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BULLET::::- Human spaceflight BULLET::::- List of human spaceflights BULLET::::- List of Space Shuttle missions BULLET::::- Shuttle Derived Launch Vehicle BULLET::::- Shuttle SERV BULLET::::- Space accidents and incidents BULLET::::- Space exploration BULLET::::- Space Shuttle abort modes BULLET::::- Space Shuttle crews BULLET::::- Fiction BULLET::::- Orbiter Simulation BULLET::::- Space Shuttle Mission 2007 BULLET::::- Physics BULLET::::- Atmospheric reentry BULLET::::- Lifting body BULLET::::- Reusable launch system BULLET::::- Single-stage-to-orbit BULLET::::- Similar spacecraft BULLET::::- Avatar RLV BULLET::::- EADS Phoenix BULLET::::- Hermes BULLET::::- HOPE-X BULLET::::- VentureStar BULLET::::- Kliper BULLET::::- Project Constellation BULLET::::- Shuttle Buran program BULLET::::- Martin Marietta Spacemaster Section::::Further reading. BULLET::::- Shuttle Reference manual BULLET::::- Orbiter Vehicles BULLET::::- Shuttle Program Funding 1992 – 2002 BULLET::::- NASA Space Shuttle News Reference – 1981 (PDF document) BULLET::::- R. A. Pielke, 'Space Shuttle Value open to Interpretation', 'Aviation Week', issue 26. July 1993, p. 57 (.pdf) Section::::External links.

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While all of the astronauts were fine, the spacecraft, of course, was not. But that was typical for the time. NASA didn't have a working reusable spacecraft until 1981, when the first space shuttle, named Columbia, made history. 5: The Space Shuttle, a Reusable Spacecraft The space shuttle Atlantis touches down at the Kennedy Space Center Shuttle Landing Facility Oct. 6, 1997. Atlantis was one of four space shuttles that served NASA between 1981 and 2011. NASA In 1972, the Apollo program was winding down, and NASA was doing some technological soul-searching. The Apollo rockets were single-use spacecraft. The cost per mission was, well, astronomical. A reusable spacecraft would not only save money, but it would also be an amazing technological advance. After President Richard Nixon announced the plan to build a reusable spacecraft that would run multiple, perhaps indefinite numbers of missions, NASA developed the basic design: two solid rocket boosters attached to an orbiter module and an external fuel tank. Advertisement There were considerable hurdles facing the project. Since the equipment that protected previous spacecraft from Earth's searing atmosphere essentially disintegrated during re-entry, NASA needed an entirely new heat-shield concept.

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^ Mohney, Doug (2011-09-26). 'SpaceX Plans to Test Reusable Suborbital VTVL Rocket in Texas'. Satellite Spotlight. Retrieved 2011-11-23. ^ 'Reusable rocket prototype almost ready for first liftoff'. Spaceflight Now. 2012-07-09. Retrieved 2012-07-13. SpaceX has constructed a half-acre concrete launch facility in McGregor, and the Grasshopper rocket is already standing on the pad, outfitted with four insect-like silver landing legs. ^ Klotz, Irene (2011-09-27). 'A rocket that lifts off — and lands — on launch pad'. MSNBC. Retrieved 2011-11-23. ^ Lindsey, Clark (2013-03-28). 'SpaceX moving quickly towards fly-back first stage'. NewSpace Watch. Retrieved 2013-03-29. ^ Messier, Doug (2014-01-14). 'Shotwell: Reusable Falcon 9 Would Cost $5 to $7 Million Per Launch'. Parabolic Arc. Retrieved 2014-01-15. ^ 'Elon Musk: I'll Put a Man on Mars in 10 Years'. Market Watch. New York: The Wall Street Journal. 2011-04-22.

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^ Gebhardt, Chris (March 18, 2019). 'Starhopper first flight as early as this week; Starship/Superheavy updates'. NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved March 22, 2019. ^ Ralph, Eric (December 24, 2018). 'SpaceX CEO Elon Musk: Starship prototype to have 3 Raptors and 'mirror finish ' '. Teslarati. Retrieved December 24, 2018. ^ Berger, Eric (January 8, 2019). 'Here's why Elon Musk is tweeting constantly about a stainless-steel starship'. Ars Technica. Retrieved January 12, 2019. ^ a b Baylor, Michael (June 2, 2019). 'SpaceX readying Starhopper for hops in Texas as Pad 39A plans materialize in Florida'. NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved June 3, 2019. ^ Ralph, Eric (March 9, 2019). 'SpaceX's Starship prototype moved to launch pad on new rocket transporter'. Teslarati. Retrieved March 22, 2019. ^ Gebhardt, Chris (April 3, 2019). 'Starhopper conducts Raptor Static Fire test'. NASASpaceFlight.com. Retrieved April 4, 2019. ^ Baylor, Michael (August 27, 2019). 'SpaceX's Starhopper completes 150 meter test hop'. NASASpaceFlight. Retrieved August 27, 2019.

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SpaceX's current Falcon 9 rocket launches cargo to the International Space Station and lofts satellites into orbit. The rocket's first stages often land to be reused in future launches. The Falcon Heavy is an extreme version of this setup, built to lift more and go further: What is essentially three Falcon 9 first stages boost the rocket into space, and SpaceX will attempt to land all three of them. Two will set down on land, while the center stage, which will travel further, will land on a floating barge. [ In Photos: SpaceX's 1st Falcon Heavy Rocket Test Launch] 'What I find strange about this flight is that normally I feel super stressed out the day before; this time I don't,' SpaceX CEO Elon Musk said in a news teleconference yesterday (Feb. 5). 'That may be a bad sign. I'm not sure. I feel quite giddy and happy, actually — I'm really hopeful for this flight going as planned.' SpaceX plans to launch its huge new Falcon Heavy rocket for the first time on Feb. 6, 2018, during a 3-hour window that opens up at 1:30 p.m. EST.

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This is because he wants the next launch to be perfect along with a perfect landing of that center core. Which we will surely see within 2018 along with hopefully some other surprises. Roadster news Do you really think launching an electric supercar “The Roadster” into space was a coincidence? Bet not. As previously mentioned we do think that it was an amazing marketing strategy. But it can be more than that. As Elon and Tesla always surprise its audience. The announcement of the new Roadster was epic and what is more amazing than that is its speed. Said to be the fastest car till production, period. Although the Roadster is said to arrive for the customers by 2022. But we think that there might be some news coming in late 2018 regarding the Roadster or some other Tesla news. BFR Launch The BFR or Big Falcon Rocket is next after Falcon Heavy. Elon said that BFR might be ready for “short hopper flights with the spaceship part”. So taking this statement into account we can make an assumption that after the Heavy Falcon, the Big Falcon Rocket of BFR is next. The Earth to Earth flights that Elon announced in late 2017 is also said to happen with the BFR. So, we can expect a test launch of BFR within 2018.

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Both stages will be fully reusable. The integrated second-stage-with-spaceship design has not been used in previous launch vehicles. Section::::Operational flow. In the first year of successful stage return from the experimental test flights, SpaceX performed 'ad hoc' and flight-specific evaluation and component testing on each successfully landed stage. Stages were processed and initially evaluated in either launch hangars, or for Cape Canaveral landings, in the new hangar SpaceX recently completed at Kennedy Space Center Launch Complex 39. Returned rocket parts have also been transported to SpaceX Hawthorne and SpaceX McGregor for engineering evaluation and testing. In February 2017, after eight rocket cores had successfully landed — seven of them having launched from Cape Canaveral — SpaceX announced plans to expand their physical facilities to process and refurbish rockets. They will do so in both leased space and in a new building to be built in Port Canaveral, Florida, near the location where the Atlantic Autonomous Spaceport Drone Ship is berthed, and where stages that land on the east-coast droneship are now removed from the ship. Section::::See also. BULLET::::- Blue Origin New Shepard, a sub-orbital VTVL system Section::::External links. BULLET::::- Video of 8th and final low-altitude Grasshopper v1.0 test flight, to , October 7, 2013.

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Ms. Tree and Ms. Chief Fairing recovery Contracts Commercial Orbital Transportation Services Commercial Resupply Services Commercial Crew Program Commercial Lunar Payload Services Gateway Logistics Services R&D programs Reusability Falcon 9 landing tests Red Dragon (canceled) Mars transport Key people Elon Musk (CEO, CTO) Gwynne Shotwell (President and COO) Tom Mueller (former VP of Propulsion Development) * denotes unflown vehicles or engines, and future missions or sites. † denotes failed missions, destroyed vehicles, and abandoned sites. Commons v t e SpaceX Dragon and Dragon 2 CCP COTS CRS Spacecraft C100 C106 C108 C201 DragonFly C204 C205 C206 Endeavour C207 Resilience C208 Hardware Falcon 9 1.0 1.1 v1.2 Full Thrust Block 5 Draco SuperDraco Missions Demo flights Dragon test flight COTS-1 COTS-2 Pad Abort Test Demo-1 In-Flight Abort Test Demo-2 ISS logistics CRS-1 CRS-2 CRS-3 CRS-4 CRS-5 CRS-6 CRS-7 † CRS-8 CRS-9 CRS-10 CRS-11 CRS-12 CRS-13 CRS-14 CRS-15 CRS-16 CRS-17 CRS-18 CRS-19 CRS-20 CRS-21 CRS-22 CRS-23 CRS-24 CRS-25 CRS-26 Crewed missions Demo-2 Crew-1 Crew-2 Crew-3 Inspiration4 Axiom-1 Space Adventures Crew-4 Bold indicates current missions Italics indicates future missions Symbol † indicates failed missions v t e Cygnus spacecraft COTS CRS Uncrewed spaceflights to the ISS Launch vehicles Antares Atlas V Operators Northrop Grumman Orbital ATK Orbital Sciences Past missions Test flight (Apr 2013)

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As of 2017 SpaceX had spent over a billion dollars on the development program. For the first time, SpaceX stated in July 2014 that they are 'highly confident of being able to land successfully on a floating launch pad or back at the launch site and refly the rocket with no required refurbishment.' By late 2014, SpaceX suspended or abandoned the plan to recover and reuse the Falcon 9 second stage; the additional mass of the required heat shield, landing gear, and low-powered landing engines would incur too great a performance penalty. In September 2016, SpaceX announced that development was underway to extend the reusable flight hardware to second stages, a more challenging engineering problem because the vehicle is travelling at orbital velocity. The reusable technology was to have been extended to the 2016 designs of both the tanker and crewed spaceship upper stage variants as well as the first stage of the ITS launch vehicle for the Interplanetary Transport System, and is considered paramount to the plans Elon Musk is championing to enable the settlement of Mars. In 2016, initial test flights of an Interplanetary Transport System vehicle were expected no earlier than 2020. In 2017 SpaceX was making test flight progress in incrementally and iteratively developing a fairing recovery system.

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The second stage is in the upper left, with the two parts of the jettisoned payload fairing. A principal objective of the new design was to facilitate booster re-usability for a larger range of missions, including delivery of large commsats to geosynchronous orbit. Like earlier versions of the Falcon 9, and like the Saturn series from the Apollo program, the presence of multiple first-stage engines can allow for mission completion even if one of the first-stage engines fails mid-flight. Modifications from Falcon 9 v1.1 The third version of the Falcon 9 was developed in 2014–2015 and made its maiden flight in December 2015. Originally called the Reusable Falcon 9 or Falcon 9-R, the Falcon 9 Full Thrust is a modified reusable variant of the Falcon 9 family with capabilities that exceed the Falcon 9 v1.1, including the ability to 'land the first stage for GTO missions on the drone ship ' The rocket was designed using systems and software technology that had been developed as part of the SpaceX reusable launch system development program, a private initiative by SpaceX to facilitate rapid reusability of both the first–and in the long term, second—stages of SpaceX launch vehicles.

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Falcon Heavy The Falcon Heavy is a partially reusable heavy-lift launch vehicle designed and manufactured by SpaceX. It is derived from the Falcon 9 vehicle and consists of a strengthened Falcon 9 first stage as the center core with two additional first stages as strap-on boosters. The Falcon Heavy has the highest payload capacity of any currently operational launch vehicle, the second-highest capacity of any rocket ever to reach orbit, trailing the Saturn V, and the third-highest capacity of any orbital-class rocket ever launched (behind the Saturn V and Energia). SpaceX conducted the Falcon Heavy's maiden launch on February 6, 2018, at 3:45 p.m. EST (20:45 UTC). The rocket carried a Tesla Roadster belonging to SpaceX founder Elon Musk, as a dummy payload. The second Falcon Heavy launch occurred on April 11, 2019 and all three booster rockets successfully returned to earth. The Falcon Heavy was designed to carry humans into space beyond low Earth orbit, although , Musk does not plan to apply for a human-rating certification to carry NASA astronauts. The Falcon Heavy and Falcon 9 will be replaced by the Starship and Super Heavy launch system. Section::::History. Concepts for a Falcon Heavy launch vehicle were initially discussed as early as 2004.

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The only difference is, SpaceX has shown its capability to do many impossible missions in less time whereas Blue Origin work step by step doesn’t work fast as they believe in “Step by Step, Ferociously.” But the Bule Origin and Jeff’s vision to make O’Neill colony has slightly more advantages than population planets by making self-sustaining cities. But it has its disadvantages too. For more information please go with this link. Apart from this, If we compare the rocket engine technologies of both of the companies, SpaceX vs Blue Origin. We find that SpaceX is much ahead in making powerful and reusable rockets but Blue Origin’s rocket engines are much better in technology. SpaceX still uses kerosene-based fuels but Blue Origin’s rocket flies on Hydrogen, which is a marvelous achievement. And the idea behind using Hydrogen is to produce fuel by breaking water on other planets like mars by using polar ice. So we don’t need to carry preserved fuel for returning journey. But what is the result? In comparison, both companies are best! SpaceX has discovered reusable rocket technologies and developed the most powerful and reusable rockets on the low coast, Blue Origin has created rocket engines that use hydrogen.

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Initial development testing of Raptor methane engine components was done at the Stennis Space Center in Hancock County, Mississippi, where SpaceX added equipment to the existing infrastructure in order to support liquid methane engine testing. Initial testing was limited to components of the Raptor engine, since the test stands at the E-2 complex at Stennis were not large enough to test the full Raptor engine. The development Raptor engine discussed in the October 2013 time frame relative to Stennis testing was designed to generate more than vacuum thrust. A revised, higher-thrust, specification was discussed by the company in February 2014, but it was unclear whether that higher thrust was something that would be achieved with the initial development engines. Raptor engine component testing began in May 2014 at the E-2 test complex which SpaceX modified to support methane engine tests. The first items tested were single Raptor injector elements, various designs of high-volume gas injectors. The modifications to the test stands made by SpaceX are now a part of the Stennis test infrastructure and are available to other users of the test facility after the SpaceX facility lease was completed. SpaceX successfully completed a 'round of main injector testing in late 2014' and a 'full-power test of the oxygen preburner component' for Raptor by June 2015.

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The two side first-stage boosters of SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket come back to Earth for a pinpoint landing shortly after launching the Arabsat-6A communications satellite on April 11, 2019. (Image credit: SpaceX) SpaceX also recovered both halves of the $6 million payload fairing — the shell that protects satellites during launch — shortly after the Heavy lifted off on April 11. The company plans to reuse the fairing and the two intact first-stage boosters, Musk has said. SpaceX has already landed and reflown the first stages of its workhorse Falcon 9 rockets multiple times. Such reuse is part of the company's plan to slash the cost of spaceflight, thereby making ambitious exploration feats economically feasible. SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket is a heavy-lift booster that's the largest, most powerful privately built rocket in history. See how SpaceX's Falcon Heavy rocket will work in this Space.com infographic. (Image credit: By Karl Tate, Infographics Artist) To gain a fuller understanding of the Falcon Heavy, we must look at the numbers: 5 million: The lbs. of thrust that Falcon Heavy generates at liftoff. Falcon Heavy is the most powerful rocket to launch since NASA's Saturn V — the iconic vehicle that, with 7.5 million lbs.

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Meet the SpaceX Falcon Heavy, the world's most powerful rocket - CNET Meet the SpaceX Falcon Heavy, the world's most powerful rocket The mammoth launch vehicle has 27 engines and can generate over 5 million pounds of thrust. Jackson Ryan April 15, 2019 7:15 p.m. PT 1 of 13 SpaceX The Falcon Heavy blasts off On Feb. 6, 2018, SpaceX's Falcon Heavy lifted off for the first time. It was a monumental moment for Elon Musk's private spaceflight company, after initially revealing the concept in 2011 and aiming for a 2013 launch. The historic feat heralded a new dawn for commercial spaceflight, with SpaceX showing it can put big payloads into orbit at a fraction of the price of other heavy lift vehicles and retrieve the rocket boosters! Here are some dazzling examples of just what the SpaceX Falcon Heavy can do -- and what it might do in the future. 2 of 13 SpaceX Waiting, waiting, waiting Falcon Heavy's first launch was a long time coming. Originally, SpaceX planned to launch the vehicle from the west coast of the United States. After multiple delays pushed the flight back five years, it would eventually come to wait at Kennedy Space Center in Florida.

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He says that while reusability of the Falcon 9 reduces maximum payload capacity by less than 40%, recovering and refurbishing the booster represents less than 10% of the overall costs. As a result, after two launches, the total cost and combined payload capacity are roughly comparable to one launch of an expendable rocket. And if the booster flies at least three times, the savings are undeniable. Payload reduction due to reusability of booster & fairing is <40% for F9 & recovery & refurb is <10%, so you’re roughly even with 2 flights, definitely ahead with 3 — Elon Musk (@elonmusk) August 19, 2020 We also have more specific figures available because Elon Musk revealed the marginal cost of launching a reused Falcon 9 in a May 2020 interview for Aviation Week (starting at 17:53). Marginal costs represent only the costs resulting from relaunching the Falcon 9 after its first mission is already done and paid for. According to Elon Musk, the marginal cost for a reused Falcon 9 launch is only about $15 million. He explained that the majority of this amount was represented by the $10 million it costs to manufacture a new upper stage. It is not reusable ( and never will be ), so it is necessary to make a new one for each launch.

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But methane’s chemical shape is remarkably effective at trapping heat, which means that adding just a little more methane to the atmosphere can have big impacts on how much, and how quickly, the planet warms. Methane is a simple gas, a single carbon atom with four arms of hydrogen atoms. Its time in the atmosphere is relatively fleeting compared to other greenhouse gases like CO 2 —any given methane molecule, once it’s spewed into the atmosphere, lasts about a decade before it's cycled out. That’s a blip compared to the centuries that a CO 2 molecule can last floating above the surface of the planet. But there are many sources of methane, so the atmospheric load is constantly being regenerated—or increased. Methane’s sources Today, about 60 percent of the methane in the atmosphere comes from sources scientists think of as human caused, while the rest comes from sources that existed before humans started influencing the carbon cycle in dramatic ways. Most of methane’s natural emissions come from a soggy source: wetlands, which includes bogs. Many microbes are like mammals in that they eat organic material and spit out carbon dioxide—but many that live in still, oxygen-deprived spots like waterlogged wetland soils produce methane instead, which then leaks into the atmosphere.

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The downside to these rockets is that they are normally unable to be modified or customized and will only function with the parts in the original kit. The best brand to shop for a kit for beginners is Estes. Semi-Custom And Difficult Builds Intermediate and expert-level kits are meant for exactly who they sound like, intermediate and expert level model rocket builders. The kits are more difficult to assemble and have more parts and pieces. The instructions are usually just as detailed but allow for the builder to take some personal liberties with the design and basic build. The kits provide everything necessary and are capable of being customized by switching components, such as the motor or fin. Estes is still one of the best brands, but Apogee is another good option. Experts: Custom Builds Once you’ve become a pro at building model rockets, kits are not necessary. Most of the time, a kit will set the builder back as you would be able to achieve better results by custom-making the entire rocket. You are able to choose: Shape Fin size Motor And More This allows you to (for those who are experienced) create a rocket that will perform better than those purchased as a kit.

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Many engineering changes to support reusability and recovery of the first stage had been made on the v1.1 version and testing was successful, with SpaceX able to increase the payload performance for the Full Thrust version, or decrease launch price, or both. The Full Thrust version of the rocket has a reusable first stage after achieving its first successful landing in December 2015 and first reflight in March 2017. However, plans to reuse the Falcon 9 second-stage booster have been abandoned as the weight of a heat shield and other equipment would impinge on payload too much for this to be economically feasible for this rocket. The reusable booster stage was developed using systems and software tested on the Grasshopper and F9R Dev technology demonstrators, as well as a set of technologies being developed by SpaceX to facilitate rapid reusability. In February 2017, SpaceX's CRS-10 launch was the first operational launch utilizing the new Autonomous Flight Safety System (AFSS) that is built into Falcon 9 Full Thrust launch vehicles. For all SpaceX launches after 16 March 2017, the autonomous AFSS has replaced 'the ground-based mission flight control personnel and equipment with on-board Positioning, Navigation and Timing sources and decision logic.

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CH4 is a hydrocarbon which consists of two kinds of atom (hydrogen atom & carbon atom).One carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms are attached with each other by covalent bond & formed Methane (CH4). Electronic configuration of C (Carbon Continue Reading CH4 (methane) is a compound. Basic defination of element & compound: Element : Any substance that contains only one kind of an atom is known as an element. Compound: Any substance that contains two or more chemical elements which are chemically bonded together is known as compound. Other defination: Two or more atoms joined together chemically with covalent & ionic bond. CH4 is a hydrocarbon which consists of two kinds of atom (hydrogen atom & carbon atom).One carbon atom and four hydrogen atoms are attached with each other by covalent bond & formed Methane (CH4).

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Hydrogen with a concentration higher than 4% will burn in the air. At 585 degrees Celsius, a mixture of hydrogen and air will cause a self-combustion. Industrial applications in which hydrogen is used are the production of ammonia, the production of methanol, the hardening of fats and oils, the production of hydrochloric acid, for welding, as rocket fuel, the filling for balloons and zeppelins, the cooling of generators. Hydrogen has also been investigated as fuel for car engines. What is Butane Butane gas is a hydrocarbon with the molecular formula C4H10. At room temperature butane is colourless and odourless and flammable. Butane is used in gas cylinders for cooking, mainly with camping items for use in tent or caravan. Butane is also utilised in a mixture with propane as a fuel in cigarette lighters. Further butane is used in gas cylinders used by roofers and plumbers. Because the boiling point of butane is -0,5 degrees, Celsius butane will be liquid with temperatures lower than -0,5 degrees Celsius. Therefore propane is more useful as fuel for cooking. What is Methane Methane gas is a hydrocarbon with the molecular formula CH4 and is also known under the name natural gas. At room temperature, methane is colourless and odourless and flammable.

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Placing fuel lines in hot sections of the engine are not recommended as fuel leaks will immediately ignite causing a large flammability risk. A heat exchanger will transport heat away from hot sections of the engine, be it the exhaust spokes, turbine section, combustion chamber or the high pressure compressor stage. Taking heat away from the hot engine sections will aid in reducing the amount of energy required for combustion, ensuring the fuel is completely in a gaseous state before injection. This will provide more advantages increasing thermal efficiency, increasing component life and resilience to temperature abuse, taking full advantage of the heat sink potential. During start up the engine will require an electrical heater to provide an increase in fuel temperature and once the engine has reached idle rotational speed the heat exchange can resume operations. A metering system will be required to alter the liquid and gas fuel flow rate under different power conditions of the engine. A metering system was also described by Dahl and Suttrop [ 45] that provided a reactive hydrogen feed to the engine under fluctuating power conditions. 7. Hydrogen combustors Although the combustion of hydrogen is more complicated than just an adjustment of the air to fuel ratio and is predominantly dependent on combustor geometry [ 47].

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In fact, it was not until 1766 that hydrogen was officially recognized as an individual gas. Another English chemist, Henry Cavendish (1731 – 1810), measured the density of several gases to prove that hydrogen existed. He found that hydrogen was almost fourteen times lighter than ordinary air and called it 'inflammable air' (meaning air that is likely to burn or explode). Words to Know Conductive A material that can transmit electrical energy. Electrolysis A method of producing chemical energy by passing an electric current through a type of liquid. Emission The release of substances into the atmosphere. These substances can be gases, greenhouse gases, or particles. Geothermal Describing energy that is found in the hot spots under the Earth; describing energy that is made from heat. Greenhouse gas A gas, such as carbon dioxide or methane, that is added to the Earth's atmosphere by human actions. These gases trap heat and contribute to global warming. Infrastructure The underlying foundation or basic framework of a system, such as buildings or equipment. Off-peak Describing periods of time when energy is being delivered at well below the maximum amount of demand, often nights.

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Artwork: Little pieces of history: An interesting cutaway showing the main component parts of the now-retired Space Shuttle orbiter. Picture courtesy of NASA Marshall Space Flight Center (NASA-MSFC). Browse the hi-resolution version of this image (via Wikimedia Commons). Rocket engines The biggest (and arguably the most interesting) part of a rocket is the propulsion system—the engine that powers it into the sky. As we've already seen, rockets differ from jet planes (and other fuel-powered vehicles that work on Earth) because they have to carry their own oxygen supply. Modern space rockets have main engines powered by a liquid fuel (such as liquid hydrogen) and liquid oxygen (which does the same job as the air sucked into a car engine) that are pumped in from huge tanks. The fuel (also called the propellant) and oxygen (called the oxidizer) are stored at low temperatures and high pressures so more can be carried in tanks of a certain size, which means the rocket can go further on the same volume of fuel. External rocket boosters that assist a main rocket engine typically burn solid fuel instead (the Space Shuttle's were called solid rocket boosters, or SRBs, for exactly that reason).

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It acts like an airplane for a short part of its mission. But it's really a rocket that has wings. Its engines are not air-breathing engines. With rockets, you bring your own oxidizer as well as the fuel. Its main engines use liquid hydrogen for the fuel Continue Reading A2A: Why does a plane have to carry a space shuttle on its back? Can't a space shuttle fly by itself? Already lots of good answers. The shuttle is a crappy airplane. That's because it's not actually an airplane. It's a spacecraft. It resembles an airplane. But it was not designed to be an airplane. Sure, it glides back to a landing from space. It acts like an airplane for a short part of its mission. But it's really a rocket that has wings. Its engines are not air-breathing engines. With rockets, you bring your own oxidizer as well as the fuel. Its main engines use liquid hydrogen for the fuel and liquid oxygen for the oxidizer. There are no tanks inside the shuttle to carry these propellants. The three main engines, which include very complex turbomachinery, are designed to operate at a thrust level of 418,000 lbf each. That is far more than needed to fly as an airplane.

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BULLET::::- Hydrogen odorant BULLET::::- Atomic hydrogen welding BULLET::::- Hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator BULLET::::- Oxyhydrogen flame BULLET::::- Low hydrogen annealing BULLET::::- Hydrogen decrepitation process (HD) BULLET::::- Hydrogenation disproportionation desorption and recombination (HDDR) BULLET::::- Standard hydrogen electrode BULLET::::- Reversible hydrogen electrode BULLET::::- Dynamic hydrogen electrode BULLET::::- Palladium-Hydrogen electrode BULLET::::- Cathodic protection BULLET::::- Iron-hydrogen resistor BULLET::::- Hydrogen pinch BULLET::::- Hofmann voltameter BULLET::::- Hydrox BULLET::::- Hydreliox BULLET::::- Joule-Thomson effect BULLET::::- Hydrogen ion BULLET::::- Bussard ramjet BULLET::::- Döbereiner's lamp BULLET::::- Nickel hydrogen battery BULLET::::- Gas-absorption refrigerator BULLET::::- Electroosmotic pump BULLET::::- Sodium silicide BULLET::::- Temperature-programmed reduction BULLET::::- Hydrogen damage BULLET::::- Hydrogen embrittlement Section::::See also. BULLET::::- National Center for Hydrogen Technology

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The Rapide S was the first vehicle to finish the race with hydrogen technology. Hydrogen internal combustion engine development has been receiving more interest recently, particularly for heavy duty commercial vehicles. Part of the motivation for this is as a bridging technology to meet future climate CO2 emission goals, and as technology more compatible with existing automotive knowledge and manufacturing. Efficiency Since hydrogen internal combustion engines are heat engines, their maximum efficiency is limited by the Carnot efficiency. In comparison, the efficiency of a fuel cell is limited by the Gibbs free energy, which is typically higher than that of Carnot. Hydrogen combustion engines are particularly sensitive to transients in load, in terms of efficiency, and therefore more suited to constant load operations. Pollutant emissions The combustion of hydrogen with oxygen produces water vapor as its only product: 2H 2 + O 2 → 2H 2 O However, within air hydrogen combustion can produce oxides of nitrogen, known as NO x. In this way, the combustion process is much like other high temperature combustion fuels, such as kerosene, gasoline, diesel or natural gas. As such hydrogen combustion engines are not considered zero emission . Hydrogen has a wide flammability range in comparison with other fuels. As a result, it can be combusted in an internal combustion engine over a wide range of fuel-air mixtures.

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RD-701 RD-701 (', Rocket Engine 701'') - liquid-fuel rocket engine developed by Energomash, Russia. It was proposed to propel the reusable MAKS space plane before cancellation of this project. The 'RD-701' is a tripropellant engine that uses staged combustion cycle afterburning of oxidizer-rich hot turbine gas. This engine has two modes. 'Mode #1' uses three components: LOX as an oxidizer and a fuel mixture of RP-1 / LH2 which is applied for near earth surface conditions. 'Mode #2' also uses LOX, with LH2 as fuel in vacuum where atmospheric influence is negligible. The use of less dense fuel components at maximum efficiency conditions allows minimizing the volume of fuel tanks and subsequently their mass down to 30%. As of 2009 the engine is characterized by highest value of pressure, 300 bar, ever used in combustion chamber of rocket engines when running in 'Mode #1' with mixture of fuel components. The 'RD-701' became the base model for RD-704 with one combustion chamber. Section::::Specifications. Two-chamber 'RD-701' has two modes.

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Solid Rocket Engine On this slide, we show a schematic of a solid rocket engine. Solid rocket engines are used on air-to-air and air-to-ground missiles, on model rockets , and as boosters for satellite launchers. In a solid rocket, the fuel and oxidizer are mixed together into a solid propellant which is packed into a solid cylinder. A hole through the cylinder serves as a combustion chamber . When the mixture is ignited, combustion takes place on the surface of the propellant. A flame front is generated which burns into the mixture. The combustion produces great amounts of exhaust gas at high temperature and pressure . The amount of exhaust gas that is produced depends on the area of the flame front and engine designers use a variety of hole shapes to control the change in thrust for a particular engine. The hot exhaust gas is passed through a nozzle which accelerates the flow. Thrust is then produced according to Newton's third law of motion. The amount of thrust produced by the rocket depends on the design of the nozzle . The smallest cross-sectional area of the nozzle is called the throat of the nozzle.

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What are the differences between jet airplanes and rockets? QUESTION #529 previous | next What are the differences between jet airplanes and rockets? Asked by: Sameer Singla Answer Both a jet engine and a rocket engine function by expelling hot gases opposite to the direction of desired acceleration. Newton's third law of motion says that the action of the hot gases produces a reaction in the opposite direction on the jet or rocket propelled vehicle; the momentum imparted to the gases is exactly opposite to the momentum imparted to the vehicle. The main difference between the two types of engine is that a rocket carries its own supply of oxygen for combustion. A jet engine requires oxygen from the atmosphere for combustion, and so cannot operate in the vacuum of space. Answered by: Paul Walorski, B.A., Part Time Physics/Astronomy Instructor BR> Answer Well, one is an airplane, and the other is a rocket! That's quite a difference in my opinion! Joking aside, there are serious differences between the working principles of a jet airplane and a rocket. (The differences in detail are much greater I guess, but I am just a physicist.) First, let me point out the similarities between the two: Both burn fuel and both eject this fuel mass to gain momentum.

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Estes Rocket Engine Diagram This is a relatively typical end-burning model rocket engine construction, where a clay nozzle is rammed in the end of the tube, and a solid black powder rocket fuel grain is then rammed above the nozzle. There is no hollow core going up into the black powder grain, therefore the name 'end-burner.' Estes uses two types of black powder rocket fuels in the motor diagrammed above: a powerful 'thrust' rocket fuel, and a less powerful 'delay' fuel. These two sections of rocket fuel are topped off by a powerful ejection charge, which produces volumes of gasses quickly in order to eject the nosecone and parachute. A dissected stock E motor below shows the various sections of the motor. A Dissected Estes E9-6 Model Rocket Engine In this motor, the nozzle was about 1/2-inch thick, weighed 5.5 grams, and had a 5/32-inch 'aperture,' or hole. The 2.5-inch long, 38-gram rocket fuel grain was extremely solid and hard, like one single cylinder of rocket fuel. When tapped with a metal rod, the rocket fuel grain 'tinks' like a piece of fired clay dish. The nozzle hole projected another 1/8 inch into the model rocket fuel grain.

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With a liquid rocket, you can stop the thrust by turning off the flow of fuel or oxidizer; but with a solid rocket, you must destroy the casing to stop the engine. Liquid rockets tend to be heavier and more complex because of the pumps used to move the fuel and oxidizer, and you usually load the fuel and oxidizer into the rocket just before launch. A solid rocket is much easier to handle and can sit for years before firing. The relative safety of building and flying model rockets is the result of the production and availability of pre-packaged solid model rocket engines. The engines are produced by several manufacturers and are available in a variety of sizes with a range of engine performance. The engines can be bought at most hobby stores and some toy stores for a modest price (average current price is 3 engines for $5). The engines are used once and discarded; a new engine is inserted into the rocket for the next flight. Before these engines became available, many young rocket builders lost limbs or life in the process of mixing rocket fuels. With these engines, you can still have the fun of building and flying rockets, learn the fundamentals, and then move on to the more dangerous and complex problems of propulsion.

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Cryogenic rocket engine - Wikipedia Cryogenic rocket engine From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to navigation Jump to search Vulcain engine of Ariane 5 rocket A cryogenic rocket engine is a rocket engine that uses a cryogenic fuel and oxidizer, that is, both its fuel and oxidizer are gases liquefied and stored at very low temperatures. These highly efficient engines were first flown on the US Atlas-Centaur and were one of the main factors of NASA 's success in reaching the Moon by the Saturn V rocket. Rocket engines burning cryogenic propellants remain in use today on high performance upper stages and boosters. Upper stages are numerous. Boosters include ESA's Ariane 5, JAXA 's H-II, and the United States Delta IV and Space Launch System. United States, Russia, Japan, India, France and China are the only countries that have operational cryogenic rocket engines. Contents 1 Cryogenic propellants 2 Components and combustion cycles 3 LOX+LH2 rocket engines by country 4 Comparison of first stage cryogenic rocket engines 5 Comparison of upper stage cryogenic rocket engines 6 References 7 External links Cryogenic propellants RL-10 is an early example of cryogenic rocket engine. Rocket engines need high mass flow rates of both oxidizer and fuel to generate useful thrust.

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They cannot use either a staged combustion or expander cycle. BULLET::::3. A gas generator cycle is also difficult to integrate with the pistonless pump. BULLET::::4. The generated gas must be chemically compatible with both the propellants. BULLET::::5. This gas generator lowers the Ignition start period of the engine. Section::::See also. BULLET::::- Thomas Savery BULLET::::- Pulsometer steam pump BULLET::::- Hydraulic ram BULLET::::- Cyclic pump Section::::External links. BULLET::::- Flometrics pistonless pump page BULLET::::- Pistonless Pump Documentation Section::::See also. BULLET::::- Thomas Savery BULLET::::- Pulsometer steam pump BULLET::::- Hydraulic ram BULLET::::- Cyclic pump Section::::External links. BULLET::::- [ 99.136.234.46/RocketPump/Pistonless_Rocket_Fuel_Pump.html] BULLET::::- BULLET::::- Flometrics pistonless pump page BULLET::::- Pistonless Pump Documentation

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2. By extension, a notional unit of human thought power, emphasizing that lots of things compete for the typical hacker's think time. “I refused to get involved with the Rubik's Cube back when it was big. Knew I'd burn too many cycles on it if I let myself.” 3. vt. Syn. bounce (sense 4), from the phrase ‘cycle power’. “Cycle the machine again, that serial port's still hung.” Dictionary of Nautical Terms (0.00 / 0 votes) Rate this definition: cycle A term generally applied to an interval of time in which the same phenomena recur. Editors Contribution (0.00 / 0 votes) Rate this definition: cycle A unit of frequency or time The machine cycle was very efficient and effective. Submitted by MaryC on February 17, 2020 cycle To use a bicycle. They did use their bicycle to cycle out at the parks at the weekend with their children. Submitted by MaryC on February 18, 2020 Suggested Resources (0.00 / 0 votes) Rate this definition: cycle Song lyrics by cycle -- Explore a large variety of song lyrics performed by cycle on the Lyrics.com website. Entomology (0.00 / 0 votes)

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An inert gas stored in a tank at a high pressure is sometimes used instead of pumps in simpler small engines to force the propellants into the combustion chamber. These engines may have a higher mass ratio, but are usually more reliable, and are therefore used widely in satellites for orbit maintenance. Liquid rockets can be monopropellant rockets using a single type of propellant, or bipropellant rockets using two types of propellant. Tripropellant rockets using three types of propellant are rare. Some designs are throttleable for variable thrust operation and some may be restarted after a previous in-space shutdown. Liquid propellants are also used in hybrid rockets, with some of the advantages of a solid rocket . Contents 1 History 2 Types 3 Principle of operation 4 Propellants 4.1 Cryogenic 4.2 Semi-cryogenic 4.3 Non-cryogenic/storable/hypergolic 5 Injectors 5.1 Types of injectors 5.2 Combustion stability 6 Engine cycles 6.1 Engine cycle tradeoffs 7 Cooling 8 Ignition 9 See also 10 References 11 External links History Robert H. Goddard, bundled against the cold New England weather of March 16, 1926, holds the launching frame of his most notable invention — the first liquid rocket. The idea of liquid rocket as understood in the modern context first appears in the book The Exploration of Cosmic Space by Means of Reaction Devices, by the Russian school teacher Konstantin Tsiolkovsky.

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First Fifty Years (1906–1956) - AIAA-2004-3334 v t e Spacecraft propulsion Concepts Rocket Rocket engine Reaction engine Reaction mass Thrust Specific impulse Delta-v Staging Rocket equation Thermal rocket Physical propulsion Cold gas thruster Water rocket Steam rocket Solar sail Electric sail Magnetic sail Solar thermal rocket Photon rocket WINE Chemical propulsion State Liquid-propellant rocket Solid-propellant rocket Hybrid-propellant rocket Propellants Liquid propellant Cryogenic Hypergolic Monopropellant Bipropellant Tripropellant Power cycles Staged combustion cycle Expander cycle Gas-generator cycle Tap-off cycle Intake mechanisms Pressure-fed engine Pump-fed engine Electric-pump-fed engine Electrical propulsion Electrostatic Colloid thruster Ion thruster Gridded Hall-effect thruster Field-emission electric propulsion Electromagnetic Pulsed inductive thruster Magnetoplasmadynamic thruster Electrodeless plasma thruster Plasma magnet Electrothermal Pulsed plasma thruster Vacuum arc thruster Helicon double-layer thruster Arcjet rocket Resistojet rocket Microwave electrothermal thruster VASIMR Other Atmosphere-breathing electric propulsion High Power Electric Propulsion MagBeam Mass driver Nuclear propulsion Closed system Direct Fusion Drive Nuclear electric rocket Nuclear thermal rocket Radioisotope Salt-water Gas core 'Lightbulb' Nuclear photonic rocket Open system Nuclear pulse propulsion Antimatter-catalyzed Pulsed nuclear thermal rocket‎ Fusion rocket Bussard ramjet Fission-fragment rocket Fission sail External power Beam-powered propulsion Tethers Related concepts Orbital mechanics Orbital maneuver Gravity assist Aerogravity assist Oberth effect Space launch Non-rocket spacelaunch Aerobraking Aerocapture Atmospheric entry Anti-gravity Warp drive Alcubierre drive Spaceflight portal Retrieved from ' https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrically_powered_spacecraft_propulsion&oldid=1018038687 ' Categories: Russian inventions Soviet inventions Spacecraft propulsion Electric motors Spaceflight articles needing attention Hidden categories: Webarchive template wayback links CS1 Russian-language sources (ru) Use dmy dates from September 2020 Articles with short description Short description is different from Wikidata Articles containing potentially dated statements from 2019 All articles containing potentially dated statements All articles with unsourced statements Articles with unsourced statements from December 2019

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Same with Google guys and Steve Jobs, in every case the innovators first made a breakthrough and then cashed in on it. But musk has done nothing other than make hd streams of rocket landings. The tech of rocket is basically the same as developed by Russians in the 70s (without supercomputers). There is no, I repeat no breakthrough since then. But more disturbingly, space x is promising that a rocket can be used multiple times (like a commercial airline) to bring down the cost and make it like a passenger airline. The only problem is that it cannot be done (with current tech as musk has made no breakthrough). It is a well known fact that making a new rocket/shuttle is far more economical than reusing the same as the cost of failure is too high. As space x came to know some time back ( Rocket explodes on launch pad in blow to Elon Musk's SpaceX ). It is far safer to build a new shuttle than even take a small risk of failure as the loss would be too high (which increases significantly if there are passengers).

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The Falcon 9 tank walls and domes are made from Aluminium–lithium alloy. SpaceX uses an all- friction stir welded tank. The second stage tank of Falcon 9 is simply a shorter version of the first stage tank and uses most of the same tooling, material, and manufacturing techniques. This approach reduces manufacturing costs during vehicle production. All three cores of the Falcon Heavy arrange the engines in a structural form SpaceX calls Octaweb, aimed at streamlining the manufacturing process, and each core includes four extensible landing legs. To control the descent of the boosters and center core through the atmosphere, SpaceX uses small grid fins which deploy from the vehicle after separation. Immediately after the side boosters separate, the center engine in each burns for a few seconds in order to control the booster's trajectory safely away from the rocket. The legs then deploy as the boosters turn back to Earth, landing each softly on the ground. The center core continues to fire until stage separation, after which its legs deploy and land back on Earth on a drone ship. The landing legs are made of carbon fiber with aluminum honeycomb structure. The four legs stow along the sides of each core during liftoff and later extend outward and down for landing.

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These are detonated within the chamber during operation, and causes an impulsive excitation. By examining the pressure trace of the chamber to determine how quickly the effects of the disturbance die away, it is possible to estimate the stability and redesign features of the chamber if required. Section::::Engine cycles. For liquid-propellant rockets, four different ways of powering the injection of the propellant into the chamber are in common use. Fuel and oxidizer must be pumped into the combustion chamber against the pressure of the hot gasses being burned, and engine power is limited by the rate at which propellant can be pumped into the combustion chamber. For atmospheric or launcher use, high pressure, and thus high power, engine cycles are desirable to minimize gravity drag. For orbital use, lower power cycles are usually fine. BULLET::::- Pressure-fed cycle: The propellants are forced in from pressurised (relatively heavy) tanks. The heavy tanks mean that a relatively low pressure is optimal, limiting engine power, but all the fuel is burned, allowing high efficiency. The pressurant used is frequently helium due to its lack of reactivity and low density. Examples: AJ-10, used in the Space Shuttle OMS, Apollo SPS, and the second stage of the Delta II.

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Air-safety regulators have ordered more-intensive checks on engines that power thousands of older Boeing 737 planes after an exploding turbine on a Southwest Airlines flight caused the death of a passenger earlier this year. The European Aviation Safety Agency will now require CFM56 engines to undergo inspections every 1,600 flight cycles, down from 3,000, according to its website. The directive, which was followed by the Federal Aviation Administration on Monday, is set to go into effect Friday. A Christian TV network is entering the crowded world of 24-hour news broadcasting at a time when the mainstream news media is under increasing attack by President Trump and some of his supporters, many of them evangelicals. The Christian Broadcasting Network's news channel will provide a religious perspective that other channels lack, CEO Gordon Robertson told the Associated Press Italian coffee maker Lavazza will swallow the coffee business of U.S. food giant Mars to expand its global reach, in a deal worth around $650 million, including debt. The two companies said on Monday that Lavazza had agreed to buy Mars Drinks, a business that includes Flavia and Klix systems. — From news services

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Newton's Third Law of Motion Sir Isaac Newton first presented his three laws of motion in the 'Principia Mathematica Philosophiae Naturalis' in 1686. His third law states that for every action (force) in nature there is an equal and opposite reaction. In other words, if object A exerts a force on object B, then object B also exerts an equal and opposite force on object A. Notice that the forces are exerted on different objects. In aerospace engineering, the principal of action and reaction is very important. Newton's third law explains the generation of thrust by a rocket engine. In a rocket engine, hot exhaust gas is produced through the combustion of a fuel with an oxidizer. The hot exhaust gas flows through the rocket nozzle and is accelerated to the rear of the rocket. In re-action, a thrusting force is produced on the engine mount. The thrust accelerates the rocket as described by Newton's second law of motion. Guided Tours Newton's Laws of Motion: Propulsion System: Activities: Rocket Propulsion Activity: Grade 9-10 Fundamental Terminology: Grade 10-12 Hero Engine: Grade 6-10 Rocket Car: Grade 6-10 Rocket Pinwheel: Grade 6-10 Newton Car: Grade 10-12

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The rocket itself—a piece of precision-manufactured aerospace equipment costing millions of dollars—can only be used once; as the pieces of it separate, they sink into the ocean, burn up in the atmosphere, or drift off into space, and can never be used again. Imagine if a car or airplane were used this way, and you'll soon understand why launching something into space can easily cost $100 million. Rocket scientists have long hoped to fix this by safely landing at least a portion of the rocket so that it can be used again. But this is incredibly difficult to do in a way that actually saves money. Rockets have to lift all the fuel they need for their entire journey—including enough fuel to lift all the fuel! Designing a rocket that can lift merely itself and its payload is hard enough—lifting a landing system as well takes some extraordinarily tricky engineering. Previously, the only reusable launch system that could carry a real payload was the Space Shuttle. The shuttle orbiter, which contained the most expensive engines and equipment, would reenter the atmosphere with a heat shield made of black tiles, then glide to a runway using wings for a horizontal landing.

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Of course this doesn’t mean that a reusable rocket doesn’t have its downsides. “It really comes down to what the staging Mach number would be,” Musk says, referencing the speed the rocket would be traveling at separation. “For an expendable Falcon 9 rocket, that is around Mach 10. For a reusable Falcon 9, it is around Mach 6, depending on the mission.” For their reusable rocket this means the lower and upper stage separation needs to happen earlier, which puts a lot of extra strain on the upper stage – this translates in less cargo handling capabilities since each stage needs more fuel, first to be able to fly back on their own to the launch side and second to compensate for the earlier separation. Still, if you have enough of these rockets and launch them often enough, this will greatly compensate. Practically, if you could use ONE Falcon Heavy rocket a hundred times in a year, it would become economically feasible extremely fast – you’re only expense launch to launch is fuel, staff and other miscellaneous expenses; trivial really when compared to having to build an entire rocket from scratch every new launch.

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(We refer to m as the “instantaneous mass” and v → as the “instantaneous velocity.”) The rocket accelerates by burning the fuel it carries and ejecting the burned exhaust gases. If the burn rate of the fuel is constant, and the velocity at which the exhaust is ejected is also constant, what is the change of velocity of the rocket as a result of burning all of its fuel? Figure 9.11. 1: The space shuttle had a number of reusable parts. Solid fuel boosters on either side were recovered and refueled after each flight, and the entire orbiter returned to Earth for use in subsequent flights. The large liquid fuel tank was expended. The space shuttle was a complex assemblage of technologies, employing both solid and liquid fuel, and pioneering ceramic tiles as reentry heat shields. As a result, it permitted multiple launches as opposed to single-use rockets. (credit: modification of work by NASA) Physical Analysis Here’s a description of what happens, so that you get a feel for the physics involved. As the rocket engines operate, they are continuously ejecting burned fuel gases, which have both mass and velocity, and therefore some momentum. By conservation of momentum, the rocket’s momentum changes by this same amount (with the opposite sign).

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You control this thing using a Bloomberg terminal, evidently. No, seriously. Can I check my stocks on that thing? From the heatshield to the engines, the whole design is meant to enhance the spacecraft's reusability. Once it lands back on earth, you can just fill 'er up with more fuel and she'll be ready to go again. And SpaceX is betting that that will bring down the cost of space travel dramatically. 'As long as we continue to throw away rockets and spacecraft, we will never have true access to space,' said Musk. 'If aircraft were thrown away with each flight, nobody would be able to fly — or very few. The same is true of rockets and spacecraft.' Of course, even with the savings, it's likely that spaceflight will only be available to a few, select civilians for the foreseeable future. Which raises the question: Who is SpaceX going to find to fill all those seats? There aren't nearly enough billionaires on the planet to keep them full every time. Related: Why do U.S. spy satellites rely on Russian rocket engines?

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The Raptor engine's chamber pressure greatly exceeds that of the Merlin 1D, which a NASA document states has a pressure of 1,410 psi or 97 bar. The new record beats the engine's previous success back in February 2019, when it reached 269 bar. After that success, the Raptor engine had beat the Russian RD-180 engine, which offers 258 bar and has been flying on the ULA Atlas V rocket since 2000. But the 2020 result, which not only beat all of these, also exceeds Musk's goal for the Raptor, which in September 2016 he claimed was to reach 300 bar. Musk also noted that the Raptor can reduce its strength in a similar way to the Merlin: 'Max demonstrated Raptor thrust is ~225 tons & min is ~90 tons, so they’re actually quite similar. Both Merlin & Raptor could throttle way lower with added design complexity. Raptor preburner & Merlin gas generator flameout are what limit lower bound.' What does all this mean for thrust? On Monday, Musk claimed that the engine would provide half a million pounds of force, or around 225 tons. In May 2020, Musk stated that the Super Heavy booster used to lift the Starship away from Earth was currently using 31 engines, rather than the 37 engines he previously stated.

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The fuel source can literally be anything that will burn. An internal combustion engine mixes the fuel with air, and burns it INSIDE the engine itself. This provides higher efficiency and compact size, but limits the choice of fuels to liquids or gases. Typical examples are 2 stroke or 4 stroke gasoline or diesel engines, as well as the Wankel rotary designs. 223 views · View upvotes Fred Vreeman , Alaskan, Enviro-Scientist, Entrepreneur, Top Writer, Scholar Updated 4 years ago · Author has 1.1K answers and 942K answer views In an 'internal combustion engine' the fuel mixes with an oxidizer and burns inside the engine. Gas and diesel vehicle engines, jet turbines, and rocket motors are types of internal combustion engines. In an 'external combustion engine' the fuel mixes with an oxidizer and burns outside the engine. Steam piston engines, steam turbines, and rankine cycle fluid to gas devices are types of external combustion engines. 25.6K views · View upvotes Matt Bowyer Answered 1 year ago · Author has 2.5K answers and 3.2M answer views Originally Answered: What is the difference between external and internal combustion?

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Differences Between LS1 and LT1 | Difference Between Differences Between LS1 and LT1 • Categorized under Objects | Differences Between LS1 and LT1 LS1 vs LT1 The LS1 and LT1 are two GM engines that are very popular among enthusiasts. The LS1 engine is the newer design that replaced the older LT1 engines. The main difference between the LS1 and LT1 engines is the material used in the block. LT1 engines were made out of cast iron while the LS1 engine blocks were made out of aluminum, except those made for trucks, which are still made out of cast iron for optimal strength and durability. The change in metal used has distinct effects on how the engines perform. The LS1 engines are much lighter compared to the LT1 engines, and in vehicles, reducing the weight always relates to better performance. The aluminum block of the LS1 engine is also much better in dissipating heat compared to the cast iron block of the LT1. This lets the engine achieve a higher compression without worrying about overheating the engine due to excessive heat. Because of this and a variety of other factors, the LS1 engines produce more power than LT1 engines. The LT1 engines produced prior to the release of the LS1 engines were rated at 260 hp, while the LS1 engine debuted at 345 hp and gradually increased over the years.

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Draco is a hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engine that utilizes monomethyl hydrazine fuel and nitrogen tetroxide oxidizer. Each Draco thruster generates 400 N (90 lb f) of thrust. They are used on the reaction control system of the Dragon and Dragon 2 spacecraft. SuperDraco is a hypergolic liquid-propellant rocket engine that, like Draco, uses monomethyl hydrazine and nitrogen tetroxide propellants. Eight SuperDraco engines provide launch escape capability for crewed Dragon 2 spacecraft during an abort scenario. Each SuperDraco engine produces 73 kN (16,000 lb f) of thrust. Initial concepts for the Crew Dragon spacecraft used the SuperDraco engines to perform a retropropulsive landing on land, however, these were scrapped in 2017 when it was decided to perform a traditional parachute descent and splashdown at sea. First test firing of a subscale Raptor development engine in September 2016 in McGregor, Texas. Raptor is a new family of liquid oxygen and liquid methane -fueled full-flow staged combustion cycle engines to power the first and second stages of the in-development Starship launch system. Development versions were test-fired in late 2016. On 3 April 2019, SpaceX conducted a static fire test in Texas on its Starhopper vehicle, which ignited the engine while the vehicle remained tethered to the ground.

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For SLS to fly, combustion takes place in two primary areas: the main engines (four Aerojet Rocketdyne RS-25s) and the twin solid rocket boosters (built by Orbital ATK) that provide more than 75 percent of thrust at liftoff. Combustion powers both propulsion systems, but the fuels and oxidizers are different. Steam clouds, the product of the SLS main engines’ hydrogen-oxygen reaction, pour from an RS-25 engine during testing at NASA’s Stennis Space Center. The RS-25 main engines are called “liquid engines” because the fuel is liquid hydrogen (LH2). Liquid oxygen (LOX) serves as the oxidizer. The boosters, on the other hand, use aluminum as fuel with ammonium perchlorate as the oxidizer, mixed with a binder that creates one homogenous solid propellant. Making water makes SLS fly Hydrogen, the fuel for the main engines, is the lightest element and normally exists as a gas. Gases – especially lightweight hydrogen – are low-density, which means a little of it takes up a lot of space. To have enough to power a large combustion reaction would require an incredibly large tank to hold it – the opposite of what’s needed for an aerodynamically designed launch vehicle.

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Corals are always found in warm ocean water not too far from the surface of the water. As we saw above, the corals are dependent on algae photosynthesis so they need to be close to sunlight. This is also the reason why it is popular for divers. The corals will be close enough to the water surface that you can see it’s many colors from above the water. Otherwise, it would not be able to catch the sun rays which are important for them (or for the algae). Why Are Corals So Special? Coral reefs are home to a vast majority of the species on earth. Scientists believe that at least 25% of all marine species on earth are living in coral reefs. According to National Geographics, it is assumed that more than 2 million animals and lifeforms are living at the coral reefs. And many more species are dependent on the survival of the reefs. Many of the little colorful fish we find in the oceans are growing up inside the coral reefs because they find protection among the corals. They can quickly hide and find shelter inside the polyps when an enemy approaches. When you combine that with the fact that corals only take up less than 1% of the ocean floor, you realize just how precious these corals are.

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'"Taiwan coral reefs 'turn black' with disease'. Reuters. ^ 'Information about Coral Disease'. NOAA Coral Disease & Health Consortium. Retrieved 15 January 2019. ^ 'Caribbean coral reefs may disappear within 20 years: Report'. IANS. news.biharprabha.com. Retrieved 3 July 2014. ^ US Department of Commerce, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. 'What is coral bleaching?'. oceanservice.noaa.gov. Retrieved 5 March 2019. ^ Aldred, Jessica (2014-07-02). 'Caribbean coral reefs 'will be lost within 20 years' without protection'. The Guardian. ISSN 0261-3077. Retrieved 2017-08-06. ^ 'Coral Reefs in Jamaica'. Retrieved 2017-08-06. ^ Hughes, Terence P. (1994). 'Catastrophes, Phase Shifts, and Large-Scale Degradation of a Caribbean Coral Reef'. Science. 265 (5178): 1547–1551. Bibcode: 1994Sci...265.1547H. doi: 10.1126/science.265.5178.1547. JSTOR 2884556. PMID 17801530. S2CID 43204708. ^ Crabbe, M.J.C. (2009). 'Scleractinian coral population size structures and growth rates indicate coral resilience on the fringing reefs of North Jamaica' (PDF). Marine Environmental Research. 67 (4–5): 189–198. doi: 10.1016/j.marenvres.2009.01.003. PMID 19269026."

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Number three, still happening today, looks on track to be the worst ever, affecting 38 percent of the world’s reefs. Here’s what you need to know about this worldwide disaster. 1. CORALS ARE ANIMALS. A coral reef in the Red Sea near Obhor, north of Jeddah, Saudi Arabia. Image credit: Hassan Ammar / AFP/Getty Images Thousands of species of coral exist, and hundreds of those are hard or reef-building corals. These individual coral animals, called polyps, look sort of like miniature sea anemones—a soft, tubular body topped by a ring of tentacles. Each builds a hard, protective external skeleton of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) around its base. Thousands together make up a reef, with each polyp connected to the next by a thin layer of tissue. Reefs grow when polyps periodically lift off their base and secrete a new one, adding layers of calcium. Sexual and asexual reproduction also increase the size of reefs by increasing the number of individual polyps. Reef growth varies from 2 centimeters (0.8 inches) or less per year for massive corals up to 10 centimeters (about 4 inches) per year for branching corals.

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Coastal ecosystems also fulfill many ecological roles, ranging from shoreline protection to buffer zones from land-based activities and pollution, to feeding, breeding, and nursery grounds to many marine species. Coral reefs provide an estimated US$ 375 billion per year in goods and services to the world. This includes support for marine fisheries, which provide the principal protein source for many island populations, especially amongst SIDS. Yet island biodiversity is not only of vital importance to island dwellers. Islands are repositories of genetic information whose present-day biodiversity stands as a record of millions of years of evolution. This biodiversity has an inherent value to humankind the world over.

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Coral organisms can also reproduce through an asexual method called fragmentation where the coral simply fragments or breaks and is re-settled somewhere else. This can happened naturally, by outside force, or for growing purposes. The sexual part of the reproductive coral is naturally a bit more complicated as sexual reproduction is fundamentally more complex than asexual reproduction. While each coral species is unique, the majority of stony coral species produce male and/or female gametes. That’s right: some corals will produce both male and female gametes depending on conditions. Most species of coral are broadcast spawners, meaning that each coral releases massive numbers of male (sperm) and female (egg) gametes into the water in order to distribute their offspring throughout the water. As one can imagine, the timing of these mass spawning events must be timed perfectly and synchronized to be successful due to the stationary nature of mature corals. The goal is for the egg and sperm from the individual corals to meet in the water, fusing to form free-floating or planktonic larvae. These larvae are called planulae. To compensate for the hazardous mode of reproduction, coral reproduce incredibly large amounts of planulae. Within the coral life cycle, the highest mortality rate is in between that of the planulae and the stage of settlement.

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Pollution is one cause. Overfishing Whereas most undersea ecosystems foster plant growth, coral dominates certain regions because optimal conditions inhibit algae. The alga is a non flowering plant, like seaweed, that conducts photosynthesis. While such organisms are beneficial to plant life, they can restrict needed oxygen for coral and repress beneficial bacteria. According to researchers, this can reduce coral generation up to 37 percent. Much of this reduction relates to overfishing. This practice eliminates fish and other species that feed on algae, keeping the plants’ presence at a non-threatening level. Fortunately, technology exists to extract algae near the reefs with machines. Nevertheless, long-term health is preserved only through dialing back the fishing. Epidemic Among Diadema Antillarum One of the primary species that feast on algae is the diadema antillarum, or the black sea urchin. Over 30 years ago, however, the urchins started to die off, especially in the Caribbean reefs and elsewhere in the south Atlantic. The disease is still mysterious to marine epidemiologists but its symptoms are consistent: loss of pigment, build-up of sediment, spinal deterioration and loss of substrates (the spindle projections common among urchins). Behavioral anomalies included daytime feeding and vulnerability to species not normally up the food chain.

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They will later shed this coating to rid themselves of what every was bothering them which can also be a normal process for a leather coral provided it only happens occasionally. Frequent build up and shading of this coating can be a indication the water parameters/water quality may be off. All of the hardy, easy to care for leathers can fragged with a very high success rate. One thing you need watch for is artificially died corals. This is the unethical practice of injecting die into the leather coral in order to make it appear more colorful and sell it at a higher cost. Leather corals are among the easier corals to die and one of the hardest corals for someone new to the hobby to identify as a potentially died coral. The reason to avoid buy these corals is for two reasons, 1) the coral will almost always die within a few weeks, and, 2) not supporting the practice through not purchasing a died coral will help to stop the practice of dying corals. The most common sign of a potentially died coral is it’s bright coloring. In most cases this will be bright enough to look almost un-natural as well as almost neon.

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If corals start dying unexpectedly, then there is something wrong with the water chemistry. Check the basic parameters before you investigate other possible reasons. The first thing that comes to my mind is to check the salinity. If that’s on point, check the levels of calcium in the water. All LPS corals, including the Torch Coral, need calcium in order to make their skeleton. These corals can be affected by intense lighting, as well. Avoid placing them under metal halides. And always acclimate them slowly when you move them in a new tank. And last, Torch Corals are susceptible to diseases and infections like any other organism. The most common ones are the brown jelly and protozoan infections. How to Propagate the Torch Coral The Torch Coral is a great candidate for propagation. And it’s not that difficult to propagate it just by yourself, as well. Especially with branching types of corals, like the Torch Coral itself. First, make sure that that specimen you will use is in good health condition. Cut off a branch, and then glue it on a new rock. In time a new colony will form in that place. The process is simple, yet you need to be careful in order to not harm the coral.

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So making sure our corals are well-nourished, fish poop and missed food are not enough, goes a long way in preventing corals from dying due to unknown causes. It is also my opinion, and I have talked with a few other hobbyists as well, that when corals are well fed they tend to produce more waste. As a result, when this happens the flow also needs to be adequate to move their waste products away. It is also my opinion that in many tanks flow is still an underappreciated and under emphasized aspect of a successful tank. So if corals die again for seemingly no reason, then flow around the dead coral and in the entire tank should be examined and usually increased. When corals get this large they can not only shade themselves but also any corals underneath them as well One additional caveat that should also be addressed in terms of a coral’s needs changing as well the stress that occurs when a coral is moved and that is corals may die if they are constantly moved around in a tank.

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As the oceans warm in response to climate change, coral bleaching events are expected to become more frequent and pose a substantial risk to coral reef ecosystems around the world. This is of great concern to the scientific community because coral reefs harbor enormous amounts of biodiversity. They also protect shorelines from storm surges and support the livelihoods of many people through fishing and tourism related activities. Current models predict that most reefs will experience mass bleaching events by midcentury. However, these models do not account for the ability of corals to adapt to heat stress. Adaption may occur, for example, if heat tolerant zooxanthellae were to evolve inside of the coral tissue or if corals started to produce heat shock proteins that improved their tolerance to heat stress. Cheryl Logan, an assistant professor at California State University, and her colleagues used models to explore the future state of coral reefs under different climate change scenarios when adaptation responses were either included or excluded from the analyses. They found that the impacts of climate change on coral reefs were predicted to be less severe at the end of the 21st century if adaptive responses were included in models. Furthermore, their data suggests that some degree of adaptation may have already occurred in corals in response to warmer water temperatures during the 20th century. Dr. Logan commented on these findings in a press release.

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This impacts their diet and what they can eat. Coral reefs are majorly impacted by the rising temperatures and a lot of sea turtles diet is coral reefs or in the coral reef. Most animals that live in coral reefs need the reefs to survive. With the reefs dying, the sea life around it also does, impacting many animals. Oil spills Sea turtles are very vulnerable to oil pollution, both because of the oil's tendency to linger on the water's surface, and because oil can affect them at every stage of their life cycle. Oil can poison the sea turtles upon entering their digestive system. Sea turtles have a cycle that they follow from birth. The cycle depends on the sex of the turtle but they follow it all the way through life. They start by hatching on the beach, they reach the water then move out to find food. They then start their breeding migration and then mate with another turtle. For females, they make their way to the beach to start it all over again. With males, they go back to feeding after mating and doing that over again. Oil spills can affect this cycle majorly.

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If coral encounters plastic the likelihood of it becoming diseased increases from 4% to 89%; a disastrous effect as coral is home to more than 25% of marine life. How many animals die from ocean plastic pollution? While the true figure may not be known, we can estimate over 100,000 marine mammals and over 1 million seabirds are killed by ocean plastic every year. Along with this, 100% of baby sea turtles have plastics in their stomachs. With so many animals mistaking plastic items and particles for food, or becoming entangled, the impact of plastic waste on marine life has become a global crisis. Animals consuming plastic can starve to death as the plastic fills their stomach preventing them from eating proper food, rupturing their organs or blocking food from traveling to the intestine. In one case in the Philippines a curvier beaker whale was found vomiting blood with over 88 pounds of plastic in its belly. Its body started to destroy itself from the inside due to the plastic waste. Plastic pollution facts show it is ridding the world of marine species, with over 700 on the edge of extinction, including Hawaiian monk seals and loggerhead sea turtles. Along with larger mammals even the tiniest organisms can be impacted by toxic microplastics which in turn make their way up the food chain.

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Fishers that practice blast fishing in the Philippines today could receive prison sentences of as many as 10 years if the authorities caught them, according to Sievert. However, the law does not appear to be enough of a deterrent for many active blast fishers. Blast fishing remains a severe problem in modern times. Environmental Impacts of Blast Fishing Blast fishing can have significant negative effects on coral reefs and marine animal populations. It should also be acknowledged that blast fishing is just as unsustainable economically as it is environmentally. Coral Reef Impacts Source The explosives used in blast fishing can release shockwaves that are threatening to marine ecosystems in general, and coral reef habitats in particular, as the AWI indicates. The ESI says that coral reefs may require at least a century to return to normal after blast fishing has damaged their live coral, and that is assuming that their potential regeneration will not be disrupted by any other forms of outside interference. Blast fishing is one of the two primary threats to coral reefs in Southeast Asia. Impact on Animal Life TRCC indicates that animals other than fish, including sea turtles, can be affected by the explosions from blast fishing.

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NOAA Coral Reef Watch Program Coral Reef Watch Satellite Monitoring and Modeled Outlooks Hover over buttons below image to change product; then click on button or image to navigate to product's page. Announcements January 26, 2021 : NEW RELEASE: NOAA Coral Reef Watch's (CRW) Version 3.1.1 Thermal History product suite, spanning 1985-2020. September 14, 2020 : NEW RELEASE: 5km products tutorial. Learn more about coral reefs, coral bleaching, satellite remote sensing of the marine environment, and NOAA CRW's daily global and regional 5km-resolution satellite coral bleaching heat stress monitoring products. June 23, 2020 : NEW RELEASE: 5km methodology web page, detailing the products, climatologies, composites, animations, and data, which are now the core of NOAA CRW's decision support system for coral reef management. Past Announcements Coral reefs are one of Earth's most diverse ecosystems. They provide significant ecological, economic, and societal benefits valued, globally, at about USD$9.8 trillion each year ( de Groot et al. 2012, Costanza et al. 2014 ). Unfortunately, reefs worldwide are threatened by an increasing array of impacts, primarily from global climate change, unsustainable fishing practices, and land-based pollution.

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Coral Reefs Atmosphere Coral reefs thrive in a very narrow range of temperatures. A sharp increase in water temperatures as seen in El Nino years can cause coral bleaching and eventual death to the coral. Photo: Bleaching occurs when coral become stressed by heat, cold, chemicals, or other factors. Photo courtesy of NOAA. Some scientists believe that human actions are increasing greenhouse gases (gases like carbon dioxide that let in almost all the sun's radiation, but block much of the outgoing radiation from Earth). They call this global warming. They believe the Earth's atmosphere is getting warmer. If true this could upset the delicate balance of temperatures that coral reefs need to thrive. Coral reefs are important in determining the amount of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. The zooxanthellae algae, through photosynthesis, remove carbon dioxide from the air and make carbohydrates available as food for both the zooxanthellae and the coral polyps. Eventually, much of the carbon removed from the air will reside on the ocean bottom in the form of limestone produced by coral polyps. However, both the coral polyps and the zooxanthellae must also use oxygen through the process of respiration (the same process humans use in breathing). Respiration releases carbon dioxide into the ocean and atmosphere.

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On the other hand, several SPS coral genera ( Pocillopora damicornis, Montipora digitata, and Acropora millepora) showed feeding responses that were linear to particle concentration (Type I response at concentrations of 1 to 30 mg/l.) However, assimilation by the corals was inversely proportional to concentration. With that said, Anthony reported suspended matter could cover up to ½ of carbon requirements and 1/3 of the nitrogen. The Smaller the Mouth, The Smaller the Prey This is a simple concept yet one commonly ignored when we examine particle size of some commercially available coral foods. We will examine the size of particles ingested by small polyped stony corals in this article. There has been relatively little research conducted on single- or large-polyp stony corals. Micrometers A micrometer is 1/1,000,000 th of a meter. To put this in perspective, a fine human is as little as 17 micrometers in diameter. We’ll use micrometers (abbreviated as µm) as the standard for describing size of coral prey organisms. Particulate prey include a number of animate and inanimate objects ranging in size from the size of bacteria (perhaps 0.5 micrometers) to 200 micrometers and even larger. This month, we’ll examine various food sources for the coral animal. These involve organic and inorganic substances, both particulate and dissolved.

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A classic example of this type of relationship is when a tapeworm attaches itself to the insides of the intestines of other animals and feed on the food that the animal ingests. The parasite benefits by gaining nutrients, but does so at the expense of the host because it now needs to eat more in order to survive. Zooxanthellae are photosynthetic algae that live inside coral polyps. Coral polyps and zooxanthellae have a mutalistic symbiotic relationship. The calcium carbonate skeleton produced by the coral polyps provides the zooxanthellae with a protected environment suitable for photosynthesis. In return, the photosynthetic algae produce oxygen and aid the coral in removing waste. Additionally, zooxanthellae provide the coral with nutrients such as glucose, glyserol, and amino acids, which are products of photosynthesis. These compounds are utilized by the coral as building blocks in the manufacture of fats, as well as the synthesis of their calcium carbonate skeleton. Some polyps are able to capture enough nutrients to survive without zooxanthellae, but these are rare. It has been found that zooxanthellae donate up to ninety percent of the organic material produced during photosynthesis to the host coral tissue. When coral polyps become stressed due to a change in the environment, often caused by human activity, they can lose the zooxanthellae.

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On this page: Clean Water Act and Coral Reefs U.S. Coral Reef Task Force International Coral Reef Initiative Clean Water Act and Coral Reefs EPA strategically applies its Clean Water Act (CWA) regulatory and non-regulatory programs to reduce land-based sources of pollution that degrade coastal waters and coral reefs that live in them. Improving coral reef health by addressing local stressors will enhance their natural resilience. EPA: Provides funding and technical assistance to state and territory coral monitoring and assessment programs ( CWA 106 ). Targets nonpoint source ( CWA 319) funds to implement water quality improvement projects in watersheds that discharge into coral reef locations. Works with states to improve the environmental protections provided by National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System sewer and stormwater management permits ( CWA 402 ). Works with the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to avoid and minimize impacts to coral reefs from discharges of dredged or fill material avoid and minimize impacts to coral reefs, and to provide compensatory mitigation for unavoidable impacts ( CWA 404; see also Coral Reef Guidance: 1999 Memorandum to the Field ). Supports derivation and adoption (by states) of water quality standards to increase protection of corals.

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If you disrupt this balance, it makes infections more common and causes a decline in the number of good bacteria that live on coral reefs. Coral also lives alongside algae, but if there are too many algae then they compete with corals for space. This happens because climate change has given the algae an advantage over coral reefs. It turns out that algae were not the only problem, as they also caused a change in the coral’s microbiome. The high amount of dissolved organic carbon (DOC) released by the algae allowed for an explosion of microbes and depleted all of the oxygen in the area. The corals became unable to get any oxygen because their own microbes ate it up. It was not a new pathogen that posed problems; instead, it was just an overgrowth of existing bacteria within these corals. It is clear from this study that human activity has impacted how corals interact with their microbiomes. Microbes play an important role in our health. In fact, they help determine whether we are healthy or not. They’re meant to live in harmony with each other. When that harmony is disturbed, the microbes can change and cause disease. This idea has been studied since the 1990s by scientists who study germ-free mice (mice without any bacteria).

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What Happens When A Coral Reef Dies? What Happens When A Coral Reef Dies? Conservation By: Eva Gruber With the recent tragic news of the Great Barrier Reef experiencing the largest mass coral bleaching event ever, we can no longer ignore the fact that coral reefs the world over are in sheer danger. Coral reef ecosystems take centuries to grow and develop, and it is no small matter to be losing them due to anthropogenic activities in a matter of years. At least 19% of the world’s coral reefs – including 50% of those in the Caribbean – are already gone, and within 20 years, if current trends continue, we could lose another 15%, according to the National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration. Image Credit: http://all-that-is-interesting.com/wordpress/wp-content/uploads/2016/05/coral-reef-bleaching-after.jpg If climate change continues unabated, all the coral reefs on the planet could be gone within one human generation. That means all the global coral reef system – with all of its biodiversity and fisheries supporting millions of poor people around the world – will be wiped out. There will be cascading effects on the rest of the ocean’s marine habitats as well, and as a result there will be widespread hunger, poverty, and political instability.

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Moreover, much of the carbon dioxide causing global warming and heat captured by global warming are absorbed by the ocean, ocean chemistry is changing through processes like ocean acidification which in turn threatens marine ecosystems. Because of these opportunities in marine ecosystems for humans and the threats created by humans, the international community has prioritized 'Life below water' as Sustainable Development Goal 14 to 'Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development'. Contents 1 Coastal ecosystems 1.1 Coral reefs 1.2 Mangroves 1.3 Seagrass meadows 1.4 Kelp forests 1.5 Estuaries 1.6 Lagoons 1.7 Salt marsh 1.8 Intertidal zones 2 Deep sea and sea floor 2.1 Open pelagic ocean 2.2 Seamounts 2.3 Seeps and vents 3 Ecosystem services 4 Threats 4.1 Human exploitation and development 4.2 Pollution 4.3 Invasive species 4.4 Climate change 5 See also 6 References 7 Further reading 8 External links Coastal ecosystems Global distribution of coral, mangrove, and seagrass diversity See also: marine habitats Coral reefs Coral reef Main article: Coral reef Coral reefs are one of the most well-known marine ecosystems in the world, with the largest being the Great Barrier Reef. These reefs are composed of large coral colonies of a variety of species living together. The corals from multiple symbiotic relationships with the organisms around them.

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As ocean resources become scarce, the seafood industry will flounder. Some models show that shellfish populations alone could plunge so much that it will lead to losses of $480 million by the end of the century. This will mean less money and fewer jobs. It will also mean less food for consumers. Currently, there are 200 million jobs worldwide related to fishing. These jobs will largely vanish. It is not just the seafood industry. The tourism industry is also likely to be sacrificed with unchecked ocean pollution. Coral reefs are popular with tourists who put money into local economies through snorkeling and scuba diving. Beach communities are protected by reefs, which limit erosion and rising water levels. As these ecological features die off, coastal areas will be swamped and valuable land will be lost. The effects will be wider reaching still. The ocean thrives with carbon. When these ecosystems are lost or diminished, more carbon is released into the air. This only accelerates humanity’s problem with climate change and global warming. As these problems worsen, the geopolitical response will grow more tense. Ocean resources will likely become a point of contention, leading to international haggling and conflict. With scarce seafood supplies, tensions will flare, and humanity will be forced to reckon with its limited capacity.

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Bleaching Impacts | Reef Resilience Bleaching Impacts MENU MENU After a bleaching event that leads to coral mortality, a reef may lose tourism value. A decrease in coral cover can also reduce habitat for fish, with implications for reef-based fisheries. Photo © Stacey Kilarski, Thailand Coral bleaching and associated mortality not only have negative impacts on coral communities, but they also impact fish communities and the human communities that depend on coral reefs and associated fisheries for livelihoods and wellbeing. Ecological impacts of coral bleaching and related mortality: Bleached corals are likely to have reduced growth rates, decreased reproductive capacity, increased susceptibility to diseases and elevated mortality rates. Changes in coral community composition can occur when more susceptible species are killed by bleaching events. Changes in coral communities also affect the species that depend on them, such as the fish and invertebrates that rely on live coral for food, shelter, or recruitment habitat. Change in the abundance and composition of reef fish assemblages may occur when corals die as a result of coral bleaching. Declines in genetic and species diversity may occur when corals die as a result of bleaching. Healthy coral reefs attract divers and other tourists. Bleached and degraded reefs can discourage tourism, which can affect the local economy.

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The average temperature of tropical oceans has increased by .7˚ C which, combined with natural fluctuations of warmer ocean temperatures, has resulted in extensive coral bleaching around the globe, involving thousands of square miles of reefs. When El Nino occurred in 1997-1998, widespread and severe coral reef bleaching occurred in the Indo-Pacific region and the Caribbean, killing 16% of the world’s coral reefs in 12 months. Photo credit: World Resources Institute The 2010 El Nino has also resulted in massive bleaching around the world. Scientists don’t yet understand the long-term impacts of coral bleaching, but they do know that bleaching leaves corals vulnerable to disease, stunts their growth, and affects their reproduction, while severe bleaching kills them. The 30 million tons of carbon dioxide our oceans absorb every day is changing the chemistry of seawater and increasing acidification. Today, coral reefs are experiencing warmer ocean temperatures and more acidity than they have at any time in the last 400,000 years. Acidification reduces the water’s carrying capacity for calcium carbonate that corals need to build their skeletons. Even a small decrease in the coral’s ability to construct its skeleton can leave it vulnerable to erosion, and research suggests that coral reefs will begin to dissolve if atmospheric carbon dioxide levels double this century.

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A promising twist is that the more heat-tolerant species seem also to be more transplant-friendly. After experimentally planting some 400 samples from the two reef areas back into the two pools, Palumbi and his team found that the corals from the hotter pools transplanted more efficiently and grew faster than those from the cooler pools. This August, Palumbi and his colleagues plan to begin an experimental restoration project on Sili Reef off Ofu Island. To select the best corals, the researchers will rely on their extensive data for the area, including growth measurements and transcriptomes — blueprints of the part of the genome that is actively transcribed into proteins. They also plan to use data from a portable stress test for corals that Palumbi is developing — “like a human treadmill test for cardiac function”, he says. He and his team have built tanks out of 7.5-litre cooler boxes rigged with lights, heaters and chillers that can dose corals with a controlled bout of high physiological stress. By monitoring bleaching and chlorophyll content, they should be able to predict how corals might respond to potential bleaching conditions. Using all this information as a guide, they will handpick the hardiest, fastest-growing and most heat-resistant corals for their smart reef.

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Ocean Acidification Definition Ocean Acidification Definition by Laurent Cousineau (Montreal) Ocean acidification refers to the increase in acidity of seawater due to increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide. Essentially, not all of the carbon dioxide that mankind emits remains in the atmosphere. In fact, a fairly large portion enters the ocean, and this reduces its pH, which increases its acidity as a result. Will Cause Coral Bleaching Consequently, ocean acidification may cause a reduction in the calcification rates of calcifying organisms. These include corals, mollusks, algae and crustaceans. By reducing the calcification rates of corals, ocean acidification will, in turn, cause coral bleaching. Ocean Acidification and Climate Change Although climate change and ocean acidification are two very different environmental issues, they share the same cause: carbon dioxide emissions. In essence, by reducing our emissions of carbon dioxide, we will not only mitigate climate change, but we will also help stop ocean acidification. Although ocean acidification may sound like a trivial issue, it is not. Importance of Coral Reefs Millions of marine species depend on coral colonies, and many of these species lie at the bottom of the oceans' food chain. When coral reefs are bleached, all marine species are affected since they all depend on one another.

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Additionally, if atmospheric carbon dioxide reaches 800 ppm, the ocean surface water pH decrease will be 0.4 units and total dissolved carbonate ion concentration will have decreased by at least 60%. At this point it is almost certain that all reefs of the world will be in erosional states. Increasing the pH and replicating pre-industrialization ocean chemistry conditions in the Great Barrier Reef, however, led to an increase in coral growth rates by 7%. Section::::Coral health.:Temperature. Ocean acidification can also lead to increased sea surface temperature. An increase of about 1 or 2 °C can cause the collapse of the relationship between coral and zooxanthellae, possibly leading to bleaching. Average sea surface temperature in the Great Barrier Reef is predicted to increase between 1 and 3 °C by 2100. This breakdown of the relationship between the coral and the zooxanthellae occurs when Photosystem II is damaged, either due to a reaction with the D1 protein or a lack of carbon dioxide fixation; these result in a lack of photosynthesis and can lead to bleaching. Section::::Coral health.:Reproduction. Ocean acidification threatens coral reproduction throughout almost all aspects of the process.Gametogenesis may be indirectly affected by coral bleaching. Additionally, the stress that acidification puts on coral can potentially harm the viability of the sperm released.

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The total amount of carbon inthe ocean is about 50 times greater than the amount in the atmosphere, and isexchanged with the atmosphere on a time-scale of several hundred years. At least1/2 of the oxygen we breathe comes from the photosynthesis of marine plants. Currently, 48% of the carbon emitted to the atmosphere by fossil fuel burning issequestered into the ocean. But the future fate of this important carbon sink isquite uncertain because of potential climate change impacts on oceancirculation, biogeochemical cycling, and ecosystem dynamics. Carbon atoms areconstantly being cycled through the earth's ocean by a number of physical andbiological processes. The flux of carbon dioxide between the atmosphere and theocean is a function of surface mixing (related to wind speed) and the differencethe concentration of carbon dioxide in the air and water The concentration inthe ocean depends on the atmosphere and ocean carbon dioxide partial pressurewhich, in turn, is a function of temperature, alkalinity (which is closelyrelated to salinity), photosynthesis, and respiration. Carbon is alsosequestered for long periods of time in carbon reservoirs (sinks) such as deepocean and ocean sediment.

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If we continue burning fossil fuels at our current rate, severe bleaching events are likely to hit reefs annually by the middle of the century. This would be devastating for coral reefs as they would have no chance to recover. We need to urgently reduce our carbon pollution and limit global temperature increases, or the world’s reefs will face a bleak future. What causes coral bleaching? Coal kills coral. To stop coral bleaching we must stop carbon pollution that is heating our planet and cooking our oceans. We must quit coal and switch to renewables now. To stop coral bleaching we must stop carbon pollution that is heating our planet and cooking our oceans. We must quit coal and switch to renewables now. Mining and burning coal causes global warming Mining and burning coal pollutes the atmosphere and causes global warming. Increased carbon pollution in our atmosphere traps heat, which causes the temperature to rise on Earth. Mining and burning coal pollutes the atmosphere and causes global warming. Increased carbon pollution in our atmosphere traps heat, which causes the temperature to rise on Earth. Global warming heats our oceans. The higher and longer the temperature, the worse it gets. Ocean heatwaves cause stress for corals. The higher and longer the temperature, the worse it gets. Ocean heatwaves cause stress for corals.

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It may result from increases in seawater temperature, particularly when associated with elevated levels of solar irradiance (e.g., ultraviolet radiation ), or it may be caused by changes in seawater chemistry (e.g., due to ocean acidification or pollution ), increased levels of sediment in seawater, or a coral’s exposure to sodium cyanide (a chemical used in the capture of coral reef fish ). Under such conditions the zooxanthellae may lose substantial amounts of their photosynthetic pigmentation, which decreases rates of photosynthesis and produces bleaching. In addition, studies have found that the chemicals in sunscreens and other personal care products can accumulate in areas with significant marine tourism and recreational use by humans and can promote viral infections in hard corals that lead to bleaching. Exposure to increased temperatures and solar irradiance also causes zooxanthellae to manufacture abnormally large quantities of reactive oxygen species (molecules that contain oxygen and at least one unpaired electron ), which are toxic to both the algae and their coral symbionts. These changes ultimately cause a breakdown of the symbiotic relationship, characterized by the physical separation of the zooxanthellae from their coral hosts. If zooxanthellae do not recolonize the coral within a few months of leaving, their absence can result in the death of individual corals as well as the coral colony to which they belong.

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The atmosphere trap more thermal energy, thus causing the atmosphere to become warmer than usual. This increases the Earth’s temperature, and this is known as Global warming. In a nutshell, when the carbon dioxide increases, the global temperature increases, which leads to the rise in global warming and increasing global warming causes the greenhouse effect. HOW DOES CARBON DIOXIDE CAUSE AIR POLLUTION? In atmosphere carbon dioxide is occurred naturally. During photosynthesis, it plays an essential part. Since the Industrial Revolution, the levels of atmospheric carbon dioxide has increased. Deforestation and burning of fossil fuels such as coal are the primary causes for this. As the level of carbon dioxide is increased, it affects air pollution. Less than 1 percent of the atmospheric gases, carbon dioxide is gauged. However, between carbon dioxide and other gases, a delicate balance exists. Carbon dioxide also plays its role in greenhouse gas, thus contributing to air pollution. Now a question that arises here is how to overcome this problem of Air Pollution? Planting those indoor and outdoor plants which absorbs carbon dioxide from air can be a solution to this cause. This is an initiative you can take sitting in your homes and contribute to minimizing the air pollution. BENEFITS: The Oxygen levels can be increased by adding houseplants to your home.

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Burning fossil fuels like coal and oil puts more carbon dioxide into our atmosphere. NASA has observed increases in the amount of carbon dioxide and some other greenhouse gases in our atmosphere. Too much of these greenhouse gases can cause Earth's atmosphere to trap more and more heat. This causes Earth to warm up. What reduces the greenhouse effect on Earth? Just like a glass greenhouse, Earth's greenhouse is also full of plants! Plants can help to balance the greenhouse effect on Earth. All plants — from giant trees to tiny phytoplankton in the ocean — take in carbon dioxide and give off oxygen. The ocean also absorbs a lot of excess carbon dioxide in the air. Unfortunately, the increased carbon dioxide in the ocean changes the water, making it more acidic. This is called ocean acidification. More acidic water can be harmful to many ocean creatures, such as certain shellfish and coral. Warming oceans — from too many greenhouse gases in the atmosphere — can also be harmful to these organisms. Warmer waters are a main cause of coral bleaching. This photograph shows a bleached brain coral. A main cause of coral bleaching is warming oceans. Ocean acidification also stresses coral reef communities. Credit: NOAA Games Activities People Videos Mystery

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But limiting the Earth’s warming to 1.5 degrees by the end of the century might allow at least some corals to adapt to the new climate. More at Energy and Environment: Trump aims deep cuts at the clean energy agency that helped make solar affordable Trump’s EPA moves to dismantle programs that protect kids from lead paint These stunning timelapse photos may just convince you about climate change For more, you can sign up for our weekly newsletter here and follow us on Twitter here.

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Bike Bags, Bike Panniers (bike saddlebags), fold-out panniers, topeak bags, bicycle packs and racks About Bicycles Online > Bicycle Accessories > Bicycle Bags What kind of bicycle bags, handlebar bags, saddlebags or bicycle packs and racks do you need? Good bicycle bags ( aka: bike bags, trunk bags, bike panniers, packs and racks...) are essential for bike trails, distance rides, touring and utility riding and are very handy for almost any cycling style. A handlebar bag, behind the seat bike bag or under the seat pack are easy to access and work very well for most rides but for touring or larger loads, you'll probably want a bike pannier (aka: bicycle saddlebags) or a bike trunk style bag. Although many bike bag styles have been around for years, there have also been many new bike bag innovations in recent years. Aside from pda phone packs and the Cage Rocket (below), some manufacturers ( Topeak for example) also have Trunk Bags with Fold-Out Panniers which can be very handy in some cases.

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One of the most obvious differences is cargo-carrying ability. You can equip many cruisers with soft saddlebags (these bikes are often referred to as 'baggers'). Touring bikes come standard with saddlebags though, which are typically hard-sided, lockable, and waterproof. Tourers are often optional with large trunk cases as well. On the other hand, a cruiser is a better starting point if you don’t plan on piling on the miles. Cruisers tend to cost a lot less than comparable touring motorcycles. They usually weigh less too, making them easier to maneuver in city traffic. Cruiser vs. Dual-Sport Motorcycles Dual-sport motorcycles are kind of like street-legal dirt bikes. These motorcycles comply with road safety regulations – they have turn signals, brake lights, mirrors, et cetera – but they are really designed for tackling off-road terrain. You get skid plates, tires with aggressive tread, and long-travel suspension for soaking up big bumps, but not much else. As a result, these motorcycles tend to be very lightweight and inexpensive.

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Bicycles have been my life ever since, whether it’s riding or tinkering. The physical test and high-speed competition have won me over and I see no turning back.

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Stores Cart 0 to open cart summary dialog, press down arrow Close Menu Camp & Hike Close this menu Camp & Hike Backpacks Backpacking Packs Day Packs Hydration Packs Baby Carrier Packs Waist Packs Accessories Tents Backpacking Tents Camping Tents Roof-top Tents Shelters Bivy Sacks Accessories Sleeping Bags Men's Women's Double Kids' Bag Liners Blankets Pads & Hammocks Sleeping Pads Hammocks Cots Air Mattresses Pillows Camp Kitchen Stoves, Grills & Fuel Cookware Dinnerware Coffee & Tea Utensils Coolers Food Camp Furniture Chairs Hammocks Tables Fire Pits Water Glasses, Cups & Mugs Water Bottles Water Treatment Hydration Reservoirs Vacuum Bottles Lighting Headlamps Flashlights Lanterns Electronics GPS Portable Power Devices Radios Watches Two-Way Radios PLB & Satellite Messengers Solar Chargers Portable Speakers Gadgets & Gear Trekking Poles Knives Binoculars Compasses Multi-Tools Camp Tools Hiking Footwear Men's Women's Kids' Hiking Socks Gaiters Hiking Clothing Jackets Shirts Pants 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PFDs Men’s Women’s Kids’ Paddling Clothing Water Shirts Rashguards Paddling Jackets Pants Wetsuits Dry Suits Gloves Paddling Footwear Booties Socks Bags & Cases Dry Bags Waterproof Cases Canoe Packs Accessories Fishing Gear Safety Gear Snorkeling Packrafts Rafts & Tubes Bodyboarding Car Racks Kayak Racks Canoe Racks Paddle Board Racks Watersports Deals Kayaking Deals Paddle Board Deals Paddle Clothing Deals Brands Hobie NRS Carve Designs Wilderness Systems Perception Women's Swimwear Men's Swimwear Shop Paddling Gear Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Run Close this menu Run Men's Running Shoes Trail-Running Road-Running Cross-Training Insoles Running Socks Men's Running Clothing Jackets Vests Shirts Shorts Pants & Tights Accessories Women's Running Shoes Trail-Running Road-Running Cross-Training Insoles Running Socks Women's Running Clothing Jackets Vests Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants & Tights Accessories Injury Prevention & Recovery Foam Rollers Massagers Support Braces & Tape Electronics Fitness Trackers Heart Rate Monitors GPS Sports Watches Running Watches Headphones Running Packs Hydration Belts Hydration Vests Race Belts Water Bottles Strollers Jogging Strollers Accessories Conversion Kits Weather Shields Accessories Energy Food & Drinks Reflective Gear Running Lights Sport Sunglasses Run Deals Men’s Clothing Deals Men’s Shoe Deals Women’s Clothing Deals Women’s Shoe Deals Brands Altra Brooks HOKA ONE ONE Patagonia Salomon Vuori New Arrivals Summer run clothes for men & women Running Safety Lights & Vests Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Fitness Close this menu Fitness Women’s Workout Clothing Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants & Leggings Jackets & Sweatshirts Accessories Plus Size Men’s Workout Clothing Shirts Shorts Pants & Tights Jackets & Sweatshirts Accessories Women’s Yoga Clothing Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants Plus Size Maternity Men’s Yoga Clothing Shirts Shorts Pants Fitness Electronics Fitness Trackers Heart Rate Monitors Headphones Portable Speakers Exercise Equipment Resistance Bands Suspension Trainers Grip Strengtheners Indoor Cycling Triathlon Inline Skates Yoga Gear Yoga Mats Mat Bags Mat Holders Props Towels Fitness Accessories Energy Food & Drinks Water Bottles Gym Bags Injury Prevention & Recovery Foam Rollers Massagers Support Braces & Tape Fitness Deals Women’s Deals Men’s Deals Fitness Gear Deals REI Outlet Fitness Brands Vuori Beyond Yoga Nike Manduka Hyperice Garmin Fitness New Arrivals Warm Weather Training Clothing Outdoor Workout Gear, Bands & Mats Face Masks, Buffs & Bandanas Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Snow Close this menu Snow Downhill Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Goggles Helmets Packs & Bags Accessories Downhill Ski Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Gloves, Hats & Socks Snowboarding Snowboards Boots Bindings Goggles Helmets Packs & Bags Accessories Snowboard Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Gloves, Hats & Socks Snowshoeing Snowshoes Winter Boots Accessories Backcountry Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Climbing Skins Ski Packs Cross-Country Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Waxing & Tuning Cross-Country Clothing Men’s Women’s Avalanche Safety Gear Avalanche Packs Avalanche Transceivers Snow Shovels Snow Probes Snow Accessories Action Cameras Hand & Foot Warmers Winter Traction Snow Deals Downhill Skiing Deals Backcountry Ski Deals XC Skiing Deals Snowboarding Deals Snowshoeing Deals REI Outlet Snow Brands Burton Rossignol Thule K2 Marker Picture Organic Clothing Top Rated Snowsports Clothing & Gear Clearance up to 30% off Shop Base Layers Shop Snow Play Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Travel Close this menu Travel Car Racks Cargo Boxes & Bags Bike Racks Watercraft Racks Ski & Snowboard Base Roof Racks Luggage Carry-On Luggage Wheeled Luggage Travel Packs Travel Duffels Packing Organizers Accessories Day Bags Duffel Bags Shoulder Bags Messenger Bags Tote Bags Wallets & Money Belts Backpacks Travel Backpacks Travel Daypacks Laptop Backpacks Travel Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Electronics Bags & Cases Laptop Bags Camera Bags Phone Cases Travel Accessories Pillows & Sleeping Converters & Adapters Keychains Portable Power Devices Toiletry Bags Travel Mugs Photography Action Cameras Camera Bags Travel Deals Luggage Deals Backpack Deals Day Bag Deals Travel Clothing Deals Brands REI Co-op Osprey ExOfficio The North Face Patagonia Herschel Supply Co.

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Packing tips and packing list | Planning for your bike tour - BikeTours.com Packing for a bike tour Rule #1: PACK LIGHT. Try to limit yourself to a carry-on bag. This isn’t a requirement, just a suggestion. (The extra airline fees are just the beginning of the trouble with extra or heavy bags—train stations and hotels don’t always have elevators!) It’s tough but doable, especially if you plan ahead. If you’re not sure if your suitcase is too heavy, carry it a couple of blocks at a fast clip, or up a flight of stairs without stopping. If you’re uncomfortable, it’s too heavy. (We recommend this activity for pre-dawn, before the neighbors wake up and wonder if you’ve finally gone over the edge.) On most bicycle tours, you’re on the move with little time for laundry and drying. When possible, travel with fast-drying clothing – from undergarments to outerwear. Check out our clothing recommendations. Synthetic fabrics/blends are not only the most breathable and quick drying, they can also be the easiest to pack (the worst fabric to ride in is cotton).

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Stores Cart 0 to open cart summary dialog, press down arrow Close Menu Camp & Hike Close this menu Camp & Hike Backpacks Backpacking Packs Day Packs Hydration Packs Baby Carrier Packs Waist Packs Accessories Tents Backpacking Tents Camping Tents Roof-top Tents Shelters Bivy Sacks Accessories Sleeping Bags Men's Women's Double Kids' Bag Liners Blankets Pads & Hammocks Sleeping Pads Hammocks Cots Air Mattresses Pillows Camp Kitchen Stoves, Grills & Fuel Cookware Dinnerware Coffee & Tea Utensils Coolers Food Camp Furniture Chairs Hammocks Tables Fire Pits Water Glasses, Cups & Mugs Water Bottles Water Treatment Hydration Reservoirs Vacuum Bottles Lighting Headlamps Flashlights Lanterns Electronics GPS Portable Power Devices Radios Watches Two-Way Radios PLB & Satellite Messengers Solar Chargers Portable Speakers Gadgets & Gear Trekking Poles Knives Binoculars Compasses Multi-Tools Camp Tools Hiking Footwear Men's Women's Kids' Hiking Socks Gaiters Hiking Clothing Jackets Shirts Pants Shorts Hats & Accessories Sunglasses Health & Safety First Aid Emergency & Survival Camp Bathroom Bear Safety Gear Fire Starting Gear Sun & Bug Protection Accessories Dog Gear Storage & Maintenance Games & Toys Books and Maps Camp & Hike Deals Tent Deals Sleeping Bag Deals Backpack Deals Brands REI Co-op Big Agnes YETI NEMO Hydro Flask Garmin Day Hiking Gear & Clothing Top Rated Camping & Hiking Gear Overlanding Essentials Father's Day Gift Ideas Expert Advice Checklists and how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Climb Close this menu Climb Climbing Shoes Men’s Climbing Men's Approach Women's Climbing Women's Approach Climbing Harnesses Men’s Women’s Kids' Climbing Ropes Single Ropes Static & Rescue Half Ropes Twin Ropes Rope Bags Webbing & Cords Cords Slings Webbing Hardware Carabiners Protection Quickdraws Pulleys Belay & Rappel Ascenders & Descenders Essentials Chalk Helmets Packs Training Gear Holds Bouldering Crash Pads Climbing Clothing Men’s Rock Men’s Mountaineering Women’s Rock Women's Mountaineering Rappelling Gloves Mountaineering Crampons Ice Axes & Tools Mountaineering Boots Mountaineering Tents Snow & Ice Protection Climbing Deals Climbing Shoe Deals Climbing Harness Deals Brands Black Diamond La Sportiva Petzl Scarpa Mammut Metolius Gym Climbing Gear Top-Rated Gear Shop Climbing Gear Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Cycle Close this menu Cycle Bikes Mountain Bikes Road Bikes Hybrid Bikes Electric Bikes Specialty Bikes Kids' Bikes Bike Helmets Mountain Road Recreational Kids' Cycling Clothing Jackets Jerseys Shorts Tights & Pants Accessories Cycling Shoes Mountain Road City Indoor Cleats Cycling Socks Packs, Bags & Trailers Panniers & Bike Bags Packs & Messengers Bike Trailers Bike Cargo Racks Bike Accessories Computers Lights Locks Pumps Water Bottles Fenders Bike Racks Hitch-mounted Roof-top Trunk-mounted Truck Bed Bike Storage Racks Bike Components Tires, Tubes & Wheels Pedals Brakes Drivetrain Components Handlebars Saddles & Seat Posts Indoor Cycling Trainers and Simulators Shoes Tools & Maintenance Bike Tools Lubricants & Cleaners Repair Stands Kids' Cycling Child Bike Seats Kids’ Trailers Kids’ Bikes Kids’ Helmets Cycling Deals Bike Deals Cycling Clothing Deals Bike Accessories Deals Brands Co-op Cycles Cannondale Shimano Yakima Bontrager PEARL iZUMi Indoor Cycling Gear New Arrivals Shop Cycling Gear Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Shop Services We'll fix you up Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Water Close this menu Water Kayaks Touring Day-touring Recreational Sit-On-Top Inflatable Tandem Kayaking Gear Paddles Carts Accessories Safety Equipment Spray Skirts Kayak Storage Paddle Boarding Paddle Boards Paddles Accessories Canoeing Canoes Paddles Accessories PFDs Men’s Women’s Kids’ Paddling Clothing Water Shirts Rashguards Paddling Jackets Pants Wetsuits Dry Suits Gloves Paddling Footwear Booties Socks Bags & Cases Dry Bags Waterproof Cases Canoe Packs Accessories Fishing Gear Safety Gear Snorkeling Packrafts Rafts & Tubes Bodyboarding Car Racks Kayak Racks Canoe Racks Paddle Board Racks Watersports Deals Kayaking Deals Paddle Board Deals Paddle Clothing Deals Brands Hobie NRS Carve Designs Wilderness Systems Perception Women's Swimwear Men's Swimwear Shop Paddling Gear Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Run Close this menu Run Men's Running Shoes Trail-Running Road-Running Cross-Training Insoles Running Socks Men's Running Clothing Jackets Vests Shirts Shorts Pants & Tights Accessories Women's Running Shoes Trail-Running Road-Running Cross-Training Insoles Running Socks Women's Running Clothing Jackets Vests Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants & Tights Accessories Injury Prevention & Recovery Foam Rollers Massagers Support Braces & Tape Electronics Fitness Trackers Heart Rate Monitors GPS Sports Watches Running Watches Headphones Running Packs Hydration Belts Hydration Vests Race Belts Water Bottles Strollers Jogging Strollers Accessories Conversion Kits Weather Shields Accessories Energy Food & Drinks Reflective Gear Running Lights Sport Sunglasses Run Deals Men’s Clothing Deals Men’s Shoe Deals Women’s Clothing Deals Women’s Shoe Deals Brands Altra Brooks HOKA ONE ONE Patagonia Salomon Vuori New Arrivals Summer run clothes for men & women Running Safety Lights & Vests Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction Virtual Outfitting Schedule a visit Fitness Close this menu Fitness Women’s Workout Clothing Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants & Leggings Jackets & Sweatshirts Accessories Plus Size Men’s Workout Clothing Shirts Shorts Pants & Tights Jackets & Sweatshirts Accessories Women’s Yoga Clothing Shirts Sports Bras Shorts Pants Plus Size Maternity Men’s Yoga Clothing Shirts Shorts Pants Fitness Electronics Fitness Trackers Heart Rate Monitors Headphones Portable Speakers Exercise Equipment Resistance Bands Suspension Trainers Grip Strengtheners Indoor Cycling Triathlon Inline Skates Yoga Gear Yoga Mats Mat Bags Mat Holders Props Towels Fitness Accessories Energy Food & Drinks Water Bottles Gym Bags Injury Prevention & Recovery Foam Rollers Massagers Support Braces & Tape Fitness Deals Women’s Deals Men’s Deals Fitness Gear Deals REI Outlet Fitness Brands Vuori Beyond Yoga Nike Manduka Hyperice Garmin Fitness New Arrivals Warm Weather Training Clothing Outdoor Workout Gear, Bands & Mats Face Masks, Buffs & Bandanas Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Snow Close this menu Snow Downhill Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Goggles Helmets Packs & Bags Accessories Downhill Ski Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Gloves, Hats & Socks Snowboarding Snowboards Boots Bindings Goggles Helmets Packs & Bags Accessories Snowboard Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Gloves, Hats & Socks Snowshoeing Snowshoes Winter Boots Accessories Backcountry Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Climbing Skins Ski Packs Cross-Country Skiing Skis Boots Bindings Poles Waxing & Tuning Cross-Country Clothing Men’s Women’s Avalanche Safety Gear Avalanche Packs Avalanche Transceivers Snow Shovels Snow Probes Snow Accessories Action Cameras Hand & Foot Warmers Winter Traction Snow Deals Downhill Skiing Deals Backcountry Ski Deals XC Skiing Deals Snowboarding Deals Snowshoeing Deals REI Outlet Snow Brands Burton Rossignol Thule K2 Marker Picture Organic Clothing Top Rated Snowsports Clothing & Gear Clearance up to 30% off Shop Base Layers Shop Snow Play Expert Advice Checklists & how-tos Classes Expert-led instruction REI Adventures Trips Award-winning trips Travel Close this menu Travel Car Racks Cargo Boxes & Bags Bike Racks Watercraft Racks Ski & Snowboard Base Roof Racks Luggage Carry-On Luggage Wheeled Luggage Travel Packs Travel Duffels Packing Organizers Accessories Day Bags Duffel Bags Shoulder Bags Messenger Bags Tote Bags Wallets & Money Belts Backpacks Travel Backpacks Travel Daypacks Laptop Backpacks Travel Clothing Men’s Women’s Kids’ Electronics Bags & Cases Laptop Bags Camera Bags Phone Cases Travel Accessories Pillows & Sleeping Converters & Adapters Keychains Portable Power Devices Toiletry Bags Travel Mugs Photography Action Cameras Camera Bags Travel Deals Luggage Deals Backpack Deals Day Bag Deals Travel Clothing Deals Brands REI Co-op Osprey ExOfficio The North Face Patagonia Herschel Supply Co.

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Image: BIKEPACKING.com Handlebar Packs // 15L – US $99 Accessory Packs // 1.7L – US $50 Anything Packs // 4.5L – US $30 Full Frame Packs // More than 20 Sizes – US $119 Half Frame Packs // Five Sizes – US $99 Seat Packs // 14L – US $119 See the bikepacking bags HERE Specialized Seat Packs // 8L, 10.5L – US $130-140 Frame Bags // 3L, 5L, 8L – US $90-110 Handlebar Packs // 13L, 23L – US $130-135 Top Tube Bags // 0.75L – US $50 Fork Bags // 1L – US $40 See the bikepacking bags HERE Spindle Stem Bags // 1.2L – US $70 Handlebar Packs // Jones Loop Fit – US $85-$95 See the bikepacking bags HERE Swift Industries Stem Bags // 0.3L, 1L – US $45-$50 Handlebar Packs // 2.5L, 3.5L, 34L, 44L – US $86-$280 Seat Packs // 8.5L, 10L, 11L, 12L – US $125-$199 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size – US $50 Half Frame Packs // S, M, L – US $80-$89 See the bikepacking bags HERE United States of America (3) Spindle bikepacking bags Teknikul Top Tube Bags // 1.0L, 1.4L – US $45-50 Frame Bags // Custom – US $99-150 Seat Tube Bag // 0.7L – $45 Fork/Anything Cage Bag // 3.0L – US $45 See the bikepacking bags HERE Topeak Seat Packs // 6L, 10L, 15L Frame Bags // 3L, 4.5L, 6L Handlebar Packs // 8L Top Tube Bags // 0.75L See the bikepacking bags HERE Urban Desert Top Tube Bags // 1L – US $36 Stem Bags // 1L – US $20 Frame Bags // 3.5L, 4.5L, 5.2L – US $46 Seat Packs // 16L – US $69 Handlebar Packs // 16L – US $49 See the bikepacking bags HERE Wanderlust Stem Bags // One Size – US $58 Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $53 Anything Cage Bags // 1.4L – US $60 Frame Bags // S, M, L – US $160 Seat Packs // 12L – US $140 Handlebar Packs // One Size – US $110 See the bikepacking bags HERE Please let me know in the comments if I have missed any bikepacking bag manufacturers, and I will include them in the next update.

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Handlebar Harnesses // One Size – US $29 Accessory Packs // 1.2L – US $29 Seat Packs // 12L – US $100 Stem Bags // 1.2L – US $35 Top Tube Bags // 1L – US $35 See the bikepacking bags HERE Thailand Conquer bikepacking bags Conquer Top Tube Bags Stem Bags Frame Bags Seat Packs Handlebar Packs See the bikepacking bags HERE Vincita Frame Bags // 2.6L – US $35-75 Handlebar Harnesses // 5L, 9L – US $115-122 Seat Packs // 9L, 15L, 24L – US $79-139 Top Tube Bags // 0.8L – US $39 See the bikepacking bags HERE Ukraine Rogov bikeapcking bags 7R Workshop Top Tube Bags // Custom – US $70-$120 Half Frame Packs // Custom – US $115-$140 Full Frame Packs // Custom – US $140-$170 Handlebar Harnesses // 16L, 18L, 20L – US $120-$165 Seat Packs // 16L, 18L – US $125-$193 Stem Bags // One Size – US $31 Rack Top Bags // Custom – US $40-$95 See the bikepacking bags HERE Bag4Bike Seat Packs // 7L – US $59 See the bikepacking bags HERE Fast-N-Light Seat Packs // 13L, 17L – US $45-50 Handlebar Harnesses // 8L, 15L – US $32-35 Frame Bags // Half, Full, Custom – US $28-40 Stem Bags // 0.75L – US $12 See the bikepacking bags HERE KasyBag Seat Packs // 15L – US $36-51 Handlebar Harnesses // 10L, 15L – US $33 Frame Bags // Custom – US $25 Stem Bags // 0.9L, 1.5L – US $16 Top Tube Bags // 0.4L, 1.0L – US $14-16 See the bikepacking bags HERE Rogov Frame Bags // Custom – US $100 Top Tube Bag // 1L – US $30 Handlebar Packs // 12L, 17L – US $70 Seat Packs // 6L, 11L, 19L, 26L – US $50-100 Fork Bags // 5L – US $40 Stem Bags // 1L – US $20-30 See the bikepacking bags HERE United Kingdom Wizard Works bikepacking bags Alpamayo Designs Seat Packs // One Size – £85 Frame Bags // Three Sizes + Custom – £55-115 Handlebar Harnesses // 10-20L – £60 Top Tube Bags // 1L – £29 Stem Bags // 1L – £25 See the bikepacking bags HERE Alpkit Top Tube Bags // 0.75L, 1L, 1.5L – £35-37 Stem Bags // 1.4L, 1.8L – £15-£35 Frame Packs // S, M, L, Custom – £40-£100 Seat Packs // 3L, 12L, 13L – £15-£65 Handlebar Harnesses // Two Sizes – £12-45 Handlebar Packs // 13L, 20L – £13-£35 See the bikepacking bags HERE Altura Frame Bags // 5L – £49 Handlebar Bags // 12L – £49 Seat Packs // 6L, 12L – £49-59 Top Tube Bags // 1L – £29 See the bikepacking bags HERE Apidura Top Tube Bags //0.5L, 1L – £25-39 Stem Bags // 0.8L, 1.2L – £29-35 Frame Bags // 3L, 4.5L, 5.3L, 7.5L, 12L, 14L – £55-118 Seat Packs // 9L, 11L, 14L, 17L – £77-110 Handlebar Packs // 9L, 14L, 20L – £64-86 Accessory Bags // 4.5L – £33-41 See the bikepacking bags HERE Carradice Seat Packs // 16L – £90 Top Tube Bag // 1.5L – £28 Handlebar Pack // 3.5L – £47 See the bikepacking bags HERE Bike-Bag Frame Bags // Custom – £40-55 Top Tube Bags // Two Sizes See the bikepacking bags HERE Lomo Seat Packs // 13L – £33 Handlebar Packs // 3L – £17 Frame Bags // 4L – £23 See the bikepacking bags HERE Mack Workshop Handlebar Packs // Two Sizes – £30-60 Seat Packs // One Size – £75 Frame Bags // Four Sizes + Custom – £40-62 See the bikepacking bags HERE Restrap Frame Bags // S, M, L – £39-59 Seat Packs // 13L – £89 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size – £55 See the bikepacking bags HERE Tailfin Seat Pack + Rack // 20L – £209-£349 See the bikepacking bags HERE Wildcat Gear Frame Bags // S, M, L, XL, Custom – £65-160 Seat Packs // 5L, 8L – £70-75 Handlebar Harnesses // Two Sizes – £65-75 See the bikepacking bags HERE Wizard Works Full Frame Packs // Custom – £110-200 Basket Bags // 12L+, 20L+ – £170-190 Saddle Bags // 20L+ – £179 Top Tube Bags // 0.85L – £65 Stem Bags // 0.8L, 1.0L – £55 See the bikepacking bags HERE United States of America (1) Carsick Designs bikepacking bags Alpine Luddites Top Tube Bags // Custom – US $140 Mini Frame Packs // One Size – US $80-$100 Half Frame Packs // S, M, L, XL, Custom – US $140 Full Frame Packs // Custom – US $175-$475 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size – US $70 Handlebar Packs // 12L, 15L – US $175-$200 Seat Packs // 12L, 15L – US $175-$350 See the bikepacking bags HERE Andrew The Maker Top Tube Bags // Custom – US $65 Frame Bags // Custom – US $160-220 Seat Packs // One Size – US $35 Handlebar Packs // One Size – US $65 See the bikepacking bags HERE Banjo Brothers Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $15 Stem Bags // One Size – US $19 Frame Bags // S, M, L – US $32-40 Seat Packs // 6.5L – US $49 Handlebar Packs // 4.5L – US $29 See the bikepacking bags HERE Becker Gear Frame Bags // Custom Seat Packs // Custom See the bikepacking bags HERE Bedrock BedRock Bikepacking bags – BIKEPACKING.com Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $65 Stem Bags // One Size – US $49 Frame Bags // Custom – US $160-200 Seat Packs // 12L – US $175-190 Handlebar Packs // Two Sizes – US $150 See the bikepacking bags HERE Blackburn Top Tube Bags // S, L – US $20-45 Frame Bags // S, M – US $59-65 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size (inc. DryBag) – US $99 Seat Packs // 11L – US $119 See the bikepacking bags HERE Boulder Bikepacking Gear Top Tube Bags // S, M, Custom – US $50-90 Frame Bags // Custom – Start US $75 Handlebar Harnesses // Custom – Start US $70 Seat Packs // 6L, 10L, 12L – US $110-130 See the bikepacking bags HERE Broad Fork Bags Jones Handlebar Packs // One Size – US $60-70 Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $45 Frame Bags // Custom Two Sizes – US $75-145 See the bikepacking bags HERE Carsick Designs Handlebar Packs // One Size – US $240 Seat Packs // 10L – US $125 Stem Bags // Two Sizes – US $35-40 Fork Bags // 4L – US $45 See the bikepacking bags HERE Cedaero Frame Bags // Custom Half/Full – from US $149 Seat Packs // One size – from US $119 Top Tube Bags // from US $55 See the bikepacking bags HERE Cleaveland Mountaineering Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $40 Frame Bags // Custom – From US $110 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size (inc Pocket) – US $75 See the bikepacking bags HERE Crater Packs Frame Bags // Custom – US $125-140 Seat Packs // Two Sizes – US $80-120 Handlebar Packs // One Size – US $120 See the bikepacking bags HERE Defiant Pack Top Tube Bags // One Size – US $43 Stem Bags // One Size – US $34 Frame Bags // Custom – From US $160 Seat Packs // XS, S, M – From US $115 Handlebar Harnesses // One Size (inc. pocket) – US $113 See the bikepacking bags HERE DirtBags Frame Bags // Custom Half/Full – US $90-175 Seat Packs // 12 Litres – US $95 Stem Bags // 1.2L – US $40 Top Tube Bags // 1.6L – US $50 See the bikepacking bags HERE Donut Sack See the bikepacking bags HERE eoGEAR

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Stores Cart 0 to open cart summary dialog, press down arrow Close Menu Camp & Hike Close this menu Camp & Hike Backpacks Backpacking Packs Day Packs Hydration Packs Baby Carrier Packs Waist Packs Accessories Tents Backpacking Tents Camping Tents Roof-top Tents Shelters Bivy Sacks Accessories Sleeping Bags Men's Women's Double Kids' Bag Liners Blankets Pads & Hammocks Sleeping Pads Hammocks Cots Air Mattresses Pillows Camp Kitchen Stoves, Grills & Fuel Cookware Dinnerware Coffee & Tea Utensils Coolers Food Camp Furniture Chairs Hammocks Tables Fire Pits Water Glasses, Cups & Mugs Water Bottles Water Treatment Hydration Reservoirs Vacuum Bottles Lighting Headlamps Flashlights Lanterns Electronics GPS Portable Power Devices Radios Watches Two-Way Radios PLB & Satellite Messengers Solar Chargers Portable Speakers Gadgets & Gear Trekking Poles Knives Binoculars Compasses Multi-Tools Camp Tools Hiking Footwear Men's Women's Kids' Hiking Socks Gaiters Hiking Clothing Jackets Shirts Pants 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We also liked the zippered outside pockets and mesh side panels for even more organization-centric storage. Two Wheel Gear says this bag is made of 600-denier TPE-coated polyester (so water will roll off of it), but it comes with a rain cover for true downpours. The company offers a two-year limited warranty against defects in craftsmanship. Flaws but not dealbreakers: The rain flaps that cover the zippers are very stiff, almost to a point of frustration. We were often left wrestling with zippers caught at weird angles. That said, we don’t think that’s a good enough reason not to buy this bag if you like everything else about it. This bag may not be large enough if you want to carry along a lot of extras such as lunch and a change of clothes. Two Wheel Gear does make a bigger bag, the Pannier Backpack Convertible Plus+, which is 30 L and would be the right size if that’s your goal. However, we haven’t tested it yet.

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No doubt this addition to your bikepacking kit will put a smile on your face when you’re 100kms into a ride and all you want is snacks at your fingertips! View at REI THINGS TO CONSIDER WHEN BUYING BIKEPACKING BAGS STYLE There are seven main styles of bikepacking bags listed above: Trunk Bag These sit on top of a rear rack and are one of the larger bags used when bikepacking. Pannier These are used in a pair for even weight distribution and are typically attached to a rear or front rack. Panniers will often boast the largest carrying capacity of all the bags available for bikepacking. Seat-Pack or Saddle-Bag These attach to your seat and seat post and come in a variety of sizes. They are often used for lightweight touring and bikepacking. Frame Bag These sit in the middle triangle of your bike frame and will either take up the entire area (full frame bag) or part of the area (half frame bag). Frame bags are great for storing heavier items as they help keep the center of gravity low when riding. Top Tube Bag These are small bags that sit on the top tube of your bike. Top tube bags are commonly used for storing valuables and ride nutrition and they provide easy access while riding.

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These are two examples of common pannier setups: Front and rear panniers – photo credit Rear panniers only, riding into Ushuaia Argentina What are bikepacking bags? Bikepacking bags attach directly to your bike without a rack. Because there are so many different types and sizes of bikes, bikepacking bags have a lot more variation. A typical bikepacking bag setup would include some or all of these parts: Handlebar bag (often a roll-style bag) Saddle / seat bag Frame bag Top tube bag for small items Feed bags for snacks and small items Bikepackers sometimes also attach mounts to the front fork for bottles or other small cargo. This is an example of a bikepacking bag setup: Bikepacking in New Mexico Bikepacking bags are usually (but not always) associated with the “bikepacking” style, loosely defined as: shorter and/or more focused trips within a particular backcountry area, lighter and/or more minimal gear, more dirt trails than roads, more remote than populated, more camping than hotels. Panniers: Pros and Cons To understand why different types of bike bags are used for different types of trips, it helps to understand what each type of system is best at. Here are the biggest pros and cons of a rack and pannier setup.

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The Kona Libre AL is a true gravel e-bike in every sense of the word, from the dropper seatpost to the 650 x 47 tyres and the Shimano GRX gearing, Kona have used their mountain bike heritage to good effect to provide a truly versatile machine. The MTB-specific Shimano Steps E7000 motor is really responsive to pedalling input and only really needs to be used in full power on the steepest of climbs. I’m really impressed with the new Merida eSilex +600 – it’s ready for a spot of bike packing, all you need to do is add bags. The fact that it’s so light and has all those mounting points make it viable for touring / bike packing. The battery range will depend on how much you rely on the e-assist – I would recommend riding it like a regular bike and use the electric to help you with steep climbs. Another absolute corker of a bike is the BMC Alpenchallenge AMP Sport Three DB – with a fully carbon frame and Micro Travel system in the rear, it really does take the sting out of rough terrain. The BMC uses the excellent Shimano Steps E6100 motor which I’m a massive fan of.

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Don't squeeze your tires before you depress the needle or you may damage them. Part 2 of 4: Packing Your Bike {'smallUrl':'https:\/\/www.wikihow.com\/images\/thumb\/b\/b6\/Ship-a-Bicycle-Cheaply-Step-1-Version-2.jpg\/v4-460px-Ship-a-Bicycle-Cheaply-Step-1-Version-2.jpg','bigUrl':'\/images\/thumb\/b\/b6\/Ship-a-Bicycle-Cheaply-Step-1-Version-2.jpg\/aid25587-v4-728px-Ship-a-Bicycle-Cheaply-Step-1-Version-2.jpg','smallWidth':460,'smallHeight':345,'bigWidth':728,'bigHeight':546,'licensing':'<div class=\'mw-parser-output\'><p>License: <a target=\'_blank\' rel=\'nofollow noreferrer noopener\' class=\'external text\' href=\'https:\/\/creativecommons.org\/licenses\/by-nc-sa\/3.0\/\'>Creative Commons<\/a><br>\n<\/p><p><br \/>\n<\/p><\/div>'} 1 Get a cardboard bike box at a bike shop. Find a box made for the same style of bike that you have. See if you can try to get the box for free. If the bike shop doesn't have any boxes, you can purchase one online for a low fee. 2 Purchase a bike travel case for more expensive bikes. Bike travel cases are more expensive than a cardboard box but provide additional protection for your bike. If you are shipping a more expensive bike, consider using a travel case. This may save you money in the long run because you won't have to pay for costly bike repairs. 3 Purchase and cut plumbing insulation to the size of your frame.

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My folks take their bikes on holiday and the old man has the best way of packing up a bike. Go to a local bike shop and see if they have any boxes left over. All their stock will be sent in BIG cardboard boxes and they usually have some of these in stock. Get one that's big enough and one that has handles if possible. They should be able to give you some plastic axles too. Get hold of some material that you insulate pipes with. This comes in various thickness and you may be lucky with off cuts from a DIY store, alternatively use the mountains of bubble wrap you have after buying stuff from Scan! Select first on the bike (big cog at the back) - this makes the rear mech not stick out. If you can take the pedals off then this really helps. Put the pipes around all of the main tubes and the rear seat stays. Next, take off the front wheel and the seat post/seat. Put plastic axle where front wheel went and put some more piping on the fork legs. To put it into the box turn the handlebars through 90°. You may have to let the tyres down to get it in. It should fit snugly. Next put the front wheel in.

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But you’ll find plenty of aluminum touring bikes on the market, and an increasing number of carbon frames, too, although repairing a carbon frame in rural wherever isn’t really an option. You can find titanium touring bikes too, which are notably expensive, but they’re tough and light, and the vibration damping can be a godsend on rough roads and dirt. Touring Bike Geometry There are a handful of subtle differences within touring bike geometries that set them apart from road bikes. Touring geometry is more upright, creating a riding position that’s more comfortable during long hours in the saddle. You’ll see different bike companies refer to this as their “endurance” or “adventure” geometry. This “endurance” geometry plays out in a handful of different ways. The wheelbase and chainstay of a classic touring bike is typically longer to make room for rear racks and panniers, and the bottom bracket is typically lower to increase stability. The head tube is typically longer on a touring bike, essentially elevating the handlebar, and there’s more slack, helping to extend the wheelbase. Touring bikes also generally have a shorter top tube, or more important, a shorter “reach,” which is the distance from the center of the bottom bracket to the top of the head tube.