than any other pope in history. He also made many saints.
In 1984 John Paul II started World Youth Day which was first held in Rome and attended by about 300,000 people. Since then it has been held in a different country every year. It encourages young people to be faithful to God, and to live together in peace. Many millions of people have attended.
Pope's travels
The first pope who traveled a lot was Pope Paul VI. Like him, John Paul II liked to travel. While he was pope, he made 105 trips, visiting 117 countries. In total he travelled more than 1.1 million km (725,000 miles). Wherever he went, he attracted large crowds. All these travels were paid by the money of the countries he visited and not by the Vatican.
One of John Paul II's earliest official visits was to his home country of Poland, in June 1979. There, he was always surrounded by happy, cheering crowds. The Pope wanted to bring freedom and human rights to his country. His visit encouraged Poles to oppose the communism, and in 1980 the Solidarity movement was born. On later trips to Poland, he made his message of support stronger. The Soviet Union had controlled Eastern Europe for many years. In 1989, Poland was the first country to begin to break free from the Soviet Union.
John Paul II went to places where other popes before him had already been, such as the United States, or The Holy Land. He also went to many countries that no pope had ever visited before. He was the first reigning pope to travel to the United Kingdom, where he met Queen Elizabeth II, the Supreme Governor of the Church of England.
In 1982, the Pope made a visit to Japan, and in 1984 to South Korea and Puerto Rico. He was the first pope to visit Cuba. During his visit in January 1998, he sharply criticized Cuba for not allowing people to freely express their religion. He also criticised the United States embargo against Cuba. In 2000, he became the first modern Catholic pope to visit Egypt, and met with the Coptic Pope, and the Greek Orthodox Patriarch of Alexandria. He was the first Catholic Pope to visit and pray in an Islamic mosque, in Damascus, Syria in 2001. He visited Umayyad Mosque, where John the Baptist is believed to be buried.
In 1988 he made a trip to Lesotho to beatify Joseph Gérard. On 15 January 1995, during the 10th World Youth Day, he offered Mass to an estimated crowd of between four and eight million in Luneta Park, Manila, Philippines. This is considered to be the largest single event in Christian history.
After the attacks on 11 September 2001, even though people were worried about his safety, the Pope traveled to Kazakhstan and spoke to large audiences including many Muslims. He also went to Armenia, to participate in the celebration of the 1700 years of Christianity. He said Mass in local languages during some visits, including Kiswahili in Nairobi, Kenya in 1995 and in an Indonesian language in East Timor.
During his trips, the Pope always showed his devotion to the Blessed Virgin Mary. He visited many shrines consecrated to her, notably Knock in Ireland, Licheń Stary in Poland, Fátima in Portugal, Guadalupe in Mexico and Lourdes in France.
Assassination attempt
On 13 May 1981, the Pope was shot twice in the abdomen by a Turkish national, Mehmet Ali Ağca. The pope was gravely injured. He barely survived the assassination attempt, and had to be treated in hospital for 20 days. The pope later visited Ağca in prison. He had forgiven him already. Exactly one year later he traveled to Fatima to thank Mary, Mother of God for saving his life.
On this trip there was a second attempt to his life. A follower of the French archbishop Marcel Lefebvre tried to hurt the Pope with a bayonet. He was overpowered by the bodyguards of the Pope. Lefevbre and his followers were against the decisions of the Second Vatican Council. After this the Pope often travelled in a bullet-proof trailer known as the "popemobile."
Death
John Paul died on Saturday, on the eve of the Divine Mercy Holiday, 2 April 2005. The official time of death on his death certificate was 9:37 pm, but a few sources reported 9:33 pm. The death certificate stated that when the Pope died, he had Parkinson's disease, with serious breathing difficulties. The Pope had tracheotomy surgery in mid February but it did not help and he lost weight. He also had an enlarged prostate, urinary infection and other problems. The cause of death were that his kidneys failed, causing blood poisoning and infection brought by septic shock. John Paul II spoke his final words, “pozwólcie mi odejść do domu Ojca”, (“Let me depart to the house of the Father”), to his aides, and fell into a coma about four hours later.
The Pope's medical team used heart-monitoring machinery for more than 20 minutes, so his real and true time of death was around 9:15 PM Vatican time. As tradition demands, his name was called three times. When there was no reply, his papal ring was broken, which meant the end of John Paul II's papacy (reign as pope).
Many people claimed to have been specially blessed by the reign of Pope John Paul II. Many people thought he should be given the title "Blessed". This usually takes at least five years (and may take hundreds of years). On 13 May 2005, Pope Benedict XVI cut short the usual 5-year wait for the beatification process to begin. The only other time (in recent history) that this has happened was for Mother Theresa, who was made Blessed Mother Theresa by John Paul II.
It was announced on 14 January 2011, that John Paul II would be beatified on 1 May 2011 (Divine Mercy Sunday).
According to the Vatican, Pope John Paul II's remains (which will not be exhumed and exposed) will be moved from the grotto beneath St. Peter's Basilica, where he is presently buried, to a marble stone monument in Pier Paolo Cristofari's Chapel of St. Sebastian, which is where Blessed Pope Innocent XI is currently buried; Blessed Pope Innocent's remains will likely be moved. This more prominent location, next to the Chapel of the Pieta, the Chapel of the Blessed Sacrament and statues of Popes Pius XI and Pius XII, will increase the number of pilgrims capable of viewing his memorial.
“ It will be a great joy for us when he is officially beatified, but as far as we are concerned he is already a Saint. ”
—Stanisław Dziwisz [189]
On 30 September 2013, Pope Francis said that John Paul, together with Pope John XXIII, would be made saints on 27 April 2014. This was the first time two popes have been made saints on the same day.
His feast day is celebrated on 22 October.
Teachings
John Paul II was generally against communism. He was also a critic of capitalism that was not controlled and he did not want people's basic rights to be oppressed by world governments. He officially condemned aspects of Liberation theology. He was against abortion and contraception in general. As head of the largest Christian group, John Paul II taught a conservative theological view of human sexuality. On the subject he wrote 130 topics called the Theology of the Body. He was against homosexuality, and in favour of people starting families as one husband and one wife. But he said that homosexuals have the same inherent dignity and rights as everybody else. On 30 April 2000, John Paul instituted a Divine Mercy Holiday, according to the teachings of Saint Faustyna Kowalska and on that day she was also proclaimed a Saint of the Catholic Church. The Feast of the Mercy of God is continuously growing worldwide. John Paul is also remembered for his devotion to the Consecrated Holy Communion, the Holy Body and Blood of Christ.
Child abuse scandals
During John Paul's time as pope, the church was involved in a large number of claims about child sexual abuse by priests. There are many people who believe that the Church, and therefore the Pope, knew about these claims and tried to cover them up. For example, in 1996 the Irish bishops decided that priests suspected of child abuse must be reported to the police. The Vatican sent a letter to the bishops that they were not to report such cases. The letter was from future Pope Benedict XVI - whom John Paul II had asked to handle such cases. John Paul II is also claimed to have got a cardinal to send a thank you letter to a French bishop who had refused to report a priest to the police. In 2001 John Paul II sent out a special letter saying that the abuse of children by priests was a very serious crime, and should be strictly punished. Some Catholics wanted the process for making John Paul II a saint stopped, until there was an investigation into his role in keeping secret information about bad priests.
Related pages
List of popes
References
Other websites
John Paul 2 & Friends, Quotes on Time!
John Paul II biography on the Vatican website
John Paul II at about.com
Pope John Paul II at the Catholic Hierarchy website
Popes
1920 births
2005 deaths
Nonviolence advocates
People with Parkinson's disease
Polish Roman Catholics
Christian saints
Servants of God
Time People of the Year
Congressional Gold Medal recipients | [
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Black comedy | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Black%20comedy | Black comedy (also known as dark comedy or dark humor) is getting humor (something funny or comical) from something serious. It is known for its use of very sensitive subjects, such as war, tragedy, disease, death and suffering of the innocent. Black comedy is also a form of satire that uses irony and mocking. It may cause a wide variety of emotional reactions.
The term black humor (from the French humour noir) was coined by the surrealist André Breton in 1935.
Some famous examples of black comedy include:
South Park
Waiting for Godot
Happy Tree Friends
Cartoons by Charles Addams
Catch-22
Dr. Strangelove
Harold and Maude
Plays by Joe Orton
The novel, film and early TV episodes of M*A*S*H
Itchy and Scratchy on the Simpsons.
Cartoons by John Callahan
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Birth control | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Birth%20control | Birth control, also known as contraception or family planning, is a way for a man and woman to have sexual intercourse and avoid pregnancy.
Some contraceptives, such as condoms, will also protect a person from sexually transmitted diseases (STDs). When people use contraception to prevent STDs and pregnancy, it may be called safe sex.
Birth control is also sometimes called family planning. It means people can have babies or not as they wish. That way, babies and families do not happen by accident.
The need for birth control
Birth control lets a man and woman have sexual intercourse but makes pregnancy less likely.
During intercourse, a man places his penis in a woman's vagina and moves it in and out while the woman moves her hips. The vagina is warm and soft, and it places pressure on the man's penis. These sensations, combined with the in-and-out movements, stimulate the penis, which causes the man to have an orgasm. During orgasm, the man's penis spasms and experiences a series of rhythmic contractions during which he ejaculates (releases semen into the vagina). The semen can make the woman pregnant. Because intercourse is usually very enjoyable, men and women often want to have intercourse a lot more often than they want to have a baby. Birth control lets them have intercourse while greatly reducing the chances of the woman getting pregnant.
People may use birth control for several reasons. Perhaps a man and woman wish to have only a few children so they will have enough money to give those children good food, clothes, and education. More children might mean less for each child, so the parents use birth control to limit the number of children they have. Or maybe a man and woman do not want any children at all in order to focus on their own lives, jobs, or each other. Other couples may use birth control to make sure that they do not have too many children in too short a time, an idea that is called "spacing" their children. This may help them take better care of their children. Still another reason is that a young couple may not be able to afford having a baby until they are older and have more money or better jobs. This may be especially true of younger people who are still in school and probably not married. By using birth control, the couple can grow closer and strengthen their relationship by having sexual intercourse frequently so that when they are ready to have a baby their relationship is strong and stable. In most of these cases the man and woman want to have sex to be close, to feel good with each other, and to make their relationship stronger. Contraception lets them have intercourse while greatly reducing the chances of a pregnancy.
Birth control may be used by married couples, or by couples who live together but are not married, or by a man and woman who are engaged, or by a couple who are merely boyfriend and girlfriend, or even by single people who are not in a relationship at all but who may have casual sex with others.
Types of birth control
There are many types of birth control. Some of these have been done for a long time, but many of them were only discovered in the last eighty years. Each type of birth control has advantages and disadvantages. Another word for a type of contraception is a method.
Barrier methods
A barrier is something that stands between two things. So barrier methods stand between the sperm and the ovum (egg). Some barrier methods help prevent many sexually transmitted diseases (STDs):
Condom – this is the oldest barrier method. A condom is a thin tube (often made of latex) that the man puts over his penis. This keeps the sperm from getting to the egg. Condoms are also called rubbers.
Female condom – this is like a condom, but it goes in the woman's vagina.
Some barrier methods only protect a small amount against STDs:
Diaphragm and cervical cap – these are objects that a woman puts in her vagina to cover the cervix (the opening at the bottom of the uterus where sperm get in).
Contraceptive sponge – this is a sponge that is filled with spermicide (a substance that kills sperm) and is put in the woman's vagina over the cervix.
Barrier methods can be easy to use and have few side effects (bad things that happen if you take a medicine). Some of them can be bought without a doctor's prescription. Since they are easy to get and can help stop disease from spreading from one partner to the other, they are popular with younger couples or those who are early in a relationship. But sometimes they can be messy or interfere with the pleasure and sensation of sex.
Hormonal methods
These can only be used by women. Doctors are trying to find a way to use hormonal methods for men. Hormonal methods change the woman's reproductive cycle in different ways so that it is safe for her man to ejaculate inside her.
Birth Control Pills – these are pills that a woman takes every day that make her stop ovulating (making eggs). They usually have both female hormones estrogen and progesterone in them. Some have only progesterone. Birth control pills are a very popular type of birth control because of how effective and easy to use they are. A woman who uses birth control pills is often said to be "on the Pill."
Birth Control Patch – this is a small and thin object that is put on the woman's skin and stays there. Hormones in the patch go into the skin and into the woman's body. This makes her not ovulate.
Emergency contraception pill – also called the morning-after pill. This is a medicine that is taken after sex that makes the woman less likely to get pregnant. It is best if used very soon after sex. The longer after sex it is taken, the less effective it is. It is recommended to be taken no more than 48 hours after the event. After this time, the pill no longer works well.
Implants – these are objects that are put under the woman's skin and stay there for years. They slowly put hormones into her body and make her not ovulate. These only have progesterone in them (not estrogen).
Injections (shots) – this is where a doctor or nurse gives the woman a shot with a needle every three to six months depending on the type of injection. They inject a progesterone hormone that makes the woman not ovulate.
Rings - a soft plastic ring that is placed inside the vagina. The hormones in the ring go into the woman's vagina and into her body to prevent her from ovulating. The ring cannot be felt during sex and one ring lasts for up to three months.
Hormonal birth control is extremely effective if it is used in the right way. Many hormonal birth control methods also make women's menses shorter and with less bleeding, which most women like. And unlike barrier methods, hormonal methods do not interfere with sex. When a woman is using hormonal birth control, she and her man are usually not even aware of it during intercourse, which seems and feels very natural. The couple can have sex at any time they wish; they don’t need to interrupt foreplay to put birth control in place, and they can feel the physical sensations and emotional closeness of intercourse without interference from a make or female condom. Unlike coitus interruptus (see below), when a woman is on the Pill or using some other form of hormonal birth control, intercourse usually ends with her man reaching orgasm while inside the vagina, which both the man and woman usually find very pleasurable. For all of these reasons, hormonal methods are very popular, especially with women who are married or in steady relationships who are having sex often.
Hormonal birth control methods have some slight risks for side effects. They may make a very small increase in the risk of blood clots in the lungs, strokes, heart attacks, and breast cancer. Most of these risk are small. Some women may experience mood swings, weight gain, or loss of sex drive. Sometimes, but rarely, these side effects are serious enough to make a woman decide to stop using hormonal birth control.
Intrauterine methods
This is where an object is put in the woman's uterus (womb, where the fetus grows when she is pregnant). This object is called an intrauterine device or IUD (acronym).
There are two types of IUD: the copper IUD or an IUD with hormones implanted on it. The hormonal IUD has better protection against pregnancy but costs more.
There are many good things about them:
Do not need the woman to do anything after they are put in
Last a long time (up to 10 years)
Work very well at stopping pregnancy (98-99% of pregnancies are stopped)
The worst part about IUDs is that they have to be put in by a doctor. There is some risk of infection of the uterus after the IUD is put in, but this is only for 1-2 months after.
Copper IUDs can also be used as a day-after method to prevent pregnancy after the woman and man already had sex.
IUDs do not prevent STDs.
Sterilization
This is when a man or woman has surgery to make them not able to make babies.
Men can get a vasectomy. This is a small surgery where the tube that carries sperm from the testicles is cut.
Women can get tubal surgeries. These are ways that the fallopian tubes are cut or clipped so that eggs cannot go down them to the uterus. (The fallopian tube is the tube that carries the egg from the woman's ovary).
Sterilization is extremely effective, and they allow a man and woman to have intercourse that seems and feels very natural. But sterilization does involve surgery, which can cost more than other types of contraception and can be unpleasant, and unlike other methods it is very hard to reverse if a couple changes their minds and want to have children later.
Other surgeries will make a woman sterile (not able to get pregnant). These are not done only for contraception, but they are done for other reasons.
Hysterectomy surgery to remove the uterus
Oophorectomy surgery to remove the ovaries (both must be removed to make a woman sterile).
Traditional contraception
These have been used for a very long time. They were used before modern medicine. Some of them were used before scientists even discovered how reproduction (making babies) happens.
Coitus interruptus (sometimes called "withdrawal" or "pulling out"– when the man takes his penis out of the woman's vagina before semen (liquid that has sperm in it) comes out. This is not a good method of birth control because the fluid that comes out before semen comes out also has sperm in it, and because if the man's semen is close to the woman's vagina, she can still get pregnant. Also, because the man's instinct is to stay inside the woman's vagina when he ejaculates, there is always a danger that he may not withdraw his penis in time. Even when it works, this can be a very frustrating method for both the man and woman because it interrupts their closeness and good feelings at the climax of intercourse.
Non-penetrative sex, non-vaginal sex – sex without putting the man's penis in the woman's vagina. This is more effective than coitus interruptus, but it can still be risky if the man ejaculates on or near the woman, and it can also be frustrating for the couple not to be able to have intercourse.
Abstinence – not having sex. If a couple can practice this correctly, it is completely effective at preventing pregnancy. It is free and does not require the help of a doctor. But it can be very frustrating for a man and woman to not be able to have intercourse.
Many methods can reduce the risk of STDs, but only abstinence is 100% effective.
Periodic abstinence
This means a man and a woman practice abstinence (not having sex) when the woman is fertile. When the woman is not fertile, she will not get pregnant when she has sex.
Natural family planning: this is also called 'fertility awareness'. For this method, a woman reads her temperature (how warm her body is) in the morning, or she reads her cervical mucus (liquid that comes out of her vagina). Using the temperature or the cervical mucus, there are rules that say when the woman is fertile and not fertile.
Billings ovulation method; Creighton model fertility care; two-day method; mucus-only method; basal body temperature method; sympto-thermo method: these are different names for natural family planning (see above).
Rhythm method: this is where a woman records the number of days between her menses (the time when she bleeds). The woman is most likely to be fertile in the days right between her menses. For some women, the math does not work. They get pregnant when the math says they are less fertile.
Lactational Amenorrhea Method
This is when a woman is breastfeeding (using her breasts to make milk for her baby). There are certain rules the woman can use to know if she is not fertile. Chances that this method will fail are about 10% (which means 10% chance she can get pregnant)
Induced abortion
Induced abortion (sometimes called just abortion) is when a doctor gives a pregnant woman a medicine or does a surgery to stop the pregnancy. Some people do not call abortion a kind of contraception. This is because contraception means preventing pregnancy, but abortion is stopping a pregnancy that has already started.
Abortion is not a good birth control method. If a woman does not want to get pregnant, other methods are more safe and inexpensive (cost less money). So many doctors who do abortions for women help women find a better way to not get pregnant the next time.
Religion and contraception
Some religions do not like contraception. Some of them teach that contraception is a sin.
Religions ideas about contraception:
Catholicism – almost all types of birth control are a sin (except Natural Family Planning or abstinence). The Catholic Church had no official policy over Contraception until 1930 when Pope Paul VI officially banned Catholics from using birth control pills, most forms of contraceptions, and even condoms. The Church believes sex is for a husband and wife to make a baby, and sex must always be open to life (possibility of making a new human) and contraceptions would be sinful as it blocks pregnancy even though the Bible does not ban contraceptions.
Protestantism – most Protestant churches believe birth control is not a sin and allow couples to use it if they do not wish to make a baby.
Islam – most schools of thought believe that some methods of birth control are not a sin. This is not applicable to sterilization, birth control due to financial hardship, or methods that deprive a woman of her right to sexual satisfaction.
Judaism – there are many different beliefs in Judaism about birth control, but even the most conservative types of Judaism allow it if the woman will get sick if she gets pregnant.
Religious beliefs that contraception is a sin also keep people from doing safe sex. Some groups who are opposed to this belief say it is dangerous in places where there is a lot of HIV and AIDS, because condoms make people much less likely to get HIV, but at the same times many feel that they can practice extra marital sex since they are "safe" from HIV/AIDS.
Related pages
Marie Stopes
Margaret Sanger
Other websites
These may be unsimple:
Wedding Website: A simple introduction to cpntraception - in simple English
University of California, Santa Barbara's SexInfo: Methods of Contraception For Men and Women
World Health Organization information on family planning
Planned Parenthood
Medline Plus on birth control
USFDA page "what kind of birth control is best for you?" in simpler English
Contraception
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] |
Swim | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/Swim | For living creatures, a swim or swimming is a way of moving in water. Swimming is an activity that can be both useful and recreational. Its primary uses are bathing, cooling, fishing, recreation, exercise, and sport.
Human swimming
Swimming has been known amongst humans since prehistoric times; the earliest record of swimming dates back to Stone Age, from around 7,000 years ago. Competitive swimming started in Europe around 1800 and was part of the first modern 1896 Summer Olympics in Athens, though not in a form comparable to the contemporary events. It was not until 1908 that regulations were implemented by the International Swimming Federation to produce competitive swimming.
Related pages
List of water sports
Winter swimming
References
Basic English 850 words
Survival skills
Healthy lifestyle | [
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] |
1937 | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/1937 |
Events
American Ballet Theatre founded
January 1 – Anastasio Somoza becomes President of Nicaragua
January 11 – The first issue of Look magazine goes on sale in the United States.
January 19 – Howard Hughes sets a new air record by flying from Los Angeles to New York City in 7 hours, 28 minutes and 25 seconds.
January 23 – In Moscow, 17 leading Communists go on trial accused of participating in a plot led by Leon Trotsky to overthrow Joseph Stalin's regime and assassinate its leaders.
January 31 – Ohio River floods
January 31 – 31 people executed in the Soviet Union for "Trotskyism"
March 18 – 300 students and teachers die after an exploson is a caused by a gas leak at the New London school in Texas.
May 7 – the German zeppelin (airship) LZ 129 Hindenburg catches fire, while trying to land in New Jersey.
October - Dominican Republic dictator Rafael Leonidas Trujillo Molina orders the execution of the Haitian population living within its borderlands with Haiti, resulting in the Parsley Massacre.
Births
January 8 - Shirley Bassey, Welsh singer
January 30 - Vanessa Redgrave, English actress
February 21 - King Harald V of Norway
March 20 – Jerry Reed, American musician (d. 2008)
April 6 – Billy Dee Williams, American actor
April 28 - Saddam Hussein, Iraqi leader (d. 2006)
July 18 – Hunter S. Thompson, American writer and journalist (d. 2005)
December 21 – Jane Fonda, American actress
December 30 - Gordon Banks, English footballer
December 31 - Anthony Hopkins, Welsh actor
Hit songs
"Sweet Leilani" – by Harry Owens, from the movie Waikiki Wedding, won the Academy Award for the best song. | [
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American football | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/American%20football | American football, referred to as football in the United States and Canada and also known as gridiron, is a team sport. It is played by two teams with 11 players on each side. American football is played with a ball with pointed ends. Points are scored in many ways, usually by one team getting the ball into the end zone of the other team. The game started in the late 19th century as college football, an American version of rugby football.
The main leagues that play American football are the professional National Football League (NFL), and the National Collegiate Athletic Association (NCAA), which plays college football. In the National Football League, players can be paid millions of dollars. In the National Collegiate Athletic Association, players simply play for the pride of their school, scholarships, or for the chance to join a national team. Over a million boys (and a number of girls) play high school football. There is also a closely related sport called Canadian football (CFL).
Gameplay
An American football game is played with a ball called a football. The sport is played on a grass (or artificial turf) field. The field is exactly long and wide. The end zones, one at each end of the field, are long. The players wear protective equipment, including a helmet with face mask, shoulder pads, thigh pads, and often a mouth guard. A team has four chances, or "downs", to advance the ball while the opposing team tries to stop it. Certain players advance the ball by carrying or throwing it. Teams can score by advancing the ball to the other team's end zone or by kicking the ball through a goalpost placed at the back of the end zone. American football is carefully regulated by time and rules, which are enforced by officials, who also determine when a team scores.
A college or professional football game is 60 minutes long, and is divided into 15-minute quarters. In some high schools, the quarters are 12 minutes long, and games for younger children are often shorter still. After the first two quarters, the teams rest during halftime.
In NFL football, if the game is tied after the four quarters, the two teams compete in at least one more 15-minute period called overtime. During overtime, the first team to score points is usually the winner. However, under the current rules, first used for the 2011 postseason, if the team that has the ball first ends its possession by scoring a field goal, the other team has a chance to score. If that team does not score, or if it scores a touchdown, the game ends. If it scores a field goal, the game continues, and the next team to score wins. During the regular season, only one overtime period is played—if neither team scores, or if both teams score field goals when they first have the ball, the game ends in a tie. During the playoffs, the game will continue with as many overtime periods as needed to decide a winner. If the game is tied after each team has had the ball once in overtime, the first team to score wins.
In NCAA football overtime, which is based on the system used for high school football in most U.S. states, the teams take turns trying to score. The game ends when one team scores, and the other team fails to score as many points during its chance.
Field
American football is played on a field long by wide. Most of the game is played on in the middle. It is divided by 20 lines drawn every . The field has two other sets of markings, running between the two end zones along the length of the field, known as "hashmarks". All plays must start between the hashmarks—if the last play ended outside the hashmarks, the ball is moved to the nearest hashmark. At the ends of the field there are scoring areas, called the end zones.
There are also two yellow poles on the end of each field called uprights. Sometimes, if the team can not score a touchdown they might want to kick it through the uprights for three points. The uprights are also used for scoring one point after a team scored a touchdown.
Players
There are many types of players on a football team. For the offensive part of the team, a quarterback throws the football to wide receivers while offensive linemen block to protect him from defensive players. The offensive linemen also block when a running back runs to advance the football. Players on the Defensive line, a linebacker, and defensive backs (cornerbacks and American football safeties) attempt to tackle the offensive player who carries the football.
Some team members only play during certain times. These players belong to the Special Teams. The kicker can kick the ball to the other team or between the uprights, while the placeholder holds the ball steady. The kick returner runs the ball down the field in an attempt to score points after catching the ball.
Scoring
Touchdown (6 points)
A touchdown is achieved when a player has legal possession of the ball and the ball crosses an imaginary vertical plane above the opposing team's goal line. After a touchdown, the scoring team attempts a try for 1 or 2 points (see below). A successful touchdown is signaled by an official extending both arms vertically above the head.
Field goal (3 points)
A field goal is scored when the ball is place kicked between the goal posts behind the opponent's end zone. The most common type of kick used is the place kick. For a place kick, the ball must first be snapped to a placeholder, who holds the ball upright on the ground with his fingertip so that it may be kicked. Three points are scored if the ball crosses between the two upright posts and above the crossbar and remains over.
Extra point (1 or 2 points)
Immediately following a touchdown, the scoring team can attempt to kick the ball between the goal posts for 1 extra point. The team can also run or pass the ball into the end zone for 2 points. This is not done very often although it does happen.
Safety (2 points)
A safety is scored if a player causes the ball to become dead in his own end zone. When this happens two points are awarded to the opposing (usually defending) team. This can happen if a player is either downed or goes out of bounds in the end zone while carrying the ball. It can also happen if he fumbles the ball, and it goes out of bounds in the end zone. A safety is also awarded to the defensive team if the offensive team commits a foul which is enforced in its own end zone.
American Professional Seasons
Exhibition season
Exhibition season (better known as Pre-Season) is in August. In the exhibition season, the teams get ready for the regular season by having training. Teams have practices to help the team get better and see who will make the team. All of the teams play 3 games before the regular season starts, and the games do not change what team gets to the post season. Because of it, teams do not use their best players much, and use the games as more practice.
Regular season
The 32 NFL teams are divided into two conferences: the National Football Conference (NFC) and the American Football Conference (AFC). Each of them is divided in four divisions: North, South, West and East. Each division includes four teams.
The season lasts 18 weeks. Each team plays 17 games and has one week off. This week of rest is called a "bye week".
NFL playoffs
At the end of the regular season, the winners of each division and the next three best teams in each conference play in a tournament. The NFC's champion and The AFC's champion play the NFL's final game, the Super Bowl. The event is often treated as a National holiday as many stores close for the event. The day of the event is commonly known nationwide as Super Bowl Sunday.
References
Notes
Related pages
Association football
Other websites
NFL in a nutshell -BBC | [
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The Seven Samurai | https://simple.wikipedia.org/wiki/The%20Seven%20Samurai | The Seven Samurai is a Japanese movie, written and directed by Akira Kurosawa, and released in 1954.
Plot
The fictional plot is set in Japan in 1587, which is the 15th year of Tenshō.
People in a village are worried about thieves and decide to get samurai to help defend them. It is hard to get enough samurai. The samurai that help do it for different reasons. There is a lot of planning while they are waiting for the thieves. There is a big fight with the thieves at the end.
Similar movies
The Magnificent Seven was an American movie Western with a similar story. This is called a remake.
The movie was also adapted into an Japanese anime series in 2004 by GONZO, entitled Samurai 7. The anime series takes a more futuristic and fantasy take at the original story, replacing robots for thieves and bestowing superhuman abilities to the 7 samurais.
References
Other websites
1954 movies
Japanese movies
Japanese-language movies
Movies directed by Akira Kurosawa | [
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